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diff --git a/37160.txt b/37160.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0313770 --- /dev/null +++ b/37160.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19444 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 11, Slice 4, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 11, Slice 4 + "G" to "Gaskell, Elizabeth" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: August 22, 2011 [EBook #37160] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE GABEL, KRISTOFFER: "See Carl Frederik Bricka, Dansk. + Biograf. Lex. art "Gabel" (Copenhagen, 1887, &c.); Danmarks Riges + Historie (Copenhagen, 1897-1905), vol. v." '1905' amended from + '1005'. + + ARTICLE GALLS: "The same authority (loc. cit. p. 550) mentions a + willow-gall which provides no less than sixteen insects with food + and protection; these are preyed upon by about eight others, so + that altogether some twenty-four insects, ..." 'altogether' amended + from 'alltogether'. + + ARTICLE GANNET: "... and orderly takes its place in the rear of the + string, to repeat its headlong plunge so soon as it again finds + itself above its prey." 'its' amended from 'is'. + + ARTICLE GARDNER, PERCY: "... an account of excavations in Greece + and Asia Minor; Manual of Greek Antiquities (with F.B. Jevons, 2nd + ed. 1898); ..." 'Asia' amended from 'Aisa'. + + ARTICLE GARNET, HENRY: "... by the Jesuit L'Heureux, under the + pseudonym Eudaemon-Joannes, and Dr Robert Abbot's reply, Antilogia + versus Apologiam Eudaemon-Joannes, ..." 'Eudaemon' amended from + 'Endaemon'. + + ARTICLE GARTH, SIR SAMUEL: "He wrote little besides his best-known + work The Dispensary and Claremont, a moral epistle in verse." + 'epistle' amended from 'espistle'. + + ARTICLE GAS ENGINE: "The Westinghouse Co. of Pittsburgh have also + built large engines, several of which are in operation at the + various works of the Carnegie Steel Co." 'Pittsburgh' amended from + 'Pittsburg'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XI, SLICE IV + + G to Gaskell, Elizabeth + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + G GALLUPPI, PASQUALE + GABBRO GALLUS, CORNELIUS + GABEL, KRISTOFFER GALLUS, GAIUS AELIUS + GABELENTZ, HANS CONON VON DER GALLUS, GAIUS CESTIUS + GABELLE GALLUS, GAIUS SULPICIUS + GABERDINE GALOIS, EVARISTE + GABES GALSTON + GABII GALT, SIR ALEXANDER TILLOCH + GABINIUS, AULUS GALT, JOHN + GABION GALT + GABLE GALTON, SIR FRANCIS + GABLER, GEORG ANDREAS GALUPPI, BALDASSARE + GABLER, JOHANN PHILIPP GALVANI, LUIGI + GABLETS GALVANIZED IRON + GABLONZ GALVANOMETER + GABORIAU, EMILE GALVESTON + GABRIEL GALWAY (county of Ireland) + GABRIEL HOUNDS GALWAY (town of Ireland) + GABRIELI, GIOVANNI GAMA, VASCO DA + GABUN GAMALIEL + GACE BRULE GAMBETTA, LEON + GACHARD, LOUIS PROSPER GAMBIA (river of West Africa) + GAD GAMBIA (country of West Africa) + GADAG GAMBIER, JAMES GAMBIER, + GADARA GAMBIER + GADDI GAMBOGE + GADE, NIELS WILHELM GAMBRINUS + GADOLINIUM GAME + GADSDEN, CHRISTOPHER GAME LAWS + GADSDEN, JAMES GAMES, CLASSICAL + GADWALL GAMING AND WAGERING + GAEKWAR GAMUT + GAETA GANDAK + GAETANI GANDAMAK + GAETULIA GANDERSHEIM + GAGE, LYMAN JUDSON GANDHARVA + GAGE, THOMAS GANDIA + GAGE GANDO + GAGERN, HANS CHRISTOPH ERNST GANESA + GAHANBAR GANGES + GAIGNIERES, FRANCOIS ROGER DE GANGOTRI + GAIL, JEAN BAPTISTE GANGPUR + GAILLAC GANGRENE + GAILLARD, GABRIEL HENRI GANILH, CHARLES + GAINESVILLE (Florida, U.S.A.) GANJAM + GAINESVILLE (Texas, U.S.A.) GANNAL, JEAN NICOLAS + GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS GANNET + GAINSBOROUGH GANODONTA + GAIRDNER, JAMES GANS, EDUARD + GAIRLOCH GANSBACHER, JOHANN BAPTIST + GAISERIC GANTE + GAISFORD, THOMAS GANYMEDE + GAIUS GAO + GAIUS CAESAR GAOL + GALAGO GAON + GALANGAL GAP + GALAPAGOS ISLANDS GAPAN + GALASHIELS GARARISH + GALATIA GARASHANIN, ILIYA + GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE GARAT, DOMINIQUE JOSEPH + GALATINA GARAT, PIERRE-JEAN + GALATZ GARAY, JANOS + GALAXY GARBLE + GALBA, SULPICIUS (Roman general) GARCAO, PEDRO ANTONIO JOAQUIM CORREA + GALBA, SULPICIUS (Roman emperor) GARCIA (DEL POPOLO VICENTO), MANOEL + GALBANUM GARCIA DE LA HUERTA, VICENTE ANTONIO + GALCHAS GARCIA DE PAREDES, DIEGO + GALE, THEOPHILUS GARCIA GUTIERREZ, ANTONIO + GALE, THOMAS GARD + GALE GARDA, LAKE OF + GALEN, CHRISTOPH BERNHARD GARDANE, CLAUDE MATTHIEU + GALEN, CLAUDIUS GARDELEGEN + GALENA (Illinois, U.S.A.) GARDEN + GALENA (Kansas, U.S.A.) GARDENIA + GALENA (ore of lead) GARDINER, JAMES + GALEOPITHECUS GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON + GALERIUS GARDINER, STEPHEN + GALESBURG GARDINER + GALGACUS GARDNER, PERCY + GALIANI, FERDINANDO GARDNER + GALICIA (crownland of Austria) GARE-FOWL + GALICIA (province of Spain) GARFIELD, JAMES ABRAM + GALIGNANI, GIOVANNI ANTONIO GAR-FISH + GALILEE (province of Palestine) GARGANEY + GALILEE (architectural term) GARGANO, MONTE + GALILEE, SEA OF GARGOYLE + GALILEO GALILEI GARHWAL + GALION GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE + GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH GARIN LE LOHERAIN + GALL GARLAND, JOHN + GALLABAT GARLIC + GALLAIT, LOUIS GARNET, HENRY + GALLAND, ANTOINE GARNET + GALLARATE GARNETT, RICHARD + GALLARS, NICOLAS DES GARNIER, CLEMENT JOSEPH + GALLAS, MATTHIAS GARNIER, GERMAIN + GALLAS GARNIER, JEAN LOUIS CHARLES + GALLATIN, ALBERT GARNIER, MARIE JOSEPH FRANCOIS + GALLAUDET, THOMAS HOPKINS GARNIER, ROBERT + GALLE GARNIER-PAGES, ETIENNE JOSEPH LOUIS + GALLENGA, ANTONIO CARLO NAPOLEONE GARNISH + GALLERY GARO HILLS + GALLEY GARONNE + GALLIA CISALPINA GARRET + GALLIC ACID GARRETT, JOAO BAPTISTA DE ALMEIDA + GALLICANISM GARRETTING + GALLIENI, JOSEPH SIMON GARRICK, DAVID + GALLIENUS, PUBLIUS EGNATIUS GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD + GALLIFFET, GASTON AUGUSTE GARRISON + GALLIO, JUNIUS ANNAEUS GARROTE + GALLIPOLI (Italy) GARRUCHA + GALLIPOLI (Turkey) GARSTON + GALLIPOLIS GARTH, SIR SAMUEL + GALLITZIN, DEMETRIUS AUGUSTINE GARTOK + GALLIUM GARY + GALLON GAS + GALLOWAY, JOSEPH GASCOIGNE, GEORGE + GALLOWAY, THOMAS GASCOIGNE, SIR WILLIAM + GALLOWAY GASCONY + GALLOWS GAS ENGINE + GALLS GASKELL, ELIZABETH CLEGHORN + + + + +G The form of this letter which is familiar to us is an invention of +the Romans, who had previously converted the third symbol of the +alphabet into a representative of a _k_-sound (see C). Throughout the +whole of Roman history C remained as the symbol for G in the +abbreviations C and Cn. for the proper names Gaius and Gnaeus. According +to Plutarch (_Roman Questions_, 54, 59) the symbol for G was invented by +Spurius Carvilius Ruga about 293 B.C. This probably means that he was +the first person to spell his cognomen RVGA instead of RVCA. G came to +occupy the seventh place in the Roman alphabet which had earlier been +taken by Z, because between 450 B.C. and 350 B.C. the z-sounds of Latin +passed into r, names like _Papisius_ and _Fusius_ in that period +becoming Papirius and Furius (see Z), so that the letter z had become +superfluous. According to the late writer Martianus Capella z was +removed from the alphabet by the censor Appius Claudius Caecus in 312 +B.C. To Claudius the insertion of G into the alphabet is also sometimes +ascribed. + +In the earliest form the difference from C is very slight, the lower lip +of the crescent merely rising up in a straight line [symbol], but +[symbol] and [symbol] are found also in republican times. In the +earliest Roman inscription which was found in the Forum in 1899 the form +is [symbol] written from right to left, but the hollow at the bottom lip +of the crescent is an accidental pit in the stone and not a diacritical +mark. The unvoiced sound in this inscription is represented by K. The +use of the new form was not firmly established till after the middle of +the 3rd century B.C. + +In the Latin alphabet the sound was always the voiced stop (as in _gig_) +in classical times. Later, before _e_, _g_ passed into a sound like the +English _y_, so that words begin indifferently with _g_ or _j_; hence +from the Lat. _generum_ (accusative) and _Ianuarium_ we have in Ital. +_genero_ and _Gennajo_, Fr. _gendre_ and _janvier_. In the ancient +Umbrian dialect _g_ had made this change between vowels before the +Christian era, the inhabitant of _Iguvium_ (the modern Gubbio) being in +the later form of his native speech _Iuvins_, Lat. _Iguvinus_. In most +cases in Mid. Eng. also _g_ passed into a _y_ sound; hence the old +prefix _ge_ of the past participle appears only as _y_ in _yclept_ and +the like. But _ng_ and _gg_ took a different course, the _g_ becoming an +affricate d_z_ (_dzh_), as in _singe_, _ridge_, _sedge_, which in +English before 1500 were _senge_, _rigge_, _segge_, and in Scotch are +still pronounced _sing_, _rig_, _seg_. The affricate in words like +_gaol_ is of French origin (_geole_), from a Late Lat. _gabiola_, out of +_caveola_, a diminutive of the Lat. _cavea_. + +The composite origin of English makes it impossible to lay down rules +for the pronunciation of English _g_; thus there are in the language +five words _Gill_, three of which have the _g_ hard, while two have it +soft: viz. (1) _gill_ of a fish, (2) _gill_, a ravine, both of which are +Norse, and (3) _Gill_, the surname, which is mostly Gaelic = White; and +(4) _gill_ a liquid measure, from O. Fr. _gelle_, Late Lat. _gella_ in +the same sense, and (5) _Gill_, a girl's name, shortened from _Gillian_, +_Juliana_ (see Skeat's _Etymological Dictionary_). No one of these words +is of native origin; otherwise the initial _g_ would have changed to +_y_, as in Eng. _yell_ from the O. Eng. _gellan_, _giellan_. + (P. Gi.) + + + + +GABBRO, in petrology, a group of plutonic basic rocks, holocrystalline +and usually rather coarse-grained, consisting essentially of a basic +plagioclase felspar and one or more ferromagnesian minerals (such as +augite, hornblende, hypersthene and olivine). The name was given +originally in north Italy to certain coarsely crystalline dark green +rocks, some of which are true gabbros, while others are serpentines. The +gabbros are the plutonic or deep-seated representatives of the +dolerites, basalts and diabases (also of some varieties of andesite) +with which they agree closely in mineral composition, but not in minute +structure. Of their minerals felspar Is usually the most abundant, and +is principally labradorite and bytownite, though anorthite occurs in +some, while oligoclase and orthoclase have been found in others. The +felspar is sometimes very clear and fresh, its crystals being for the +most part short and broad, with rather irregular or rounded outlines. +Albite twinning is very frequent, but in these rocks it is often +accompanied by pericline twinning by which the broad or narrow albite +plates are cut transversely by many thin, bright and dark bars as seen +in polarized light. Equally characteristic of the gabbros is the +alteration of the felspars to cloudy, semi-opaque masses of saussurite. +These are compact, tough, devoid of cleavage, and have a waxy lustre and +usually a greenish-white colour. When this substance can be resolved by +the microscope it proves to consist usually of zoisite or epidote, with +garnet and albite, but mixed with it are also chlorite, amphibole, +serpentine, prehnite, sericite and other minerals. The augite is usually +brown, but greenish, violet and colourless varieties may occur. +Hypersthene, when present, is often strikingly pleochroic in colours +varying from pink to bright green. It weathers readily to +platy-pseudomorphs of bastite which are soft and yield low polarization +colours. The olivine is colourless in itself, but in most cases is +altered to green or yellow serpentine, often with bands of dark +magnetite granules along its cleavages and cracks. Hornblende when +primary is often brown, and may surround augite or be perthitically +intergrown with it; original green hornblende probably occurs also, +though it is more frequently secondary. Dark-brown biotite, although by +no means an important constituent of these rocks, occurs in many of +them. Quartz is rare, but is occasionally seen intergrown with felspar +as micropegmatite. Among the accessory minerals may be mentioned +apatite, magnetite, ilmenite, picotite and garnet. + +A peculiar feature, repeated so constantly in many of the minerals of +these rocks as to be almost typical of them, is the occurrence of small +black or dark brown enclosures often regularly arranged parallel to +certain crystallographic planes. Reflection of light from the surfaces +of these minute enclosures produces a shimmering or _Schiller_. In +augite or hypersthene the effect is that the surface of the mineral has +a bronzy sub-metallic appearance, and polished plates seen at a definite +angle yield a bright coppery-red reflection, but polished sections of +the felspars may exhibit a brilliant play of colours, as is well seen in +the Labrador spar, which is used as an ornamental or semi-precious +stone. In olivine the black enclosures are not thin laminae, but +branching growths resembling pieces of moss. The phenomenon is known as +"schillerization"; its origin has been much discussed, some holding that +it is secondary, while others regard these enclosures as original. + +In many gabbros there is a tendency to a centric arrangement of the +minerals, the first crystallized forming nuclei around which the others +grow. Thus magnetite, apatite and picotite, with olivine, may be +enclosed in augite, hornblende, and hypersthene, sometimes with a later +growth of biotite, while the felspars occupy the interspaces between the +clusters of ferromagnesian minerals. In some cases there are borders +around olivine consisting of fibrous hornblende or tremolite and rhombic +pyroxene (kelyphitic or ocellar structures); spinels and garnet may +occur in this zone, and as it is developed most frequently where olivine +is in contact with felspar it may be due to a chemical resorption at a +late stage in the solidification of the rock. In some gabbros and +norites reaction rims of fibrous hornblende are found around both +hypersthene and diallage where these are in contact with felspar. +Typical orbicular structure such as characterizes some granites and +diorites is rare in the gabbros, though it has been observed in a few +instances in Norway, California, &c. + + In a very large number of the rocks of this group the plagioclase + felspar has crystallized in large measure before the pyroxene, and is + enveloped by it in ophitic manner exactly as occurs in the diabases. + When these rocks become fine-grained they pass gradually into ophitic + diabase and dolerite; only very rarely does olivine enclose felspar + in this way. A fluxion structure or flow banding also can be observed + in some of the rocks of this series, and is characterized by the + occurrence of parallel sinuous bands of dark colour, rich in + ferromagnesian minerals, and of lighter shades in which felspars + predominate. + + These basic holocrystalline rocks form a large and numerous class + which can be subdivided into many groups according to their mineral + composition; if we take it that typical gabbro consists of plagioclase + and augites or diallage, norite of plagioclase and hypersthene, and + troctolite of plagioclase and olivine, we must add to these + olivine-gabbro and olivine-norite in which that mineral occurs in + addition to those enumerated above. Hornblende-gabbros are distinctly + rare, except when the hornblende has been developed from pyroxene by + pressure and shearing, but many rocks may be described as hornblende- + or biotite-bearing gabbro and norite, when they contain these + ingredients in addition to the normal minerals plagioclase, augite and + hypersthene. We may recognize also quartz-gabbro and quartz-norite + (containing primary quartz or micropegmatite) and orthoclase-gabbro + (with a little orthoclase). The name eucrite has been given to gabbros + in which the felspar is mainly anorthite; many of them also contain + hypersthene or enstatite and olivine, while allivalites are + anorthite-olivine rocks in which the two minerals occur in nearly + equal proportions; harrisites have preponderating olivine, anorthite + felspar and a little pyroxene. In areas of gabbro there are often + masses consisting nearly entirely of a single mineral, for example, + felspar rocks (anorthosites), augite or hornblende rocks (pyroxenites + and hornblendites) and olivine rocks (dunites or peridotites). + Segregations of iron ores, such as ilmenite, usually with pyroxene or + olivine, occur in association with some gabbro and anorthosite masses. + + Some gabbros are exceedingly coarse-grained and consist of individual + crystals several inches in length; such a type often form dikes or + veins in serpentine or gabbro, and may be called gabbro-pegmatite. + Very fine-grained gabbros, on the other hand, have been distinguished + as beerbachites. Still more common is the occurrence of sheared, + foliated or schistose forms of gabbro. In these the minerals have a + parallel arrangement, the felspars are often broken down by pressure + into a mosaic of irregular grains, while greenish fibrous or bladed + amphibole takes the place of pyroxene and olivine. The diallage may be + present as rounded or oval crystals around which the crushed felspar + has flowed (augen-gabbro); or the whole rock may have a well-foliated + structure (hornblende-schists and amphibolites). Very often a mass of + normal gabbro with typical igneous character passes at its margins or + along localized zones into foliated rocks of this kind, and every + transition can be found between the different types. Some authors + believe that the development of saussurite from felspar is also + dependent on pressure rather than on weathering, and an analogous + change may affect the olivine, replacing it by talc, chlorite, + actinolite and garnet. Rocks showing changes of the latter type have + been described from Switzerland under the name allalinites. + + Rocks of the gabbro group, though perhaps not so common nor occurring + in so great masses as granites, are exceedingly widespread. In Great + Britain, for example, there are areas of gabbro in Shetland, + Aberdeenshire, and other parts of the Highlands, Ayrshire, the Lizard + (Cornwall), Carrock Fell (Cumberland) and St David's (Wales). Most of + these occur along with troctolites, norites, serpentine and + peridotite. In Skye an interesting group of fresh olivine-gabbros is + found in the Cuillin Hills; here also peridotites occur and there are + sills and dikes of olivine-dolerite, while a great series of basaltic + lavas and ash beds marks the site of volcanic outbursts in early + Tertiary time. In this case it is clearly seen that the gabbros are + the deep-seated and slowly crystallized representatives of the basalts + which were poured out at the surfaces, and the dolerites which + consolidated in fissures. The older gabbros of Britain, such as those + of the Lizard, Aberdeenshire and Ayrshire, are often more or less + foliated and show a tendency to pass into hornblende-schists and + amphibolites. In Germany gabbros are well known in the Harz Mountains, + Saxony, the Odenwald and the Black Forest. Many outcrops of similar + rocks have been traced in the northern zones of the Alps, often with + serpentine and hornblende-schist. They occupy considerable tracts of + country in Norway and Sweden, as for instance in the vicinity of + Bergen. The Pyrenees, Ligurian Alps, Dauphine and Tuscany are other + European localities for gabbro. In Canada great portions of the + eastern portion of the Dominion are formed of gabbros, norite, + anorthosite and allied rock types. In the United States gabbros and + norites occur near Baltimore and near Peekskill on the Hudson river. + As a rule each of these occurrences contains a diversity of + petrographical types, which appear also in certain of the others; but + there is often a well-marked individuality about the rocks of the + various districts in which gabbros are found. + + From an economic standpoint gabbros are not of great importance. They + are used locally for building and for road-metal, but are too dark in + colour, too tough and difficult to dress, to be popular as building + stones, and, though occasionally polished, are not to be compared for + beauty with the serpentines and the granites. Segregations of iron + ores are found in connexion with many of them (Norway and Sweden) and + are sometimes mined as sources of the metal. + + Chemically the gabbros are typical rocks of the basic subdivision and + show the characters of that group in the clearest way. They have low + silica, much iron and magnesia, and the abundance of lime + distinguishes them in a marked fashion from both the granites and the + peridotites. A few analyses of well-known gabbros are cited here. + + +-----+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | | SiO2 | TiO2 | Ab2O3 | FeO | Fe2O3| MgO | CaO | Na2O | K2O | H2O | + +-----+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | I. | 49.63 | 1.75 | 16.18 |12.03 | 1.92 | 5.38 | 9.33 | 1.89 | 0.81 | 0.55 | + | II. | 49.90 | .. | 16.04 | .. | 7.81 |10.08 |14.48 | 1.69 | 0.55 | 1.46 | + |III. | 45.73 | .. | 22.10 | 3.51 | 0.71 |11.16 | 9.26 | 2.54 | 0.34 | 4.38 | + | IV. | 46.24 | .. | 29.85 | 2.12 | 1.30 | 2.41 |16.24 | 1.98 | 0.18 | .. | + +-----+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + + I. Gabbro, Radanthal, Harzburg; II. Gabbro, Penig, Saxony; III. + Troctolite, Coverack, Cornwall; IV. Anorthosite, mouth of the Seine + river, Bad Vermilion lake, Ontario, Canada. (J. S. F.) + + + + +GABEL, KRISTOFFER (1617-1673), Danish statesman, was born at Gluckstadt, +on the 6th of January 1617. His father, Wulbern, originally a landscape +painter and subsequently recorder of Gluckstadt, was killed at the siege +of that fortress by the Imperialists in 1628. Kristoffer is first heard +of in 1639, as overseer and accountant at the court of Duke Frederick. +When the duke ascended the Danish throne as Frederick III., Gabel +followed him to Copenhagen as his private secretary and man of business. +Gabel, who veiled under a mysterious reticence considerable financial +ability and uncommon shrewdness, had great influence over the irresolute +king. During the brief interval between King Charles X.'s first and +second attack upon Denmark, Gabel was employed in several secret +missions to Sweden; and he took a part in the intrigues which resulted +in the autocratic revolution of 1660 (see DENMARK: _History_). His +services on this occasion have certainly been exaggerated; but if not +the originator of the revolution, he was certainly the chief +intermediary between Frederick III. and the conjoined Estates in the +mysterious conspiracy which established absolutism in Denmark. His +activity on this occasion won the king's lifelong gratitude. He was +enriched, ennobled, and in 1664 made governor of Copenhagen. From this +year must be dated his open and official influence and power, and from +1660 to 1670 he was the most considerable personage at court, and very +largely employed in financial and diplomatic affairs. When Frederick +III. died, in February 1670, Gabel's power was at an end. The new ruler, +Christian V., hated him, and accusations against him poured in from +every quarter. When, on the 18th of April 1670, he was dismissed, nobody +sympathized with the man who had grown wealthy at a time when other +people found it hard to live. He died on the 13th of October 1673. + + See Carl Frederik Bricka, _Dansk. Biograf. Lex._ art "Gabel" + (Copenhagen, 1887, &c.); _Danmarks Riges Historie_ (Copenhagen, + 1897-1905), vol. v. + + + + +GABELENTZ, HANS CONON VON DER (1807-1874), German linguist and +ethnologist, born at Altenburg on the 13th of October 1807, was the only +son of Hans Karl Leopold von der Gabelentz, chancellor and +privy-councillor of the duchy of Altenburg. From 1821 to 1825 he +attended the gymnasium of his native town, where he had Matthiae (the +eminent Greek scholar) for teacher, and Hermann Brockhaus and Julius +Lobe for schoolfellows. Here, in addition to ordinary school-work, he +carried on the private study of Arabic and Chinese; and the latter +language continued especially to engage his attention during his +undergraduate course, from 1825 to 1828, at the universities of Leipzig +and Gottingen. In 1830 he entered the public service of the duchy of +Altenburg, where he attained to the rank of privy-councillor in 1843. +Four years later he was chosen to fill the post of _Landmarschall_ in +the grand-duchy of Weimar, and in 1848 he attended the Frankfort +parliament, and represented the Saxon duchies on the commission for +drafting an imperial constitution for Germany. In November of the same +year he became president of the Altenburg ministry, but he resigned +office in the following August. From 1851 to 1868 he was president of +the second chamber of the duchy of Altenburg; but in the latter year he +withdrew entirely from public life, that he might give undivided +attention to his learned researches. He died on his estate of Lemnitz, +in Saxe-Weimar, on the 3rd of September 1874. + +In the course of his life he is said to have learned no fewer than +eighty languages, thirty of which he spoke with fluency and elegance. +But he was less remarkable for his power of acquisition than for the +higher talent which enabled him to turn his knowledge to the genuine +advancement of linguistic science. Immediately after quitting the +university, he followed up his Chinese researches by a study of the +Finno-Ugrian languages, which resulted in the publication of his +_Elements de la grammaire mandchoue_ in 1832. In 1837 he became one of +the promoters, and a joint-editor, of the _Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des +Morgenlandes_, and through this medium he gave to the world his _Versuch +einer mordwinischen Grammatik_ and other valuable contributions. His +_Grundzuge der syrjanischen Grammatik_ appeared in 1841. In conjunction +with his old school friend, Julius Lobe, he brought out a complete +edition, with translation, glossary and grammar, of Ulfilas's Gothic +version of the Bible (1843-1846); and from 1847 he began to contribute +to the _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft_ the +fruits of his researches into the languages of the Swahilis, the +Samoyedes, the Hazaras, the Aimaks, the Formosans and other +widely-separated tribes. The _Beitrage zur Sprachenkunde_ (1852) contain +Dyak, Dakota, and Kiriri grammars; to these were added in 1857 a +_Grammatik u. Worterbuch der Kassiasprache_, and in 1860 a treatise in +universal grammar (_Uber das Passivum_). In 1864 he edited the Manchu +translations of the Chinese Sse-shu, Shu-king and Shi-king, along with a +dictionary; and in 1873 he completed the work which constitutes his most +important contribution to philology, _Die melanesischen Sprachen nach +ihrem grammatischen Bau und ihrer Verwandschaft unter sich und mit den +malaiisch-polynesischen Sprachen untersucht_ (1860-1873). It treats of +the language of the Fiji Islands, New Hebrides, Loyalty Islands, New +Caledonia, &c., and shows their radical affinity with the Polynesian +class. He also contributed most of the linguistic articles in Pierer's +_Conversations-Lexicon_. + + + + +GABELLE (French, from the Med. Lat. _gabulum_, _gablum_, a tax, for the +origin of which see GAVELKIND), a term which, in France, was originally +applied to taxes on all commodities, but was gradually limited to the +tax on salt. In process of time it became one of the most hated and most +grossly unequal taxes in the country, but, though condemned by all +supporters of reform, it was not abolished until 1790. First imposed in +1286, in the reign of Philip IV., as a temporary expedient, it was made +a permanent tax by Charles V. Repressive as a state monopoly, it was +made doubly so from the fact that the government obliged every +individual above the age of eight years to purchase weekly a minimum +amount of salt at a fixed price. When first instituted, it was levied +uniformly on all the provinces in France, but for the greater part of +its history the price varied in different provinces. There were five +distinct groups of provinces, classified as follows: (a) the _Pays de +grandes gabelles_, in which the tax was heaviest; (b) the _Pays de +petites gabelles_, which paid a tax of about half the rate of the +former; (c) the _Pays de salines_, in which the tax was levied on the +salt extracted from the salt marshes; (d) the _Pays redimes_, which had +purchased redemption in 1549; and (e) the _Pays exempts_, which had +stipulated for exemption on entering into union with the kingdom of +France. _Greniers a sel_ (dating from 1342) were established in each +province, and to these all salt had to be taken by the producer on +penalty of confiscation. The _grenier_ fixed the price which it paid for +the salt and then sold it to retail dealers at a higher rate. + + See J.J. Clamageran, _Histoire de l'impot en France_ (1876); A. + Gasquet, _Precis des institutions politiques de l'ancienne France_ + (1885); Necker, _Compte rendu_ (1781). + + + + +GABERDINE, or GABARDINE, any long, loose over-garment, reaching to the +feet and girt round the waist. It was, when made of coarse material, +commonly worn in the middle ages by pilgrims, beggars and almsmen. The +Jews, conservatively attached to the loose and flowing garments of the +East, continued to wear the long upper garment to which the name +"gaberdine" could be applied, long after it had ceased to be a common +form as worn by non-Jews, and to this day in some parts of Europe, e.g. +in Poland, it is still worn, while the tendency to wear the frock-coat +very long and loose is a marked characteristic of the race. The fact +that in the middle ages the Jews were forbidden to engage in handicrafts +also, no doubt, tended to stereotype a form of dress unfitted for manual +labour. The idea of the "gaberdine" being enforced by law upon the Jews +as a distinctive garment is probably due to Shakespeare's use in the +_Merchant of Venice_, I. iii. 113. The mark that the Jews were obliged +to wear generally on the outer garment was the badge. This was first +enforced by the fourth Lateran Council of 1215. The "badge" (Lat. +_rota_; Fr. _rouelle_, wheel) took generally the shape of a circle of +cloth worn on the breast. It varied in colour at different times. In +France it was of yellow, later of red and white; in England it took the +form of two bands or stripes, first of white, then of yellow. In Edward +I.'s reign it was made in the shape of the Tables of the Law (see the +_Jewish Encyclopedia_, s.v. "Costume" and "Badge"). The derivation of +the word is obscure. It apparently occurs first in O. Fr. in the forms +_gauverdine_, _galvardine_, and thence into Ital. as _gavardina_, and +Span. _gabardina_, a form which has influenced the English word. The +_New English Dictionary_ suggests a connexion with the O.H. Ger. +_wallevart_, pilgrimage. Skeat (_Etym. Dict._, 1898) refers it to Span. +_gaban_, coat, cloak; _cabana_, hut, cabin. + + + + +GABES, a town of Tunisia, at the head of the gulf of the same name, and +70 m. by sea S.W. of Sfax. It occupies the site of the Tacape of the +Romans and consists of an open port and European quarter and several +small Arab towns built in an oasis of date palms. This oasis is +copiously watered by a stream called the Wad Gabes. The European quarter +is situated on the right bank of the Wad near its mouth, and adjacent +are the Arab towns of Jara and Menzel. The houses of the native towns +are built largely of dressed stones and broken columns from the ruins of +Tacape. Gabes is the military headquarters for southern Tunisia. The +population of the oasis is about 20,000, including some 1500 Europeans. +There is a considerable export trade in dates. + +Gabes lies at the head of the shat country of Tunisia and is intimately +connected with the scheme of Commandant Roudaire to create a Saharan sea +by making a channel from the Mediterranean to these shats (large salt +lakes below the level of the sea). Roudaire proposed to cut a canal +through the belt of high ground between Gabes and the shats, and fixed +on Wad Melah, a spot 10 m. N. of Gabes, for the sea end of the channel +(see SAHARA). The company formed to execute his project became simply an +agricultural concern and by the sinking of artesian wells created an +oasis of olive and palm trees. + +The Gulf of Gabes, the _Syrtis Minor_ of the ancients, is a +semi-circular shallow indentation of the Mediterranean, about 50 m. +across from the Kerkenna Islands, opposite Sfax on its northern shore, +to Jerba Island, which lies at its southern end. The waters of the gulf +abound in fish and sponge. + + + + +GABII, an ancient city of Latium, between 12 and 13 m. E. of Rome, on +the Via Praenestina, which was in early times known as the Via Gabina. +The part played by it in the story of the expulsion of the Tarquins is +well known; but its importance in the earliest history of Rome rests +upon other evidence--the continuance of certain ancient usages which +imply a period of hostility between the two cities, such as the adoption +of the _cinctus Gabinus_ by the consul when war was to be declared. We +hear of a treaty of alliance with Rome in the time of Tarquinius +Superbus, the original text of which, written on a bullock's skin, was +said by Dionysius of Halicarnassus to be still extant in his day. Its +subsequent history is obscure, and we only hear of it again in the 1st +century B.C. as a small and insignificant place, though its desolation +is no doubt exaggerated by the poets. From inscriptions we learn that +from the time of Augustus or Tiberius onwards it enjoyed a municipal +organization. Its baths were well known, and Hadrian, who was +responsible for much of the renewed prosperity of the small towns of +Latium, appears to have been a very liberal patron, building a +senate-house (_Curia Aelia Augusta_) and an aqueduct. After the 3rd +century Gabii practically disappears from history, though its bishops +continue to be mentioned in ecclesiastical documents till the close of +the 9th. The primitive city occupied the eastern bank of the lake, the +citadel being now marked by the ruins of the medieval fortress of +Castiglione, while the Roman town extended farther to the south. The +most conspicuous relic of the latter is a ruined temple, generally +attributed to Juno, which had six columns in the front and six on each +side. The plan is interesting, but the style of architecture was +apparently mixed. To the east of the temple lay the Forum, where +excavations were made by Gavin Hamilton in 1792. All the objects found +were placed in the Villa Borghese, but many of them were carried off to +Paris by Napoleon, and still remain in the Louvre. The statues and busts +are especially numerous and interesting; besides the deities Venus, +Diana, Nemesis, &c., they comprise Agrippa, Tiberius, Germanicus, +Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Trajan and Plotina, Hadrian and Sabina, M. +Aurelius, Septimius Severus, Geta, Gordianus Pius and others. The +inscriptions relate mainly to local and municipal matters. + + See E.Q. Visconti, _Monumenti Gabini della Villa Pinciana_ (Rome, + 1797, and Milan, 1835); T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at + Rome_, i. 180 seq.; G. Pinza in _Bull. Com._ (1903), 321 seq. + (T. As.) + + + + +GABINIUS, AULUS, Roman statesman and general, and supporter of Pompey, a +prominent figure in the later days of the Roman republic. In 67 B.C., +when tribune of the people, he brought forward the famous law (_Lex +Gabinia_) conferring upon Pompey the command in the war against the +Mediterranean pirates, with extensive powers which gave him absolute +control over that sea and the coasts for 50 m. inland. By two other +measures of Gabinius loans of money to foreign ambassadors in Rome were +made non-actionable (as a check on the corruption of the senate) and the +senate was ordered to give audience to foreign envoys on certain fixed +days (1st of Feb.-1st of March). In 61 Gabinius, then praetor, +endeavoured to win the public favour by providing games on a scale of +unusual splendour, and in 58 managed to secure the consulship, not +without suspicion of bribery. During his term of office he aided Publius +Clodius in bringing about the exile of Cicero. In 57 Gabinius went as +proconsul to Syria. On his arrival he reinstated Hyrcanus in the +high-priesthood at Jerusalem, suppressed revolts, introduced important +changes in the government of Judaea, and rebuilt several towns. During +his absence in Egypt, whither he had been sent by Pompey, without the +consent of the senate, to restore Ptolemy Auletes to his kingdom, Syria +had been devastated by robbers, and Alexander, son of Aristobulus, had +again taken up arms with the object of depriving Hyrcanus of the +high-priesthood. With some difficulty Gabinius restored order, and in 54 +handed over the province to his successor, M. Licinius Crassus. The +knights, who as farmers of the taxes had suffered heavy losses during +the disturbances in Syria, were greatly embittered against Gabinius, +and, when he appeared in the senate to give an account of his +governorship, he was brought to trial on three counts, all involving a +capital offence. On the charge of _majestas_ (high treason) incurred by +having left his province for Egypt without the consent of the senate and +in defiance of the Sibylline books, he was acquitted; it is said that +the judges were bribed, and even Cicero, who had recently attacked +Gabinius with the utmost virulence, was persuaded by Pompey to say as +little as he could in his evidence to damage his former enemy. On the +second charge, that of _repetundae_ (extortion during the administration +of his province), with especial reference to the 10,000 talents paid by +Ptolemy for his restoration, he was found guilty, in spite of evidence +offered on his behalf by Pompey and witnesses from Alexandria and the +eloquence of Cicero, who had been induced to plead his cause. Nothing +but Cicero's wish to do a favour to Pompey could have induced him to +take up what must have been a distasteful task; indeed, it is hinted +that the half-heartedness of the defence materially contributed to +Gabinius's condemnation. The third charge, that of _ambitus_ +(illegalities committed during his canvass for the consulship), was +consequently dropped; Gabinius went into exile, and his property was +confiscated. After the outbreak of the civil war, he was recalled by +Caesar in 49, and entered his service, but took no active part against +his old patron Pompey. After the battle of Pharsalus, he was +commissioned to transport some recently levied troops to Illyricum. On +his way thither by land, he was attacked by the Dalmatians and with +difficulty made his way to Salonae (Dalmatia). Here he bravely defended +himself against the attacks of the Pompeian commander, Marcus Octavius, +but in a few months died of illness (48 or the beginning of 47). + + See Dio Cassius xxxvi. 23-36, xxxviii. 13. 30, xxxix. 55-63; Plutarch, + _Pompey_, 25. 48; Josephus, _Antiq._ xiv. 4-6; Appian, _Illyrica_, 12, + _Bell. Civ._ ii. 24. 59; Cicero, _ad Att._ vi. 2, _ad Q. Fratrem_, ii. + 13, _Post reditum in senatu_, 4-8, _Pro lege Manilia_, 17, 18, 19; + exhaustive article by Bahr in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine + Encyclopadie_; and monograph by G. Stocchi, _Aulo Gabinio e i suoi + processi_ (1892). + + + + +GABION (a French word derived through Ital. _gabbione_, _gabbia_, from +Lat. _cavea_, a cage), a cylindrical basket without top or bottom, used +in revetting fortifications and for numerous other purposes of military +engineering. The gabion is filled with earth when in position. The +ordinary brushwood gabion in the British service has a diameter of 2 ft. +and a height of 2 ft. 9 in. There are several forms of gabion in use, +the best known being the Willesden paper band gabion and the Jones iron +or steel band gabion. + + + + +GABLE, in architecture, the upper portion of a wall from the level of +the eaves or gutter to the ridge of the roof. The word is a southern +English form of the Scottish _gavel_, or of an O. Fr. word _gable_ or +_jable_, both ultimately derived from O. Norwegian _gafl_. In other +Teutonic languages, similar words, such as Ger. _Gabel_ and Dutch +_gaffel_, mean "fork," cf. Lat. _gabalus_, gallows, which is Teutonic in +origin; "gable" is represented by such forms as Ger. _Giebel_ and Dutch +_gevel_. According to the _New English Dictionary_ the primary meaning +of all these words is probably "top" or "head," cf. Gr. [Greek: +kephale], and refers to the forking timbers at the end of a roof. The +gable corresponds to the pediment in classic buildings where the roof +was of low pitch. If the roof is carried across on the top of the wall +so that the purlins project beyond its face, they are masked or hidden +by a "barge board," but as a rule the roof butts up against the back of +the wall which is raised so as to form a parapet. In the middle ages the +gable end was invariably parallel to the roof and was crowned by coping +stones properly weathered on both sides to throw off the rain. In the +16th century in England variety was given to the outline of the gable by +a series of alternating semi-circular and ogee curves. In Holland, +Belgium and Scotland a succession of steps was employed, which in the +latter country are known as crow gables or corbie steps. In Germany and +the Netherlands in the 17th and 18th centuries the step gables assume +very elaborate forms of an extremely rococo character, and they are +sometimes of immense size, with windows in two or three storeys. Designs +of a similar rococo character are found in England, but only in +crestings such as those which surmount the towers of Wollaton and the +gatehouse of Hardwick Hall. + +_Gabled Towers_, in architecture, are those towers which are finished +with gables instead of parapets, as at Sompting, Sussex. Many of the +German Romanesque towers are gabled. + + + + +GABLER, GEORG ANDREAS (1786-1853), German Hegelian philosopher, son of +J.P. Gabler (below), was born on the 30th of July 1786, at Altdorf in +Bavaria. In 1804 he accompanied his father to Jena, where he completed +his studies in philosophy and law, and became an enthusiastic disciple +of Hegel. After holding various educational appointments, he was in 1821 +appointed rector of the Bayreuth gymnasium, and in 1830 general +superintendent of schools. In 1835 he succeeded Hegel in the Berlin +chair. He died at Teplitz on the 13th of September 1853. His works +include _Lehrbuch d. philos. Propadeutik_ (1st vol., Erlangen, 1827), a +popular exposition of the Hegelian system; _De verae philosophiae erga +religionem Christianam pietate_ (Berlin, 1836), and _Die Hegel'sche +Philosophie_ (ib., 1843), a defence of the Hegelian philosophy against +Trendelenburg. + + + + +GABLER, JOHANN PHILIPP (1753-1826), German Protestant theologian of the +school of J.J. Griesbach and J.G. Eichhorn, was born at +Frankfort-on-Main on the 4th of June 1753. In 1772 he entered the +university of Jena as a theological student. In 1776 he was on the point +of abandoning theological pursuits, when the arrival of Griesbach +inspired him with new ardour. After having been successively _Repetent_ +in Gottingen and teacher in the public schools of Dortmund (Westphalia) +and Altdorf (Bavaria), he was, in 1785, appointed second professor of +theology in the university of Altdorf, whence he was translated to a +chair in Jena in 1804, where he succeeded Griesbach in 1812. Here he +died on the 17th of February 1826. At Altdorf Gabler published +(1791-1793) a new edition, with introduction and notes, of Eichhorn's +_Urgeschichte_; this was followed, two years afterwards, by a supplement +entitled _Neuer Versuch uber die mosaische Schopfungsgeschichte_. He was +also the author of many essays which were characterized by much critical +acumen, and which had considerable influence on the course of German +thought on theological and Biblical questions. From 1798 to 1800 he was +editor of the _Neuestes theologisches Journal_, first conjointly with +H.K.A. Hanlein (1762-1829), C.F. von Ammon (1766-1850) and H.E.G. +Paulus, and afterwards unassisted; from 1801 to 1804 of the _Journal fur +theologische Litteratur_; and from 1805 to 1811 of the _Journal fur +auserlesene theologische Litteratur_. + + Some of his essays were published by his sons (2 vols., 1831); and a + memoir appeared in 1827 by W. Schroter. + + + + +GABLETS (diminutive of "gable"), in architecture, triangular +terminations to buttresses, much in use in the Early English and +Decorated periods, after which the buttresses generally terminated in +pinnacles. The Early English gablets are generally plain, and very sharp +in pitch. In the Decorated period they are often enriched with panelling +and crockets. They are sometimes finished with small crosses, but of +oftener with finials. + + + + +GABLONZ (Czech, _Jablonec_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 94 m. N.E. of +Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 21,086, mostly German. It is the chief seat +of the glass pearl and imitation jewelry manufacture, and has also an +important textile industry, and produces large quantities of hardware, +papier mache and other paper goods. + + + + +GABORIAU, EMILE (1833-1873), French novelist, was born at Saujon +(Charente Inferieure) on the 9th of November 1833. He became secretary +to Paul Feval, and, after publishing some novels and miscellaneous +writings, found his real gift in _L'Affaire Lerouge_ (1866), a detective +novel which was published in the _Pays_ and at once made his reputation. +The story was produced on the stage in 1872. A long series of novels +dealing with the annals of the police court followed, and proved very +popular. Among them are: _Le Crime d'Orcival_ (1867), _Monsieur Lecoq_ +(1869), _La Vie infernale_ (1870), _Les Esclaves de Paris_ (1869), +_L'Argent des autres_ (1874). Gaboriau died in Paris on the 28th of +September 1873. + + + + +GABRIEL (Heb. [Hebrew: Gavriel], man of God), in the Bible, the heavenly +messenger (see Angel) sent to Daniel to explain the vision of the ram +and the he-goat, and to communicate the prediction of the Seventy Weeks +(Dan. viii. 16, ix. 21). He was also employed to announce the birth of +John the Baptist to Zacharias, and that of the Messiah to the Virgin +Mary (Luke i. 19, 26). Because he stood in the divine presence (see Luke +i. 19; Rev. viii. 2; and cf. Tobit xii. 15), both Jewish and Christian +writers generally speak of him as an archangel. In the _Book of Enoch_ +"the four great archangels" are Michael, Uriel, Suriel or Raphael, and +Gabriel, who is set over "all the powers" and shares the work of +intercession. His name frequently occurs in the Jewish literature of the +later post-Biblical period. Thus, according to the Targum +Pseudo-Jonathan, he was the man who showed the way to Joseph (Gen. +xxxvii. 15); and in Deut. xxxiv. 6 it is affirmed that he, along with +Michael, Uriel, Jophiel, Jephephiah and the Metatron, buried the body of +Moses. In the Targum on 2 Chron. xxxii. 21 he is named as the angel who +destroyed the host of Sennacherib; and in similar writings of a still +later period he is spoken of as the spirit who presides over fire, +thunder, the ripening of the fruits of the earth and similar processes. +In the Koran great prominence is given to his function as the medium of +divine revelation, and, according to the Mahommedan interpreters, he it +is who is referred to by the appellations "Holy Spirit" and "Spirit of +Truth." He is specially commemorated in the calendars of the Greek, +Coptic and Armenian churches. + + + + +GABRIEL HOUNDS, a spectral pack supposed in the North of England to +foretell death by their yelping at night. The legend is that they are +the souls of unbaptized children wandering through the air till the day +of judgment. They are also sometimes called Gabriel or Gabble Ratchet. A +very prosaic explanation of this nocturnal noise is given by J.C. +Atkinson in his _Cleveland Glossary_ (1868). "This," he writes, "is the +name for a yelping sound heard at night, more or less resembling the cry +of hounds or yelping of dogs, probably due to large flocks of wild geese +which chance to be flying by night." + + See further Joseph Lucas, _Studies in Nidderdale_ (1882), pp. 156-157. + + + + +GABRIELI, GIOVANNI (1557-1612?), Italian musical composer, was born at +Venice in 1557, and was a pupil of his uncle Andrea, a distinguished +musician of the contrapuntal school and organist of St Mark's. He +succeeded Claudio Merulo as first organist of the same church in 1585, +and died at Venice either in 1612 or 1613. He was remarkable for his +compositions for several choirs, writing frequently for 12 or 16 voices, +and is important as an early experimenter in chromatic harmony. It was +probably for this reason that he made a special point of combining +voices with instruments, being thus one of the founders of choral and +orchestral composition. Among his pupils was Heinrich Schutz; and the +church of St Mark, from the time of the Gabrielis onwards down to that +of Lotti, became one of the most important musical schools in Europe. + + See also Winterfeld, _Johann Gabrieli und seine Zeit_ (1834). + + + + +GABUN, a district on the west coast of Africa, one of the colonies +forming French Congo (q.v.). It derives its designation from the +settlements on the Gabun river or Rio de Gabao. The Gabun, in reality an +estuary of the sea, lies immediately north of the equator. At the +entrance, between Cape Joinville or Santa Clara on the N. and Cape +Pangara or Sandy Point on the S., it has a width of about 10 m. It +maintains a breadth of some 7 m. for a distance of 40 m. inland, when it +contracts into what is known as the Rio Olambo, which is not more than 2 +or 3 m. from bank to bank. Several rivers, of which the Komo is the +chief, discharge their waters into the estuary. The Gabun was discovered +by Portuguese navigators towards the close of the 15th century, and was +named from its fanciful resemblance to a _gabao_ or cabin. On the small +island of Konike, which lies about the centre of the estuary, scanty +remains of a Portuguese fort have been discovered. The three principal +tribes in the Gabun are the Mpongwe, the Fang and the Bakalai. + + + + +GACE BRULE (d. c. 1220), French _trouvere_, was a native of Champagne. +It has generally been asserted that he taught Thibaut of Champagne the +art of verse, an assumption which is based on a statement in the +_Chroniques de Saint-Denis_: "Si fist entre lui [Thibaut] et Gace Brule +les plus belles chancons et les plus delitables et melodieuses qui onque +fussent oies." This has been taken as evidence of collaboration between +the two poets. The passage will bear the interpretation that with those +of Gace the songs of Thibaut were the best hitherto known. Paulin Paris, +in the _Histoire litteraire de la France_ (vol. xxiii.), quotes a number +of facts that fix an earlier date for Gace's songs. Gace is the author +of the earliest known _jeu parti_. The interlocutors are Gace and a +count of Brittany who is identified with Geoffrey of Brittany, son of +Henry II. of England. Gace appears to have been banished from Champagne +and to have found refuge in Brittany. A deed dated 1212 attests a +contract between Gatho Brusle (Gace Brule) and the Templars for a piece +of land in Dreux. It seems most probable that Gace died before 1220, at +the latest in 1225. + + See Gedeon Busken Huet, _Chansons de Gace Brule_, edited for the + Societe des anciens textes francais (1902), with an exhaustive + introduction. Dante quotes a song by Gace, _Ire d'amor qui en mon cuer + repaire_, which he attributes erroneously to Thibaut of Navarre (_De + vulgari eloquentia_, p. 151, ed. P. Rajna, Florence, 1895). + + + + +GACHARD, LOUIS PROSPER (1800-1885), Belgian man of letters, was born in +Paris on the 12th of March 1800. He entered the administration of the +royal archives in 1826, and was appointed director-general, a post which +he held for fifty-five years. During this long period he reorganized the +service, added to the records by copies taken in other European +collections, travelled for purposes of study, and carried on a wide +correspondence with other keepers of records, and with historical +scholars. He also edited and published many valuable collections of +state papers; a full list of his various publications was printed in the +_Annuaire de l'academie royale de Belgique_ by Ch. Piot in 1888, pp. +220-236. It includes 246 entries. He was the author of several +historical writings, of which the best known are _Don Carlos et Philippe +II_ (1867), _Etudes et notices historiques concernant l'histoire des +Pays-Bas_ (1863), _Histoire de la Belgique au commencement du XVIII^e +siecle_ (1880), _Histoire politique et diplomatique de P.P. Rubens_ +(1877), all published at Brussels. His chief editorial works are the +_Actes des etats generaux des Pays-Bas 1576-1585_ (Brussels, 1861-1866), +_Collection de documents inedits concernant l'histoire de la Belgique_ +(Brussels, 1833-1835), and the _Relations des ambassadeurs Venitiens sur +Charles V et Philippe II_ (Brussels, 1855). Gachard died in Brussels on +the 24th of December 1885. + + + + +GAD, in the Bible. 1. A prophet or rather a "seer" (cp. 1 Sam. ix. 9), +who was a companion of David from his early days. He is first mentioned +in 1 Sam. xxii. 5 as having warned David to take refuge in Judah, and +appears again in 2 Sam. xxiv. 11 seq. to make known Yahweh's displeasure +at the numbering of the people. Together with Nathan he is represented +in post-exilic tradition as assisting to organize the musical service of +the temple (2 Chron. xxix. 25), and like Nathan and Samuel he is said to +have written an account of David's deeds (1 Chron. xxix. 29); a history +of David in accordance with later tradition and upon the lines of later +prophetic ideas is far from improbable. + +2. Son of Jacob, by Zilpah, Leah's maid; a tribe of Israel (Gen. xxx. +11). The name is that of the god of "luck" or fortune, mentioned in Isa. +lxv. 11 (R.V. mg.), and in several names of places, e.g. Baal-Gad (Josh. +xi. 17, xii. 7), and possibly also in Dibon-Gad, Migdol-Gad and +Nahal-Gad.[1] There is another etymology in Gen. xlix. 19, where the +name is played on: "Gad, a plundering troop (_gedud_) shall plunder him +(_yegudennu_), but he shall plunder at their heels." There are no +traditions of the personal history of Gad. One of the earliest +references to the name is the statement on the inscription of Mesha, +king of Moab (about 850 B.C.), that the "men of Gad" had occupied +Ataroth (E. of Dead Sea) from of old, and that the king of Israel had +fortified the city. This is in the district ascribed to Reuben, with +which tribe the fortunes of Gad were very closely connected. In Numbers +xxxii. 34 sqq., the cities of Gad appear to lie chiefly to the south of +Heshbon; in Joshua xiii. 24-28 they lie almost wholly to the north; +while other texts present discrepancies which are not easily reconciled +with either passage. Possibly some cities were common to both Reuben and +Gad, and perhaps others more than once changed hands. That Gad, at one +time at least, held territory as far south as Pisgah and Nebo would +follow from Deut. xxxiii. 21, if the rendering of the Targums be +accepted, "and he looked out the first part for himself, because there +was the portion of the buried law-giver." It is certain, however, that, +at a late period, this tribe was localized chiefly in Gilead, in the +district which now goes by the name of Jebel Jil'ad. The traditions +encircling this district point, it would seem, to the tribe having been +of Aramaean origin (see the story of Jacob); at all events its position +was extremely exposed, and its population at the best must have been a +mixed one. Its richness and fertility made it a prey to the marauding +nomads of the desert; but the allusion in the Blessing of Jacob gives +the tribe a character for bravery, and David's men of Gad (1 Chron. xii. +8) were famous in tradition. Although rarely mentioned by name (the +geographical term Gilead is usual), the history of Gad enters into the +lives of Jephthah and Saul, and in the wars of Ammon and Moab it must +have played some part. It followed Jeroboam in the great revolt against +the house of David, and its later fortunes until 734 B.C. (1 Chron. v. +26) would be those of the northern kingdom. + + See, for a critical discussion of the data, H.W. Hogg, _Ency. Bib._ + cols. 1579 sqq.; also GILEAD; MANASSEH; REUBEN. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See G.B. Gray, _Heb. Proper Names_, pp. 134 seq., 145. + + + + +GADAG, or GARAG, a town of British India, in the Dharwar district of +Bombay, 43 m. E. of Dharwar town. Pop. (1901) 30,652. It is an important +railway junction on the Southern Mahratta system, with a growing trade +in raw cotton, and also in the weaving of cotton and silk. There are +factories for ginning and pressing cotton, and a spinning mill. The town +contains remains of a number of temples, some of which exhibit fine +carving, while inscriptions in them indicate the existence of Gadag as +early as the 10th century. + + + + +GADARA, an ancient town of the Syrian Decapolis, the capital of Peraea, +and the political centre of the small district of Gadaris. It was a +Greek city, probably entirely non-Syrian in origin. The earliest +recorded event in its history is its capture by Antiochus III. of Syria +in 218 B.C.; how long it may have existed before this date is unknown. +About twenty years later it was besieged for ten months by Alexander +Jannaeus. It was restored by Pompey, and in 30 B.C. was presented by +Augustus to Herod the Great; on Herod's death it was reunited to Syria. +The coins of the place bear Greek legends, and such inscriptions as have +been found on its site are Greek. Its governing and wealthy classes were +probably Greek, the common people being Hellenized and Judaized +Aramaeans. The community was Hellenistically organized, and though +dependent on Syria and acknowledging the supremacy of Rome it was +governed by a democratic senate and managed its own internal affairs. In +the Jewish war it surrendered to Vespasian, but in the Byzantine period +it again flourished and was the seat of a bishop. It was renowned for +its hot sulphur baths; the springs still exist and show the remains of +bath-houses. The temperature of the springs is 110 deg. F. This town was +the birthplace of Meleager the anthologist. There is a confusion in the +narrative of the healing of the demoniac between the very similar names +_Gadara_, _Gerasa_ and _Gergesa_; but the probabilities, both textual +and geographical, are in favour of the reading of Mark (_Gerasenes_, ch. +v. 1, revised version); and that the miracle has nothing to do with +Gadara, but took place at _Kersa_, on the eastern shore of the Sea of +Galilee. + +Gadara is now represented by _Umm Kais_, a group of ruins about 6 m. +S.E. of the Sea of Galilee, and 1194 ft. above the sea-level. There are +very fine tombs with carved sarcophagi in the neighbourhood. There are +the remains of two theatres and (probably) a temple, and many heaps of +carved stones, representing ancient buildings of various kinds. The +walls are, or were, traceable for a circuit of 2 m., and there are also +the remains of a street of columns. The natives are rapidly destroying +the ruins by quarrying building material out of them. (R. A. S. M.) + + + + +GADDI. Four painters of the early Florentine school--father, son and two +grandsons--bore this name. + +1. GADDO GADDI was, according to Vasari, an intimate friend of Cimabue, +and afterwards of Giotto. The dates of birth and death have been given +as 1239 and about 1312; these are probably too early; he may have been +born towards 1260, and may have died in or about 1333. He was a painter +and mosaicist, is said to have executed the great mosaic inside the +portal of the cathedral of Florence, representing the coronation of the +Virgin, and may with more certainty be credited with the mosaics inside +the portico of the basilica of S. Maria Maggiore, Rome, relating to the +legend of the foundation of that church; their date is probably 1308. In +the original cathedral of St Peter in Rome he also executed the mosaics +of the choir, and those of the front representing on a colossal scale +God the Father, with many other figures; likewise an altarpiece in the +church of S. Maria Novella, Florence; these works no longer exist. It is +ordinarily held that no picture (as distinct from mosaics) by Gaddo +Gaddi is now extant. Messrs Crowe & Cavalcaselle, however, consider that +the mosaics of S. Maria Maggiore bear so strong a resemblance in style +to four of the frescoes in the upper church of Assisi, representing +incidents in the life of St Francis (frescoes 2, 3, 4 and especially 5, +which shows Francis stripping himself, and protected by the bishop), +that those frescoes likewise may, with considerable confidence, be +ascribed to Gaddi. Some other extant mosaics are attributed to him, but +without full authentication. This artist laid the foundation of a very +large fortune, which continued increasing, and placed his progeny in a +highly distinguished worldly position. + +2. TADDEO GADDI (about 1300-1366, or later), son of Gaddo, was born in +Florence, and is usually said to have been one of Giotto's most +industrious assistants for a period of 24 years. This can hardly be +other than an exaggeration; it is probable that he began painting on his +own account towards 1330, when Giotto went to Naples. Taddeo also traded +as a merchant, and had a branch establishment in Venice. He was a +painter, mosaicist and architect. He executed in fresco, in the +Baroncelli (now Giugni) chapel, in the Florentine church of S. Croce, +the "Virgin and Child between Four Prophets," on the funeral monument at +the entrance, and on the walls various incidents in the legend of the +Virgin, from the expulsion of Joachim from the Temple up to the +Nativity. In the subject of the "Presentation of the Virgin in the +Temple" are the two heads traditionally accepted as portraits of Gaddo +Gaddi and Andrea Tafi; they, at any rate, are not likely to be portraits +of those artists from the life. On the ceiling of the same chapel are +the "Eight Virtues." In the museum of Berlin is an altarpiece by Taddeo, +the "Virgin and Child," and some other subjects, dated 1334; in the +Naples gallery, a triptych, dated 1336, of the "Virgin enthroned along +with Four Saints," the "Baptism of Jesus," and his "Deposition from the +Cross"; in the sacristy of S. Pietro a Megognano, near Poggibonsi, an +altarpiece dated 1355, the "Virgin and Child enthroned amid Angels." A +series of paintings, partly from the life of St Francis, which Taddeo +executed for the presses in S. Croce, are now divided between the +Florentine Academy and the Berlin Museum; the compositions are taken +from or founded on Giotto, to whom, indeed, the Berlin authorities have +ascribed their examples. Taddeo also painted some frescoes still extant +in Pisa, besides many in S. Croce and other Florentine buildings, which +have perished. He deservedly ranks as one of the most eminent successors +of Giotto; it may be said that he continued working up the material +furnished by that great painter, with comparatively feeble inspiration +of his own. His figures are vehement in action, long and slender in +form; his execution rapid and somewhat conventional. To Taddeo are +generally ascribed the celebrated frescoes--those of the ceiling and +left or western wall--in the Cappella degli Spagnuoli, in the church of +S. Maria Novella, Florence; this is, however, open to considerable +doubt, although it may perhaps be conceded that the designs for the +ceiling were furnished by Taddeo. Dubious also are the three pictures +ascribed to him in the National Gallery, London. In mosaic he has left +some work in the baptistery of Florence. As an architect he supplied in +1336 the plans for the present Ponte Vecchio, and those for the original +(not the present) Ponte S. Trinita; in 1337 he was engaged on the church +of Or San Michele; and he carried on after Giotto's death the work of +the unrivalled Campanile. + +3. AGNOLO GADDI, born in Florence, was the son of Taddeo; the date of +his birth has been given as 1326, but possibly 1350 is nearer the mark. +He was a painter and mosaicist, trained by his father, and a merchant as +well; in middle age he settled down to commercial life in Venice, and he +added greatly to the family wealth. He died in Florence in October 1396. +His paintings show much early promise, hardly sustained as he advanced +in life. One of the earliest, at S. Jacopo tra' Fossi, Florence, +represents the "Resurrection of Lazarus." Another probably youthful +performance is the series of frescoes of the Pieve di Prato--legends of +the Virgin and of her Sacred Girdle, bestowed upon St Thomas, and +brought to Prato in the 11th century by Michele dei Dagomari; the +"Marriage of Mary" is one of the best of this series, the later +compositions in which have suffered much by renewals. In S. Croce he +painted, in eight frescoes, the legend of the Cross, beginning with the +archangel Michael giving Seth a branch from the tree of knowledge, and +ending with the emperor Heraclius carrying the Cross as he enters +Jerusalem; in this picture is a portrait of the painter himself. Agnolo +composed his subjects better than Taddeo; he had more dignity and +individuality in the figures, and was a clear and bold colourist; the +general effect is laudably decorative, but the drawing is poor, and the +works show best from a distance. Various other productions of this +master exist, and many have perished. Cennino Cennini, the author of the +celebrated treatise on painting, was one of his pupils. + +4. GIOVANNI GADDI, brother of Agnolo, was also a painter of promise. He +died young in 1383. + + Vasari, and Crowe and Cavelcaselle can be consulted as to the Gaddi. + Other notices appear here and there--such as _La Cappella de' + Rinuccini in S. Croce di Firenze_, by G. Ajazzi (1845). (W. M. R.) + + + + +GADE, NIELS WILHELM (1817-1890), Danish composer, was born at +Copenhagen, on the 22nd of February 1817, his father being a musical +instrument maker. He was intended for his father's trade, but his +passion for a musician's career, made evident by the ease and skill with +which he learnt to play upon a number of instruments, was not to be +denied. Though he became proficient on the violin under Wexschall, and +in the elements of theory under Weyse and Berggreen, he was to a great +extent self-taught. His opportunities of hearing and playing in the +great masterpieces were many, since he was a member of the court band. +In 1840 his _Aladdin_ and his overture of _Ossian_ attracted attention, +and in 1841 his _Nachklange aus Ossian_ overture gained the local +musical society's prize, the judges being Spohr and Schneider. This work +also attracted the notice of the king, who gave the composer a stipend +which enabled him to go to Leipzig and Italy. In 1844 Gade conducted the +Gewandhaus concerts in Leipzig during Mendelssohn's absence, and on the +latter's death became chief conductor. In 1848, on the outbreak of the +Holstein War, he returned to Copenhagen, where he was appointed organist +and conductor of the Musik-Verein. In 1852 he married a daughter of the +composer J.P.E. Hartmann. He became court conductor in 1861, and was +pensioned by the government in 1876--the year in which he visited +Birmingham to conduct his _Crusaders_. This work, and the +_Fruhlingsfantasie_, the _Erlkonigs Tochter_, _Fruhlingsbotschaft_ and +_Psyche_ (written for Birmingham in 1882) have enjoyed a wide +popularity. Indeed, they represent the strength and the weakness of +Gade's musical ability quite as well as any of his eight symphonies (the +best of which are the first and fourth, while the fifth has an obbligato +pianoforte part). Gade was distinctly a romanticist, but his music is +highly polished and beautifully finished, lyrical rather than dramatic +and effective. Much of the pianoforte music, _Aquarellen_, _Spring +Flowers_, for instance, enjoyed a considerable vogue, as did the +_Novelletten_ trio; but Gade's opera _Mariotta_ has not been heard +outside the Copenhagen opera house. He died at Copenhagen on the 21st of +December 1890. + + + + +GADOLINIUM (symbol Gd., atomic weight 157.3), one of the rare earth +metals (see ERBIUM). The element was discovered in 1880 in the mineral +samarskite by C. Marignac (_Comptes rendus_, 1880, 90, p. 899; _Ann. +chim. phys._, 1880 [5] 20, p. 535). G. Urbain (_Comptes rendus_, 1905, +140, p. 583) separates the metal by crystallizing the double nitrate of +nickel and gadolinium. The salts show absorption bands in the +ultra-violet. The oxide Gd2O3 is colourless (Lecoq de Boisbaudran). + + + + +GADSDEN, CHRISTOPHER (1724-1805), American patriot, was born in +Charleston, South Carolina, in 1724. His father, Thomas Gadsden, was for +a time the king's collector for the port of Charleston. Christopher went +to school near Bristol, in England, returned to America in 1741, was +afterwards employed in a counting house in Philadelphia, and became a +merchant and planter at Charleston. In 1759 he was captain of an +artillery company in an expedition against the Cherokees. He was a +member of the South Carolina legislature almost continuously from 1760 +to 1780, and represented his province in the Stamp Act Congress of 1765 +and in the Continental Congress in 1774-1776. In February 1776 he was +placed in command of all the military forces of South Carolina, and in +October of the same year was commissioned a brigadier-general and was +taken into the Continental service; but on account of a dispute arising +out of a conflict between state and Federal authority resigned his +command in 1777. He was lieutenant-governor of his state in 1780, when +Charleston was surrendered to the British. For about three months +following this event he was held as a prisoner on parole within the +limits of Charleston; then, because of his influence in deterring others +from exchanging their paroles for the privileges of British subjects, he +was seized, taken to St Augustine, Florida, and there, because he would +not give another parole to those who had violated the former agreement +affecting him, he was confined for forty-two weeks in a dungeon. In 1782 +Gadsden was again elected a member of his state legislature; he was also +elected governor, but declined to serve on the ground that he was too +old and infirm; in 1788 he was a member of the convention which ratified +for South Carolina the Federal constitution; and in 1790 he was a member +of the convention which framed the new state constitution. He died in +Charleston on the 28th of August 1805. From the time that Governor +Thomas Boone, in 1762, pronounced his election to the legislature +improper, and dissolved the House in consequence, Gadsden was hostile to +the British administration. He was an ardent leader of the opposition to +the Stamp Act, advocating even then a separation of the colonies from +the mother country; and in the Continental Congress of 1774 he discussed +the situation on the basis of inalienable rights and liberties, and +urged an immediate attack on General Thomas Gage, that he might be +defeated before receiving reinforcements. + + + + +GADSDEN, JAMES (1788-1858), American soldier and diplomat, was born at +Charleston, S.C., on the 15th of May 1788, the grandson of Christopher +Gadsden. He graduated at Yale in 1806, became a merchant in his native +city, and in the war of 1812 served in the regular U.S. Army as a +lieutenant of engineers. In 1818 he served against the Seminoles, with +the rank of captain, as aide on the staff of Gen. Andrew Jackson. In +October 1820 he became inspector-general of the Southern Division, with +the rank of colonel, and as such assisted in the occupation and the +establishment of posts in Florida after its acquisition. From August +1821 to March 1822 he was adjutant-general, but, his appointment not +being confirmed by the Senate, he left the army and became a planter in +Florida. He served in the Territorial legislature, and as Federal +commissioner superintended in 1823 the removal of the Seminole Indians +to South Florida. In 1832 he negotiated with the Seminoles a treaty +which provided for their removal within three years to lands in what is +now the state of Oklahoma; but the Seminoles refused to move, +hostilities again broke out, and in the second Seminole War Gadsden was +quartermaster-general of the Florida Volunteers from February to April +1836. Returning to South Carolina he became a rice planter, and was +president of the South Carolina railway. In 1853 President Franklin +Pierce appointed him minister to Mexico, with which country he +negotiated the so-called "Gadsden treaty" (signed the 30th of December +1853), which gave to the United States freedom of transit for mails, +merchandise and troops across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and provided +for a readjustment of the boundary established by the treaty of +Guadalupe Hidalgo, the United States acquiring 45,535 sq. m. of land, +since known as the "Gadsden Purchase," in what is now New Mexico and +Arizona. In addition, Article XI. of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, +which bound the United States to prevent incursions of Indians from the +United States into Mexico, and to restore Mexican prisoners captured by +such Indians, was abrogated, and for these considerations the United +States paid to Mexico the sum of $10,000,000. Ratifications of the +treaty, slightly modified by the Senate, were exchanged on the 30th of +June 1854; before this, however, Gadsden had retired from his post. The +boundary line between Mexico and the "Gadsden Purchase" was marked by +joint commissions appointed in 1855 and 1891, the second commission +publishing its report in 1899. Gadsden died at Charleston, South +Carolina, on the 25th of December 1858. + +An elder brother, CHRISTOPHER EDWARDS GADSDEN (1785-1852), was +Protestant Episcopal bishop of South Carolina in 1839-1852. + + + + +GADWALL, a word of obscure origin,[1] the common English name of the +duck, called by Linnaeus _Anas strepera_, but considered by many modern +ornithologists to require removal from the genus _Anas_ to that of +_Chaulelasmus_ or _Ctenorhynchus_, of either of which it is almost the +sole species. Its geographical distribution is almost identical with +that of the common wild duck or mallard (see DUCK), since it is found +over the greater part of the northern hemisphere; but, save in India, +where it is one of the most abundant species of duck during the cold +weather, it is hardly anywhere so numerous, and both in the eastern +parts of the United States and in the British Islands it is rather rare +than otherwise. Its habits also, so far as they have been observed, +greatly resemble those of the wild duck; but its appearance on the water +is very different, its small head, flat back, elongated form and +elevated stern rendering it recognizable by the fowler even at such a +distance as hinders him from seeing its very distinct plumage. In +coloration the two sexes appear almost equally sombre; but on closer +inspection the drake exhibits a pencilled grey coloration and upper +wing-coverts of a deep chestnut, which are almost wanting in his soberly +clad partner. She closely resembles the female of the mallard in colour, +but has, like her own male, some of the secondary quills of a pure +white, presenting a patch of that colour which forms one of the most +readily perceived distinctive characters of the species. The gadwall is +a bird of some interest in England, since it is one of the few that have +been induced, by the protection afforded them in certain localities, to +resume the indigenous position they once filled, but had, through the +draining and reclaiming of marshy lands, long since abandoned. In regard +to the present species, this fact was due to the efforts of Andrew +Fountaine, on whose property, in West Norfolk and its immediate +neighbourhood, the gadwall, from 1850, annually bred in increasing +numbers. It has been always esteemed one of the best of wild fowl for +the table. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The _New English Dictionary_ has nothing to say. Webster gives + the etymology _gad well_ = go about well. Dr R.G. Latham suggested + that it was taken from the syllables _quedul_, of the Lat. + _querquedula_, a teal. The spelling "gadwall" seems to be first found + in Willughby in 1676, and has been generally adopted by later + writers; but Merrett, in 1667, has "gaddel" (_Pinax rerum naturalium + Britannicarum_, p. 180), saying that it was so called by + bird-dealers. The synonym "gray," given by Willughby and Ray, is + doubtless derived from the general colour of the species, and has its + analogue in the Icelandic _Graond_, applied almost indifferently, or + with some distinguishing epithet, to the female of any of the + freshwater ducks, and especially to both sexes of the present, in + which, as stated in the text, there is comparatively little + conspicuous difference of plumage in drake and duck. + + + + +GAEKWAR, or GUICOWAR, the family name of the Mahratta rulers of Baroda +(q.v.) in western India, which has been converted by the English into a +dynastic title. It is derived from the vernacular word for the cow, but +it is a mistake to suppose that the family are of the cowherd caste; +they belong to the upper class of Mahrattas proper, sometimes claiming a +Rajput origin. The dynasty was founded by a succession of three +warriors, Damaji I., Pilaji and Damaji II., who established Mahratta +supremacy throughout Gujarat during the first half of the 18th century. +The present style of the ruler is Maharaja Gaekwar of Baroda. + + + + +GAETA (anc. _Caietae Portus_), a seaport and episcopal see of Campania, +Italy, in the province of Caserta, from which it is 53 m. W.N.W. by rail +via Sparanise. Pop. (1901) 5528. It occupies a lower projecting point of +the promontory which forms the S.W. extremity of the Bay of Gaeta. The +tomb of Munatius Plancus, on the summit of the promontory (see CAIETAE +PORTUS), is now a naval signal station, and lies in the centre of the +extensive earthworks of the modern fortifications. The harbour is well +sheltered except on the E., but has little commercial importance, being +mainly a naval station. To the N.W. is the suburb of Elena (formerly +Borgo di Gaeta). Pop. (1901) 10,369. Above the town is a castle erected +by the Angevin kings, and strengthened at various periods. The cathedral +of St Erasmus (S. Elmo), consecrated in 1106, has a fine campanile begun +in 860 and completed in 1279, and a nave and four aisles; the interior +has, however, been modernized. Opposite the door of the cathedral is a +candelabrum with interesting sculptures of the end of the 13th century, +consisting of 48 panels in bas-relief, with 24 representations from the +life of Christ, and 24 of the life of St Erasmus (A. Venturi, _Storia +dell' arte Italiana_, iii. Milan, 1904, 642 seq.). The cathedral +possesses three fine _Exultet_ rolls, with miniatures dating from the +11th to the beginning of the 13th century. Behind the high altar is the +banner sent by Pope Pius V. to Don John of Austria, the victor of +Lepanto. The constable of Bourbon, who fell in the sack of Rome of 1527, +is buried here. The other churches are of minor interest; close to that +of La Trinita is the Montagna Spaccata, where a vertical fissure from 6 +to 15 ft. wide runs right down to the sea-level. Over the chasm is a +chapel _del Crocefisso_, the mountain having split, it is said, at the +death of Christ. + +During the break-up of the Roman empire, Gaeta, like Amalfi and Naples, +would seem to have established itself as a practically independent port +and to have carried on a thriving trade with the Levant. Its history, +however, is obscure until, in 823, it appears as a lordship ruled by +hereditary _hypati_ or consuls. In 844 the town fell into the hands of +the Arabs, but four years later they were driven out with help supplied +by Pope Leo IV. In 875 the town was in the hands of Pope John VIII., who +gave it to the count of Capua as a fief of the Holy See, which had long +claimed jurisdiction over it. In 877, however, the _hypatus_ John +(Ioannes) II. succeeded in recovering the lordship, which he established +as a duchy under the suzerainty of the East Roman emperors. In the 11th +century the duchy fell into the hands of the Norman counts of Aversa, +afterwards princes of Capua, and in 1135 it was definitively annexed to +his kingdom by Roger of Sicily. The town, however, had its own coinage +as late as 1229. + +In military history the town has played a conspicuous part. Its +fortifications were strengthened in the 15th century. On the 30th of +September 1707 it was stormed, after a three months' siege, by the +Austrians under Daun; and on the 6th of August 1734 it was taken, after +a siege of four months, by French, Spanish and Sardinian troops under +the future King Charles of Naples. The fortifications were again +strengthened; and in 1799 it was temporarily occupied by the French. On +the 18th of July 1806 it was captured, after an heroic defence, by the +French under Massena; and on the 18th of July 1815 it capitulated, after +a three months' siege, to the Austrians. In November 1848 Pope Pius IX., +after his flight in disguise from Rome, found a refuge at Gaeta, where +he remained till the 4th of September 1849. Finally, in 1860, it was the +scene of the last stand of Francis II. of Naples against the forces of +United Italy. Shut up in the fortress with 12,000 men, after Garibaldi's +occupation of Naples, the king, inspired by the heroic example of Queen +Maria, offered a stubborn resistance, and it was not till the 13th of +February 1861 that, the withdrawal of the French fleet having made +bombardment from the sea possible, he was forced to capitulate. + + See G.B. Federici, _Degli antichi duchi, consoli o ipati della citta + di Gaeta_ (Naples, 1791); Onorato Gaetani d' Aragona, _Mem. stor. + della citta di Gaeta_ (Milan, 1879); C. Ravizza, _Il Golfo di Gaeta_ + (Novara, 1876). (T. As.) + + + + +GAETANI, or CAETANI, the name of the oldest of the Roman princely +families which played a great part in the history of the city and of the +papacy. The Gaetani are of Longobard origin, and the founder of the +house is said to be one Dominus Constantinus Cagetanus, who flourished +in the 10th century, but the family had no great importance until the +election of Benedetto Gaetani to the papacy as Boniface VIII. in 1294, +when they at once became the most notable in the city. The pope +conferred on them the fiefs of Sermoneta, Bassiano, Ninfa and San Donato +(1297-1300), and the marquisate of Ancona in 1300, while Charles II. of +Anjou created the pope's brother count of Caserta. Giordano Loffredo +Gaetani by his marriage with Giovanna dell' Aquila, heiress of the +counts of Fondi and Traetto, in 1297 added the name of Aquila to his +own, and his grandson Giacomo acquired the lordships of Piedimonte and +Gioia. The Gaetani proved brave warriors and formed a bodyguard to +protect Boniface VIII. from his many foes. During the 14th and 15th +centuries their feuds with the Colonna caused frequent disturbances in +Rome and the Campagna, sometimes amounting to civil war. They also +played an important role as Neapolitan nobles. In 1500 Alexander VI., in +his attempt to crush the great Roman feudal nobility, confiscated the +Gaetani fiefs and gave them to his daughter Lucrezia Borgia (q.v.); but +they afterwards regained them. + +At present there are two lines of Gaetani: (1) Gaetani, princes of Teano +and dukes of Sermoneta, founded by Giacobello Gaetani, whose grandson, +Guglielmo Gaetani, was granted the duchy of Sermoneta by Pius III. in +1503, the marquisate of Cisterna being conferred on the family by Sixtus +V. in 1585. In 1642, Francesco, the 7th duke of Sermoneta, acquired by +marriage the county of Caserta, which was exchanged for the principality +of Teano in 1750. The present head of the house, Onorato Gaetani, 14th +duke of Sermoneta, 4th prince of Teano, duke of San Marco, marquis of +Cisterna, &c., is a senator of the kingdom of Italy, and was minister +for foreign affairs for a short time. (2) Gaetani dell' Aquila +d'Aragona, princes of Piedimonte, and dukes of Laurenzana, founded by +Onorato Gaetani dell' Aquila, count of Fondi, Traetto, Alife and +Morcone, lord of Piedimonte and Gioia, in 1454. The additional surname +of Aragona was assumed after the marriage of Onorato Gaetani, duke of +Traetto (d. 1529), with Lucrezia of Aragon, natural daughter of King +Ferdinand I. of Naples. The duchy of Laurenzana, in the kingdom of +Naples, was acquired by Alfonso Gaetani by his marriage in 1606 with +Giulia di Ruggiero, duchess of Laurenzana. The lordship of Piedimonte +was raised to a principality in 1715. The present (1908) head of the +house is Nicola Gaetani dell' Aquila d'Aragona (b. 1857), 7th prince of +Piedimonte and 12th duke of Laurenzana. + + See A. von Reumont, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_ (Berlin, 1868); F. + Gregorovius, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_ (Stuttgart, 1872); _Almanach + de Gotha_ (1907 and 1908). + + + + +GAETULIA, an ancient district in northern Africa, which in the usage of +Roman writers comprised the wandering tribes of the southern slopes of +Mount Aures and the Atlas, as far as the Atlantic, and the oases in the +northern part of the Sahara. They were always distinguished from the +Negro people to the south, and beyond doubt belonged to the same Berber +race which formed the basis of the population of Numidia and Mauretania +(q.v.). The tribes to be found there at the present day are probably of +the same race, and retain the same wandering habits; and it is possible +that they still bear in certain places the name of their Gaetulian +ancestors (see Vivien St Martin, _Le Nord de l'Afrique_, 1863). A few +only seem to have mingled with the Negroes of the Sahara, if we may thus +interpret Ptolemy's allusion to Melano-Gaetuli (4. 6. 5.). They were +noted for the rearing of horses, and according to Strabo had 100,000 +foals in a single year. They were clad in skins, lived on flesh and +milk, and the only manufacture connected with their name is that of the +purple dye which became famous from the time of Augustus onwards, and +was made from the purple fish found on the coast, apparently both in the +Syrtes and on the Atlantic. + +We first hear of this people in the Jugurthine War (111-106 B.C.), when, +as Sallust tells us, they did not even know the name of Rome. They took +part with Jugurtha against Rome; but when we next hear of them they are +in alliance with Caesar against Juba I. (_Bell. Afr._ 32). In 25 B.C. +Augustus seems to have given a part of Gaetulia to Juba II., together +with his kingdom of Mauretania, doubtless with the object of controlling +the turbulent tribes; but the Gaetulians rose and massacred the Roman +residents, and it was not till a severe defeat had been inflicted on +them by Lentulus Cossus (who thus acquired the surname Gaetulicus) in +A.D. 6 that they submitted to the king. After Mauretania became a Roman +province in A.D. 40, the Roman governors made frequent expeditions into +the Gaetulian territory to the south, and the official view seems to be +expressed by Pliny (v. 4. 30) when he says that all Gaetulia as far as +the Niger and the Ethiopian frontier was reckoned as subject to the +Empire. How far this represents the fact is not clear; but inscriptions +prove that Gaetulians served in the auxiliary troops of the empire, and +it may be assumed that the country passed within the sphere of Roman +influence, though hardly within the pale of Roman civilization. + + For bibliography see AFRICA, ROMAN. + + + + +GAGE, LYMAN JUDSON (1836- ), American financier, was born at De Ruyter, +Madison county, New York, on the 28th of June 1836. He was educated at +an academy at Rome, New York, where at the age of seventeen he became a +bank clerk. In 1855 he removed to Chicago, served for three years as +book-keeper in a planing-mill, and in 1858 entered the banking house of +the Merchant's Loan and Trust Company, of which he was cashier in +1861-1868. Afterwards he became successively assistant cashier (1868), +vice-president (1882), and president (1891) of the First National Bank +of Chicago, one of the strongest financial institutions in the middle +west. He was chosen in 1892 president of the board of directors of the +World's Columbian Exposition, the successful financing of which was due +more to him than to any other man. In politics he was originally a +Republican, and was a delegate to the national convention of the party +in 1880, and chairman of its finance committee. In 1884, however, he +supported Grover Cleveland for the presidency, and came to be looked +upon as a Democrat. In 1892 President Cleveland, after his second +election, offered Gage the post of secretary of the treasury, but the +offer was declined. In the "free-silver" campaign of 1896 Gage laboured +effectively for the election of William McKinley, and from March 1897 +until January 1902 he was secretary of the treasury in the cabinets +successively of Presidents McKinley and Roosevelt. From April 1902 until +1906 he was president of the United States Trust Company in New York +City. His administration of the treasury department, through a more than +ordinarily trying period, was marked by a conservative policy, looking +toward the strengthening of the gold standard, the securing of greater +flexibility in the currency, and a more perfect adjustment of the +relations between the government and the National banks. + + + + +GAGE, THOMAS (1721-1787), British general and governor of Massachusetts, +second son of the first Viscount Gage, was born in 1721. He entered the +army in 1741 and saw service in Flanders and in the campaign of +Culloden, becoming lieutenant-colonel in the 44th foot in March 1751. In +1754 he served in America, and he took part in the following year in +General Braddock's disastrous expedition. In 1758 he became colonel of a +new regiment, and served in Amherst's operations against Montreal. He +was made governor of Montreal, and promoted major-general in 1761, and +in 1763 succeeded Amherst in the command of the British forces in +America; in 1770 he was made a lieutenant-general. In 1774 he was +appointed governor of Massachusetts, and in that capacity was entrusted +with carrying into effect the Boston Port Act. The difficulties which +surrounded him in the execution of his office at this time of the +gravest unrest culminated in 1775, and the action of the 19th of April +at Lexington initiated the American War of Independence. After the +battle of Bunker Hill, Gage was superseded by General (Sir William) +Howe, and returned to England. He became general in 1782, and died on +the 2nd of April 1787. + + + + +GAGE, a pledge, something deposited as security for the performance of +an agreement, and liable to be forfeited on failure to carry it out. The +word also appears in "engage," and is taken from the O. Fr., as are +"wage," payment for services, and "wager," bet, stake, from the +collateral O. Fr. _waige_. These two words are from the Low Lat. +_wadiare_, _vadiare_, to pledge, _vadium_, classical Lat. _vas_, +_vadis_, but may be from the old Teutonic cognate base seen in Gothic +_wadi_, a pledge (cf. Ger. _wetten_, to wager); this Teutonic base is +seen in Eng. "wed," to marry, i.e. to engage by a pledge (cf. Goth, +_gawadjon_, to betrothe). A particular form of giving a "gage" or pledge +was that of throwing down a glove or gauntlet as a challenge to a +judicial combat, the glove being the "pledge" that the parties would +appear on the field; hence the common phrase "to throw down the gage of +defiance" for any challenge (see GLOVE and WAGER). + + + + +GAGERN, HANS CHRISTOPH ERNST, BARON VON (1766-1852), German statesman +and political writer, was born at Kleinniedesheim, near Worms, on the +25th of January 1766. After studying law at the universities of Leipzig +and Gottingen, he entered the service of the prince of Nassau-Weilburg, +whom in 1791 he represented at the imperial diet. He was afterwards +appointed the prince's envoy at Paris, where he remained till the decree +of Napoleon, forbidding all persons born on the left side of the Rhine +to serve any other state than France, compelled him to resign his office +(1811). He then retired to Vienna, and in 1812 he took part in the +attempt to excite a second insurrection against Napoleon in Tirol. On +the failure of this attempt he left Austria and joined the headquarters +of the Prussian army (1813), and became a member of the board of +administration for north Germany. In 1814 he was appointed administrator +of the Orange principalities; and, when the prince of Orange became king +of the Netherlands, Baron Gagern became his prime minister. In 1815 he +represented him at the congress of Vienna, and succeeded in obtaining +for the Netherlands a considerable augmentation of territory. From 1816 +to 1818 he was Luxemburg envoy at the German diet, but was recalled, at +the instance of Metternich, owing to his too independent advocacy of +state constitutions. In 1820 he retired with a pension to his estate at +Hornau, near Hochst, in Hesse-Darmstadt; but as a member of the first +chamber of the states of the grand-duchy he continued to take an active +share in the promotion of measures for the welfare of his country. He +retired from public life in 1848, and died at Hornau on the 22nd of +October 1852. Baron von Gagern wrote a history of the German nation +(Vienna, 1813; 2nd ed., 2 vols., Frankfort, 1825-1826), and several +other books on subjects connected with history and social and political +science. Of most permanent value, however, is his autobiography, _Mein +Anteil an der Politik_, 5 vols. (Stuttgart and Leipzig, 1823-1845). + +Of Hans Christoph von Gagern's sons three attained considerable +eminence:-- + +FRIEDRICH BALDUIN, Freiherr von Gagern (1794-1848), the eldest, was born +at Weilburg on the 24th of October 1794. He entered the university of +Gottingen, but soon left, and, taking service in the Austrian army, took +part in the Russian campaign of 1812, and fought in the following year +at Dresden, Kulm and Leipzig. He then entered the Dutch service, took +part in the campaigns of 1815, and, after studying another year at +Heidelberg, was member for Luxemburg of the military commission of the +German federal diet (1824, 1825). In 1830 and 1831 he took part in the +Dutch campaign in Belgium, and in 1844, after being promoted to the rank +of general, was sent on an important mission to the Dutch East Indies to +inquire into the state of their military defences. In 1847 he was +appointed governor at the Hague, and commandant in South Holland. In the +spring of 1848 he was in Germany, and on the outbreak of the +revolutionary troubles he accepted the invitation of the government of +Baden to take the command against the insurgent "free companies" +(_Freischaaren_). At Kandern, on the 20th of April, he made a vain +effort to persuade the leaders to submit, and was about to order his +troops to attack when he was mortally wounded by the bullets of the +insurgents. His _Life_, in 3 vols. (Heidelberg and Leipzig, 1856-1857), +was written by his brother Heinrich von Gagern. + +HEINRICH WILHELM AUGUST, Freiherr von Gagern (1799-1880), the third son, +was born at Bayreuth on the 20th of August 1799, educated at the +military academy at Munich, and, as an officer in the service of the +duke of Nassau, fought at Waterloo. Leaving the service after the war, +he studied jurisprudence at Heidelberg, Gottingen and Jena, and in 1819 +went for a while to Geneva to complete his studies. In 1821 he began his +official career as a lawyer in the grand-duchy of Hesse, and in 1832 was +elected to the second chamber. Already at the universities he had +proclaimed his Liberal sympathies as a member of the _Burschenschaft_, +and he now threw himself into open opposition to the unconstitutional +spirit of the Hessian government, an attitude which led to his dismissal +from the state service in 1833. Henceforth he lived in comparative +retirement, cultivating a farm rented by his father at Monsheim, and +occasionally publishing criticisms of public affairs, until the February +revolution of 1848 and its echoes in Germany recalled him to active +political life. For a short while he was at the head of the new Hessian +administration; but his ambition was to share in the creation of a +united Germany. At the Heidelberg meeting and the preliminary convention +(_Vorparlament_) of Frankfort he deeply impressed the assemblies with +the breadth and moderation of his views; with the result that when the +German national parliament met (May 18), he was elected its first +president. His influence was at first paramount, both with the Unionist +party and with the more moderate elements of the Left, and it was he who +was mainly instrumental in imposing the principle of a united empire +with a common parliament, and in carrying the election of the Archduke +John as regent. With the growing split between the Great Germans +(_Grossdeutschen_), who wished the new empire to include the Austrian +provinces, and the Little Germans (_Kleindeutschen_), who realized that +German unity could only be attained by excluding them, his position was +shaken. On the 15th of December, when Schmerling and the Austrian +members had left the cabinet, Gagern became head of the imperial +ministry, and on the 18th he introduced a programme (known as the +_Gagernsche Programm_) according to which Austria was to be excluded +from the new federal state, but bound to it by a treaty of union. After +a severe struggle this proposal was accepted; but the academic +discussion on the constitution continued for weary months, and on the +20th of May, realizing the hopelessness of coming to terms with the +ultra-democrats, Gagern and his friends resigned. Later on he attempted +to influence the Prussian Northern Union in the direction of the +national policy, and he took part in the sessions of the Erfurt +parliament; but, soon realizing the hopelessness of any good results +from the vacillating policy of Prussia, he retired from the contest, +and, as a major in the service of the Schleswig-Holstein government, +took part in the Danish War of 1850. After the war he retired into +private life at Heidelberg. In 1862, misled by the constitutional +tendency of Austrian politics, he publicly declared in favour of the +Great German party. In 1864 he went as Hessian envoy to Vienna, retiring +in 1872 when the post was abolished. He died at Darmstadt on the 22nd of +May 1880. + +MAXIMILIAN, Freiherr von Gagern (1810-1889), the youngest son, was born +at Weilburg on the 26th of March 1810. Up to 1848 he was a government +official in Nassau; in that year he became a member of the German +national parliament and under-secretary of state for foreign affairs. +Throughout the revolutionary years he supported his brother's policy, +became a member of the Erfurt parliament, and, after the collapse of the +national movement, returned to the service of the duchy of Nassau. In +1855 he turned Roman Catholic and entered the Austrian service as court +and ministerial councillor in the department of foreign affairs. In 1871 +he retired, and in 1881 was nominated a life member of the Upper Chamber +(_Herrenhaus_). He died at Vienna on the 17th of October 1889. + + See _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, Band viii. p. 301, &c. (1878) + and Band xlix. p. 654 (1904). + + + + +GAHANBAR, festivals of the ancient Avesta calendar celebrated by the +Parsees at six seasons of the year which correspond with the six periods +of creation: (1) _Maidhyozaremaya_ (mid spring), (2) _Maidhyoshema_ +(midsummer), (3) _Paitishahya_ (season of corn), (4) _Ayathrema_ (season +of flocks), (5) _Maidhyarya_ (winter solstice), (6) _Hamaspathmaedha_ +(festival of sacrifices). + + + + +GAIGNIERES, FRANCOIS ROGER DE (1642-1715), French genealogist, antiquary +and collector, was the son of Aime de Gaignieres, secretary to the +governor of Burgundy, and was born on the 30th of December 1642. He +became ecuyer (esquire) to Louis Joseph, duke of Guise, and afterwards +to Louis Joseph's aunt, Marie of Guise, by whom in 1679 he was appointed +governor of her principality of Joinville. At an early age he began to +make a collection of original materials for history generally, and, in +particular, for that of the French church and court. He brought together +a large collection of original letters and other documents, together +with portraits and prints, and had copies made of a great number of the +most curious antiquarian objects, such as seals, tombstones, stained +glass, miniatures and tapestry. In 1711 he presented the whole of his +collections to the king. The bulk of them is preserved in the +Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris, and a certain number in the Bodleian +library at Oxford. + + See G. Duplessis, _Roger de Gaignieres_ (Paris, 1870); L. Delisle, + _Cabinet des manuscrits_, t. i. pp. 335-356; H. Bouchot, _Les + Portraits aux crayon des XVI^e et XVII^e siecles_ (Paris, 1884); Ch. + de Grandmaison, _Gaignieres, ses correspondants et ses collections de + portraits_ (Niort, 1892). + + + + +GAIL, JEAN BAPTISTE (1755-1829), French hellenist, was born in Paris on +the 4th of July 1755. In 1791 he was appointed deputy, and in 1792 +titular professor at the College de France. During the Revolution he +quietly performed his professional duties, taking no part in politics, +although he possessed the faculty of ingratiating himself with those in +authority. In 1815 he was appointed by the king keeper of Greek MSS. in +the royal library over the heads of the candidates proposed by the other +conservators, an appointment which made him many enemies. Gail imagined +that there was an organized conspiracy to belittle his learning and +professional success, and there was a standing quarrel between him and +his literary opponents, the most distinguished of whom was P.L. Courier. +He died on the 5th of February 1829. Without being a great Greek +scholar, Gail was a man of unwearied industry, whose whole life was +devoted to his favourite studies, and he deserves every credit for +having rescued Greek from the neglect into which it had fallen during +the troublous times in which he lived. The list of Gail's published +works filled 500 quarto pages of the introduction to his edition of +Xenophon. The best of these is his edition of Theocritus (1828). He also +wrote a number of elementary educational works, based on the principles +of the school of Port Royal. His communications to the Academie des +Inscriptions being coldly received and seldom accorded the honour of +print, he inserted them in a vast compilation in 24 volumes, which he +called _Le Philologue_, containing a mass of ill-digested notes on Greek +grammar, geography, archaeology, and various authors. + + See "Notice historique sur la vie et les ouvrages de J. B. G.," in + _Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscriptions_, ix.; the articles in _Biographie + universelle_ (by A. Pillon) and Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine + Encyclopadie_ (by C.F. Bahr); a list of his works will be found in + J.M. Querard, _La France litteraire_ (1829), including the contents of + the volumes of _Le Philologue_. + + + + +GAILLAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in +the department of Tarn, on the right bank of the Tarn, 15 m. W. of Albi +on the railway from that city to Toulouse. Pop. (1906) town, 5388; +commune, 7535. The churches of St Michel and St Pierre, both dating from +the 13th and 14th centuries, have little architectural importance. There +are some interesting houses, one of which, the Maison Yversen, of the +Renaissance, is remarkable for the rich carving of its doors. The public +institutions include the sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, +and a communal college. Its industries include the manufacture of lime +and wooden shoes, while dyeing, wood-sawing and flour-milling are also +carried on; it has a considerable trade in grain, flour, vegetables, +dried plums, anise, coriander, &c., and in wine, the white and red wines +of the arrondissement having a high reputation. Gaillac grew up round +the Benedictine abbey of St Michel, founded in the 10th century. + + + + +GAILLARD, GABRIEL HENRI (1726-1806), French historian, was born at +Ostel, Picardy, in 1726. He was educated for the bar, but after +finishing his studies adopted a literary career, ultimately devoting his +chief attention to history. He was already a member of the Academy of +Inscriptions and Belles-lettres (1760), when, after the publication of +the three first volumes of his _Histoire de la rivalite de la France et +d'Angleterre_, he was elected to the French Academy (1771); and when +Napoleon created the Institute he was admitted into its third class +(_Academie francaise_) in 1803. For forty years he was the intimate +friend of Malesherbes, whose life (1805) he wrote. He died at St Firmin, +near Chantilly, on the 13th of February 1806. Gaillard is painstaking +and impartial in his statement of facts, and his style is correct and +elegant, but the unity of his narrative is somewhat destroyed by +digressions, and by his method of treating war, politics, civil +administration, and ecclesiastical affairs under separate heads. His +most important work is his _Histoire de la rivalite de la France et de +l'Angleterre_ (in 11 vols., 1771-1777); and among his other works may be +mentioned _Essai de rhetorique francaise, a l'usage des jeunes +demoiselles_ (1745), often reprinted, and in 1822 with a life of the +author; _Histoire de Marie de Bourgogne_ (1757); _Histoire de Francois +I^er_ (7 vols., 1776-1779); _Histoire des grandes querelles entre +Charles V. et Francois I^er_ (2 vols., 1777); _Histoire de Charlemagne_ +(2 vols., 1782); _Histoire de la rivalite de la France et de l'Espagne_ +(8 vols., 1801); _Dictionnaire historique_ (6 vols., 1789-1804), making +part of the _Encyclopedie methodique_; and _Melanges litteraires_, +containing _eloges_ on Charles V., Henry IV., Descartes, Corneille, La +Fontaine, Malesherbes and others. + + + + +GAINESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Alachua county, Florida, +U.S.A., about 70 m. S.W. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1890) 2790; (1900) 3633, +of whom 1803 were negroes; (1905) 5413; (1910) 6183. Gainesville is +served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line, and the Tampa +& Jacksonville railways, and is an important railway junction. It is the +seat of the University of the State of Florida, established at Lake City +in 1905 and removed to Gainesville in 1906. The university includes a +school of language and literature, a general scientific school, a school +of agriculture, a technological school, a school of pedagogy, a normal +school, and an agricultural experiment station. In 1908 the university +had 15 instructors and 103 students. The Florida Winter Bible Conference +and Chautauqua is held here. Gainesville is well known as a winter +resort, and its climate is especially beneficial to persons affected by +pulmonary troubles. In the neighbourhood are the Alachua Sink, Payne's +Prairie, Newman's Lake, the Devil's Mill Hopper and other objects of +interest. The surrounding country produces Sea Island cotton, melons, +citrus and other fruits, vegetables and naval stores. About 15 m. W. of +the city there is a rich phosphate mining district. The city has +bottling works, and manufactures fertilizers, lumber, coffins, ice, &c. +The municipality owns and operates the water-works; the water-supply +comes from a spring 2 m. from the city, and the water closely resembles +that of the Poland Springs in Maine. Gainesville is in the midst of the +famous Seminole country. The first settlement was made here about 1850; +and Gainesville, named in honour of General E.P. Gaines, was +incorporated as a town in 1869, and was chartered as a city in 1907. + + + + +GAINESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Cooke county, Texas, U.S.A., +about 6 m. S. of the Red river, and about 60 m. N. of Fort Worth. Pop. +(1890) 6594; (1900) 7874 (1201 negroes and 269 foreign-born); (1910) +7624. The city is served by the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, and the +Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways, and by an interurban electric +railway. Gainesville is a trading centre and market for the surrounding +country, in which cotton, grains, garden truck, fruit and alfalfa are +grown and live-stock is raised; and a wholesale distributing point for +the neighbouring region in Texas and Oklahoma. The city has +cotton-compresses and cotton-gins, and among its manufactures are +cotton-seed oil, flour, cement blocks, pressed bricks, canned goods, +foundry products, waggon-beds and creamery products. Gainesville was +settled about 1851, was incorporated in 1873, and was chartered as a +city in 1879; it was named in honour of General Edmund Pendleton Gaines +(1777-1849), who served with distinction in the War of 1812, becoming a +brigadier-general in March 1814 and receiving the brevet of +major-general and the thanks of Congress for his defence of Fort Erie in +August 1814. Gaines took a prominent part in the operations against the +Seminoles in Florida in 1817 (when he was in command of the Southern +Military District) and in 1836 and during the Mexican War commanded the +department of the South-West, with headquarters at New Orleans. + + + + +GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS (1727-1788), English painter, one of the greatest +masters of the English school in portraiture, and only less so in +landscape, was born at Sudbury, Suffolk, in the spring of 1727. His +father, who carried on the business of a woollen crape-maker in that +town, was of a respectable character and family, and was noted for his +skill in fencing; his mother excelled in flower-painting, and encouraged +her son in the use of the pencil. There were nine children of the +marriage, two of the painter's brothers being of a very ingenious turn. + +At ten years old, Gainsborough "had sketched every fine tree and +picturesque cottage near Sudbury," and at fourteen, having filled his +task-books with caricatures of his schoolmaster, and sketched the +portrait of a man whom he had detected on the watch for robbing his +father's orchard, he was allowed to follow the bent of his genius in +London, with some instruction in etching from Gravelot, and under such +advantages as Hayman, the historical painter, and the academy in St +Martin's Lane could afford. Three years of study in the metropolis, +where he did some modelling and a few landscapes, were succeeded by two +years in the country. Here he fell in love with Margaret Burr, a young +lady of many charms, including an annuity of L200, married her after +painting her portrait, and a short courtship, and, at the age of twenty, +became a householder in Ipswich, his rent being L6 a year. The annuity +was reported to come from Margaret's real (not her putative) father, who +was one of the exiled Stuart princes or else the duke of Bedford. She +was sister of a young man employed by Gainsborough's father as a +traveller. At Ipswich, Gainsborough tells us, he was "chiefly in the +face-way"; his sitters were not so numerous as to prevent him from often +rambling with his friend Joshua Kirby (president of the Society of +Artists) on the banks of the Orwell, from painting many landscapes with +an attention to details which his later works never exhibited, or from +joining a musical club and entertaining himself and his fellow-townsmen +by giving concerts. As he advanced in years he became ambitious of +advancing in reputation. Bath was then the general resort of wealth and +fashion, and to that city, towards the close of the year 1759, he +removed with his wife and two daughters, the only issue of their +marriage. His studio in the circus was soon thronged with visitors; he +gradually raised his price for a half-length portrait from 5 to 40 +guineas, and for a whole-length from 8 to 100 guineas; and he rapidly +developed beyond the comparatively plain and humdrum quality of his +Ipswich paintings. Among his sitters at this period were the authors +Sterne and Richardson, and the actors Quin, Henderson and Garrick. +Meanwhile he contributed both portraits and landscapes to the annual +exhibitions in London. He indulged his taste for music by learning to +play the viol-di-gamba, the harp, the hautboy, the violoncello. His +house harboured Italian, German, French and English musicians. He +haunted the green-room of Palmer's theatre, and painted gratuitously the +portraits of many of the actors: he constantly gave away his sketches +and landscapes. In the summer of 1774, having already attained a +position of great prosperity, he took his departure for London, and +fixed his residence at Schomberg House, Pall Mall, a noble mansion still +standing, for a part of which the artist paid L300 a year. + +Gainsborough had not been many months in London ere he received a +summons to the palace, and to the end of his career he divided with West +the favour of the court, and with Reynolds the favour of the town. +Sheridan, Burke, Johnson, Franklin, Canning, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, +Mrs Siddons, Clive, Blackstone, Hurd, were among the number of those who +sat to him. But in London as in Bath his landscapes were exhibited, were +commended, and were year after year returned to him, "till they stood," +says Sir William Beechey, "ranged in long lines from his hall to his +painting-room." Gainsborough was a member of the Royal Academy, one of +the original 36 elected in 1768; but in 1784, being dissatisfied with +the position assigned on the exhibition walls to his portrait of the +three princesses, he withdrew that and his other pictures, and he never +afterwards exhibited there. Even before this he had taken no part in the +business of the Institution. After seceding he got up an exhibition in +his own house, not successfully. In February 1788, while witnessing the +trial of Warren Hastings, he felt an extraordinary chill at the back of +his neck; this was the beginning of a cancer (or, as some say, a +malignant wen) which proved fatal on the 2nd of August of the same year. +He lies buried at Kew. + +Gainsborough was tall, fair and handsome, generous, impulsive to the +point of capriciousness, easily irritated, not of bookish likings, a +lively talker, good at repartee. He was a most thorough embodiment of +the artistic temperament; delighting in nature and "the look of things," +insatiable in working, fond of music and the theatre hardly less than of +painting--a warm, rich personality, to whom severe principle was perhaps +as foreign as deliberate wrong-doing. The property which he left at his +death was not large. One of his daughters, Mary, had married the +musician Fischer contrary to his wishes, and was subject to fits of +mental aberration. The other daughter, Margaret, died unmarried. Mrs +Gainsborough, an extremely sweet-tempered woman, survived her husband +ten years. There is a pretty anecdote that Gainsborough, if he ever had +a tiff with her, would write a pacifying note, confiding it to his dog +Fox, who delivered it to the lady's pet spaniel Tristram. The note was +worded as in the person of Fox to Tristram, and Mrs Gainsborough replied +in the best of humours, as from Tristram to Fox. + +Gainsborough and Reynolds rank side by side as the greatest +portrait-painters of the English school. They were at variance; but +Gainsborough on his death-bed sought and obtained a reconciliation. It +is difficult to say which stands the higher of the two, although +Reynolds may claim to have worked with a nearer approach to even and +demonstrable excellence. In grace, spirit, and lightness of insight and +of touch, Gainsborough is peculiarly eminent. His handling was slight +for the most part, and somewhat arbitrary, but in a high degree +masterly; and his landscapes and rustic compositions are not less gifted +than his portraits. Among his finest works are portraits of "Lady +Ligonier," "Georgiana, duchess of Devonshire," "Master Buttall (the Blue +Boy)," now in Grosvenor House, "Mrs Sheridan and Mrs Tickell," "Orpin, +the parish clerk" (National Gallery), "the Hon. Mrs Graham" (Scottish +National Gallery), his own portrait (Royal Academy), "Mrs Siddons" +(National Gallery); also "the Cottage Door," "the Market Cart," "the +Return from Harvest," "the Woodman and his Dog in a Storm" (destroyed by +fire), and "Waggon and Horses passing a Brook" (National Gallery--this +was a favourite with its painter). He made a vast number of drawings and +sketches. + +A few observations may be added: (1) as to individual works by +Gainsborough, and (2) as to his general characteristics as a painter. + +Two of his first portraits, executed when he was settled at Ipswich, +were separate likenesses of Mr and Mrs Hingeston. His first great hit +was made at Bath with a portrait of Lord Nugent. With a likeness of Mr +Poyntz, 1762, we find a decided advance in artistic type, and his style +became fixed towards 1768. The date of the "Blue Boy" is somewhat +uncertain: most accounts name 1779, but perhaps 1770 is nearer the mark. +This point is not without interest for dilettanti; because it is said +that Gainsborough painted the picture with a view to confuting a dictum +of Reynolds, to the effect that blue was a colour unsuitable for the +main light of a work. But, if the picture was produced before 1778, the +date of Reynolds's dictum, this long-cherished and often-repeated +tradition must be given up. A full-length of the duke of Norfolk was +perhaps the latest work to which Gainsborough set his hand. His portrait +of Elizabeth, duchess of Devonshire, famous for its long disappearance, +has aroused much controversy; whether this painting, produced not long +after Gainsborough had settled in London, and termed "the Duchess of +Devonshire," does really represent that lady, is by no means certain. It +was mysteriously stolen in 1876 in London immediately after it had been +purchased by Messrs Agnew at the Wynn Ellis sale at a huge price, and a +long time elapsed before it was retraced. The picture was taken to New +York, and eventually to Chicago; and in April 1901, through the agency +of a man named Pat Sheedy, it was given up to the American detectives +working for Messrs Agnew; it was then sold to Mr Pierpont Morgan. + +Gainsborough's total output of paintings exceeded 300, including 220 +portraits: he also etched at least 18 plates, and 3 in aquatint. At the +date of his death 56 paintings remained on hand: these, along with 148 +drawings, were then exhibited. In his earlier days he made a practice of +copying works by Vandyck (the object of his more special admiration), +Titian, Rubens, Teniers, Hobbema, Claude and some others, but not in a +spirit of servile reproduction. + +Gainsborough was pre-eminent in that very essential element of +portraiture--truthful likeness. In process of time he advanced in the +rendering of immediate expression, while he somewhat receded in general +character. He always made his sitters look pleasant, and, after a while, +distinguished. Unity of impression is one of the most marked qualities +in his work; he seems to have seen his subject as an integer, and he +wrought at the various parts of it together, every touch (and very +wilful some of his touches look) tending towards the foreseen result. He +painted with arrowy speed, more especially in his later years. For +portraits he used at times brushes upon sticks 6 ft. long; there was but +little light in his painting-room, and he often worked in the evenings. +He kept his landscape work distinct from his portraiture, not ever +adding to the latter a fully realized landscape background; his views he +never signed or dated--his likenesses only once or twice. His skies are +constantly cloudy, the country represented is rough and broken; the +scenes are of a pastoral kind, with an effect generally of coming rain, +or else of calm sun-setting. The prevalent feeling of his landscapes is +somewhat sad, and to children, whether in subject-groups or in +portraits, he mostly lent an expression rather plaintive than mirthful. +It should be acknowledged that, whether in portraiture or in landscape, +the painter's mannerisms of execution increased in process of +time--patchings of the brush, tufty foliage, &c.; some of his portraits +are hurried and flimsy, with a minimum of solid content, though not +other than artistic in feeling. Here are a few of his axioms:--"What +makes the difference between man and man is real performance, and not +genius or conception." "I don't think it would be more ridiculous for a +person to put his nose close to the canvas and say the colours smelt +offensive than to say how rough the paint lies, for one is just as +material as the other with regard to hurting the effect and drawing of a +picture." "The eye is the only perspective-master needed by a +landscape-painter." + + AUTHORITIES.--In 1788 Philip Thicknesse, Lieutenant-Governor of + Landguard Fort, Ipswich, who had been active in promoting the artist's + fortunes at starting, published A _Sketch of the Life and Paintings of + Thomas Gainsborough_. He had quarrelled with the painter at Bath, + partly because the latter had undertaken to do a portrait of him as a + gift, and then neglected the work, and finally, in a huff, bundled it + off only half done. The crucial question here is whether or not + Gainsborough was reasonably pledged to perform any such gratuitous + work, and this point has been contested. Thicknesse's book is in part + adverse to Gainsborough, and more particularly so to his wife. + Reynolds's "Lecture" on Gainsborough, replete with critical insight, + should never be lost sight of as a leading document. In 1856 a + heedfully compiled _Life of Thomas Gainsborough_ was brought out by + T.W. Fulcher. This was the first substantial work about him subsequent + to Allan Cunningham's lively account (1829) in his _Lives of the + Painters_. Of late years a great deal has been written, mainly but not + by any means exclusively from the critical or technical point of + view:--Sir Walter Armstrong (two works, 1896 and 1898); Mrs Arthur + Bell (1902); Sir W.M. Conway, _Artistic Development of Reynolds and + Gainsborough_ (1886); Lord Ronald Sutherland Gower (1903); G.M. + Brock-Arnold (1881). G. Pauli has brought out an illustrated work in + Germany (1904) under the title _Gainsborough_. (W. M. R.) + + + + +GAINSBOROUGH, a market town in the W. Lindsey or Gainsborough +parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England; on the right (E.) bank +of the Trent. Pop. of urban district (1901) 17,660. It is served by the +Lincoln-Doncaster joint line of the Great Northern and Great Eastern +railways, by which it is 16 m. N.W. of Lincoln, and by the Great Central +railway. The parish church of All Saints is classic of the 18th century, +excepting the Perpendicular tower. The two other parish churches are +modern. The Old Hall, of the 15th century, enlarged in the 16th, is a +picturesque building, forming three sides of a quadrangle, partially +timber-framed, but having a beautiful oriel window and other parts of +stone. There is also a Tudor tower of brick. A literary and scientific +institute occupy part of the building. Gainsborough possesses a grammar +school (founded in 1589 by a charter of Queen Elizabeth) and other +schools, town-hall, county court-house, Albert Hall and Church of +England Institute. There is a large carrying trade by water on the Trent +and neighbouring canals. Shipbuilding and iron-founding are carried on, +and there are manufactures of linseed cake, and agricultural and other +machinery. + +Gainsborough (_Gegnesburh_) was probably inhabited by the Saxons on +account of the fishing in the Trent. The _Saxon Chronicle_ states that +in 1013 the Danish king Sweyn landed here and subjugated the +inhabitants. Gainsborough, though not a chartered borough, was probably +one by prescription, for mention is made of burghal tenure in 1280. The +privilege of the return of writs was conferred on the lord of the manor, +Aymer de Valence, earl of Pembroke, in 1323, and confirmed to Ralph de +Percy in 1383. Mention is made in 1204 of a Wednesday market, but there +is no extant grant before 1258, when Henry III. granted a Tuesday market +to William de Valence, earl of Pembroke, who also obtained from Edward +I. in 1291 licence for an annual fair on All Saints' Day, and the seven +preceding and eight following days. In 1243 Henry III. granted to John +Talbot licence for a yearly fair on the eve, day and morrow of St James +the Apostle. Queen Elizabeth in 1592 granted to Thomas Lord Burgh two +fairs, to begin on Easter Monday and on the 9th of October, each lasting +three days. Charles I. in 1635-1636 extended the duration of each to +nine days. The Tuesday market is still held, and the fair days are +Tuesday and Wednesday in Easter-week, and the Tuesday and Wednesday +after the 20th of October. + + See Adam Stark, _History and Antiquities of Gainsburgh_ (London, + 1843). + + + + +GAIRDNER, JAMES (1828- ), English historian, son of John Gairdner, +M.D., was born in Edinburgh on the 22nd of March 1828. Educated in his +native city, he entered the Public Record Office in London in 1846, +becoming assistant keeper of the public records (1859-1893). Gairdner's +valuable and painstaking contributions to English history relate chiefly +to the reigns of Richard III., Henry VII. and Henry VIII. For the "Rolls +Series" he edited _Letters and Papers illustrative of the Reigns of +Richard III. and Henry VII._ (London, 1861-1863), and _Memorials of +Henry VII._ (London, 1858); and he succeeded J.S. Brewer in editing the +_Letters and Papers_, foreign and domestic, of the reign of Henry VIII. +(London, 1862-1905). He brought out the best edition of the _Paston +Letters_ (London, 1872-1875, and again 1896), for which he wrote a +valuable introduction; and for the Camden Society he edited the +_Historical collections of a Citizen of London_ (London, 1876), and +_Three 15th-century Chronicles_ (London, 1880). His other works include +excellent monographs on _Richard III._ (London, 1878, new and enlarged +edition, Cambridge, 1898), and on _Henry VII._ (London, 1889, and +subsequently); _The Houses of Lancaster and York_ (London, 1874, and +other editions); _The English Church in the 16th century_ (London, +1902); _Lollardy and the Reformation in England_ (1908); and +contributions to the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, the _Dictionary of +National Biography_, the _Cambridge Modern History_, and the _English +Historical Review_. Gairdner received the honorary degree of LL.D. from +the university of Edinburgh in 1897, and was made a C.B. in 1900. + + + + +GAIRLOCH (Gaelic _gearr_, short), a sea loch, village and parish in the +west of the county of Ross and Cromarty, Scotland. Pop. of parish (1901) +3797. The parish covers a large district on the coast, and stretches +inland beyond the farther banks of Loch Maree, the whole of which lies +within its bounds. It also includes the islands of Dry and Horisdale in +the loch, and Ewe in Loch Ewe, and occupies a total area of 200,646 +acres. The place and loch must not be confounded with Gareloch in +Dumbartonshire. Formerly an appanage of the earldom of Ross, Gairloch +has belonged to the Mackenzies since the end of the 15th century. +Flowerdale, an 18th-century house in the pretty little glen of the same +name, lying close to the village, is the chief seat of the Gairloch +branch of the clan Mackenzie. William Ross (1762-1790), the Gaelic +poet, who was schoolmaster of Gairloch, of which his mother was a +native, was buried in the old kirkyard, where a monument commemorates +him. + + + + +GAISERIC, or GENSERIC (c. 390-477), king of the Vandals, was a son of +King Godegisel (d. 406), and was born about 390. Though lame and only of +moderate stature, he won renown as a warrior, and became king on the +death of his brother Gonderic in 428. In 428 or 429 he led a great host +of Vandals from Spain into Roman Africa, and took possession of +Mauretania. This step is said to have been taken at the instigation of +Boniface, the Roman general in Africa; if true, Boniface soon repented +of his action, and was found resisting the Vandals and defending Hippo +Regius against them. At the end of fourteen months Gaiseric raised the +siege of Hippo; but Boniface was forced to fly to Italy, and the city +afterwards fell into the hands of the Vandals. Having pillaged and +conquered almost the whole of Roman Africa, the Vandal king concluded a +treaty with the emperor Valentinian III. in 435, by which he was allowed +to retain his conquests; this peace, however, did not last long, and in +October 439 he captured Carthage, which he made the capital of his +kingdom. According to some authorities Gaiseric at this time first +actually assumed the title of king. In religious matters he was an +Arian, and persecuted the members of the orthodox church in Africa, +although his religious policy varied with his relations to the Roman +empire. Turning his attention in another direction he built a fleet, and +the ravages of the Vandals soon made them known and feared along the +shores of the Mediterranean. "Let us make," said Gaiseric, "for the +dwellings of the men with whom God is angry," and he left the conduct of +his marauding ships to wind and wave. In 455, however, he led an +expedition to Rome, stormed the city, which for fourteen days his troops +were permitted to plunder, and then returned to Africa laden with spoil. +He also carried with him many captives, including the empress Eudoxia, +who is said to have invited the Vandals into Italy. The Romans made two +attempts to avenge themselves, one by the Western emperor, Majorianus, +in 460, and the other by the Eastern emperor, Leo I., eight years later; +but both enterprises failed, owing principally to the genius of +Gaiseric. Continuing his course on the sea the king brought Sicily, +Sardinia, Corsica and the Balearic Islands under his rule, and even +extended his conquests into Thrace, Egypt and Asia Minor. Having made +peace with the eastern emperor Zeno in 476, he died on the 25th of +January 477. Gaiseric was a cruel and cunning man, possessing great +military talents and superior mental gifts. Though the effect of his +victories was afterwards neutralized by the successes of Belisarius, his +name long remained the glory of the Vandals. The name Gaiseric is said +to be derived from _gais_, a javelin, and _reiks_, a king. + + See VANDALS; also T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_, vol. ii. + (London, 1892); E. Gibbon, _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (ed. + J.B. Bury, 1896-1900); L. Schmidt, _Geschichte der Vandalen_ (Leipzig, + 1901); and F. Martroye, _Genseric; La Conquete vandale en Afrique_ + (Paris, 1907). + + + + +GAISFORD, THOMAS (1779-1855), English classical scholar, was born at +Iford, Wiltshire, on the 22nd of December 1779. Proceeding to Oxford in +1797, he became successively student and tutor of Christ Church, and was +in 1811 appointed regius professor of Greek in the university. Taking +orders, he held (1815-1847) the college living of Westwell, in +Oxfordshire, and other ecclesiastical preferments simultaneously with +his professorship. From 1831 until his death on the 2nd of June 1855, he +was dean of Christ Church. As curator of the Bodleian and principal +delegate of the University Press he was instrumental in securing the +co-operation of distinguished European scholars as collators, notably +Bekker and Dindorf. Among his numerous contributions to Greek literature +may be mentioned, Hephaestion's _Encheiridion_ (1810); _Poetae Graeci +minores_ (1814-1820); Stobaeus' _Florilegium_ (1822); _Herodotus_, with +variorum notes (1824); Suidas' _Lexicon_ (1834); _Etymologicon magnum_ +(1848); Eusebius's _Praeparatio_ (1843) and _Demonstratio evangelica_ +(1852). In 1856 the Gaisford prizes, for Greek composition, were founded +at Oxford to perpetuate his memory. + + + + +GAIUS, a celebrated Roman jurist. Of his personal history very little is +known. It is impossible to discover even his full name, Gaius or Caius +being merely the personal name (praenomen) so common in Rome. From +internal evidence in his works it may be gathered that he flourished in +the reigns of the emperors Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius and +Commodus. His works were thus composed between the years 130 and 180, at +the time when the Roman empire was most prosperous, and its government +the best. Most probably Gaius lived in some provincial town, and hence +we find no contemporary notices of his life or works. After his death, +however, his writings were recognized as of great authority, and the +emperor Valentinian named him, along with Papinian, Ulpian, Modestinus +and Paulus, as one of the five jurists whose opinions were to be +followed by judicial officers in deciding cases. The works of these +jurists accordingly became most important sources of Roman law. + +Besides the _Institutes_, which are a complete exposition of the +elements of Roman law, Gaius was the author of a treatise on the _Edicts +of the Magistrates_, of _Commentaries on the Twelve Tables_, and on the +important _Lex Papia Poppaea_, and several other works. His interest in +the antiquities of Roman law is apparent, and for this reason his work +is most valuable to the historian of early institutions. In the disputes +between the two schools of Roman jurists he generally attached himself +to that of the Sabinians, who were said to be followers of Ateius +Capito, of whose life we have some account in the _Annals_ of Tacitus, +and to advocate a strict adherence as far as possible to ancient rules, +and to resist innovation. Many quotations from the works of Gaius occur +in the _Digest_ of Justinian, and so acquired a permanent place in the +system of Roman law; while a comparison of the _Institutes_ of Justinian +with those of Gaius shows that the whole method and arrangement of the +later work were copied from that of the earlier, and very numerous +passages are word for word the same. Probably, for the greater part of +the period of three centuries which elapsed between Gaius and Justinian, +the _Institutes_ of the former had been the familiar textbook of all +students of Roman law. + +Unfortunately the work was lost to modern scholars, until, in 1816, a +manuscript was discovered by B.G. Niebuhr in the chapter library of +Verona, in which certain of the works of St Jerome were written over +some earlier writings, which proved to be the lost work of Gaius. The +greater part of the palimpsest has, however, been deciphered and the +text is now fairly complete. This discovery has thrown a flood of light +on portions of the history of Roman law which had previously been most +obscure. Much of the historical information given by Gaius is wanting in +the compilations of Justinian, and, in particular, the account of the +ancient forms of procedure in actions. In these forms can be traced +"survivals" from the most primitive times, which provide the science of +comparative law with valuable illustrations, which may explain the +strange forms of legal procedure found in other early systems. Another +circumstance which renders the work of Gaius more interesting to the +historical student than that of Justinian, is that Gaius lived at a time +when actions were tried by the system of formulae, or formal directions +given by the praetor before whom the case first came, to the judex to +whom he referred it. Without a knowledge of the terms of these formulae +it is impossible to solve the most interesting question in the history +of Roman law, and show how the rigid rules peculiar to the ancient law +of Rome were modified by what has been called the equitable jurisdiction +of the praetors, and made applicable to new conditions, and brought into +harmony with the notions and the needs of a more developed society. It +is clear from evidence of Gaius that this result was obtained, not by an +independent set of courts administering, as in England previous to the +Judicature Acts, a system different from that of the ordinary courts, +but by the manipulation of the formulae. In the time of Justinian the +work was complete, and the formulary system had disappeared. + +The _Institutes_ of Gaius are divided into four books--the first +treating of persons and the differences of the status they may occupy in +the eye of the law; the second of things, and the modes in which rights +over them may be acquired, including the law relating to wills; the +third of intestate succession and of obligations; the fourth of actions +and their forms. + + There are several carefully prepared editions of the _Institutes_, + starting from that of Goschen (1820), down to that of Studemund and + Kruger (1900). The most complete English edition is that of E. Poste, + which includes beside the text an English translation and copious + commentary (1885). A comparison of the early forms of actions + mentioned by Gaius with those used by other primitive societies will + be found in Sir H. Maine's _Early Institutions_, cap. 9. For further + information see M. Glasson, _Etude sur Gaius et sur le jus + respondendi_; also ROMAN LAW. + + + + +GAIUS CAESAR (A.D. 12-41), surnamed CALIGULA, Roman emperor from 37-41, +youngest son of Germanicus and Agrippina the elder, was born on the 31st +of August A.D. 12. He was brought up in his father's camp on the Rhine +among the soldiers, and received the name Caligula from the _caligae_, +or foot-soldiers' boots, which he used to wear. He also accompanied his +father to Syria, and after his death returned to Rome. In 32 he was +summoned by Tiberius to Capreae, and by skilful flattery managed to +escape the fate of his relatives. After the murder of Tiberius by +Naevius Sertorius Macro, the prefect of the praetorian guards, which was +probably due to his instigation, Caligula ascended the throne amidst the +rejoicings of the people. The senate conferred the imperial power upon +him alone, although Tiberius Gemellus, the grandson of the preceding +emperor, had been designated as his co-heir. He entered on his first +consulship in July 37. For the first eight months of his reign he did +not disappoint the popular expectation; but after his recovery from a +severe illness his true character showed itself. His extravagance, +cruelty and profligacy can hardly be explained except on the assumption +that he was out of his mind. According to Pelham, much of his conduct +was due to the atmosphere in which he was brought up, and the ideas of +sovereignty instilled into him, which led him to pose as a monarch of +the Graeco-oriental type. To fill his exhausted treasury he put to death +his wealthy subjects and confiscated their property; even the poor fell +victims to his thirst for blood. He bestowed the priesthood and a +consulship upon his horse Incitatus, and demanded that sacrifice should +be offered to himself. He openly declared that he wished the whole Roman +people had only one head, that he might cut it off at a single stroke. +In 39 he set out with an army to Gaul, nominally to punish the Germans +for having invaded Roman territory, but in reality to get money by +plunder and confiscation. Before leaving, he led his troops to the coast +opposite Britain, and ordered them to pick up shells on the seashore, to +be dedicated to the gods at Rome as the spoils of ocean. On his return +he entered Rome with an ovation (a minor form of triumph), temples were +built, statues erected in his honour, and a special priesthood +instituted to attend to his worship. The people were ground down by new +forms of taxation and every kind of extortion, but on the whole Rome was +free from internal disturbances during his reign; some insignificant +conspiracies were discovered and rendered abortive. A personal insult to +Cassius Chaerea, tribune of a praetorian cohort, led to Caligula's +assassination on the 24th of January 41. + + See Suetonius, _Caligula_; Tacitus, _Annals_, vi. 20 ff.; Dio Cassius + lix.; see also S. Baring Gould, _The Tragedy of the Caesars_ (3rd ed., + 1892); H.F. Pelham in _Quarterly Review_ (April, 1905); H. Willrich, + _Beitrage zur alten Geschichte_ (1903); H. Schiller, _Geschichte der + romischen Kaiserzeit_, i. pt. 1; J.B. Bury, _Student's Hist. of the + Roman Empire_ (1893); Merivale, _History of the Romans under the + Empire_, ch. 48; H. Furneaux's _Annals_ of Tacitus, ii. + (introduction). Mention may also be made of the famous pamphlet by L. + Quidde, _Caligula_. _Eine Studie uber romischen Casarenwahnsinn_ and + an anonymous supplement, _1st Caligula mit unserer Zeit vergleichbar?_ + (both 1894); and a reply, _Fin-de-Siecle-Geschichtsschreibung_, by G. + Sommerfeldt (1895). + + + + +GALAGO, the Senegal name of the long-tailed African representatives of +the lemur-like Primates, which has been adopted as their technical +designation. Till recently the galagos have been included in the family +_Lemuridae_; but this is restricted to the lemurs of Madagascar, and +they are now classed with the lorises and pottos in the family +_Nycticebidae_, of which they form the section _Galaginae_, +characterized by the great elongation of the upper portion of the feet +(tarsus) and the power of folding the large ears. Throughout the greater +part of Africa south of the Sahara galagos are widely distributed in +the wooded districts, from Senegambia in the west to Abyssinia in the +east, and as far south as Natal. They pass the day in sleep, but are +very active at night, feeding on fruits, insects and small birds. When +they descend to the ground they sit upright, and move about by jumping +with their hind-legs like jerboas. They are pretty little animals, +varying from the size of a small cat to less than that of a rat, with +large eyes and ears, soft woolly fur and long tails. There are several +species, of which _G. crassicaudatus_ from Mozambique is the largest; +together with _G. garnetti_ of Natal, _G. agisymbanus_ of Zanzibar, and +_G. monteiroi_ of Angola, this represents the subgenus _Otolemur_. The +typical group includes _G. senegalensis_ (or _galago_) of Senegal, _G. +alleni_ of West and Central Africa, and _G. moholi_ of South Africa; +while _G. demidoffi_ of West and Central Africa and _G. anomurus_ of +French Congoland represent the subgenus _Hemigalago_. (R. L.*) + + + + +GALANGAL, formerly written "galingale," and sometimes "garingal," +_rhizoma galangae_ (Arab. _Kholinjan_;[1] Ger. _Galgantwurzel_; Fr. +_Racine de Galanga_), a drug, now obsolete, with an aromatic taste like +that of mingled ginger and pepper. Lesser galangal root, _radix galangae +minoris_, the ordinary galangal of commerce, is the dried rhizome of +_Alpinia officinarum_, a plant of the natural order Zingiberaceae, +growing in the Chinese island of Hainan, where it is cultivated, and +probably also in the woods of the southern provinces of China. The plant +is closely allied to _Alpinia calcarata_, the rhizome of which is sold +in the bazaars of some parts of India as a sort of galangal. Its stems +attain a length of about 4 ft., and its leaves are slender, lanceolate +and light-green, and have a hot taste; the flowers are white with red +veins, and in simple racemes; the roots form dense masses, sometimes +more than a foot in diameter; and the rhizomes grow horizontally, and +are 3/4 in. or less in thickness. Galangal seems to have been unknown to +the ancient Greeks and Romans, and to have been first introduced into +Europe by Arabian physicians. It is mentioned in the writings of Ibn +Khurdadbah, an Arabian geographer who flourished in the latter half of +the 9th century, and "gallengar" (gallingale or galangal) is one of the +ingredients in an Anglo-Saxon receipt for a "wen salve" (see O. +Cockayne, _Saxon Leechdoms_, vol. iii. p. 13). In the middle ages, as at +present in Livonia, Esthonia and central Russia, galangal was in esteem +in Europe both as a medicine and a spice, and in China it is still +employed as a therapeutic agent. Its chief consumption is in Russia, +where it is used as a cattle-medicine, and as a flavouring for liqueurs. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Apparently derived from the Chinese _Kau-liang-Kiang_, i.e. + Kau-liang ginger, the term applied by the Chinese to galangal, after + the prefecture Kau-chau fu in Canton province, formerly called + Kau-liang (see F. Porter Smith, _Contrib. to the Materia Medica ... + of China_, p. 9, 1871). + + + + +GALAPAGOS ISLANDS, an archipelago of five larger and ten smaller islands +in the Pacific Ocean, exactly under the equator. The nearest island to +the South American coast lies 580 m. W. of Ecuador, to which country +they belong. The name is derived from _galapago_, a tortoise, on account +of the giant species, the characteristic feature of the fauna. The +islands were discovered early in the 16th century by Spaniards, who gave +them their present name. They were then uninhabited. The English names +of the individual islands were probably given by buccaneers, for whom +the group formed a convenient retreat. + +The larger members of the group, several of which attain an elevation of +2000 to 2500 ft., are Albemarle or Isabela (100 m. long, 28 m. in +extreme breadth, with an area of 1650 sq. m. and an extreme elevation of +5000 ft.), Narborough or Fernandina, Indefatigable or Santa Cruz, +Chatham or San Cristobal, James or San Salvador, and Charles or Santa +Maria. The total land area is estimated at about 2870 sq. m. (about that +of the West Riding of Yorkshire). The extraordinary number of craters, a +few of which are reported still to be active, gives evidence that the +archipelago is the result of volcanic action. The number of main craters +may be about twenty-five, but there are very many small eruptive cones +on the flanks of the old volcanoes. There is a convict settlement on +Chatham with some 300 inhabitants living in low thatched or iron-roofed +huts, under the supervision of a police commissioner and other officials +of Ecuador, by which country the group was annexed in 1832, when General +Villamil founded Floreana on Charles Island, naming it in honour of Juan +Jose Flores, president of Ecuador. A governor has been appointed since +1885, some importance being foreseen for the islands in connexion with +the cutting of the Panama canal, as the group lies on the route to +Australia opened up by that scheme. Charles Island, the most valuable of +the group, is cultivated by a small colony. On many of the islets +numerous tropical fruits are found growing wild, but they are no doubt +escapes from cultivation, just as the large herds of wild cattle, +horses, donkeys, pigs, goats and dogs--the last large and fierce--which +occur abundantly on most of the islands have escaped from domestication. + +The shores of the larger islands are fringed in some parts with a dense +barrier of mangroves, backed by an often impenetrable thicket of +tropical undergrowth, which, as the ridges are ascended, give place to +taller trees and deep green bushes which are covered with orchids and +trailing moss (_orchilla_), and from which creepers hang down +interlacing the vegetation. But generally the low grounds are parched +and rocky, presenting only a few thickets of Peruvian cactus and stunted +shrubs, and a most uninviting shore. The contrast between this low zone +and the upper zone of rich vegetation (above about 800 ft.) is curiously +marked. From July to November the clouds hang low on the mountains, and +give moisture to the upper zone, while the climate of the lower is dry. +Rain in the lower zone is scanty, and from May to January does not +occur. The porous soil absorbs the moisture, and fresh water is scarce. +Though the islands are under the equator, the climate is not intensely +hot, as it is tempered by cold currents from the Antarctic sea, which, +having followed the coast of Peru as far as Cape Blanco, bear off to the +N.W. towards and through the Galapagos. The mean temperature of the +lower zone is about 71 deg. F., that of the upper from 66 deg. to 62 deg. + +The Galapagos Islands are of some commercial importance to Ecuador, on +account of the guano and the orchilla moss found on them and exported to +Europe. Except on Charles Island, where settlement has existed longest, +little or no influence of the presence of man is evident in the group; +still, the running wild of dogs and cats, and, as regards the +vegetation, especially goats, must in a comparatively short period +greatly modify the biological conditions of the islands. + +The origin and development of these conditions, in islands so distinctly +oceanic as the Galapagos, have given its chief importance to this +archipelago since it was visited by Darwin in the "Beagle." The +Galapagos archipelago possesses a rare advantage from its isolated +situation, and from the fact that its history has never been interfered +with by any aborigines of the human race. Of the seven species of giant +tortoises known to science (although at the discovery of the islands +there were probably fifteen) all are indigenous, and each is confined to +its own islet. There also occurs a peculiar genus of lizards with two +species, the one marine, the other terrestrial. The majority of the +birds are of endemic species peculiar to different islets, while more +than half belong to peculiar genera. More than half of the flora is +unknown elsewhere. + + Since 1860 several visits have been paid to the group by scientific + investigators--by Dr Habel in 1868; Messrs Baur and Adams, and the + naturalists of the "Albatross," between 1888 and 1891; and in + 1897-1898 by Mr Charles Harris, whose journey was specially undertaken + at the instance of the Hon. Walter Rothschild. Very complete + collections have therefore, as a result of these expeditions, been + brought together; but their examination does not materially change the + facts upon which the conclusions arrived at by Darwin, from the + evidence of the birds and plants, were based; though he "no doubt + would have paid more attention to [the evidence afforded by + Land-tortoises], if he had been in possession of facts with which we + are acquainted now" (Gunther). His conclusions were that the group + "has never been nearer the mainland than it is now, nor have its + members been at any time closer together"; and that the character of + the flora and fauna is the result of species straggling over from + America, at long intervals of time, to the different islets, where in + their isolation they have gradually varied in different degrees and + ways from their ancestors. Equally indecisive is the further + exploration as to evidence for the opinion held by other naturalists + that the endemic species of the different islands have resulted from + subsidences, through volcanic action, which have reduced one large + island mass into a number of islets, wherein the separated species + became differentiated during their isolation. The presence of these + giant reptiles on the group is the chief fact on which a former land + connexion with the continent of America may be sustained. "Nearly all + authorities agree that it is not probable that they have crossed the + wide sea between the Galapagos Islands and the American continent, + although, while they are helpless, and quite unable to swim, they can + float on the water. If their ancestors had been carried out to sea + once or twice by a flood and safely drifted as far as the Galapagos + Islands" (Wallace), "they must have been numerous on the continent" + (Rothschild and Hartert). No remains, and of course no living species, + of these tortoises are known to exist or have existed on the mainland. + Rothschild and Hartert think "it is more natural to assume the + disappearance of a great stock of animals, the remains of which have + survived, ... than to assume the disappearance in comparatively recent + times (i.e. in the Eocene period or later) of enormous land masses." + Past elevations of land, however (and doubtless equally great + subsidences) have taken place in South America since the Eocene, and + the conclusion that extensive areas of land have subsided in the + Indian Ocean has long been based on a somewhat similar distribution of + giant tortoises in the Mascarene region. + + AUTHORITIES.--Darwin, _Voyage of the "Beagle"_; O. Salvin, "On the + Avifauna of the Galapagos Archipelago," _Trans. Zool. Soc._ part ix. + (1876); Sclater and Salvin, "Characters of New Species collected by Dr + Habel in the Galapagos Islands," _Proc. Zool. Soc. London_, 1870, pp. + 322-327; A.R. Wallace, _Geographical Distribution of Animals_ (New + York, 1876); Theodor Wolf, _Ein Besuch der Galapagos Inseln_ + (Heidelberg, 1879); and paper in _Geographical Journal_, vi. 560 + (1895); W.L. and P.L. Sclater, _The Geography of Mammals_ (London, + 1899); Ridgway, "Birds of the Galapagos Archipelago," _Proc. U.S. Nat. + Mus._ vol. xix. pp. 459-670 (1897); Baur, "New Observations on the + Origin of the Galapagos Islands," _Amer. Nat._ (1897), pp. 661-680, + 864-896; A. Agassiz, "The Galapagos Islands," _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool._ + vol. xxiii. pp. 56-75; A. Gunther, _Proc. Linn. Soc._ (London + (President's Address), October 1898), pp. 14-29 (with bibliography + from 1875 to 1898 on gigantic land-tortoises); Rothschild and Hartert, + "Review of the Ornithology of the Galapagos Islands," _Novitates + zoologicae_, vi. pp. 85-205; B.L. Robinson, "Flora of the Galapagos + Islands," _Proc. Amer. Acad. of Arts and Sciences_, xxxviii. (1902). + + + + +GALASHIELS, a municipal and police burgh of Selkirkshire, Scotland. Pop. +(1891) 17,367; (1901) 13,615. It is situated on Gala Water, within a +short distance of its junction with the Tweed, 33-1/2 m. S.S.E. of +Edinburgh by the North British railway. The town stretches for more than +2 m. along both banks of the river, the mills and factories occupying +the valley by the stream, the villas and better-class houses the +high-lying ground on either side. The principal structures include the +municipal buildings, corn exchange, library, public hall, and the market +cross. The town is under the control of a provost, bailies and council, +and, along with Hawick and Selkirk, forms the Hawick (or Border) group +of parliamentary burghs. The woollen manufactures, dating from the close +of the 16th century, are the most important in Scotland, though now +mainly confined to the weaving of tweeds. Other leading industries are +hosiery, tanning (with the largest yards in Scotland), dyeing, iron and +brass founding, engineering and boot-making. Originally a village built +for the accommodation of pilgrims to Melrose Abbey (4 m. E. by S.), it +became, early in the 15th century, an occasional residence of the +Douglases, who were then keepers of Ettrick Forest, and whose peel-tower +was not demolished till 1814. Galashiels was created into a burgh of +barony in 1599. The Catrail or Picts' Work begins near the town and +passes immediately to the west. Clovenfords, 3-1/2 m. W., is noted for +the Tweed vineries, which are heated by 5 m. of water-pipes, and supply +the London market throughout the winter. Two miles farther W. by S. is +Ashestiel, where Sir Walter Scott resided from 1804 to 1812, where he +wrote his most famous poems and began _Waverley_, and which he left for +Abbotsford. + + + + +GALATIA. I. In the strict sense (Galatia Proper, Roman _Gallograecia_) +this is the name applied by Greek-speaking peoples to a large inland +district of Asia Minor since its occupation by Gaulish tribes in the 3rd +century B.C. Bounded on the N. by Bithynia and Paphlagonia, W. by +Phrygia, S. by Lycaonia and Cappadocia, E. by Pontus, it included the +greater part of the modern vilayet of Angora, stretching from Pessinus +eastwards to Tavium and from the Paphlagonian hills N. of Ancyra +southwards to the N. end of the salt lake Tatta (but probably including +the plains W. of the lake during the greater part of its history),--a +rough oblong about 200 m. long and 100 (to 130) broad. + +Galatia is part of the great central plateau of Asia Minor, here ranging +from 2000 to 3000 ft. above sea-level, and falls geographically into two +parts separated by the Halys (Kizil Irmak),--a small eastern district +lying chiefly in the basin of the Delije Irmak, the principal affluent +of the Halys, and a large western region drained almost entirely by the +Sangarius (Sakaria) and its tributaries. On the N. side Galatia consists +of a series of plains with fairly fertile soil, lying between bare +hills. But the greater part is a dreary stretch of barren, undulating +uplands, intersected by tiny streams and passing gradually into the vast +level waste of treeless (anc. _Axylon_) plain that runs S. to Lycaonia; +these uplands are little cultivated and only afford extensive pasturage +for large flocks of sheep and goats. Cities are few and far apart, and +the climate is one of extremes of heat and cold. The general condition +and aspect of the country was much the same in ancient as in modern +times. + +The Gaulish invaders appeared in Asia Minor in 278-277 B.C. They +numbered 20,000, of which only one-half were fighting men, the rest +being doubtless women and children; and not long after their arrival we +find them divided into three tribes, Trocmi, Tolistobogii and +Tectosages, each of which claimed a separate sphere of operations. They +had split off from the army which invaded Greece under Brennus in 279 +B.C., and, marching into Thrace under Leonnorius and Lutarius, crossed +over to Asia at the invitation of Nicomedes I. of Bithynia, who required +help in his struggle against his brother. For about 46 years they were +the scourge of the western half of Asia Minor, ravaging the country, as +allies of one or other of the warring princes, without any serious +check, until Attalus I., king of Pergamum (241-197), inflicted several +severe defeats upon them, and about 232 B.C. forced them to settle +permanently in the region to which they gave their name. Probably they +already occupied parts of Galatia, but definite limits were now fixed +and their right to the district was formally recognized. The tribes were +settled where they afterwards remained, the Tectosages round Ancyra, the +Tolistobogii round Pessinus, and the Trocmi round Tavium. The +constitution of the Galatian state is described by Strabo: conformably +to Gaulish custom, each tribe was divided into four cantons (Gr. [Greek: +tetrarchiai]), each governed by a chief ("tetrarch") of its own with a +judge under him, whose powers were unlimited except in cases of murder, +which were tried before a council of 300 drawn from the twelve cantons +and meeting at a holy place called Drynemeton. But the power of the +Gauls was not yet broken. They proved a formidable foe to the Romans in +their wars with Antiochus, and after Attalus' death their raids into W. +Asia Minor forced Rome in 189 B.C. to send an expedition against them +under Cn. Manlius Vulso, who taught them a severe lesson. Henceforward +their military power declined and they fell at times under Pontic +ascendancy, from which they were finally freed by the Mithradatic wars, +in which they heartily supported Rome. In the settlement of 64 B.C. +Galatia became a client-state of the empire, the old constitution +disappeared, and three chiefs (wrongly styled "tetrarchs") were +appointed, one for each tribe. But this arrangement soon gave way before +the ambition of one of these tetrarchs, Deiotarus, the contemporary of +Cicero and Caesar, who made himself master of the other two tetrarchies +and was finally recognized by the Romans as king of Galatia. On the +death of the third king Amyntas in 25 B.C., Galatia was incorporated by +Augustus in the Roman empire, and few of the provinces were more +enthusiastically loyal. + +The population of Galatia was not entirely Gallic. Before the arrival of +the Gauls, western Galatia up to the Halys was inhabited by Phrygians, +and eastern Galatia by Cappadocians and other native races. This native +population remained, and constituted the majority of the inhabitants of +the rural parts and almost the sole inhabitants of the towns. They were +left in possession of two-thirds of the land (cf. Caesar, _B.G._ i. 31) +on condition of paying part of the produce to their new lords, who took +the other third, and agriculture and commerce with all the arts and +crafts of peaceful life remained entirely in their hands. They were +henceforth ranked as "Galatians" by the outside world equally with their +overlords, and it was from their numbers that the "Galatian" slaves who +figure in the markets of the ancient world were drawn. The conquerors, +who were few in number, formed a small military aristocracy, living not +in the towns, but in fortified villages, where the chiefs in their +castles kept up a barbaric state, surrounded by their tribesmen. With +the decline of their warlike vigour they began gradually to mix with the +natives and to adopt at least their religion: the amalgamation was +accelerated under Roman influence and ultimately became as complete as +that of the Normans with the Saxons in England, but they gave to the +mixed race a distinctive tone and spirit, and long retained their +national characteristics and social customs, as well as their language +(which continued in use, side by side with Greek, in the 4th century +after Christ). In the 1st century, when St Paul made his missionary +journeys, even the towns Ancyra, Pessinus and Tavium (where Gauls were +few) were not Hellenized, though Greek, the language of government and +trade, was spoken there; while the rural population was unaffected by +Greek civilization. Hellenic ways and modes of thought begin to appear +in the towns only in the later 2nd century. In the rustic parts a +knowledge of Greek begins to spread in the 3rd century; but only in the +4th and 5th centuries, after the transference of the centre of +government first to Nicomedia and then to Constantinople placed Galatia +on the highway of imperial communication, was Hellenism in its Christian +form gradually diffused over the country. (See also ANCYRA; PESSINUS; +GORDIUM.) + +II. The Roman province of Galatia, constituted 25 B.C., included the +greater part of the country ruled by Amyntas, viz. Galatia Proper, part +of Phrygia towards Pisidia (Apollonia, Antioch and Iconium), Pisidia, +part of Lycaonia (including Lystra and Derbe) and Isauria. For nearly +100 years it was the frontier province, and the changes in its +boundaries are an epitome of the stages of Roman advance to the +Euphrates, one client-state after another being annexed: Paphlagonia in +6-5 B.C.; Sebastopolis, 3-2 B.C.; Amasia, A.D. 1-2; Comana, A.D. +34-35,--together forming Pontus Galaticus,--the Pontic kingdom of +Polemon, A.D. 64, under the name Pontus Polemoniacus. In A.D. 70 +Cappadocia (a procuratorial province since A.D. 17) with Armenia Minor +became the centre of the forward movement and Galatia lost its +importance, being merged with Cappadocia in a vast double governorship +until A.D. 114 (probably), when Trajan separated the two parts, making +Galatia an inferior province of diminished size, while Cappadocia with +Armenia Minor and Pontus became a great consular military province, +charged with the defence of the frontier. Under Diocletian's +reorganization Galatia was divided, about 295, into two parts and the +name retained for the northern (now nearly identical with the Galatia of +Deiotarus); and about 390 this province, amplified by the addition of a +few towns in the west, was divided into Galatia Prima and Secunda or +Salutaris, the division indicating the renewed importance of Galatia in +the Byzantine empire. After suffering from Persian and Arabic raids, +Galatia was conquered by the Seljuk Turks in the 11th century and passed +to the Ottoman Turks in the middle of the 14th. + +The question whether the "Churches of Galatia," to which St Paul +addressed his Epistle, were situated in the northern or southern part of +the province has been much discussed, and in England Prof. Sir W.M. +Ramsay has been the principal advocate of the adoption of the +South-Galatian theory, which maintains that they were the churches +planted in Derbe, Lystra, Iconium and Antioch (see GALATIANS). In the +present writer's opinion this is supported by the study of the +historical and geographical facts.[1] + + AUTHORITIES.--Van Gelder, _De Gallis in Graecia et Asia_ (1888); + Staehelin, _Gesch. d. kleinasiat. Galater_ (1897); Perrot, _De Galatia + prov. Rom._ (1867); Sir W.M. Ramsay, _Histor. Geogr._ (1890), _St + Paul_ (1898), and Introd. to _Histor. Commentary on Galatians_ (1899). + For antiquities generally, Perrot, _Explor. archeol. de la Galatie_ + (1862); K. Humann and O. Puchstein, _Reisen in Kleinasien_ (1890); + Koerte, _Athen. Mitteilungen_ (1897); Anderson and Crowfoot, _Journ. + of Hellenic Studies_ (1899); and Anderson, _Map of Asia Minor_ + (London, Murray, 1903). (J. G. C. A.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] In the unsettled state of this controversy, weight naturally + attaches to the opinion of experts on either side; and the above + statement, while opposed to the view taken in the following article + on the epistle, must be taken on its merits.--Ed. _E.B._ + + + + +GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, one of the books of the New Testament. This +early Christian scripture is one of the books militant in the world's +literature. Its usefulness to Luther in his propaganda was no accident +in its history; it originated in a controversy, and the varying views of +the momentous struggle depicted in Gal. ii. and Acts xv. have naturally +determined, from time to time, the conception of the epistle's aim and +date. Details of the long critical discussion of this problem cannot be +given here. (See PAUL.) It must suffice to say that to the present +writer the identification of Gal. ii. 1-10 with Acts xi. 28 f. and not +with Acts xv. appears quite untenable, while a fair exegesis of Acts +xvi. 1-6 implies a distinction between such towns as Lystra, Derbe and +Iconium on the one hand and the Galatian [Greek: chora] with Phrygia +upon the other.[1] A further visit to the latter country is mentioned, +upon this view, in Acts xviii. 23. The Christians to whom the epistle +was addressed were thus inhabitants, for the most part (iv. 8) of pagan +birth, belonging to the northern section of the province, perhaps mainly +in its south-western district adjoining Bithynia and the province of +Asia. The scanty allusions to this mission in Acts cannot be taken as +any objection to the theory. Nor is there any valid geographical +difficulty. The country was quite accessible from Antioch. Least of all +does the historical evidence at our disposal justify the inference that +the civilization of north Galatia, during the 1st century A.D., was +Romano-Gallic rather than Hellenic; for, as the coins and inscriptions +indicate, the Anatolian culture which predominated throughout the +province did not exclude the infusion either of Greek religious +conceptions or of the Greek language. The degree of elementary Greek +culture needful for the understanding of Galatians cannot be shown to +have been foreign to the inhabitants of north Galatia. So far as any +trustworthy evidence is available, such Hellenic notions as are +presupposed in this epistle might well have been intelligible to the +Galatians of the northern provinces. Still less does the acquaintance +with Roman jurisprudence in iii. 15-iv. 2 imply, as Halmel contends +(_Uber rom. Recht im Galaterbrief_, 1895), not merely that Paul must +have acquired such knowledge in Italy but that he wrote the epistle +there. A popular acquaintance with the outstanding features of Roman law +was widely diffused by this time in Asia Minor. + +The epistle can hardly have been written therefore until after the +period described in Acts xviii. 22, but the _terminus ad quem_ is more +difficult to fix.[2] The composition may be placed (cf. the present +writer's _Historical New Testament_, pp. 124 f. for details) either +during the earlier part of Paul's residence at Ephesus (Acts xix. 1, 10, +so most editors and scholars), or on his way from Ephesus to Corinth, or +at Corinth itself (so Lightfoot, Bleek, Salmon). + +The epistle was not written until Paul had visited Thessalonica, but +the Galatian churches owed their origin to a mission of Paul undertaken +some time before he crossed from Asia to Europe. When he composed this +letter, he had visited the churches twice. On the former of these visits +(iv. 13 [Greek: to proteron]), though broken down by illness (2 Cor. +xii. 7-9?) he had been enthusiastically welcomed, and the immediate +result of his mission was an outburst of religious fervour (iii. 1-5, +iv. 14 f.). The local Christians made a most promising start (v. 7). But +they failed to maintain their ardour. On his second visit (iv. 13, i. 7, +v. 21) the apostle found in many of them a disheartening slackness, due +to discord and incipient legalism. His plain-speaking gave offence in +some quarters (iv. 16), though it was not wholly ineffective. Otherwise, +this second visit is left in the shadow.[3] So far as it was accompanied +by warnings, these were evidently general rather than elicited by any +definite and imminent peril to the churches. Not long afterwards, +however, some judaizing opponents of the apostle (note the contemptuous +anonymity of the [Greek: tines] in i. 7, as in Col. ii. 4 f.), headed by +one prominent and influential individual (v. 10), made their appearance +among the Galatians, promulgating a "gospel" which meant fidelity to, +not freedom from, the Law (i. 6-10). Arguing from the Old Testament, +they represented Paul's gospel as an imperfect creed which required to +be supplemented by legal exactitude,[4] including ritual observance (iv. +10) and even circumcision,[5] while at the same time they sought to +undermine his authority[6] by pointing out that it was derived from the +apostles at Jerusalem and therefore that his teaching must be open to +the checks and tests of that orthodox primitive standard which they +themselves claimed to embody. The sole valid charter to Messianic +privileges was observance of the Mosaic law, which remained obligatory +upon pagan converts (iii. 6-9, 16). + +When the news of this relapse reached Paul, matters had evidently not +yet gone too far. Only a few had been circumcised. It was not too late +to arrest the Galatians on their downward plane, and the apostle, unable +or unwilling to re-visit them, despatched this epistle. How or when the +information came to him, we do not know. But the gravity of the +situation renders it unlikely that he would delay for any length of time +in writing to counteract the intrigues of his opponents; to judge from +allusions like those in i. 6 ([Greek: tacheos] and [Greek: +metatithesthe]--the lapse still in progress), we may conclude that the +interval between the reception of the news and the composition of the +letter must have been comparatively brief. + +After a short introduction[7] (i. 1-5), instead of giving his usual word +of commendation, he plunges into a personal and historical +vindication[8] of his apostolic independence, which, developed +negatively and positively, forms the first of the three main sections +in the epistle (i. 6-ii. 21). In the closing passage he drifts over from +an account of this interview with Peter into a sort of monologue upon +the incompatibility of the Mosaic law with the Christian gospel (ii. +15-21),[9] and this starts him afresh upon a trenchant expostulation and +appeal (iii. 1-v. 12) regarding the alternatives of law and spirit. +Faith dominates this section; faith in its historical career and as the +vantage-ground of Christianity. The much-vaunted law is shown to be +merely a provisional episode[10] culminating in the gospel (iii. 7-28) +as a message of filial confidence and freedom (iii. 29-iv. 11). The +genuine "sons of Abraham" are not legalistic Jewish Christians but those +who simply possess faith in Jesus Christ. A passionate outburst then +follows (iv. 12 f.), and, harping still on Abraham, the apostle essays, +with fresh rabbinic dialectic, to establish Christianity over legalism +as the free and final religion for men, applying this to the moral +situation of the Galatians themselves (v. 1-12). This conception of +freedom then leads him to define the moral responsibilities of the faith +(v. 13-vi. 10), in order to prevent misconception and to enforce the +claims of the gospel upon the individual and social life of the +Galatians. The epilogue (vi. 11-21) reiterates, in a handful of abrupt, +emphatic sentences, the main points of the epistle. + +The allusion in vi. 11 [Greek: (idete pelikois hymin grammasin egrapsa +te eme cheiri)] is to the large bold size[11] of the letters in Paul's +handwriting, but the object and scope of the reference are matters of +dispute. It is "a sensational heading" (Findlay), but it may either +refer[12] to the whole epistle (so Augustine, Chrysostom, &c., followed +by Zahn) or, as most hold (with Jerome) to the postscript (vi. 11-18). +Paul commonly dictated his letters. His use of the autograph here may +have been to prevent any suspicion of a forgery or to mark the personal +emphasis of his message. In any case it is assumed that the Galatians +knew his handwriting. It is unlikely that he inserted this postscript +from a feeling of ironical playfulness, to make the Galatians realize +that, after the sternness of the early chapters, he was now treating +them like children, "playfully hinting that surely the large letters +will touch their hearts" (so Deissmann, _Bible-Studies_ (1901), 346 f.). + +The earliest allusion to the epistle[13] is the notice of its inclusion +in Marcion's canon, but almost verbal echoes of iii. 10-13 are to be +heard in Justin Martyr's _Dial._ xciv.-xcv.; it was certainly known to +Polycarp, and as the 2nd century advances the evidence of its popularity +multiplies on all sides, from Ptolemaeus and the Ophites to Irenaeus and +the Muratorian canon (cf. Gregory's _Canon and Text of N.T._, 1907, pp. +201-203). It is no longer necessary for serious criticism to refute the +objections to its authenticity raised during the 19th century in certain +quarters;[14] as Macaulay said of the authenticity of Caesar's +commentaries, "to doubt on that subject is the mere rage of scepticism." +Even the problems of its integrity are quite secondary. Marcion (cf. +Tert. _Adv. Marc._ 2-4) removed what he judged to be some +interpolations, but van Manen's attempt to prove that Marcion's text is +more original than the canonical (_Theolog. Tijdschrift_, 1887, 400 f. +451 f.) has won no support (cf. C. Clemen's refutation in _Die +Einheitlichkeit der paulin_. _Briefe_, 1894, pp. 100 f. and Zahn's +_Geschichte d. N. T. lichen Kanons_, ii. 409 f.), and little or no +weight attaches to the attempts made (e.g. by J.A. Cramer) to +disentangle a Pauline nucleus from later accretions. Even D. Volter, who +applies this method to the other Pauline epistles, admits that +Galatians, whether authentic or not, is substantially a literary unity +(_Paulus und seine Briefe_, 1905, pp. 229-285). The frequent roughnesses +of the traditional text suggest, however, that here and there marginal +glosses may have crept in. Thus iv. 25a ([Greek: to gar Sina oros estin +en te Arabia]) probably represents the explanatory and prosaic gloss of +a later editor, as many scholars have seen from Bentley (_Opuscula +philologica_, 1781, pp. 533 f.) to H.A. Schott, J.A. Cramer, J.M.S. +Baljon and C. Holsten. The general style of the epistle is vigorous and +unpremeditated, "one continuous rush, a veritable torrent of genuine and +inimitable Paulinism, like a mountain stream in full flood, such as may +often have been seen by his Galatians" (J. Macgregor). But there is a +certain rhythmical balance, especially in the first chapter (cf. J. +Weiss, _Beitrage zur paulin. Rhetorik_, 1897, 8 f.); here as elsewhere +the rush and flow of feeling carry with them some care for rhetorical +form, in the shape of antitheses, such as a pupil of the schools might +more or less unconsciously retain.[15] All through, the letter shows the +breaks and pauses of a mind in direct contact with some personal crisis. +Hurried, unconnected sentences, rather than sustained argument, are its +most characteristic features.[16] The trenchant remonstrances and fiery +outbursts make it indeed "read like a dithyramb from beginning to end." + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Of more modern editions in English, the most competent + are those of C.J. Ellicott (4th ed., 1867, strong in linguistic and + grammatical material), Prof. Eadie (Edinburgh, 1869), J.B. Lightfoot + (11th ed., 1892), Dean Alford (3rd ed., 1862) and F. Rendall + (_Expositor's Greek Testament_, 1903) on the Greek text; Dr Sanday (in + Ellicott's _Commentary_, 1879), Dr Jas. Macgregor (Edinburgh, 1879), + B. Jowett (3rd ed., 1894), Huxtable (_Pulpit Comment._, 1885), Dr Agar + Beet (London, 1885, &c.), Dr W.F. Adeney (_Century Bible_), Dr E.H. + Perowne (_Cambridge Bible_, 1890) and Dr James Drummond (_Internat. + Handbooks to N.T._, 1899) also comment on the English text. The + editions of Lightfoot and Jowett are especially valuable for their + subsidiary essays, and Sir W.M. Ramsay's _Historical Commentary on + Galatians_ (1899) contains archaeological and historical material + which is often illuminating. The French editions are few and minor, + those by A. Sardinoux (Valence, 1837) and E. Reuss (1878) being + adequate, however. In Germany the two most up-to-date editions are by + F. Sieffert (in Meyer's _Comment._, 1899) and Th. Zahn (2nd ed., + 1907); these supersede most of the earlier works, but H.A. Schott + (1834), A. Wieseler (Gottingen, 1859), G.B. Winer (4th ed., 1859), + J.C.K. von Hofmann (2nd ed., 1872), Philippi (1884), R.A. Lipsius (2nd + ed., _Hand.-Commentar_, 1892), and Zockler (2nd ed., 1894) may still + be consulted with advantage, while Hilgenfeld's commentary (1852) + discusses acutely the historical problems of the epistle from the + standpoint of Baur's criticism. The works of A. Schlatter (2nd ed., + 1894) and W. Bousset (_in Die Schriften des N.T._, 2nd ed., 1907) are + more popular in character. F. Windischmann (Mayence, 1843), F.X. + Reithmayr (1865), A. Schafer (Munster, 1890) and F. Cornely (1892, + also in _Cursus scripturae sacrae_, 1907) are the most satisfactory + modern editors, from the Roman Catholic church, but it should not be + forgotten that the 16th century produced the _Literalis expositio_ of + Cajetan (Rome, 1529) and the similar work of Pierre Barahona + (Salamanca, 1590), no less than the epoch-making edition of Luther + (Latin, 1519, &c.; German, 1525 f.; English, 1575 f.). After Calvin + and Grotius, H.E.G. Paulus (_Des Apostel P. Lehrbriefe an die Gal. u. + Romer Christen_, 1831) was perhaps the most independent interpreter. + For the patristic editions, see the introductory sections in Zahn and + Lightfoot. The religious thought of the epistle is admirably + expounded from different standpoints by C. Holsten (_Das Evangelium + Paulus_, Teil I., i., 1880), A.B. Bruce (_St Paul's Conception of + Christianity_, 1894, pp. 49-70) and Prof. G.G. Findlay (_Expositor's + Bible_). On the historical aspects, Zimmer (_Galat. und + Apostelgeschichte_, 1882) and M. Thomas (_Melanges d'histoire et de + litt. religieuse_, Paris, 1899, pp. 1-195) are excellent; E.H. + Askwith's essay (_Epistle to the Galatians, its Destination and Date_, + 1899) advocates ingeniously the south Galatian theory, and W.S. Wood + (_Studies in St Paul's Epistle to the Galatians_, 1887) criticizes + Lightfoot. General studies of the epistle will be found in all + biographies of Paul and histories of the apostolic age, as well as in + works like Sabatier's _The Apostle Paul_ (pp. 187 f.), B.W. Bacon's + _Story of St Paul_ (pp. 116 f.), Dr R.D. Shaw's _The Pauline Epistles_ + (2nd ed., pp. 60 f.), R. Mariano, _Il Cristianesimo nei primi secoli_ + (1902), i. pp. 111 f., and Volkmar's _Paulus vom Damaskus bis zum + Galaterbrief_ (1887), to which may be added a series of papers by + Haupt in _Deutsche Evang.-Blatter_ (1904), 1-16, 89-108, 161-183, + 238-259, and an earlier set by Hilgenfeld in the _Zeitschrift fur + wiss. Theologie_ ("Zur Vorgeschichte des Gal." 1860, pp. 206 f., 1866, + pp. 301 f., 1884, pp. 303 f.). Other monographs and essays have been + noted in the course of this article. See further under PAUL. + (J. Mt.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The historical and geographical facts concerning Galatia, which + lead other writers to support the south Galatian theory, are stated + in the preceding article on Galatia; and the question is still a + matter of controversy, the division of opinion being to some extent + dependent on whether it is approached from the point of view of the + archaeologist or the Biblical critic. The ablest re-statements of the + north Galatian theory, in the light of recent pleas for south Galatia + as the destination of this epistle, may be found by the English + reader in P.W. Schmiedel's exhaustive article in _Encycl. Biblica_ + (1592-1616) and Prof. G.H. Gilbert's _Student's Life of Paul_ (1902), + pp. 260-272. Schmiedel's arguments are mainly directed against Sir + W.M. Ramsay, but a recent Roman Catholic scholar, Dr A. Steinmann, + takes a wider survey in a pamphlet on the north Galatian side of the + controversy (_Die Abfassungszeit des Galaterbriefes_, Munster, i. W., + 1906), carrying forward the points already urged by Sieffert and + Zockler amongst others, and especially refuting his fellow-churchman, + Prof. Valentine Weber. + + [2] The tendency among adherents of the south Galatian theory is to + put the epistle as early as possible, making it contemporaneous with, + if not prior to, 1 Thessalonians. So Douglass Round in _The Date of + St Paul's Epistle to the Galatians_ (1906). + + [3] It is not quite clear whether traces of the Judaistic agitation + were already found by Paul on this visit (so especially Holsten, + Lipsius, Sieffert, Pfleiderer, Weiss and Weizsacker) or whether they + are to be dated subsequent to his departure (so Philippi, Renan and + Hofmann, among others). The tone of surprise which marks the opening + of the epistle tells in favour of the latter theory. Paul seems to + have been taken aback by the news of the Galatians' defection. + + [4] Apparently they were clever enough to keep the Galatians in + ignorance that the entire law would require to be obeyed (v. 3). + + [5] The critical dubiety about [Greek: oude] in ii. 5 (cf. Zahn's + excursus and Prof. Lake in _Expositor_, March 1906, p. 236 f.) throws + a slight doubt on the interpretation of ii. 3, but it is clear that + the agitators had quoted Paul's practice as an authoritative sanction + of the rite. + + [6] This depreciation is voiced in their catch-word [Greek: oi + dokountes] ("those of repute," ii. 6), while other echoes of their + talk can be overheard in such phrases as "we are Abraham's seed" + (iii. 16), "sinners of Gentiles" (ii. 15) and "Jerusalem which is our + mother" (iv. 26), as well as in their charges against Paul of + "seeking to please men" (i. 10) and "preaching circumcision" (v. 11). + + [7] Not only is the address "to the churches of Galatia" unusually + bare, but Paul associates no one with himself, either because he was + on a journey or because, as the attacked party, he desired to + concentrate attention upon his personal commission. Yet the [Greek: + hemeis] of i. 8 indicates colleagues like Silas and Timothy. + + [8] Cf. Hausrath's _History of the N.T. Times_ (iii. pp. 181-199), + with the fine remarks, on vi. 17, that "Paul stands before us like an + ancient general who bares his breast before his mutinous legions, and + shows them the scars of the wounds that proclaim him not unworthy to + be called Imperator." + + [9] Cf. T.H. Green's _Works_, iii. 186 f. Verses 15-17 are the + indirect abstract of the speech's argument, but in verses 18-21 the + apostle, carried away by the thought and barrier of the moment as he + dictates to his amanuensis, forgets the original situation. + + [10] Thus Paul reverses the ordinary rabbinic doctrine which taught + (cf. Kiddushim, 30, b) that the law was given as the divine remedy + for the evil _yezer_ of man. So far from being a remedy, he argues, + it is an aggravation. + + [11] According to Plutarch, Cato the elder wrote histories for the + use of his son, [Greek: idia cheiri kai megalois grammasin] (cf. + Field's _Notes on Translation of the New Testament_, p. 191). If the + point of Gal. vi. 11 lies in the size of the letters, Paul cannot + have contemplated copies of the epistle being made. He must have + assumed that the autograph would reach all the local churches (cf. 2 + Thess. iii. 17, with E.A. Abbott, _Johannine Grammar_, pp. 530-532). + + [12] For [Greek: egrapsa], the epistolary aorist, at the close of a + letter, cf. Xen. _Anab._ i. 9. 25, Thuc. i. 129. 3, Ezra iv. 14 (LXX) + and Lucian, _Dial. Meretr._ x. + + [13] Hermann Schulze's attempt to bring out the filiation of the + later N.T. literature to Galatians (_Die Ursprunglichkeit des + Galaterbriefes_, Leipzig, 1903) involves repeated exaggerations of + the literary evidence. + + [14] Cf. especially J. Gloe's _Die jungste Kritik des Galaterbriefes_ + (Leipzig, 1890) and Baljon's reply to Steck and Loman + (_Exeg.-kritische verhandeling over den Brief van P. aan de Gal._, + 1889). The English reader may consult Schmiedel's article (already + referred to) and Dr R.J. Knowling's _The Testimony of St Paul to + Christ_ (1905), 28 f. + + [15] Compare the minute analysis of the whole epistle in F. Blass, + _Die Rhythmen der asianischen und romischen Kunstprosa_ (1905), pp. + 43-53, 204-216, where, however, this feature is exaggerated into + unreality. The comic trimeter in Philipp. iii. 1 ([Greek: emoi men + ouk okneron, hymin d' asphales]) may well be, like that in 1 Cor. xv. + 33, a reminiscence of Menander. + + [16] This affects even the vocabulary which has also "einen gewissen + vulgaren Zug" (Nageli, _Der Wortschatz des Apostels Paulus_, 1905, + pp. 78-79). + + + + +GALATINA, a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, from which +it is 14 m. S. by rail, 233 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 12,917 +(town); 14,086 (commune). It is chiefly remarkable for the fine Gothic +church of St Caterina, built in 1390 by Raimondello del Balzo Orsini, +count of Soleto, with a fine portal and rose-window. The interior +contains frescoes by Francesco d' Arezzo (1435). The apse contains the +fine mausoleum of the son of the founder (d. 1454), a canopy supported +by four columns, with his statue beneath it. + + + + +GALATZ (_Galatii_), a city of Rumania, capital of the department of +Covurlui; on the left bank of the river Danube, 90 m. W. by N. of its +mouth at Sulina. Pop. (1900) 62,678, including 12,000 Jews. The Danube +is joined by the Sereth 3 m. S.W. of Galatz, and by the Pruth 10 m. E. +Galatz is built on a slight eminence among the marshes which line the +intervening shore and form, beside the western bank of the Pruth, the +shallow mere called Lake Bratych (_Bratesul_), more than 50 sq. m. in +extent. With the disappearance, towards the close of the 19th century, +of most of its older quarters in which the crooked, ill-paved streets +and insanitary houses were liable to be flooded every year, the city +improved rapidly. Embankments and fine quays were constructed along the +Danube; electric tramways were opened in the main streets, which were +lighted by gas or electricity, and pure water was supplied. The higher, +or north-western part of the city, which is the more open and +comfortable, contains many of the chief buildings. These include the +prefecture, consulate, prison, barracks, civil and military hospitals +and the offices of the international commission for the control of the +Danube (q.v.). The bishop of the lower Danube resides at Galatz. There +are many Orthodox Greek, Roman Catholic and other churches; the most +interesting being the cathedral, and St Mary's church, in which is the +tomb of the famous Cossack chief, Mazeppa (1644-1709), said to have been +rifled of its contents by the Russians. Galatz is a naval station, and +the headquarters of the III. army corps, protected by a line of +fortifications which extends for 45 m. E. to Focshani and is known as +the Sereth line. But the main importance of the city is commercial. +Galatz is the chief Moldavian port of entry, approached by three +waterways, the Danube, Sereth and Pruth, down which there is a continual +volume of traffic, except in mid-winter; and by the railways which +intersect all the richest portions of the country. Textiles, machinery, +and coal make up the bulk of imports. Besides a large trade in petroleum +and salt, Galatz ranks first among Rumanian cities in its export of +timber, and second to Braila in its export of grain. It possesses many +saw-mills, paste-mills, flour-mills, roperies, chemical works and +petroleum refineries; manufacturing also metal ware, wire, nails, soap +and candles. Vessels of 2500 tons can discharge at the quays, but +cargoes consigned to Galatz are often transhipped into lighters at +Sulina. The shipping trade is largely in foreign hands, the principal +owners being British. + + + + +GALAXY, properly the MILKY WAY, from the Greek name [Greek: ho +galaxias], sc. [Greek: kyklos], from [Greek: gala], milk, cf. the Lat. +_via lactea_ (see STAR). The word is more generally employed in its +figurative or transferred sense, to describe a gathering of brilliant +or distinguished persons or objects. + + + + +GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS, Roman general and orator. He served under +Lucius Aemilius Paulus in the third Macedonian War. As praetor in 151 +B.C. in farther Spain he made himself infamous by the treacherous murder +of a number of Lusitanians, with their wives and children, after +inducing them to surrender by the promise of grants of land. For this in +149 he was brought to trial, but secured an acquittal by bribery and by +holding up his little children before the people to gain their sympathy. +He was consul in 144, and must have been alive in 138. He was an +eloquent speaker, noted for his violent gesticulations, and, in Cicero's +opinion, was the first of the Roman orators. His speeches, however, were +almost forgotten in Cicero's time. + + Livy xlv. 35; Appian, _Hisp._ 58-60; Cicero, _De orat._ i. 53, iii. 7; + Brutus 21. + + + + +GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS, Roman emperor (June A.D. 68 to January 69), +born near Terracina, on the 24th of December 5 B.C. He came of a noble +family and was a man of great wealth, but unconnected either by birth or +by adoption with the first six Caesars. In his early years he was +regarded as a youth of remarkable abilities, and it is said that both +Augustus and Tiberius prophesied his future eminence (Tacitus, _Annals_, +vi. 20; Suetonius, _Galba_, 4). Praetor in 20, and consul in 33, he +acquired a well-merited reputation in the provinces of Gaul, Germany, +Africa and Spain by his military capability, strictness and +impartiality. On the death of Caligula, he refused the invitation of his +friends to make a bid for empire, and loyally served Claudius. For the +first half of Nero's reign he lived in retirement, till, in 61, the +emperor bestowed on him the province of Hispania Tarraconensis. In the +spring of 68 Galba was informed of Nero's intention to put him to death, +and of the insurrection of Julius Vindex in Gaul. He was at first +inclined to follow the example of Vindex, but the defeat and suicide of +the latter renewed his hesitation. The news that Nymphidius Sabinus, the +praefect of the praetorians, had declared in his favour revived Galba's +spirits. Hitherto, he had only dared to call himself the legate of the +senate and Roman people; after the murder of Nero, he assumed the title +of Caesar, and marched straight for Rome. At first he was welcomed by +the senate and the party of order, but he was never popular with the +soldiers or the people. He incurred the hatred of the praetorians by +scornfully refusing to pay them the reward promised in his name, and +disgusted the mob by his meanness and dislike of pomp and display. His +advanced age had destroyed his energy, and he was entirely in the hands +of favourites. An outbreak amongst the legions of Germany, who demanded +that the senate should choose another emperor, first made him aware of +his own unpopularity and the general discontent. In order to check the +rising storm, he adopted as his coadjutor and successor L. Calpurnius +Piso Frugi Licinianus, a man in every way worthy of the honour. His +choice was wise and patriotic; but the populace regarded it as a sign of +fear, and the praetorians were indignant, because the usual donative was +not forthcoming. M. Salvius Otho, formerly governor of Lusitania, and +one of Galba's earliest supporters, disappointed at not being chosen +instead of Piso, entered into communication with the discontented +praetorians, and was adopted by them as their emperor. Galba, who at +once set out to meet the rebels--he was so feeble that he had to be +carried in a litter--was met by a troop of cavalry and butchered near +the Lacus Curtius. During the later period of his provincial +administration he was indolent and apathetic, but this was due either to +a desire not to attract the notice of Nero or to the growing infirmities +of age. Tacitus rightly says that all would have pronounced him worthy +of empire if he had never been emperor ("omnium consensu capax imperii +nisi imperasset"). + + See his life by Plutarch and Suetonius; Tacitus, _Histories_, i. 7-49; + Dio Cassius lxiii. 23-lxiv. 6; B.W. Henderson, _Civil War and + Rebellion in the Roman Empire, A.D. 69-70_ (1908); W.A. Spooner, _On + the Characters of Galba, Otho and Vitellius_ in Introd. to his edition + (1891) of the _Histories_ of Tacitus. + + + + +GALBANUM (Heb. _Helbenah_; Gr. [Greek: chalbane]), a gum-resin, the +product of _Ferula galbaniflua_, indigenous to Persia, and perhaps also +of other umbelliferous plants. It occurs usually in hard or soft, +irregular, more or less translucent and shining lumps, or occasionally +in separate tears, of a light-brown, yellowish or greenish-yellow +colour, and has a disagreeable, bitter taste, a peculiar, somewhat musky +odour, and a specific gravity of 1.212. It contains about 8% of terpene; +about 65% of a resin which contains sulphur; about 20% of gum; and a +very small quantity of the colourless crystalline substance +_umbelliferone_, C9H6O3. Galbanum is one of the oldest of drugs. In +Exodus xxx. 34 it is mentioned as a sweet spice, to be used in the +making of a perfume for the tabernacle. Hippocrates employed it in +medicine, and Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxiv. 13) ascribes to it extraordinary +curative powers, concluding his account of it with the assertion that +"the very touch of it mixed with oil of spondylium is sufficient to kill +a serpent." The drug is occasionally given in modern medicine, in doses +of from five to fifteen grains. It has the actions common to substances +containing a resin and a volatile oil. Its use in medicine is, however, +obsolescent. + + + + +GALCHAS, the name given to the highland tribes of Ferghana, Kohistan and +Wakhan. These Aryans of the Pamir and Hindu Kush, kinsmen of the Tajiks, +are identified with the _Calcienses populi_ of the lay Jesuit Benedict +Goes, who crossed the Pamir in 1603 and described them as "of light hair +and beard like the Belgians." The word "Galcha," which has been +explained as meaning "the hungry raven who has withdrawn to the +mountains," in allusion to the retreat of this branch of the Tajik +family to the mountains to escape the Tatar hordes, is probably simply +the Persian _galcha_, "clown" or "rustic," in reference to their uncouth +manners. The Galchas conform physically to what has been called the +"Alpine or Celtic European race," so much so that French anthropologists +have termed them "those belated Savoyards of Kohistan." D'Ujfalvy +describes them as tall, brown or bronzed and even white, with ruddy +cheeks, black, chestnut, sometimes red hair, brown, blue or grey eyes, +never oblique, well-shaped, slightly curved nose, thin lips, oval face +and round head. Thus it seems reasonable to hold that the Galchas +represent the most eastern extension of the Alpine race through Armenia +and the Bakhtiari uplands into central Asia. The Galchas for the most +part profess Sunnite Mahommedanism. + + See Robert Shaw, "On the Galtchah Languages," in _Journ. As. Soc. + Bengal_, xlv. (1876), and xlvi. (1877); Major J. Biddulph, _Tribes of + the Hindoo-Koosh_ (Calcutta, 1880); Hon. Mountstuart Elphinstone, _An + Account of the Kingdom of Caubul_ (1815); _Bull. de la societe + d'anthropologie de Paris_ (1887); Charles Eugene D'Ujfalvy de + Mezoe-Koevesd, _Les Aryens_ (1896), and in _Revue d'anthropologie_ + (1879), and _Bull. de la soc. de geogr._ (June 1878); W.Z. Ripley, + _Races of Europe_ (New York, 1899). + + + + +GALE, THEOPHILUS (1628-1678), English nonconformist divine, was born in +1628 at Kingsteignton, in Devonshire, where his father was vicar. In +1647 he was entered at Magdalen College, Oxford, where he took his B.A. +degree in 1649, and M.A. in 1652. In 1650 he was made fellow and tutor +of his college. He remained some years at Oxford, discharging actively +the duties of tutor, and was in 1657 appointed as preacher in Winchester +cathedral. In 1662 he refused to submit to the Act of Uniformity, and +was ejected. He became tutor to the sons of Lord Wharton, whom he +accompanied to the Protestant college of Caen, in Normandy, returning to +England in 1665. The latter portion of his life he passed in London as +assistant to John Rowe, an Independent minister who had charge of an +important church in Holborn; Gale succeeded Rowe in 1677, and died in +the following year. His principal work, _The Court of the Gentiles_, +which appeared in parts in 1669, 1671 and 1676, is a strange storehouse +of miscellaneous philosophical learning. It resembles the _Intellectual +System_ of Ralph Cudworth, though much inferior to that work both in +general construction and in fundamental idea. Gale's endeavour (based on +a hint of Grotius in _De veritate_, i. 16) is to prove that the whole +philosophy of the Gentiles is a distorted or mangled reproduction of +Biblical truths. Just as Cudworth referred the Democritean doctrine of +atoms to Moses as the original author, so Gale tries to show that the +various systems of Greek thought may be traced back to Biblical sources. +Like so many of the learned works of the 17th century, the _Court of +the Gentiles_ is chaotic and unsystematic, while its erudition is +rendered almost valueless by the complete absence of any critical +discrimination. + + His other writings are: _A True Idea of Jansenism_ (1669); _Theophil, + or a Discourse of the Saint's Amitie with God in Christ_ (1671); + _Anatomie of Infidelitie_ (1672); _Idea theologiae_ (1673); + _Philosophia generalis_ (1676). + + + + +GALE, THOMAS (?1636-1702), English classical scholar and antiquarian, +was born at Scruton, Yorkshire. He was educated at Westminster school +and Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow. In 1666 he +was appointed regius professor of Greek at Cambridge, in 1672 high +master of St Paul's school, in 1676 prebendary of St Paul's, in 1677 a +fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1697 dean of York. He died at York +on the 7th (or 8th) of April 1702. He published a collection, _Opuscula +mythologica, ethica, et physica_, and editions of several Greek and +Latin authors, but his fame rests chiefly on his collection of old works +bearing on Early English history, entitled _Historiae Anglicanae +scriptores_ and _Historiae Britannicae, Saxonicae, Anglo-Danicae +scriptores XV_. He was the author of the inscription on the London +Monument in which the Roman Catholics were accused of having originated +the great fire. + + See J.E.B. Mayor, _Cambridge in the Time of Queen Anne_, 448-450. + + + + +GALE. 1. (A word of obscure origin; possibly derived from Dan. _gal_, +mad or furious, sometimes applied to wind, in the sense of boisterous) a +wind of considerable power, considerably stronger than a breeze, but not +severe enough to be called a storm. In nautical language it is usually +combined with some qualifying word, as "half a gale," a "stiff gale." In +poetical and figurative language "gale" is often used in a pleasant +sense, as in "favouring gale"; in America, it is used in a slang sense +for boisterous or excited behaviour. + +2. The payment of rent, customs or duty at regular intervals; a "hanging +gale" is an arrear of rent left over after each successive "gale" or +rent day. The term survives in the Forest of Dean, for leases granted to +the "free miners" of the forest, granted by the "gaveller" or agent of +the crown, and the term is also applied to the royalty paid to the +crown, and to the area mined. The word is a contracted form of the O. +Eng. _gafol_, which survives in "gavel," in gavelkind (q.v.), and in the +name of the office mentioned above. The root from which these words +derive is that of "give." Through Latinized forms it appears in +_gabelle_ (q.v.). + +3. The popular name of a plant, also known as the sweet gale or gaul, +sweet willow, bog or Dutch myrtle. The Old English form of the word is +_gagel_. It is a small, twiggy, resinous fragrant shrub found on bogs +and moors in the British Islands, and widely distributed in the north +temperate zone. It has narrow, short-stalked leaves and inconspicuous, +apetalous, unisexual flowers borne in short spikes. The small drupe-like +fruit is attached to the persistent bracts. The leaves are used as tea +and as a country medicine. John Gerard (_Herball_, p. 1228) describes it +as sweet willow or gaule, and refers to its use in beer or ale. The +genus _Myrica_ is the type of a small, but widely distributed order, +_Myricaceae_, which is placed among the apetalous families of +Dicotyledons, and is perhaps most nearly allied to the willow family. +_Myrica cerifera_ is the candleberry, wax-myrtle or wax-tree (q.v.). + + + + +GALEN, CHRISTOPH BERNHARD, FREIHERR VON (1606-1678), prince bishop of +Munster, belonged to a noble Westphalian family, and was born on the +12th of October 1606. Reduced to poverty through the loss of his +paternal inheritance, he took holy orders; but this did not prevent him +from fighting on the side of the emperor Ferdinand III. during the +concluding stages of the Thirty Years' War. In 1650 he succeeded +Ferdinand of Bavaria, archbishop of Cologne, as bishop of Munster. After +restoring some degree of peace and prosperity in his principality, Galen +had to contend with a formidable insurrection on the part of the +citizens of Munster; but at length this was crushed, and the bellicose +bishop, who maintained a strong army, became an important personage in +Europe. In 1664 he was chosen one of the directors of the imperial army +raised to fight the Turk; and after the peace which followed the +Christian victory at St Gotthard in August 1664, he aided the English +king Charles II. in his war with the Dutch, until the intervention of +Louis XIV. and Frederick William I. of Brandenburg compelled him to make +a disadvantageous peace in 1666. When Galen again attacked Holland six +years later he was in alliance with Louis, but he soon deserted his new +friend, and fought for the emperor Leopold I. against France. Afterwards +in conjunction with Brandenburg and Denmark he attacked Charles XI. of +Sweden, and conquered the duchy of Bremen. He died at Ahaus on the 19th +of September 1678. Galen showed himself anxious to reform the church, +but his chief energies were directed to increasing his power and +prestige. + + See K. Tucking, _Geschichte des Stifts Munster unter C.B. von Galen_ + (Munster, 1865); P. Corstiens, _Bernard van Galen, Vorst-Bisschop van + Munster_ (Rotterdam, 1872); A. Husing, _Furstbischof C.B. von Galen_ + (Munster, 1887); and C. Brinkmann in the _English Historical Review_, + vol. xxi. (1906). There is in the British Museum a poem printed in + 1666, entitled _Letter to the bishop of Munster containing a + Panegyrick of his heroick achievements in heroick verse_. + + + + +GALEN (or GALENUS), CLAUDIUS, called Gallien by Chaucer and other +writers of the middle ages, the most celebrated of ancient medical +writers, was born at Pergamus, in Mysia, about A.D. 130. His father +Nicon, from whom he received his early education, is described as +remarkable both for excellence of natural disposition and for mental +culture; his mother, on the other hand, appears to have been a second +Xanthippe. In 146 Galen began the study of medicine, and in about his +twentieth year he left Pergamus for Smyrna, in order to place himself +under the instruction of the anatomist and physician Pelops, and of the +peripatetic philosopher Albinus. He subsequently visited other cities, +and in 158 returned from Alexandria to Pergamus. A few years later he +went for the first time to Rome. There he healed Eudemus, a celebrated +peripatetic philosopher, and other persons of distinction; and ere long, +by his learning and unparalleled success as a physician, earned for +himself the titles of "Paradoxologus," the wonder-speaker, and +"Paradoxopoeus," the wonder-worker, thereby incurring the jealousy and +envy of his fellow-practitioners. Leaving Rome in 168, he repaired to +his native city, whence he was soon sent for to Aquileia, in Venetia, by +the emperors Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius. In 170 he returned to +Rome with the latter, who, on departing thence to conduct the war on the +Danube, having with difficulty been persuaded to dispense with his +personal attendance, appointed him medical guardian of his son Commodus. +In Rome Galen remained for some years, greatly extending his reputation +as a physician, and writing some of his most important treatises. It +would appear that he eventually betook himself to Pergamus, after +spending some time at the island of Lemnos, where he learned the method +of preparing a certain popular medicine, the "terra lemnia" or +"sigillata." Whether he ever revisited Rome is uncertain, as also are +the time and place of his death. According to Suidas, he died at the age +of seventy, or in the year 200, in the reign of Septimius Severus. If, +however, we are to trust the testimony of Abul-faraj, his decease took +place in Sicily, when he was in his eightieth year. Galen was one of the +most versatile and accomplished writers of his age. He composed, it is +said, nearly 500 treatises on various subjects, including logic, ethics +and grammar. Of the published works attributed to him, 83 are recognized +as genuine, 19 are of doubtful authenticity, 45 are confessedly +spurious, 19 are fragments, and 15 are notes on the writings of +Hippocrates. + +Galen, who in his youth was carefully trained in the Stoic philosophy, +was an unusually prolific writer on logic. Of the numerous commentaries +and original treatises, a catalogue of which is given in his work _De +propriis libris_, one only has come down to us, the treatise on +_Fallacies in dictione_ ([Greek: Peri ton kata ten lexin sophismaton]). +Many points of logical theory, however, are discussed in his medical and +scientific writings. His name is perhaps best known in the history of +logic in connexion with the fourth syllogistic figure, the first +distinct statement of which was ascribed to him by Averroes. There is no +evidence from Galen's own works that he did make this addition to the +doctrines of syllogism, and the remarkable passage quoted by Minoides +Minas from a Greek commentator on the _Analytics_, referring the fourth +figure to Galen, clearly shows that the addition did not, as generally +supposed, rest on a new principle, but was merely an amplification or +alteration of the indirect moods of the first figure already noted by +Theophrastus and the earlier Peripatetics. + +In 1844 Minas published a work, avowedly from a MS. with the +superscription _Galenus_, entitled [Greek: Galenou eisagoge dialektike]. +Of this work, which contains no direct intimation of a fourth figure, +and which in general exhibits an astonishing mixture of the Aristotelian +and Stoic logic, Prantl speaks with the bitterest contempt. He shows +demonstratively that it cannot be regarded as a writing of Galen's, and +ascribes it to some one or other of the later Greek logicians. A full +summary of its contents will be found in the 1st vol. of the _Geschichte +der Logik_ (pp. 591-610), and a notice of the logical theories of the +true Galen in the same work, pp. 559-577. + + There have been numerous issues of the whole or parts of Galen's + works, among the editors or illustrators of which may be mentioned Jo. + Bapt. Opizo, N. Leonicenus, L. Fuchs, A. Lacuna, Ant. Musa + Brassavolus, Aug. Gadaldinus, Conrad Gesner, Sylvius, Cornarius, + Joannes Montanus, Joannes Caius, Thomas Linacre, Theodore Goulston, + Caspar Hoffman, Rene Chartier, Haller and Kuhn. Of Latin translations + Choulant mentions one in the 15th and twenty-two in the following + century. The Greek text was edited at Venice, in 1525, 5 vols. fol.; + at Basel, in 1538, 5 vols. fol.; at Paris, with Latin version by Rene + Chartier, in 1639, and in 1679, 13 vols. fol.; and at Leipzig, in + 1821-1833, by C.G. Kuhn, considered to be the best, 20 vols. 8vo. An + epitome in English of the works of Hippocrates and Galen, by J.R. + Coxe, was published at Philadelphia in 1846. A new edition of Galen's + smaller works by J. Marquardt, Iwan Muller and G. Helmreich was + published in three volumes at Leipzig in 1884-1909. + + Further details as to the life and an account of the anatomical and + medical knowledge of Galen will be found in the historical articles + under the headings of ANATOMY and MEDICINE. See also Rene Chartier's + Life, in his edition of Galen's works; N.F.J. Eloy, _Dictionnaire + historique de la medecine_, s.v. "Galien," tom. i. (1778); F. Adams's + "Commentary" in his _Medical Works of Paulus Aegineta_ (London and + Aberdeen, 1834); J. Kidd, "A Cursory Analysis of the Works of Galen, + so far as they relate to Anatomy and Physiology," _Trans. Provincial + Med. and Surg. Assoc._ vi., 1837, pp. 299-336; C.V. Daremberg, + _Exposition des connaissances de Galien sur l'anatomie, la physiologie + et la pathologie du systeme nerveux_ (These pour le Doctorat en + Medecine) (Paris, 1841); J.R. Gasquet, "The Practical Medicine of + Galen and his Time," _The British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical + Rev._, vol. xi., 1867, pp. 472-488; and Ilberg, "Die Schriften des + Claudius Galenos," _Rheinisches Museum fur Philologie_, 1889, 1892 and + 1896. + + + + +GALENA, a city and the county-seat of Jo Daviess county, Illinois, +U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the state, on the Galena (formerly the +Fever) river, near its junction with the Mississippi, about 165 m. +W.N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 5005, of whom 918 were foreign-born; +(1910) 4835. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the +Chicago & North-Western and the Illinois Central railways; the Galena +river has been made navigable by government locks at the mouth of the +river, but the river traffic is unimportant. The city is built on rocky +limestone bluffs, which rise rather abruptly on each side of the river, +and a number of the parallel streets, of different levels, are connected +by flights of steps. In Grant Park there is a statue of General U.S. +Grant, who was a resident of Galena at the outbreak of the Civil War. In +the vicinity there are the most important deposits of zinc and lead in +the state, and the city derives its name from the deposits of sulphide +of lead (galena), which were the first worked about here; below the +galena is a zone of zinc carbonate (or smithsonite) ores, which was the +main zone worked between 1860 and 1890; still lower is a zone of blende, +or zinc sulphide, now the principal source of the mineral wealth of the +region. The production of zinc is increasing, but that of lead is +unimportant. The principal manufactures are mining pumps and machinery, +flour, woollen goods, lumber and furniture. Water power is afforded by +the river. Galena was originally a trading post, called by the French +"La Pointe" and by the English "Fever River," the river having been +named after le Fevre, a French trader who settled near its mouth. In +1826 Galena was laid out as a town and received its present name; it was +incorporated in 1835 and was reincorporated in 1882. In 1838 a theatre +was opened, one of whose proprietors was Joseph Jefferson, the father +of the celebrated actor of that name. + + + + +GALENA, a city of Cherokee county, Kansas, U.S.A., in the extreme S.E. +part of the state, on Short Creek and near Spring river. Pop. (1890) +2496; (1900) 10,155, of whom 580 were negroes and 251 were foreign-born; +(1905) 6449; (1910) 6096. It is situated at the intersection of the +Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Kansas City, Fort Scott & Memphis +("Frisco System") railways, in the midst of a lead and zinc region, +extremely valuable deposits of these metals having been discovered in +1877. Smelters and foundries are its principal manufacturing +establishments. Water power in abundance is furnished by the Spring +river. After the discovery of the ore deposits two rival companies +founded Galena and Empire City (pop. in 1905, 982), the former S. of +Short Creek and the latter N. of it. Galena was incorporated in 1877, +and in 1907 Empire City was annexed to it. + + + + +GALENA, an important ore of lead, consisting of lead sulphide (PbS). The +mineral was mentioned by Pliny under this name, and it is sometimes now +known as lead-glance (Ger. _Bleiglanz_). It crystallizes in the cubic +system, and well-developed crystals are of common occurrence; the usual +form is the cube or the cubo-octahedron (fig.). An important character, +and one by which the mineral may always be recognized, is the perfect +cubical cleavage, on which the lustre is brilliant and metallic. The +colour of the mineral and of its streak is lead-grey; it is opaque; the +hardness is 2-1/2 and the specific gravity 7.5. Twinned crystals are not +common, but the presence of polysynthetic twinning is sometimes shown by +fine striations running diagonally or obliquely across the cleavage +surfaces. Large masses with a coarse or fine granular structure are of +common occurrence; the fractured surfaces of such masses present a +spangled appearance owing to the numerous bright cleavages. + +[Illustration] + +The formula PbS corresponds with lead 86.6 and sulphur 13.4%. The +mineral nearly always contains a small amount of silver, and sometimes +antimony, arsenic, copper, gold, selenium, &c. Argentiferous galena is +an important source of silver; this metal is present in amounts rarely +exceeding 1%, and often less than 0.03% (equivalent to 10-3/4 ounces per +ton). Since argentite (Ag2S) is isomorphous with galena, it is probable +that the silver isomorphously replaces lead, but it is to be noted that +native silver has been detected as an enclosure in galena. + +Galena is of wide distribution, and occurs usually in metalliferous +veins traversing crystalline rocks, clay-slates and limestones, and also +as pockets in limestones. It is often associated with blende and +pyrites, and with calcite, fluorspar, quartz, barytes, chalybite and +pearlspar as gangue minerals; in the upper oxidized parts of the +deposits, cerussite and anglesite occur as alteration products. The +mineral has occasionally been observed as a recent formation replacing +organic matter, such as wood; and it is sometimes found in beds of coal. +As small concretionary nodules, it occurs disseminated through sandstone +at Kommern in the Eifel. In the lead-mining districts of Derbyshire and +the north of England the ore occurs as veins and flats in the +Carboniferous Limestone series, whilst in Cornwall the veins traverse +clay-slates. In the Upper Mississippi lead region of Missouri, Illinois, +Iowa and Wisconsin the ore fills large cavities or chambers in +limestone. + +Galena is met with at all places where lead is mined; of localities +which have yielded finely crystallized specimens the following may be +selected for mention: Derbyshire, Alston in Cumberland, Laxey in the +Isle of Man (where crystals measuring almost a foot across have been +found), Neudorf in the Harz, Rossie in New York and Joplin in Missouri. +Good crystals have also been obtained as a furnace product. + +Coarsely grained galena is used for glazing pottery, and is then known +as "potters' ore" or alquifoux. + +The galena group includes several other cubic minerals, such as +argentite (q.v.). Mention may also be made here of clausthalite (lead +selenide, PbSe) and altaite (lead telluride, PbTe), which, with their +lead-grey colour and perfect cubic cleavage, closely resemble galena in +appearance; these species are named after the localities at which they +were originally found, namely, Klausthal in the Harz and the Altai +mountains in Asiatic Russia. Altaite is of interest as being one of the +tellurides found associated with gold. (L. J. S.) + + + + +GALEOPITHECUS, the scientific designation of the Colugo (q.v.) or +Cobego, commonly known as the flying-lemur, and alone representing the +family _Galeopithecidae_. Much uncertainty has prevailed among +naturalists as to the systematic position of this animal, or rather +these animals (for there are two species); and while some have referred +it to the lemurs, others have placed it with the bats, and others again +among the _Insectivora_, as the representative of a special subordinal +group, the _Dermoptera_. Dr H.C. Chapman, who has made a special study +of the creature, writes, however, as follows: "It appears, at least in +the judgment of the author, that _Galeopithecus_ cannot be regarded as +being either a lemur, or insectivore, or bat, but that it stands alone, +the sole representative of an ancient group, _Galeopithecidae_, as +_Hyrax_ does of _Hyracoidea_. While _Galeopithecus_ is but remotely +related to the _Lemuroidea_ and _Insectivora_, it is so closely related +to _Chiroptera_, more particularly in regard to the structure of its +patagium, brain, alimentary canal, genito-urinal apparatus, &c., that +there can be but little doubt that the Chiroptera are the descendants of +Galeopithecus, or, more probably, that both are the descendants of a +Galeopithecus-like ancestor." Without going quite so far as this, it may +be definitely admitted that the colugo is entitled to represent an order +by itself, the characters of which will be as follows: Herbivorous, +climbing, unguiculate mammals, provided with a very extensive +flying-membrane, and having the dental formula i. 2/2, c. 0/1, p. 3/3, +m. 3/3, total 34. The lower incisors are directed forwards and have a +comb-like structure of their crowns, while the outermost of these teeth +and the canines are double-rooted, being in these respects, taken +together, quite unlike those of all other mammals; the cheek-teeth have +numerous sharp cusps; and there is the normal replacement of milk-molars +by premolars. In the skull the orbit is surrounded by bone, and the +tympanic has a bulla and an ossified external meatus. The ulna and +fibula are to some extent inclined backwards; the carpus has a +scapho-lunar; and the feet are five-toed. The hemispheres of the brain +are short and but slightly convoluted; the stomach is simple; there is a +large caecum; the testes are received into inguinal pouches; the uterus +is two-horned; the placenta is discoidal; and there are two pairs of +pectoral teats. A single offspring is produced at a birth. + +[Illustration: Feet of Philippine Colugo, or Flying-Lemur +(_Galeopithecus philippinensis_).] + +It will be obvious that if other representatives of the _Dermoptera_ +were discovered, some of these features might apply only to the family +_Galeopithecidae_. + +There are two species, _Galeopithecus volans_, ranging from Burma, Siam +and the Malay Peninsula to Borneo, Sumatra and Java, and _G. +philippinensis_ of the Philippine group. The former, which is nearly 2 +ft. in total length, is distinguished by its larger upper incisors, +shorter ears and smaller skull. In both species not only are the long +and slender limbs connected by a broad integumentary expansion +extending outwards from the sides of the neck and body, but there is +also a web between the fingers and toes as far as the base of the claws +(fig.); and the hind-limbs are further connected by a similar expansion +passing outwards along the back of the feet to the base of the claws, +and, inwardly, involving the long tail to the tip, forming a true +interfemoral membrane, as in bats. Besides differing from bats +altogether in the form of the anterior limbs and of the double-rooted +outer incisors and canines, _Galeopithecus_ contrasts strongly with that +order in the presence of a large sacculated caecum, and in the great +length of the colon, which is so remarkably short in _Chiroptera_. From +the lemurs, on the other hand, the form of the brain, the character of +the teeth, the structure of the skull, and the deciduate discoidal +placenta at once separate the group. (R. L.*) + + + + +GALERIUS [GALERIUS VALERIUS MAXIMIANUS], Roman emperor from A.D. 305 to +311, was born near Sardica in Thrace. He originally followed his +father's occupation, that of a herdsman, whence his surname of +_Armentarius_ (Lat. _armentum_, herd). He served with distinction as a +soldier under Aurelian and Probus, and in 293 was designated Caesar +along with Constantius Chlorus, receiving in marriage Diocletian's +daughter Valeria, and at the same time being entrusted with the care of +the Illyrian provinces. In 296, at the beginning of the Persian War, he +was removed from the Danube to the Euphrates; his first campaign ended +in a crushing defeat, near Callinicum, but in 297, advancing through the +mountains of Armenia, he gained a decisive victory over Narses (q.v.) +and compelled him to make peace. In 305, on the abdication of Diocletian +and Maximianus, he at once assumed the title of Augustus, with +Constantius his former colleague, and having procured the promotion to +the rank of Caesar of Flavius Valerius Severus, a faithful servant, and +Daia (Maximinus), his nephew, he hoped on the death of Constantius to +become sole master of the Roman world. This scheme, however, was +defeated by the sudden elevation of Constantine at Eboracum (York) on +the death of his father, and by the action of Maximianus and Maxentius +in Italy. After an unsuccessful invasion of Italy in 307 he elevated his +friend Licinius to the rank of Augustus, and, moderating his ambition, +devoted the few remaining years of his life "to the enjoyment of +pleasure and to the execution of some works of public utility." It was +at the instance of Galerius that the first of the celebrated edicts of +persecution against the Christians was published, on the 24th of +February 303, and this policy of repression was maintained by him until +the appearance of the general edict of toleration (311), issued in his +own name and in those of Licinius and Constantine. He died in May 311 +A.D. + + See Zosimus ii. 8-11; Zonaras xii. 31-34; Eutropius ix. 24, x. 1. + + + + +GALESBURG, a city and the county-seat of Knox county, Illinois, U.S.A., +in the N.W. part of the state, 163 m. S.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) +15,264; (1900) 18,607; of whom 3602 were foreign-born; (census, 1910) +22,089. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, and the +Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railways. Knox College (non-sectarian and +coeducational), which was chartered here in 1837 as the "Knox Manual +Labor College" (the present name was adopted in 1857), was opened in +1841, and had in 1907-1908, 31 instructors and 628 students, of whom +more than half were in the Conservatory of Music, a department of the +college, and 79 were in the Academy. Lombard College (coeducational; +Universalist), which was chartered as the "Illinois Liberal Institute" +in 1851, was known as Lombard University (in honour of Benjamin Lombard, +a benefactor) from 1855 to 1899; it includes a College of Liberal Arts, +the Ryder Divinity School (1881), and departments of music and domestic +science, and in 1907-1908 had 18 instructors and 117 students. Here also +are Corpus Christi College (Roman Catholic), St Joseph's Academy (Roman +Catholic) and Brown's Business College (1874). There is a public +library, founded in 1874. The industries consist mainly of the +construction and repairing of steam railway cars (in the shops of the +Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railway) and the manufacture of foundry and +machine-shop products, vitrified brick, agricultural implements and +machinery. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was +$2,217,772, being 52.9% more than in 1900. Galesburg was named in honour +of the Rev. George Washington Gale (1789-1862), a prominent Presbyterian +preacher, who in 1827-1834 had founded the Oneida Manual Labor Institute +at Whitestown, Oneida county, New York. Desiring to establish a college +in the Mississippi Valley to supply "an evangelical and able ministry" +to "spread the Gospel throughout the world," and also wishing to +counteract the influence of pro-slavery men in Illinois, he interested a +number of people in the project, formed a society for colonization, and +in 1836 led the first settlers to Galesburg, the "Mesopotamia in the +West." Knox College was founded to fulfil his educational purpose. +Galesburg was an important "station" of the Underground Railroad, one of +the conditions of membership in the "Presbyterian Church of Galesburg" +(the name of Mr Gale's society) being opposition to slavery; and in 1855 +this caused the church to withdraw from the Presbytery. Galesburg was +chartered as a city in 1857. On the 7th of October 1858 one of the +famous Lincoln-Douglas debates was held in the grounds of Knox College. + + + + +GALGACUS, or perhaps rather CALGACUS, a Caledonian chief who led the +tribes of North Britain against the invading Roman army under Cn. Julius +Agricola about A.D. 85 and was defeated at the battle of Mons Graupius +(Tac. _Agric._ 29). The name recurs much later, in Adamnan's _Life of +Columba_, in the name of a wood near Londonderry, Daire-Calgaich or +Roboretum Calgachi, "the wood of Calgacus": it may be Celtic and denote +"the man with the sword." + + + + +GALIANI, FERDINANDO (1728-1787), Italian economist, was born at Chieti +on the 2nd of December 1728. He was carefully educated by his uncle +Monsignor C. Galiani at Naples and Rome with a view to entering the +Church. Galiani gave early promise of distinction as an economist, and +even more as a wit. At the age of twenty-two, after he had taken orders, +he had produced two works by which his name became widely known far +beyond the bounds of his own Naples. The one, his _Trattato della +moneta_, in which he shows himself a strong supporter of the mercantile +school, deals with many aspects of the question of exchange, but always +with a special reference to the state of confusion then presented by the +whole monetary system of the Neapolitan government. The other, _Raccolta +in Morte del Boia_, established his fame as a humorist, and was highly +popular in Italian literary circles at the end of the 18th century. In +this volume Galiani parodied with exquisite felicity, in a series of +discourses on the death of the public hangman, the styles of the most +pompous and pedantic Neapolitan writers of the day. Galiani's political +knowledge and social qualities now pointed him out to the discriminating +eye of King Charles, afterwards Charles III. of Spain, and his liberal +minister Tanucci, and he was appointed in 1759 secretary to the +Neapolitan embassy at Paris. This post he held for ten years, when he +returned to Naples and was made a councillor of the tribunal of +commerce, and in 1777, minister of the royal domains. His economic +reputation was made by a book written in French and published in Paris, +namely, his _Dialogues sur le commerce des bles_. This work, by its +light and pleasing style, and the vivacious wit with which it abounded, +delighted Voltaire, who spoke of it as a book in the production of which +Plato and Moliere might have been combined! The author, says Pecchio, +treated his arid subject as Fontenelle did the vortices of Descartes, or +Algarotti the Newtonian system of the world. The question at issue was +that of the freedom of the corn trade, then much agitated, and, in +particular, the policy of the royal edict of 1764, which permitted the +exportation of grain so long as the price had not arrived at a certain +height. The general principle he maintains is that the best system in +regard to this trade is to have no system--countries differently +circumstanced requiring, according to him, different modes of treatment. +He fell, however, into some of the most serious errors of the +mercantilists--holding, as indeed did also Voltaire and even Verri, that +one country cannot gain without another losing, and in his earlier +treatise going so far as to defend the action of governments in debasing +the currency. Until his death at Naples on the 30th of October 1787, +Galiani kept up with his old Parisian friends a correspondence, which +was published in 1818. + + See _L'Abate Galiani_, by Alberto Marghieri (1878), and his + correspondence with Tanucci in Viesseux's _L'Archivio storico_ + (Florence, 1878). + + + + +GALICIA (Ger. _Galizien_; Pol. _Halicz_), a crownland of Austria, +bounded E. and N. by Russia, S. by Bukovina and Hungary, and W. by +Austrian and Prussian Silesia. It has an area of 30,299 sq. m., and is +the largest Austrian province. It comprises the old kingdoms of Galicia +and Lodomeria, the duchies of Auschwitz and Zator, and the grand duchy +of Cracow. + +Galicia lies on the northern slopes of the Carpathians, which with their +offshoots cover about a third of the whole area of the country. The +surface gradually sinks down by undulating terraces to the valleys of +the Vistula and Dniester. To the N. and E. of these rivers Galicia forms +a continuation of the great plains of Russia, intersected only by a few +hills, which descend from the plateaus of Poland and Podolia, and which +attain in some places an altitude of 1300 to 1500 ft. The Carpathians, +which, extending in the form of an arc, form the boundary between +Galicia and Hungary, are divided into the West and the East Beskides, +which are separated by the northern ramifications of the massif of the +Tatra. The highest peaks are the Babia Gora (5650 ft.), the Wolowiec +(6773 ft.) and the Cserna Gora (6505 ft.). The principal passes are +those of Zdjar over the Tatra, and of Dukla, Vereczke Korosmezo or +Delatyn in the East Beskides. The river Vistula, which becomes navigable +at Cracow, and forms afterwards the north-western frontier of Galicia, +receives the Sola, the Skawa, the Raba, the Dunajec with its affluents +the Poprad and the Biala, the Wisloka, the San and the Bug. The +Dniester, which rises in the Carpathians, within the territory of +Galicia, becomes navigable at Sambor, and receives on the right the +Stryj, the Swica, the Lomnica and the Bystrzyca, and on the left the +Lipa, the Strypa, the Sereth and the Zbrucz, the boundary river towards +Russia. The Pruth, which also rises in the Carpathians, within the +territory of Galicia, traverses its south-eastern corner and receives +the Czeremosz, the boundary river towards Bukovina. There are few lakes +in the country except mountain tarns; but considerable morasses exist +about the Upper Dneister, the Vistula and the San, while the ponds or +dams in the Podolian valleys are estimated to cover an area of over 200 +sq. m. The most frequented mineral springs are the alkaline springs at +Szczawnica and Krynica, the sulphur springs at Krzesowice, Szklo and +Lubian, and the iodine springs at Iwonicz. + +Exposed to the cold northern and north-eastern winds, and shut out by +the Carpathians from the warm southerly winds, Galicia has the severest +climate in Austria. It has long winters, with an abundant snowfall, +short and wet springs, hot summers and long and steady autumns. The mean +annual temperature at Lemberg is 46.2 deg. F., and at Tarnopol only 43 +deg. F. + +Of the total area 48.45% is occupied by arable land, 11.16% by meadows, +9.19% by pastures, 1.39% by gardens and 25.76% by forests. The soil is +generally fertile, but agriculture is still backward. The principal +products are barley, oats, rye, wheat, maize and leguminous plants. +Galicia has the largest area under potatoes and legumes in the whole of +Austria, and hemp, flax, tobacco and hops are of considerable +importance. The principal mineral products are salt, coal and petroleum. +Salt is extracted at Wieliczka, Bochnia, Bolechow, Dolina, Kalusz and +Kosow. Coals are found in the Cracow district at Jaworzno, at Siersza +near Trzebinia and at Dabrowa. Some of the richest petroleum fields in +Europe are spread in the region of the Carpathians, and are worked at +Boryslaw and Schodnica near Drohobycz, Bobrka and Potok near Krosno, +Sloboda-Rungurska near Kolomea, &c. Great quantities of ozocerite are +also extracted in the petroliferous region of the Carpathians. Other +mineral products are zinc, extracted at Trzebionka and Wodna in the +Cracow region, amounting to 40% of the total zinc production in Austria, +iron ore, marble and various stones for construction. The sulphur mines +of Swoszowice near Cracow, which had been worked since 1598, were +abandoned in 1884. + +The manufacturing industries of Galicia are not highly developed. The +first place is occupied by the distilleries, whose output amounts to +nearly 40% of the total production of spirits in Austria. Then follow +the petroleum refineries and kindred industries, saw-mills and the +fabrication of various wood articles, paper and milling. The sugar +factory at Tlumacz and the tobacco factory at Winniki are amongst the +largest establishments of their kind in Austria. Cloth manufacture is +concentrated at Biala, while the weaving of linen and of woollens is +pursued as a household industry, the former in the Carpathian region, +the latter in eastern Galicia. The commerce, which is mainly in the +hands of the Jews, is very active, and the transit trade to Russia and +to the East is also of considerable importance. + +Galicia had in 1900 a population of 7,295,538, which is equivalent to +241 inhabitants per sq. m. The two principal nationalities are the Poles +(45%) and the Ruthenians (42%), the former predominating in the west and +in the big towns, and the latter in the east. The Poles who inhabit the +Carpathians are distinguished as Goralians (from _gory_, mountain), and +those of the lower regions as Mazures and Cracoviaks. The Ruthenian +highlanders bear the name of Huzulians. The Poles are mostly Roman +Catholics, the Ruthenians are Greek Catholics, and there are over +770,000 Jews, and about 2500 Armenians, who are Catholics and stand +under the jurisdiction of an Armenian archbishop at Lemberg. + +The Roman Catholic Church has an archbishop, at Lemberg, and three +bishops, at Cracow, at Przemysl and at Tarnow, and the Greek Catholic +Church is represented by an archbishop, at Lemberg, and two bishops, at +Przemysl and at Stanislau. At the head of the educational institutions +stand the two universities of Lemberg and Cracow, and the Polish academy +of science at Cracow. + +The local Diet is composed of 151 members, including the 3 archbishops, +the 5 bishops, and the 2 rectors of the universities, and Galicia sends +78 deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes, the +province is divided into 78 districts and 2 autonomous +municipalities--Lemberg (pop. 159,618), the capital, and Cracow +(91,310). Other principal towns are: Przemysl (46,439), Kolomea +(34,188), Tarnow (31,548), Tarnopol (30,368), Stanislau (29,628), Stryj +(23,673), Jaroslau (22,614), Drohobycz (19,146), Podgorze (18,142), +Brody (17,360), Sambor (17,027), Neusandec (15,724), Rzeszow (14,714), +Zloczow (12,209), Grodek (11,845), Horodenka (11,615), Buczacz (11,504), +Sniatyn (11,498), Brzezany (11,244), Kuty (11,127), Boryslaw (10,671), +Chrzanow (10,170), Jaworow (10,090), Bochnia (10,049) and Biala (8265). + +Galicia (or Halicz) took its rise, along with the neighbouring +principality of Lodomeria (or Vladimir), in the course of the 12th +century--the seat of the ruling dynasty being Halicz or Halitch. +Disputes between the Galician and Lodomerian houses led to the +interference of the king of Hungary, Bela III., who in 1190 assumed the +title of king, and appointed his son Andreas lieutenant of the kingdom. +Polish assistance, however, enabled Vladimir, the former possessor, to +expel Andreas, and in 1198 Roman, prince of Lodomeria, made himself +master of Galicia also. On his death in 1205 the struggle between Poland +and Hungary for supremacy in the country was resumed; but in 1215 it was +arranged that Daniel (1205-1264), son of Roman, should be invested with +Lodomeria, and Coloman, son of the Hungarian king, with Galicia. +Coloman, however, was expelled by Mstislav of Novgorod; and in his turn +Andreas, Mstislav's nominee, was expelled by Daniel of Lodomeria, a +powerful prince, who by a flexible policy succeeded in maintaining his +position. Though in 1235 he had recognized the overlordship of Hungary, +yet, when he found himself hard pressed by the Mongolian general Batu, +he called in the assistance of Innocent IV., and accepted the crown of +Galicia from the hands of a papal legate; and again, when Innocent +disappointed his expectation, he returned to his former connexion with +the Greek Church. On the extinction of his line in 1340 Casimir III. of +Poland incorporated Galicia and Lemberg; on Casimir's death in 1370 +Louis the Great of Hungary, in accordance with previous treaties, became +king of Poland, Galicia and Lodomeria; and in 1382, by the marriage of +Louis's daughter with Ladislaus II., Galicia, which he had regarded as +part of his Hungarian rather than of his Polish possessions, became +definitively assigned to Poland. On the first partition of Poland, in +1772, the kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria came to Austria, and to this +was added the district of New or West Galicia in 1795; but at the peace +of Vienna in 1809 West Galicia and Cracow were surrendered to the +grand-duchy of Warsaw, and in 1810 part of East Galicia, including +Tarnopol, was made over to Russia. This latter portion was recovered by +Austria at the peace of Paris (1814), and the former came back on the +suppression of the independent republic of Cracow in 1846. After the +introduction of the constitution of February 1861, Galicia gained a +larger degree of autonomy than any other province in the Austrian +empire. + + See _Die osterreichisch-ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild_, vol. + 19 (Wien, 1885-1902, 24 vols.); _Die Lander Osterreich-Ungarns in Wort + und Bild_, vol. 10 (Wien, 1881-1886, 15 vols.). Remarkable sketches of + Galician life are to be found in the works of the German novelist + Sacher-Masoch (1835-1895). + + + + +GALICIA (the ancient _Gallaecia_ or _Callaecia_, [Greek: Kallaikia] or +[Greek: Kalaikia]), a captaincy-general, and formerly a kingdom, +countship and province, in the north-western angle of Spain; bounded on +the N. by the Bay of Biscay, E. by Leon and Asturias, S. by Portugal, +and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 1,980,515; area, 11,254 sq. m. +In 1833 Galicia was divided for administrative purposes into the +provinces of Corunna, Lugo, Orense and Pontevedra. + +Galicia is traversed by mountain ranges, sometimes regarded as a +continuation of the Cantabrian chain; and its surface is further broken +in the east by the westernmost ridges of that system, which, running in +a south-westerly direction, rise above the basin of the Mino. The high +land north of the headwaters of the Mino forms the sole connecting link +between the Cantabrians properly so-called and the mountains of central +and western Galicia. The average elevation of the province is +considerable, and the maximum height (6593 ft.) is reached in the Pena +Trevinca on the eastern border of Orense. + +The principal river is the Mino (Portuguese _Minho_; Lat. _Minius_; so +named, it is said, from the _minium_ or vermilion found in its bed). +Rising near Mondonedo, within 25 m. of the northern coast, the Mino +enters the Atlantic near the port of Guardia, after a course of 170 m. +S. and S.W. Its lower reaches are navigable by small vessels. Of its +numerous affluents the most important is the Sil, which rises among the +lofty mountains between Leon and Asturias. Among other rivers having a +westerly direction may be mentioned the Tambre, the Ulla and the Lerez +or Ler, which falls into the Atlantic by estuaries or _rias_ called +respectively Ria de Muros y Noya, Ria de Arosa and Ria de Pontevedra. +The rivers of the northern versant, such as the Nera, are, like those of +Asturias, for the most part short, rapid and subject to violent floods. + +The coast-line of Galicia, extending to about 240 m., is everywhere bold +and deeply indented, presenting a large number of secure harbours, and +in this respect forming a marked contrast to the neighbouring province. +The Eo, which bounds Galicia on the east, has a deep estuary, the +Rivadeo or Ribadeo, which offers a safe and commodious anchorage. Vivero +Bay and the Ria del Barquero y Vares are of a similar character; while +the harbour of Ferrol ranks among the best in Europe, and is the chief +naval station on the northern coast of Spain. On the opposite side of +Betanzos Bay (the [Greek: megas limen] or _Portus Magnus_ of the +ancients) is the great port of Corunna or Coruna. The principal port on +the western coast is that formed by the deep and sheltered bay of Vigo, +but there are also good roadsteads at Corcubion under Cape Finisterre, +at Marin and at Carril. + +The climate of the Galician coast is mild and equable, but the interior, +owing to the great elevation (the town of Lugo is 1500 ft. above +sea-level), has a wide range of temperature. The rainfall is +exceptionally large, and snow lies on some of the loftier elevations for +a considerable portion of the year. The soil is on the whole fertile, +and the produce very varied. A considerable quantity of timber is grown +on the high lands, and the rich valley pastures support large herds of +cattle, while the abundance of oaks and chestnuts favours the rearing of +swine. In the lowland districts good crops of maize, wheat, barley, oats +and rye, as well as of turnips and potatoes, are obtained. The fruit +also is of excellent quality and in great variety, although the culture +of the vine is limited to some of the warmer valleys in the southern +districts. The _dehesas_ or moorlands abound in game, and fish are +plentiful in all the streams. The mineral resources of the province, +which are considerable, were known to some extent to the ancients. +Strabo (c. 63 B.C.-A.D. 21) speaks of its gold and tin, and Pliny (A.D. +23-79) mentions the _gemma Gallaica_, a precious stone. Galicia is also +remarkable for the number of its sulphur and other warm springs, the +most important of which are those at Lugo, and those from which Orense +is said to take its name (_Aquae urentes_). + +Ethnologically the Galicians (_Gallegos_) are allied to the Portuguese, +whom they resemble in dialect, in appearance and in habits more than the +other inhabitants of the peninsula. The men are well known all over +Spain and Portugal as hardy, honest and industrious, but for the most +part somewhat unskilled, labourers; indeed the word _Gallego_ has come +to be almost a synonym in Madrid for a "hewer of wood and drawer of +water." It is also used as a term of abuse, meaning "boor." Agriculture +engages the greater part of the resident population, both male and +female; other industries, except the fisheries, are little developed. +The largest town in Galicia is Corunna (pop. 1900, 43,971); Santiago de +Compostela is the ancient capital and an archiepiscopal see; Lugo, Tuy, +Mondonedo and Orense are bishoprics. + +_Gallaecia_, the country of the Galacci, _Callaici_ or _Gallaici_, seems +to have been very imperfectly known to the earlier geographers. +According to Eratosthenes (276-196 B.C.) the entire population of the +peninsula were at one time called _Galatae_. The region properly called +by their name, bounded on the south by the Douro and on the east by the +Navia, was first entered by the Roman legions under Decius Junius Brutus +in 137-136 B.C. (Livy lv., lvi., _Epit._); but the final subjugation +cannot be placed earlier than the time of Augustus (31 B.C.-A.D. 14). On +the partition of Spain, which followed the successful invasions of the +Suevi, Alans and Vandals, Gallaecia fell to the lot of the first named +(A.D. 411). After an independent subsistence of nearly 200 years, the +Suevian kingdom was annexed to the Visigothic dominions under Leovigild +in 585. In 734 it was occupied by the Moors, who in turn were driven out +by Alphonso I. of Asturias, in 739. During the 9th and 10th centuries it +was the subject of dispute between more than one count of Galicia and +the suzerain, and its coasts were repeatedly ravaged by the Normans. +When Ferdinand I. divided his kingdom among his sons in 1063, Galicia +was the portion allotted to Garcia, the youngest of the three. In 1072 +it was forcibly reannexed by Garcia's brother Alphonso VI. of Castile +and thenceforward it remained an integral part of the kingdom of Castile +or of Leon. The honorary title of count of Galicia has frequently been +borne by younger sons of the Spanish sovereign. + + See Annette B. Meakin, _Galicia, the Switzerland of Spain_ (London, + 1909). + + + + +GALIGNANI, GIOVANNI ANTONIO (1752-1821), newspaper publisher, was born +at Brescia, Italy, in 1752. After living some time in London, he went to +Paris, where he started in 1800 an English library, and in 1808 a +monthly publication, the _Repertory of English Literature_. In 1814 he +began to publish, in Paris, _Galignani's Messenger_, a daily paper +printed in English. At his death in 1821 the paper was carried on by his +two sons, Jean-Antoine (1796-1873) and Guillaume (1798-1882). Under +their management it enjoyed a high reputation. Its policy was to promote +good feeling between England and France. The brothers established and +endowed hospitals at Corbeil and at Neuilly-sur-Seine. In recognition of +their generosity the city of Corbeil erected a monument in their honour. +In 1884 the Galignani family disposed of their interest in _Galignani's +Messenger_, and from that date until 1904, when it was discontinued, the +paper appeared under the title of the _Daily Messenger_. + + + + +GALILEE (Heb. [Hebrew: Galil], "border" or "ring," Gr. [Greek: +Galilaia]), a Roman province of Palestine north of Samaria, bounded S. +by Samaria and the Carmel range, E. by the Jordan, N. by the Leontes +(Litani), and W. by the Mediterranean and part of Phoenicia. Its maximum +extent was about 60 m. north to south and 30 east to west. The name in +the Hebrew Scriptures hardly had a definite territorial significance. It +literally means a ring or circuit, and, like analogous words in English, +could be applied to various districts. Thus Joshua (xiii. 2) and Joel +(iii. 4) refer to the _Geliloth_ ("borders, coast") of the Philistines +or of Palestine; Joshua again (xxii. 10, 11) and Ezekiel (xlvii. 8) +mention the Jordan valley plain as the "Geliloth of Jordan" in "the +Eastern Gelilah." In its more restricted connotation, denoting the +district to which it is usually applied or a part thereof, it is found +in Joshua xx. 7, xxi. 32, 1 Chr. vi. 76, as the place where was situated +the town of Kadesh; and in 1 Kings ix. 11, the district of "worthless" +cities given by Solomon to Hiram. In Isa. ix. 1 we find the full name of +the district, Galil ha-Goyim, literally "the ring, circuit or border of +the foreigners"--referring to the Phoenicians, Syrians and Aramaeans, by +whose country the province was on three sides surrounded. In 1 Kings xv. +29 it is specified as one of the districts whose population was deported +by Tiglath-Pileser. Throughout the Old Testament history, however, +Galilee as a whole cannot be said to have a history; the unit of +territorial subdivision was tribal rather than provincial, and though +such important events as those associated with the names of Barak, +Gideon, Gilboa, Armageddon, took place within its borders, yet these +belong rather to the histories of Issachar, Zebulon, Asher or Naphtali, +whose territories together almost correspond with Galilee, than to the +province itself. + +After the Jewish return from exile the population confined itself to +Judaea, and Galilee was left in the possession of the mixed multitude of +successors established there by the Assyrians. When it once more came +into Israelite hands is uncertain; it is generally supposed that its +reconquest was due to John Hyrcanus. Before very long it developed a +nationalism and patriotism as intense as that of Judaea itself, +notwithstanding the contempt with which the metropolitans of Jerusalem +looked down upon the Galilean provincials. Stock proverbial sayings such +as "Out of Galilee cometh no prophet" (though Deborah, Jonah, Elisha, +and probably Hosea, were Galileans) were apparently common. +Provincialism of speech (Matt. xxvi. 73) distinguished the Galileans; it +appears that they confused the gutturals in pronunciation. + +Under the Roman domination Galilee was made a tetrarchate governed by +members of the Herod family. Herod the Great was tetrarch of Galilee in +47 B.C.; in 4 B.C. he was succeeded by his son Antipas. Galilee was the +land of Christ's boyhood and the chief centre of His active work, and in +His various ministries here some of His chief discourses were uttered +(as the Sermon on the Mount, Matt. v.) and some of His chief miracles +performed. + +After the destruction of Jerusalem the Judaean Rabbinic schools took +refuge in the Galilee they had heretofore despised. No ancient remains +of Jewish synagogues exist except those that have been identified in +some of the ancient Galilean towns, such as Tell Hum (Talhum), Kerazeh, +Kefr Bir'im, and elsewhere. One of the chief centres of Rabbinism was +Safed, still a sacred city of the Jews and largely inhabited by members +of that faith. Near here is Meirun, a place much revered by the Jews as +containing the tombs of Hillel, Shammai and Simon ben Yohai; a yearly +festival in honour of these rabbis is here celebrated. At Tiberias also +are the tombs of distinguished Jewish teachers, including Maimonides. + + The province was subdivided into two parts, Upper and Lower Galilee, + the two being divided by a ridge running west to east, which prolonged + would cut the Jordan about midway between Huleh and the Sea of + Galilee. Lower Galilee includes the plains of Buttauf and Esdraelon. + + + Lower Galilee. + + The whole of Galilee presents country more or less disturbed by + volcanic action. In the lower division the hills are all tilted up + towards the east, and broad streams of lava have flowed over the + plateau above the sea of Galilee. In this district the highest hills + are only about 1800 ft. above the sea. The ridge of Nazareth rises + north of the great plain of Esdraelon, and north of this again is the + fertile basin of the Buttauf, separated from the sea-coast plains by + low hills. East of the Buttauf extends the basaltic plateau called + Sahel el Ahma ("the inaccessible plain"), rising 1700 ft. above the + Sea of Galilee. North of the Buttauf is a confused hill country, the + spurs falling towards a broad valley which lies at the foot of the + mountains of Upper Galilee. This broad valley, running westwards to + the coast, is perhaps the old boundary of Zebulun--the valley of + Jiphthah-el (Josh, xix. 14). The great plain of Esdraelon is of + triangular form, bounded by Gilboa on the east and by the ridge which + runs to Carmel on the west. It is 14 m. long from Jenin to the + Nazareth hills, and its southern border is about 20 m. long. It rises + 200 ft. above the sea, the hills on both sides being some 1500 ft. + higher. The whole drainage is collected by the Kishon, which runs + through a narrow gorge at the north-west corner of the plain, + descending beside the ridge of Carmel to the sea. The broad valley of + Jezreel on the east, descending towards the Jordan valley, forms the + gate by which Palestine is entered from beyond Jordan. Mount Tabor + stands isolated in the plain at the north-east corner, and rather + farther south the conical hill called Nebi Duhi rises between Tabor + and Gilboa. The whole of Lower Galilee is well watered. The Kishon is + fed by springs from near Tabor and from a copious stream from the west + side of the plain of Esdraelon. North-west of Nazareth is Wadi el + Melek, an open valley full of springs. The river Belus, just south of + Acre, rising in the sea-coast marshes, drains the whole valley above + identified with Jiphthah-el. On the east the broad valley of Jezreel + is full of magnificent springs, many of which are thermal. The plains + of Esdraelon, and the Buttauf, and the plateau of el-Ahma are all + remarkable for the rich basaltic soil which covers them, in which + corn, cotton, maize, sesame, tobacco, millet and various kinds of + vegetable are grown, while indigo and sugar-cane were cultivated in + former times. The Nazareth hills and Gilboa are bare and white, but + west of Nazareth is a fine oak wood, and another thick wood spreads + over the northern slopes of Tabor. The hills west of the great plain + are partly of bare white chalk, partly covered with dense thickets. + The mountains north of the Buttauf are rugged and covered with scrub, + except near the villages, where fine olive groves exist. The principal + places of importance in Lower Galilee are Nazareth (10,000 + inhabitants), Sepphoris (now Seffuria), a large village standing above + the Buttauf on the spurs of the southern hills, and Jenin (En Gannim), + a flourishing village, with a palm garden (3000 inhabitants). The + ancient capital, Jezreel (Zerin), is now a miserable village on a + precipitous spur of Gilboa; north of this are the small mud hamlets, + Solam (Shunem), Endur (Endor), Nein (Nain); on the west side of the + plain is the ruin of Lejjun (the Legio of the 4th century, which was + then a place of importance). In the hills north of the Buttauf is + Jefat, situated on a steep hill-top, and representing the Jotapata + defended by Josephus. Kefr Kenna, now a flourishing Christian village + at the foot of the Nazareth hills, south of the Buttauf, is one of the + sites identified with Cana of Galilee, and the ruin Kana, on the north + side of the same plain, represents the site pointed out to the + pilgrims of the 12th and 13th centuries. + + + Upper Galilee. + + The mountains are tilted up towards the Sea of Galilee, and the + drainage of the district is towards the north-west. On the south the + rocky range of Jebel Jarmuk rises to nearly 4000 ft. above the sea; on + the east a narrow ridge 2800 ft. high forms the watershed, with steep + eastern slopes falling towards Jordan. Immediately west of the + watershed are two small plateaus covered with basaltic debris, near + el-Jish and Kades. On the west are rugged mountains with deep + intricate valleys. The main drains of the country are--first, Wadi el + 'Ayun, rising north of Jebel Jarmuk, and running north-west as an open + valley; and secondly, Wadi el Ahjar, a rugged precipitous gorge + running north to join the Leontes. The district is well provided with + springs throughout, and the valleys are full of water in the + spring-time. Though rocky and difficult, Upper Galilee is not barren, + the soil of the plateaus is rich, and the vine flourishes in the + higher hills, especially in the neighbourhood of Kefr Bir'im. The + principal town is Safed, perched on a white mountain 2700 ft. above + the sea. It has a population of about 9000, including Jews, Christians + and Moslems. + +Josephus gives a good description of the Galilee of his time in _Wars_, +iii. 3. 2: "The Galileans are inured to war from their infancy, and have +been always very numerous; nor hath the country been ever destitute of +men of courage or wanted a numerous set of them; for their soil is +universally rich and fruitful, and full of plantations of trees of all +sorts, insomuch that it invites the most slothful to take pains in its +cultivation.... Moreover, the cities lie here very thick, and the very +many villages there are here are everywhere full of people." Though the +population is diminished and the cities ruinous, the country is still +remarkable for fertility, thanks to the copiousness of its water-supply +draining from the Lebanon mountains. + +The principal products of the country are corn, wine, oil and soap (from +the olives), with every species of pulse and gourd. + +The antiquities of Galilee include dolmens and rude stone monuments, +rock-cut tombs, and wine-presses, with numerous remains of Byzantine +monasteries and fine churches of the time of the crusades. There are +also remains of Greek architecture in various places; but the most +interesting buildings are the ancient synagogues, of which some eleven +examples are now known. They are rectangular, with the door to the +south, and two rows of columns forming aisles east and west. The +architecture is a peculiar and debased imitation of classic style, +attributed by architects to the 2nd century A.D. In Kefr Bir'im there +were remains of two synagogues, but early in the 20th century one of +them was completely destroyed by a local stone-mason. At Irbid, above +Tiberias, is another synagogue of rather different character. Traces of +synagogues have also been found on Carmel, and at Tireh, west of +Nazareth. It is curious to find the representation of various animals in +relief on the lintels of these buildings. Hebrew inscriptions also +occur, and the carved work of the cornices and capitals is rich though +debased. + +In the 12th century Galilee was the outpost of the Christian kingdom of +Jerusalem, and its borders were strongly protected by fortresses, the +magnificent remains of which still crown the most important strategical +points. Toron (mod. _Tibnin_) was built in 1104, the first fortress +erected by the crusaders, and standing on the summit of the mountains of +Upper Galilee. Beauvoir (Kaukab el-Hawa, built in 1182) stood on a +precipice above Jordan south-west of the Sea of Galilee, and guarded the +advance by the valley of Jezreel; and about the same time Chateau Neuf +(Hunin) was erected above the Huleh lake. Belfort (esh Shukif), on the +north bank of the Leontes, the finest and most important, dates somewhat +earlier; and Montfort (Kalat el Kurn) stood on a narrow spur north-east +of Acre, completing the chain of frontier fortresses. The town of +Banias, with its castle, formed also a strong outpost against Damascus, +and was the scene, in common with the other strongholds, of many +desperate encounters between Moslems and Christians. Lower Galilee was +the last remaining portion of the Holy Land held by the Christians. In +1250 the knights of the Teutonic order owned lands extending round Acre +as far east as the Sea of Galilee, and including Safed. These +possessions were lost in 1291, on the fall of Acre. + +The population of Galilee is mixed. In Lower Galilee the peasants are +principally Moslem, with a sprinkling of Greek Christians round +Nazareth, which is a Christian town. In Upper Galilee, however, there is +a mixture of Jews and Maronites, Druses and Moslems (natives or Algerine +settlers), while the slopes above the Jordan are inhabited by wandering +Arabs. The Jews are engaged in trade, and the Christians, Druses and +Moslems in agriculture; and the Arabs are an entirely pastoral people. + (C. R. C.; R. A. S. M.) + + + + +GALILEE, an architectural term sometimes given to a porch or chapel +which formed the entrance to a church. This is the case at Durham and +Ely cathedrals, and in Lincoln cathedral the name is sometimes given to +the south-west porch. The name is said to be derived from the scriptural +expression "Galilee of the Gentiles" (Matt. iv. 15). Galilees are +supposed to have been used sometimes as courts of law, but they probably +served chiefly for penitents not yet admitted to the body of the church. +The Galilee would also appear to have been the vestibule of an abbey +church where women were allowed to see the monks to whom they were +related, or from which they could hear divine service. The foundation of +what is considered to have been a Galilee exists at the west end of +Fountains Abbey. Sometimes also corpses were placed there before +interment. + + + + +GALILEE, SEA OF, a lake in Palestine consisting of an expansion of the +Jordan, on the latitude of Mt. Carmel. It is 13 m. long, 8 m. broad, 64 +sq. m. in area, 680 ft. below the level of the Mediterranean, and, +according to Merrill and Barrois (who have corrected the excessive depth +said to have been found by Lortet at the northern end), 150 ft. in +maximum depth. It is pear-shaped, the narrow end pointing southward. In +the Hebrew Scriptures it is called the Sea of Chinnereth or Chinneroth +(probably derived from a town of the same name mentioned in Joshua xi. 2 +and elsewhere; the etymology that connects it with [Hebrew: kinor], "a +harp," is very doubtful.) In Josephus and the book of Maccabees it is +named Gennesar; while in the Gospels it is usually called Sea of +Galilee, though once it is called Lake of Gennesaret (Luke v. i) and +twice Sea of Tiberias (John vi. 1, xxi. 1). The modern Arabic name is +_Bahr Tubariya_, which is often rendered "Lake of Tiberias." Pliny +refers to it as the Lake of Taricheae. + +Like the Dead Sea it is a "rift" lake, being part of the great fault +that formed the Jordan-Araba depression. Deposits show that originally +it formed part of the great inland sea that filled this depression in +Pleistocene times. The district on each side of the lake has a number of +hot springs, at least one of which is beneath the sea itself, and has +always shown indications of volcanic and other subterranean +disturbances. It is especially liable to earthquakes. The water of the +sea, though slightly brackish and not very clear, is generally used for +drinking. The shores are for the greater part formed of fine gravel; +some yards from the shore the bed is uniformly covered with fine greyish +mud. The temperature in summer is tropical, but after noon falls about +10 deg. F. owing to strong north-west winds. This range of temperature +affects the water to a depth of about 49 ft.; below that depth the water +is uniformly about 59 deg. F. The sea is set deep in hills which rise on +the east side to a height of about 2000 ft. Sudden and violent storms +(such as are described in Matt. viii. 23, xiv. 22, and the parallel +passages) are often produced by the changes of temperature in the air +resulting from these great differences of level. + + The Sea of Galilee is best seen from the top of the western + precipices. It presents a desolate appearance. On the north the hills + rise gradually from the shore, which is fringed with oleander bushes + and indented with small bays. The ground is here covered with black + basalt. On the west the plateau known as Sahel el-Ahma terminates in + precipices 1700 ft. above the lake, and over these the black rocky + tops called "the Horns of Hattin" are conspicuous objects. On the + south is a broad valley through which the Jordan flows. On the east + are furrowed and rugged slopes, rising to the great plateau of the + Jaulan (Gaulonitis). The Jordan enters the lake through a narrow gorge + between lower hills. A marshy plain, 2-1/2 m. long and 1-1/2 broad, + called el-Batihah, exists immediately east of the Jordan inlet. There + is also on the west side of the lake a small plain called el-Ghuweir, + formed by the junction of three large valleys. It measures 3-1/4 m. + along the shore, and is 1 m. wide. This plain, naturally fertile, but + now almost uncultivated, is supposed to be the plain of Gennesareth, + described by Josephus (B. J. iii. 10, 8). On the east the hills + approach in one place within 40 ft. of the water, but there is + generally a width of about 3/4 of a mile from the hills to the beach. + On the west the flat ground at the foot of the hills has an average + width of about 200 yds. A few scattered palms dot the western shores, + and a palm grove is to be found near Kefr Harib on the south-east. The + hot baths south of Tiberias include seven springs, the largest of + which has a temperature of 137 deg. F. In these springs a distinct + rise in temperature was observed in 1837, when Tiberias and Safed were + destroyed by an earthquake. The plain of Gennesareth, with its + environs, is the best-watered part of the lake-basin. North of this + plain are the five springs of et-Tabighah, the largest of which was + enclosed about a century ago in an octagonal reservoir by 'Ali, son of + Dhahr el-Amir, and the water led off by an aqueduct 52 ft. above the + lake. The Tabighah springs, though abundant, are warm and brackish. At + the north end of the plain is 'Ain et-Tineh ("spring of the + fig-tree"), also a brackish spring with a good stream; south of the + plain is 'Ain el-Bardeh ("the cold spring"), which is sweet, but + scarcely lower in temperature than the others. One of the most + important springs is 'Ain el-Madawwera ("the round spring"), situated + 1 m. from the south end of the plain and half a mile from the shore. + The water rises in a circular well 32 ft. in diameter, and is clear + and sweet, with a temperature of 73 deg. F. The bottom is of loose + sand, and the fish called _coracinus_ by Josephus (B.J. iii. 10, 8) is + here found (see below). Dr Tristram was the first explorer to identify + this fish, and on account of its presence suggested the identification + of the "round spring" with the fountain of _Capharnaum_, which, + according to Josephus, watered the plain of Gennesareth. There is, + however, a difficulty in this identification; there are no ruins at + 'Ain el-Madawwera. + + _Fauna and Flora._--For half the year the hillsides are bare and + steppe-like, but in spring are clothed with a subtropical vegetation. + Oleanders flourish round the lake, and the large papyrus grows at 'Ain + et-Tin as well as at the mouth of the Jordan. The lake swarms with + fish, which are caught with nets by a gild of fishermen, whose boats + are the only representatives of the many ships and boats which plied + on the lake as late as the 10th century. Fishing was a lucrative + industry at an early date, and the Jews ascribed the laws regulating + it to Joshua. The fish, which were classed as clean and unclean, the + good and bad of the parable (Matt. xiii. 47, 48), belong to the genera + _Chromis_, _Barbus_, _Capoeta_, _Discognathus_, _Nemachilus_, + _Blennius_ and _Clarias_; and there is a great affinity between them + and the fish of the East African lakes and streams. There are eight + species of _Chromis_, most of which hatch their eggs and raise their + young in the buccal cavities of the males. The _Chromis simonis_ is + popularly supposed to be the fish from which Peter took the piece of + money (Matt. xvii. 27). _Clarias macracanthus_ (Arab. _Burbur_) is the + _coracinus_ of Josephus. It was found by Lortet in the springs of 'Ain + el-Madawwera, 'Ain et-Tineh and 'Ain et-Tabighah, on the lake shore + where muddy, and in Lake Huleh. It is a scaleless, snake-like fish, + often nearly 5 ft. long, which resembles the _C. anguillaris_ of + Egypt. From the absence of scales it was held by the Jews to be + unclean, and some commentators suppose it to be the serpent of Matt. + vii. 10 and Luke xi. 11. Large numbers of grebes--great crested, + eared, and little,--gulls and pelicans frequent the lake. On its + shores are tortoises, mud-turtles, crayfish and innumerable + sand-hoppers; and at varying depths in the lake several species of + _Melania_, _Melanopsis_, _Neritina_, _Corbicula_ and _Unio_ have been + found. + +_Antiquities._--The principal sites of interest round the lake may be +enumerated from north to west and from south to east. Kerazeh, the +undoubted site of Chorazin, stands on a rocky spur 900 ft. above the +lake, 2 m. north of the shore. Foundations and scattered stones cover +the slopes and the flat valley below. On the west is a rugged gorge. In +the middle of the ruins are the scattered remains of a synagogue of +richly ornamental style built of black basalt. A small spring occurs on +the north. Tell Hum (as the name is generally spelt, though _Talhum_ +would probably be preferable for several reasons) is an important ruin +on the shore, south of the last-mentioned site. The remains consist of +foundations and piles of stones (in spring concealed by gigantic +thistles) extending about half a mile along the shore. The foundations +of a fine synagogue, measuring 75 ft. by 57, and built in white +limestone, have been excavated. A conspicuous building has been erected +close to the water, from the fragments of the Tell Hum synagogue. Since +the 4th century Tell Hum has been pointed out by all the Christian +writers of importance as the site of Capernaum. Some modern geographers +question this identification, but without sufficient reason (see +CAPERNAUM). Minyeh is a ruined site at the north end of the plain of +Gennesareth, 2-1/2 m. from the last, and close to the shore. There are +extensive ruins on flat ground, consisting of mounds and foundations. +Masonry of well-dressed stones has also been here discovered in course +of excavation. Near the ruins are remains of an old khan, which appears +to have been built in the middle ages. This is another suggested +identification for Capernaum; but all the remains belong to the Arab +period. Between Tell Hum and Minyeh is _Tell 'Oreimeh_, the site of a +forgotten Amorite city. + +South of the supposed plain of Gennesareth is Mejdel, commonly supposed +to represent the New Testament town of Magdala. A few lotus trees and +some rock-cut tombs are here found beside a miserable mud hamlet on the +hill slope, with a modern tombhouse (_kubbeh_). Passing beneath rugged +cliffs a recess in the hills is next reached, where stands Tubariya, the +ancient Tiberias or Rakkath, containing 3000 inhabitants, more than half +of whom are Jews. The walls, flanked with round towers, but partly +destroyed by the earthquake of 1837, were built by Dhahr el-Amir, as was +the court-house. The two mosques, now partly ruinous, were erected by +his sons. There are remains of a Crusaders' church, and the tomb of the +celebrated Maimonides is shown in the town, while Rabbi Aqiba and Rabbi +Meir lie buried outside. The ruins of the ancient city, including +granite columns and traces of a sea-wall with towers, stretch southwards +a mile beyond the modern town. An aqueduct in the cliff once brought +water a distance of 9 m. from the south. + +Kerak, at the south end of the lake, is an important site on a peninsula +surrounded by the water of the lake, by the Jordan, and by a broad water +ditch, while on the north-west a narrow neck of land remains. The +plateau thus enclosed is partly artificial, and banked up 50 or 60 ft. +above the water. A ruined citadel remains on the north-west, and on the +east was a bridge over the Jordan; broken pottery and fragments of +sculptured stone strew the site. The ruin of Kerak answers to the +description given by Josephus of the city of Taricheae, which lay 30 +stadia from Tiberias, the hot baths being between the two cities. +Taricheae was situated, as is Kerak, on the shore below the cliffs, and +partly surrounded by water, while before the city was a plain (the +Ghor). Pliny further informs us that Taricheae was at the south end of +the Sea of Galilee. _Sinn en-Nabreh_, a ruin on a spur of the hills +close to the last-mentioned site, represents the ancient Sennabris, +where Vespasian (Josephus, _B.J._ iii. 9, 7) fixed his camp, advancing +from Scythopolis (Beisen) on Taricheae and Tiberias. Sennabris was 30 +stadia from Tiberias, or about the distance of the ruin now existing. + +The eastern shores of the Sea of Galilee have been less fully explored +than the western, and the sites are not so perfectly recovered. The site +of Hippos, one of the cities of Decapolis, is fixed by Clermont-Ganneau +at Khurbet Susieh. Kalat el-Hosn ("castle of the stronghold") is a ruin +on a rocky spur opposite Tiberias. Two large ruined buildings remain, +with traces of an old street and fallen columns and capitals. A strong +wall once surrounded the town; a narrow neck of land exists on the east +where the rock has been scarped. Rugged valleys enclose the site on the +north and south; broken sarcophagi and rock-cut tombs are found beneath +the ruin. This site is not identified; the suggestion that it is Gamala +is doubtful, and not borne out by Josephus (_War_, iv. 1, 1), who says +Gamala was over against Taricheae. Kersa, an insignificant ruin north of +the last, is thought to represent the Gerasa or Gergesa of the 4th +century, situated east of the lake; and the projecting spur of hill +south of this ruin is conjectured to be the place where the swine "ran +violently down a steep place" (Matt. viii. 32). + (C. R. C; C. W. W.; R. A. S. M.) + + + + +GALILEO GALILEI (1564-1642), Italian astronomer and experimental +philosopher, was born at Pisa on the 15th of February 1564. His father, +Vincenzio, was an impoverished descendant of a noble Florentine house, +which had exchanged the surname of Bonajuti for that of Galilei, on the +election, in 1343, of one of its members, Tommaso de' Bonajuti, to the +college of the twelve Buonuomini. The family, which was nineteen times +represented in the signoria, and in 1445 gave a gonfalonier to Florence, +flourished with the republic and declined with its fall. Vincenzio +Galilei was a man of better parts than fortune. He was a competent +mathematician, wrote with considerable ability on the theory and +practice of music, and was especially distinguished amongst his +contemporaries for the grace and skill of his performance upon the lute. +By his wife, Giulia Ammannati of Pescia, he had three sons and four +daughters. + +From his earliest childhood Galileo, the eldest of the family, was +remarkable for intellectual aptitude as well as for mechanical +invention. His favourite pastime was the construction of original and +ingenious toy-machines; but his application to literary studies was +equally conspicuous. In the monastery of Vallombrosa, near Florence, +where his education was principally conducted, he not only made himself +acquainted with the best Latin authors, but acquired a fair command of +the Greek tongue, thus laying the foundation of his brilliant and +elegant style. From one of the monks he also received instruction in +logic; but the subtleties of the scholastic science were thoroughly +distasteful to him. A document published by F. Selmi in 1864 proves that +he was at this time so far attracted towards a religious life as to have +joined the novitiate; but his father, who had other designs for him, +seized the opportunity of an attack of ophthalmia to withdraw him +permanently from the care of the monks. Having had personal experience +of the unremunerative character both of music and of mathematics, he +desired that his son should apply himself to the cultivation of +medicine, and, not without some straining of his slender resources, +placed him, before he had completed his eighteenth year, at the +university of Pisa. He accordingly matriculated there on the 5th of +November 1581, and immediately entered upon attendance at the lectures +of the celebrated physician and botanist, Andrea Cesalpino. + +The natural gifts of the young student seemed at this time equally ready +to develop in any direction towards which choice or hazard might incline +them. In musical skill and invention he already vied with the best +professors of the art in Italy; his personal taste would have led him to +choose painting as his profession, and one of the most eminent artists +of his day, Lodovico Cigoli, owned that to his judgment and counsel he +was mainly indebted for the success of his works. In 1581, while +watching a lamp set swinging in the cathedral of Pisa, he observed that, +whatever the range of its oscillations, they were invariably executed in +equal times. The experimental verification of this fact led him to the +important discovery of the isochronism of the pendulum. He at first +applied the new principle to pulse-measurement, and more than fifty +years later turned it to account in the construction of an astronomical +clock. Up to this time he was entirely ignorant of mathematics, his +father having carefully held him aloof from a study which he rightly +apprehended would lead to his total alienation from that of medicine. +Accident, however, frustrated this purpose. A lesson in geometry, given +by Ostilio Ricci to the pages of the grand-ducal court, chanced, +tradition avers, to have Galileo for an unseen listener; his attention +was riveted, his dormant genius was roused, and he threw all his +energies into the new pursuit thus unexpectedly presented to him. With +Ricci's assistance, he rapidly mastered the elements of the science, and +eventually extorted his father's reluctant permission to exchange +Hippocrates and Galen for Euclid and Archimedes. In 1585 he was +withdrawn from the university, through lack of means, before he had +taken a degree, and returned to Florence, where his family habitually +resided. We next hear of him as lecturing before the Florentine Academy +on the site and dimensions of Dante's _Inferno_; and he shortly +afterwards published an essay descriptive of his invention of the +hydrostatic balance, which rapidly made his name known throughout Italy. +His first patron was the Marchese Guidubaldo del Monte of Pesaro, a man +equally eminent in science, and influential through family connexions. +At the Marchese's request he wrote, in 1588, a treatise on the centre of +gravity in solids, which obtained for him, together with the title of +"the Archimedes of his time," the honourable though not lucrative post +of mathematical lecturer at the Pisan university. During the ensuing two +years (1589-1591) he carried on that remarkable series of experiments by +which he established the first principles of dynamics and earned the +undying hostility of bigoted Aristotelians. From the leaning tower of +Pisa he afforded to all the professors and students of the university +ocular demonstration of the falsehood of the Peripatetic dictum that +heavy bodies fall with velocities proportional to their weights, and +with unanswerable logic demolished all the time-honoured maxims of the +schools regarding the motion of projectiles, and elemental weight or +levity. But while he convinced, he failed to conciliate his adversaries. +The keen sarcasm of his polished rhetoric was not calculated to soothe +the susceptibilities of men already smarting under the deprivation of +their most cherished illusions. He seems, in addition, to have +compromised his position with the grand-ducal family by the imprudent +candour with which he condemned a machine for clearing the port of +Leghorn, invented by Giovanni de' Medici, an illegitimate son of Cosmo +I. Princely favour being withdrawn, private rancour was free to show +itself. He was publicly hissed at his lecture, and found it prudent to +resign his professorship and withdraw to Florence in 1591. Through the +death of his father in July of that year family cares and +responsibilities devolved upon him, and thus his nomination to the chair +of mathematics at the university of Padua, secured by the influence of +the Marchese Guidubaldo with the Venetian senate, was welcome both as +affording a relief from pecuniary embarrassment and as opening a field +for scientific distinction. + +His residence at Padua, which extended over a period of eighteen years, +from 1592 to 1610, was a course of uninterrupted prosperity. His +appointment was three times renewed, on each occasion with the +expressions of the highest esteem on the part of the governing body, and +his yearly salary was progressively raised from 180 to 1000 florins. His +lectures were attended by persons of the highest distinction from all +parts of Europe, and such was the charm of his demonstrations that a +hall capable of containing 2000 people had eventually to be assigned for +the accommodation of the overflowing audiences which they attracted. His +invention of the proportional compass or sector--an implement still used +in geometrical drawing--dates from 1597; and about the same time he +constructed the first thermometer, consisting of a bulb and tube filled +with air and water, and terminating in a vessel of water. In this +instrument the results of varying atmospheric pressure were not +distinguishable from the expansive and contractive effects of heat and +cold, and it became an efficient measure of temperature only when +Rinieri, in 1646, introduced the improvement of hermetically sealing the +liquid in glass. The substitution, in 1670, of mercury for water +completed the modern thermometer. + +Galileo seems, at an early period of his life, to have adopted the +Copernican theory of the solar system, and was deterred from avowing his +opinions--as is proved by his letter to Kepler of August 4, 1597--by the +fear of ridicule rather than of persecution. The appearance, in September +1604, of a new star in the constellation Serpentarius afforded him indeed +an opportunity, of which he eagerly availed himself, for making an +onslaught upon the Aristotelian axiom of the incorruptibility of the +heavens; but he continued to conform his public teachings in the main to +Ptolemaic principles, until the discovery of a novel and potent implement +of research in the shape of the telescope (q.v.) placed at his command +startling and hitherto unsuspected evidence as to the constitution and +mutual relations of the heavenly bodies. Galileo was not the original +inventor of the telescope.[1] That honour must be assigned to Johannes +Lippershey, an obscure optician of Middleburg, who, on the 2nd of October +1608, petitioned the states-general of the Low Countries for exclusive +rights in the manufacture of an instrument for increasing the apparent +size of remote objects. A rumour of the new invention, which reached +Venice in June 1609, sufficed to set Galileo on the track; and after one +night's profound meditation on the principles of refraction, he succeeded +in producing a telescope of threefold magnifying power. Upon this first +attempt he rapidly improved, until he attained to a power of thirty-two, +and his instruments, of which he manufactured hundreds with his own +hands, were soon in request in every part of Europe. Two lenses only--a +plano-convex and a plano-concave--were needed for the composition of +each, and this simple principle is that still employed in the +construction of opera-glasses. Galileo's direction of his new instrument +to the heavens formed an era in the history of astronomy. Discoveries +followed upon it with astounding rapidity and in bewildering variety. The +_Sidereus Nuncius_, published at Venice early in 1610, contained the +first-fruits of the new mode of investigation, which were sufficient to +excite learned amazement on both sides of the Alps. The mountainous +configuration of the moon's surface was there first described, and the +so-called "phosphorescence" of the dark portion of our satellite +attributed to its true cause--namely, illumination by sunlight reflected +from the earth.[2] All the time-worn fables and conjectures regarding the +composition of the Milky Way were at once dissipated by the simple +statement that to the eye, reinforced by the telescope, it appeared as a +congeries of lesser stars, while the great nebulae were equally declared +to be resolvable into similar elements. But the discovery which was at +once perceived to be most important in itself, and most revolutionary in +its effects, was that of Jupiter's satellites, first seen by Galileo on +the 7th of January 1610, and by him named _Sidera Medicea_, in honour of +the grand-duke of Tuscany, Cosmo II., who had been his pupil, and was +about to become his employer. An illustration is, with the general run of +mankind, more powerful to convince than an argument; and the cogency of +the visible plea for the Copernican theory offered by the miniature +system, then first disclosed to view, was recognizable in the triumph of +its advocates as well as in the increased acrimony of its opponents. + +In September 1610 Galileo finally abandoned Padua for Florence. His +researches with the telescope had been rewarded by the Venetian senate +with the appointment for life to his professorship, at an +unprecedentedly high salary. His discovery of the "Medicean Stars" was +acknowledged by his nomination (July 12, 1610) as philosopher and +mathematician extraordinary to the grand-duke of Tuscany. The emoluments +of this office, which involved no duties save that of continuing his +scientific labours, were fixed at 1000 scudi; and it was the desire of +increased leisure, rather than the promptings of local patriotism, which +induced him to accept an offer the original suggestion of which had +indeed come from himself. Before the close of 1610 the memorable cycle +of discoveries begun in the previous year was completed by the +observation of the ansated or, as it appeared to Galileo, triple form of +Saturn (the ring-formation was first recognized by Christiaan Huygens in +1655), of the phases of Venus, and of the spots upon the sun. As regards +sun-spots, however, Johann Fabricius of Osteel in Friesland can claim +priority of publication, if not of actual detection. In the spring of +1611 Galileo visited Rome, and exhibited in the gardens of the Quirinal +Palace the telescopic wonders of the heavens to the most eminent +personages at the pontifical court. Encouraged by the flattering +reception accorded to him, he ventured, in his _Letters on the Solar +Spots_, printed at Rome in 1613, to take up a more decided position +towards that doctrine on the establishment of which, as he avowed in a +letter to Belisario Vinta, secretary to the grand-duke, "all his life +and being henceforward depended." Even in the time of Copernicus some +well-meaning persons, especially those of the reformed persuasion, had +suspected a discrepancy between the new view of the solar system and +certain passages of Scripture--a suspicion strengthened by the +anti-Christian inferences drawn from it by Giordano Bruno; but the +question was never formally debated until Galileo's brilliant +disclosures, enhanced by his formidable dialectic and enthusiastic zeal, +irresistibly challenged for it the attention of the authorities. +Although he had no desire to raise the theological issue, it must be +admitted that, the discussion once set on foot, he threw himself into it +with characteristic impetuosity, and thus helped to precipitate a +decision which it was his interest to avert. In December 1613 a +Benedictine monk named Benedetto Castelli, at that time professor of +mathematics at the university of Pisa, wrote to inform Galileo of a +recent discussion at the grand-ducal table, in which he had been called +upon to defend the Copernican doctrine against theological objections. +This task Castelli, who was a steady friend and disciple of the Tuscan +astronomer, seems to have discharged with moderation and success. +Galileo's answer, written, as he said himself, _currente calamo_, was an +exposition of a formal theory as to the relations of physical science to +Holy Writ, still further developed in an elaborate apology addressed by +him in the following year (1614) to Christina of Lorraine, dowager +grand-duchess of Tuscany. Not satisfied with explaining adverse texts, +he met his opponents with unwise audacity on their own ground, and +endeavoured to produce scriptural confirmation of a system which seemed +to the ignorant many an incredible paradox, and to the scientific few a +beautiful but daring innovation. The rising agitation on the subject, +fomented for their own purposes by the rabid Aristotelians of the +schools, was heightened rather than allayed by these manifestoes, and on +the fourth Sunday of the following Advent found a voice in the pulpit of +Santa Maria Novella. Padre Caccini's denunciation of the new astronomy +was indeed disavowed and strongly condemned by his superiors; +nevertheless, on the 5th of February 1615, another Dominican monk named +Lorini laid Galileo's letter to Castelli before the Inquisition. + +Cardinal Robert Bellarmin was at that time by far the most influential +member of the Sacred College. He was a man of vast learning and upright +piety, but, although personally friendly to Galileo, there is no doubt +that he saw in his scientific teachings a danger to religion. The year +1615 seems to have been a period of suspense. Galileo received, as the +result of a conference between Cardinals Bellarmin and Del Monte, a +semi-official warning to avoid theology, and limit himself to physical +reasoning. "Write freely," he was told by Monsignor Dini, "but keep +outside the sacristy." Unfortunately, he had already committed himself +to dangerous ground. In December he repaired personally to Rome, full of +confidence that the weight of his arguments and the vivacity of his +eloquence could not fail to convert the entire pontifical court to his +views. He was cordially received, and eagerly listened to, but his +imprudent ardour served but to injure his cause. On the 24th of February +1616 the consulting theologians of the Holy Office characterized the two +propositions--that the sun is immovable in the centre of the world, and +that the earth has a diurnal motion of rotation--the first as "absurd in +philosophy, and formally heretical, because expressly contrary to Holy +Scripture," and the second as "open to the same censure in philosophy, +and at least erroneous as to faith." Two days later Galileo was, by +command of the pope (Paul V.), summoned to the palace of Cardinal +Bellarmin, and there officially admonished not thenceforward to "hold, +teach or defend" the condemned doctrine. This injunction he promised to +obey. On the 5th of March the Congregation of the Index issued a decree +reiterating, with the omission of the word "heretical," the censure of +the theologians, suspending, _usque corrigatur_, the great work of +Copernicus, _De revolutionibus orbium coelestium_, and absolutely +prohibiting a treatise by a Carmelite monk named Foscarini, which +treated the same subject from a theological point of view. At the same +time it was given to be understood that the new theory of the solar +system might be held _ex hypothesi_, and the trivial verbal alterations +introduced into the Polish astronomer's book in 1620, when the work of +revision was completed by Cardinal Gaetani, confirmed this +interpretation. This edict, it is essential to observe, the +responsibility for which rests with a disciplinary congregation in no +sense representing the church, was never confirmed by the pope, and was +virtually repealed in 1757 under Benedict XIV. + +Galileo returned to Florence three months later, not ill-pleased, as his +letters testify, with the result of his visit to Rome. He brought with +him, for the refutation of calumnious reports circulated by his enemies, +a written certificate from Cardinal Bellarmin, to the effect that no +abjuration had been required of or penance imposed upon him. During a +prolonged audience he had received from the pope assurances of private +esteem and personal protection; and he trusted to his dialectical +ingenuity to find the means of presenting his scientific convictions +under the transparent veil of an hypothesis. Although a sincere +Catholic, he seems to have laid but little stress on the secret +admonition of the Holy Office, which his sanguine temperament encouraged +him gradually to dismiss from his mind. He preserved no written +memorandum of its terms, and it was represented to him, according to his +own deposition in 1633, solely by Cardinal Bellarmin's certificate, in +which, for obvious reasons, it was glossed over rather than expressly +recorded. For seven years, nevertheless, during which he led a life of +studious retirement in the Villa Segni at Bellosguardo, near Florence, +he maintained an almost unbroken silence. At the end of that time he +appeared in public with his _Saggiatore_, a polemical treatise written +in reply to the _Libra astronomica_ of Padre Grassi (under the pseudonym +of Lotario Sarsi), the Jesuit astronomer of the Collegio Romano. The +subject in debate was the nature of comets, the conspicuous appearance +of three of which bodies in the year 1618 furnished the occasion of the +controversy. Galileo's views, although erroneous, since he held comets +to be mere atmospheric emanations reflecting sunlight after the +evanescent fashion of a halo or a rainbow, were expressed with such +triumphant vigour, and embellished with such telling sarcasms, that his +opponent did not venture upon a reply. The _Saggiatore_ was printed at +Rome in October 1623 by the Academy of the Lincei, of which Galileo was +a member, with a dedication to the new pope, Urban VIII., and +notwithstanding some passages containing a covert defence of Copernican +opinions, was received with acclamation by ecclesiastical, no less than +by scientific authorities. + +Everything seemed now to promise a close of unbroken prosperity to +Galileo's career. Maffeo Barberini, his warmest friend and admirer in +the Sacred College, was, by the election of the 8th of August 1623, +seated on the pontifical throne; and the marked distinction with which +he was received on his visit of congratulation to Rome in 1624 +encouraged him to hope for the realization of his utmost wishes. He +received every mark of private favour. The pope admitted him to six long +audiences in the course of two months, wrote an enthusiastic letter to +the grand-duke praising the great astronomer, not only for his +distinguished learning, but also for his exemplary piety, and granted a +pension to his son Vincenzio, which was afterwards transferred to +himself, and paid, with some irregularities, to the end of his life. But +on the subject of the decree of 1616, the revocation of which Galileo +had hoped to obtain through his personal influence, he found him +inexorable. Yet there seemed reason to expect that it would at least be +interpreted in a liberal spirit, and Galileo's friends encouraged his +imprudent confidence by eagerly retailing to him every papal utterance +which it was possible to construe in a favourable sense. To Cardinal +Hohenzollern, Urban was reported to have said that the theory of the +earth's motion had not been and could not be condemned as heretical, but +only as rash; and in 1630 the brilliant Dominican monk Tommaso +Campanella wrote to Galileo that the pope had expressed to him in +conversation his disapproval of the prohibitory decree. Thus, in the +full anticipation of added renown, and without any misgiving as to +ulterior consequences, Galileo set himself, on his return to Florence, +to complete his famous but ill-starred work, the _Dialogo dei due +massimi sistemi del mondo_. Finished in 1630, it was not until January +1632 that it emerged from the presses of Landini at Florence. The book +was originally intended to appear in Rome, but unexpected obstacles +interposed. The Lincean Academy collapsed with the death of Prince +Federigo Cesi, its founder and president; an outbreak of plague impeded +communication between the various Italian cities; and the _imprimatur_ +was finally extorted, rather than accorded, under the pressure of +private friendship and powerful interest. A tumult of applause from +every part of Europe followed its publication; and it would be difficult +to find in any language a book in which animation and elegance of style +are so happily combined with strength and clearness of scientific +exposition. Three interlocutors, named respectively Salviati, Sagredo, +and Simplicio, take part in the four dialogues of which the work is +composed. The first-named expounds the views of the author; the second +is an eager and intelligent listener; the third represents a +well-meaning but obtuse Peripatetic, whom the others treat at times with +undisguised contempt. Salviati and Sagredo took their names from two of +Galileo's early friends, the former a learned Florentine, the latter a +distinguished Venetian gentleman; Simplicio ostensibly derived his from +the Cilician commentator of Aristotle, but the choice was doubtless +instigated by a sarcastic regard to the double meaning of the word. +There were not wanting those who insinuated that Galileo intended to +depict the pope himself in the guise of the simpleton of the party; and +the charge, though preposterous in itself, was supported by certain +imprudences of expression, which Urban was not permitted to ignore. + +It was at once evident that the whole tenor of this remarkable work was +in flagrant contradiction with the edict passed sixteen years before its +publication, as well as with the author's personal pledge of conformity +to it. The ironical submission with which it opened, and the assumed +indetermination with which it closed, were hardly intended to mask the +vigorous assertion of Copernican principles which formed its substance. +It is a singular circumstance, however, that the argument upon which +Galileo mainly relied as furnishing a physical demonstration of the +truth of the new theory rested on a misconception. The ebb and flow of +the tides were, he asserted, a visible proof of the terrestrial double +movement, since they resulted from inequalities in the absolute +velocities through space of the various parts of the earth's surface, +due to its rotation. To this notion, which took its rise in a confusion +of thought, he attached capital importance, and he treated with scorn +Kepler's suggestion that a certain occult attraction of the moon was in +some way concerned in the phenomenon. The theological censures which the +book did not fail to incur were not slow in making themselves felt. +Towards the end of August the sale was prohibited; on the 1st of +October the author was cited to Rome by the Inquisition. He pleaded his +age, now close upon seventy years, his infirm health, and the obstacles +to travel caused by quarantine regulations; but the pope was sternly +indignant at what he held to be his ingratitude and insubordination, and +no excuse was admitted. At length, on the 13th of February 1633, he +arrived at the residence of Niccolini, the Tuscan ambassador to the +pontifical court, and there abode in retirement for two months. From the +12th to the 30th of April he was detained in the palace of the +Inquisition, where he occupied the best apartments and was treated with +unexampled indulgence. On the 30th he was restored to the hospitality of +Niccolini, his warm partisan. The accusation against him was that he had +written in contravention of the decree of 1616, and in defiance of the +command of the Holy Office communicated to him by Cardinal Bellarmin; +and his defence consisted mainly in a disavowal of his opinions, and an +appeal to his good intentions. On the 21st of June he was finally +examined under menace of torture; but he continued to maintain his +assertion that after its condemnation by the Congregation of the Index, +he had never held the Copernican theory. Since the publication of the +documents relating to this memorable trial, there can no longer be any +doubt, not only that the threat of torture was not carried into +execution, but that it was never intended that it should be. On the 22nd +of June, in the church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Galileo read his +recantation, and received his sentence. He was condemned, as "vehemently +suspected of heresy," to incarceration at the pleasure of the tribunal, +and by way of penance was enjoined to recite once a week for three years +the seven penitential psalms. This sentence was signed by seven +cardinals, but did not receive the customary papal ratification. The +legend according to which Galileo, rising from his knees after repeating +the formula of abjuration, stamped on the ground, and exclaimed, "_Eppur +si muove!_" is, as may readily be supposed, entirely apocryphal. Its +earliest ascertained appearance is in the Abbe Irailh's _Querelles +litteraires_ (vol. iii. p. 49, 1761). + +Galileo remained in the custody of the Inquisition from the 21st to the +24th of June, on which day he was relegated to the Villa Medici on the +Trinita de' Monti. Thence, on the 6th of July, he was permitted to +depart for Siena, where he spent several months in the house of the +archbishop, Ascanio Piccolomini, one of his numerous and trusty friends. +It was not until December that his earnest desire of returning to +Florence was realized, and the remaining eight years of his life were +spent in his villa at Arcetri called "Il Giojello," in the strict +seclusion which was the prescribed condition of his comparative freedom. +Domestic afflictions combined with numerous and painful infirmities to +embitter his old age. His sister-in-law and her whole family, who came +to live with him on his return from Rome, perished shortly afterwards of +the plague; and on the 2nd of April 1634 died, to the inexpressible +grief of her father, his eldest and best-beloved daughter, a nun in the +convent of San Matteo at Arcetri. Galileo was never married; but by a +Venetian woman named Marina Gamba he had three children--a son who +married and left descendants, and two daughters who took the veil at an +early age. His prodigious mental activity continued undiminished to the +last. In 1636 he completed his _Dialoghi delle nuove scienze_, in which +he recapitulated the results of his early experiments and mature +meditations on the principles of mechanics. This in many respects his +most valuable work was printed by the Elzevirs at Leiden in 1638, and +excited admiration equally universal and more lasting than that accorded +to his astronomical treatises. His last telescopic discovery--that of +the moon's diurnal and monthly librations--was made in 1637, only a few +months before his eyes were for ever closed in hopeless blindness. It +was in this condition that Milton found him when he visited him at +Arcetri in 1638. But the fire of his genius was not even yet extinct. He +continued his scientific correspondence with unbroken interest and +undiminished logical acumen; he thought out the application of the +pendulum to the regulation of clockwork, which Huygens successfully +realized fifteen years later; and he was engaged in dictating to his +disciples, Viviani and Torricelli, his latest ideas on the theory of +impact when he was seized with the slow fever which in two months +brought him to the grave. On the 8th of January 1642 he closed his long +life of triumph and humiliation, which just spanned the interval between +the death of Michelangelo and the birth of Isaac Newton. + +The direct services which Galileo rendered to astronomy are virtually +summed up in his telescopic discoveries. To the theoretical perfection +of the science he contributed little or nothing. He pointed out indeed +that the so-called "third motion," introduced by Copernicus to account +for the constant parallelism of the earth's axis, was a superfluous +complication. But he substituted the equally unnecessary hypothesis of a +magnetic attraction, and failed to perceive that the phenomenon to be +explained was, in relation to absolute space, not a movement but the +absence of movement. The circumstance, however, which most seriously +detracts from his scientific reputation is his neglect of the +discoveries made during his lifetime by the greatest of his +contemporaries. Kepler's first and second laws were published in 1609, +and his third ten years later. By these momentous inductions the +geometrical theory of the solar system was perfected, and a hitherto +unimagined symmetry was perceived to regulate the mutual relations of +its members. But by Galileo they were passed over in silence. In his +_Dialogo dei massimi sistemi_, printed not less than thirteen years +after the last of the three laws had been given to the world, the +epicycles by which Copernicus, adhering to the ancient postulate of +uniform circular motion, had endeavoured to reduce to theory the +irregularities of the planetary movements, were neither expressly +adopted nor expressly rejected; and the conclusion seems inevitable that +this grave defection from the cause of progress was due to his perhaps +unconscious reluctance to accept discoveries which he had not +originated. His name is nevertheless justly associated with that vast +extension of the bounds of the visible universe which has rendered +modern astronomy the most sublime of sciences, and his telescopic +observations are a standing monument to his sagacity and acumen. + +With the sure instinct of genius, he seized the characteristic features +of the phenomena presented to his attention, and his inferences, except +when distorted by polemical exigencies, have been strikingly confirmed +by modern investigations. Of his two capital errors, regarding +respectively the theory of the tides and the nature of comets, the first +was insidiously recommended to him by his passionate desire to find a +physical confirmation of the earth's double motion; the second was +adopted for the purpose of rebutting an anti-Copernican argument founded +on the planetary analogies of those erratic subjects of the sun. Within +two years of their first discovery, he had constructed approximately +accurate tables of the revolutions of Jupiter's satellites, and he +proposed their frequent eclipses as a means of determining longitudes, +not only on land, but at sea. This method, on which he laid great +stress, and for the facilitation of which he invented a binocular glass, +and devised some skilful mechanical contrivances, was offered by him in +1616 to the Spanish government, and afterwards to that of Tuscany, but +in each case unsuccessfully; and the close of his life was occupied with +prolonged but fruitless negotiations on the same subject with the +states-general of Holland. The idea, though ingenious, has been found of +little practical utility at sea. + +A series of careful observations made him acquainted with the principal +appearances revealed by modern instruments in the solar spots. He +pointed out that they were limited to a certain defined zone on the +sun's surface; he noted the _faculae_ with which they are associated, +the penumbra by which they are bordered, their slight proper motions and +their rapid changes of form. He inferred from the regularity of their +general movements the rotation of the sun on its axis in a period of +little less than a month; and he grounded on the varying nature of the +paths seemingly traversed by them a plausible, though inconclusive, +argument in favour of the earth's annual revolution. Twice in the year, +he observed, they seem to travel across the solar disk in straight +lines; at other times, in curves. These appearances he referred with +great acuteness to the slight inclination of the sun's axis of rotation +to the plane of the ecliptic. Thus, when the earth finds herself in the +plane of the sun's equator, which occurs at two opposite points of her +orbit, the spots, travelling in circles parallel with that plane, +necessarily appear to describe right lines; but when the earth is above +or below the equatorial level, the paths of the spots open out into +curves turned downwards or upwards, according to the direction in which +they are seen. But the explanation of this phenomenon is equally +consistent with the geocentric as with the heliocentric theory of the +solar system. The idea of a universal force of gravitation seems to have +hovered on the borders of this great man's mind, without ever fully +entering it. He perceived the analogy between the power which holds the +moon in the neighbourhood of the earth, and compels Jupiter's satellites +to circulate round their primary, and the attraction exercised by the +earth on bodies at its surface;[3] but he failed to conceive the +combination of central force with tangential velocity, and was disposed +to connect the revolutions of the planets with the axial rotation of the +sun. This notion, it is plain, tended rather towards Descartes's theory +of vortices than towards Newton's theory of gravitation. More valid +instances of the anticipation of modern discoveries may be found in his +prevision that a small annual parallax would eventually be found for +some of the fixed stars, and that extra-Saturnian planets would at some +future time be ascertained to exist, and in his conviction that light +travels with a measurable, although, in relation to terrestrial +distances, infinite velocity. + +The invention of the microscope, attributed to Galileo by his first +biographer, Vincenzio Viviani, does not in truth belong to him. Such an +instrument was made as early as 1590 by Zacharias Jansen of Middleburg; +and although Galileo discovered, in 1610, a means of adapting his +telescope to the examination of minute objects, he did not become +acquainted with the compound microscope until 1624 when he saw one of +Drebbel's instruments in Rome, and, with characteristic ingenuity, +immediately introduced some material improvements into its construction. + +The most substantial, if not the most brilliant part of his work +consisted undoubtedly in his contributions towards the establishment of +mechanics as a science. Some valuable but isolated facts and theorems +had been previously discovered and proved, but it was he who first +clearly grasped the idea of force as a mechanical agent, and extended to +the external world the conception of the invariability of the relation +between cause and effect. From the time of Archimedes there had existed +a science of equilibrium, but the science of motion began with Galileo. +It is not too much to say that the final triumph of the Copernican +system was due in larger measure to his labours in this department than +to his direct arguments in its favour. The problem of the heavens is +essentially a mechanical one; and without the mechanical conceptions of +the dependence of motion upon force which Galileo familiarized to men's +minds, that problem might have remained a sealed book even to the +intelligence of Newton. The interdependence of motion and force was not +indeed formulated into definite laws by Galileo, but his writings on +dynamics are everywhere suggestive of those laws, and his solutions of +dynamical problems involve their recognition. The extraordinary advances +made by him in this branch of knowledge were owing to his happy method +of applying mathematical analysis to physical problems. As a pure +mathematician he was, it is true, surpassed in profundity by more than +one among his pupils and contemporaries; and in the wider imaginative +grasp of abstract geometrical principles he cannot be compared with +Fermat, Descartes or Pascal, to say nothing of Newton or Leibnitz. +Still, even in the region of pure mathematics, his powerful and +original mind left notable traces of its working. He studied the +properties of the cycloid, and attempted the problem of its quadrature; +and in the "infinitesimals," which he was one of the first to introduce +into geometrical demonstrations, was contained the fruitful germ of the +differential calculus. But the method which was peculiarly his, and +which still forms the open road to discoveries in natural science, +consisted in the combination of experiment with calculation--in the +transformation of the concrete into the abstract, and the assiduous +comparison of results. The first-fruits of the new system of +investigation was his determination of the laws of falling bodies. +Conceiving that the simplest principle is the most likely to be true, he +assumed as a postulate that bodies falling freely towards the earth +descend with a uniformly accelerated motion, and deduced thence that the +velocities acquired are in the direct, and the spaces traversed in the +duplicate ratio of the times, counted from the beginning of motion; +finally, he proved, by observing the times of descent of bodies falling +down inclined planes, that the postulated law was the true law. Even +here, he was obliged to take for granted that the velocities acquired in +descending from the same height along planes of every inclination are +equal; and it was not until shortly before his death that he found the +mathematical demonstration of this not very obvious principle. + +The first law of motion--that which expresses the principle of +inertia--is virtually contained in the idea of uniformly accelerated +velocity. The recognition of the second--that of the independence of +different motions--must be added to form the true theory of projectiles. +This was due to Galileo. Up to his time it was universally held in the +schools that the motion of a body should cease with the impulse +communicated to it, but for the "reaction of the medium" helping it +forward. Galileo showed, on the contrary, that the nature of motion once +impressed is to continue indefinitely in a uniform direction, and that +the effect of the medium is a retarding, not an impelling one. Another +commonly received axiom was that no body could be affected by more than +one movement at one time, and it was thus supposed that a cannon ball, +or other projectile, moves forward in a right line until its first +impulse is exhausted, when it falls vertically to the ground. In the +fourth of Galileo's dialogues on mechanics, he demonstrated that the +path described by a projectile, being the result of the combination of a +uniform transverse motion with a uniformly accelerated vertical motion, +must, apart from the resistance of the air, be a parabola. The +establishment of the principle of the composition of motions formed a +conclusive answer to the most formidable of the arguments used against +the rotation of the earth, and we find it accordingly triumphantly +brought forward by Galileo in the second of his dialogues on the systems +of the world. It was urged by anti-Copernicans that a body flung upward +or cast downward would, if the earth were in motion, be left behind by +the rapid translation of the point from which it started; Galileo proved +on the contrary that the reception of a fresh impulse in no way +interfered with the movement already impressed, and that the rotation of +the earth was insensible, because shared equally by all bodies at its +surface. His theory of the inclined plane, combined with his +satisfactory definition of "momentum," led him towards the third law of +motion. We find Newton's theorem, that "action and reaction are equal +and opposite," stated with approximate precision in his treatise _Della +scienza meccanica_, which contains the substance of lectures delivered +during his professorship at Padua; and the same principle is involved in +the axiom enunciated in the third of his mechanical dialogues, that "the +propensity of a body to fall is equal to the least resistance which +suffices to support it." The problems of percussion, however, received +no definitive solution until after his death. + +His services were as conspicuous in the statical as in the kinetical +division of mechanics. He gave the first satisfactory demonstration of +equilibrium on an inclined plane, reducing it to the level by a sound +and ingenious train of reasoning; while, by establishing the theory of +"virtual velocities," he laid down the fundamental principle which, in +the opinion of Lagrange, contains the general expression of the laws of +equilibrium. He studied with attention the still obscure subject of +molecular cohesion, and little has been added to what he ascertained on +the question of transverse strains and the strength of beams, first +brought by him within the scope of mechanical theory. In his _Discorso +intorno alle cose che stanno su l'acqua_, published in 1612, he used the +principle of virtual velocities to demonstrate the more important +theorems of hydrostatics, deducing from it the equilibrium of fluid in a +siphon, and proved against the Aristotelians that the floating of solid +bodies in a liquid depends not upon their form, but upon their specific +gravities relative to such liquid. + +In order to form an adequate estimate of the stride made by Galileo in +natural philosophy, it would be necessary to enumerate the confused and +erroneous opinions prevailing on all such subjects in his time. His best +eulogium, it has been truly said, consists in the fallacies which he +exposed. The scholastic distinctions between corruptible and +incorruptible substances, between absolute gravity and absolute levity, +between natural and violent motions, if they did not wholly disappear +from scientific phraseology, ceased thenceforward to hold the place of +honour in the controversies of the learned. Discarding these obscure and +misleading notions, Galileo taught that gravity and levity are relative +terms, and that all bodies are heavy, even those which, like the air, +are invisible; that motion is the result of force, instantaneous or +continuous; that weight is a continuous force, attracting towards the +centre of the earth; that, in a vacuum, all bodies would fall with equal +velocities; that the "inertia of matter" implies the continuance of +motion, as well as the permanence of rest; and that the substance of the +heavenly bodies is equally "corruptible" with that of the earth. These +simple elementary ideas were eminently capable of development and +investigation, and were not only true but the prelude to further truth; +while those they superseded defied inquiry by their vagueness and +obscurity. Galileo was a man born in due time. He was superior to his +contemporaries, but not isolated amongst them. He represented and +intensified a growing tendency of the age in which he lived. It was +beginning to be suspected that from Aristotle an appeal lay to nature, +and some were found who no longer treated the _ipse dixit_ of the +Stagirite as the final authority in matters of science. A vigorous but +ineffectual warfare had already been waged against the blind traditions +of the schools by Ramus and Telesius, by Patricius and Campanella, and +the revolution which Galileo completed had been prepared by his +predecessors. Nevertheless, the task which he so effectually +accomplished demanded the highest and rarest quality of genius. He +struck out for himself the happy middle path between the _a priori_ and +the empirical systems, and exemplified with brilliant success the method +by which experimental science has wrested from nature so many of her +secrets. His mind was eminently practical. He concerned himself above +all with what fell within the range of exact inquiry, and left to others +the larger but less fruitful speculations which can never be brought to +the direct test of experiment. Thus, while far-reaching but hasty +generalizations have had their day and been forgotten, his work has +proved permanent, because he made sure of its foundations. His keen +intuition of truth, his vigour and yet sobriety of argument, his +fertility of illustration and acuteness of sarcasm, made him +irresistible to his antagonists; and the evanescent triumphs of scornful +controversy have given place to the sedate applause of a long-lived +posterity. + + The first complete edition of Galileo's writings was published at + Florence (1842-1856), in 16 8vo vols., under the supervision of Signor + Eugenio Alberi. Besides the works already enumerated, it contained the + _Sermones de motu gravium_ composed at Pisa between 1589 and 1591; his + letters to his friends, with many of their replies, as well as several + of the essays of his scientific opponents; his laudatory comments on + the _Orlando Furioso_, and depreciatory notes on the _Gerusalemme + Liberata_, some stanzas and sonnets of no great merit, together with + the sketch of a comedy; finally, a reprint of Viviani's _Life_, with + valuable notes and corrections. The original documents from the + archives of the Inquisition, relating to the events of 1616 and 1633, + recovered from Paris in 1846 by the efforts of Count Rossi, and now in + the Vatican Library, were to a limited extent made public by Monsignor + Marino-Marini in 1850, and more unreservedly by M. Henri de l'Epinois, + in an essay entitled _Galilee, son proces, sa condemnation_, + published in 1867 in the _Revue des questions historiques_. He was + followed by M. Karl von Gebler, who, in an able and exhaustive but + somewhat prejudiced work, _Galileo Galilei und die romische Curie_ + (Stuttgart, 1876), sought to impeach the authenticity of a document of + prime importance in the trial of 1633. He was victoriously answered by + Signor Domenico Berti, in _Il Processo originale di Galileo Galilei_ + (Rome, 1876), and by M. de l'Epinois, with _Les pieces du proces de + Galilee_ (Rome, Paris, 1877). The touching letters of Galileo's eldest + daughter, Sister Maria Celeste, to her father were printed in 1864 by + Professor Carlo Arduini, in a publication entitled _La Primogenita di + Galileo Galilei_. + + The issue of a "national edition" of the Works of Galileo, in 20 large + volumes, was begun at Florence in 1890. It includes a mass of + previously inedited correspondence and other documents, collected by + the indefatigable director, Professor Antonio Favaro, among whose + numerous publications on Galilean subjects may be mentioned: _Galileo + e lo studio di Padova_ (2 vols., 1883); _Scampoli Galileani_ (12 + series, 1886-1897); _Nuovi Studii Galileani_ (1891); _Galileo Galilei + e Suor Maria Celeste_ (1891). See also Th. Henri Martin's _Galilee, + les droits de la science et la methode des sciences physiques_ (1868); + _Private Life of Galileo_ (by Mrs Olney, 1870); J.J. Fahie's _Galileo; + his Life and Work_ (1903); _Galilee et Marius_, by J.A.C. Oudemans and + J. Bosscha (1903). The relations of Galileo to the Church are + temperately and ably discussed by F.R. Wegg-Prosser in _Galileo and + his Judges_ (1889), and in two articles published in the _American + Catholic Quarterly_ for April and July 1901. (A. M. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The word _telescope_, from [Greek: tele], far, [Greek: skopein], + to view, was invented by Demiscianus, an eminent Greek scholar, at + the request of Prince Cesi, president of the Lyncean Academy. It was + used by Galileo as early as 1612, but was not introduced into England + until much later. In 1655 the word _telescope_ was inserted and + explained in Bagwell's _Mysteries of Astronomy_, _trunk_ or + _cylinder_ being the terms until then ordinarily employed. + + [2] Leonardo da Vinci, more than a hundred years earlier, had come to + the same conclusion. + + [3] The passage is sufficiently remarkable to deserve quotation in + the original:--"Le parti della Terra hanno tal propensione al centro + di essa, che quando ella cangiasse luogo, le dette parti, benche + lontane dal globo nel tempo delle mutazioni di esso, lo seguirebbero + per tutto; esempio di cio sia il seguito perpetuo delle Medicee, + ancorche separate continuamente da Giove. L'istesso si deve dire + della Luna, obbligata a seguir la Terra."--_Dialogo dei massimi + sistemi_, Giornata terza, p. 351 of Alberi's edition. + + + + +GALION, a city of Crawford County, Ohio, U.S.A., about 75 m. S.W. of +Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 6326; (1900) 7282 (703 foreign-born); (1910) +7214. It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and +the Erie railways, and by an interurban electric railway. The city is +about 1165 ft. above sea level, and has extensive railway shops (of the +Erie railway) and manufactories of brick and tile machinery, carriages +and wagons, and grain and seed cleaners. The municipality owns and +operates its electric-lighting plant. Galion was laid out as a town in +1831, was incorporated as a borough in 1840, and was chartered as a city +in 1878. + + + + +GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH (1758-1828), anatomist, physiologist, and founder of +phrenology (q.v.), was born at Tiefenbrunn near Pforzheim, Baden, on the +9th of March 1758. After completing the usual literary course at Baden +and Bruchsal, he began the study of medicine under J. Hermann +(1738-1800) at Strassburg, whence, attracted by the names of Gerhard van +Swieten (1700-1772) and Maximilian Stoll (1742-1788), he removed to +Vienna in 1781. Having received his diploma, he began to practise as a +physician there in 1785; but his energies were mainly devoted to the +scientific investigation of problems which had occupied his attention +from boyhood. At a comparatively early period he formed the +generalization that in the human subject at least a powerful memory is +invariably associated with prominent eyes; and further observation +enabled him, as he thought, also to define the external characteristics +indicative of special talents for painting, music and the mechanical +arts. Following out these researches, he gradually reached the strong +conviction, not only that the talents and dispositions of men are +dependent upon the functions of the brain, but also that they may be +inferred with perfect exactitude and precision from the external +appearances of the skull. Gall's first appearance as an author was made +in 1791, when he published the first two chapters of a (never completed) +work entitled _Philosophisch-medicinische Untersuchungen uber Natur u. +Kunst im kranken u. gesunden Zustande des Menschen_. The first public +notice of his inquiries in cranioscopy, however, was in the form of a +letter addressed to a friend, which appeared in C.M. Wieland's +_Deutscher Mercur_ in 1798; but two years previously he had begun to +give private courses of phrenological lectures in Vienna, where his +doctrines soon attracted general attention, and met with increasing +success until, in 1802, they were interdicted by the government as being +dangerous to religion. This step on the part of the authorities had the +effect of greatly stimulating public curiosity and increasing Gall's +celebrity. + +In March 1805 he finally left Vienna in company with his friend and +associate J.C. Spurzheim, and made a tour through Germany, in the course +of which he lectured in Berlin, Dresden, Magdeburg and several of the +university towns. His expositions, which he knew how to make popular and +attractive, were much resorted to by the public, and excited +considerable controversy in the scientific world. He had almost reached +the zenith of his fame when, in 1807, he repaired to Paris and +established himself there as a medical practitioner, at the same time +continuing his activity as a lecturer and writer. In 1808 appeared his +_Introduction au cours de physiologie du cerveau_, which was followed in +1809 by the _Recherches sur le systeme nerveux en general, et sur celui +du cerveau en particulier_ (originally laid before the Institute of +France in March 1808), and in 1810 by the first instalment of the +_Anatomie et physiologie du systeme nerveux en general, et du cerveau en +particulier, avec des observations sur la possibilite de reconnaitre +plusieurs dispositions intellectuelles et morales de l'homme et des +animaux par la configuration de leurs tetes._ The _Recherches_ and the +first two volumes of the _Anatomie_ bear the conjoint names of Gall and +Spurzheim. The latter work was completed in 1819, and appeared in a +second edition of six volumes in 1822-1825. In 1811 he replied to a +charge of Spinozism or atheism, which had been strongly urged against +him, by a treatise entitled _Des dispositions innees de l'ame et de +l'esprit_, which he afterwards incorporated with his greater work. In +1819 he became a naturalized French subject, but his efforts two years +afterwards to obtain admission to the Academy of Sciences, although +supported by E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, were unsuccessful. In 1823 he +visited London with the intention of giving a series of phrenological +lectures, but his reception was not what he had anticipated, and he +speedily abandoned his plans. He continued to lecture and practise in +Paris until the beginning of 1828, when he was disabled by an apoplectic +seizure. His death took place at Montrouge near Paris, on the 22nd of +August 1828. + + + + +GALL (a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch _gal_, and +Ger. _Galle_; the Indo-European root appears in Gr. [Greek: chole] and +Lat. _fel_; possibly connected with "yellow," with reference to the +colour of bile), the secretion of the liver known as "bile," the term +being also used of the pear-shaped _diverticulum_ of the bile-duct, +which forms a reservoir for the bile, more generally known as the +"gall-bladder" (see LIVER). From the extreme bitterness of the +secretion, "gall," like the Lat. _fel_, is used for anything extremely +bitter, whether actually or metaphorically. From the idea that the +gall-bladder was the dominating organ of a bitter, sharp temperament, +"gall" was formerly used in English for such a spirit, and also for one +very ready to resent injuries. It thus survives in American slang, with +the meaning "impudence" or "assurance." + +"Gall," meaning a sore or painful swelling, especially on a horse, may +be the same word, derived from an early use of the word as meaning +"poison." On the other hand, in Romanic languages, the Fr. _galle_, Sp. +_agalla_, a wind-gall or puffy distension of the synovial bursa on the +fetlock joint of a horse, is derived from the Lat. _galla_, oak-apple, +from which comes the English "gall," meaning an excrescence on trees +caused by certain insects. (See GALLS.) + + + + +GALLABAT, or GALABAT, called by the Abyssinians Matemma (Metemma), a +town of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, in 13 deg. N. 36 deg. 12' E. It is +built, at the foot of a steep slope, on the left bank of a tributary of +the Atbara called the Khor Abnaheir, which forms here the +Sudan-Abyssinian frontier. Gallabat lies 90 m. W. by N. of Gondar, the +capital of Amhara, and being on the main route from Sennar to Abyssinia, +is a trade centre of some importance. Pop. about 3000. The majority of +the buildings are grass _tukls_. Slaves, beeswax, coffee, cotton and +hides were formerly the chief articles of commerce. The slave market was +closed about 1874. Being on the frontier line, the possession of the +town was for long a matter of dispute between the Sudanese, and later +the Egyptians, on the one hand and the Abyssinians on the other. About +1870 the Egyptians garrisoned the town, which in 1886 was attacked by +the dervishes and sacked. From Gallabat a dervish raiding party +penetrated to Gondar, which they looted. In revenge an Abyssinian army +under King John attacked the dervishes close to Gallabat in March 1889. +The dervishes suffered very severely, but King John being killed by a +stray bullet, the Abyssinians retired (see EGYPT: _Military Operations_, +1885-1896). In December 1898 an Anglo-Egyptian force entered Gallabat. +The Abyssinians then held the fort, but as the result of frontier +arrangement the town was definitely included in the Sudan, though +Abyssinia takes half the customs revenue. Since 1899 the trade of the +place has revived, coffee and live stock being the most important items. + +The town and district form a small ethnographical island, having been +peopled in the 18th century by a colony of Takruri from Darfur, who, +finding the spot a convenient resting-place for their fellow-pilgrims on +their way to Mecca and back, obtained permission from the negus of +Abyssinia to make a permanent settlement. They are an industrious +agricultural race, and cultivate cotton with considerable success. They +also collect honey in large quantities. The Takruri possess jagged +throwing knives, which are said to have been brought from their original +home in the Upper Congo regions. + + + + +GALLAIT, LOUIS (1810-1887), Belgian painter, was born at Tournay, in +Hainaut, Belgium, on the 9th of May 1810. He first studied in his native +town under Hennequin. In 1832 his first picture, "Tribute to Caesar," +won a prize at the exhibition at Ghent. He then went to Antwerp to +prosecute his studies under Mathieu Ignace Van Bree, and in the +following year exhibited at the Brussels Salon "Christ Healing the +Blind." This picture was purchased by subscription and placed in the +cathedral at Tournay. Gallait next went to Paris, whence he sent to the +Belgian Salons "Job on the Dunghill," "Montaigne Visiting Tasso in +Prison"; and, in 1841, "The Abdication of Charles V.," in the Brussels +Gallery. This was hailed as a triumph, and gained for the painter a +European reputation. Official invitations then caused him to settle at +Brussels, where he died on the 20th of November 1887. Among his greater +works may be named: "The Last Honours paid to Counts Egmont and Horn by +the Corporations of the Town of Brussels," now at Tournay; "The Death of +Egmont," in the Berlin gallery; the "Coronation of Baudouin, Emperor of +Constantinople," painted for Versailles; "The Temptation of St Anthony," +in the palace at Brussels; "The Siege of Antioch," "Art and Liberty," a +"Portrait of M.B. Dumortier" and "The Plague at Tournay," all in the +Brussels gallery. "A Gipsy Woman and her Children" was painted in 1852. +"M. Gallait has all the gifts that may be acquired by work, taste, +judgment and determination," wrote Theophile Gautier; his art is that of +a man of tact, a skilled painter, happy in his dramatic treatment but +superficial. No doubt, this Walloon artist, following the example of the +Flemings of the Renaissance and the treatment of Belgian classical +painters and the French Romantic school, sincerely aimed at truth; +unfortunately, misled by contemporary taste, he could not conceive of it +excepting as dressed in sentimentality. As an artist employed by the +State he exercised considerable influence, and for a long period he was +the leader of public taste in Brussels. + + See Teichlin, _Louis Gallait und die Malerei in Deutschland_ (1853); + J. Dujardin, _L'Art flamand_ (1899); C. Lemonnier, _Histoire des + beaux-arts en Belgique_ (1881). + + + + +GALLAND, ANTOINE (1646-1715), French Orientalist and archaeologist, the +first European translator of the _Arabian Nights_, was born on the 4th +of April 1646 at Rollot, in the department of Somme. The completion of +his school education at Noyon was followed by a brief apprenticeship to +a trade, from which, however, he soon escaped, to pursue his linguistic +studies at Paris. After having been employed for some time in making a +catalogue of the Oriental manuscripts at the Sorbonne, he was, in 1670, +attached to the French embassy at Constantinople; and in 1673 he +travelled in Syria and the Levant, where he copied a great number of +inscriptions, and sketched, and in some cases removed historical +monuments. After a brief visit to France, where his collection of +ancient coins attracted some attention, Galland returned to the Levant +in 1676; and in 1679 he undertook a third voyage, being commissioned by +the French East India Company to collect for the cabinet of Colbert; on +the expiration of this commission he was instructed by the government to +continue his researches, and had the title of "antiquary to the king" +conferred upon him. During his prolonged residences abroad he acquired a +thorough knowledge of the Arabic, Turkish and Persian languages and +literatures, which, on his final return to France, enabled him to render +valuable assistance to Thevenot, the keeper of the royal library, and to +Barthelemy d'Herbelot. After their deaths he lived for some time at Caen +under the roof of Nicolas Foucault (1643-1721), the intendant of Caen, +himself no mean archaeologist; and there he began the publication (12 +vols., 1704-1717) of _Les mille et une nuits_, which excited immense +interest during the time of its appearance, and is still the standard +French translation. It had no pretensions to verbal accuracy, and the +coarseness of the language was modified to suit European taste, but the +narrative was adequately rendered. In 1701 Galland had been admitted +into the Academy of Inscriptions, and in 1709 he was appointed to the +chair of Arabic in the College de France. He continued to discharge the +duties of this post until his death, which took place on the 17th of +February 1715. + + Besides a number of archaeological works, especially in the department + of numismatics, he published a compilation from the Arabic, Persian + and Turkish, entitled _Paroles remarquables, bons mots et maximes des + orientaux_ (1694), and a translation from an Arabic manuscript, _De + l'origine et du progres du cafe_ (1699). The former of these works + appeared in an English translation in 1795. His _Contes et fables + indiennes de Bidpai et de Lokman_ was published (1724) after his + death. Among his numerous unpublished manuscripts are a translation of + the Koran and a _Histoire generale des empereurs turcs_. His _Journal_ + was published by M. Charles Schefer in 1881. + + + + +GALLARATE, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Milan, from +which it is 25 m. N.W. by rail. Pop. (1901) 12,002. The town is of +medieval origin. It is remarkable mainly for its textile factories. It +is the junction of railways to Varese, Laveno and Arona (for the +Simplon). Six miles to the W. are the electric works of Vizzola, the +largest in Europe, where 23,000 h.p. are derived from the river Ticino. + + + + +GALLARS [in Lat. GALLASIUS], NICOLAS DES (c. 1520-c. 1580), Calvinistic +divine, first appears as author of a _Defensio_ of William Farel, +published at Geneva in 1545, followed (1545-1549) by translations into +French of three tracts by Calvin. In 1551 he was admitted burgess of +Geneva, and in 1553 made pastor of a country church in the +neighbourhood. In 1557 he was sent to minister to the Protestants at +Paris; his conductor, Nicolas du Rousseau, having prohibited books in +his possession, was executed at Dijon; des Gallars, having nothing +suspicious about him, continued his journey. On the revival of the +Strangers' church in London (1560), he, being then minister at Geneva, +came to London to organize the French branch; and in 1561 he published +_La Forme de police ecclesiastique instituee a Londres en l'Eglise des +Francois_. In the same year he assisted Beza at the colloquy of Poissy. +He became minister to the Protestants at Orleans in 1564; presided at +the synod of Paris in 1565; was driven out of Orleans with other +Protestants in 1568; and in 1571 was chaplain to Jeanne d'Albret, queen +of Navarre. Calvin held him in high esteem, employing him as amanuensis, +and as editor as well as translator of several of his exegetical and +polemical works. He himself wrote a commentary on Exodus (1560); edited +an annotated French Bible (1562) and New Testament (1562); and published +tracts against Arians (1565-1566). His main work was his edition of +Irenaeus (1570) with prefatory letter to Grindal, then bishop of London, +and giving, for the first time, some fragments of the Greek text. His +collaboration with Beza in the _Histoire des Eglises Reformees du +royaume de France_ (1580) is doubted by Bayle. + + See Bayle, _Dictionnaire hist. et crit._; Jean Senebier, _Hist. + litteraire de Geneve_ (1786); _Nouvelle Biog. gen._ (1857), + (A. Go.*) + + + + +GALLAS, MATTHIAS, COUNT OF CAMPO, DUKE OF LUCERA (1584-1647), Austrian +soldier, first saw service in Flanders, and in Savoy with the Spaniards, +and subsequently joined the forces of the Catholic League as captain. On +the general outbreak of hostilities in Germany, Gallas, as colonel of an +infantry regiment, distinguished himself, especially at the battle of +Stadtlohn (1623). In 1630 he was serving as _General-Feldwachtmeister_ +under Collalto in Italy, and was mainly instrumental in the capture of +Mantua. Made count of the Empire for this service, he returned to +Germany for the campaign against Gustavus Adolphus. In command of a +corps of Wallenstein's army, he covered Bohemia against the Swedes in +1631-1632, and served at the Alte Veste near Nuremberg, and at Lutzen. +Further good service against Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar commended General +Gallas to the notice of the emperor, who made him lieutenant-general in +his own army. He was one of the chief conspirators against Wallenstein, +and after the tragedy of Eger was appointed to the command of the army +which Wallenstein had formed and led. At the great battle of Nordlingen +(23rd of August 1634) in which the army of Sweden was almost +annihilated, Gallas commanded the victorious Imperialists. His next +command was in Lorraine, but even the Moselle valley had suffered so +much from the ravages of war that his army perished of want. Still more +was this the case in northern Germany, where Gallas commanded against +the Swedish general Baner in 1637 and 1638. At first driving the Swedes +before him, in the end he made a complete failure of the campaign, lost +his command, and was subject to much ridicule. It was, however, rather +the indiscipline of his men (the baneful legacy of Wallenstein's +methods) than his own faults which brought about his disastrous retreat +across North Germany, and at a moment of crisis he was recalled to +endeavour to stop Torstenson's victorious advance, only to be shut up in +Magdeburg, whence he escaped with the barest remnant of his forces. Once +more relieved of his command, he was again recalled to make head against +the Swedes in 1645 (after their victory at Jankow). Before long, old and +warworn, he resigned his command, and died in 1647 at Vienna. His army +had earned for itself the reputation of being the most cruel and +rapacious force even in the Thirty Years' War, and his _Merode Bruder_ +have survived in the word _marauder_. Like many other generals of that +period, he had acquired much wealth and great territorial possessions +(the latter mostly his share of Wallenstein's estates). He was the +founder of the Austrian family of Clam-Gallas, which furnished many +distinguished soldiers to the Imperial army. + + + + +GALLAS, or more correctly GALLA, a powerful Hamitic people of eastern +Africa, scattered over the wide region which extends for about 1000 m. +from the central parts of Abyssinia to the neighbourhood of the river +Sabaki in British East Africa. The name "Galla" or "Gala" appears to be +an Abyssinian nickname, unknown to the people, who call themselves _Ilm' +Orma_, "sons of men" or "sons of Orma," an eponymous hero. In Shoa +(Abyssinia) the word is connected with the river Gala in Guragie, on the +banks of which a great battle is said to have been fought between the +Galla and the Abyssinians. Arnaud d'Abbadie says that the Abyssinian +Moslems recount that, when summoned by the Prophet's messenger to adopt +Islam, the chief of the Galla said "No,"--in Arabic _kal_ (or _gal_) +_la_,--and the Prophet on hearing this said, "Then let their very name +imply their denial of the Faith." Of all Hamitic peoples the Galla are +the most numerous. Dr J. Ludwig Krapf estimated them (c. 1860) at from +six to eight millions; later authorities put them at not much over three +millions. Individual tribes are said to be able to bring 20,000 to +30,000 horsemen into the field. + +Hardly anything is definitely known as to the origin and early home of +the race, but it appears to have occupied the southern part of its +present territory since the 16th century. According to Hiob Ludolf and +James Bruce, the Galla invaders first crossed the Abyssinian frontiers +in the year 1537. The Galla of Gojam (a district along the northern side +of the river Abai) tell how their savage forefathers came from the +south-east from a country on the other side of a bahr (lake or river), +and the Yejju and Raia Galla also point towards the east and commemorate +the passage of a bahr. Among the southern Galla tradition appears to be +mainly concerned with the expulsion of the race from the country now +occupied by the Somali. Their original home was possibly in the district +east of Victoria Nyanza, for the tribes near Mount Kenya are stated to +go on periodical pilgrimages to the mountain, making offerings to it as +if to their mother. A theory has been advanced that the great exodus +which it seems certain took place among the peoples throughout eastern +Africa during the 15th century was caused by some great eruption of +Kenya and other volcanoes of equatorial Africa. As a geographical term +Galla-land is now used mainly to denote the south-central regions of the +Abyssinian empire, the country in which the Galla are numerically +strongest. There is no sharp dividing line between the territory +occupied respectively by the Galla and by the Somali. + +In any case the Galla must be regarded as members of that vast eastern +Hamitic family which includes their neighbours, the Somali, the Afars +(Danakil) and the Abyssinians. As in all the eastern Hamites, there is a +perceptible strain of Negro blood in the Galla, who are, however, +described by Sir Frederick Lugard as "a wonderfully handsome race, with +high foreheads, brown skins, and soft wavy hair quite different from the +wool of the Bantus." As a rule their features are quite European. Their +colour is dark brown, but many of the northern Galla are of a coffee and +milk tint. The finest men are to be found among the Limmu and Gudru on +the river Abai. + + The Galla are for the most part still in the nomadic and pastoral + stage, though in Abyssinia they have some agricultural settlements. + Their dwellings, circles of rough stones roofed with grasses, are + generally built under trees. Their wealth consists chiefly in cattle + and horses. Among the southern tribes it is said that about seven or + eight head of cattle are kept for every man, woman and child; and + among the northern tribes, as neither man nor woman ever thinks of + going any distance on foot, the number of horses is very large. The + ordinary food consists of flesh, blood, milk, butter and honey, the + last being considered of so much importance by the southern Galla that + a rude system of bee-keeping is in vogue, and the husband who fails to + furnish his wife with a sufficient supply of honey may be excluded + from all conjugal rights. In the south monogamy is the rule, but in + the north the number of a man's wives is limited only by his wishes + and his wealth. Marriage-forms are numerous, that of bride-capture + being common. Each tribe has its own chief, who enjoys the strange + privilege of being the only merchant for his people, but in all public + concerns must take the advice of the fathers of families assembled in + council. The greater proportion of the tribes are still pagan, + worshipping a supreme god Waka, and the subordinate god and goddess + Oglieh and Atetieh, whose favour is secured by sacrifices of oxen and + sheep. With a strange liberality of sentiment, they say that at a + certain time of the year Waka leaves them and goes to attend to the + wants of their enemies the Somali, whom also he has created. Some + tribes, and notably the Wollo Galla, have been converted to + Mahommedanism and are very bigoted adherents of the Prophet. In the + north, where the Galla are under Abyssinian rule, a kind of + superficial Christianization has taken place, to the extent at least + that the people are familiar with the names of Maremma or Mary, + Balawold or Jesus, Girgis or St George, &c.; but to all practical + intents paganism is still in force. The serpent is a special object of + worship, the northern Galla believing that he is the author of the + human race. There is a belief in were-wolves (_buda_), and the + northern Galla have sorcerers who terrorize the people. Though cruel + in war, all Galla respect their pledged word. They are armed with a + lance, a two-edged knife, and a shield of buffalo or rhinoceros hide. + A considerable number find employment in the Abyssinian armies. + + Among the more important tribes in the south (the name in each + instance being compounded with Galla) are the Ramatta, the Kukatta, + the Baole, the Aurova, the Wadjole, the Ilani, the Arrar and the + Kanigo Galla; the Borani, a very powerful tribe, may be considered to + mark the division between north and south; and in the north we find + the Amoro, the Jarso, the Toolama, the Wollo, the Ambassil, the Aijjo, + and the Azobo Galla. + + See C.T. Beke, "On the Origin of the Gallas," in _Trans. of Brit. + Assoc._ (1847); J. Ludwig Krapf, _Travels in Eastern Africa_ (1860); + and _Vocabulary of the Galla Language_ (London, 1842); Arnaud + d'Abbadie, _Douze Ans dans la Haute-Ethiopie_ (1868); Ph. Paulitschke, + _Ethnographie Nord-Ost-Afrikas_; _Die geistige Kultur der Dan'akil, + Galla u. Somal_ (Berlin, 1896); P.M. de Salviac, _Les Galla_ (Paris, + 1901). + + + + +GALLATIN, ALBERT (1761-1849), American statesman, was born in Geneva +(Switzerland) on the 29th of January 1761. The Gallatins were both an +old and a noble family. They are first heard of in Savoy in the year +1258, and more than two centuries later they went to Geneva (1510), +united with Calvin in his opposition to Rome, and associated their +fortunes with those of the little Swiss city. Here they remained, and +with one or two other great families governed Geneva, and sent forth +many representatives to seek their fortune and win distinction in the +service of foreign princes, both as soldiers and ministers. On the eve +of the French Revolution the Gallatins were still in Geneva, occupying +the same position which they had held for two hundred years. Albert +Gallatin's father died in 1765, his mother five years later, and his +only sister in 1777. Although left an orphan at nine, he was by no means +lonely or unprotected. His grandparents, a large circle of near +relatives and Mlle Catherine Pictet (d. 1795), an intimate friend of his +mother, cared for him during his boyhood. He was thoroughly educated at +the schools of Geneva, and graduated with honour from the college or +academy there in 1779. His grandmother then wished him to enter the army +of the landgrave of Hesse, but he declined to serve "a tyrant," and a +year later slipped away from Geneva and embarked for the United States. +A competent fortune, good prospects, social position, and a strong +family connexion were all thrown aside in order to tempt fate in the New +World. His relatives very properly opposed his course, but they +nevertheless did all in their power to smooth his way, and continued to +treat him kindly. In after life he himself admitted the justice of their +opinions. The temper of the times, a vague discontent with the +established order of things, and some political enthusiasm imbibed from +the writings of Rousseau, are the best reasons which can now be assigned +for Gallatin's desertion of home and friends. + +In July 1780 Gallatin and his friend Henri Serre (d. 1784) landed in +Massachusetts. They brought with them youth, hope and courage, as well +as a little money, and at once entered into business. The times, +however, were unfavourable. The great convulsion of the Revolution was +drawing to a close, and everything was in an unsettled condition. The +young Genevans failed in business, passed a severe winter in the wilds +of Maine, and returned to Boston penniless. Gallatin tried to earn a +living by teaching French in Harvard College, apparently not without +success, but the cold and rigid civilization of New England repelled +him, and he made his way to the South. In the backwoods of Pennsylvania +and Virginia there seemed to be better chances for a young adventurer. +Gallatin engaged in land speculations, and tried to lay the foundation +of his fortune in a frontier farm. In 1789 he married Sophie Allegre, +and every prospect seemed to be brightening. But clouds soon gathered +again. After only a few months of wedlock his wife died, and Gallatin +was once more alone. The solitary and desolate frontier life became now +more dreary than ever; he flung himself into politics, the only outside +resource open to him, and his long, and eventful public career began. + +The constitution of 1787 was then before the public, and Gallatin, with +his dislike of strong government still upon him, threw himself into +opposition and became one of the founders of the Anti-Federalist, or, as +it was afterwards called, the Republican party. He was a member of the +Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention of 1789-1790, and of the +Pennsylvania Assembly in 1790, 1791, and 1792, and rose with surprising +rapidity, despite his foreign birth and his inability to speak English +with correctness or fluency. He was helped of course by his sound +education; but the true cause of his success lay in his strong sense, +untiring industry, courage, clear-sightedness and great intellectual +force. In 1793 he was chosen United States senator from Pennsylvania by +the votes of both political parties. No higher tribute was ever paid to +character and ability than that conveyed by this election. But the +staunch Federalists of the senate, who had begun to draw the party lines +rather sharply, found the presence of the young Genevan highly +distasteful. They disliked his French origin, and suspected him to be a +man of levelling principles. His seat was contested on account of a +technical flaw in regard to the duration of his citizenship, and in +February 1794, almost three months after the beginning of the session, +the senate annulled the election and sent him back to Pennsylvania with +all the glory of political martyrdom. + +The leading part which Gallatin had taken in the "Whisky Insurrection" +in Western Pennsylvania had, without doubt, been an efficient cause in +his rejection by the senate. He intended fully to restrain within legal +bounds the opposition which the excise on domestic spirits had provoked, +but he made the serious mistake of not allowing sufficiently for the +character of the backwoods population. When legal resistance developed +into insurrection, Gallatin did his best to retrieve his error and +prevent open war. At Redstone Old Fort (Brownsville) on the 29th of +August 1794, before the "Committee of Sixty" who were appointed to +represent the disaffected people, he opposed with vigorous eloquence the +use of force against the government, and refused to be intimidated by an +excited band of riflemen who happened to be in the vicinity and +represented the radical element. He effectively checked the excitement, +and when a month later an overwhelming Federal force began moving upon +the western counties, the insurrection collapsed without bloodshed. Of +all the men who took part in the opposition to the excise, Gallatin +alone came out with credit. He was at once elected to the national house +of representatives, and took his seat in December 1795. There, by sheer +force of ability and industry, he wrested from all competitors the +leadership of the Republicans, and became the most dangerous opponent +whom the Federalists had ever encountered in congress. Inflamed with a +hatred of France just then rising to the dignity of a party principle, +they found in Gallatin an enemy who was both by origin and opinion +peculiarly obnoxious to them. They attacked him unsparingly, but in +vain. His perfect command of temper, his moderation of speech and +action, in a bitterly personal age, never failed, and were his most +effective weapons; but he made his power felt in other ways. His clear +mind and industrious habits drew him to questions of finance. He became +the financier of his party, preached unceasingly his cardinal doctrines +of simplicity and economy, and was an effective critic of the measures +of government. Cool and temperate, Gallatin, when following his own +theories, was usually in the right, although accused by his followers of +trimming. Thus, in regard to the Jay treaty, he defended the +constitutional right of the house to consider the treaty, but he did not +urge rejection in this specific case. On the other hand, when following +a purely party policy he generally erred. He resisted the navy, the +mainspring of Washington's foreign policy; he opposed commercial +treaties and diplomatic intercourse in a similar fashion. On these +points he was grievously wrong, and on all he changed his views after a +good deal of bitter experience. + +The greatest period of Gallatin's career in congress was in 1798, after +the publication of the famous X.Y.Z. despatches. The insults of +Talleyrand, and his shameless attempts to extort bribes from the +American commissioners, roused the deep anger of the people against +France. The Federalists swept all before them, and the members of the +opposition either retired from Philadelphia or went over to the +government. Alone and single-handed, Gallatin carried on the fight in +congress. The Federalists bore down on him unmercifully, and even +attempted (1798) a constitutional amendment in regard to citizenship, +partly, it appears, in order to drive him from office. Still he held on, +making a national struggle in the national legislature, and relying very +little upon the rights of States so eagerly grasped by Jefferson and +Madison. But even then the tide was turning. The strong measures of the +Federalists shocked the country; the leaders of the dominant party +quarrelled fiercely among themselves; and the Republicans carried the +elections of 1800. In the exciting contest for the presidency in the +house of representatives between Jefferson and Burr, it was Gallatin who +led the Republicans. + +When, after this contest, Jefferson became president (1801), there were +two men whose commanding abilities marked them for the first places in +the cabinet. James Madison became secretary of state, and Albert +Gallatin secretary of the treasury. Wise, prudent and conservative, +Gallatin made few changes in Hamilton's arrangements, and for twelve +years administered the national finances with the greatest skill. He and +Jefferson were both imbued with the idea that government could be +carried on upon a priori principles resting on the assumed perfectness +of human nature, and the chief burden of carrying out this theory fell +upon Gallatin. His guiding principles were still simplicity of +administration and speedy extinction of all debt, and everything bent to +these objects. Fighting or bribing the Barbary pirates was a mere +question of expense. It was cheaper to seize Louisiana than to await the +settlement of doubtful points. Commercial warfare was to be avoided +because of the cost. All wars were bad, but if they could not be evaded +it was less extravagant to be ready than to rush to arms unprepared. +Amid many difficulties, and thwarted even by Jefferson himself in the +matter of the navy, Gallatin pushed on; and after six years the public +debt was decreased (in spite of the Louisiana purchase) by $14,260,000, +a large surplus was on hand, a comprehensive and beneficent scheme of +internal improvements was ready for execution, and the promised land +seemed in sight. Then came the stress of war in Europe, a wretched +neutrality at home, fierce outbreaks of human passions, and the fair +structure of government by a priori theories based on the goodness of +unoppressed humanity came to the ground. Gallatin was thrown helplessly +back upon the rejected Federalist doctrine of government according to +circumstances. He uttered no vain regrets, but the position was a trying +one. The sworn foe of strong government, he was compelled, in pursuance +of Jefferson's policy, to put into execution the Embargo and other +radical and stringent measures. He did his best, but all was in vain. +Commercial warfare failed, the Embargo was repealed, and Jefferson, +having entangled foreign relations and brought the country to the verge +of civil war, retired to private life, leaving to his successor Madison, +and to Gallatin, the task of extricating the nation from its +difficulties. From 1809 the new administration, drifting steadily +towards war, struggled on from one abortive and exasperating negotiation +to another. It was a period of sore trial to Gallatin. The peace policy +had failed, and nothing else replaced it. He had lost his hold upon +Pennsylvania and his support in the house, while a cabal in the senate, +bitterly and personally hostile to the treasury, crippled the +administration and reduced every government measure to mere inanity. At +last, however, in June 1812, congress on Madison's recommendation +declared war against England. + +Gallatin never wasted time in futile complaints. His cherished schemes +were shattered. War and extravagant expenditure had come, and he +believed both to be fatal to the prosperity and progress of America. He +therefore put the finances in the best order he could, and set himself +to mitigate the evil effects of the war by obtaining an early peace. +With this end in view he grasped eagerly at the proffered mediation of +Russia, and without resigning the treasury sailed for Europe in May +1813. + +Russian mediation proved barren, but Gallatin persevered, catching at +every opportunity for negotiation. In the midst of his labours came the +news that the senate had refused to confirm his appointment as peace +commissioner. He still toiled on unofficially until, the objection of +the senate having been met by the appointment of a new secretary of the +treasury, his second nomination was approved, and he was able to proceed +with direct negotiations. The English and American commissioners finally +met at Ghent, and in the tedious and irritating discussions which ensued +Gallatin took the leading part. His great difficulty lay in managing his +colleagues, who were, especially Henry Clay and John Quincy Adams, able +men of strong wills and jarring tempers. He succeeded in preserving +harmony, and thus established his own reputation as an able diplomatist. +Peace was his reward; on the 24th of December 1814 the treaty was +signed; and after visiting Geneva for the first time since his boyhood, +and assisting in negotiating a commercial convention (1815) with England +by which all discriminating duties were abolished, Gallatin in July 1815 +returned to America. + +While still in Europe he had been asked by Madison to become minister to +France; this appointment he accepted in January 1816, and adhered to his +acceptance in spite of his being asked in April 1816 to serve once more +as secretary of the treasury. He remained in France for the next seven +years. He passed his time in thoroughly congenial society, seeing +everybody of note or merit in Europe. He did not neglect the duties of +his official position, but strove assiduously and with his wonted +patience to settle the commercial relations of his adopted country with +the nations of Europe, and in 1818 assisted Richard Rush, then United +States minister in London, in negotiating a commercial convention with +Great Britain to take the place of that negotiated in 1815. + +In June 1823 he returned to the United States, where he found himself +plunged at once into the bitter struggle then in progress for the +presidency. His favourite candidate was his personal friend William H. +Crawford, whom he regarded as the true heir and representative of the +old Jeffersonian principles. With these feelings he consented in May +1824 to stand for the vice-presidency on the Crawford ticket. But +Gallatin had come home to new scenes and new actors, and he did not +fully appreciate the situation. The contest was bitter, personal, +factious and full of intrigue. Martin Van Buren, then in the Crawford +interest, came to the conclusion that the candidate for the second +place, by his foreign origin, weakened the ticket, and in October +Gallatin retired from the contest. The election, undecided by the +popular vote, was thrown into the house, and resulted in the choice of +John Quincy Adams, who in 1826 drew Gallatin from his retirement and +sent him as minister to England to conduct another complicated and +arduous negotiation. Gallatin worked at his new task with his usual +industry, tact and patience, but the results were meagre, although an +open breach on the delicate question of the north-east boundary of the +United States was avoided by referring it to the arbitration of the king +of the Netherlands. In November 1827 he once more returned to the United +States and bade farewell to public life. + +Taking up his residence in New York, he was in 1832-1839 president of +the National Bank (afterwards the Gallatin Bank) of New York, but his +duties were light, and he devoted himself chiefly to the congenial +pursuits of science and literature. In both fields he displayed much +talent, and by writing his _Synopsis of the Indian Tribes within the +United States East of the Rocky Mountains and in the British and Russian +Possessions in North America_ (1836), and by founding the American +Ethnological Society of New York in 1842, he earned the title of "Father +of American Ethnology." He continued, of course, to interest himself in +public affairs, although no longer an active participant, and in all +financial questions, especially in regard to the bank charter, the +resumption of specie payments, and the panic of 1837, he exerted a +powerful influence. The rise of the slavery question touched him nearly. +Gallatin had always been a consistent opponent of slavery; he felt +keenly, therefore, the attempts of the South to extend the slave power +and confirm its existence, and the remnant of his strength was devoted +in his last days to writing and distributing two able pamphlets against +the war with Mexico. Almost his last public act was a speech, on the +24th of April 1844, in New York City, against the annexation of Texas; +and in his eighty-fourth year he confronted a howling New York mob with +the same cool, unflinching courage which he had displayed half a century +before when he faced the armed frontiersmen of Redstone Old Fort. During +the winter of 1848-1849 his health failed, and on the 12th of August +1849, at the home of his daughter in Astoria, Long Island, he passed +peacefully away. + +Gallatin was twice married. His second wife, whom he married in November +1793, was Miss Hannah Nicholson, of New York, the daughter of Com. James +Nicholson (1737-1804), an American naval officer, commander-in-chief of +the navy from 1777 until August 1781, when with his ship the "Virginia," +he was taken by the British "Iris" and "General Monk." By her he had +three children, two sons and a daughter, who all survived him. In +personal appearance he was above middle height, with strongly-marked +features, indicating great strength of intellect and character. He was +reserved and very reticent, cold in manner and not sympathetic. There +was, too, a certain Calvinistic austerity about him. But he was much +beloved by his family. He was never a popular man, nor did he ever have +a strong personal following or many attached friends. He stood, with +Jefferson and Madison, at the head of his party, and won his place by +force of character, courage, application and intellectual power. His +eminent and manifold services to his adopted country, his great +abilities and upright character, assure him a high position in the +history of the United States. + + _The Writings of Albert Gallatin_, edited by Henry Adams, were + published at Philadelphia, in three volumes, in 1879. With these + volumes was published an excellent biography, _The Life of Albert + Gallatin_, also by Henry Adams; another good biography is John Austin + Stevens's _Albert Gallatin_ (Boston, 1884) in the "American Statesmen" + series. (H. C. L.) + + + + +GALLAUDET, THOMAS HOPKINS (1787-1851), American educator of the deaf and +dumb, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, of French Huguenot +ancestry, on the 10th of December 1787. He graduated at Yale in 1805, +where he was a tutor from 1808 to 1810. Subsequently he studied theology +at Andover, and was licensed to preach in 1814, but having determined to +abandon the ministry and devote his life to the education of deaf mutes, +he visited Europe in 1815-1816, and studied the methods of the abbe +Sicard in Paris, and of Thomas Braidwood (1715-1806) and his successor +Joseph Watson (1765-1829) in Great Britain. Returning to the United +States in 1816, he established at Hartford, Connecticut, with the aid of +Laurent Clerc (1785-1869), a deaf mute assistant of the abbe Sicard, a +school for deaf mutes, in support of which Congress, largely through the +influence of Henry Clay, made a land grant, and which Gallaudet presided +over with great success until ill-health compelled him to retire in +1830. It was the first institution of the sort in the United States, and +served as a model for institutions which were subsequently established. +He died at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 5th of September 1851. + + There are three accounts of his life, one by Henry Barnard, _Life, + Character and Services of the Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet_ (Hartford, + 1852); another by Herman Humphrey (Hartford, 1858), and a third (and + the best one) by his son Edward Miner Gallaudet (1888). + +His son, THOMAS GALLAUDET (1822-1902), after graduating at Trinity +College in 1842, entered the Protestant Episcopal ministry, settled in +New York City, and there in 1852 organized St Anne's Episcopal church, +where he conducted services for deaf mutes. In 1872 he organized and +became general manager of the Church mission to deaf mutes, and in 1885 +founded the Gallaudet home for deaf mutes, particularly the aged, at +Wappingers Falls, near Poughkeepsie, New York. + +Another son, EDWARD MINER GALLAUDET (b. 1837), was born at Hartford, +Connecticut, on the 3rd of February 1837, and graduated at Trinity +College in 1856. After teaching for a year in the institution for deaf +mutes founded by his father at Hartford, he removed with his mother, +Sophia Fowler Gallaudet (1798-1877), to Washington, D.C., where at the +request of Amos Kendall (1789-1869), its founder, he organized and took +charge of the Columbia Institution for the deaf and dumb, which received +support from the government, and of which he became president. This +institution was the first to furnish actual collegiate education for +deaf mutes (in 1864 it acquired the right to grant degrees), and was +successful from the start. The Gallaudet College (founded in 1864 as the +National Deaf Mute College and renamed in 1893 in honour of Thomas H. +Gallaudet) and the Kendall School are separate departments of this +institution, under independent faculties (each headed by Gallaudet), but +under the management of one board of directors. + + + + +GALLE, or POINT DE GALLE, a town and port of Ceylon on the south-west +coast. It was made a municipality in 1865, and divided into the five +districts of the Fort, Callowelle, Galopiadde, Hirimbure and +Cumbalwalla. The fort, which is more than a mile in circumference, +overlooks the whole harbour, but is commanded by a range of hills. +Within its enclosure are not only several government buildings, but an +old church erected by the Dutch East India Company, a mosque, a Wesleyan +chapel, a hospital, and a considerable number of houses occupied by +Europeans. The old Dutch building known as the queen's house, or +governor's residence, which dated from 1687, was in such a dilapidated +state that it was sold by the governor, Sir William Gregory, in 1873. +Elsewhere there are few buildings of individual note, but the general +style of domestic architecture is pleasant and comfortable, though not +pretentious. One of the most delightful features of the place is the +profusion of trees, even within the town, and along the edge of the +shore--suriyas, palms, coco-nut trees and bread-fruit trees. The +ramparts towards the sea furnish fine promenades. In the harbour deep +water is found close to the shore, and the outer roads are spacious; but +the south-west monsoon renders entrance difficult, and not unfrequently +drives vessels from their moorings. + +The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, and the construction of a +breakwater at Colombo, leading to the transfer of the mail and most of +the commercial steamers to the capital of the island, seriously +diminished the prosperity of Galle. Although a few steamers still call +to coal and take in some cargo, yet the loss of the Peninsular and +Oriental and other steamer agencies reduced the port to a subordinate +position; nor has the extension of the railway from Colombo, and beyond +Galle to Matara, very much improved matters. The tea-planting industry +has, however, spread to the neighbourhood, and a great deal is done in +digging plumbago and in growing grass for the distillation of citronella +oil. The export trade is chiefly represented by coco-nut oil, plumbago, +coir yarn, fibre, rope and tea. In the import trade cotton goods are the +chief item. Both the export and import trade for the district, however, +now chiefly passes through Colombo. Pop. (1901) 37,165. + + Galle is mentioned by none of the Greek or Latin geographers, unless + the identification with Ptolemy's Avium Promontorium or Cape of Birds + be a correct one. It is hardly noticed in the native chronicles before + 1267, and Ibn Batuta, in the middle of the 14th century, distinctly + states that Kali--that is, Galle--was a _small_ town. It was not till + the period of Portuguese occupation that it rose to importance. When + the Dutch succeeded the Portuguese they strengthened the + fortifications, which had been vigorously defended against their + admiral, Kosten; and under their rule the place had the rank of a + commandancy. In the marriage treaty of the infanta of Portugal with + Charles II. of England it was agreed that if the Portuguese recovered + Ceylon they were to hand over Galle to the English; but as the + Portuguese did not recover Ceylon the town was left to fall into + English hands at the conquest of the island from the Dutch in 1796. + The name Galle is derived from the Sinhalese _galla_, equivalent to + "rock"; but the Portuguese and Dutch settlers, being better fighters + than philologists, connected it with the Latin _gallus_, a cock, and + the image of a cock was carved as a symbol of the town in the front of + the old government house. + + + + +GALLENGA, ANTONIO CARLO NAPOLEONE (1810-1895), Italian author and +patriot, born at Parma on the 4th of November 1810, was the eldest son +of a Piedmontese of good family, who served for ten years in the French +army under Massena and Napoleon. He had finished his education at the +university of Parma, when the French Revolution of 1830 caused a ferment +in Italy. He sympathized with the movement, and within a few months was +successively a conspirator, a state prisoner, a combatant and a +fugitive. For the next five years he lived a wandering life in France, +Spain and Africa. In August 1836 he embarked for New York, and three +years later he proceeded to England, where he supported himself as a +translator and teacher of languages. His first book, _Italy; General +Views of its History and Literature_, which appeared in 1841, was well +received, but was not successful financially. On the outbreak of the +Italian revolution in 1848 he at once put himself in communication with +the insurgents. He filled the post of Charge d'Affaires for Piedmont at +Frankfort in 1848-1849, and for the next few years he travelled +incessantly between Italy and England, working for the liberation of his +country. In 1854, through Cavour's influence, he was elected a deputy to +the Italian parliament. He retained his seat until 1864, passing the +summer in England and fulfilling his parliamentary duties at Turin in +the winter. On the outbreak of the Austro-French War of 1859 he +proceeded to Lombardy as war correspondent of _The Times_. The campaign +was so brief that the fighting was over before he arrived, but his +connexion with _The Times_ endured for twenty years. He was a forcible +and picturesque writer, with a command of English remarkable for an +Italian. He materially helped to establish that friendly feeling towards +Italy which became traditional in England. In 1859 Gallenga purchased +the Falls, at Llandogo on the Wye, as a residence, and thither he +retired in 1885. He died at this house on the 17th of December 1895. He +was twice married. Among his chief works are an _Historical Memoir of +Fra Dolcino and his Times_ (1853); a _History of Piedmont_ (3 vols., +1855; Italian translation, 1856); _Country Life in Piedmont_ (1858); +_The Invasion of Denmark_ (2 vols., 1864); _The Pearl of the Antilles_ +[travels in Cuba] (1873); _Italy Revisited_ (2 vols., 1875); _Two Years +of the Eastern Question_ (2 vols., 1877); _The Pope_ [Pius IX.] _and the +King_ [Victor Emmanuel] (2 vols., 1879); _South America_ (1880); _A +Summer Tour in Russia_ (1882); _Iberian Reminiscences_ (2 vols., 1883); +_Episodes of my Second Life_ (1884); _Italy, Present and Future_ (2 +vols., 1887). Gallenga's earlier publications appeared under the +pseudonym of Luigi Mariotti. + + + + +GALLERY (through Ital. _galleria_, from Med. Lat. _galeria_, of which +the origin is unknown),[1] a covered passage or space outside a main +wall, sometimes used as a verandah if on the ground floor, and as a +balcony if on an upper floor and supported by columns, piers or corbels; +similarly the upper seats in a theatre or a church, on either side as in +many 17th-century churches, or across the west end under the organ. The +word is also used of an internal passage primarily provided to place +various rooms in communication with one another; but if of narrow width +this is usually called a corridor or passage. When of sufficient width +the gallery is utilized to exhibit pictures and other art treasures. In +the 16th century the picture gallery formed the largest room or hall in +English mansions, with wainscoted walls and a richly decorated plaster +ceiling; the principal examples are those of Audley End, Essex (226 ft. +by 34 ft.); Hardwick, Derbyshire (166 ft. by 22 ft.); Hatfield, +Hertfordshire (163 ft. by 19 ft. 6 in.); Aston Hall, near Birmingham +(136 ft. by 18 ft.); Haddon Hall, Derbyshire (116 ft. by 17 ft.); and +Montacute in Somersetshire (189 ft. by 22 ft.). Hence the application of +the term to art museums (the National Gallery, &c.) and also to smaller +rooms with top-light in which temporary exhibitions are held. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Du Cange, _Glossarium, s.v._ "Galeria," suggests an origin from + _galera_, a galley, on the analogy of "nave," from _navis_, the + galley being a long and narrow ship; but, he adds, _alii alia + opinantur_. + + + + +GALLEY (derived through the O. Fr. _galee_, _galie_, from the Med. Lat. +_galea_, Ital. _galea_, Port. _gale_, of uncertain origin; from the Med. +Lat. variant form _galera_ are derived the Mod. Fr. _galere_, Span. and +Ital. _galera_), a long single or half decked vessel of war, with low +free-board, propelled primarily by oars or sweeps; but also having masts +for sails. The word is used generally of the ancient war vessels of +Greece and Rome of various types, whose chief propelling power was the +oar or sweep, but its more specific application is to the medieval war +vessel which survived in the navies of the Mediterranean sea-powers +after the general adoption of the larger many-decked ship of war, +propelled solely by sail-power. Lepanto (1571) was the last great naval +battle in which the galley played the principal part. The "galleass" or +"galliass" (Med. Lat. _galeasea_, Ital. _galeazza_, an augmented form of +_galea_) was a larger and heavier form of galley; it usually carried +three masts and had at bow and stern a castellated structure. The +"galliot" (O. Fr. _galiot_, Span. and Port. _galeota_, Ital. _galeotta_, +a diminutive of _galea_) was a small light type of galley. The "galleon" +(formerly in English "galloon," Fr. _galion_, derived from the Med. Lat. +_galio_, _galionis_, a derivative of _galea_) was a sailing ship of war +and trade, shorter than the galley and standing high out of the water +with several decks, chiefly used by the Spaniards during the 16th +century in the carrying of treasure from America. The number of oars or +sweeps varied, the larger galley having twenty-five on each side; the +galleass as many as thirty-two, each being worked by several men. This +labour was from the earliest times often performed by slaves or +prisoners of war. It became the custom among the Mediterranean powers to +sentence condemned criminals to row in the war galleys of the state. +Traces of this in France can be found as early as 1532, but the first +legislative enactment is in the _Ordonnance d'Orleans_ of 1561. In 1564 +Charles IX. forbade the sentencing of prisoners to the galleys for less +than ten years. The galley-slaves were branded with the letters _Gal._ +At the end of the reign of Louis XIV. the use of the galley for war +purposes had practically ceased, but the corps of the galleys was not +incorporated with the navy till 1748. The headquarters of the galleys +and of the convict rowers (_galeriens_) was at Marseilles. The majority +of these latter were brought to Toulon, the others were sent to +Rochefort and Brest, where they were used for work in the arsenal. At +Toulon the convicts remained (in chains) on the galleys, which were +moored as hulks in the harbour. Shore prisons were, however, provided +for them, known as _bagnes_, baths, a name given to such penal +establishments first by the Italians (_bagno_), and said to have been +derived from the prison at Constantinople situated close by or attached +to the great baths there. The name _galerien_ was still given to all +convicts, though the galleys had been abandoned, and it was not till the +French Revolution that the hated name with all it signified was changed +to _forcat_. In Spain _galera_ is still used for a criminal condemned to +penal servitude. + + A vivid account of the life of galley-slaves in France is given in + Jean Marteilhes's _Memoirs of a Protestant_, translated by Oliver + Goldsmith (new edition, 1895), which describes the experiences of one + of the Huguenots who suffered after the revocation of the edict of + Nantes. + + + + +GALLIA CISALPINA (Lat. _Cis_, on this side, i.e. of the Alps), in +ancient geography, that portion of northern Italy north of Liguria and +Umbria and south of the Alps, which was inhabited by various Celtic and +other peoples, of whom the Celts were in continual hostility to Rome. In +early times it was bounded on the S. by Liguria and the Aesis, in +Caesar's time by Liguria and the Rubicon. After the Second Punic War +(203 B.C.) these tribes were severely punished by the Roman generals for +the assistance they had rendered to Hannibal. Sulla divided the district +into two parts; the region between the Aesis and the Rubicon was made +directly subject to the government at Rome, while the northern portion +was put under a distinct authority, probably similar to the usual +transmarine commands (see Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_, Eng. trans., bk. iv. +c. 10). + + For the early Celtic and other peoples and the later history of the + district see ITALY (ancient), and ROME: _History, Ancient_. + + + + +GALLIC ACID, trioxybenzoic acid (HO)3(3.4.5.)C6H2CO2H.H2O, the _acidum +gallicum_ of pharmacy, a substance discovered by K. W. Scheele; it +occurs in the leaves of the bearberry, in pomegranate root-bark, in tea, +in gall-nuts to the extent of about 3%, and in other vegetable +productions. It may be prepared by keeping moist and exposed to the air +for from four to six weeks, at a temperature of 20 deg. to 25 deg. C., a +paste of powdered gall-nuts and water, and removing from time to time +the mould which forms on its surface; the paste is then boiled with +water, the hot solution filtered, allowed to cool, the separated gallic +acid drained, and purified by dissolving in boiling water, +recrystallization at about 27 deg. C., and washing of the crystals with +ice-cold water. The production of the acid appears to be due to the +presence in the galls of a ferment. Gallic acid is most readily obtained +by boiling the tannin procured from oak-galls by means of alcohol and +ether with weak solution of acids. It may also be produced by heating an +aqueous solution of di-iodosalicylic acid with excess of alkaline +carbonate, by acting on dibromosalicylic acid with moist silver oxide, +and by other methods. It crystallizes in white or pale fawn-coloured +acicular prisms or silky needles, and is soluble in alcohol and ether, +and in 100 parts of cold and 3 of boiling water; it is without odour and +has an astringent and an acid taste and reaction. It melts at about 200 +deg. C., and at 210 deg. to 215 deg. it is resolved into carbon dioxide +and pyrogallol, C6H3(OH)3. With ferric salts its solution gives a deep +blue colour, and with ferrous salts, after exposure to the air, an +insoluble, blue-black, ferroso-ferric gallate. Bases of the alkali +metals give with it four series of salts; these are stable except in +alkaline solutions, in which they absorb oxygen and turn brown. Solution +of calcium bicarbonate becomes with gallic acid, on exposure to the air, +of a dark blue colour. Unlike tannic acid, gallic acid does not +precipitate albumen or salts of the alkaloids, or, except when mixed +with gum, gelatin. Salts of gold and silver are reduced by it, slowly in +cold, instantaneously in warm solutions, hence its employment in +photography. With phosphorus oxychloride at 120 deg. C. gallic acid +yields tannic acid, and with concentrated sulphuric acid at 100 deg., +_rufigallic acid_, C14H8O8, an anthracene derivative. Oxidizing agents, +such as arsenic acid, convert it into _ellagic acid_, C14H8O9 + H2O, +probably a fluorene derivative, a substance which occurs in gall-nuts, +in the external membrane of the episperm of the walnut, and probably in +many plants, and composes the "bezoar stones" found in the intestines of +Persian wild goats. Medicinally, gallic acid has been, and is still, +largely used as an astringent, styptic and haemostatic. Gallic acid, +however, does not coagulate albumen and therefore possesses no local +astringent action. So far is it from being an haemostatic that, if +perfused through living blood-vessels, it actually dilates them. Its +rapid neutralization in the intestine renders it equally devoid of any +remote actions. + + + + +GALLICANISM, the collective name for various theories maintaining that +the church and king of France had ecclesiastical rights of their own, +independent and exclusive of the jurisdiction of the pope. Gallicanism +had two distinct sides, a constitutional and a dogmatic, though both +were generally held together, the second serving as the logical basis of +the first. And neither is intelligible, except in relation to the rival +theory of Ultramontanism (q.v.). Dogmatic Gallicanism was concerned with +the question of ecclesiastical government. It maintained that the +church's infallible authority was committed to pope and bishops jointly. +The pope decided in the first instance, but his judgments must be +tacitly or expressly confirmed by the bishops before they had the force +of law. This ancient theory survived much longer in France than in other +Catholic countries. Hence the name of Gallican is loosely given to all +its modern upholders, whether of French nationality or not. +Constitutional Gallicanism dealt with the relation of church and state +in France. It began in the 13th century, as a protest against the +theocratic pretensions of the medieval popes. They claimed that they, as +vicars of Christ, had the right to interfere in the temporal concerns of +princes, and even to depose sovereigns of whom they disapproved. +Gallicanism answered that kings held their power directly of God; hence +their temporal concerns lay altogether outside the jurisdiction of the +pope. During the troubles of the Reformation era, when the papal +deposing power threatened to become a reality, the Gallican theory +became of great importance. It was elaborated, and connected with +dogmatic Gallicanism, by the famous theologian, Edmond Richer +(1559-1631), and finally incorporated by Bossuet in a solemn Declaration +of the French Clergy, made in 1682. This document lays down: (1) that +the temporal sovereignty of kings is independent of the pope; (2) that a +general council is above the pope; (3) that the ancient liberties of the +Gallican Church are sacred; (4) that the infallible teaching authority +of the church belongs to pope and bishops jointly. This declaration led +to a violent quarrel with Rome, and was officially withdrawn in 1693, +though its doctrines continued to be largely held. They were asserted in +an extreme form in the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790), which +almost severed connexion between France and the papacy. In 1802 Napoleon +contented himself by embodying Bossuet's declaration textually in a +statute. Long before his time, however, the issue had been narrowed down +to determining exactly how far the pope should be allowed to interfere +in French ecclesiastical affairs. Down to the repeal of the Concordat in +1905 all French governments continued to uphold two of the ancient +"Gallican Liberties." The secular courts took cognizance of +ecclesiastical affairs whenever the law of the land was alleged to have +been broken; and papal bulls were not allowed to be published without +the leave of the state. (See also FEBRONIANISM.) (St. C.) + + + + +GALLIENI, JOSEPH SIMON (1849- ), French soldier and colonial +administrator, was born at Saint-Beat, in the department of +Haute-Garonne, on the 24th of April 1849. He left the military academy +of Saint-Cyr in July 1870 as a second lieutenant in the Marines, +becoming lieutenant in 1873 and captain in 1878. He saw service in the +Franco-German War, and between 1877 and 1881 took an important part in +the explorations and military expeditions by which the French dominion +was extended in the basin of the upper Niger. He rendered a particularly +valuable service by obtaining, in March 1881, a treaty from Ahmadu, +almany of Segu, giving the French exclusive rights of commerce on the +upper Niger. For this he received the gold medal of the Societe de +Geographie. From 1883 to 1886 Gallieni was stationed in Martinique. On +the 24th of June 1886 he attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and +on the 20th of December was nominated governor of Upper Senegal. He +obtained several successes against Ahmadu in 1887, and compelled Samory +to agree to a treaty by which he abandoned the left bank of the Niger +(see SENEGAL: _History_). In connexion with his service in West Africa, +Gallieni published two works--_Mission d'exploration du Haut-Niger, +1879-1881_ (Paris, 1885), and _Deux Campagnes au Sudan francais_ (Paris, +1891)--which, besides possessing great narrative interest, give +information of considerable value in regard to the resources and +topography of the country. In 1888 Gallieni was made an officer of the +Legion of Honour. In 1891 he attained the rank of colonel, and from 1893 +to 1895 he served in Tongking, commanding the second military division +of the territory. In 1899 he published his experiences in _Trois +Colonnes au Tonkin_. In 1896 Madagascar was made a French colony, and +Gallieni was appointed resident-general (a title changed in 1897 to +governor-general) and commander-in-chief. Under the weak administration +of his predecessor a widespread revolt had broken out against the +French. By a vigorous military system Gallieni succeeded in completing +the subjugation of the island. He also turned his attention to the +destruction of the political supremacy of the Hovas and the restoration +of the autonomy of the other tribes. The execution of the queen's uncle, +Ratsimamanga, and of Rainandrianampandry, the minister of the interior, +in October 1896, and the exile of Queen Ranavalo III. herself in 1897, +on the charge of fomenting rebellion, broke up the Hova hegemony, and +made an end of Hova intrigues against French rule. The task of +government was one of considerable difficulty. The application of the +French customs and other like measures, disastrous to British and +American trade, were matters for which Gallieni was not wholly +responsible. His policy was directed to the development of the economic +resources of the island and was conciliatory towards the non-French +European population. He also secured for the Protestants religious +liberty. In 1899 he published a _Rapport d'ensemble sur la situation +generale de Madagascar_. In 1905, when he resigned the governorship, +Madagascar enjoyed peace and a considerable measure of prosperity. In +1906 General Gallieni was appointed to command the XIV. army corps and +military government of Lyons. He reviewed the results of his Madagascar +administration in a book entitled _Neuf Ans a Madagascar_ (Paris, 1908). + + + + +GALLIENUS, PUBLIUS LICINIUS EGNATIUS, Roman emperor from A.D. 260 to +268, son of the emperor Valerian, was born about 218. From 253 to 260 he +reigned conjointly with his father, during which time he gave proof of +military ability and bravery. But when his father was taken prisoner by +Shapur I. of Persia, in 260, Gallienus made no effort to obtain his +release, or to withstand the incursions of the invaders who threatened +the empire from all sides. He occupied part of his time in dabbling in +literature, science and various trifling arts, but gave himself up +chiefly to excess and debauchery. He deprived the senators of their +military and provincial commands, which were transferred to equites. +During his reign the empire was ravaged by a fearful pestilence; and the +chief cities of Greece were sacked by the Goths, who descended on the +Greek coast with a fleet of five hundred. His generals rebelled against +him in almost every province of the empire, and this period of Roman +history came to be called the reign of the Thirty Tyrants. Nevertheless, +these usurpers probably saved the empire at the time, by maintaining +order and repelling the attacks of the barbarians. Gallienus was killed +at Mediolanum by his own soldiers while besieging Aureolus, who was +proclaimed emperor by the Illyrian legions. His sons Valerianus and +Saloninus predeceased him. + + Life by Trebellius Pollio in _Script. Hist. Aug._; on coins see + articles in _Numism. Zeit._ (1908) and _Riv. ital. d. num._ (1908). + + + + +GALLIFFET, GASTON ALEXANDRE AUGUSTE, MARQUIS DE, Prince de Martignes +(1830-1909), French general, was born in Paris on the 23rd of January +1830. He entered the army in 1848, was commissioned as sub-lieutenant in +1853, and served with distinction at the siege of Sevastopol in 1855, in +the Italian campaign of 1859, and in Algeria in 1860, after which for a +time he served on the personal staff of the emperor Napoleon III. He +displayed great gallantry as a captain at the siege and storm of +Puebla, in Mexico, in 1863, when he was severely wounded. When he +returned to France to recover from his wounds he was entrusted with the +task of presenting the captured standards and colours to the emperor, +and was promoted _chef d'escadrons_. He went again to Algeria in 1864, +took part in expeditions against the Arabs, returned to Mexico as +lieutenant-colonel, and, after winning further distinction, became in +1867 colonel of the 3rd Chasseurs d'Afrique. In the Franco-German War of +1870-71 he commanded this regiment in the army of the Rhine, until +promoted to be general of brigade on the 30th of August. At the battle +of Sedan he led the brigade of Chasseurs d'Afrique in the heroic charge +of General Margueritte's cavalry division, which extorted the admiration +of the old king of Prussia. Made prisoner of war at the capitulation, he +returned to France during the siege of Paris by the French army of +Versailles, and commanded a brigade against the Communists. In the +suppression of the Commune he did his duty rigorously and inflexibly, +and on that ground earned a reputation for severity, which, throughout +his later career, and in all his efforts to improve the French army, +made him the object of unceasing attacks in the press and the chamber of +deputies. In 1872 he took command of the Batna subdivision of Algeria, +and commanded an expedition against El Golea, surmounting great +difficulties in a rapid march across the desert, and inflicting severe +chastisement on the revolted tribes. On the general reorganization of +the army he commanded the 31st infantry brigade. Promoted general of +division in 1875, he successively commanded the 15th infantry division +at Dijon, the IX. army corps at Tours, and in 1882 the XII. army corps +at Limoges. In 1885 he became a member of the Conseil Superieur de la +Guerre. He conducted the cavalry manoeuvres in successive years, and +attained a European reputation on all cavalry questions, and, indeed, as +an army commander. Decorated with the grand cross of the Legion of +Honour in 1887, he received the military medal for his able conduct of +the autumn manoeuvres in 1891, and after again commanding at the +manoeuvres of 1894 he retired from the active list. Afterwards he took +an important part in French politics, as war minister (22nd of June 1899 +to 29th of May 1900) in M. Waldeck-Rousseau's cabinet, and distinguished +himself by the firmness with which he dealt with cases of unrest in the +army, but he then retired into private life, and died on the 8th of July +1909. + + + + +GALLIO, JUNIUS ANNAEUS (originally LUCIUS ANNAEUS NOVATUS), son of the +rhetorician L. Annaeus Seneca and the elder brother of L. Annaeus Seneca +the philosopher, was born at Corduba (Cordova) about the beginning of +the Christian era. At Rome he was adopted by L. Junius Gallio, a +rhetorician of some repute, from whom he took the name of Junius Gallio. +His brother Seneca, who dedicated to him the treatises _De Ira_ and _De +Vita Beata_, speaks of the charm of his disposition, also alluded to by +the poet Statius (_Silvae_, ii. 7, 32). It is probable that he was +banished to Corsica with his brother, and that both returned together to +Rome when Agrippina selected Seneca to be tutor to Nero. Towards the +close of the reign of Claudius, Gallio was proconsul of the newly +constituted senatorial province of Achaea, but seems to have been +compelled by ill-health to resign the post within a few years. During +his tenure of office (in 53) he dismissed the charge brought by the Jews +against the apostle Paul (Acts xviii.). His behaviour on this occasion +("But Gallio cared for none of these things") shows the impartial +attitude of the Roman officials towards Christianity in its early days. +He survived his brother Seneca, but was subsequently put to death by +order of Nero (in 65) or committed suicide. + + Tacitus, _Annals_, xv. 73; Dio Cassius lx. 35, lxii. 25; Sir W.M. + Ramsay, _St Paul the Traveller_, pp. 257-261; art. in Hastings' _Dict. + of the Bible_ (H. Cowan). An interesting reconstruction is given by + Anatole France in _Sur la pierre blanche_. + + + + +GALLIPOLI (anc. _Callipolis_), a seaport town and episcopal see of +Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, 31 m. S. by W. of it by rail, +46 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, 10,399; commune, 13,459. It is +situated on a rocky island in the Gulf of Taranto, but is united to the +mainland by a bridge, protected by a castle constructed by Charles I. +of Anjou. The other fortifications have been removed. The handsome +cathedral dates from 1629. The town was once famous for its exports of +olive-oil, which was stored, until it clarified, in cisterns cut in the +rock. This still continues, but to a less extent; the export of wine, +however, is increasing, and fruit is also exported. + +The ancient Callipolis was obviously of Greek origin, as its name +("beautiful city") shows. It is hardly mentioned in ancient times. Pliny +tells us that in his time it was known as Anxa. It lay a little off the +road from Tarentum to Hydruntum, but was reached by a branch from +Aletium (the site is marked by the modern church of S. Maria della +Lizza), among the ruins of which many Messapian inscriptions, but no +Latin ones, have been found. (T. As.) + + + + +GALLIPOLI (Turk. _Gelibolu_, anc. [Greek: Kallipolis]), a seaport and +city of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople; at the +north-western extremity of the Dardanelles, on a narrow peninsula 132 m. +W.S.W. of Constantinople, and 90 m. S. of Adrianople, in 40 deg. 24' N. +and 26 deg. 40' 30" E. Pop. (1905) about 25,000. Nearly opposite is +Lapsaki on the Asiatic side of the channel, which is here about 2 m. +wide. Gallipoli has an unattractive appearance; its streets are narrow +and dirty, and many of its houses are built of wood, although there are +a few better structures, occupied by the foreign residents and the +richer class of Turkish citizens. The only noteworthy buildings are the +large, crowded and well-furnished bazaars with leaden domes. There are +several mosques, none of them remarkable, and many interesting Roman and +Byzantine remains, especially a magazine of the emperor Justinian +(483-565), a square castle and tower attributed to Bayezid I. +(1389-1403), and some tumuli on the south, popularly called the tombs of +the Thracian kings. The lighthouse, built on a cliff, has a fine +appearance as seen from the Dardanelles. Gallipoli is the seat of a +Greek bishop. It has two good harbours, and is the principal station for +the Turkish fleet. From its position as the key of the Dardanelles, it +was occupied by the allied French and British armies in 1854. Then the +isthmus a few miles north of the town, between it and Bulair, was +fortified with strong earthworks by English and French engineers, mainly +on the lines of the old works constructed in 1357. These fortifications +were renewed and enlarged in January 1878, on the Russians threatening +to take possession of Constantinople. The peninsula thus isolated by the +fortified positions has the Gulf of Saros on the N.W., and extends some +50 m. S.W. The guns of Gallipoli command the Dardanelles just before the +strait joins the Sea of Marmora. The town itself is not very strongly +fortified, the principal fortifications being farther down the +Dardanelles, where the passage is narrower. + +The district (_sanjak_) of Gallipoli is exceedingly fertile and well +adapted for agriculture. It has about 100,000 inhabitants, and comprises +four _kazas_ (cantons), namely, (1) Maitos, noted for its excellent +cotton; (2) Keshan, lying inland north of Gallipoli, noted for its +cattle-market, and producing grain, linseed and canary seed; (3) +Myriofyto; and (4) Sharkeui or Shar-Koi (Peristeri) on the coast of the +Sea of Marmora. Copper ore and petroleum are worked at Sharkeui, and the +neighbourhood formerly produced wine that was highly esteemed and +largely exported to France for blending. Heavy taxation, however, +amounting to 55% of the value of the wine, broke the spirit of the +viticulturists, most of whom uprooted their vines and replanted their +lands with mulberry trees, making sericulture their occupation. + +There are no important industrial establishments in Gallipoli itself, +except steam flour-mills and a sardine factory. The line of railway +between Adrianople and the Aegean Sea has been prejudicial to the +transit trade of Gallipoli, and several attempts have been made to +obtain concessions for the construction of a railway that would connect +this port with the Turkish railway system. Steamers to and from +Constantinople call regularly. In 1904 the total value of the exports +was L80,000. Wheat and maize are exported to the Aegean islands and to +Turkish ports on the mainland; barley, oats and linseed to Great +Britain; canary seed chiefly to Australia; beans to France and Spain. +Semolina and bran are manufactured in the district. Live stock, +principally sheep, pass through Gallipoli in transit to Constantinople +and Smyrna. Cheese, sardines, goats' skins and sheepskins are also +exported. The imports include woollen and cotton fabrics from Italy, +Germany, France and Great Britain, and hardware from Germany and +Austria. These goods are imported through Constantinople. Cordage is +chiefly obtained from Servia. Other imports are fuel, iron and +groceries. + +The Macedonian city of Callipolis was founded in the 5th century B.C. At +an early date it became a Christian bishopric, and in the middle ages +developed into a great commercial city, with a population estimated at +100,000. It was fortified by the East Roman emperors owing to its +commanding strategic position and its valuable trade with Greece and +Italy. In 1190 the armies of the Third Crusade, under the emperor +Frederick I. (Barbarossa), embarked here for Asia Minor. After the +capture of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, Gallipoli passed into +the power of Venice. In 1294 the Genoese defeated a Venetian force in +the neighbourhood. A body of Catalans, under Roger Florus, established +themselves here in 1306, and after the death of their leader massacred +almost all the citizens; they were vainly besieged by the allied troops +of Venice and the Empire, and withdrew in 1307, after dismantling the +fortifications. About the middle of the 14th century the Turks invaded +Europe, and Gallipoli was the first city to fall into their power. The +Venetians under Pietro Loredano defeated the Turks here in 1416. + + + + +GALLIPOLIS, a city and the county-seat of Gallia county, Ohio, U.S.A., +on the Ohio river, about 125 m. E. by S. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890) +4498; (1900) 5432 (852 negroes); (1910) 5560. It is served by the +Kanawha & Michigan (Ohio Central Lines) and the Hocking Valley railways, +and (at Gallipolis Ferry, West Virginia, across the Ohio) by the +Baltimore & Ohio railway. The city is built on a level site several feet +above the river's high-water mark. It has a United States marine +hospital and a state hospital for epileptics. Among the city's +manufactures are lumber, furniture, iron, stoves, flour and brooms. The +municipality owns and operates its water-works. Gallipolis was settled +in 1790 by colonists from France, who had received worthless deeds to +lands in Ohio from the Scioto Land Company, founded by Col. William Duer +(1747-1799) and others in 1787 and officially organized in 1789 as the +Compagnie du Scioto in Paris by Joel Barlow, the agent of Duer and his +associates abroad, William Playfair, an Englishman, and six Frenchmen. +This company had arranged with the Ohio Company in 1787 for the use of +about 4,000,000 acres, N. of the Ohio and E. of the Scioto, on which the +Ohio Company had secured an option only. The dishonesty of those who +conducted the sales in France, the unbusinesslike methods of Barlow, and +the failure of Duer and his associates to meet their contract with the +Ohio Company, caused the collapse of the Scioto Company early in 1790, +and two subsequent attempts to revive it failed. Meanwhile about 150,000 +acres had been sold to prospective settlers in France, and in October +1790 the French immigrants, who had been detained for two months at +Alexandria, Virginia, arrived on the site of Gallipolis, where rude huts +had been built for them. This land, however, fell within the limits of +the tract bought outright by the Ohio Company, which sold it to the +Scioto Company, and to which it reverted on the failure of the Scioto +Company to pay. In 1794 William Bradford, attorney-general of the United +States, decided that all rights in the 4,000,000 acres, on which the +Ohio Company had secured an option for the Scioto Company, were legally +vested in the Ohio Company. In 1795 the Ohio Company sold to the French +settlers for $1.25 an acre the land they occupied and adjacent improved +lots, and the United States government granted to them 24,000 acres in +the southern part of what is now Scioto County in 1795; little of this +land (still known as the "French Grant"), however, was ever occupied by +them. Gallipolis was incorporated as a village in 1842, and was first +chartered as a city in 1865. + + See Theodore T. Belote, _The Scioto Speculation and the French + Settlement at Gallipolis_ (Cincinnati, 1907), series 2, vol. iii. No. + 3 of the _University Studies_ of the University of Cincinnati. + + + + +GALLITZIN, DEMETRIUS AUGUSTINE (1770-1840), American Roman Catholic +priest, called "The Apostle of the Alleghanies," was born at the Hague +on the 22nd of December 1770. His name is a form of Golitsuin (q.v.), +the Russian family from which he came. His father, Dimitri Alexeievich +Gallitzin (1735-1803), Russian ambassador to Holland, was an intimate +friend of Voltaire and a follower of Diderot; so, too, for many years +was his mother, Countess Adelheid Amalie von Schmettau (1748-1806), +until a severe illness in 1786 led her back to the Roman Catholic +church, in which she had been reared. At the age of seventeen he too +became a member of that church. His father had planned for him a +diplomatic or military career, and in 1792 he was aide-de-camp to the +commander of the Austrian troops in Brabant; but, after the +assassination of the king of Sweden, he, like all other foreigners, was +dismissed from the service. He then set out to complete his education by +travel, and on the 28th of October 1792 arrived in Baltimore, Maryland, +where he finally decided to enter the priesthood. He was ordained priest +in March 1795, being the first Roman Catholic priest ordained in +America, and then worked in the mission at Port Tobacco, Maryland, +whence he was soon transferred to the Conewago district. His impulsive +objection to some of Bishop Carroll's instructions was sharply rebuked, +and he was recalled to Baltimore. But in 1796 he removed to Taneytown, +Maryland, and in both Maryland and Pennsylvania worked with such +misdirected zeal and autocratic manners that he was again reproved by +his bishop in 1798. In the Alleghanies, in 1799, he planned a settlement +in what is now Cambria county, Pennsylvania, and bought up much land +which he gave or sold at low prices to Catholic immigrants, spending +$150,000 or more in the purchase of some 20,000 acres in a spot +singularly ill suited for such an enterprise. In 1808, after his +father's death, he was disinherited by the emperor Alexander I. of +Russia "by reason of your Catholic faith and your ecclesiastical +profession"; and although his sister Anne repeatedly promised him his +half of the valuable estate and sent him money from time to time, after +her death her brother received little or nothing from the estate. The +priest, who after his father's death had in 1809 discarded the name of +Augustine Smith, under which he had been naturalized, and had taken his +real name, was soon deeply in debt. No small part was a loan from +Charles Carroll, and when Gallitzin was suggested for the see of +Philadelphia in 1814, Bishop Carroll gave as an objection Gallitzin's +"great load of debt rashly, though for excellent and charitable +purposes, contracted." In 1815 Gallitzin was suggested for the bishopric +of Bardstown, Kentucky, and in 1827 for the proposed see of Pittsburg, +and he refused the bishopric of Cincinnati. He died at Loretto, the +settlement he had founded in Cambria county, on the 6th of May 1840. +Among his parishioners Gallitzin was a great power for good. His part in +building up the Roman Catholic Church in western Pennsylvania cannot be +estimated; but it is said that at his death there were 10,000 members of +his church in the district where forty years before he had found a scant +dozen. One of the villages he founded bears his name. Among his +controversial pamphlets are: _A Defence of Catholic Principles_ (1816), +_Letter to a Protestant Friend on the Holy Scriptures_ (1820), _Appeal +to the Protestant Public_ (1834), and _Six Letters of Advice_ (1834), in +reply to attacks on the Catholic Church by a Presbyterian synod. + + See Sarah M. Brownson, _Life of D.A. Gallitzin, Prince and Priest_ + (New York, 1873); a brief summary of his life by A.A. Lambing in + _American Catholic Records_ (Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, October 1886, + pp. 58-68); and a good bibliography by Thomas C. Middleton in _The + Gallitzin Memorandum Book_, in _American Catholic Historical Society + of Philadelphia, Records_, vol. 4, pp. 32 sqq. + + + + +GALLIUM (symbol Ga; atomic weight 69.9), one of the metallic chemical +elements. It was discovered in 1875 through its spectrum, in a specimen +of zinc blende by Lecoq de Boisbaudran (_Comptes rendus_, 1875, 81, p. +493, and following years). The chief chemical and physical properties of +gallium had been predicted many years before by D. Mendeleeff (c. 1869) +from a consideration of the properties of aluminium, indium and zinc +(see ELEMENT). The metal is obtained from zinc blende (which only +contains it in very small quantity) by dissolving the mineral in an +acid, and precipitating the gallium by metallic zinc. The precipitate +is dissolved in hydrochloric acid and foreign metals are removed by +sulphuretted hydrogen; the residual liquid being then fractionally +precipitated by sodium carbonate, which throws out the gallium before +the zinc. This precipitate is converted into gallium sulphate and +finally into a pure specimen of the oxide, from which the metal is +obtained by the electrolysis of an alkaline solution. Gallium +crystallizes in greyish-white octahedra which melt at 30.15 deg. C. to a +silvery-white liquid. It is very hard and but slightly malleable and +flexible, although in thin plates it may be bent several times without +breaking. The specific gravity of the solid form is 5.956 (24.5 deg. +C.), of the liquid 6.069, whilst the specific heats of the two varieties +are, for the solid form 0.079 (12-23 deg. C.) and for the liquid 0.082 +(106-119 deg.) [M. Berthelot, _Comptes rendus_, 1878, 86, p. 786]. It is +not appreciably volatilized at a red heat. Chlorine acts on it readily +in the cold, bromine not so easily, and iodine only when the mixture is +heated. The atomic weight of gallium has been determined by Lecoq de +Boisbaudran by ignition of gallium ammonium alum, and also by L. Meyer +and K. Seubert. + + _Gallium oxide_ Ga2O3 is obtained when the nitrate is heated, or by + solution of the metal in nitric acid and ignition of the nitrate. It + forms a white friable mass which after ignition is insoluble in acids. + On heating to redness in a stream of hydrogen it forms a bluish mass + which is probably a lower oxide of composition GaO. Gallium forms + colourless salts, which in neutral dilute aqueous solutions are + converted on heating into basic salts. The gallium salts are + precipitated by alkaline carbonates and by barium carbonate, but not + by sulphuretted hydrogen unless in acetic acid solution. Potassium + ferrocyanide gives a precipitate even in very dilute solution. In + neutral solutions, zinc gives a precipitate of gallium oxide. By + heating gallium in a regulated stream of chlorine the _dichloride_ + GaCl2 is obtained as a crystalline mass, which melts at 164 deg. C. + and readily decomposes on exposure to moist air. The trichloride GaCl3 + is similarly formed when the metal is heated in a rapid stream of + chlorine, and may be purified by distillation in an atmosphere of + nitrogen. It forms very deliquescent long white needles melting at + 75.5 deg. C. and boiling at 215-220 deg. C. The bromide, iodide and + sulphate are known, as is also gallium ammonium alum. Gallium is best + detected by means of its spark spectrum, which gives two violet lines + of wave length 4171 and 4031. + + + + +GALLON, an English measure of capacity, usually of liquids, but also +used as a dry measure for corn. A gallon contains four quarts. The word +was adapted from an O. Norm. Fr. _galon_, Central Fr. _jalon_, and was +Latinized as _galo_ and _galona_. It appears to be connected with the +modern French _jale_, a bowl, but the ultimate origin is unknown; it has +been referred without much plausibility to Gr. [Greek: gaulos], a milk +pail. The British imperial gallon of four quarts contains 277.274 cub. +in. The old English wine gallon of 231 cub. in. capacity is the standard +gallon of the United States. + + + + +GALLOWAY, JOSEPH (1731-1803), American lawyer and politician, one of the +most prominent of the Loyalists, was born in West River, Anne Arundel +county, Maryland, in 1731. He early removed to Philadelphia, where he +acquired a high standing as a lawyer. From 1756 until 1774 (except in +1764) he was one of the most influential members of the Pennsylvania +Assembly, over which he presided in 1766-1773. During this period, with +his friend Benjamin Franklin, he led the opposition to the Proprietary +government, and in 1764 and 1765 attempted to secure a royal charter for +the province. With the approach of the crisis in the relations between +Great Britain and the American colonies he adopted a conservative +course, and, while recognizing the justice of many of the colonial +complaints, discouraged radical action and advocated a compromise. As a +member of the First Continental Congress, he introduced (28th September +1774) a "Plan of a Proposed Union between Great Britain and the +Colonies," and it is for this chiefly that he is remembered. It provided +for a president-general appointed by the crown, who should have supreme +executive authority over all the colonies, and for a grand council, +elected triennially by the several provincial assemblies, and to have +such "rights, liberties and privileges as are held and exercised by and +in the House of Commons of Great Britain"; the president-general and +grand council were to be "an inferior distinct branch of the British +legislature, united and incorporated with it." The assent of the grand +council and of the British parliament was to be "requisite to the +validity of all ... general acts or statutes," except that "in time of +War, all bills for granting aid to the crown, prepared by the grand +council and approved by the president-general, shall be valid and passed +into a law, without the assent of the British parliament." The +individual colonies, however, were to retain control over their strictly +internal affairs. The measure was debated at length, was advocated by +such influential members as John Jay and James Duane of New York and +Edward Rutledge of South Carolina, and was eventually defeated only by +the vote of six colonies to five. Galloway declined a second election to +Congress in 1775, joined the British army at New Brunswick, New Jersey +(December 1776), advised the British to attack Philadelphia by the +Delaware, and during the British occupation of Philadelphia (1777-1778) +was superintendent of the port, of prohibited articles, and of police of +the city. In October 1778 he went to England, where he remained until +his death at Watford, Hertfordshire, on the 29th of August 1803. After +he left America his life was attainted, and his property, valued at +L40,000, was confiscated by the Pennsylvania Assembly, a loss for which +he received a partial recompense in the form of a small parliamentary +pension. He was one of the clearest thinkers and ablest political +writers among the American Loyalists, and, according to Prof. Tyler, +"shared with Thomas Hutchinson the supreme place among American +statesmen opposed to the Revolution." + + Among his pamphlets are _A Candid Examination of the Mutual Claims of + Great Britain and the Colonies_ (1775); _Historical and Political + Reflections on the Rise and Progress of the American Rebellion_ + (1780); _Cool Thoughts on the Consequences to Great Britain of + American Independence_ (1780); and _The Claim of the American + Loyalists Reviewed and Maintained upon Incontrovertible Principles of + Law and Justice_ (1788). + + See Thomas Balch (Ed.), _The Examination of Joseph Galloway by a + Committee of the House of Commons_ (Philadelphia, 1855); Ernest H. + Baldwin, _Joseph Galloway, the Loyalist Politician_ (New Haven, 1903); + and M.C. Tyler, _Literary History of the American Revolution_ (2 + vols., New York, 1897). + + + + +GALLOWAY, THOMAS (1796-1851), Scottish mathematician, was born at +Symington, Lanarkshire, on the 26th of February 1796. In 1812 he entered +the university of Edinburgh, where he distinguished himself specially in +mathematics. In 1823 he was appointed one of the teachers of mathematics +at the military college of Sandhurst, and in 1833 he was appointed +actuary to the Amicable Life Assurance Office, the oldest institution of +that kind in London; in which situation he remained till his death on +the 1st of November 1851. Galloway was a voluminous, though, for the +most part, an anonymous writer. His most interesting paper is "On the +Proper Motion of the Solar System," and was published in the _Phil. +Trans._, 1847. He contributed largely to the seventh edition of the +_Encyclopaedia Britannica_, and also wrote several scientific papers for +the _Edinburgh Review_ and various scientific journals. His +_Encyclopaedia_ article, "Probability," was published separately. + + See _Transactions of the Royal Astronomical Society_ (1852). + + + + +GALLOWAY, a district in the south-west of Scotland, comprising the +counties of Kirkcudbright and Wigtown. It was the _Novantia_ of the +Romans, and till the end of the 12th century included Carrick, now the +southern division of Ayrshire. Though the designation has not been +adopted civilly, its use historically and locally has been long +established. Thus the Bruces were lords of Galloway, and the title of +earl of Galloway (created 1623) is now held by a branch of the Stewarts. +Galloway also gives its name to a famous indigenous breed of black +hornless cattle. See KIRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE and WIGTOWNSHIRE. + + + + +GALLOWS[1] (a common Teutonic word--cf. Goth. _galga_, O.H. Ger. +_galgo_, Mod. Ger. _Galgen_, A.S. _galzan_, &c.--of uncertain origin), +the apparatus for executing the sentence of death by hanging. It usually +consists of two upright posts and a cross-beam, but sometimes of a +single upright with a beam projecting from the top. The Roman gallows +was the cross, and in the older translations of the Bible "gallows" was +used for the cross on which Christ suffered (so _galga_ in Ulfilas's +Gothic Testament).[2] Another form of gallows in the middle ages was +that of which the famous example at Montfaucon near Paris was the type. +This was a square structure formed of columns of masonry connected in +each tier with cross-pieces of wood, and with pits beneath, into which +the bodies fell after disarticulation by exposure to the weather. + +According to actual usage the condemned man stands on a platform or drop +(introduced in England in 1760), the rope hangs from the cross-beam, and +the noose at its end is placed round his neck. He is hanged by the +falling of the drop, the knot in the noose being so adjusted that the +spinal cord is broken by the fall and death instantaneous. In old times +the process was far less merciful; sometimes the condemned man stood in +a cart, which was drawn away from under him; sometimes he had to mount a +ladder, from which he was thrust by the hangman. Until 1832 malefactors +in England were sometimes hanged by being drawn up from the platform by +a heavy weight at the other end of the rope. Death in these cases was by +strangulation. At the present time executions in the United Kingdom are +private, the gallows being erected in a chamber or enclosed space set +apart for the purpose inside the gaol. + +The word "gibbet," the Fr. _gibet_, gallows, which appears in the first +instance to have meant a crooked stick,[3] was originally used in +English synonymously with gallows, as it sometimes still is. Its later +and more special application, however, was to the upright posts with a +projecting arm on which the bodies of criminals were suspended after +their execution. These gibbets were erected in conspicuous spots, on the +tops of hills (Gallows Hill is still a common name) or near frequented +roads. The bodies, smeared with pitch to prevent too rapid +decomposition, hung in chains as a warning to evildoers. From the +gruesome custom comes the common use of the word "to gibbet" for any +holding up to public infamy or contempt. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The word "gallows" is the plural of a word (_galwe_, _galowe_, + _gallow_) which, according to the _New English Dictionary_, was + occasionally used as late as the 17th century, though from the 13th + century onwards the plural form was more usual. Caxton speaks both of + "a gallows," and, in the older form, of "a pair of gallows," this + referring probably to the two upright posts. From the 16th century + onwards "gallows" has been consistently treated as a singular form, a + new plural, "gallowses," having come into use. "The latter, though + not strictly obsolete, is now seldom used; the formation is felt to + be somewhat uncouth, so that the use of the word in the plural in + commonly evaded" (_New Eng. Dict._ s.v. "Gallows"). + + [2] In Med. Lat. "gallows" was translated by _furia_ and _patibulum_, + both words applied in classical Latin to a fork-shaped instrument of + punishment fastened on the neck of slaves and criminals. _Furia_, in + feudal law, was the right granted to tenants having major + jurisdiction to erect a gallows within the limits of their fief. + + [3] Cf. Wace, _Roman de Rou_, iii. 8349: + + "Et il a le gibet saisi + Qui a son destre braz pendi." + + + + +GALLS. In animals galls occur mostly on or under the skin of living +mammals and birds, and are produced by Acaridea, and by dipterous +insects of the genus _Oestrus_. Signor Moriggia[1] has described and +figured a horny excrescence, nearly 8 in. in length, from the back of +the human hand, which was caused by _Acarus domesticus_. What are +commonly known as galls are vegetable excrescences, and, according to +the definition of Lacaze-Duthiers, comprise "all abnormal vegetable +productions developed on plants by the action of animals, more +particularly by insects, whatever may be their form, bulk or situation." +For the larvae of their makers the galls provide shelter and sustenance. +The exciting cause of the hypertrophy, in the case of the typical galls, +appears to be a minute quantity of some irritating fluid, or virus, +secreted by the female insect, and deposited with her egg in the +puncture made by her ovipositor in the cortical or foliaceous parts of +plants. This virus causes the rapid enlargement and subdivision of the +cells affected by it, so as to form the tissues of the gall. Oval or +larval irritation also, without doubt, plays an important part in the +formation of many galls. Though, as Lacaze-Duthiers remarks, a certain +relation is necessary between the "stimulus" and the "supporter of the +stimulus," as evidenced by the limitation in the majority of cases of +each species of gall-insect to some one vegetable structure, still it +must be the quality of the irritant of the tissues, rather than the +specific peculiarities or the part of the plant affected, that +principally determines the nature of the gall. Thus the characteristics +of the currant-gall of _Spathegaster baccarum_, L., which occurs alike +on the leaves and on the flower-stalks of the oak, are obviously due to +the act of oviposition, and not to the functions of the parts producing +it; the bright red galls of the saw-fly _Nematus gallicola_ are found on +four different species of willow, _Salix fragilis_, _S. alba_, _S. +caprea_ and _S. cinerea_;[2] and the galls of a Cynipid, _Biorhiza +aptera_, usually developed on the rootlets of the oak, have been +procured also from the deodar.[3] Often the gall bears no visible +resemblance to the structures out of which it is developed; commonly, +however, outside the larval chamber, or gall proper, and giving to the +gall its distinctive form, are to be detected certain more or less +modified special organs of the plant. The gall of _Cecidomyia +strobilina_, formed from willow-buds, is mainly a rosette of leaves the +stalks of which have had their growth arrested. The small, smooth, +seed-shaped gall of the American _Cynips seminator_, Harris, according +to W.F. Bassett,[4] is the petiole, and its terminal tuft of woolly +hairs the enormously developed pubescence of the young oak-leaf. The +moss-like covering of the "bedeguars" of the wild rose, the galls of a +Cynipid, _Rhodites rosae_, represents leaves which have been developed +with scarcely any parenchyma between their fibro-vascular bundles; and +the "artichoke-galls" or "oak-strobile," produced by _Aphilothrix +gemmae_, L., which insect arrests the development of the acorn, consists +of a cupule to which more or less modified leaf-scales are attached, +with a peduncular, oviform, inner gall.[5] E. Newman held the view that +many oak-galls are pseudobalani or false acorns: "to produce an acorn +has been the intention of the oak, but the gall-fly has frustrated the +attempt." Their formation from buds which normally would have yielded +leaves and shoots is explained by Parfitt as the outcome of an effort at +fructification induced by oviposition, such as has been found to result +in several plants from injury by insect-agency or otherwise.[6] Galls +vary remarkably in size and shape according to the species of their +makers. The polythalamous gall of _Aphilothrix radicis_, found on the +roots of old oak-trees, may attain the size of a man's fist; the galls +of another Cynipid, _Andricus occultus_, Tschek,[7] which occurs on the +male flowers of _Quercus sessiliflora_, is 2 millimetres, or barely a +line, in length. Many galls are brightly coloured, as, for instance, the +oak-leaf hairy galls of _Spathegaster tricolor_, which are of a crimson +hue, more or less diffused according to exposure to light. The variety +of forms of galls is very great. Some are like urns or cups, others +lenticular. The "knoppern" galls of _Cynips polycera_, Gir., are cones +having the broad, slightly convex upper surface surrounded with a +toothed ridge. Of the Ceylonese galls, "some are as symmetrical as a +composite flower when in bud, others smooth and spherical like a berry; +some protected by long spines, others clothed with yellow wool formed of +long cellular hairs, others with regularly tufted hairs."[8] The +characters of galls are constant, and as a rule exceedingly diagnostic, +even when, as in the case of ten different gall-gnats of an American +willow, _Salix humilis_, it is difficult or impossible to tell the +full-grown insects that produce them from one another. In degree of +complexity of internal structure galls differ considerably. Some are +monothalamous, and contain but one larva of the gall-maker, whilst +others are many-celled and numerously inhabited. The largest class are +the unilocular, or simple, external galls, divided by Lacaze-Duthiers +into those with and those without a superficial protective layer or +rind, and composed of hard, or spongy, or cellular tissue. In a common +gall-nut that authority distinguished seven constituent portions: an +epidermis; a subdermic cellular tissue; a spongy and a hard layer, +composing the parenchyma proper; vessels which, without forming a +complete investment, underlie the parenchyma; a hard protective layer; +and lastly, within that, an alimentary central mass inhabited by the +growing larva.[9] + +Galls are formed by insects of several orders. Among the Hymenoptera are +the gall-wasps (_Cynips_ and its allies), which infect the various +species of oak. They are small insects, having straight antennae, and a +compressed, usually very short abdomen with the second or second and +third segments greatly developed, and the rest imbricated, and +concealing the partially coiled ovipositor. The transformations from the +larval state are completed within the gall, out of which the imago, or +perfect insect, tunnels its way,--usually in autumn, though sometimes, +as has been observed of some individuals of _Cynips Kollari_, after +hibernation. + +Among the commoner of the galls of the _Cynipidae_ are the "oak-apple" +or "oak-sponge" of _Andricus terminalis_, Fab.; the "currant" or "berry +galls" of _Spathegaster baccarum_, L., above mentioned; and the +"oak-spangles" of _Neuroterus lenticularis_,[10] Oliv., generally +reputed to be fungoid growths, until the discovery of their true nature +by Frederick Smith,[11] and the succulent "cherry-galls" of _Dryophanta +scutellaris_, Oliv. The "marble" or "Devonshire woody galls" of +oak-buds, which often destroy the leading shoots of young trees, are +produced by _Cynips Kollari_,[12] already alluded to. They were first +introduced into Devonshire about the year 1847, had become common near +Birmingham by 1866, and two or three years later were observed in +several parts of Scotland.[13] They contain about 17% of tannin.[14] On +account of their regular form they have been used, threaded on wire, for +making ornamental baskets. The large purplish Mecca or Bussorah +galls,[15] produced on a species of oak by _Cynips insana_, Westw., have +been regarded by many writers as the Dead Sea fruit, mad-apples (_mala +insana_), or apples of Sodom (_poma sodomitica_), alluded to by Josephus +and others, which, however, are stated by E. Robinson (_Bibl. Researches +in Palestine_, vol. i. pp. 522-524, 3rd ed., 1867) to be the singular +fruit called by the Arabs _'Osher_, produced by the _Asclepias gigantea_ +or _procera_ of botanists. What in California are known as "flea seeds" +are oak-galls made by a species of _Cynips_; in August they become +detached from the leaves that bear them, and are caused to jump by the +spasmodic movements of the grub within the thin-walled gall-cavity.[16] + +Common gall-nuts, nut-galls, or oak-galls, the Aleppo, Turkey, or Levant +galls of commerce (Ger. _Gallapfel_, _levantische Gallen_; Fr. _noix de +Galle_), are produced on _Quercus infectoria_, a variety of _Q. +Lusitanica_, Webb, by _Cynips_ (_Diplolepis_, Latr.) _tinctoria_, L., or +_C. gallae tinctoriae_ Oliv. Aleppo galls (_gallae halepenses_) are +brittle, hard, spherical bodies, 2/5-4/5 in. in diameter, ridged and +warty on the upper half, and light brown to dark greyish-yellow within. +What are termed "blue," "black," or "green" galls contain the insect; +the inferior "white" galls, which are lighter coloured, and not so +compact, heavy or astringent, are gathered after its escape (see fig. +1.). Less valued are the galls of Tripoli (Taraplus or Tarabulus, whence +the name "Tarablous galls"). The most esteemed Syrian galls, according +to Pereira, are those of Mosul on the Tigris. Other varieties of +nut-galls, besides the above-mentioned, are employed in Europe for +various purposes. Commercial gall-nuts have yielded on analysis from 26 +(H. Davy) to 77 (Buchner) % of tannin (see Vinen, _loc. cit._), with +gallic and ellagic acids, ligneous fibre, water, and minute quantities +of proteids, chlorophyll, resin, free sugar and, in the cells around the +inner shelly chamber, calcium oxalate. Oak-galls are mentioned by +Theophrastus, Dioscorides (i. 146), and other ancient writers, including +Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xvi. 9, 10, xxiv. 5), according to whom they may be +produced "in a single night." Their insect origin appears to have been +entirely unsuspected until within comparatively recent times, though +Pliny, indeed, makes the observation that a kind of gnat is produced in +certain excrescences on oak leaves. Bacon describes oak-apples as "an +exudation of plants joined with putrefaction." Pomet[17] thought that +gall-nuts were the fruit of the oak, and a similar opinion obtains among +the modern Chinese, who apply to them the term _Mu-shih-tsze_, or +"fruits for the foodless."[18] Hippocrates administered gall-nuts for +their astringent properties, and Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxiv. 5) recommends +them as a remedy in affections of the gums and uvula, ulcerations of the +mouth and some dozen more complaints. In British pharmacy gall-nuts are +used in the preparation of the two astringent ointments _unguentum +gallae_ and _unguentum gallae cum opio_, and of the tinctura gallae, and +also as a source of tannin and of gallic acid (q.v.). They have from +very early times been resorted to as a means of staining the hair of a +dark colour, and they are the base of the tattooing dye of the Somali +women.[19] + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_a_, Aleppo "blue" gall; _b_, ditto in section, +showing central cavity for grub; _c_, Aleppo "white" gall, perforated by +insect; _d_, the same in section (natural size).] + +The gall-making Hymenoptera include, besides the _Cynipidae_ proper, +certain species of the genus _Eurytoma_ (_Isosoma_, Walsh) and family +_Chalcididae_, e.g. _E. hordei_, the "joint-worm" of the United States, +which produces galls on the stalks of wheat;[20] also various members of +the family _Tenthredinidae_, or saw-flies. The larvae of the latter +usually vacate their galls, to spin their cocoons in the earth, or, as +in the case of _Athalia abdominalis_, Klg., of the clematis, may emerge +from their shelter to feed for some days on the leaves of the +gall-bearing plant. + +The dipterous gall-formers include the gall-midges, or gall-gnats +(_Cecidomyidae_), minute slender-bodied insects, with bodies usually +covered with long hairs, and the wings folded over the back. Some of +them build cocoons within their galls, others descend to the ground or +become pupae. The true willow-galls are the work either of these or of +saw-flies. Their galls are to be met with on a great variety of plants +of widely distinct genera, e.g. the ash, maple, horn-beam, oak,[21] +grape-vine,[22] alder, gooseberry, blackberry, pine, juniper, thistle, +fennel, meadowsweet,[23] common cabbage and cereals. In the northern +United States, in May, "legions of these delicate minute flies fill the +air at twilight, hovering over wheat-fields and shrubbery. A strong +north-west wind, at such times, is of incalculable value to the +farmer."[24] Other gall-making dipterous flies are members of the family +_Trypetidae_, which disfigure the seed-heads of plants, and of the +family _Mycetophilidae_, such as the species _Sciara tilicola_,[25] Low, +the cause of the oblong or rounded green and red galls of the young +shoots and leaves of the lime. + +Galls are formed also by hemipterous and homopterous insects of the +families _Tingidae_, _Psyllidae_, _Coccidae_ and _Aphidae_. _Coccus +pinicorticis_ causes the growth of patches of white flocculent and downy +matter on the smooth bark of young trees of the white pine in +America.[26] The galls of examples of the last family are common objects +on lime-leaves, and on the petioles of the poplar. An American Aphid of +the genus _Pemphigus_ produces black, ragged, leathery and cut-shaped +excrescences on the young branches of the hickory. + + The Chinese galls of commerce (_Woo-pei-tsze_) are stated to be + produced by _Aphis Chinensis_, Bell, on _Rhus semialata_, Murr. (_R. + Bucki-amela_, Roxb.), an Anacardiaceous tree indigenous to N. India, + China and Japan. They are hollow, brittle, irregularly pyriform, + tuberculated or branched vesicles, with thin walls, covered externally + with a grey down, and internally with a white chalk-like matter, and + insect-remains (see fig. 2). The escape of the insect takes place on + the spontaneous bursting of the walls of the vesicle, probably when, + after viviparous (thelytokous) reproduction for several generations, + male winged insects are developed. The galls are gathered before the + frosts set in, and are exposed to steam to kill the insects.[27] + + Chinese galls examined by Viedt[28] yielded 72% of tannin, and less + mucilage than Aleppo galls. Several other varieties of galls are + produced by Aphides on species of _Pistacia_. + + M.J. Lichtenstein has established the fact that from the egg of the + Aphis of Pistachio galls, _Anopleura lentisci_, is hatched an apterous + insect (the gall-founder), which gives birth to young Aphides + (emigrants), and that these, having acquired wings, fly to the roots + of certain grasses (_Bromus sterilis_ and _Hordeum vulgare_), and by + budding underground give rise to several generations of apterous + insects, whence finally comes a winged brood (the pupifera). These + last issuing from the ground fly to the Pistachio, and on it deposit + their pupae. From the pupae, again, are developed sexual individuals, + the females of which lay fecundated eggs productive of gall-founders, + thus recommencing the biological cycle (see _Compt. rend._, Nov. 18, + 1878, p. 782, quoted in _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._, 1879, p. 174). + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_a_, Chinese gall (abt. 1/2 natural size); _b_, +ditto broken, showing thin-walled cavity; _c_, Japanese gall (natural +size).] + +Of other insects which have been recognized as gall-makers there are, +among the Coleoptera, certain Curculionids (gall-weevils), and species +of the exotic _Sagridae_ and _Lamiadae_ and an American beetle, +_Saperda inornata_ (_Cerambycidae_), which forms the pseudo-galls of +_Salix longifolia_ and _Populus angulata_, or cottonwood. Among the +Lepidoptera are gall-forming species belonging to the _Tineidae_, +_Aegeriidae_, _Tortricidae_ and _Pterophoridae_. The larva of a New +Zealand moth, _Morova subfasciata_, Walk. (_Cacoecia gallicolens_), of +the family _Drepanulidae_, causes the stem of a creeping plant, on the +pith of which it apparently subsists, to swell up into a fusiform +gall.[29] + +Mite-galls, or _acarocecidia_, are abnormal growths of the leaves of +plants, produced by microscopic Acaridea of the genus _Phytoptus_ +(gall-mites), and consist of little tufts of hairs, or of thickened +portions of the leaves, usually most hypertrophied on the upper surface, +so that the lower is drawn up into the interior, producing a bursiform +cavity. Mite-galls occur on the sycamore, pear, plum, ash, alder, vine, +mulberry and many other plants; and formerly, e.g. the gall known as +_Erineum quercinum_, on the leaves of _Quercus Cerris_, were taken for +cryptogamic structures. The lime-leaf "nail-galls" of _Phytoptus tiliae_ +closely resemble the "trumpet-galls" formed on American vines by a +species of _Cecidomyia_.[30] Certain minute Nematoid worms, as +_Anguillula scandens_, which infests the ears of wheat, also give rise +to galls. + +Besides the larva of the gall-maker, or the householder, galls usually +contain inquilines or lodgers, the larvae of what are termed guest-flies +or cuckoo-flies. Thus the galls of _Cynips_ and its allies are inhabited +by members of other cynipideous genera, as _Synergus_, _Amblynotus_ and +_Synophrus_; and the pine-cone-like gall of _Salix strobiloides_, as +Walsh has shown,[30] is made by a large species of _Cecidomyia_, which +inhabits the heart of the mass, the numerous smaller cecidomyidous +larvae in its outer part being mere inquilines. In many instances the +lodgers are not of the same order of insects as the gall-makers. Some +saw-flies, for example, are inquilinous in the galls of gall-gnats and +some gall-gnats in the galls of saw-flies. Again, galls may afford +harbour to insects which are not essentially gall-feeders, as in the +case of the Curculio beetle _Conotrachelius nenuphar_, Hbst., of which +one brood eats the fleshy part of the plum and peach, and another lives +in the "black knot" of the plum-tree, regarded by Walsh as probably a +true cecidomyidous gall. The same authority (_loc. cit._ p. 550) +mentions a willow-gall which provides no less than sixteen insects with +food and protection; these are preyed upon by about eight others, so +that altogether some twenty-four insects, representing eight orders, are +dependent for their existence on what to the common observer appears to +be nothing but "an unmeaning mass of leaves." Among the numerous insects +parasitic on the inhabitants of galls are hymenopterous flies of the +family _Proctotrypidae_, and of the family _Chalcididae_, e.g. +_Callimome regius_, the larva of which preys on the larvae of both +_Cynips glutinosa_ and its lodger _Synergus facialis_. The oak-apple +often contains the larvae of _Braconidae_ and _Ichneumonidae_, which Von +Schlechtendal (_loc. sup. cit._ p. 33) considers to be parasites not on +the owner of the gall, _Andricus terminalis_, but on inquilinous +_Tortricidae_. Birds are to be included among the enemies of +gall-insects. Oak-galls, for example, are broken open by the titmouse in +order to obtain the grub within, and the "button-galls" of _Neuroterus +numismatis_, Oliv., are eaten by pheasants. + +A great variety of deformations and growths produced by insects and +mites as well as by fungi have been described. They are in some cases +very slight, and in others form remarkably large and definite +structures. The whole are now included under the term Cecidia; a prefix +gives the name of the organism to which the attacks are due, e.g. +Phytoptocecidia are the galls formed by Phytoptid mites. Simple galls +are those that arise when only one member of a plant is involved; +compound galls are the result of attacks on buds. Amongst the most +remarkable galls recently discovered we may mention those found on +Eucalyptus, Casuarina and other trees and plants in Australia. They are +remarkable for their variety, and are due to small scale-insects of the +peculiar sub-family Brachyscelinae. As regards the mode of production of +galls, the most important distinction is between galls that result from +the introduction of an egg, or other matter, into the interior of the +plant, and those that are due to an agent acting externally, the gall in +the latter case frequently growing in such a manner as ultimately to +enclose its producers. The form and nature of the gall are the result of +the powers of growth possessed by the plant. It has long been known, and +is now generally recognized, that a gall can only be produced when the +tissue of a plant is interfered with during, or prior to, the actual +development of the tissue. Little more than this is known. The power +that gall-producers possess of influencing by direct interference the +growth of the cells of the plant that affords them the means of +subsistence is an art that appears to be widely spread among animals, +but is at the same time one of which we have little knowledge. The views +of Adler as to the alternation of generations of numerous gall-flies +have been fully confirmed, it having been ascertained by direct +observation that the galls and the insects produced from them in one +generation are entirely different from the next generation; and it has +also been rendered certain that frequently one of the alternate +generations is parthenogenetic, no males being produced. It is supposed +that these remarkable phenomena have gradually been evoked by difference +in the nutrition of the alternating generations. When two different +generations are produced in one year on the same kind of tree it is +clear the properties of the sap and tissues of the tree must be diverse +so that the two generations are adapted to different conditions. In some +cases the alternating generations are produced on different species of +trees, and even on different parts of the two species. + + On galls and their makers and inhabitants see further--J.T.C. + Ratzeburg, _Die Forst-Insecten_, Teil iii. pp. 53 seq. (Berlin, 1844); + T.W. Harris, _Insects injurious to Vegetation_ (Boston, U.S., 2nd ed., + 1852); C.L. Koch, _Die Pflanzenlause Aphiden_ (Nuremberg, 1854); T. + Hartig, _Die Familien der Blattwespen und Holzwespen_ (Berlin, 1860); + Walsh, "On the Insects, Coleopterous, Hymenopterous and Dipterous, + inhabiting the Galls of certain species of Willow," _Proc. Ent. Soc. + Philadelphia_, iii. (1863-1864), pp. 543-644, and vi. (1866-1867), pp. + 223-288; T.A. Marshall, "On some British Cynipidae," _Ent. Month. + Mag._ iv. pp. 6-8, &c.; H.W. Kidd and Albert Muller, "A List of + Gall-bearing British Plants," _ib._ v. pp. 118 and 216; G.L. Mayr, + _Die mitteleuropaischen Eichengallen in Wort und Bild_ (Vienna, + 1870-1871), and the translation of that work, with notes, in the + _Entomologist_, vols. vii. seq.; also, by the same author, "Die + Einmiethler der mitteleuropaischen Eichengallen," _Verhandl. d. + zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien_, xxii. pp. 669-726; and "Die europaischen + Torymiden," _ib._ xxiv. pp. 53-142 (abstracted in _Cistula + entomologica_, i., London, 1869-1876); F. Low, "Beitrage zur Kenntnis + der Gallmucken," _ib._ pp. 143-162, and 321-328; J.E. von Bergenstamm + and P. Low, "Synopsis Cecidomyidarum," _ib._ xxvi. pp. 1-104; Perris, + _Ann. Soc. Entom. de France_, 4th ser. vol. x. pp. 176-185; R. + Osten-Sacken, "On the North American Cecidomyidae," _Smithsonian + Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. vi. (1867), p. 173; E.L. Taschenberg, + _Entomologie fur Gartner und Gartenfreunde_ (Leipzig, 1871); J.W.H. + Traill, "Scottish Galls," _Scottish Naturalist_, i. (1871), pp. 123, + &c.; Albert Muller, "British Gall Insects," _The Entomologist's Annual + for 1872_, pp. 1-22; B. Altum, _Forstzoologie_, iii. "Insecten," pp. + 250 seq. (Berlin, 1874); J.H. Kaltenbach, _Die Pflanzenfeinde aus der + Classe der Insecten_ (Stuttgart, 1874); A. d'Arbois de Jubainville and + J. Vesque, _Les Maladies des plantes cultivees_, pp. 98-105 (Paris, + 1878). (F. H. B.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Quoted in _Zoological Record_, iv. (1867), p. 192. + + [2] P. Cameron, _Scottish Naturalist_, ii. pp. 11-15. + + [3] _Entomologist_, vii. p. 47. + + [4] See in _Proc. Entom. Soc. of London for the Year 1873_, p. xvi. + + [5] See A. Muller, _Gardener's Chronicle_ (1871), pp. 1162 and 1518; + and E.A. Fitch, _Entomologist_, xi. p. 129. + + [6] _Entomologist_, vi. pp. 275-278, 339-340. + + [7] _Verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien_, xxi. p. 799. + + [8] Darwin, _Variations of Animals and Plants under Domestication_, + ii. p. 282. + + [9] "Recherches pour servir a l'histoire des galles," _Ann. des sci. + nat._ xix. pp. 293 sqq. + + [10] According to Dr Adler, alternation of generations takes place + between _N. lenticularis_ and _Spathegaster baccarum_ (see E.A. + Ormerod, _Entomologist_, xi. p. 34). + + [11] See Westwood, _Introd. to the Mod. Classif. of Insects_, ii. + (1840) p. 130. + + [12] For figures and descriptions of insect and gall, see + _Entomologist_, iv. p. 17, vii. p. 241, ix. p. 53, xi. p. 131. + + [13] _Scottish Naturalist_, i. (1871) p. 116, &c. + + [14] Vinen, _Journ. de pharm. et de chim._ xxx. (1856) p. 290; + "English Ink-Galls," _Pharm. Journ._ 2nd ser. iv. p. 520. + + [15] See Pereira, _Materia Medica_, vol. ii. pt. i. p. 347; _Pharm. + Journ._ 1st ser. vol. viii. pp. 422-424. + + [16] See R.H. Stretch and C.D. Gibbes, _Proc. California Acad. of + Sciences_, iv. pp. 265 and 266. + + [17] _A Complete History of Drugs_ (translation), p. 169 (London, + 1748). + + [18] F. Porter Smith, _Contrib. towards the Mat. Medica ... of + China_, p. 100 (1871). + + [19] R.F. Burton, _First Footsteps in E. Africa_, p. 178 (1856). + + [20] A.S. Packard, jun., _Guide to the Study of Insects_, p. 205 + (Salem, 1870). + + [21] On the Cecidomyids of _Quercus Cerris_, see Fitch, + _Entomologist_, xi. p. 14. + + [22] See, on _Cecidomyia oenephila_, Von Haimhoffen, _Verhandl. d. + zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien_, xxv. pp. 801-810. + + [23] See _Entomologist's Month. Mag._ iv. (1868) p. 233; and for + figure and description, _Entomologist_, xi. p. 13. + + [24] A.S. Packard, jun., _Our Common Insects_, p. 203 (Salem, U.S. + 1873). On the Hessian fly, _Cecidomyia destructor_, Say, the May + brood of which produces swellings immediately above the joints of + barley attacked by it, see Asa Fitch, _The Hessian Fly_ (Albany, + 1847), reprinted from _Trans. New York State Agric. Soc._ vol. vi. + + [25] J. Winnertz, _Beitrag zu einer Monographie der Sciarinen_, p. + 164 (Vienna, 1867). + + [26] Asa Fitch, _First and Second Rep. on the Noxious ... Insects of + the State of New York_, p. 167 (Albany, 1856). + + [27] See E. Doubleday, _Pharm. Journ._ 1st ser, vol. vii. p. 310: and + Pereira, _ib._ vol. iii. p. 377. + + [28] _Dingler's Polyt. Journ._ ccxvi. p. 453. + + [29] For figure and description see _Zoology of the "Erebus" and + "Terror,"_ ii. pp. 46, 47 (1844-1875). + + [30] On the mite-galls and their makers, see F. Low, "Beitrage zur + Naturgesch. der Gallmilben (_Phytoptus_, Duj.)," _Verhandl. d. + zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien_, xxiv. (1874), pp. 2-16, with plate; and + "Uber Milbengallen (Acarocecidien) der Wiener-Gegend," _ib._ pp. + 495-508; Andrew Murray, _Economic Entomology, Aptera_, pp. 331-374 + (1876); and F.A.W. Thomas, _Altere und neue Beobachtungen uber + Phytopto-Cecidien_ (Halle, 1877). + + + + +GALLUPPI, PASQUALE (1770-1846), Italian philosopher, was born on the 2nd +of April 1770 at Tropea, in Calabria. He was of good family, and after +studying at the university of Naples he entered the public service, and +was for many years employed in the office of the administration of +finances. At the age of sixty, having become widely known by his +writings on philosophy, he was called to the chair of logic and +metaphysics in the university of Naples, which he held till his death in +November 1846. His most important works are: _Lettere filosofiche_ +(1827), in which he traces his philosophical development; _Elementi di +filosofia_ (1832); _Saggio filosofico sulla critica della conoscenza_ +(1819-1832); _Sull' analisi e sulla sintesi_ (1807); _Lezioni di logica +e di metafisica_ (1832-1836); _Filosofia della volonta_ (1832-1842, +incomplete); _Storia della filosofia_ (i., 1842); _Considerazioni +filosofiche sull' idealismo trascendentale_ (1841), a memoir on the +system of Fichte. + + On his philosophical views see L. Ferri, _Essai sur l'histoire de la + philosophie en Italie au XIX^e siecle_, i. (1869); V. Botta in + Ueberweg's _Hist. of Philosophy_, ii. app. 2; G. Barzellotti, + "Philosophy in Italy," in Mind, iii. (1878); V. Lastrucci, _Pasquale + Galluppi. Studio critico_ (Florence, 1890). + +GALLUS, CORNELIUS (c. 70-26 B.C.), Roman poet, orator and politician, +was born of humble parents at Forum Julii (_Frejus_) in Gaul. At an +early age he removed to Rome, where he was taught by the same master as +Virgil and Varius Rufus. Virgil, who dedicated one of his eclogues (x.) +to him, was in great measure indebted to the influence of Gallus for the +restoration of his estate. In political life Gallus espoused the cause +of Octavianus, and as a reward for his services was made praefect of +Egypt (Suetonius, _Augustus_, 66). His conduct in this position +afterwards brought him into disgrace with the emperor, and having been +deprived of his estates and sentenced to banishment, he put an end to +his life (Dio Cassius liii. 23). Gallus enjoyed a high reputation among +his contemporaries as a man of intellect, and Ovid (_Tristia_, iv. 10) +considered him the first of the elegiac poets of Rome. He wrote four +books of elegies chiefly on his mistress Lycoris (a poetical name for +Cytheris, a notorious actress), in which he took for his model Euphorion +of Chalcis (q.v.); he also translated some of this author's works into +Latin. Nothing by him has survived; the fragments of the four poems +attributed to him (first published by Aldus Manutius in 1590 and printed +in A. Riese's _Anthologia Latina_, 1869) are generally regarded as a +forgery. + + See C. Volker, _De C. Galli vita et scriptis_ (1840-1844); A. Nicolas, + _De la vie et des ouvrages de C. Gallus_ (1851), an exhaustive + monograph. An inscription found at Philae (published 1896) records the + Egyptian exploits; see M. Schanz, _Geschichte der romischen + Litteratur_, and Plessis, _Poesie latine_ (1909). + + + + +GALLUS, GAIUS AELIUS, praefect of Egypt 26-24 B.C. By order of Augustus +he undertook an expedition to Arabia Felix, with disastrous results. The +troops suffered greatly from disease, heat, want of water and the +obstinate resistance of the inhabitants. The treachery of a foreign +guide also added to his difficulties. After six months Gallus was +obliged to return to Alexandria, having lost the greater part of his +force. He was a friend of the geographer Strabo, who gives an account of +the expedition (xvi. pp. 780-782; see also Dio Cassius liii. 29; Pliny, +_Nat. Hist._ vi. 32; C. Merivale, _Hist. of the Romans under the +Empire_, ch. 34; H. Kruger, _Der Feldzug des A. G. nach dem glucklichen +Arabien_, 1862). He has been identified with the Aelius Gallus +frequently quoted by Galen, whose remedies are stated to have been used +with success in an Arabian expedition. + + + + +GALLUS, GAIUS CESTIUS, governor of Syria during the reign of Nero. When +the Jews in Jerusalem, stirred to revolt by the outrages of the Roman +procurators, had seized the fortress of Masada and treacherously +murdered the garrison of the palace of Herod, Gallus set out from +Antioch to restore order. On the 17th of November A.D. 66 he arrived +before Jerusalem. Having gained possession of the northern suburb, he +attacked the temple mount; but, after five days' fighting, just when +(according to Josephus) success was within his grasp, he unaccountably +withdrew his forces. During his retreat he was closely pursued by the +Jews and surrounded in a ravine, and only succeeded in making good his +escape to Antioch by sacrificing the greater part of his army and a +large amount of war material. Soon after his return Gallus died (before +the spring of 67), and was succeeded in the governorship by Licinius +Mucianus, the prosecution of the war being entrusted to Vespasian. + + See Tacitus, _Hist._ v. 10, 13; Suetonius, _Vespasian_, 4; Josephus, + _Bell. Jud._ ii. 14-20; E. Schurer, _Hist. of the Jewish People_, div. + i. vol. ii. p. 212 (Eng. tr., 1890). + + + + +GALLUS, GAIUS SULPICIUS, Roman general, statesman and orator. Under +Lucius Aemilius Paulus, his intimate friend, he commanded the 2nd legion +in the campaign against Perseus, king of Macedonia, and gained great +reputation for having predicted an eclipse of the moon on the night +before the battle of Pydna (168 B.C.). On his return from Macedonia he +was elected consul (166), and in the same year reduced the Ligurians to +submission. In 164 he was sent as ambassador to Greece and Asia, where +he held a meeting at Sardis to investigate the charges brought against +Eumenes of Pergamum by the representatives of various cities of Asia +Minor. Gallus was a man of great learning, an excellent Greek scholar, +and in his later years devoted himself to the study of astronomy, on +which subject he is quoted as an authority by Pliny. + + See Livy xliv. 37, _Epit_. 46; Polybius xxxi. 9, 10; Cicero, _Brutus_, + 20, _De officiis_, i. 6, _De senectute_, 14; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. + 9. + + + + +GALOIS, EVARISTE (1811-1832), French mathematician, was born on the 25th +of October 1811, and killed in a duel on the 31st of May 1832. An +obituary notice by his friend Auguste Chevalier appeared in the _Revue +encyclopedique_ (1832); and his collected works are published, _Journal +de Liouville_ (1846), pp. 381-444, about fifty of these pages being +occupied by researches on the resolubility of algebraic equations by +radicals. This branch of algebra he notably enriched, and to him is also +due the notion of a group of substitutions (see EQUATION: _Theory of +Equations_; also GROUPS, THEORY OF). + + His collected works, with an introduction by C.F. Picard, were + published in 1897 at Paris. + + + + +GALSTON, a police burgh and manufacturing town of Ayrshire, Scotland. +Pop. (1901) 4876. It is situated on the Irvine, 5 m. E. by S. of +Kilmarnock, with a station on the Glasgow & South-Western railway. The +manufactures include blankets, lace, muslin, hosiery and +paper-millboard, and coal is worked in the vicinity. About 1 m. to the +north, amid the "bonnie woods and braes," is Loudoun Castle, a seat of +the earl of Loudoun. + + + + +GALT, SIR ALEXANDER TILLOCH (1817-1893), Canadian statesman, was the +youngest son of John Galt the author. Born in London on the 6th of +September 1817, he emigrated to Canada in 1835, and settled in +Sherbrooke, in the province of Quebec, where he entered the service of +the British American Land Company, of which he rose to be chief +commissioner. Later he was one of the contractors for extending the +Grand Trunk railway westward from Toronto. He entered public life in +1849 as Liberal member for the county of Sherbrooke, but opposed the +chief measure of his party, the Rebellion Losses Bill, and in the same +year signed a manifesto in favour of union with the United States, +believing that in no other way could Protestant and Anglo-Saxon +ascendancy over the Roman Catholic French majority in his native +province be maintained. In the same year he retired from parliament but +re-entered it in 1853, and was till 1872 the chief representative of the +English-speaking Protestants of Quebec province. On the fall of the +Brown-Dorion administration in 1858 he was called on to form a ministry, +but declined the task, and became finance minister under Sir John +Macdonald and Sir George Cartier on condition that the federation of the +British North American provinces should become a part of their +programme. From 1858 to 1862 and 1864 to 1867 he was finance minister, +and did much to reduce the somewhat chaotic finances of Canada into +order. To him are due the introduction of the decimal system of currency +and the adoption of a system of protection to Canadian manufactures. To +his diplomacy was due the coalition in 1864 between Macdonald, Brown and +Cartier, which carried the federation of the British North American +provinces, and throughout the three years of negotiation which followed +his was one of the chief influences. He became finance minister in the +first Dominion ministry, but suddenly and mysteriously resigned on the +4th of November 1867. After his retirement he gave to the administration +of Sir John Macdonald a support which grew more and more fitful, and +advocated independence as the final destiny of Canada. In 1871 he was +again offered the ministry of finance on condition of abandoning these +views, but declined. In 1877 he was the Canadian nominee on the +Anglo-American fisheries commission at Halifax, and rendered brilliant +service. In 1880 he was appointed Canadian high commissioner to Great +Britain, but retired in 1883 in favour of Sir Charles Tupper. During +this period he advocated imperial federation. He was Canadian delegate +at the Paris Monetary Conference of 1881, and to the International +Exhibition of Fisheries in 1883. From this date till his death on the +19th of September 1893 he lived in retirement. No Canadian statesman +has had sounder or more abundant ideas, but a certain intellectual +fickleness made him always a somewhat untrustworthy colleague in +political life. (W. L. G.) + + + + +GALT, JOHN (1779-1839), Scottish novelist, was born at Irvine, Ayrshire, +on the 2nd of May 1779. He received his early education at Irvine and +Greenock, and read largely from one of the public libraries while +serving as a clerk in a mercantile office. In 1804 he went to settle in +London, where he published anonymously a poem on the _Battle of Largs_. +After unsuccessful attempts to succeed in business Galt entered at +Lincoln's Inn, but was never called to the bar. He obtained a commission +from a British firm to go abroad to find out whether the Berlin and +Milan decrees could be evaded. He met Byron and Sir John Hobhouse at +Gibraltar, travelled with Byron to Malta, and met him again at Athens. +He was afterwards employed by the Glasgow merchant Kirkman Finlay on +similar business at Gibraltar, and in 1814 visited France and Holland. +His early works are the _Life and Administration of Wolsey_, _Voyages +and Travels_, _Letters from the Levant_, the _Life of Benjamin West_, +_Historical Pictures_ and _The Wandering Jew_; and he induced Colburn to +publish a periodical containing dramatic pieces rejected by London +managers. These were afterwards edited by Galt as the _New British +Theatre_, which included some plays of his own. He first showed his real +power as a writer of fiction in _The Ayrshire Legatees_, which appeared +in _Blackwood's Magazine_ in 1820. This was followed in 1821 by his +masterpiece--_The Annals of the Parish_; and, at short intervals, _Sir +Andrew Wylie_, _The Entail_, _The Steam-Boat_ and _The Provost_ were +published. These humorous studies of Scottish character are all in his +happiest manner. His next works were _Ringan Gilhaize_ (1823), a story +of the Covenanters; _The Spaewife_ (1823), which relates to the times of +James I. of Scotland; _Rothelan_ (1824), a novel founded on the reign of +Edward III.; _The Omen_ (1825), which was favourably criticized by Sir +Walter Scott; and _The Last of the Lairds_, another picture of Scottish +life. + +In 1826 he went to America as secretary to the Canada Land Company. He +carried out extensive schemes of colonization, and opened up a road +through what was then forest country between Lakes Huron and Erie. In +1827 he founded Guelph in upper Canada, passing on his way the township +of Galt on the Grand river, named after him by the Hon. William Dixon. +But all this work proved financially unprofitable to Galt. In 1829 he +returned to England commercially a ruined man, and devoted himself with +great ardour to literary pursuits, of which the first fruit was _Lawrie +Todd_--one of his best novels. Then came _Southennan_, a tale of +Scottish life in the times of Queen Mary. In 1830 he was appointed +editor of the _Courier_ newspaper--a post he soon relinquished. His +untiring industry was seen in the publication, in rapid succession, of a +_Life of Byron_, _Lives of the Players_, _Bogle Corbet_, _Stanley +Buxton_, _The Member_, _The Radical_, _Eben Erskine_, _The Stolen +Child_, his _Autobiography_, and a collection of tales entitled _Stories +of the Study_. In 1834 appeared his _Literary Life and Miscellanies_, +dedicated by permission to William IV., who sent the author a present of +L200. As soon as this work was published Galt retired to Greenock, where +he continued his literary labours till his death on the 11th of April +1839. + +Galt, like almost all voluminous writers, was exceedingly unequal. His +masterpieces are _The Ayrshire Legatees_, _The Annals of the Parish_, +_Sir Andrew Wylie_, _The Entail_, _The Provost_ and _Lawrie Todd_. _The +Ayrshire Legatees_ gives, in the form of a number of exceedingly +diverting letters, the adventures of the Rev. Dr Pringle and his family +in London. The letters are made the excuse for endless tea-parties and +meetings of kirk-session in the rural parish of Garnock. _The Annals of +the Parish_ are told by the Rev. Micah Balwhidder, Galt's finest +character. This work (which, be it remembered, existed in MS. before +_Waverley_ was published) is a splendid picture of the old-fashioned +Scottish pastor and the life of a country parish; and, in rich humour, +genuine pathos and truth to nature it is unsurpassed even by Scott. It +is a fine specimen of the homely graces of the Scottish dialect, and +preserves much vigorous Doric phraseology fast passing out of use even +in country districts. In this novel Mr Galt used, for the first time, +the term "Utilitarian," which afterwards became so intimately associated +with the doctrines of John Stuart Mill and Bentham (see _Annals of the +Parish_, chap. xxxv., and a note by Mill in _Utilitarianism_, chap. +ii.). In _Sir Andrew Wylie_ the hero entered London as a poor lad, but +achieved remarkable success by his shrewd business qualities. The +character is somewhat exaggerated, but excessively amusing. _The Entail_ +was read thrice by Byron and Scott, and is the best of Galt's longer +novels. Leddy Grippy is a wonderful creation, and was considered by +Byron equal to any female character in literature since Shakespeare's +time. _The Provost_, in which Provost Pawkie tells his own story, +portrays inimitably the jobbery, bickerings and self-seeking of +municipal dignitaries in a quaint Scottish burgh. In _Lawrie Todd_ Galt, +by giving us the Scot in America, accomplished a feat which Sir Walter +never attempted. This novel exhibits more variety of style and a greater +love of nature than his other books. The life of a settler is depicted +with unerring pencil, and with an enthusiasm and imaginative power much +more poetical than any of the author's professed poems. + + The best of Galt's novels were reprinted in Blackwood's _Standard + Novels_, to volume i. of which his friend Dr Moir prefixed a memoir. + + + + +GALT, a town in Waterloo county, Ontario, Canada, 23 m. N.N.W. of +Hamilton, on the Grand river and on the Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific +railways. Pop. (1881) 5187; (1901) 7866. It is named after John Galt, +the author. It has excellent water privileges which furnish power for +flour-mills and for manufactures of edge tools, castings, machinery, +paper and other industries. + + + + +GALTON, SIR FRANCIS (1822- ), English anthropologist, son of S.T. +Galton, of Duddeston, Warwickshire, was born on the 16th of February +1822. His grandfather was the poet-naturalist Erasmus Darwin, and +Charles Darwin was his cousin. After attending King Edward VI.'s grammar +school, Birmingham, he studied at Birmingham hospital, and afterwards at +King's College, London, with the intention of making medicine his +profession; but after taking his degree at Trinity College, Cambridge, +in 1843 he changed his mind. The years 1845-1846 he spent in travelling +in the Sudan, and in 1850 he made an exploration, with Dr John Anderson, +of Damaraland and the Ovampo country in south-west Africa, starting from +Walfisch Bay. These tracts had practically never been traversed before, +and on the appearance of the published account of his journey and +experiences under the title of _Narrative of an Explorer in Tropical +South Africa_ (1853) Galton was awarded the gold medal of the Royal +Geographical Society. His _Art of Travel; or, Shifts and Contrivances in +Wild Countries_ was first published in 1855. In 1860 he visited the +north of Spain, and published the fruits of his observations of the +country and the people in the first of a series of volumes, which he +edited, entitled _Vacation Tourists_. He then turned to meteorology, the +result of his investigations appearing in _Meteorographica_, published +in 1863. This work was the first serious attempt to chart the weather on +an extensive scale, and in it also the author first established the +existence and theory of anti-cyclones. Galton was a member of the +meteorological committee (1868), and of the Meteorological Council which +succeeded it, for over thirty years. But his name is most closely +associated with studies in anthropology and especially in heredity. In +1869 appeared his _Hereditary Genius, its Laws and Consequences_, a work +which excited much interest in scientific and medical circles. This was +followed by _English Men of Science, their Nature and Nurture_, +published in 1874; _Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development_, +issued in 1883; _Life-History Album_ (1884); _Record of Family +Faculties_ (1884) (tabular forms and directions for entering data, with +a preface); and _Natural Inheritance_ (1889). The idea that systematic +efforts should be made to improve the breed of mankind by checking the +birth-rate of the unfit and furthering the productivity of the fit was +first put forward by him In 1865; he mooted it again in 1884, using the +term "eugenics" for the first time in _Human Faculty_, and in 1904 he +endowed a research fellowship in the university of London for the +promotion of knowledge of that subject, which was defined as "the study +of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial +qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally." Galton +was the author of memoirs on various anthropometric subjects; he +originated the process of composite portraiture, and paid much attention +to finger-prints and their employment for the identification of +criminals, his publications on this subject including _Finger Prints_ +(1892), _Decipherment of Blurred Finger Prints_ (1893) and _Finger Print +Directories_ (1895). From the Royal Society, of which he was elected a +fellow in 1860, he received a royal medal in 1886 and the Darwin medal +in 1902, and honorary degrees were bestowed on him by Oxford (1894) and +Cambridge (1895). In 1908 he published _Memories of My Life_, and in +1909 he received a knighthood. + + + + +GALUPPI, BALDASSARE (1706-1785), Italian musical composer, was born on +the 18th of October 1706 on the island of Burano near Venice, from which +he was often known by the nickname of Buranello. His father, a barber, +and violinist at the local theatre, was his first teacher. His first +opera, composed at the age of sixteen, being hissed off the stage, he +determined to study seriously, and entered the Conservatorio degli +Incurabili at Venice, as a pupil of Antonio Lotti. After successfully +producing two operas in collaboration with a fellow-pupil, G.B. +Pescetti, in 1728 and 1729, he entered upon a busy career as a composer +of operas for Venetian theatres, writing sometimes as many as five in a +year. He visited London in 1741, and arranged a _pasticcio_, _Alexander +in Persia_, for the Haymarket. Burney considered his influence on +English music to have been very powerful. In 1740 he became +_vice-maestro di cappella_ at St Mark's and _maestro_ in 1762. In 1749 +he began writing comic operas to libretti by Goldoni, which enjoyed an +enormous popularity. He was invited to Russia by Catherine II. in 1766, +where his operas made a favourable impression, and his influence was +also felt in Russian church music. He returned to Venice in 1768, where +he had held the post of director of the Conservatorio degli Incurabili +since 1762. He died on the 3rd of January 1785. + +Galuppi's best works are his comic operas, of which _Il Filosofo di +Campagna_ (1754), known in England as _The Guardian Trick'd_ (Dublin, +1762) was the most popular. His melody is attractive rather than +original, but his workmanship in harmony and orchestration is generally +superior to that of his contemporaries. He seems to have been the first +to extend the concerted finales of Leo and Logroscino into a chain of +several separate movements, working up to a climax, but in this respect +he is much inferior to Sarti and Mozart. + +Browning's poem, "A Toccata of Galuppi," does not refer to any known +composition, but more probably to an imaginary extemporization on the +harpsichord, such as was of frequent occurrence in the musical +gatherings of Galuppi's day. + + See also Alfred Wotquerme, _Baldassare Galuppi, etude bibliographique + sur ses oeuvres dramatiques_ (Brussels, 1902). Many of his autograph + scores are in the library of the Brussels conservatoire. + (E. J. D.) + + + + +GALVANI, LUIGI (1737-1798), Italian physiologist, after whom galvanism +received its name, was born at Bologna on the 9th of September 1737. It +was his wish in early life to enter the church, but by his parents he +was educated for a medical career. At the university of Bologna, in +which city he practised, he was in 1762 appointed public lecturer in +anatomy, and soon gained repute as a skilled though not eloquent +teacher, and, chiefly from his researches on the organs of hearing and +genito-urinary tract of birds, as a comparative anatomist. His +celebrated theory of animal electricity he enunciated in a treatise, "De +viribus electricitatis in motu musculari commentarius," published in the +7th volume of the memoirs of the Institute of Sciences at Bologna in +1791, and separately at Modena in the following year, and elsewhere +subsequently. The statement has frequently been repeated that, in 1786, +Galvani had noticed that the leg of a skinned frog, on being +accidentally touched by a scalpel which had lain near an electrical +machine, was thrown into violent convulsions; and that it was thus that +his attention was first directed to the relations of animal functions to +electricity. From documents in the possession of the Institute of +Bologna, however, it appears that twenty years previous to the +publication of his _Commentary_ Galvani was already engaged in +investigations as to the action of electricity upon the muscles of +frogs. The observation that the suspension of certain of these animals +on an iron railing by copper hooks caused twitching in the muscles of +their legs led him to the invention of his metallic arc, the first +experiment with which is described in the third part of the +_Commentary_, with the date September 20, 1786. The arc he constructed +of two different metals, which, placed in contact the one with a frog's +nerve and the other with a muscle, caused contraction of the latter. In +Galvani's view the motions of the muscle were the result of the union, +by means of the metallic arc, of its exterior or negative electrical +charge with positive electricity which proceeded along the nerve from +its inner substance. Volta, on the other hand, attributed them solely to +the effect of electricity having its source in the junction of the two +dissimilar metals of the arc, and regarded the nerve and muscle simply +as conductors. On Galvani's refusal, from religious scruples, to take +the oath of allegiance to the Cisalpine republic in 1797, he was removed +from his professorship. Deprived thus of the means of livelihood, he +retired to the house of his brother Giacomo, where he soon fell into a +feverish decline. The republican government, in consideration of his +great scientific fame, eventually, but too late, determined to reinstate +him in his chair, and he died at Bologna on the 4th of December 1798. + + A quarto edition of his works was published at Bologna in 1841-1842, + by the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of that city, under the + title _Opere edite ed inedite del professore Luigi Galvani_. + + + + +GALVANIZED IRON, sheet iron having its surface covered with a thin +coating of zinc. In spite of the name, galvanic action has often no part +in the production of galvanized iron, which is prepared by dipping the +iron, properly cleaned and pickled in acid, in a bath of molten zinc. +The hotter the zinc the thinner the coating, but as a high temperature +of the bath is attended with certain objections, it is a common practice +to use a moderate temperature and clear off the excess of zinc by +passing the plates between rollers. In Norwood and Rogers's process a +thin coating of tin is applied to the iron before it is dipped in the +zinc, by putting the plates between layers of granulated tin in a wooden +tank containing a dilute solution of stannous chloride, when tin is +deposited on them by galvanic action. In "cold galvanizing" the zinc is +deposited electrolytically from a bath, preferably kept neutral or +slightly acid, containing a 10% solution of crystallized zinc sulphate, +ZnSO4.7H2O. The resulting surface is usually duller and less lustrous +than that obtained by the use of molten zinc. Another method of forming +a coating of zinc, known as "sherardizing," was invented by Sherard +Cowper-Coles, who found that metals embedded in zinc dust (a product +obtained in zinc manufacture and consisting of metallic zinc mixed with +a certain amount of zinc oxide) and heated to temperatures well below +the melting point of zinc, become coated with a layer of that metal. In +carrying out the process the articles are placed in an air-tight vessel +with the zinc dust, which must be dry, and subjected to a heat of +250-330 deg. C., the time for which the heating is continued depending +on the thickness of the deposit required and varying from one-half to +several hours. If an air-tight receptacle is not available, a small +percentage of powdered carbon is added to the zinc-dust, to prevent +increase in the amount of oxide, which, if present in excess, tends to +make the deposit dull. + +Galvanized iron by its zinc surface is protected from corrosion by the +weather, though the protection is not very efficient in the presence of +acid or sulphurous fumes, and accordingly it is extensively employed for +roofing, especially in the form of corrugated sheets. The iron wire used +for wire-netting, telegraphic purposes, &c., is commonly galvanized, as +also are bolts, nuts, chains and other fittings on ships. + + + + +GALVANOMETER, an instrument for detecting or measuring electric +currents. The term is generally applied to instruments which indicate +electric current in scale divisions or arbitrary units, as opposed to +instruments called amperemeters (q.v.), which show directly on a dial +the value of the current in amperes. Galvanometers may be divided into +direct current and alternating current instruments, according as they +are intended to measure one or other of these two classes of currents +(see ELECTROKINETICS). + + _Direct Current Galvanometers_.--The principle on which one type of + direct current galvanometer, called a movable needle galvanometer, + depends for its action is that a small magnet when suspended in the + centre of a coil of wire tends to set its magnetic axis in the + direction of the magnetic field of the coil at that point due to the + current passing through it. In the other type, or movable coil + galvanometer, the coil is suspended and the magnet fixed; hence the + coil tends to set itself with its axis parallel to the lines of force + of the magnet. The movable system must be constrained in some way to + take up and retain a definite position when no current is passing by + means which are called the "control." + + + Movable needle galvanometer. + + Mirror galvanometers. + + In its simple and original form the movable needle galvanometer + consisted of a horizontal magnetic needle suspended within a coil of + insulated wire by silk fibres or pivoted on a point like a compass + needle. The direction of such a needle is controlled by the direction + of the terrestrial magnetic force within the coil. If the needle is so + placed that its axis is parallel to the plane of the coil, then when + an electric current passes through the coil it is deflected and places + itself at an angle to the axis of the coil determined by the strength + of the current and of the controlling field. In the early forms of + movable needle galvanometer the needle was either a comparatively + large magnet several inches in length, or else a smaller magnet was + employed carrying a long pointer which moved over a scale of degrees + so as to indicate the deflexion. A method of measuring the deflexion + by means of a mirror scale and telescope was introduced by K.F. Gauss + and W. Weber. The magnet had a mirror attached to it, and a telescope + having cross wires in the focus was used to observe the scale + divisions of a fixed scale seen reflected in the mirror. Lord Kelvin + (Professor W. Thomson) made the important improvement of reducing the + size of the needle and attaching it to the back of a very small + mirror, the two being suspended by a single fibre of cocoon silk. The + mirror was made of silvered microscopic glass about 1/4 in. in + diameter, and the magnetic needle or needles consisted of short + fragments of watchspring cemented to its back. A ray of light being + thrown on the mirror from a lamp the deflexions of the needle were + observed by watching the movements of a spot of light reflected from + it upon a fixed scale. This form of mirror galvanometer was first + devised in connexion with submarine cable signalling, but soon became + an indispensable instrument in the physical laboratory. + + + Astatic galvanometers. + + In course of time both the original form of single needle galvanometer + and mirror galvanometer were improved by introducing the astatic + principle and weakening the external controlling magnetic field. If + two magnetic needles of equal size and moment are attached rigidly to + one stem parallel to each other but with poles placed in opposite + directions an astatic system results; that is, if the needles are so + suspended as to be free to move in a horizontal plane, and if they are + made exactly equal in magnetic strength, the system will have no + directive power. If one needle is slightly weaker than the other, the + suspended system will set itself with some axis parallel to the lines + of force of a field in which it is placed. In a form of astatic needle + galvanometer devised by Professor A. Broca of Paris, the pair of + magnetized needles are suspended vertically and parallel to each other + with poles in opposite directions. The upper poles are included in one + coil and the lower poles within another coil, so connected that the + current circulates in the right direction in each coil to displace the + pairs of poles in the same direction. By this mode of arrangement a + greater magnetic moment can be secured, together with more perfect + astaticity and freedom from disturbance by external fields. The + earth's magnetic field can be weakened by means of a controlling + magnet arranged to create in the space in the interior of the + galvanometer coils an extremely feeble controlling magnetic field. In + instruments having a coil for each needle and designed so that the + current in both coils passes so as to turn both needles in the same + direction, the controlling magnet is so adjusted that the normal + position of the needles is with the magnetic axis parallel to the + plane of the coil. An astatic magnetic system used in conjunction with + a mirror galvanometer gives a highly sensitive form of instrument + (fig. 1); it is, however, easily disturbed by stray magnetic fields + caused by neighbouring magnets or currents through conductors, and + therefore is not suitable for use in many places. + + + Movable coil galvanometer. + + This fact led to the introduction of the movable coil galvanometer + which was first devised by Lord Kelvin as a telegraphic signalling + instrument but subsequently modified by A. d'Arsonval and others into + a laboratory galvanometer (fig. 2). In this instrument a permanent + magnet, generally of the horseshoe shape, is employed to create a + strong magnetic field, in which a light movable coil is suspended. The + suspension is bifilar, consisting of two fine wires which are + connected to the ends of the coil and serve to lead the current in and + out. If such a coil is placed with its plane parallel to the lines of + force of the permanent magnet, then when a current is passing through + it it displaces itself in the field, so as to set with its axis more + nearly parallel to the lines of force of the field. The movable coil + may carry a pointer or a mirror; in the latter form it is well + represented by several much used laboratory instruments. The movable + coil galvanometer has the great advantage that it is not easily + disturbed by the magnetic fields caused by neighbouring magnets or + electric currents, and thus is especially useful in the electrical + workshop and factory. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Kelvin Astatic Mirror Galvanometer. Elliott + square pattern.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Movable Coil Galvanometer.] + + + Construction and use. + + In the practical construction of the suspended needle fixed coil + galvanometer great care must be taken with the insulation of the wire + of the coil. This wire is generally silk-covered, wound on a frame, + the whole being thoroughly saturated with paraffin wax. In some cases + two wires are wound on in parallel, constituting a "differential + galvanometer." When properly adjusted this instrument can be used for + the exact comparison of electric currents by a null method, because if + an electric current is passed through one wire and creates certain + deflexions of the needle, the current which annuls this deflexion when + passed through the other wire must be equal to the first current. In + the construction of a movable coil galvanometer, it is usual to + intensify the magnetic field by inserting a fixed soft iron core in + the interior of the movable coil. If the current to be measured is too + large to be passed entirely through the galvanometer, a portion is + allowed to flow through a circuit connecting the two terminals of the + instrument. This circuit is called a _shunt_ and is generally arranged + so as to take 0.9, 0.99, or 0.999 of the total current, leaving 0.1, + 0.01 or 0.001 to flow through the galvanometer. W.E. Ayrton and T. + Mather have designed a universal shunt box or resistance which can be + applied to any galvanometer and by which a known fraction of any + current can be sent through the galvanometer when we know its + resistance (see _Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng. Lond_., 1894, 23, p. 314). A + galvanometer can be calibrated, or the meaning of its deflexion + determined, by passing through it an electric current of known value + and observing the deflexion of the needle or coil. The known current + can be provided in the following manner:--a single secondary cell of + any kind can have its electromotive force measured by the + potentiometer (q.v.), and compared with that of a standard voltaic + cell. If the secondary cell is connected with the galvanometer through + a known high resistance R, and if the galvanometer is shunted, that + is, has its terminals connected by another resistance S, then if the + resistance of the galvanometer itself is denoted by G, the whole + resistance of the shunted galvanometer and high resistance has a value + represented by R + GS/(G + S), and therefore the current through the + galvanometer produced by an electromotive force E of the cell is + represented by + + SE + -------------. + R(G + S) + GS + + Suppose this current produces a deflexion of the needle or coil or + spot of light equal to X scale divisions, we can then alter the value + of the resistances R and S, and so determine the relation between the + deflexion and the current. By the sensitiveness of the galvanometer + is meant the deflexion produced by a known electromotive force put + upon its terminals or a known current sent through it. It is usual to + specify the sensitiveness of a mirror galvanometer by requiring a + certain deflexion, measured in millimetres, of a spot of light thrown + on the scale placed at one metre from the mirror, when an + electromotive force of one-millionth of a volt (microvolt) is applied + to the terminals of the galvanometer; it may be otherwise expressed by + stating the deflexion produced under the same conditions when a + current of one microampere is passed through the coil. In modern + mirror galvanometers a deflexion of 1 mm. of the spot of light upon a + scale at 1 metre distance can be produced by a current as small as one + hundred millionth (10^-8) or even one ten thousand millionth (10^-10) + of an ampere. It is easy to produce considerable sensitiveness in the + galvanometer, but for practical purposes it must always be controlled + by the condition that the zero remains fixed, that is to say, the + galvanometer needle or coil must come back to exactly the same + position when no current is passing through the instrument. Other + important qualifications of a galvanometer are its time-period and its + dead-beatness. For certain purposes the needle or coil should return + as quickly as possible to the zero position and with either no, or + very few, oscillations. If the latter condition is fulfilled the + galvanometer is said to be "dead-beat." On the other hand, for some + purposes the galvanometer is required with the opposite quality, that + is to say, there must be as little retardation as possible to the + needle or coil when set in motion under an impulsive blow. Such a + galvanometer is called "ballistic." The quality of a galvanometer in + this respect is best estimated by taking the logarithmic decrement of + the oscillations when the movable system is set swinging. This last + term is defined as the logarithm of the ratio of one swing to the next + succeeding swing, and a galvanometer of which the logarithmic + decrement is large, is said to be highly damped. For many purposes, + such as for resistance measurement, it is desirable to have a + galvanometer which is highly damped; this result can be obtained by + affixing to the needles either light pieces of mica, when it is a + movable needle galvanometer, or by winding the coil on a silver frame + when it is a movable coil galvanometer. On the other hand, for the + comparison of capacities of condensers and for other purposes, a + galvanometer is required which is as little damped as possible, and + for this purpose the coil must have the smallest possible frictional + resistance to its motion through the air. In this case the moment of + inertia of the movable system must be decreased or the control + strengthened. + + The Einthoven string galvanometer is another form of sensitive + instrument for the measurement of small direct currents. It consists + of a fine wire or silvered quartz fibre stretched in a strong magnetic + field. When a current passes through the wire it is displaced across + the field and the displacement is observed with a microscope. + + + Tangent galvanometer. + + For the measurement of large currents a "tangent galvanometer" is + employed (fig. 3). Two fixed circular coils are placed apart at a + distance equal to the radius of either coil, so that a current passing + through them creates in the central region between them a nearly + uniform magnetic field. At the centre of the coils is suspended a + small magnetic needle the length of which should not be greater than + 1/10 the radius of either coil. The normal position of the needle is + at right angles to the line joining the centre of the coils. If a + current is passed through the coils, the needle will be deflected, and + the tangent of the angle of its deflexion will be nearly proportional + to the current passing through the coil, provided that the controlling + field is uniform in strength and direction, and that the length of the + magnetic needle is so short that the space in which it rotates is a + practically uniform magnetic field. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Helmholtz Tangent Galvanometer.] + + _Alternating Current Galvanometers._--For the detection of small + alternating currents a magnetic needle or movable coil galvanometer is + of no utility. We can, however, construct an instrument suitable for + the purpose by suspending within a coil of insulated wire a small + needle of soft iron placed with its axis at an angle of 45 deg. to the + axis of the coil. When an alternating current passes through the coil + the soft iron needle tends to set itself in the direction of the axis + of the coil, and if it is suspended by a quartz fibre or metallic wire + so as to afford a control, it can become a metrical instrument. + Another arrangement, devised by J.A. Fleming in 1887, consists of a + silver or copper disk suspended within a coil, the plane of the disk + being held at 45 deg. to that of the coil. When an alternating current + is passed through the coil, induced currents are set up in the disk + and the mutual action causes the disk to endeavour to set itself so + that these currents are a minimum. This metal disk galvanometer has + been made sufficiently sensitive to detect the feeble oscillatory + electric currents set up in the receiving wire of a wireless telegraph + apparatus. The Duddell thermal ammeter is another very sensitive form + of alternating current galvanometer. In it the current to be detected + or measured is passed through a high resistance wire or strip of + metal leaf mounted on glass, over which is suspended a closed loop of + bismuth and antimony, forming a thermoelectric couple. This loop is + suspended by a quartz fibre in a strong magnetic field, and one + junction of the couple is held just over the resistance wire and as + near it as possible without touching. When an alternating current + passes through the resistance it creates heat which in turn acts on + the thermo-junction and generates a continuous current in the loop, + thus deflecting it in the magnetic field. The sensitiveness of such a + thermal ammeter can be made sufficiently great to detect a current of + a few microamperes. + + References.--J.A. Fleming, _A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory + and Testing Room_, vol. i. (London, 1901); W.E. Ayrton, T. Mather and + W.E. Sumpner, "On Galvanometers," _Proc. Phys. Soc. London_ (1890), + 10, 393; H.R. Kempe, _A Handbook of Electrical Testing_ (London, + 1906); A. Gray, _Absolute Measurements in Electricity and Magnetism_, + vol. ii. part ii. (London, 1893). Useful information is also contained + in the catalogues of all the principal electrical instrument + makers--Messrs. Elliott Bros., Nalder, The Cambridge Scientific + Instrument Company, Pitkin, Hartmann and Braun, Queen and others. + (J. A. F.) + + + + +GALVESTON, a city and port of entry and the county-seat of Galveston +county, Texas, U.S.A., on the Gulf of Mexico, near the N.E. extremity of +Galveston Island and at the entrance to Galveston Bay. It is about 48 m. +S.E. of Houston and 310 m. W. of New Orleans. Pop. (1890) 29,084; (1900) +37,789, (6339 were foreign-born and 8291 negroes); (1910) 36,981; land +area (1906) 7.8 sq. m. It is served by the Galveston, Houston & +Henderson, the Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio, the Gulf, Colorado & +Santa Fe, the Trinity & Brazos Valley, the International & Great +Northern, and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways, and by numerous +steamship lines to Gulf ports in the United States and Mexico, and to +Cuba, South America, Europe and the Atlantic ports of the United States. +Galveston Island is a low, sandy strip of land about 28 m. long and +1-1/2 to 3-1/2 m. wide, lying from 2 to 3 m. off the mainland. The city, +which extends across the island from Gulf to Bay, faces and has its +harbour on the latter. The island was connected with the mainland before +the 1900 storm by a road bridge and several railway bridges, which, a +short distance W. of the city, crossed the narrow strip of water +separating the West Bay from Galveston Bay proper; the bridge least +harmed (a single-track railway bridge) was repaired immediately and was +for a time the city's only connexion with the mainland, but in 1908 +bonds were issued for building a concrete causeway, accommodating four +railway tracks, one interurban car track, and a roadway for vehicles and +pedestrians. An enormous sea-wall (completed in 1904 at a cost of +$2,091,000) was constructed on the eastern and Gulf sides of the city, +about 5 m. long, 17 ft. above mean low tide (1.5 ft. above the +high-water mark of the storm of 1900 and 7.5 ft. above the previous +high-water mark, that of September 1875), 16 ft. wide at the base and 5 +ft. at the top, weighing 20 tons to the lineal foot, and with a granite +rip-rap apron extending out 27 ft. on the Gulf side. The entire grade of +the city was raised from 1 to 15 ft. above the old level. Between the +sea-wall and the sea there is a splendid beach, the entire length of +which is nearly 30 m. Among the principal buildings are the city hall, +the court-house, the masonic temple, the Federal custom-house and +post-office, the Y.M.C.A. building and the public library. The United +States government maintains a marine hospital, a live-saving station, an +immigrant landing station, and the state and the Federal government +separate quarantine stations. In addition to the Ball public high +school, Galveston is the seat of St Mary's University (1854), the Sacred +Heart and Ursuline academies, and the Cathedral school, all under Roman +Catholic control. + +The government of the municipality was long vested in a council of ward +aldermen, controlled by a "machine," which was proved corrupt in 1894 by +an investigation undertaken at the personal expense of the mayor; it +gave place in 1895 to a city council of aldermen at large, which by 1901 +had proved its inefficiency especially in the crisis following the storm +of the preceding year. Government then seemed a business question and +was practically undertaken by the city's commercial experts, the +Deepwater commission, whose previous aim had been harbour improvement, +and who now drew up a charter providing for government by a board of +five appointed by the governor of the state. A compromise measure making +three members appointees of the governor and two elected by the voters +of the city was in force for a time but was declared unconstitutional. A +third charter was adopted providing for five commissioners, chosen by +the people, dividing among themselves the posts of mayor-president and +commissioners of finance and revenue, of water-works and sewerage, of +streets and public property, and of police and fire protection, each +commissioner being held individually responsible for the management of +his department. These are business departments carefully systematized by +their heads. The legislative power is vested in the commission as a +whole, over whose meetings the mayor-president presides; he has a vote +like every other commissioner, and has no veto power. The success of +this commission government has been remarkable: in 1901-1908 the city, +without issuing bonds except for grade raising, paid off a large debt, +raised the salaries of city employees, paid its running expenses in +cash, planned and began public improvements and sanitary reforms, and +did much for the abolition of gambling and the regulation of other vice. +The Galveston Plan and similar schemes of government have been adopted +in many other American cities. + +Galveston's manufactories, the products of which in 1900 were valued at +$5,016,360, a decrease of 12.4% from 1890 (value of products under +"factory system," $3,675,323 in 1900; $2,996,654 in 1905, a decrease of +18.5%), include cotton-seed oil refineries, flour and feed mills, lumber +mills, wooden-ware factories, breweries, cement works, creosoting works, +ship-yards and ice factories. There are extensive cotton warehouses, +coal and grain elevators, and large wholesale supply depots. The Gulf +Fisheries Company has its fleet's headquarters and large packing-houses +at Galveston. It is as a commercial port that Galveston is chiefly +important. In 1907 it was the second port in the United States in the +value of its exports (domestic and foreign, $196,627,382, or 10.22% of +the total), being surpassed only by New York City; and was the first of +the Gulf ports (having 45.43% of the total value), New Orleans being +second with $164,998,540. Galveston's imports in 1907 were valued at +$7,669,458. Galveston is the greatest cotton-exporting port in the +Union, its exports of cotton in 1907 being valued at $163,564,445. Other +exports of great value are cotton seed products (oil and cake, +$10,188,594 in 1907), Indian corn ($3,457,279 in 1907), wheat +($9,443,901 in 1906), lumber and flour. The electric lighting and +water-supply systems are owned and operated by the municipality. + +The harbour of Galveston seems to have been named about 1782 by Spanish +explorers in honour either of Jose de Galvez, Marquis of Sonora, or his +nephew Bernardo, governor of Louisiana; and in the early days of the +19th century was the principal rendezvous of a powerful band of +buccaneers and pirates, of whom, for many years, the notorious Jean +Lafitte was chief. After much difficulty these were finally dispersed +about 1820 by the United States authorities, and in 1837 the first +settlement from the United States was made on the site of the present +city. The town was incorporated by the legislature of the Republic of +Texas in 1839. On the 8th of October 1862 the city was taken by a +Federal naval force under Commander William B. Renshaw (1816-1863). +After a sharp engagement a Confederate force under General John B. +Magruder (1810-1871) retook the city on the 1st of January 1863, one of +the Federal ships, the "Harriet Lane," falling into Confederate hands, +and another, the "Westfield," being blown up with Commander Renshaw on +board. Thereafter Galveston remained in Confederate hands, although +rigidly blockaded by the Federal navy, until the close of the war. On +the 8th of September 1900 the city was seriously damaged by a West +Indian hurricane, which, blowing steadily for eighteen hours, reached a +velocity of 135 m. an hour. The waters of the Gulf were piled up in +enormous waves that swept across a large part of the city, destroying or +badly damaging more than 8000 buildings, entailing a loss of about 5000 +lives, and a property loss estimated at about $17,000,000. Liberal +contributions came from all over the country, and the state partially +remitted the city's taxes for 17 years. The city was rapidly rebuilt on +a more substantial plan. + + + + +GALWAY, a county in the west of Ireland, in the province of Connaught, +bounded N. by Mayo and Roscommon; E. by Roscommon, King's County and +Tipperary; S. by Clare and Galway Bay; and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. The +area is 1,519,699 acres or about 2375 sq. m., the county being second in +size to Cork among the Irish counties. + +The county is naturally divided by Lough Corrib into two great +divisions. The eastern, which comprehends all the county except the four +western baronies, rests on a limestone base, and is, generally speaking, +a level champaign country, but contains large quantities of wet bog. Its +southern portion is partly a continuation of the Golden Vale of +Limerick, celebrated for its fertility, and partly occupied by the +Slievebaughty Mountains. The northern portion of the division contains +rich pasture and tillage ground, beautifully diversified with hill and +dale. Some of the intermediate country is comparatively uncultivated, +but forms excellent pasturage for sheep. The western division of the +county has a substratum of granite, and is barren, rugged and +mountainous. It is divided into the three districts of Connemara, +Jar-Connaught and Joyce's Country; the name of Connemara is, however, +often applied to the whole district. Its highest mountains are the grand +and picturesque group of Bunnabeola, or the Twelve Bens or Pins, which +occupy a space of about 25 sq. m., the highest elevation being 2695 ft. +Much of this district is a gently sloping plain, from 100 to 300 ft. +above sea-level. Joyce's Country, farther north, is an elevated tract, +with flat-topped hills 1300 to 2000 ft. high, and deep narrow valleys +lying between them. + +Galway possesses the advantage of a very extended line of sea-coast, +indented by numerous harbours, which, however, are rarely used except by +a few coasting and fishing vessels. At the boundary with the county Mayo +in the north is Killary Harbour which separates the two counties. The +first bay on the western coast capable of accommodating large ships is +Ballynakill, sheltered by Freaghillaun or Heath Island. Next in +succession is Cleggan Bay. Off these inlets lie the islands of +Inishbofin and Inishark, with others. Streamstown is a narrow inlet, +within which are the inhabited islands of Omey, Inishturk and Turbot. +Ardbear harbour is divided into two inlets, the northern terminating at +the town of Clifden, with excellent anchorage; the southern inlet has +also good anchorage within the bar, and has a good salmon fishery. +Mannin Bay, though large, is much exposed and little frequented by +shipping. From Slyne Head the coast turns eastward to Roundstone Bay, +which has its entrance protected by the islands of Inishnee and +Inishlacken. Next in order is Bertraghboy Bay, studded with islets and +rocks, but deep and sheltered. Kilkieran Bay, the largest on this coast, +has a most productive kelp shore of nearly 100 m.; its mouth is but 3 m. +broad. Between Gorumna Island and the mainland is Greatman's Bay and +close to it Costello Bay, the most eastern of those in Connemara. The +whole of the coast from Greatman's Bay eastward is comprehended in the +Bay of Galway, the entrance of which is protected by the three limestone +islands of Aran, Inishmore (or Aranmore), Inishmann and Inisheer. + +The rivers are few, and, except the Shannon, of small size. The Suck, +which forms the eastern boundary of the county, rises in Roscommon, and +passing by Ballinasloe, unites with the Shannon at Shannonbridge. The +Shannon forms the south-eastern boundary of the county, and passing +Shannon Harbour, Banagher, Meelick and Portumna, swells into the great +expanse of water called Lough Derg, which skirts the county as far as +the village of Mount Shannon. The Claregalway flows southward through +the centre of the county, and enters Lough Corrib some 4 m. above the +town of Galway. The Ballynahinch, considered one of the best +salmon-fishing rivers in Connaught, rises in the Twelve Pins, passes +through Ballynahinch Lake, and after a short but rapid course falls into +Bertraghboy Bay. Lakes are numerous. Lough Corrib extends from Galway +town northwards over 30,000 acres, with a shore of 50 m. in extent. The +lake is studded with many islands, some of them thickly inhabited. The +district west of Lough Corrib contains a vast number of lakes, about +twenty-five of them more than a mile in length. Lough Rea, by the town +of the same name, is more remarkable for scenic beauty than for extent. +Besides these perennial lakes, there are several low tracts, called +turloughs, which are covered with water during a great part of the year. +Loughs Mask and Corrib are connected by a salmon ladder, and contain +large trout. Galway, with the Screab Waters, draining into Camus Bay, a +branch of Kilkieran Bay, with Recess and the Ballynahinch waters, are +the best fishing centres. On account of its scenic beauty, both coastal +and inland, together with its facilities for sport, county Galway is +frequented by summer visitors. Though for long the remoter parts were +difficult of access, as in the case of Donegal, Mayo, Clare and the +western counties generally, the Galway and Clifden railway assisted +private enterprise to open up the country. The western mountains, broken +by deep landlocked and island-sheltered bays, as well as by the +innumerable small loughs of the Connemara districts, afford scenes +varying from gentle slopes occasionally well wooded along the water's +edge to wild, bare moorlands among the heights, while the summits are +usually bold and rocky cones. Several small fishing villages have +acquired the dignity of watering-places from the erection of hotels, +which have also been planted in previously untenanted situations of high +scenic attractions; among these may be mentioned Leenane at the head of +Killary harbour, Renvyle House at its entrance, Letterfrack on +Ballynakill Bay, Streamstown and Clifden, and Cashel on Bertraghboy Bay. +Inland are Recess, near Lough Derryclare, and Ballynahinch, on the lough +of that name, both on the railway, at the foot of the Twelve Pins. + + _Geology_.--The east of this county lies in the Carboniferous + Limestone plain, with domes of Old Red Sandstone rising near Dunmore + and Mount Bellew. As Galway town is neared, the grey rock appears + freely on the surface, and Lough Corrib spreads itself over almost + level land. Its west branches, however, run up into "Dalradian" hills, + which rise abruptly on the threshold of Connemara. A broad mass of + ice-worn gneiss and granite lies between Lough Corrib and Galway Bay, + cut off so sharply at the sea as to suggest the presence of an + east-and-west line of fracture. The Twelve Bens owe their supremacy to + the quartzites, which are here well bedded and associated with + limestone and mica-schist. Silurian conglomerates and sandstones, with + andesitic lavas, overlie the Dalradians, with marked unconformity, + south of Leenane and round Lough Nafooey. The surfaces of the hard + rocks admirably record the action of ice throughout the county. There + is black Carboniferous marble at Menlough near Galway; and the + well-known "Connemara Marble" is a banded serpentinous crystalline + limestone in the Dalradians at Recess, Ballynahinch and Streamstown. + Compact red granite is worked at Shantallow, and the region west of + Galway contains many handsome porphyritic red varieties. + + _Climate and Industries_.--The climate is mild and healthy but + variable, and violent winds from the west are not uncommon. Frost or + snow seldom remains long on the western coast, and cattle of every + description continue unhoused during the winter. The eastern part of + the county produces the best wheat. Oats are frequently sown after + potatoes in moorish soils less adapted for wheat. The flat shores of + the bays afford large supplies of seaweed for manure. Limestone, + gravel and marl are to be had in most other parts. When a sufficient + quantity of manure for potatoes cannot be had, the usual practice is + to pare and burn the surface. In many places on the seashore fine + early potatoes are raised in deep sea-sand manured with seaweed, and + the crop is succeeded by barley. Those parts of the eastern district + less fitted for grain are employed in pasturage. Heathy sheep-walks + occupy a very large tract between Monivea and Galway. An extensive + range from Athenry, stretching to Galway Bay at Kinvarra, is also + chiefly occupied by sheep. Over half the total acreage of the county + is pasture-land, and cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry are extensively + reared. The proportion of tillage to pasturage is roughly as one to + four; and owing to the nature of the country fully one-third of the + total area is quite barren. + + Manufactures are not carried on beyond the demand caused by the + domestic consumption of the people. Coarse friezes, flannels and + blankets are made in all parts and sold largely in Galway and + Loughrea. Connemara has been long celebrated for its hand-knit woollen + stockings. Coarse linen, of a narrow breadth, called bandle linen, is + also made for home consumption. There is a linen-weaving factory at + Oughterard. The manufacture of kelp, formerly a great source of profit + on the western shores, is still carried on to some extent. Feathers + and sea-fowls' eggs are brought in great quantities from the islands + of Aran, the produce of the puffins and other sea-fowl that frequent + the cliffs. Fishing affords occupation to many of the inhabitants, the + industry having as its centres the ports of Galway and Clifden. + + The Midland Great Western main line enters the county at Ballinasloe, + and runs by Athenry to Galway, with an extension to Oughterard (Lough + Corrib) and Clifden. The Great Southern & Western line from Sligo to + Limerick traverses the county from N. to S., by way of Tuam, Athenry + and Gort. + +_Population and Administration._--The population of county Galway +(211,227 in 1891; 192,549 in 1901) decreased by more than half in the +last seventy years of the 19th century, and the decrease continues, as +emigration is heavy. About 97% of the population are Roman Catholics, +and a somewhat less percentage are rural. The Erse tongue is maintained +by many in this remote county. The chief towns are Galway (pop. 13,426), +Tuam (3012), Ballinasloe (4904) and Loughrea (2815), with the smaller +towns of Portumna, Gort, Clifden, Athenry, Headford, Oughterard and +Eyrecourt. The county is divided into four parliamentary divisions +(returning one member each); north, south, east and Connemara, while the +town of Galway returns one member. There are eighteen baronies. Assizes +are held at Galway, quarter-sessions at Galway, Ballinasloe, Clifden, +Gort, Loughrea, Oughterard, Portumna and Tuam. The county comprises +parts of the Protestant dioceses of Tuam and of Killaloe; and of the +Roman Catholic dioceses of Elphin, Galway, Clonfert and Killaloe. + +_History._--The history of county Galway is exceedingly obscure, and +nearly every one of its striking physical features carries its legend +with it. For centuries local septs struggled together for mastery +undeterred by outside influence. The wreck of part of the Spanish Armada +on this coast in 1588 left survivors whose influence is still to be +traced. The formation of Galway into a county was effected about 1579 by +Sir Henry Sydney, lord deputy of Ireland. In the county at Aughrim +(q.v.) the decisive battle of the English Revolution was fought in 1691. +Among the antiquities are several round towers. The only perfect one is +at Kilmacduagh, a very fine example 112 ft. high, leaning considerably +out of the perpendicular. Raths or encampments are numerous and several +cromlechs are to be seen in good preservation. The ruins of monastic +buildings are also numerous. That of Knockmoy, about 6 m. from Tuam, +said to have been founded in 1180 by Cathal O'Connor, was adorned with +rude fresco paintings, still discernible, which were considered valuable +as being the best authentic representations existing of ancient Irish +costumes. Ancient castles and square towers of the Anglo-Norman settlers +are frequently met with; some have been kept in repair, but the greater +number are in ruins. The castle of Tuam, built in 1161 by Roderick +O'Connor, king of Ireland, at the period of the English invasion, is +said to have been the first building of this description of stone and +mortar in Ireland. The remains of a round castle, a form of building +very uncommon in the military architecture of the country, are to be +seen between Gort and Kilmacduagh. The extraordinary cyclopean and +monastic ruins on the Aran Islands (q.v.) must be mentioned; and the +town of Galway, Athenry, and the neighbourhood of Ballinasloe all show +interesting remains. The small church of Clonfert, in the south of the +county, with a fine Romanesque doorway, is a cathedral, the diocese of +which was united with Kilfenora, Kilmacduagh and Killaloe in 1833. + + + + +GALWAY, a seaport, parliamentary borough and the county town of county +Galway, Ireland, on the north shore of Galway Bay, and on the main line +of the Midland Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) +13,426. Some of the streets are very narrow, and contain curious +specimens of old buildings, chiefly in antique Spanish style, being +square, with a central court, and a gateway opening into the street. The +most noteworthy of these is the pile known as Lynch's Castle. This +residence takes its name from the family of whom James Lynch +Fitzstephen, mayor of Galway in 1493, was a member; whose severity as a +magistrate is exemplified in the story that he executed his own son, and +thus gave origin (according to one of several theories) to the familiar +term of Lynch law. The principal streets are broad and contain good +shops. St Nicholas church is a fine cruciform building founded in 1320, +and containing monuments, and a bell, one of a peal, which appears to +have been brought from Cavron in France, but how this happened is not +known. The church was made collegiate in 1484, and Edward VI. created +the Royal College of Galway in connexion with it; but the old college +buildings no longer serve this purpose, and the church ceased to be +collegiate in 1840. There are remains of a Franciscan friary founded in +1296. St Augustine's church (Roman Catholic) is modern (1859). The town +is the seat of a Roman Catholic diocese. There are grammar, model and +industrial schools, the first with exhibitions to Trinity College, +Dublin; but the principal educational establishment is University +College, a quadrangular building in Tudor Gothic style, of grey +limestone. It was founded as Queen's College, with other colleges of the +same name at Belfast and Cork, under an act of 1845, and its name was +changed when it was granted a new charter pursuant to the Irish +Universities Act 1908. The harbour comprises an extensive line of quays, +and is connected for inland navigation with Lough Corrib. The shipping +trade is considerable, but as a trans-Atlantic port Galway was exploited +unsuccessfully. The fisheries, both sea and salmon, are important. The +chief exports are wool, agricultural produce and black marble, which is +polished in local mills. Other industrial establishments include +corn-mills, iron-foundries, distilleries, and brush and bag factories. +The borough, which returned two members to parliament until 1885, now +returns one. + +Galway is divided into the old and new towns, while a suburb known as +the Claddagh is inhabited by fishermen. This is a curious collection of +small cottages, where communal government by a locally elected mayor +long prevailed, together with peculiar laws and customs, strictly +exclusive inter-marriage, and a high moral and religious standard. +Specimens of the distinctive Claddagh ring, for example, were worn and +treasured as venerated heirlooms. These customs, with the distinctive +dress of the women, died out but slowly, and even to-day their vestiges +remain. + +The environs of Galway are pleasant, with several handsome residences. +The most interesting point in the vicinity is Roscam, with its round +tower, ruined church and other remains. Salthill, with golf links, is a +waterside residential suburb. + +Little is known of the history of Galway until after the arrival of the +English, at which time it was under the protection of O'Flaherty, who +possessed the adjoining district to the west. On the extinction of the +native dynasty of the O'Connors, the town fell into the hands of the De +Burgos, the head of a branch of which, under the name of M'William +Eighter, long governed it by magistrates of his own appointment. After +it had been secured by walls, which began to be built about 1270 and are +still in part traceable, it became the residence of a number of +enterprising settlers, through whom it attained a position of much +commercial celebrity. Of these settlers the principal families, fourteen +in number, were known as the tribes of Galway. They were of Norman, +Saxon or Welsh descent, and became so exclusive in their relationships +that dispensations were frequently requisite for the canonical legality +of marriages among them. The town rapidly increased from this period in +wealth and commercial rank, far surpassing in this respect the rival +city of Limerick. Richard II. granted it a charter of incorporation with +liberal privileges, which was confirmed by his successor. It had the +right of coinage by act of parliament, but there is no evidence to show +that it exercised the privilege. Another charter, granted in 1545, +extended the jurisdiction of the port to the islands of Aran, permitted +the exportation of all kinds of goods except linens and woollens, and +confirmed all the former privileges. Large numbers of Cromwell's +soldiers are said to have settled in the town; and there are many traces +of Spanish blood among the population. Its municipal privileges were +extended by a charter from James I., whereby the town, and a district of +two miles round in every direction, were formed into a distinct county, +with exclusive jurisdiction and a right of choosing its own magistrates. +During the civil wars of 1641 the town took part with the Irish, and was +surrendered to the Parliamentary forces under Sir Charles Coote; after +which the ancient inhabitants were mostly driven out, and their property +was given to adventurers and soldiers, chiefly from England. On the +accession of James II. the old inhabitants entertained sanguine hopes of +recovering their former rights. But the successes of King William soon +put an end to their expectations; and the town, after undergoing +another siege, again capitulated to the force brought against it by +General Ginkell. + + + + +GAMA, VASCO DA (c. 1460-1524), Portuguese navigator and discoverer of +the sea-route to India, was born at Sines, a small seaport in the +province of Alemtejo. Of da Gama's early history little is known. His +descent, according to the _Nobiliario_ of Antonio de Lima, was derived +from a noble family which is mentioned in the year 1166; but the line +cannot be traced without interruption farther back than the year 1280, +to one Alvaro da Gama, from whom was descended Estevao da Gama, civil +governor of Sines, whose third son Vasco was born probably about the +year 1460. In that year died Prince Henry the Navigator, to whose +intelligence and foresight must be traced back all the fame that +Portugal gained on the seas in the 15th and 16th centuries. Explorers +sent out at his instigation discovered the Azores and unknown regions on +the African coast, whence continually came reports of a great monarch, +"who lived east of Benin, 350 leagues in the interior, and who held both +temporal and spiritual dominion over all the neighbouring kings," a +story which tallied so remarkably with the accounts of "Prester John" +which had been brought to the Peninsula by Abyssinian priests, that John +II. of Portugal steadfastly resolved that both by sea and by land the +attempt should be made to reach the country of this potentate. For this +purpose Pedro de Covilham and Affonso de Payva were despatched eastward +by land; while Bartholomeu Diaz (q.v.), in command of two vessels, was +sent westward by sea (see ABYSSINIA, 14). That there was in truth an +ocean highway to the East was proved by Diaz, who returned in December +1488 with the report that when sailing southward he was carried far to +the east by a succession of fierce storms, past--as he discovered only +on his return voyage--what he ascertained to be the southern extremity +of the African continent. The condition of John's health and concerns of +state, however, prevented the fitting out of the intended expedition; +and it was not till nine years later, when Emanuel I. had succeeded to +the throne, that the preparations for this great voyage were +completed--hastened, doubtless, by Columbus's discovery of America in +the meanwhile. + +For the supreme command of this expedition the king selected Vasco da +Gama, who had in his youth fought in the wars against Castile, and in +his riper years gained distinction as an intrepid mariner. The fleet, +consisting of four vessels specially built for this mission, sailed down +the Tagus on the 9th of July 1497, after prayers and confession made by +the officers and crews in a small chapel on the site where now stands +the church of S. Maria de Belem (see LISBON), afterwards built to +commemorate the event. Four months later the flotilla cast anchor in St +Helena Bay, South Africa, rounded the Cape in safety, and in the +beginning of the next year reached Malindi, on the east coast of Africa. +Thence, steering eastward, under the direction of a pilot obtained from +Indian merchants met with at this port, da Gama arrived at Calicut, on +the Malabar coast, on the 20th May 1498, and set up, according to the +custom of his country, a marble pillar as a mark of conquest and a proof +of his discovery of India. His reception by the zamorin, or Hindu ruler +of Calicut, would have in all probability been favourable enough, had it +not been for the jealousy of the Mahommedan traders who, fearing for +their gains, so incited the Hindus against the new-comers that da Gama +was unable to establish a Portuguese factory. Having seen enough of +India to assure him of its great resources, he returned to Portugal in +September 1499. The king received him with every mark of distinction, +granted him the use of the prefix _Dom_, thus elevating him to the rank +of an untitled noble, and conferred on him pensions and other property. +In prosecution of da Gama's discoveries another fleet of thirteen ships +was immediately sent out to India under Pedro Alvares Cabral, who, in +sailing too far westward, by accident discovered Brazil, and on reaching +his destination established a factory at Calicut. The natives, again +instigated by the Mahommedan merchants, rose up in arms and murdered all +whom Cabral had left behind. To avenge this outrage a powerful armament +of ten ships was fitted out at Lisbon, the command of which was at first +given to Cabral, but was afterwards transferred to da Gama, who +received the title admiral of India (January 1502). A few weeks later +the fleet sailed, and on reaching Calicut da Gama immediately bombarded +the town, treating its inhabitants with a savagery too horrible to +describe. From Calicut he proceeded in November to Cochin, "doing all +the harm he could on the way to all that he found at sea," and having +made favourable trading terms with it and with other towns on the coast, +he returned to Lisbon in September 1503, with richly laden ships. He and +his captains were welcomed with great rejoicings and he received +additional privileges and revenues. + +Soon after his return da Gama retired to his residence in Evora, +possibly from pique at not obtaining so high rewards as he expected, but +more probably in order to enjoy the wealth and position which he had +acquired; for he was now one of the richest men in the kingdom. He had +married, probably in 1500, a lady of good family, named Catherina de +Ataide, by whom he had six sons. According to Correa, he continued to +advise King Emanuel I. on matters connected with India and maritime +policy up to 1505, and there are extant twelve documents dated 1507-1522 +which prove that he continued to enjoy the royal favour. The most +important of these is a grant dated December 1519 by which Vasco da Gama +was created count of Vidigueira, with the extraordinary privileges of +civil and criminal jurisdiction and ecclesiastical patronage. During +this time the Portuguese conquests increased in the East, and were +presided over by successive viceroys. The fifth of these was so +unfortunate that da Gama was recalled from his seclusion by Emanuel's +successor, John III., and nominated viceroy of India, an honour which in +April 1524 he left Lisbon to assume. Arriving at Goa during September of +the same year, he immediately set himself to correct with vigour the +many abuses which had crept in under the rule of his predecessors. He +was not destined, however, to prosecute far the reforms he had +inaugurated, for, on the Christmas-eve following his arrival, he died at +Cochin after a short illness, and was buried in the Franciscan monastery +there. In 1538 his body was conveyed to Portugal and entombed in the +town of Vidigueira. In 1880 what were supposed on insufficient evidence +to have been his remains were transferred to the church of Santa Maria +de Belem. His voyage had the immediate result of enriching Portugal, and +raising her to one of the foremost places among the nations of Europe, +and eventually the far greater one of bringing to pass the colonization +of the East by opening its commerce to the Western world. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Vasco da Gama's First Voyage_, by Dr E. Ravenstein + (London, Hakluyt Society, 1898), is a translation with notes, &c., of + the anonymous _Roteiro_ (Journal or Itinerary), written by one of + Vasco da Gama's subordinates who sailed on board the "S. Raphael," + which was commanded by the admiral's brother Paulo da Gama. This is + the most important of the original authorities; five accounts of the + voyage in letters contemporary with it are appended to the Hakluyt + Society's translation. See also J. de Barros, _Decadas da India_ + (Lisbon, 1778-1788, written c. 1540); F.L. de Castanheda, _Historia do + descobrimento da India_ (Coimbra, 1551, largely based on the + _Roteiro_); _The Three Voyages of Vasco da Gama and his Viceroyalty_, + by Gaspar Correa (Hakluyt Society, 1869), chiefly valuable for the + events of 1524; _The Lusiads_ of Camoens, the central incident in + which is Vasco da Gama's first voyage; _Calcoen_ (i.e. _Calicut_), _a + Dutch Narrative of the Second Voyage of Vasco da Gama_, written by + some unknown seaman of the expedition, printed at Antwerp about 1504, + reprinted in facsimile, with introduction and translation, by J. Ph. + Berjeau (London, 1874); Thome Lopes, narrative (1502) in vol. i. of + Ramusio. + + + + +GAMALIEL ([Hebrew: Gamliel]). This name, which in Old Testament times +figures only as that of a prince of the tribe of Manasseh (_vide_ Num. +i. 10, &c.), was hereditary among the descendants of Hillel. Six persons +bearing the name are known. + +1. GAMALIEL I., a grandson of Hillel, and like him designated Ha-Zaqen +(the Elder), by which is apparently indicated that he was numbered among +the Sanhedrin, the high council of Jerusalem. According to the tradition +of the schools of Palestine Gamaliel succeeded his grandfather and his +father (of the latter nothing is known but his name, Simeon) as _Nasi_, +or president of the Sanhedrin. Even if this tradition does not +correspond with historic fact, it is at any rate certain that Gamaliel +took a leading position in the Sanhedrin, and enjoyed the highest +repute as an authority on the subject of knowledge of the Law and in the +interpretation of the Scriptures. He was the first to whose name was +prefixed the title Rabban (Master, Teacher). It is related in the Acts +of the Apostles (v. 34 et seq.) that his voice was uplifted in the +Sanhedrin in favour of the disciples of Jesus who were threatened with +death, and on this occasion he is designated as a Pharisee and as being +"had in reputation among all the people" ([Greek: nomodidaskalos timios +panti to lao]). In the Mishna (_Gittin_ iv. 1-3) he is spoken of as the +author of certain legal ordinances affecting the welfare of the +community (the expression in the original is "_tiqqun ha-'olam_," i.e. +improvement of the world) and regulating certain questions as to +conjugal rights. In the tradition was also preserved the text of the +epistles regarding the insertion of the intercalary month, which he sent +to the inhabitants of Galilee and the Darom (i.e. southern Palestine) +and to the Jews of the Dispersion (Sanhedrin 11b and elsewhere). He +figures in two anecdotes as the religious adviser of the king and queen, +i.e. Agrippa I. and his wife Cypris (Pesahim 88 b). His function as a +teacher is proved by the fact that the Apostle Paul boasts of having sat +at the feet of Gamaliel (Acts. xxii. 3). Of his teaching, beyond the +saying preserved in Aboth i. 16, which enjoins the duty of study and of +scrupulousness in the observance of religious ordinances, only a very +remarkable characterization of the different natures of the scholars +remains (Aboth di R. Nathan, ch. xl.). His renown in later days is +summed up in the words (Mishna, end of Sotah): "When Rabban Gamaliel the +Elder died, regard for the Torah (the study of the Law) ceased, and +purity and piety died." As Gamaliel I. is the only Jewish scribe whose +name is mentioned in the New Testament he became a subject of Christian +legend, and a monk of the 12th century (Hermann the Premonstratensian) +relates how he met Jews in Worms studying Gamaliel's commentary on the +Old Testament, thereby most probably meaning the Talmud. + +2. GAMALIEL II., the son of Simon ben Gamaliel, one of Jerusalem's +foremost men in the war against the Romans (_vide_ Josephus, _Bellum +Jud_. iv. 3, 9, _Vita_ 38), and grandson of Gamaliel I. To distinguish +him from the latter he is also called Gamaliel of Jabneh. In Jabneh +(Jamnia), where during the siege of Jerusalem the scribes of the school +of Hillel had taken refuge by permission of Vespasian, a new centre of +Judaism arose under the leadership of the aged Johanan ben Zakkai, a +school whose members inherited the authority of the Sanhedrin of +Jerusalem. Gamaliel II. became Johanan ben Zakkai's successor, and +rendered immense service in the strengthening and reintegration of +Judaism, which had been deprived of its former basis by the destruction +of the Temple and by the entire loss of its political autonomy. He put +an end to the division which had arisen between the spiritual leaders of +Palestinian Judaism by the separation of the scribes into the two +schools called respectively after Hillel and Shammai, and took care to +enforce his own authority as the president of the chief legal assembly +of Judaism with energy and often with severity. He did this, as he +himself said, not for his own honour nor for that of his family, but in +order that disunion should not prevail in Israel. Gamaliel's position +was recognized by the Roman government also. Towards the end of +Domitian's reign (c. A.D. 95) he went to Rome in company with the most +prominent members of the school of Jabneh, in order to avert a danger +threatening the Jews from the action of the terrible emperor. Many +interesting particulars have been given regarding the journey of these +learned men to Rome and their sojourn there. The impression made by the +capital of the world upon Gamaliel and his companions was an +overpowering one, and they wept when they thought of Jerusalem in ruins. +In Rome, as at home, Gamaliel often had occasion to defend Judaism in +polemical discussions with pagans, and also with professed Christians. +In an anecdote regarding a suit which Gamaliel was prosecuting before a +Christian judge, a converted Jew, he appeals to the Gospel and to the +words of Jesus in Matt. v. 17 (Shabbath 116 a, b). Gamaliel devoted +special attention to the regulation of the rite of prayer, which after +the cessation of sacrificial worship had become all-important. He gave +the principal prayer, consisting of eighteen benedictions, its final +revision, and declared it every Israelite's duty to recite it three +times daily. He was on friendly terms with many who were not Jews, and +was so warmly devoted to his slave Tabi that when the latter died he +mourned for him as for a beloved member of his own family. He loved +discussing the sense of single portions of the Bible with other +scholars, and made many fine expositions of the text. With the words of +Deut. xiii. 18 he associated the lesson: "So long as thou thyself art +merciful, God will also be merciful to thee." Gamaliel died before the +insurrections under Trajan had brought fresh unrest into Palestine. At +his funeral obsequies the celebrated proselyte Aquila (Akylas Onkelos), +reviving an ancient custom, burned costly materials to the value of +seventy minae. Gamaliel himself had given directions that his body was +to be wrapped in the simplest possible shroud. By this he wished to +check the extravagance which had become associated with arrangements for +the disposal of the dead, and his end was attained; for his example +became the rule, and it also became the custom to commemorate him in the +words of consolation addressed to the mourners (Kethub. 8 b). Gamaliel's +son, Simon, long after his father's death, and after the persecutions +under Hadrian, inherited his office, which thenceforward his descendants +handed on from father to son. + +3. GAMALIEL III., son of Jehuda I. the redactor of the Mishna, and his +successor as _Nasi_ (patriarch). The redaction of the Mishna was +completed under him, and some of his sayings are incorporated therein +(Aboth ii. 2-4). One of these runs as follows: "Beware of those in +power, for they permit men to approach them only for their own uses; +they behave as friends when it is for their advantage, but they do not +stand by a man when he is in need." Evidently this was directed against +the self-seeking of the Roman government. Gamaliel III. lived during the +first half of the 3rd century. + +4. GAMALIEL IV., grandson of the above, patriarch in the latter half of +the 3rd century: about him very little is known. + +5. GAMALIEL V., son and successor of the patriarch Hillel II.: beyond +his name nothing is known of him. He lived in the latter half of the 4th +century. He is the patriarch Gamaliel whom Jerome mentions in his letter +to Pamachius, written in 393. + +6. GAMALIEL VI., grandson of the above, the last of the patriarchs, died +in 425. With him expired the office, which had already been robbed of +its privileges by a decree of the emperors Honorius and Theodosius II. +(dated the 17th of October 415). Gamaliel VI. was also a physician, and +a celebrated remedy of his is mentioned by his contemporary Marcellus +(_De Medicamentis_, liber 21). (W. Ba.) + + + + +GAMBETTA, LEON (1838-1882), French statesman, was born at Cahors on the +2nd of April 1838. His father, a Genoese, who had established himself as +a grocer and had married a Frenchwoman named Massabie, is said to have +been his son's prototype in vigour and fluency of speech. In his +sixteenth year young Gambetta lost by an accident the sight of his left +eye, which eventually had to be removed. Notwithstanding this privation, +he highly distinguished himself at the public school of Cahors, and in +1857 proceeded to Paris to study law. His southern vehemence gave him +great influence among the students of the Quartier Latin, and he was +soon known as an inveterate enemy of the imperial government. He was +called to the bar in 1859, but, although contributing to a Liberal +review, edited by Challemel Lacour, did not make much way until, on the +17th of November 1868, he was selected to defend the journalist +Delescluze, prosecuted for having promoted the erection of a monument to +the representative Baudin, who was killed in resisting the _coup d'etat_ +of 1851. Gambetta seized his opportunity and assailed both the _coup +d'etat_ and the government with an eloquence of invective which made him +immediately famous. + +In May 1869 he was returned to the Assembly, both by the first +circumscription of Paris and by Marseilles, defeating Hippolyte Carnot +for the former constituency and Thiers and Lesseps for the latter. He +elected to sit for Marseilles, and lost no opportunity of attacking the +Empire in the Assembly. He was at first opposed to the war with +Germany, but when satisfied that it had been forced upon France he did +not, like some of his colleagues, refuse to vote supplies, but took the +patriotic line of supporting the flag. When the news of the disaster at +Sedan reached Paris, Gambetta called for strong measures. He himself +proclaimed the fall of the emperor at the _corps legislatif_, and the +establishment of a republic at the hotel de ville. He was one of the +first members of the new government of national defence, becoming +minister of the interior. He advised his colleagues to leave Paris and +conduct the government from some provincial city. This advice was +rejected from dread of another revolution in Paris, and a delegation to +organize resistance in the provinces was despatched to Tours, but when +this was seen to be inefficient Gambetta himself (7th October) quitted +Paris in a balloon, and upon arriving at Tours took the supreme +direction of affairs as minister of the interior and of war. Aided by M. +de Freycinet, then a young officer of engineers, as his assistant +secretary of war, he displayed prodigies of energy and intelligence. He +speedily organized an army, which might possibly have effected the +relief of Paris if Metz had held out, but the surrender of Bazaine +brought the army of the crown prince into the field, and success was +impossible. After the defeats of the French near Orleans early in +December the seat of government had to be transferred to Bordeaux, and +when Paris surrendered at the end of January, Gambetta, though resisting +and protesting, was compelled to submit to the capitulation concluded +with Prince Bismarck. He immediately resigned his office. Elected by +nine departments to the National Assembly meeting at Bordeaux (on the +1st of March 1871) he chose to sit for Strassburg, which by the terms of +the treaty about to be submitted to the Assembly for ratification was to +be ceded to Prussia, and when the treaty was adopted he resigned in +protest and retired to Spain. + +He returned to France in June, was elected by three departments in July, +and commenced an agitation for the definitive establishment of the +Republic. On the 5th of November 1871 he established a journal, _La +Republique francaise_, which soon became the most influential in France. +His orations at public meetings were more effective than those delivered +in the Assembly, especially that made at Bordeaux on his return, and +that at Grenoble on the 26th of November 1872, in which he spoke of +political power having passed to les _nouvelles couches sociales_. When +Thiers, however, fell from power in May 1873, and a Royalist was placed +at the head of the government in the person of Marshal MacMahon, +Gambetta gave proof of his statesmanship by unceasingly urging his +friends to a moderate course, and by his tact and parliamentary +dexterity, no less than by his eloquence, he was mainly instrumental in +the voting of the constitution in February 1875. This policy he +continued during the early days of the now consolidated Republic, and +gave it the appropriate name of "opportunism." It was not until the 4th +of May 1877, when the peril from reactionary intrigues was notorious, +and the clerical party had begun a campaign for the restoration of the +temporal power of the pope, that he delivered his famous speech +denouncing "clericalism" as "the enemy." On the 16th of May Marshal +MacMahon, in order to support the clerical reactionaries, perpetrated +his parliamentary _coup d'etat_, and on the 15th of August Gambetta, in +a speech at Lille, gave him the alternative se _soumettre ou se +demettre_. He then undertook a political campaign to rouse the +republican party throughout France, which culminated in a speech at +Romans (September 18, 1878) formulating its programme. MacMahon, equally +unwilling to resign or to provoke civil war, had no choice but to +dismiss his advisers and form a moderate republican ministry under the +premiership of Dufaure. + +When the resignation of the Dufaure cabinet brought about the abdication +of Marshal MacMahon, Gambetta declined to become a candidate for the +presidency, but gave his support to Grevy; nor did he attempt to form a +ministry, but accepted the office of president of the chamber of +deputies (January 1879). This position, which he filled with much +ability, did not prevent his occasionally descending from the +presidential chair to make speeches, one of which, advocating an amnesty +to the communards, was especially memorable. Although he really +directed the policy of the various ministries, he evidently thought that +the time was not ripe for asserting openly his own claims to direct the +policy of the Republic, and seemed inclined to observe a neutral +attitude as far as possible; but events hurried him on, and early in +1881 he placed himself at the head of a movement for restoring _scrutin +de liste_, or the system by which deputies are returned by the entire +department which they represent, so that each elector votes for several +representatives at once, in place of _scrutin d'arrondissement_, the +system of small constituencies, giving one member to each district and +one vote to each elector. A bill to re-establish _scrutin de liste_ was +passed by the Assembly on 19th May 1881, but rejected by the Senate on +the 19th of June. + +But this personal rebuff could not alter the fact that in the country +his was the name which was on the lips of the voters at the election. +His supporters were in a large majority, and on the reassembling of the +chamber, the Ferry cabinet quickly resigned. Gambetta was unwillingly +entrusted by Grevy on the 14th of November 1881 with the formation of a +ministry--known as _Le Grand Ministere_. He now experienced the Nemesis +of his over-cautious system of abstinence from office for fear of +compromising his popularity. Every one suspected him of aiming at a +dictatorship; attacks, not the less formidable for their injustice, were +directed against him from all sides, and his cabinet fell on the 26th of +January 1882, after an existence of only sixty-six days. Had he remained +in office his declarations leave no doubt that he would have cultivated +the British alliance and cooperated with Great Britain in Egypt; and +when the Freycinet administration, which succeeded, shrank from that +enterprise only to see it undertaken with signal success by England +alone, Gambetta's foresight was quickly justified. His fortunes were +presenting a most interesting problem when, on the 31st of December +1882, at his house in Ville d'Avray, near Sevres, he died by a shot from +a revolver which accidentally went off. Then all France awoke to a sense +of her obligation to him, and his public funeral on the 6th of January +1883 evoked one of the most overwhelming displays of national sentiment +ever witnessed on a similar occasion. + +Gambetta rendered France three inestimable services: by preserving her +self-respect through the gallantry of the resistance he organized during +the German War, by his tact in persuading extreme partisans to accept a +moderate Republic, and by his energy in overcoming the usurpation +attempted by the advisers of Marshal MacMahon. His death, at the early +age of forty-four, cut short a career which had given promise of still +greater things, for he had real statesmanship in his conceptions of the +future of his country, and he had an eloquence which would have been +potent in the education of his supporters. The romance of his life was +his connexion with Leonie Leon (d. 1906), the full details of which were +not known to the public till her death. This lady, with whom Gambetta +fell in love in 1871, was the daughter of a French artillery officer. +She became his mistress, and the _liaison_ lasted till he died. Gambetta +himself constantly urged her to marry him during this period, but she +always refused, fearing to compromise his career; she remained, however, +his confidante and intimate adviser in all his political plans. It is +understood that at last she had just consented to become his wife, and +the date of the marriage had been fixed, when the accident which caused +his death occurred in her presence. Contradictory accounts have indeed +been given as to this fatal episode, but that it was accidental, and not +suicide, is certain. On Gambetta the influence of Leonie was absorbing, +both as lover and as politician, and the correspondence which has been +published shows how much he depended upon her. But in various matters of +detail the serious student of political history must be cautious in +accepting her later recollections, some of which have been embodied in +the writings of M. Francis Laur, such as that an actual interview took +place in 1878 between Gambetta and Bismarck. That Gambetta after 1875 +felt strongly that the relations between France and Germany might be +improved, and that he made it his object, by travelling incognito, to +become better acquainted with Germany and the adjoining states, may be +accepted, but M. Laur appears to have exaggerated the extent to which +any actual negotiations took place. On the other hand, the increased +knowledge of Gambetta's attitude towards European politics which later +information has supplied confirms the view that in him France lost +prematurely a master mind, whom she could ill spare. In April 1905 a +monument by Dalou to his memory at Bordeaux was unveiled by President +Loubet. + + Gambetta's _Discours et plaidoyers politiques_ were published by J. + Reinach in 11 vols. (Paris, 1881-1886); his _Depeches, circulaires, + decrets_ ... in 2 vols. (Paris, 1886-1891). Many biographies have + appeared. The principal are J. Reinach, _Leon Gambetta_ (1884), + _Gambetta orateur_ (1884) and _Le Ministere Gambetta, histoire et + doctrine_ (1884); Neucastel, _Gambetta, sa vie, et ses idees + politiques_ (1885); J. Hanlon, _Gambetta_ (London, 1881); Dr Laborde, + _Leon Gambetta biographie psychologique_ (1898); P.B. Gheusi, + Gambetta, _Life and Letters_ (Eng. trans. by V.M. Montagu, 1910). See + also G. Hanotaux, _Histoire de la France contemporaine_ (1903, &c.). + F. Laur's _Le Coeur de Gambetta_ (1907, Eng. trans., 1908) contains + the correspondence with Leonie Leon; see also his articles on + "Gambetta and Bismarck" in _The Times_ of August 17 and 19, 1907, with + the correspondence arising from them. (H. Ch.) + + + + +GAMBIA, an important river of West Africa, and the only river of Africa +navigable by ocean-going boats at all seasons for over 200 m. from its +mouth. It rises in about 11 deg. 25' N. and 12 deg. 15' W., within 150 +m. of the sea on the north-eastern escarpment of the Futa Jallon +highlands, the massif where also rise the head-streams of the Senegal +and some of the Niger tributaries, besides the Rio Grande and many other +rivers flowing direct to the Gulf of Guinea. The Gambia, especially in +its lower course, is very serpentine, and although the distance from the +source to the mouth of the river is little more than 300 m. in a direct +line, the total length of the stream is about 1000 m. It flows first +N.N.E., receiving many left-hand tributaries, but about 12 deg. 35' N. +takes a sharp bend N.W. and maintains this direction until it leaves the +fertile and hilly region of Bondu. The descent to the lower district is +marked by the Barraconda rapids, formed by a ledge of rock stretching +across the river. Between 30 and 50 m. above the falls the Gambia is +joined by two considerable affluents, the Nieriko from the north and the +Kuluntu or Grey river from the south. From the Barraconda rapids to the +Atlantic the Gambia has a course of about 350 m. Throughout this +distance the waters are tidal, and the river is navigable all the year +round by boats drawing 6 ft. of water. At Yarbatenda, a few miles below +Barraconda, the river has a breadth, even at the dry season, of over 300 +ft., with a depth of 13 to 20 ft. From the falls to McCarthy's Island, a +distance of 200 m., the river valley, which here presents a park-like +appearance, is enclosed by low rocky hills of volcanic character. For 50 +m. below the island, where the stream is about 800 yds. wide, the banks +of the river are steep and thickly wooded. They then become low and are +fringed with mangrove swamps. From Devil's Point, a sharp promontory on +the north bank--up to which place the water is salt--the river widens +considerably and enters the Atlantic, in about 13-1/2 deg. N. and 16-1/2 +deg. W., by a broad estuary. Near the mouth of the river on the south +side is St Mary's Island (3-1/2 m. long by 1-1/2 broad), and opposite on +the north bank is Barra Point, the river being here contracted to 2-1/2 +m. Eighteen miles lower down the distance from shore to shore is 27 m. +There is a sand-bar at the entrance to the river, but at the lowest +state of the tide there are 26 ft. of water over the bar. The Gambia is +in flood from November to June, when the Barraconda rapids are navigable +by small boats. Above the rapids the stream is navigable for 160 m. +Politically the Gambia is divided between Great Britain and +France--Britain possessing both banks of the river up to, but not +including, Yarbatenda. + +The Gambia was one of the rivers passed by Hanno the Carthaginian in his +famous voyage along the west coast of Africa. It was known to Ptolemy +and the Arabian geographers, and was at one time supposed to be a mouth +of the Nile, and, later (18th century), a branch of the Niger. It was +possibly visited by Genoese navigators in 1291, and was certainly +discovered by the Portuguese c. 1446, but was first explored for any +distance from its mouth (1455) by the Venetian Alvise Cadamosto (q.v.), +who published an account of his travels at Vicenza in 1507 (_La Prima +Navigazione per l'Oceano alle terre de' Negri della Bassa Ethiopia_). +Afterwards the Gambia became a starting-place for explorers of the +interior, among them Mungo Park, who began both his journeys (1795 and +1805) from this river. It was not until 1818 that the sources of the +Gambia were reached, the discovery being made by a Frenchman, Gaspard +Mollien, who had travelled by way of the Senegal and Bondu. The middle +course of the river was explored in 1851 by R.G. MacDonnell, then +governor of the Gambia colony, and in 1881 Dr V.S. Gouldsbury also +navigated its middle course. No native craft of any kind was seen above +Barraconda. The more correct name of the river is Gambra, and it is so +called in old books of travel. + + See Mungo Park's _Travels_ (London, 1799); G. Mollien, _Travels ... to + the Sources of the Senegal and Gambia ..._, edited by T.E. Bowdich + (London, 1820); the account of Dr Gouldsbury's journey in the Blue + Book C 3065 (1881); also under the country heading below. + + + + +GAMBIA, the most northerly of the British West African dependencies. It +consists of a stretch of land on both sides of the lower Gambia. The +colony, with the protectorate dependent upon it, has an area of about +4000 sq. m. and a population officially estimated (1907) at 163,000. The +colony proper (including St Mary's Island, British Kommbo, the Ceded +Mile, McCarthy's Island and other islets) has an area of about 69 sq. m. +The protectorate consists of a strip of land extending ten kilometres +(about 6 m.) on each side of the river to a distance of about 200 m. in +a direct line from the sea. The land outside these limits is French. +Within the protectorate are various petty kingdoms, such as Barra, to +the north of the Gambia, and Kommbo, to the south. The breadth of the +colony near the coast is somewhat greater than it is higher up. The +greatest breadth is 39 m. + + _Physical Features, Fauna and Flora._--The colony, as its name + implies, derives its character and value from the river Gambia (q.v.), + which is navigable throughout and beyond the limits of the colony, + while large ocean-going ships can always cross the bar at its mouth + and enter the port of Bathurst. Away from the swamps by the river + banks, the country is largely "bush." The region above McCarthy's + Island is hilly. Much of the land is cleared for cultivation. The + fauna includes lions, leopards, several kinds of deer, monkeys, + bush-cow and wild boar. Hippopotami are found in the upper part of the + river, and crocodiles abound in the creeks. The birds most common are + bush-fowl, bustards, guinea-fowl, quail, pigeon and sand-grouse. Bees + are very numerous in parts of the country. The flora resembles that of + West Africa generally, the mangrove being common. Mahogany and + rosewood (_Pterocarpus erinaceus_) trees are found, though not in + large numbers, and the rubber-vine and oil-palm are also comparatively + scarce. There are many varieties of fern. The cassava (manioca) and + indigo plants are indigenous. + + _Climate._--The climate during the dry season (November-June) is the + best on the British West African coast, and the Gambia is then + considered fairly healthy. Measures for the extermination of the + malarial mosquito are carried on with good effect. The mean + temperature at Bathurst is 77 deg. F., the shade minimum being 56 deg. + and the solar maximum 165 deg. Upriver the variation in temperature is + even greater than at Bathurst, from 50 deg. in the morning to 100 + deg.-104 deg. at 3 P.M. being common at McCarthy's Isle. The average + rainfall is about 50 in. a year, but save for showers in May and June + there is rarely any rain except between July and October. The first + instance of rain in December in twenty-six years was recorded in 1906. + The dry east wind known as the harmattan blows intermittently from + December to March. + +_Inhabitants._--The inhabitants, who are both thrifty and industrious, +are almost entirely of Negro or Negroid race, the chief tribes +represented being the Mandingo (q.v.), the Jolof and the Jola. Numbers +of Fula (q.v.) are also settled in the country. Fully four-fifths of the +natives are Mahommedans. The few European residents are officials, +traders or missionaries. + +_Towns and Trade._--Bathurst, pop. about 8000, the chief town of the +colony, in 13 deg. 24' N., 16 deg. 36' W., is built on St Mary's Island, +which lies at the mouth of the river near its south bank and is +connected with the mainland by a bridge across Oyster Creek. It was +founded in 1816 and is named after the 3rd earl Bathurst, secretary of +state for the colonies from 1812 to 1827. Bathurst is a fairly +well-built town, the chief material employed being red sandstone. It +lies about 12 to 14 ft. above the level of the river. The principal +buildings face the sea, and include Government House, barracks, a +well-appointed hospital, founded by Sir R.G. MacDonnell (administrator, +1847-1852), and various churches. The market-place is shaded by a fine +avenue of bombax and other wide-spreading trees. There are no other +towns of any size in the Gambia. A trading station called Georgetown is +situated on McCarthy's Island, so named after Sir Charles McCarthy, the +governor of Sierra Leone, who in 1824 was captured and beheaded by the +Ashanti at the battle of Essamako. Albreda, a small port on the north +bank of the river, of some historic interest (see below), is in the +Barra district. + + _Products._--Ground-nuts (_Arachis hypogaea_), rubber, beeswax, palm + kernels, rice, cotton, and millet are the chief productions. Millet + and rice are the staple food of the people. The curing of hides, the + catching and drying of fish, boat-building, and especially the weaving + of cotton into cloths called "pagns," afford employment to a + considerable number of persons. Formerly the principal exports, + besides slaves, were gold-dust, wax and hides, the gold being obtained + from the Futa Jallon district farther inland. Between 1830 and 1840 + from 1500 to 2000 oz. of gold were exported annually, but shipments + ceased soon afterwards, though small quantities of gold-dust can still + be obtained from native goldsmiths. The export of hides received a + severe check in 1892-1893 through the death of nearly all the cattle, + but after an interval of seven or eight years the industry gradually + revived. The value of hides exported increased from L520 in 1902 to + L9615 in 1907. The collection of rubber was started about 1880, but + the trade has not assumed large proportions. In 1907 the value of the + rubber exported was L4602. The export of wax, valued at L37,000 in + 1843, had dwindled in 1907 to L2325. The cultivation of the + ground-nut, first exported in 1830, assumed importance by 1837, and by + 1850 had become the chief industry of the colony. In 1907 the value of + the nuts was L256,685, over 11/12 of the total exports (exclusive of + specie). Nearly the whole male population is engaged in the industry + for eight months of the year. Planted in June, after the early rains, + the crop is reaped in October or November and exported to Europe (4/5 + to Marseilles) for the extraction of its oil, which is usually sold as + olive oil. A feature of the industry is the appearance at the + beginning of the planting season of thousands of men from a distance, + "strange farmers," as they are called, who are housed and fed and + given farms to cultivate. In return they have to give half the produce + to the landlords. As soon as he has sold his nuts, the "strange + farmer" goes off, often not returning for years. + + Apart from the cultivation of the ground-nut, the agricultural + resources of the country are undeveloped. Large herds of cattle are + kept by the Fula, and in cattle rich natives usually invest their + wealth. Land can be hired for 2d. an acre per annum for twenty-one + years. All land lying vacant or unused, or to which the occupier is + unable to produce any title, is vested in the crown. A botanical + station was opened in 1894, and the cultivation of American and + Egyptian cotton was taken in hand in 1902. The experiment proved + discouraging. Great difficulty was experienced in getting farmers to + grow cotton for export, as unless carried on on highly scientific + lines its cultivation is not so profitable as that of the ground-nut. + The principal imports, of which over 2/3 come from Great Britain or + British colonies, are cotton goods, kola-nuts (from Sierra Leone), + tobacco, rice, sugar and spirits. In the ten years 1898 to 1907 the + average annual value of the exports was L301,000, of the imports + L316,000. There are no mines in the colony, nor any apparent mineral + wealth, except ridges of ironstone in the regions above McCarthy's + Island. Bathurst is in telegraphic communication with Europe and the + rest of Africa. There are no railways in the colony, but it is + traversed by well-made roads of a uniform width of 18 ft. The + Liverpool mail steamers call at the port every fortnight. A government + steamer runs regularly from Bathurst to McCarthy's Island, and a + smaller boat plies on the upper river. The shipping trade is chiefly + British; French and German tonnage coming next. + + Surrounded on all sides, save seawards, by French territory, the + colony largely depends, economically, upon France, to which country + most of the exports go. A considerable entrepot trade is also done + with the neighbouring French colonies. The extent of French influence + is indicated by the fact that the five-franc piece, locally known as a + dollar, is largely circulated throughout the protectorate, and is + accepted as legal tender, although the currency in the colony proper + is the English coinage. + + _Administration, Revenue, &c._--The Gambia is administered by a + governor, assisted by an executive and a legislative council. On the + last-named body nominated unofficial members have seats. The colony is + self-supporting and has no public debt. The revenue, which in 1906 for + the first time exceeded L60,000, is mainly derived from customs. A + company of the West African Frontier Force is maintained. Travelling + commissioners visit the five districts into which, for administrative + purposes, the protectorate is divided, and in which the native form of + government prevails. From the native law-courts appeal can be made to + the supreme court at Bathurst. There is also at Bathurst a Mahommedan + court, established in 1906, for the trial of cases involving the civil + status of Moslems. + + Primary schools are maintained by the various religious denominations, + and receive grants from government. The Wesleyans have also a + secondary and a technical school. There is a privately supported + school for Mahommedans at Bathurst. The Anglicans, Wesleyans and Roman + Catholics have numerous converts. + +_History._--Of the early history of the Gambia district there is scant +mention. At what period the stone circles and pillars (apparently of a +"Druidical" character), whose ruins are found at several places along +the upper Gambia, were erected is not known. Those at Lamin Koto, on the +right bank of the river opposite McCarthy's Island, are still in good +preservation, and are an object of veneration to the Mahommedans (see +_Geog. Journ._ vol. xii., 1898). The country appears to have formed +part, successively, of the states of Ghana, Melle and Songhoi. The +relations, political and commercial, of the natives were all with the +north and east; consequently no large town was founded on the banks of +the river, nor any trade carried on (before the coming of the white man) +by vessels sailing the ocean. About the 11th century the district came +under Mahommedan influence. + +The Portuguese visited the Gambia in the 15th century, and in the +beginning of the 16th century were trading in the lower river. Embassies +were sent from the Portuguese stations inland to Melle to open up trade +with the interior, but about the middle of the century this +trade--apparently mostly in gold and slaves--declined. At the end of the +century the river was known as the resort of banished men and fugitives +from Portugal and Spain. It was on the initiative of Portuguese living +in England that Queen Elizabeth, in 1588, granted a patent to "certain +merchants of Exeter and others of the west parts and of London for a +trade to the river of Senega and Gambra in Guinea." This company was +granted a monopoly of trade for ten years. Its operations led to no +permanent settlement in the Gambia. In 1618 James I. granted a charter +to another company named "The Company of Adventurers of London trading +into Africa," and formed at the instigation of Sir Robert Rich, +afterwards earl of Warwick, for trade with the Gambia and the Gold +Coast. This company sought to open up trade with Timbuktu, then believed +to be a great mart for gold, which reached the lower Gambia in +considerable quantities. With this object George Thompson (a merchant +who had traded with Barbary) was sent out in the "Catherine," and +ascended the Gambia in his ship to Kassan, a Portuguese trading town, +thence continuing his journey in small boats. In his absence the +"Catherine" was seized and the crew murdered by Portuguese and +half-castes, and Thompson himself was later on murdered by natives. Two +years afterwards Richard Jobson, another agent of the Company of +Adventurers, advanced beyond the falls of Barraconda; and he was +followed, about forty years later, by Vermuyden, a Dutch merchant, who +on his return to Europe asserted that he had reached a country full of +gold. + +The Company of Adventurers had built a fort near the mouth of the +Gambia. This was superseded in 1664 by a fort built by Captain +(afterwards Admiral Sir Robert) Holmes on a small island 20 m. from the +mouth of the river and named Fort James, in honour of the duke of York +(James II.). This fort was built expressly to defend the British trade +against the Dutch, and from that time the British remained in permanent +occupation of one or more ports on the river. In 1723 Captain +Bartholomew Stibbs was sent out by the Royal African Company, which had +succeeded the earlier companies, to verify Vermuyden's reports of gold. +He proceeded 60 m. above the falls, but the land of gold was not found. +The French now became rivals for the trade of the Gambia, but the treaty +of Versailles in 1783 assigned the trade in the river to Britain, +reserving, however, Albreda for French trade, while it assigned the +Senegal to France, with the reservation of the right of the British to +trade at Portendic for gum. This arrangement remained in force till +1857, when an exchange of possessions was effected and the lower Gambia +became a purely British river. In the period between the signing of the +treaty of Versailles and 1885 the small territories which form the +colony proper were acquired by purchase or cession from native kings. St +Mary's Isle was acquired in 1806; McCarthy's Isle was bought in 1823; +the Ceded Mile was granted by the king of Barra in 1826; and British +Kommbo between 1840 and 1855. During this period the colony had gone +through an economic crisis by the abolition of the slave trade (1807), +which had been since 1662 its chief financial support. The beginning of +a return to prosperity came in 1816 when some British traders, obliged +to leave Senegal on the restoration of that country to France after the +Napoleonic wars, founded a settlement on St Mary's Isle. From that year +the existing colony, as distinct from trading on the river, dates. The +Gambia witnessed many administrative changes. When the slave trade was +abolished, the settlement was placed under the jurisdiction of the +governor of Sierra Leone, and was formally annexed to Sierra Leone on +the dissolution of the Royal African Company (1822). It so remained +until 1843, when the Gambia was made an independent colony, its first +governor being Henry Frowd Seagram. Afterwards (1866) the Gambia became +a portion of the officially styled "West African Settlements." In 1883 +it was again made a separate government, administered as a crown colony. +Between the years last mentioned--1866-1888--the colony had suffered +from the retrograde policy adopted by parliament in respect to the West +African Settlements (_vide_ Report of the Select Committee of 1865). + +In 1870 negotiations were opened between France and Great Britain on the +basis of a mutual exchange of territories in West Africa. Suspended +owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War the negotiations were +resumed in 1876. "Definite proposals were at that time formulated by +which the Gambia was to be exchanged for all posts by France between the +Rio Pongas (Pongo river, French Guinea) and the Gabun. This would have +been a comprehensive and intelligible arrangement, but so strong a +feeling in opposition to any cession of British territory was manifested +in parliament, and by various mercantile bodies, that the government of +the day was unable to press the scheme."[1] Nothing was done, however, +to secure for the Gambia a suitable _hinterland_, and in 1877 the 4th +earl of Carnarvon (then colonial secretary) warned British traders that +they proceeded beyond McCarthy's Isle at their own risk. Meantime the +French from Senegal pushed their frontier close to the British +settlements, so that when the boundaries were settled by the agreement +of the 10th of August 1889 with France, Great Britain was able to secure +only a ten-kilometre strip on either side of the river. This document +fixed the frontier of the British protectorate inland at a radius of 10 +m. from the centre of the town of Yarbatenda; which town is situated at +the limit of navigability of the Gambia from the sea. By Art. 5 of the +Anglo-French convention of the 8th of April 1904, Yarbatenda was ceded +to France, with the object of giving that country a port on the river +accessible to sea-going merchantmen. + +Since 1871 the colony had been self-supporting, but on the acquirement +of the protectorate it was decided, in order to balance increasing +expenditure, to impose a "hut tax" on the natives. This was done in +1895. The tax, which averages 4s. per annum for a family, met with no +opposition. + +In 1892 a slave-raiding chief, named Fodi Kabba, had to be forcibly +expelled from British territory. In 1894 another slave-raider, Fodi +Silah, gave much trouble to the protectorate. An expedition under +Captain E.H. (afterwards admiral) Gamble succeeded in routing him, and +Fodi Silah took refuge in French territory, where he died. During the +expedition Captain Gamble was led into an ambush, and in this engagement +lost 15 killed and 47 wounded. In 1900 trouble again arose through the +agency of Fodi Kabba, who had fixed his residence at Medina, in French +territory. Two travelling commissioners (Mr F.C. Sitwell and Mr Silva) +were murdered in June of that year, at a place called Suankandi, and a +punitive expedition was sent out under Colonel H.E. Brake. Suankandi was +captured and, the French co-operating, Medina was also captured, Fodi +Kabba being killed on the 23rd of March 1901. + +The people of the protectorate are in general peaceful and contented, +and slave trading is a thing of the past. Provision was moreover made by +an ordinance of 1906 for the extinction of slavery itself throughout the +protectorate, it being enacted that henceforth all children born of +slaves were free from birth, and that all slaves became free on the +death of their master. + + See the _Annual Reports_ on the colony published by the colonial + office, London, which give the latest official information; C.P. + Lucas's _Historical Geography of the British Colonies_, vol. iii., + _West Africa_ (2nd ed., Oxford, 1900) (this book contains valuable + bibliographical notes); and _The Gambia Colony and Protectorate_, an + official handbook (with map and considerable historical information), + by F.B. Archer, treasurer of the colony (London, 1906). Early accounts + of the country will be found in vol. ii. of Thomas Astley's _New + General Collection of Voyages and Travels_ (London, 1745-1747). See + also Major W. Gray and Surgeon Dochard, _Travels in Western Africa in + 1818-1821, from the River Gambia ... to the River Niger_ (London, + 1829). The flora has been the subject of a special study, A. Rancon, + _La Flore utile du bassin de la Gambie_ (Bordeaux, 1895). Most of the + books mentioned under GOLD COAST also deal with the Gambia. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Extract from a despatch of Lord Salisbury to the British + ambassador to France, dated 30th of March 1892. + + + + +GAMBIER, JAMES GAMBIER, BARON (1756-1833), English admiral, was born on +the 13th of October 1756 at the Bahamas, of which his father, John +Gambier, was at that time lieutenant-governor. He entered the navy in +1767 as a midshipman on board the "Yarmouth," under the command of his +uncle; and, his family interest obtaining for him rapid promotion, he +was raised in 1778 to the rank cf post-captain, and appointed to the +"Raleigh," a fine 32-gun frigate. At the peace of 1783 he was placed on +half-pay; but, on the outbreak of the war of the French Revolution, he +was appointed to the command of the 74-gun ship "Defence," under Lord +Howe; and in her he had an honourable share in the battle on the 1st of +June 1794. In recognition of his services on this occasion, Captain +Gambier received the gold medal, and was made a colonel of marines; the +following year he was advanced to the rank of rear-admiral, and +appointed one of the lords of the admiralty. In this office he continued +for six years, till, in February 1801, he, a vice-admiral of 1799, +hoisted his flag on board the "Neptune," of 98 guns, as third in command +of the Channel Fleet under Admiral Cornwallis, where, however, he +remained for but a year, when he was appointed governor of Newfoundland +and commander-in-chief of the ships on that station. In May 1804 he +returned to the admiralty, and with a short intermission in 1806, +continued there during the naval administration of Lord Melville, of his +uncle, Lord Barham, and of Lord Mulgrave. In November 1805 he was raised +to the rank of admiral; and in the summer of 1807, whilst still a lord +of the admiralty, he was appointed to the command of the fleet ordered +to the Baltic, which, in concert with the army under Lord Cathcart, +reduced Copenhagen, and enforced the surrender of the Danish navy, +consisting of nineteen ships of the line, besides frigates, sloops, +gunboats, and naval stores. This service was considered by the +government as worthy of special acknowledgment; the naval and military +commanders, officers, seamen and soldiers received the thanks of both +Houses of Parliament, and Admiral Gambier was rewarded with a peerage. + +In the spring of the following year he gave up his seat at the admiralty +on being appointed to the command of the Channel Fleet; and in that +capacity he witnessed the partial, and prevented the total, destruction +of the French fleet in Basque Roads, on the 12th of April 1809. It is in +connexion with this event, which might have been as memorable in the +history of the British navy as it is in the life of Lord Dundonald (see +DUNDONALD), that Lord Gambier's name is now best known. A court-martial, +assembled by order of a friendly admiralty, and presided over by a warm +partisan, "most honourably acquitted" him on the charge "that, on the +12th of April, the enemy's ships being then on fire, and the signal +having been made that they could be destroyed, he did, for a +considerable time, neglect or delay taking effectual measures for +destroying them"; but this decision was in reality nothing more than a +party statement of the fact that a commander-in-chief, a supporter of +the government, is not to be condemned or broken for not being a person +of brilliant genius or dauntless resolution. No one now doubts that the +French fleet should have been reduced to ashes, and might have been, had +Lord Gambier had the talents, the energy, or the experience of many of +his juniors. He continued to hold the command of the Channel Fleet for +the full period of three years, at the end of which time--in 1811--he +was superseded. In 1814 he acted in a civil capacity as chief +commissioner for negotiating a treaty of peace with the United States; +for his exertions in which business he was honoured with the Grand Cross +of the Bath. In 1830 he was raised to the high rank of admiral of the +fleet, and he died on the 19th of April 1833. + +Lord Gambier was a man of earnest, almost morbid, religious principle, +and of undoubted courage; but the administration of the admiralty has +seldom given rise to such flagrant scandals as during the time when he +was a member of it; and through the whole war the self-esteem of the +navy suffered no such wound as during Lord Gambier's command in the Bay +of Biscay. + + The so-called _Memorials, Personal and Historical, of Admiral Lord + Gambier_, by Lady Chatterton (1861), has no historical value. The life + of Lord Gambier is to be read in Marshall's _Royal Naval Biography_, + in Ralfe's _Naval Biography_, in Lord Dundonald's _Autobiography of a + Seaman_, in the Minutes of the Courts-Martial and in the general + history of the period. + + + + +GAMBIER, a village of College township, Knox county, Ohio, U.S.A., on +the Kokosing river, 5 m. E. of Mount Vernon. Pop. (1900) 751; (1910) +537. It is served by the Cleveland, Akron & Columbus railway. The +village is finely situated, and is the seat of Kenyon College and its +theological seminary, Bexley Hall (Protestant Episcopal), and of +Harcourt Place boarding school for girls (1889), also Protestant +Episcopal. The college was incorporated in 1824 as the "Theological +Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Diocese of Ohio"; but +in 1891 "Kenyon College," the name by which the institution has always +been known, became the official title. Its first exercises were held at +Worthington, Ohio, in the home of Philander Chase (1775-1852), first +Protestant Episcopal bishop in the North-west Territory, by whose +efforts the funds for its endowment had been raised in England in +1823-1824, the chief donors being Lords Kenyon and Gambier. The first +permanent building, "Old Kenyon" (still standing, and used as a +dormitory), was erected on Gambier Hill in 1827 in the midst of a +forest. In 1907-1908 the theological seminary had 18 students and the +collegiate department 119. + + Some account of the founding of the college may be found in Bishop + Chase's _Reminiscences; an Autobiography, comprising a History of the + Principal Events in the Author's Life to 1847_ (2 vols., New York, + 1848). + + + + +GAMBOGE (from Camboja, a name of the district whence it is obtained), a +gum-resin procured from _Garcinia Hanburii_, a dioecious tree with +leathery, laurel-like leaves, small yellow flowers, and usually +square-shaped and four-seeded fruit, a member of the natural order +Guttiferae, and indigenous to Cambodia and parts of Siam and of the +south of Cochin China, formerly comprised in Cambojan territory. The +juice, which when hardened constitutes gamboge, is contained in the bark +of the tree, chiefly in numerous ducts in its middle layer, and from +this it is procured by making incisions, bamboo joints being placed to +receive it as it exudes. Gamboge occurs in commerce in cylindrical +pieces, known as pipe or roll gamboge, and also, usually of inferior +quality, in cakes or amorphous masses. It is of a dirty orange +externally; is hard and brittle, breaks with a conchoidal and +reddish-yellow, glistening fracture, and affords a brilliant yellow +powder; is odourless, and has a taste at first slight, but subsequently +acrid; forms with water an emulsion; and consists of from 20 to 25% of +gum soluble in water, and from 70 to 75% of a resin. Its commonest +adulterants are rice-flour and pulverized bark. + +Gamboge (_Cambogia_) is a drastic hydragogue cathartic, causing much +griping and irritation of the intestine. A small quantity is absorbed, +adding a yellow ingredient to the urine and acting as a mild diuretic. +Its irritant action on the skin may cause the formation of pustules. It +is less active only than croton oil and elaterium, and may be given in +doses of half to two grains, combined with some sedative such as +hyoscyamus, in apoplexy and in extreme cases of dropsy. Gamboge is used +as a pigment, and as a colouring matter for varnishes. It appears to +have been first brought into Europe by merchants from the East at the +close of the 16th century. + + + + +GAMBRINUS, a mythical Flemish king who is credited with the first +brewing of beer. His name is usually derived from that of Jan Primus, +i.e. Jan (John) I., the victorious duke of Brabant, from 1261 to 1294, +who was president of the Brussels gild of brewers; his portrait with a +foaming glass of ale in his hand had the place of honour in the +gild-hall, and this led in time, it is suggested, to the myth of the +beer-king who is usually represented outside a barrel with a tankard in +his hand. + + + + +GAME, a word which in its primary and widest significance means any +amusement or sport, often combined in the early examples with "glee," +"play," "joy" or "solace." It is a common Teutonic word, in O. Eng. +_gamen_, in O.H.G. _gaman_, but only appears in modern usage outside +English in Dan. _gammen_ and Swed. _gamman_. The ulterior derivation is +obscure, but philologists have identified it with the Goth. _gaman_, +companion or companionship; if this be so, it is compounded of the +prefix _ga_-, with, and the root seen in "man." Apart from its primary +and general meaning the word has two specific applications, first to a +contest played as a recreation or as an exhibition of skill, in +accordance with rules and regulations; and, secondly, to those wild +animals which are the objects of the chase, and their flesh as used for +food, distinguished as such from meat, fish and poultry, and from the +flesh of deer, to which the name "venison" is given. For "game," from +the legal aspect, and the laws relating to its pursuit and capture see +GAME LAWS. The athletic contests of the ancient Greeks ([Greek: agones]) +and the public shows (_ludi_) of the arena and amphitheatre of the +ancient Romans are treated below (GAMES, CLASSICAL); the various forms +of modern games, indoor and outdoor, whether of skill, strength or +chance, are dealt with under their specific titles. A special use +("gaming" or "gambling") restricts the term to the playing of games for +money, or to betting and wagering on the results of events, as in +horse-racing, &c. (see GAMING AND WAGERING). "Gamble," "gambler" and +"gambling" appear very late in English. The earliest quotations in the +_New English Dictionary_ for the three words are dated 1775, 1747 and +1784 respectively. They were first regarded as cant or slang words, and +implied a reproach, either as referring to cheats or sharpers, or to +those who played recklessly for extravagant stakes. The form of the +words is obscure, but is supposed to represent a local variation +_gammle_ of the M.E. _gamenian_. From this word must, of course, be +distinguished "gambol," to sport, frisk, which, as the older forms +(_gambald, gambaud_) show, is from the Fr. _gambade_, leap, jump, of a +horse, It. _gambado_, _gamba_, leg (Mod. Fr. _jambe_). + + + + +GAME LAWS. This title in English law is applied to the statutes which +regulate the right to pursue and take or kill certain kinds of wild +animals (see above). The existence of these statutes is due to the rules +of the common law as to the nature of property, and the interest of the +Norman sovereigns and of feudal superiors in the pleasures of sport or +the chase. The substantial basis of the law of property is physical +possession of things and the power to deal with them as we see fit. By +the common law wild animals are regarded as _res nullius_, and as not +being the subject of private property until reduced into possession by +being killed or captured. A bird in the hand is owned: a bird in the +bush is not. Even bees do not become property until hived. "Though a +swarm lights in my tree," says Bracton, "I have no more property therein +than I have in the birds which make their nests thereon." If reclaimed +or confined they become property. If they escape, the rights of the +owner continue only while he is in pursuit of the fugitive, i.e. no +other person can in the meantime establish a right of property against +him by capturing the animal. A swarm of bees "which fly out of my hive +are mine so long as I can keep them in sight and have power to pursue +them." But the right of recapture does not entitle the owner to follow +his animals on to the lands of another, and the only case in which any +right to follow wild animals on to the lands of others is now expressly +recognized is when deer or hares are hunted with hounds or greyhounds. +This recognition merely excepts such pursuit from the law as to criminal +game trespass, and fox-hunters and those who course hares or hunt stags +are civilly liable for trespass if they pass over land without the +consent of the occupier (_Paul v. Summerhayes_, 1878, 4 Q.B.D. 9). + +It is a maxim of the common law that things in which no one can claim +any property belong to the crown by its prerogative: this rule has been +applied to wild animals, and in particular to deer and what is now +called "game." The crown rights may pass to a subject by grant or +equivalent prescription. In the course of time the exclusive right to +take game, &c., on lands came to be regarded as incidental to the +ownership or occupation of the lands. This is described as the right to +game _ratione soli_. In certain districts of England which are crown +forests or chases or legal parks, or subject to rights of free warren, +the right to take deer and game is not in the owner or occupier of the +soil, but is in the crown by prerogative, or _ratione privilegii_ in the +grantee of the rights of chase, park or free warren, which are anterior +to and superior to those of the owner or occupier of the lands over +which the privilege has been granted. In all cases where these special +rights do not exist, the right to take or kill wild animals is treated +as a profit incidental to the ownership or occupation of the land on +which they are found, and there is no public right to take them on +private land or even on a highway; nor is there any method known to the +law by which the public at large or an undefined body of persons can +lawfully acquire the right to take wild animals _in alieno solo_. + +In the nature of things the right to take wild animals is valuable as to +deer and the animals usually described as game, and not as to those +which are merely noxious as vermin, or simply valueless, as small birds. +Upon the rules of the common law there has been grafted much legislation +which up till the end of the 18th century was framed for the +preservation of deer and game for the recreation and amusement of +persons of fortune, and to prevent persons of inferior rank from +squandering in the pursuit of game time which their station in life +required to be more profitably employed. These enactments included the +rigorous code known as the Laws of the Forest (see FOREST LAWS), as well +as what are usually called the Game Laws. + +In England the older statutes relating to game were all repealed early +in the 19th century. From the time of Richard II. (1389) to 1831, no +person might kill game unless qualified by estate or social standing, a +qualification raised from a 40s. freehold in 1389 to an interest of L100 +a year in freehold or L150 in long leaseholds (1673). In 1831 this +qualification by estate was abolished as to England. But in Scotland the +right to hunt is theoretically reserved to persons who have in heritage +that unknown quantity a "plough-gate of land" (Scots Act 1621, c. 31); +and in Ireland qualifications by estate are made necessary for killing +game and keeping sporting dogs (Irish Act 1698, 8 Will. III. c. 8). In +England the game laws proper consist of the Night Poaching Acts of 1828 +and 1844, the Game Act of 1831, the Poaching Prevention Act 1862, and +the Ground Game Acts of 1880 and 1906. From the fact that the right of +landowners over wild animals on their land does not amount to ownership +it follows that they cannot prosecute any one for stealing live wild +animals: and that apart from the game laws the only remedy against +poachers is by civil action for trespass. As between trespasser and +landowner the law is peculiar (_Blades_ v. _Higgs_, 1865, 11 H.L.C. +621). If A starts and kills a hare on B's land the dead hare belongs to +B (_ratione soli_) and not to A, though he has taken the hare by his own +efforts (_per industriam_). But if A hunts the hare from B's land on to +C's land and there kills it, the dead hare belongs to A and not to B or +C. It is not B's because it was not taken on his land, and it is not C's +because it was not started on his land. In other words the right of each +owner is limited to animals both started and killed on his own land, and +in the case of conflicting claims to the animal taken (made _ratione +soli_) the captor can make title (_per industriam_) against both +landowners. If he is a trespasser he is liable to civil or criminal +proceedings by both landowners, but the game is his unless forfeited +under a statute. Another peculiar result of the law is that where +trespassers (e.g. poachers) kill and carry off game or rabbits as part +of one continuous transaction they are not guilty of theft, but only of +game trespass (_R_. v. _Townley_, 1871, L.R. 1 C.C.R. 315), but it is +theft for a trespasser to pick up and carry off a pheasant killed by the +owner of the land on his own land or even a pheasant killed by an +independent gang of poachers. The young of wild animals belong (_propter +impotentiam_) to the owner of the land until they are able to fly or run +away. This right does not extend to the eggs of wild birds. But the +owner can reduce the eggs into possession by taking them up and setting +them under hens or in enclosures. And if this is done persons who take +them are thieves and not merely poachers. A game farm, like a decoy for +wild water-fowl, is treated as a trade or business; but a game preserve +in which full-grown animals fly or run wild is subject to the ordinary +incidents of the law as to animals _ferae naturae_. + + The classification of wild animals for purposes of sport in England is + as follows:-- + + 1. Beasts of forest are hart and hind (red deer), boar, wolf and all + beasts of venery. + + 2. Beasts of chase and park are buck and doe (fallow deer), fox, + marten and roe, or all beasts of venery and hunting. + + 3. Beasts of (free) warren are roe, hare, rabbit, partridge, pheasant, + woodcock, quail, rail and heron. + + 4. Game, as defined by the Night Poaching Act of 1828 and the Game Act + of 1831, is pheasant, partridge, black game, red grouse, bustard and + hare. In France game (_gibier_) includes everything eatable that runs + or flies. + + 5. Wild fowl not in any of the previous lists which are nevertheless + prized for sport, e.g. duck, snipe, plovers, &c. + + 6. Wild birds not falling within class 4 are more or less protected + against destruction by the Wild Birds Protection Acts, which were, + however, passed with quite other objects than the game laws. + + As regards class 1 no subject without special authority of the crown + may kill within a forest or its purlieus or on adjacent highways, + rivers or enclosures. The right to the animals in a forest does not + depend on ownership of the land but on the royal prerogative as to the + animals, i.e. it exists not _ratione soli_ but _ratione privilegii_: + and this right is not in any way altered by the Game Act 1831. A chase + is a forest in the hands of a subject and a legal park (which is an + enclosed chase) is created by crown grant or by prescription founded + on a lost grant. The rights of the grantee are in substance the same + as those of the crown in a forest, and do not depend on ownership of + the soil. In the case of a free warren the grantee usually but not + necessarily owns some or all of the soil over which the right of + warren runs. The right of free warren depends on crown grant or + prescription founded on lost grant, and involves a right of property + over beasts and fowl of warren on all lands within the franchise. As + will appear from the list above, some game birds are not fowl of + warren, e.g. black game and red grouse (_Duke of Devonshire_ v. + _Lodge_, 1827, 7 B. & C. 39). Free warren is quite different from + ordinary warrens, in which hares or rabbits are bred by the owner of + the soil for sport or profit. Ground game in such warrens is protected + under the Larceny Act 1861, s. 17, as well as by the game laws. In + manors, of which none have been created since 1290, the lord by his + franchise had the sporting rights over the manor, but at the present + time this right is restricted to the commons and wastes of the manor, + the freehold whereof is in him, and does not extend to enclosed + freeholds nor as a general rule to enclosed copyholds, unless at the + time of enclosure the sporting rights were reserved to him by the + Enclosure Act or award (_Sowerby_ v. _Smith_, 1873, L.R. 8 C.P. 514). + In other words his rights exist ratione _soli_ and not _ratione + privilegii_. The Game Act 1831 gives lords of manors and privileged + persons certain rights as to appointing gamekeepers with special + powers to protect game within the district over which their rights + extend (ss. 13, 14, 15, 16). The game laws in no way cut down the + special privileges as to forest, park, chase or free warren (1831, s. + 9), and confirm the sporting right of lords of manors on the wastes of + the manor (1831, s. 10). As to all lands not affected by these rights, + the right to kill or take game on the land is presumably in the + occupier. On letting land the owner may, subject to the qualifications + hereinafter stated, reserve to himself the right to kill or take + "game" or rabbits or other wild animals concurrently with or in + exclusion of the tenant. Where the exclusive right is in the landlord + the tenant is not only liable to forfeiture or damages for breaches of + covenants in the lease, but is also liable to penalties on summary + conviction if without the lessor's authority he pursues, kills or + takes any "game" upon the land or gives permission to others to do so + (1831, s. 12). In effect he is made criminally liable for game + trespass on lands in his own occupation, so far as relates to game, + but is not so liable if he takes rabbits, snipe, woodcock, quails or + rails. + + The net effect of the common law and the game laws is to give the + occupier of lands and the owner of sporting rights over them the + following remedies against persons who infringe their right to kill or + take wild animals on the land. A stranger who enters on the land of + another to take any wild animals is liable to the occupier for + trespass on the land and for the animals started and killed on the + land by the trespasser. He is also criminally liable for game trespass + if he has entered on the land to search for or in pursuit of "game" or + woodcock, snipe, quail, landrails or rabbits. If the trespass is in + the daytime (whether on lands of the subject or in royal forests, + &c.), the penalty on conviction may not exceed 40s., unless five or + more persons go together, in which case the maximum penalty is L5. If + a single offender refuses his name or address or gives a false address + to the occupier or to the owner of the sporting rights or his + representatives, or refuses to leave the land, he may be arrested by + them, and is liable to a penalty not exceeding L5, and if five or more + concerned together in game trespass have a gun with them and use + violence, intimidation or menace, to prevent the approach of persons + entitled to take their names or order them off the land, they incur a + further penalty up to L5. + + If the trespass is in search or pursuit of game _or rabbits_ in the + nighttime, the maximum penalty on a first conviction is imprisonment + with hard labour for not over three months; on a second, imprisonment, + &c., for not over six months, and the offender may be put under + sureties not to offend again for a year after a first conviction or + for two years after a second conviction. For a first or second offence + the conviction is summary, subject to appeal to quarter sessions, but + for a third offence the offender is tried on indictment and is liable + to penal servitude (3-7 years) or imprisonment with hard labour (2 + years). The offenders may be arrested by the owner or occupier of the + land or their servants, and if the offenders assault or offer violence + by firearms or offensive weapons they are liable to be indicted and on + conviction punished to the same extent as in the last offence. In 1844 + the above penalties were extended to persons found by night on + highways in search or pursuit of game. If three or more trespass + together on land by night to take or destroy game or rabbits, and any + of them is armed with firearms, bludgeon or other offensive weapon, + they are liable to be indicted and on conviction sentenced to penal + servitude (3-14 years) or imprisonment with hard labour (2 years). By + "day" time is meant from the beginning of the first hour before + sunrise to the end of the first hour after sunset, and by "night" from + the end of the first hour after sunset to the beginning of the first + hour before sunrise (act of 1828, s. 12; act of 1831, s. 34). The time + is reckoned by local and not by Greenwich time. + + The penalties for night poaching are severe, but encounters between + the owners of sporting rights and armed gangs of poachers have often + been attended by homicide. It is to be observed that it is illegal and + severely punishable to set traps or loaded spring guns for poachers + (Offences against the Person Act 1861, s. 31), whereby any grievous + bodily harm is intended or may be caused even to a trespasser, so that + the incursions of poachers can be prevented only by personal + attendance on the scene of their activities; and it is to be observed + also that the provisions of the Game Laws above stated are, so far as + concerns private land, left to be enforced by private enterprise + without the interference of the police, with the result that in some + districts there are scenes of private nocturnal war. Even in the Night + Poaching Act 1844, which applies to highways, the arrest of offenders + is made by owners, occupiers or their gamekeepers. The police were not + given any direct authority as to poachers until the Poaching + Prevention Act 1862, under which a constable is empowered "on any + highway, street or public place, to search any person whom he may have + good cause to suspect of coming from any land where he shall have been + unlawfully in search or pursuit of 'game,' or any persons aiding or + abetting such person, and having in his possession any game unlawfully + obtained, or any gun, part of gun, or nets or engines used for the + killing or taking game; and also to stop and search any cart or other + conveyance in or upon which such constable or peace officer shall have + good cause to suspect that any such game, or any such article or + thing, is being carried by such person." If any such thing be found + the constable is to detain it, and apply for a summons against the + offender, summoning him to appear before a petty sessional court, on + conviction before which he may be fined not more than L5, and forfeits + the game, guns, &c., found in his possession. In this act "game" + includes woodcock, snipe and rabbits, and the eggs of game birds other + than bustards; and the act applies to poaching either by night or by + day. In all cases of summary conviction for poaching an appeal lies to + quarter sessions. In all cases of poaching the game, &c., taken may be + forfeited by the court which tries the poacher. + + _Close Time._--On certain days, and within periods known as "close + time," it is illegal to kill deer or game. The present close times are + as follows:-- + + +----------------------+---------------------+-------------------------+--------------------+ + | | England. | Ireland. | Scotland. | + +----------------------+---------------------+-------------------------+--------------------+ + | Hare | None | April 21 to Aug. 11* | None | + | Red deer (male) | None | Jan. 1 to June 9 | None | + | Fallow deer | None | Sept. 29 to June 10 | None | + | Roe deer | None | None | None | + | Pheasant | Feb. 1 to Sept. 30 | Feb.1 to Sept. 30 (1845)| Feb. 1 to Sept. 30 | + | Partridge | Feb. 1 to Aug. 31 | Feb. 1 to Aug. 31 (1899)| Feb. 1 to Aug. 31 | + | Black game | Dec. 10 to Aug. 20**| Dec. 10 to Aug. 20 | Dec. 10 to Aug. 20 | + | Red grouse | Dec. 10 to Aug. 12 | Dec. 10 to Aug. 12 | Dec. 10 to Aug. 12 | + | Ptarmigan | None | Dec. 10 to Aug. 20 | Dec. 10 to Aug. 12 | + | Bustard (wild turkey)| March 1 to Sept. 1 | Jan. 10 to Sept. 1 | None | + +----------------------+---------------------+-------------------------+--------------------+ + * Unless varied by order of lord-lieutenant. + ** Except in Devon, Somerset and New Forest, where to Sept. 1. + + In England and Ireland the winged game above named and hares may not + be killed on Sundays or Christmas Day. It is illegal to sell or expose + for sale hares or leverets in March, April, May, June and July. It is + illegal throughout the United Kingdom to buy or sell winged game birds + after ten days from the beginning of the close season as fixed by the + English law (1831, s. 4; 1860, s. 13). This prohibition applies to the + sale of live game, British or foreign, and to the sale of British dead + game. It is illegal to lay poison for game or rabbits except in rabbit + holes, and it is illegal to kill game by firearms at night. Wild birds + not within the list above given but of interest for sport are + protected by close times fixed under the Wild Birds Protection Acts, + which may vary in each county of each kingdom. + + _Licences_.--Besides the restrictions on the right to take or kill + game which arise out of the law as to ownership or occupation of the + lands on which it is found, there are further restrictions imposed by + the laws of excise. From the time of Richard II. (1389) until 1831 the + right of persons other than gamekeepers properly deputed by the lord + of a manor to take game was made to depend on the social rank of the + person, or on the amount of his interest in land, which ranged from a + 40s. freehold (in 1389) to L100 a year (1671). These restrictions were + abolished in 1831, and the right to kill game was made conditional on + the possession of a game certificate, now called a game licence in + Great Britain (act of 1831, ss. 6, 23). By s. 4 of the Game Licences + Act 1860 "any person, before he shall in Great Britain take, kill or + pursue, or aid or assist in any manner in the taking, killing or + pursuing, by any means whatever, or use any dog, gun, net or other + engine for the purpose of taking, killing or pursuing any game, or any + woodcock, snipe, quail, landrail, or any coney, or any deer, shall + take out a proper licence to kill game under this act"--subject to a + penalty of L20. There are certain exceptions and exemptions as to + royal personages, royal gamekeepers, and with reference to taking + woodcock or snipe by nets or springes, by coursing or hunting hares or + deer, or killing deer, rabbits or hares (Hares Acts 1848, Game + Licences Act 1860) in certain enclosed lands by the owners or + occupiers. A licence is not required for beaters and assistants who go + out with holders of a game licence. The licence is granted by the + Inland Revenue Department. The issue is regulated by the Game Licences + Act 1860 as amended by the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1883. The + licences now in use are of four kinds:-- + + Those taken out after 31st July-- + + To expire on the next 31st July L3 0 0 + To expire on the next 31st October 2 0 0 + + Those taken out after 1st November-- + + To expire on the next 31st July 2 0 0 + + Those taken out for any continuous period of + fourteen days specified in the licence 1 0 0 + + In the case of gamekeepers in Great Britain for whom the employer pays + the duty on male servants, the annual licence fee is L2, but the + licence extends only to lands on which the employer has a right to + kill game. A licence granted to a person in his own right and not as + gamekeeper or servant is effective throughout the United Kingdom. The + game licence does not authorize trespass on the lands of others in + search of game nor the shooting of game, &c., at night, and is + forfeited on a conviction of game trespass (1831, s. 30; 1860, s. 11). + Persons who have game licences need not have a gun licence, but the + possession of a gun licence does not qualify the holder to kill game + or even rabbits. + + The sale of game when killed is also subject to statutory regulation. + Gamekeepers may not sell game except under the authority of their + employer (1831, ss. 17, 25). Persons who hold a full game licence may + sell game, but only to persons who hold a licence to deal in game. + These licences are annual (expiring on the 1st of July), and are + granted in London by justices of the peace, and in the rest of England + by the council of the borough or urban or rural district in which the + dealer seeks to carry on business (1831, s. 18; 1893, c. 73, s. 27), + and a notice of the existence of the licence must be posted on the + licensed premises. A licence must be taken out for each shop. The + following persons are disqualified for holding the licence: + innkeepers, persons holding licences to sell intoxicants, owners, + guards or drivers of mail-carts, stagecoaches or public conveyances, + carriers and higglers (1831, s. 18). This enactment interferes with + the grant of game licences to large stores which also have licences to + sell beer. The licensed dealer may buy British game only from persons + who are lawfully entitled to sell game. Conviction of an offence under + the Game Act 1831 avoids the licence (s. 22). The local licence must + also be supplemented by an excise licence for which a fee of L2 is + charged. Licensed dealers in game are prohibited from selling game + killed in the United Kingdom from the tenth day after the beginning of + close time to the end of that period. The provisions above stated + under the act of 1831 applied only to England, but were in 1860 + extended to the rest of the United Kingdom, and were in 1893 applied + to dealers in game imported from abroad. The main effect of the system + of licences is to prevent the disposal of game by poachers rather than + to benefit the revenue. + + _Deer_.--Deer are not included within the definition of game in any of + the English game laws. Deer-stealing was very seriously punished by + the old law, and under an act of 9 George I. c. 22, known as the + Waltham Black Act, passed because of the depredations of disguised + deer-stealers in Epping Forest, it was under certain circumstances + made a capital offence. At present offences with reference to deer are + included in the Larceny Act 1861. It is a felony to hunt or kill deer + in enclosures in forests, chases or purlieus, or in enclosed land + where deer is usually kept, or after a previous conviction to hunt or + kill deer in the open parts of a forest, &c., and certain minor + provisions are made as to arrest by foresters, forfeiture of venison + unlawfully possessed and for unlawfully setting traps for deer. These + enactments do not prevent a man from killing on his own land deer + which have strayed there (_Threlkeld_ v. _Smith_, 1901, 2 K.B. 531). + In Scotland the unlawful killing of deer is punished as theft. + + _Eggs_.--The owner or occupier of land has no property in the eggs of + wild birds found on his lands unless he takes them up. But under s. 24 + of the Game Act 1831 a penalty of 5s. per egg is incurred by persons + who unlawfully (i.e. without being, or having licence from, the person + entitled to kill the game) and wilfully take from the nest or destroy + in the nest the eggs of any game bird, or of a swan, wild duck, teal + or widgeon. Similar provisions exist in Ireland under an act of 1698, + and by the Poaching Prevention Act 1862 (United Kingdom) power is + given to constables to search persons suspected of poaching and to + take from them the eggs of pheasants, partridges, grouse or black + game. And the Wild Birds Protection Acts deal with the eggs of all + wild birds except game and swans. + + _Damage to Crops by Game_.--Where an occupier of lands has not the + right to kill game or rabbits he runs the risk of suffering damage by + the depredations of the protected animals, which he may not kill + without incurring a liability to summary conviction or for breach of + the conditions on which he holds the land. At common law the owner of + land who has reserved to himself the sporting rights, and his sporting + tenants, must use the reserved rights reasonably. They are liable for + any damage wilfully or unnecessarily done to the crops, &c., of the + occupier, such as trampling down standing crops or breaking hedges or + fences. They are not directly liable to the occupier for damage done + to the crops by game bred on the land or frequenting it in the + ordinary course of nature; but are not entitled to turn down game or + rabbits on the land. And if game or rabbits are for the purposes of + sport imported or artificially raised on land, the person who breeds + or brings them there is liable for the damage done to the crops of + adjoining owners or occupiers (_Farrer_ v. _Nelson_, 1885, 15 Q.B.D. + 258; _Birkbeck_ v. _Paget_, 31 Beav. 403; _Hilton_ v. _Green_, 1862, 2 + F. & F. 821). + + Recent legislation has greatly increased the rights of the occupiers + of land as against the owners of sporting rights over it. As regards + hares and rabbits the occupier's rights are regulated by the Ground + Game Act 1880 (which is expressed to be made "in the interests of good + husbandry and for the better security of capital and labour invested + in the cultivation of the soil"). By that act the occupier of land as + incident to and inseparable from his occupation has the right to kill + and take hares and rabbits on the land. The right is indefeasible and + cannot be divested by contract with the owner or landlord or even by + letting the occupier's sporting rights to another. But where apart + from the act the right to kill game on the land is vested in a person + other than the occupier, such person has a right concurrent with the + statutory right of the occupier to take hares and rabbits on the land. + The act does not extend to common lands nor to lands over which rights + of grazing or pasturage for not more than nine months in the year + exist. Consequently over such lands exclusive rights of killing ground + game still continue, and the law appears not to apply in cases where a + special right of killing or taking ground game vested before the 7th + of September 1880 in any person (other than the landlord) by statute, + charter or franchise (s. 5). The mode of exercise of the occupier's + right is subject to certain limitations. The ground game is only to be + taken by him or by persons whom he has duly authorized in writing, who + must be members of his family or his servants or bona fide employed by + him for reward to take ground game. The written authority must be + produced on demand to persons having concurrent rights to take and + kill the ground game (s. 1 (1) (c)). Firearms may not be used by + night, nor may poison be used, nor may spring traps be set except in + rabbit holes (s. 6); nor may ground game be killed on days or seasons + or by methods prohibited by statute in 1880 (s. 10). + + In the case of moorland and unenclosed lands (which are not arable and + do not consist of small detached portions of less than 25 acres) the + occupier may between the 1st of September and the 31st of March kill + and take ground game; but between the 1st of September and the 10th of + December firearms may not be used (1880, s. 1 (3); 1906, s. 2). In the + case of such lands the occupiers and the owners of the sporting rights + may between the 1st of September and the 10th of December make and + enforce for their joint benefit agreements for taking the ground game. + The Agricultural Holdings Act 1906 (operating from 1909) deals, _inter + alia_, with damage to crops by deer and winged game, but does not + apply to damage by hares or rabbits. The tenant of agricultural land + is entitled to compensation for damage to his crops exceeding 1s. per + acre over the area affected if caused by game, "the right to kill or + take which is vested neither in him nor in any one claiming under him + other than the landlord and which the tenant has not permission in + writing to kill" (s. 2). The right of the tenant is indefeasible and + cannot be contracted away. Disputes as to amount are to be settled by + arbitration; but claims to be effectual must be made as to growing + crops before reaping, raising or feeding off, and as to cut crops + before carrying. In the case of contracts of tenancy created before + the 1st of January 1909, allowances are to be made if by their terms + compensation for damage by game is stipulated for, or an allowance of + an agreed amount for damage by game was expressly made in fixing the + rent. The compensation is payable by the landlord subject to his right + to be indemnified in cases where the sporting rights are not vested in + him. + + _Sporting Rights_.--Sporting rights (i.e. rights of fowling or of + shooting, or of taking or killing game or rabbits, or of fishing), + when severed from the occupation of land, are subject to income or + property tax, and to assessment for the purpose of local rates (Rating + Act 1874); and in valuing land whether for rates or taxes the value of + the sporting rights is now an important and often the chief item of + value in beneficial occupation of the land. Where the sporting rights + are the landlord's, the rate thereon is paid in the first instance by + the tenant and deducted from his rent. Where the sporting right is + reserved and let, the rating authority may rate either the landlord or + the sporting tenant as occupier of the right. The Ground Game Acts + have not affected the liability to assessment of concurrent rights of + killing hares and rabbits reserved by a landlord, or of a concurrent + right granted by the occupier (Ryde (2nd ed.), 385-387). The ownership + of sporting rights severed from the ownership or occupation of the + land over which they are exercisable is not an interest in land giving + the electoral franchise or a claim for compensation if the land is + taken under the Lands Clauses Consolidation Acts. + + _Scotland_.--By the law of Scotland all men have right and privilege + of game on their own estates as a real right incident thereto, which + does not pass by an agricultural lease except by express words, or in + the case of ground game by the act of 1880. The landlord is liable to + the tenant for damage done to the surface of the lands in exercise of + his right to the game and also for extraordinary damage by + over-preserving or over-stocking. Under an act of 1877 he was liable + for excessive damage done by rabbits or game reserved to or retained + under a lease granted after the 1st of January 1878, or reserved by + presumption of common law; this act from 1909 onwards is superseded by + the provisions of the Agricultural Holdings Act 1906. Night poaching + is punished by the same act as in England, and day poaching by an act + of 1832 and the act of 1882. Until 1887 poaching by night under arms + was a capital offence. The definition of game in Scotland for purposes + of night poaching is the same as in England. The provisions of the act + of 1832 as to game trespass by day apply also to deer, roe, rabbits, + woodcock, snipe, rails and wild duck; but in other respects closely + resemble those of the English act of 1831. + + Offences against the game laws are not triable by justices of the + peace, but only in the sheriff court. The close time for game birds in + Scotland is the same as in England, so far as dealing in them is + concerned, but differs slightly as to killing. Black game may not be + killed between the 10th of December and the 25th of August, nor + ptarmigan between the 10th of December and the 20th of August. There + is no close time for red, fallow or roe deer, or rabbits. By an old + Scots act of 1621 (omitted from the recent wholesale repeal of such + acts) no one may lawfully kill game in Scotland who does not own a + plough-gate of land except on the land of a person so qualified. + + _Ireland_.--The common law as to game is the same for Ireland as for + England. The game laws of Ireland are contained partly in acts passed + prior to the union (1698, 1707, 1787 and 1797), partly in acts limited + to Ireland, and as to the rest in acts common to the whole United + Kingdom. + + Under the act of 1698 no one may kill game in Ireland who has not a + freehold worth L40 a year or L1000 net personality, and elaborate + provisions are made by that and later acts against the keeping of + sporting dogs by persons not qualified by estate to kill game. British + officers and soldiers in Ireland appear to have been much addicted to + poaching, and their activities were restrained by enactments of 1698 + and 1707. + + Night poaching in Ireland is dealt with by an act of 1826. Trespass on + lands in pursuit of game to which the landlord or lessor has by + reservation exclusive right is summarily punishable under an act of + 1864, which includes in the definition of game, woodcock, snipe, + quails, landrails, wild duck, widgeon and teal. Under the Land Act + 1881 the landlord of a statutory holding may at the commencement of + the term subject to the Ground Game Acts retain and exercise the + exclusive right of taking "game" as above defined. + + A game licence is not required for taking or killing rabbits. But in + other respects the law as to game licences, dog licences and licences + to deal in game is the same as in Great Britain. + + _British Possessions Abroad_.--The English game laws have not been + carried to any colony as part of the personal law of the colonists, + nor have they been extended to them by imperial or colonial + legislation. But the legislatures of many colonies have passed acts to + preserve or protect native or imported wild animals, and in some of + these statutes the protected animals are described as game. These + statutes are free from feudal prepossessions as to sporting rights, + and are framed rather on the lines of the Wild Birds Protection Acts + than on the English game laws, but in some possessions, e.g. Quebec, + sporting leases by the crown are recognized. The acts since 1895 are + indicated in the annual summary of colonial legislation furnished in + the _Journal_ of the Society of Comparative Legislation. + + See also Oke's _Game Laws_, 4th ed., by Willis Bund (1897); Warry, + _Game Laws of England_ (1897); Marchant and Watkins, _Wild Birds + Protection Act_ (1897). (W. F. C.) + + + + +GAMES, CLASSICAL. 1. _Public Games_.--The public games of Greece +([Greek: agones]) and Rome (_Ludi_) consisted in athletic contests and +spectacles of various kinds, generally connected with and forming part +of a religious observance. Probably no institution exercised a greater +influence in moulding the national character, and producing that unique +type of physical and intellectual beauty which we see reflected in Greek +art and literature, than the public contests of Greece (see ATHLETE; +ATHLETIC SPORTS). For them each youth was trained in the gymnasium, they +were the central mart whither poet, artist and merchant each brought his +wares, and the common ground of union for every member of the Hellenic +race. It is to Greece, then, that we must look for the earliest form and +the fullest development of ancient games. The shows of the Roman circus +and amphitheatre were at best a shadow, and in the later days of the +empire a travesty, of the Olympia and Pythia, and require only a cursory +notice. + + + Greek. + +The earliest games of which we have any record are those at the funeral +of Patroclus, which form the subject of the twenty-third Iliad. They are +noteworthy as showing that Greek games were in their origin clearly +connected with religion; either, as here, a part of the funeral rites, +or else instituted in honour of a god, or as a thank-offering for a +victory gained or a calamity averted, or in expiation of some crime. +Each of the great contests was held near some shrine or sacred place and +is associated with some deity or mythical hero. It was not before the +4th century that this honour was paid to a living man (see Plutarch, +_Lysander_, 18). The games of the _Iliad_ and those of the _Odyssey_ at +the court of Alcinous are also of interest as showing at what an early +date the distinctive forms of Greek athletics--boxing, wrestling, +putting the weight, the foot and the chariot race--were determined. + +The _Olympian_ games were the earliest, and to the last they remained +the most celebrated of the four national festivals. Olympia was a +naturally enclosed spot in the rich plain of Elis, bounded on the N. by +the rocky heights of Cronion, and on the S. and W. by the Alpheus and +its tributary the Cladeus. There was the grove of Altis, in which were +ranged the statues of the victorious athletes, and the temple of +Olympian Zeus with the chryselephantine statue of the god, the +masterpiece of Pheidias. There Heracles (so ran the legend which Pindar +has introduced in one of his finest odes), when he had conquered Elis +and slain its king Augeas, consecrated a temenos and instituted games in +honour of his victory. A later legend, which probably embodies +historical fact, tells how, when Greece was torn by dissensions and +ravaged by pestilence, Iphitus inquired of the oracle for help, and was +bidden restore the games which had fallen into desuetude; and there was +in the time of Pausanias, suspended in the temple of Hera at Olympia, a +bronze disk whereon were inscribed, with the regulations of the games, +the names of Iphitus and Lycurgus. From this we may safely infer that +the games were a primitive observance of the Eleians and Pisans, and +first acquired their celebrity from the powerful concurrence of Sparta. +The sacred armistice, or cessation of all hostilities, during the month +in which the games were held, is also credited to Iphitus. + +In 776 B.C. the Eleians engraved the name of their countryman Coroebus +as victor in the foot race, and thenceforward we have an almost unbroken +list of the victors in each succeeding Olympiad or fourth recurrent +year. For the next fifty years no names occur but those of Eleians or +their next neighbours. After 720 B.C. we find Corinthians and Megareans, +and later still Athenians and extra-Peloponnesians. Thus what at first +was nothing more than a village feast became a bond of union for all the +branches of the Doric race, and grew in time to be the high festival to +which every Greek gathered, from the mountain fastnesses of Thessaly to +the remotest colonies of Cyrene and Marseilles. It survived even the +extinction of Greek liberty, and had nearly completed twelve centuries +when it was abolished by the decree of the Christian emperor +Theodosius, in the tenth year of his reign. The last Olympian victor was +a Romanized Armenian named Varastad. + +Let us attempt to call up the scene which Olympia in its palmy days must +have presented as the great festival approached. Heralds had proclaimed +throughout Greece the "truce of God." So religiously was this observed +that the Spartans chose to risk the liberties of Greece, when the +Persians were at the gates of Pylae, rather than march during the holy +days. Those white tents which stand out against the sombre grey of the +olive groves belong to the Hellanodicae, or ten judges of the games, +chosen one for each tribe of the Eleians. They have been here already +ten months, receiving instruction in their duties. All, too, or most of +the athletes must have arrived, for they have been undergoing the +indispensable training in the gymnasium of the Altis. But along the +"holy road" from the town of Elis there are crowding a motley throng. +Conspicuous in the long train of pleasure-seekers are the [Greek: +theoroi] or sacred deputies, clad in their robes of office, and bearing +with them in their carriages of state offerings to the shrine of the +god. Nor is there any lack of distinguished visitors. It may be +Alcibiades, who, they say, has entered no less than seven chariots; or +Gorgias, who has written a famous [Greek: epideixis] for the occasion; +or the sophist Hippias, who boasts that all he bears about him, from the +sandals on his feet to the dithyrambs he carries in his hand, are his +own manufacture; or Aetion, who will exhibit his picture of the Marriage +of Alexander and Roxana--the picture which gained him no less a prize +than the daughter of the Hellanodices Praxonides; or, in an earlier age, +the poet-laureate of the Olympians, Pindar himself. One feature of the +medieval tournament and the modern racecourse is wanting. Women might +indeed compete and win prizes as the owners of teams, but all except the +priestesses of Demeter were forbidden, matrons on pain of death, to +enter the enclosure. + +At daybreak the athletes presented themselves in the Bouleuterium, where +the presidents were sitting, and proved by witnesses that they were of +pure Hellenic descent, and had no stain, religious or civil, on their +character. Laying their hands on the bleeding victim, they swore that +they had duly qualified themselves by ten months' continuous training in +the gymnasium, and that they would use no fraud or guile in the sacred +contests. Thence they proceeded to the stadium, where they stripped to +the skin and anointed themselves. A herald proclaimed, "Let the runners +put their feet to the line," and called on the spectators to challenge +any disqualified by blood or character. If no objection was made, they +were started by the note of the trumpet, running in heats of four, +ranged in the places assigned them by lot. The presidents seated near +the goal adjudged the victory. The foot-race was only one of twenty-four +Olympian contests which Pausanias enumerates, though we must not suppose +that these were all exhibited at any one festival. Till the 77th +Olympiad all was concluded in one day, but afterwards the feast was +extended to five. + + The order of the games is for the most part a matter of conjecture, + but, roughly speaking, the historical order of their institution was + followed. We will now describe in this order the most important. + + (1) The _Foot-race_.--For the first 13 Olympiads the [Greek: dromos], + or single lap of the stadium, which was 200 yds. long, was the only + contest. The [Greek: diaulos], in which the course was traversed + twice, was added in the 14th Olympiad, and in the 15th the [Greek: + dolichos], or long race, of 7, 12 or, according to the highest + computation, 24 laps, about 2-2/3 m. in length. We are told that the + Spartan Ladas, after winning this race, dropped down dead at the goal. + There was also, for a short time, a race in heavy armour, which Plato + highly commends as a preparation for active service. (2) _Wrestling_ + was introduced in the 18th Olympiad. The importance attached to this + exercise is shown by the very word _palaestra_, and Plutarch calls it + the most artistic and cunning of athletic games. The practice differed + little from that of modern times, save that the wrestler's limbs were + anointed with oil and sprinkled with sand. The third throw, which + decided the victory, passed into a proverb, and struggling on the + ground, such as we see in the famous statue at Florence, was not + allowed, at least at the Olympia. (3) In the same year was introduced + the [Greek: pentathlon] (pentathlon), a combination of the five games + enumerated in the well-known pentameter ascribed to Simonides:-- + + [Greek: halma, podokeien, diskon, hakonta, palen]. + + Only the first of these calls for any comment. The only leap practised + seems to have been the long jump. The leapers increased their momentum + by means of [Greek: halteres] or dumb-bells, which they swung in the + act of leaping and dropped as they "took off." The take-off may have + been slightly raised, and some commentators with very little warrant + have stated that spring-boards were used. The record jump with which + Phayllus of Croton is credited, 55 ft., is incredible with or without + a spring-board. It is disputed whether a victory in all five contests, + or in three at least, was required to win the [Greek: pentathlon]. (4) + The rules for boxing were not unlike those of the modern ring (see + PUGILISM), and the chief difference was in the use of the _caestus_. + This in Greek times consisted of leather thongs bound round the + boxer's fists and wrists; and the weighting with lead or iron or metal + studs, which made the caestus more like a "knuckle-duster" than a + boxing-glove, was a later Roman development. The death of an + antagonist, unless proved to be accidental, not only disqualified for + a prize but was severely punished. The use of ear-guards and the comic + allusions to broken ears, not noses, suggest that the Greek boxer did + not hit out straight from the shoulder, but fought windmill fashion, + like the modern rustic. In the _pancratium_, a combination of + wrestling and boxing, the use of the caestus, and even of the clenched + fist, was disallowed. (5) The _chariot-race_ had its origin in the + 23rd Olympiad. Of the hippodrome, or racecourse, no traces remain, but + from the description of Pausanias we may infer that the dimensions + were approximately 1600 ft. by 400. Down the centre there ran a bank + of earth, and at each end of this bank was a turning-post round which + the chariots had to pass. "To shun the goal with rapid wheels" + required both nerve and skill, and the charioteer played a more + important part in the race than even the modern jockey. Pausanias + tells us that horses would shy as they passed the fatal spots. The + places of the chariots were determined by lot, and there were + elaborate arrangements for giving all a fair start. The number of + chariots that might appear on the course at once is uncertain. Pindar + (_Pyth._ v. 46) praises Arcesilaus of Cyrene for having brought off + his chariot uninjured in a contest where no fewer than forty took + part. The large outlay involved excluded all but rich competitors, and + even kings and tyrants eagerly contested the palm. Thus in the list of + victors we find the names of Cylon, the would-be tyrant of Athens, + Pausanias the Spartan king, Archelaus of Macedon, Gelon and Hiero of + Syracuse, and Theron of Agrigentum. Chariot-races with mules, with + mares, with two horses in place of four, were successively introduced, + but none of these present any special interest. Races on horseback + date from the 33rd Olympiad. As the course was the same, success must + have depended on skill as much as on swiftness. Lastly, there were + athletic contests of the same description for boys, and a competition + of heralds and trumpeters, introduced in the 93rd Olympiad. + + The prizes were at first, as in the Homeric times, of some intrinsic + value, but after the 6th Olympiad the only prize for each contest was + a garland of wild olive, which was cut with a golden sickle from the + kallistephanos, the sacred tree brought by Hercules "from the dark + fountains of Ister in the land of the Hyperboreans, to be a shelter + common to all men and a crown of noble deeds" (Pindar, _Ol._ iii. 18). + Greek writers from Herodotus to Plutarch dwell with complacency on the + magnanimity of a people who cared for nothing but honour and were + content to struggle for a corruptible crown. But though the Greek + games present in this respect a favourable contrast to the greed and + gambling of the modern racecourse, yet to represent men like Milon and + Damoxenus as actuated by pure love of glory is a pleasing fiction of + the moralists. The successful athlete received in addition to the + immediate honours very substantial rewards. A herald proclaimed his + name, his parentage and his country; the Hellanodicae took from a + table of ivory and gold the olive crown and placed it on his head, and + in his hand a branch of palm; as he marched in the sacred revel to the + temple of Zeus, his friends and admirers showered in his path flowers + and costly gifts, singing the old song of Archilochus, [Greek: tenella + kallinike], and his name was canonized in the Greek calendar. Fresh + honours and rewards awaited him on his return home. If he was an + Athenian he received, according to the law of Solon, 500 drachmae, and + free rations for life in the Prytaneum; if a Spartan, he had as his + prerogative the post of honour in battle. Poets like Pindar, Simonides + and Euripides sung his praises, and sculptors like Pheidias and + Praxiteles were engaged by the state to carve his statue. We even read + of a breach in the town walls being made to admit him, as if the + common road were not good enough for such a hero; and there are + well-attested instances of altars being built and sacrifices offered + to a successful athlete. No wonder then that an Olympian prize was + regarded as the crown of human happiness. Cicero, with a Roman's + contempt for Greek frivolity, observes with a sneer that an Olympian + victor receives more honours than a triumphant general at Rome, and + tells the story of the Rhodian Diagoras, who, having himself won the + prize at Olympia, and seen his two sons crowned on the same day, was + addressed by a Laconian in these words:--"Die, Diagoras, for thou hast + nothing short of divinity to desire." Alcibiades, when setting forth + his services to the state, puts first his victory at Olympia, and the + prestige he had won for Athens by his magnificent display. But perhaps + the most remarkable evidence of the exaggerated value which the Greeks + attached to athletic prowess is a casual expression which Thucydides + employs when describing the enthusiastic reception of Brasidas at + Scione. The state, he says, voted him a crown of gold, and the + multitude flocked round him and decked him with garlands, _as though + he were an athlete_. + +The _Pythian_ games originated in a local festival held at Delphi, +anciently called Pytho, in honour of the Pythian Apollo, and were +limited to musical competitions. The date at which they became a +Panhellenic [Greek: agon] (so Demosthenes calls them) cannot be +determined, but the Pythiads as a chronological era date from 527 B.C., +by which time music had been added to all the Panhellenic contests. Now, +too, these were held at the end of every fourth year; previously there +had been an interval of eight years. The Amphictyones presided and the +prize was a chaplet of laurel. + +The _Nemean_ games were biennial and date from 516 B.C. They were by +origin an Argive festival in honour of Nemean Zeus, but in historical +times were open to all Greece and provided the established round of +contests, except that no mention is made of a chariot-race. A wreath of +wild celery was the prize. + +The _Isthmian_ games, held on the Isthmus of Corinth in the first and +third year of each Olympiad, date, according to Eusebius, from 523 B.C. +They are variously reported to have been founded by Poseidon or Sisyphus +in honour of Melicertes, or by Theseus to celebrate his victory over the +robbers Sinis and Sciron. Their early importance is attested by the law +of Solon which bestowed a reward of 100 drachmae on every Athenian who +gained a victory. The festival was managed by the Corinthians; and after +the city was destroyed by Mummius (146 B.C.) the presidency passed to +the Sicyonians until Julius Caesar rebuilt Corinth (46 B.C.). They +probably continued to exist till Christianity became the religion of the +Roman empire. The Athenians were closely connected with the festival, +and had the privilege of _proedria_, the foremost seat at the games, +while the Eleans were absolutely excluded from participation. The games +included gymnastic, equestrian and musical contests, differing little +from those of the other great festivals, and the prize was a crown made +at one time of parsley (more probably wild celery), at a later period of +pine. The importance of the Isthmian games in later times is shown by +the fact that Flamininus chose the occasion for proclaiming the +liberation of Greece, 196 B.C. That at a later anniversary (A.D. 67) +Nero repeated the proclamation of Flamininus, and coupled with it the +announcement of his own infamous victory at Olympia, shows alike the +hollowness of the first gift and the degradation which had befallen the +Greek games, the last faint relic of Greek nationality. + + + Roman. + +The _Ludi Publici_ of the Romans included feasts and theatrical +exhibitions as well as the public games with which alone we are +concerned. As in Greece, they were intimately connected with religion. +At the beginning of each civil year it was the duty of the consuls to +vow to the gods games for the safety of the commonwealth, and the +expenses were defrayed by the treasury. Thus, at no cost to themselves, +the Roman public were enabled to indulge at the same time their +religious feelings and their love of amusement. Their taste for games +naturally grew till it became a passion, and under the empire games were +looked upon by the mob as one of the two necessaries of life. The +aediles who succeeded to this duty of the consuls were expected to +supplement the state allowance from their private purse. Political +adventurers were not slow to discover so ready a road to popularity, and +what at first had been exclusively a state charge devolved upon men of +wealth and ambition. A victory over some barbarian horde or the death of +a relation served as the pretext for a magnificent display. But the +worst extravagance of private citizens was eclipsed by the reckless +prodigality of the Caesars, who squandered the revenues of whole +provinces in catering for the mob of idle sightseers on whose favour +their throne depended. But though public games played as important a +part in Roman as in Greek history, and must be studied by the Roman +historian as an integral factor in social and political life, yet, +regarded solely as exhibitions, they are comparatively devoid of +interest, and we sympathize with Pliny, who asks his friend how any man +of sense can go day after day to view the same dreary round of fights +and races. + +It is easy to explain the different feelings which the games of Greece +and of Rome excite. The Greeks at their best were actors, the Romans +from first to last were spectators. It is true that even in Greek games +the professional element played a large and ever-increasing part. As +early as the 6th century B.C. Xenophanes complains that the wrestler's +strength is preferred to the wisdom of the philosopher, and Euripides, +in a well-known fragment, holds up to scorn the brawny swaggering +athlete. But what in Greece was a perversion and acknowledged to be +such, the Romans not only practised but held up as their ideal. No +Greek, however high in birth, was ashamed to compete in person for the +Olympic crown. The Roman, though little inferior in gymnastic exercises, +kept strictly to the privacy of the palaestra; and for a patrician to +appear in public as a charioteer is stigmatized by the satirist as a +mark of shameless effrontery. + +Roman games are generally classified as _fixed_, _extraordinary_ and +_votive_; but they may be more conveniently grouped according to the +place where they were held, viz. the circus or the amphitheatre. + +For the Roman world the circus was at once a political club, a +fashionable lounge, a rendezvous of gallantry, a betting ring, and a +playground for the million. Juvenal, speaking loosely, says that in his +day it held the whole of Rome; but there is no reason to doubt the +precise statement of P. Victor, that in the Circus Maximus there were +seats for 350,000 spectators. + + Of the various _Ludi Circenses_ it may be enough here to give a short + account of the most important, the _Ludi Magni_ or _Maximi_. + + Initiated according to legend by Tarquinius Priscus, the _Ludi Magni_ + were originally a votive feast to Capitoline Jupiter, promised by the + general when he took the field, and performed on his return from the + annual campaign. They thus presented the appearance of a military + spectacle, or rather a review of the whole burgess force, which + marched in solemn procession from the capitol to the forum and thence + to the circus, which lay between the Palatine and Aventine. First came + the sons of patricians mounted on horseback, next the rest of the + burghers ranged according to their military classes, after them the + athletes, naked save for the girdle round their loins, then the + company of dancers with the harp and flute players, next the priestly + colleges bearing censers and other sacred instruments, and lastly the + simulacra of the gods, carried aloft on their shoulders or drawn in + cars. The games themselves were fourfold:--(1) the chariot race; (2) + the _ludus Troiae_; (3) the military review; and (4) gymnastic + contests. Of these only the first two call for any comment. (1) The + chariot employed in the circus was the two-wheeled war car, at first + drawn by two, afterwards by four, and more rarely by three horses. + Originally only two chariots started for the prize, but under Caligula + we read of as many as twenty-four heats run in the day, each of four + chariots. The distance traversed was fourteen times the length of the + circus or nearly 5 m. The charioteers were apparently from the first + professionals, though the stigma under which the gladiator lay never + attached to their calling. Indeed a successful driver may compare in + popularity and fortune with a modern jockey. The drivers were divided + into companies distinguished by the colours of their tunics, whence + arose the faction of the circus which assumed such importance under + the later emperors. In republican times there were two factions, the + white and the red; two more, the green and the blue, were added under + the empire, and for a short time in Domitian's reign there were also + the gold and the purple. Even in Juvenal's day party spirit ran so + high that a defeat of the green was looked upon as a second Cannae. + After the seat of empire had been transferred to Constantinople these + factions of the circus were made the basis of political cabals, and + frequently resulted in sanguinary tumults, such as the famous Nika + revolt (A.D. 532), in which 30,000 citizens lost their lives. (2) The + Ludus Troiae was a sham-fight on horseback in which the actors were + patrician youths. A spirited description of it will be found in the + 5th Aeneid. (See also CIRCUS.) + + The two exhibitions we shall next notice, though occasionally given in + the circus, belong more properly to the amphitheatre. _Venatio_ was + the baiting of wild animals who were pitted either with one another or + with men--captives, criminals or trained hunters called _bestiarii_. + The first certain instance on record of this amusement is in 186 B.C., + when M. Fulvius exhibited lions and tigers in the arena. The taste for + these brutalizing spectacles grew apace, and the most distant + provinces were ransacked by generals and proconsuls to supply the + arena with rare animals--giraffes, tigers and crocodiles. Sulla + provided for a single show 100 lions, and Pompey 600 lions, besides + elephants, which were matched with Gaetulian hunters. Julius Caesar + enjoys the doubtful honour of inventing the bull-fight. At the + inauguration of the Colosseum 5000 wild and 4000 tame beasts were + killed, and to commemorate Trajan's Dacian victories there was a + butchery of 11,000 beasts. The _naumachia_ was a sea-fight, either in + the arena, which was flooded for the occasion by a system of pipes and + sluices, or on an artificial lake. The rival fleets were manned by + prisoners of war or criminals, who often fought till one side was + exterminated. In the sea-fight on Lake Fucinus, arranged by the + emperor Claudius, 100 ships and 19,000 men were engaged. + + But the special exhibition of the amphitheatre was the _munus + gladiatorium_, which dates from the funeral games of Marcus and + Decimus Brutus, given in honour of their father, 264 B.C. It was + probably borrowed from Etruria, and a refinement on the common savage + custom of slaughtering slaves or captives on the grave of a warrior or + chieftain. Nothing so clearly brings before us the vein of coarseness + and inhumanity which runs through the otherwise noble character of the + Roman, as his passion for gladiatorial shows. We can fancy how + Pericles, or even Alcibiades, would have loathed a spectacle that + Augustus tolerated and Trajan patronized. Only after the conquest of + Greece we hear of their introduction into Athens, and they were then + admitted rather out of compliment to the conquerors than from any love + of the sport. In spite of numerous prohibitions from Constantine + downwards, they continued to flourish even as late as St Augustine. To + a Christian martyr, if we may credit the story told by Theodoret and + Cassiodorus, belongs the honour of their final abolition. In the year + 404 Telemachus, a monk who had travelled from the East on this sacred + mission, rushed into the arena and endeavoured to separate the + combatants. He was instantly despatched by the praetor's orders; but + Honorius, on hearing the report, issued an edict abolishing the games, + which were never afterwards revived. (See GLADIATORS.) + + Of the other Roman games the briefest description must suffice. The + _Ludi Apollinares_ were established in 212 B.C., and were annual after + 211 B.C.; mainly theatrical performances. The _Megalenses_ were in + honour of the great goddess, Cybele: instituted 204 B.C., and from 191 + B.C. celebrated annually. A procession of Galli, or priests of Cybele, + was a leading feature. Under the empire the festival assumed a more + orgiastic character. Four of Terence's plays were produced at these + games. The _Ludi Saeculares_ were celebrated at the beginning or end + of each _saeculum_, a period variously interpreted by the Romans + themselves as 100 or 110 years. The celebration by Augustus in 17 B.C. + is famous by reason of the Ode composed by Horace for the occasion. + They were solemnized by the emperor Philip A.D. 248 to commemorate the + millennium of the city. + +2. _Private Games._--These may be classified as outdoor and indoor +games. There is naturally all the world over a much closer resemblance +between the pursuits and amusements of children than of adults. Homer's +children built castles in the sand, and Greek and Roman children alike +had their dolls, their hoops, their skipping-ropes, their hobby-horses, +their kites, their knuckle-bones and played at hopscotch, the +tug-of-war, pitch and toss, blind-man's buff, hide and seek, and kiss in +the ring or at closely analogous games. Games of ball were popular in +Greece from the days of Nausicaa, and at Rome there were five distinct +kinds of ball and more ways of playing with them. For particulars the +dictionary of antiquities must be consulted. It is strange that we can +find in classical literature no analogy to cricket, tennis, golf or +polo, and though the _follis_ resembled our football, it was played with +the hand and arm, not with the leg. Cock-fighting was popular both at +Athens and Rome, and quails were kept and put to various tests to prove +their pluck. + +Under indoor games we may distinguish games of chance and games of +skill, though in some of them the two elements are combined. _Tesserae_, +shaped and marked with pips like modern dice, were evolved from the +_tali_, knuckle-bones with only four flat sides. The old Roman threw a +hazard and called a main, just as did Charles Fox, and the vice of +gambling was lashed by Juvenal no less vigorously than by Pope. The +Latin name for a dice-box has survived in the _fritillary_ butterfly and +flower. + +The primitive game of guessing the number of fingers simultaneously held +up by the player and his opponent is still popular in Italy where it is +known as "morra." The proverbial phrase for an honest man was _quicum in +tenebris mices_, one you would trust to play at morra in the dark. + +Athena found the suitors of Penelope seated on cowhides and playing at +[Greek: pessoi], some kind of draughts. The invention of the game was +ascribed to Palamedes. In its earliest form it was played on a board +with five lines and with five pieces. Later we find eleven lines, and a +further development was the division of the board into squares, as in +the game of [Greek: poleis] (cities). In the Roman _latrunculi_ +(soldiers), the men were distinguished as common soldiers and "rovers," +the equivalent of crowned pieces. + +_Duodecim scripta_, as the name implies, was played on a board with +twelve double lines and approximated very closely to our backgammon. +There were fifteen pieces on each side, and the moves were determined by +a throw of the dice; "blots" might be taken, and the object of the +player was to clear off all his own men. Lastly must be mentioned the +_Cottabus_ (q.v.), a game peculiar to the Greeks, and with them the +usual accompaniment of a wine party. In its simplest form each guest +threw what was left in his cup into a metal basin, and the success of +the throw, determined partly by the sound of the wine in falling, was +reckoned a divination of love. For the various elaborations of the game +(in Sicily we read of Cottabus houses), Athenaeus and Pollux must be +consulted. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquites + grecques et romaines_, articles "Agon," "Athleta," "Circus," "Ludi," + "Olympia," "Spiele"; Curtius and Adler, _Olympia_ (5 vols., 1890, + &c.); Hachtmann, _Olympia und seine Festspiele_; Blumner, _Home Life + of the Ancient Greeks_; J.P. Mahaffy, _Old Greek Education_; P. + Gardner and F.B. Jevons, _Manual of Greek Antiquities_; E.N. Gardiner, + _Greek Athletic Sports_ (1910); Becker-Marquardt, _Handbuch der + romischen Altertumer_ (5 vols.). (F. S.) + + + + +GAMING AND WAGERING. It is somewhat difficult exactly to define or +adequately to distinguish these terms of allied meaning. The word "game" +(q.v.) is applicable to most pastimes and many sports, irrespective of +their lawful or unlawful character. "Gaming" is now always associated +with the staking of money or money's worth on the result of a game of +pure chance, or mixed skill and chance; and "gambling" has the same +meaning, with a suggestion that the stakes are excessive or the practice +otherwise reprehensible, while "wager" and "wagering" are applied to +money hazarded on any contingency in which the person wagering has no +interest at risk other than the amount at stake. "Betting" is usually +restricted to wagers on events connected with sports or games, and +"lottery" applies to speculation to obtain prizes by lot or chance. + +At English common law no games were unlawful and no penalties were +incurred by gambling, nor by keeping gaming-houses, unless by reason of +disorder they became a public nuisance. From very early times, however, +the English statute law has attempted to exercise control over the +sports, pastimes and amusements of the lieges. Several points of view +have been taken: (1) their competition with military exercises and +training; (2) their attraction to workmen and servants, as drawing them +from work to play; (3) their interference with the observance of Sunday; +(4) their combination with betting or gambling as causing impoverishment +and dishonesty in children, servants and other unwary persons; (5) the +use of fraud or deceit in connexion with them. The legislation has +assumed several forms: (1) declaring certain games unlawful either +absolutely or if accompanied by staking or betting money or money's +worth on the event of the game; (2) declaring the keeping of +establishments for betting, gaming or lotteries illegal, or prohibiting +the use of streets or public places for such purposes; (3) prohibiting +the enforcement in courts of justice of gambling contracts. + + + Games, lawful and unlawful. + + The earliest English legislation against games was passed in the + interests of archery and other manly sports which were believed to + render the lieges more fit for service in war. A statute of Richard + II. (1388) directed servants and labourers to have bows and arrows and + to use them on Sundays and holidays, and to cease from playing + football, quoits, dice, putting the stone, kails and other such + importune games. A more drastic statute was passed in 1409 (11 Hen. + IV. c. 4) and penalties were imposed in 1477 (17 Edw. IV. c. 3) on + persons allowing unlawful games to be played on their premises. These + acts were superseded in 1541 (33 Hen. VIII. c. 9) by a statute passed + on the petition of the bowyers, fletchers (_flechiers_), stringers and + arrowhead makers of the realm. This act (still partly in force) is + entitled an "act for maintenance of archery and debarring of unlawful + games"; and it recites that, since the last statutes (of 3 & 6 Hen. + VIII.) "divers and many subtil inventative and crafty persons have + found and daily find many and sundry new and crafty games and plays, + as logating in the fields, slide-thrift, otherwise called shove-groat, + as well within the city of London as elsewhere in many other and + divers parts of this realm, keeping houses, plays and alleys for the + maintenance thereof, by reason whereof archery is sore decayed, and + daily is like to be more minished, and divers bowyers and fletchers, + for lack of work, gone and inhabit themselves in Scotland and other + places out of this realm, there working and teaching their science, to + the puissance of the same, to the great comfort of strangers and + detriment of this realm." Accordingly penalties are imposed on all + persons keeping houses for unlawful games, and all persons resorting + thereto (s. 8). The games specified are dicing, table (backgammon) or + carding, or any game prohibited by any statute theretofore made or any + unlawful new game then or thereafter invented or to be invented. It is + further provided that "no manner of artificer or craftsman of any + handicraft or occupation, husbandman, apprentice, labourer, servant at + husbandry, journeyman or servant of artificer, mariners, fishermen, + watermen, or any serving man, shall play at the tables, tennis, dice, + cards, bowls, clash, coyting, logating or any other unlawful game out + of Christmas under the pain of xxs. to be forfeit for every time; and + in Christmas to play at any of the said games in their masters' houses + or in their masters' presence; and also that no manner of person shall + at any time play at any bowl or bowls in open places out of his garden + or orchard" (s. 11). The social evils of gambling (impoverishment, + crime, neglect of divine service) are incidentally alluded to in the + preamble, but only in connexion with the main purpose of the + statute--the maintenance of archery. No distinction is made between + games of skill and games of chance, and no reference is made to + playing for money or money's worth. The _Book of Sports_ of James I. + (1617), republished by Charles I. (1633), was aimed at encouraging + certain sports on Sundays and holidays; but with the growth of + Puritanism the royal efforts failed. The Sunday Observance Act 1625 + prohibits the meeting of people out of their own parishes on the + Lord's Day for any sports or pastimes whatsoever. It has been + attempted to enforce this act against Sunday football. The act goes on + to prohibit any bear-baiting, bull-baiting, interludes, common plays + or other unlawful exercises or plays on Sunday by parishioners within + their own parishes. According to Blackstone (iv. _Comm._ c. 13) the + principal ground of complaint leading to legislation in the 18th + century was "gambling in high life." He collects the statutes made + with this view, but only those still in force need have been + mentioned. + + The first act directed against gambling as distinct from playing games + was that of 1665 (16 Car. II. c. 7) "against deceitful, disorderly and + excessive gaming" which deals with games both of skill and chance at + which people cheat, or play otherwise than with ready money, or lose + more than L100 on credit. In 1698 (13 Will. III. c. 23) legislation + was passed against lotteries, therein described as "mischievous and + unlawful games." This act was amended in 1710 (9 Anne c. 6), and in + the same year was passed a statute which is the beginning of the + modern legislation against gambling (9 Anne c. 19). It includes within + its scope money won by "gaming or playing" at cards, &c., and money + won by "betting" on the sides or hands of those who game at any of the + forbidden games. But it refers to tennis and bowls as well as to games + with cards and dice. + + The following list of lawful games, sports and exercises is given in + _Oliphant on Horses, &c._ (6th ed.): horse-races, steeplechases, + trotting matches, coursing matches, foot-races, boat-races, regattas, + rowing matches, golf, wrestling matches, cricket, tennis, fives, + rackets, bowls, skittles, quoits, curling, putting the stone, + football, and presumably every bona-fide variety, e.g. croquet, knurr + and spell, hockey or any similar games. Cock-fighting is said to have + been unlawful at common law, and that and other modes of setting + animals to fight are offences against the Prevention of Cruelty to + Animals Acts. The following are also lawful games: whist and other + lawful games at cards, backgammon, bagatelle, billiards, chess, + draughts and dominoes. But to allow persons to play for money at these + games or at skittles or "skittle pool" or "puff and dart" on licensed + premises is gaming within the Licensing Act 1872. The earlier acts + declared unlawful the following games of skill: football, quoits, + putting the stone, kails, tennis, bowls, clash or kails, or + cloyshcayls, logating, half bowl, slide-thrift or shove-groat and + backgammon. Backgammon and other games in 1739 played with backgammon + tables were treated as lawful in that year. Horse-racing, long under + restriction, being mentioned in the act of 1665 and many 18th-century + acts, was fully legalized in 1840 (3 & 4 Vict. c. 35). The act of + 1541, so far as it declared any game of mere skill unlawful, was + repealed by the Gaming Act 1845. Billiards is legal in private houses + or clubs and in public places duly licensed. The following games have + been declared by the statutes or the judges to be unlawful, whether + played in public or in private, unless played in a royal palace where + the sovereign is residing: ace of hearts, pharaoh (faro), basset and + hazard (1738), passage, and every game then invented or to be invented + with dice or with any other instrument, engine or device in the nature + of dice having one or more figures or numbers thereon (1739), roulet + or roly-poly (1744), and all lotteries (except Art Union lotteries), + _rouge et noir_, _baccarat-banque_ (1884), _chemin de fer_ (1895), and + all games at cards which are not games of mere skill. The definition + of unlawful game does not include whist played for a prize not + subscribed to by the players, but it does include playing cards for + money in licensed premises; even in the private room of the licensee + or with private friends during closing hours. + + The first attack on lotteries was in 1698, against lotteries "by dice, + lots, cards, balls or any other numbers or figures or in any other + way whatsoever." An act of 1721 prohibited lotteries which under the + name of sales distributed prizes in money, advowsons, land, jewels, + &c., by lots, tickets, numbers or figures. Acts of 1722, 1733 and 1823 + prohibited any sale of tickets, receipts, chances or numbers in + foreign lotteries. The games of cards already referred to as unlawful + were in 1738 declared to be "games or lotteries by cards or dice," and + in 1802 the definition of lottery was extended to include "little-goes + and any game or lottery not authorized by parliament, drawn by dice, + lots, cards, balls, or by numbers or figures or by any other way, + contrivance or device whatsoever." This wide definition reaches + raffles and sweepstakes on races. The advertisement of foreign or + illegal lotteries is forbidden by acts of 1836 and 1844. In 1846 art + unions were exempted from the scope of the Lottery Acts. Attempts have + been made to suppress the sale in England of foreign lottery tickets, + but the task is difficult, as the post-office distributes the + advertisements, although, under the Revenue Act 1898, the Customs + treat as prohibited goods advertisements or notices as to foreign + lotteries. More success has been obtained in putting down various + devices by newspapers and shopkeepers to attract customers by + instituting "missing word competitions" and "racing coupon + competitions"; by automatic machines which give speculative chances in + addition to the article obtained for the coin inserted; by + distribution of prizes by lot or chance to customers; by holding + sweepstakes at public-houses, by putting coins in sweetmeats to tempt + street urchins by cupidity to indigestion; or by gratuitous + distribution of medals giving a chance of a prize from a newspaper. An + absolutely gratuitous distribution of chances seems not to be within + the acts, but a commercial distribution is, even if individuals who + benefit do not pay for their chance. + + As already stated, the keeping of a gaming-house was at common law + punishable only if a public nuisance were created. The act of 1541 + imposes penalties on persons maintaining houses for unlawful games. + Originally licences could be obtained for such houses, but these were + abolished in 1555 (2 & 3 Phil. and Mar.). In 1698 lotteries were + declared public nuisances, and in 1802 the same measure was meted out + to lotteries known as little-goes. Special penalties are provided for + those who set up lotteries or any unlawful game with cards or dice, + &c. (1738, 1739, 1744). In 1751 inhabitants of a parish were enabled + to insist on the prosecution of gaming-houses. The act of 1802 imposed + severe penalties on persons publicly or privately keeping places for + any lottery. This statute hits at the deliberate or habitual use of a + place for the prohibited purpose, and does not touch isolated or + incidental uses on a single occasion, e.g. at a bazaar or show; but + under an act of 1823 the sale of lottery tickets is in itself an + offence. The Gaming Act 1845 facilitates the search of suspected + gaming-houses and the proof that they are such. It provides that, to + prove any house to be a common gaming-house, it "shall be sufficient + to show that it is kept or used for playing therein at any unlawful + game, and that a bank is kept there by one or more of the players + exclusively of the others, or that the chances of any game played + therein are not alike favourable to all the players, including among + the players the banker or other person by whom the game is managed, or + against whom the other players stake, play or bet." Gambling, it will + be noticed, is still in this definition connected with some kind of + game. The act also provides that proof that the gaming was for money + shall not be required, and that the presence of cards, dice and other + instruments of gaming shall be prima-facie evidence that the house was + used as a common gaming-house. The most recent statute dealing with + gaming-houses is of 1854, which provides summary remedies against the + keeper and makes further provisions to facilitate conviction. It may + be added that the Gaming Act 1845 makes winning money by cheating at + any game or wager punishable in the same way as obtaining money by + false pretences. At the present time proceedings for keeping + gaming-houses in the sense in which that word is commonly understood + are comparatively rare, and are usually against foreigners. The + statutes hit both public and private gaming-houses (see the Park Club + case, _Jenks_ v. _Turpin_, 1884, 13 Q.B.D. 505, the leading case on + unlawful games). The proprietor and the person who keeps the bank at + an unlawful game are both within the statute: the players are not, but + the act of Henry VIII. is so far alive that they can be put under + recognizance not to frequent gaming-houses. Under the Licensing Act + 1872 penalties are incurred by licensed victuallers who suffer any + gaming or unlawful game to be played on their premises. A single + instance of playing an unlawful game for money in a private house is + not within the statutes (_R_. v. _Davies_, 1897, 2 Q.B. 199). + + In England, so far as the general public is concerned, gaming at cards + is to a large extent superseded by betting on sports and pastimes, or + speculation by means of lotteries or like devices. The legislation + against betting _eo nomine_ began in 1853. In the Betting Act 1853 it + is described as a kind of gaming of late sprung up to the injury and + demoralization of improvident persons by the opening of places called + betting houses and offices, and the receiving of money _in advance_ by + the owners or occupiers or their agents on promises to pay money on + events or horse races and like contingencies. This act strikes at + ready money betting as distinguished from betting on credit ("on the + nod"). It was avowedly framed to hit houses open to all and sundry as + distinguished from private betting clubs such as Tattersall's. The act + seeks to punish persons who keep a house, office, room or other place + for the purpose (_inter alia_) of any person betting with persons + "resorting thereto" or of receiving deposits in consideration of bets + on contingencies relating to horse-races or other races, fights, + games, sports or exercises. The act especially excepts persons who + receive or hold prizes or stakes to be paid to the winner of a race or + lawful sport, game or exercise, or to the owner of a horse engaged in + a race (s. 6). Besides the penalties incurred by keeping such places, + the keeper is liable to repay to depositors the sums deposited (s. 5). + + By the Licensing Act 1872 penalties are incurred by licensed persons + who allow their houses to be used in contravention of the Betting Act + 1853. There has been a great deal of litigation as to the meaning and + scope of this enactment, and a keen contest between the police and the + Anti-gambling League (which has been very active in the matter) and + the betting confraternity, in which much ingenuity has been shown by + the votaries of sport in devising means for evading the terms of the + enactment. The consequent crop of legal decisions shows a considerable + divergence of judicial opinion. The House of Lords has held that the + Tattersall's enclosure or betting ring on a racecourse is not a + "place" within the statute; and members of a bona-fide club who bet + with each other in the club are not subject to the penalties of the + act. But the word "place" has been held to include a public-house bar, + an archway, a small plot of waste ground, and a bookmaker's stand, and + even a bookmaker's big umbrella, and it is difficult to extract from + the judges any clear indication of the nature of the "places" to which + the act applies. The act is construed as applying only to ready-money + betting, i.e. when the stake is deposited with the bookmaker, and only + to places used for betting with persons physically resorting thereto; + so that bets by letter, telegram or telephone do not fall within its + penalties. The arm of the law has been found long enough to punish as + thieves "welshers," who receive and make off with deposits on bets + which they never mean to pay if they lose. The act of 1853 makes it an + offence to publish advertisements showing that a house is kept for + betting. It was supplemented in 1874 by an act imposing penalties on + persons advertising as to betting. But this has been read as applying + to bets falling within the act of 1853, and it does not prohibit the + publication of betting news or sporting tips in newspapers. A few + newspapers do not publish these aids to ruin, and in some public + libraries the betting news is obliterated, as it attracts crowds of + undesirable readers. The act of 1853 has been to a great extent + effectual against betting houses, and has driven some of them to + Holland and other places. But it has been deemed expedient to + legislate against betting in the streets, which has been found too + attractive to the British workman. + + + Street betting. + + By the Metropolitan Streets Acts 1867 any three or more persons + assembled together in any part of any street in the city of London or + county of London for the purpose of betting and deemed to be + obstructing the street, may be arrested without warrant by a constable + and fined a sum not exceeding L5. The Vagrancy Act 1873 (36 & 37 Vict. + c. 38) provides that "Every person playing or betting by way of + wagering or gaming on any street, road, highway or other open and + public place, or in any open place to which the public have, or are + permitted to have, access, at or with any table or instrument of + gaming, or any coin, card, token or other article used as an + instrument or means of gaming, at any game or pretended game of + chance, shall be deemed a rogue and vagabond." This act amended a + prior act of 1868, passed to repress the practice of playing pitch and + toss in the streets, which had become a public nuisance in the + colliery districts. The powers of making by-laws for the peace, order + and good government of their districts, possessed by municipal + boroughs--and since 1888 by county councils--and extended in 1899 to + the new London boroughs, have in certain cases been exercised by + making by-laws forbidding any person to "frequent or use any street or + other public place, on behalf either of himself or any other person, + for the purpose of bookmaking, or betting, or wagering, or agreeing to + bet or wager with any person, or paying, or receiving or settling + bets." This and similar by-laws have been held valid, but were found + inadequate, and by the Street Betting Act 1906 (6 Edw. VII. c. 43), + passed by the efforts of the late Lord Davey, it is made an offence + for any person to frequent or loiter in a street or public place on + behalf of himself or of any other person for the purpose of bookmaking + or betting or wagering or agreeing to bet or wager or paying or + receiving or settling bets. The punishment for a first offence is fine + up to L10, for a second fine up to L20, and the punishment is still + higher in the case of a third or subsequent offence, or where the + accused while committing the offence has any betting transaction with + a person under the age of sixteen. The act does not apply to ground + used for a course for horse-racing or adjacent thereto on days on + which races take place; but the expression public place includes a + public park, garden or sea-beach, and any unenclosed ground to which + the public for the time have unrestricted access, and enclosed places + other than public parks or gardens to which the public have a + restricted right of access with or without payment, if the owners or + persons controlling the place exhibit conspicuously a notice + prohibiting betting therein. A constable may arrest without warrant + persons offending and seize all books, papers, cards and other + articles relating to betting found in their possession, and these + articles may be forfeited on conviction. Besides the above provision + against betting with infants the Betting and Loans (Infants) Act + 1892, passed at the instance of the late Lord Herschell, makes it a + misdemeanour to send, with a view to profit, to any one known by the + sender to be an infant, a document inviting him to enter into a + betting or wagering transaction. The act is intended to protect lads + at school and college from temptation by bookmakers. + + + Wagering. + +We must now turn from the public law with respect to gaming to the +treatment of bets and wagers from the point of view of their obligation +on the individuals who lose them. A wager may be defined as "a promise +to give money or money's worth upon the determination or ascertainment +of an uncertain event" (Anson, _Law of Contract_, 11th ed., p. 206). The +event may be uncertain because it has not happened or because its +happening is not ascertained; but to make the bargain a wager the +determination of the event must be the sole condition of the bargain. +According to the view taken in England of the common law, bets or wagers +were legally enforceable, subject to certain rules dictated by +considerations of public policy, e.g. that they did not lead to +immorality or breach of the peace, or expose a third person to +ridicule.[1] The courts were constantly called upon to enforce wagers +and constantly exercised their ingenuity to discover excuses for +refusing. A writer on the law of contracts[2] discovers here the origin +of that principle of "public policy" which plays so important a part in +English law. Wagering contracts were rejected because the contingencies +on which they depended tended to create interests hostile to the common +weal. A bet on the life of the emperor Napoleon was declared void +because it gave one of the parties an interest in keeping the king's +enemy alive, and also because it gave the other an interest in +compassing his death by unlawful means. A bet as to the amount of the +hop-duty was held to be against public policy, because it tended to +expose the condition of the king's revenue to all the world. A bet +between two hackney coachmen, as to which of them should be selected by +a gentleman for a particular journey, was void because it tended to +expose the customer to their importunities. When no such subtlety could +be invented, the law, however reluctantly, was compelled to enforce the +fulfilment of a wager. Actions on wagers were not favoured by the +judges; and though a judge could not refuse to try such an action, he +could, and often did, postpone it until after the decision of more +important cases. + +Parliament gradually intervened to confine the common law within +narrower limits, both in commercial and non-commercial wagers, and both +by general and temporary enactments. An example of the latter was 7 Anne +c. 16 (1710), avoiding all wagers and securities relating to the then +war with France. The earliest general enactment was 16 Car. II. c. 7 +(1665), prohibiting the recovery of a sum exceeding L100 lost in games +or pastimes, or in betting on the sides or hands of the players, and +avoiding securities for money so lost. 9 Anne c. 19 avoided securities +for such wagers for any amount, even in the hands of bona-fide holders +for value without notice, and enabled the loser of L10 or upwards to sue +for and recover the money he had lost within three months of the loss. +Contracts of insurance by way of gaming and wagering were declared void, +in the case of marine risks in 1746, and in the case of other risks in +1774. It was not until 1845 that a general rule was made excluding +wagers from the courts. Section 18 of the Gaming Act 1845 (passed after +a parliamentary inquiry in 1844 as to gaming) enacted "that all +contracts or agreements, whether by parole or in writing, by way of +gaming or wagering shall be null and void, and that no suit shall be +brought or maintained in any court of law or equity for recovering any +sum of money or valuable thing alleged to be won upon any wager, or +which shall have been deposited in the hands of any person to abide the +event on which any wager shall have been made; provided always that this +enactment shall not be deemed to apply to any subscription or +contribution, or agreement to subscribe or contribute, for or towards +any plate, prize or sum of money to be awarded to the winner or winners +of any lawful game, sport, pastime or exercise." + +The construction put on this enactment enabled turf commission agents +to recover from their principals bets made and paid for them. But the +Gaming Act 1892 rendered null and void any promise, express or implied, +to repay to any person any sum of money paid by him under, or in respect +of, any contract or agreement rendered null and void by the Gaming Act +1845, or to pay any sum of money by way of commission, fee, reward, or +otherwise in respect of any such contract or agreement, or of any +services in relation thereto or in connexion therewith, and provided +that no action should be brought or maintained to recover any such sum. +By the combined effect of these two enactments the recovery by the +winner from the loser or stakeholder of bets or of stakes on games +falling within s. 18 of the Gaming Act 1845 is absolutely barred; but +persons who have deposited money to abide the event of a wager are not +debarred from crying off and recovering their stake before the event is +decided, or even after the decision of the event and before the stake is +paid over to the winner;[3] and a man who pays a bet for a friend, or a +turf commission agent or other agent who pays a bet for a principal, has +now no legal means of recovering the money, unless some actual deceit +was used to induce him to pay in ignorance that it was a bet. But a +person who has received a bet on account of another can still, it would +seem, be compelled to pay it over, and the business of a betting man is +treated as so far lawful that income-tax is charged on its profits, and +actions between parties in such a business for the taking of partnership +accounts have been entertained. + +The effect of these enactments on speculative dealings in shares or +other commodities calls for special consideration. It seems to be +correct to define a wagering contract as one in which two persons, +having opposite opinions touching the issue of an event (past or +future), of which they are uncertain, mutually agree that on the +determination of the event one shall win, and the other shall pay over a +sum of money, or other stake, neither party having any other interest in +the event than the sum or stake to be won or lost. This definition does +not strike at contracts in "futures," under which the contractors are +bound to give or take delivery at a date fixed of commodities not in +existence at the date of the contract. Nor are such contracts rendered +void because they are entered into for purposes of speculation; in fact, +their legality is expressly recognized by the Sale of Goods Act 1893. +Contracts of insurance are void if made by way of gaming or wagering on +events in which the assured has no interest present or prospective +whether the matter be life or fire risks (1774) or maritime risks +(Marine Insurance Act 1906). An act known as Sir John Barnard's Act (7 +Geo. II. c. 8, entitled "An act to prevent the infamous practice of +stock jobbing") prohibited contracts for liberty to accept or refuse any +public stocks or securities and wagers relating to public stocks, but +this act was repealed in 1860, and contracts to buy or sell stocks and +shares are not now void because entered into by way of speculation and +not for purposes of investment. The only limitation on such contracts is +that contained in Leeman's Act (30 & 31 Vict. c. 29) as to contracts for +the sale of shares in joint-stock banking companies. But a transaction +in any commodity, though in form commercial, falls within the Gaming +Acts if in substance the transaction is a mere wager on the price of the +commodity at a date fixed by the contract. It does not matter whether +the dealing is in stocks or in cotton, nor whether it is entered into on +the Stock Exchange, or on any produce exchange, or elsewhere; nor is it +conclusive in favour of the validity of the bargain that it purports to +bind the parties to take or deliver the article dealt in. The courts are +entitled to examine into the true nature of the transaction; and where +the substantial intention of the parties is merely to gamble in +differences, to make what is called "a time bargain," the fact that it +is carried out by a series of contracts, regular and valid in form, will +not be sufficient to exclude the application of the Gaming Acts. + +In very many cases transactions with "outside stockbrokers" or "bucket +shops" have been held to be mere wagers, although the contracts +purported to give "put" or "call" options to demand delivery or +acceptance of the stocks dealt with; and the cover deposited by the +"client" has been treated as a mere security for performance of the +bargain, and recoverable if sued for in time, i.e. before it is used for +the purpose for which it is deposited. There was not up to 1909 any +authoritative decision as to the application of the Gaming Act 1892 to +transactions on the London Stock Exchange through a stockbroker who is a +member of "the House"; but the same principle appears to be applicable +where the facts of the particular deal clearly indicate that the +intention was to make a mere time bargain, or to pay or receive +differences only. The form, however, of all bargains on the Stock +Exchange is calculated and intended to preclude people from setting up a +gaming act defence: as each contract entitles the holder to call for +delivery or acceptance of the stock named therein. In the event of the +bankruptcy of a person involved in speculations, the bankruptcy +officials exclude from proof against the estate all claims founded on +any dealing in the nature of a wager; and on the same principle the +bankrupt's trustee cannot recover sums won by the bankrupt by gaming +transactions, but unexhausted "cover" on uncompleted transactions may be +recovered back. + + + Gambling debts. + +Besides the enactments which prevent the recovery of bets or wagers by +action there has also been a good deal of legislation dealing with +securities given in respect of "gambling debts." The earliest (1665) +dealt with persons playing at games otherwise than for ready money and +losing L100 or more on credit, and not only prohibited the winner from +recovering the overplus but subjected him to penalties for winning it. +An act of 1710 (9 Anne c. 19) declared utterly void all notes, bills, +bonds, judgments, mortgages or other securities where the consideration +is for money or valuable security won by gaming at cards, stocks or +other games, or by betting on the sides or hands of the gamesters, or +for reimbursing money knowingly advanced for such gaming or betting. +This act draws a distinction between gaming and other bets or wagers. +Under this act the securities were void even in the hands of innocent +transferees. In 1841 the law was altered, declaring such securities not +void but made upon an "illegal" consideration. The effect of the change +is to enable an innocent transferee for value, of a bill, note or +cheque, to recover on a security worthless in the hands of the original +taker (see s. 30 of the Bills of Exchange Act 1882), but to put on him +the burden of proving that he is a bona fide holder for value. In the +case of a negotiable security given for a wager not within the acts of +1710 or 1841 (e.g. a bet on a contested election), but within the act of +1845, a third person holding it would be presumed to be a holder for +value and on the person prima facie liable under the security falls the +burden of proving that no consideration was given for it. It has been +decided after considerable divergence of judicial opinion that an action +will not lie in England in favour of the drawee against the drawer of a +cheque drawn at Algiers on an English bank, partly for losses at +baccarat, and partly for money borrowed to continue playing the game. +The ground of decision was in substance that the Gaming Acts of 1845 and +1892 as the _lex fori_ prohibit the English courts from enforcing gaming +debts wherever incurred (_Moulis_ v. _Owen_, 1907, 1 K.B. 746). + + _Scotland._--A Scots act of 1621 c. 14 (said still to be in force) + forbids playing at cards or dice in any common house of hostelry, and + directs that sums over 100 marks won on any one day at carding or + dicing or at wagers on horse races should be at once sent to the + treasurer of the kirk session. The Lottery Acts, except that of 1698, + apply to Scotland; and the Betting House Act 1853 was extended to + Scotland in 1874. The Street Betting Act 1906 extends to Scotland, and + gaming houses can be suppressed under the Burgh Police Act 1892, and + street betting, lotteries or gaming under that of 1903. + + The Scots courts refuse to try actions on wagers, as being _sponsiones + ludicrae_, unbecoming the dignity of the courts. 9 Anne c. 19 and 5 & + 6 Will. IV. c. 41 extend to Scotland, but the weight of judicial + opinion is that the Gaming Act 1845 does not. + + _Ireland._--The British Acts against lotteries were extended to + Ireland in 1780, and the general law as to gaming is the same in both + countries. + + _British Possessions._--Certain of the earlier imperial acts are in + force in British possessions, e.g. the act of 9 Anne c. 19, which is + in force in Ontario subject to amendments made in 1902. In the Straits + Settlements, Jamaica and British Guiana there are ordinances directed + against gambling and lotteries, and particularly against forms of + gambling introduced by the Chinese. Under these ordinances the money + paid for a lottery ticket is recoverable by law. In the Transvaal + betting houses were suppressed by proclamation (No. 33) soon after the + annexation. An invention known in France as the _pari mutuel_, and in + Australia as the totalizator, is allowed to be used on race-courses in + most of the states (but not in New South Wales). In Queensland, South + Australia, Tasmania and Western Australia the state levies a duty on + the takings of the machine. In Tasmania the balance of the money + retained by the stewards of the course less the tax must be applied + solely for improving the course or promoting horse-racing. In Victoria + under an act of 1901 the promoters of sports may by advertisement duly + posted make betting on the ground illegal. + + _Egypt._--By law No. 10 of 1905 all lotteries are prohibited with + certain exceptions, and it is made illegal to hawk the tickets or + offer them for sale or to bring illegal lotteries in any way to the + notice of the public. The authorized lotteries are those for + charitable purposes, e.g. those of the benevolent societies of the + various foreign communities. + + _United States._--In the United States many of the states make gaming + a penal offence when the bet is upon an election, or a horse race, or + a game of hazard. Betting contracts and securities given upon a bet + are often made void, and this may destroy a gaming note in the hands + of an innocent purchaser for value. The subject lies outside of the + province of the federal government. By the legislation of some states + the loser may recover his money if he sue within a limited time, as he + might have done in England under 9 Anne c. 19. + + AUTHORITIES.--Brandt on _Games_ (1872); Oliphant, _Law of Horses, &c._ + (6th ed. by Lloyd, 1908); Schwabe on the _Stock Exchange_ (1905); + Melsheimer on the _Stock Exchange_ (4th ed., 1905); Coldridge and + Hawksford, _The Law of Gambling_ (1895); Stutfield, _Betting_ (3rd + ed., 1901). (W. F. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Leake on _Contracts_ (4th ed.), p. 529. + + [2] Pollock, _Contracts_ (7th ed.), p. 313. + + [3] _Burge_ v. _Ashby_, 1900, 1 Q.B. 744. + + + + +GAMUT (from the Greek letter _gamma_, used as a musical symbol, and +_ut_, the first syllable of the medieval hymn _Sanctus Johannes_), a +term in music used to mean generally the whole compass or range of notes +possessed by an instrument or voice. Historically, however, the sense +has developed from its stricter musical meaning of a scale (the +recognized musical scale of any period), originating in the medieval +"great scale," of which the invention has usually been ascribed to Guido +of Arezzo (q.v.) in the 11th century. The whole question is somewhat +obscure, but, in the evolution of musical notation out of the classical +alphabetical system, the invention of the medieval gamut is more +properly assigned to Hucbald (d. 930). In his system of scales the +semitone was always between the 2nd and 3rd of a tetrachord, as G, A, +[flat]B, C, so the [natural]B and # F of the second octave were in false +relation to the [flat]B and [natural]F of the first two tetrachords. To +this scale of four notes, G, A, [flat]B, C, were subsequently added a +note below and a note above, which made the hexachord with the semitone +between the 3rd and 4th both up and down, as F, G, A, [flat]B, C, D. It +was at a much later date that the 7th, our leading note, was admitted +into a key, and for this the first two letters of the last line of the +above-named hymn, "Sanctus Johannes," would have been used, save for the +notion that as the note Mi was at a semitone below Fa, the same vowel +should be heard at a semitone below the upper Ut, and the syllable Si +was substituted for Sa. Long afterwards the syllable Ut was replaced by +Do in Italy, but it is still retained in France; and in these two +countries, with whatever others employ their nomenclature, the original +Ut and the substituted Do stand for the sound defined by the letter C in +English and German terminology. The literal musical alphabet thus +accords with the syllabic: A (La), B (Si), C (Ut or Do), D (Re), E (Mi), +F (Fa), G (Sol). In Germany a remnant of Greek use survives. A was +originally followed in the scale by the semitone above, as the classical +Mese was followed by Paramese, and this note, namely [flat]B, is still +called B in German, English [natural]B (French and Italian Si) being +represented by the letter H. The gamut which, whenever instituted, did +not pass out of use until the 19th century, regarded the hexachord and +not the octachord, employed both letters and syllables, made the former +invariable while changing the latter according to key relationship, and +acknowledged only the three keys of G, C and F; it took its name from +having the Greek letter gamma with Ut for its lowest keynote, though the +Latin letters with the corresponding syllables were applied to all the +other notes. + + + + +GANDAK, a river of northern India. It rises in the Nepal-Himalayas, +flows south-west until it reaches British territory, where it forms the +boundary between the United Provinces and Bengal for a considerable +portion of its course, and falls into the Ganges opposite Patna. It is a +snow-fed stream, and the surrounding country in the plains, lying at a +lower level than its banks, is endangered by its floods. The river is +accordingly enclosed by protective embankments. + +The LITTLE GANDAK rises in the Nepal hills, enters Gorakhpur district +about 8 m. west of the Gandak, and joins the Gogra just within the Saran +district of Bengal. + +The BURHI (or old) GANDAK also rises in the Nepal hills, and follows a +course roughly parallel to and east of that of the Gandak, of which it +represents an old channel, passing Muzaffarpur, and joining the Ganges +nearly opposite to Moughjr. Its principal tributary is the Baghmati, +which rises in the hills N. of Kathmandu, flows in a southerly direction +through Tirhut, and joins the Burhi Gandak close to Rusera. + + + + +GANDAMAK, a village of Afghanistan, 35 m. from Jalalabad on the road to +Kabul. On the retreat from Kabul of General Elphinstone's army in 1842, +a hill near Gandamak was the scene of the massacre of the last survivors +of the force, twenty officers and forty-five British soldiers. It is +also notable for the treaty of Gandamak, which was signed here in 1879 +with Yakub Khan. (See AFGHANISTAN.) + + + + +GANDERSHEIM, a town of Germany in the duchy of Brunswick, in the deep +valley of the Gande, 48 m. S.W. of Brunswick, on the railway +Boissum-Holzminden. Pop. (1905) 2847. It has two Protestant churches of +which the convent church (_Stiftskirche_) contains the tombs of famous +abbesses, a palace (now used as law courts) and the famous abbey (now +occupied by provincial government offices). There are manufactures of +linen, cigars, beet-root sugar and beer. + +The abbey of Gandersheim was founded by Duke Ludolf of Saxony, who +removed here in 856 the nuns who had been shortly before established at +Brunshausen. His own daughter Hathumoda was the first abbess, who was +succeeded on her death by her sister Gerberga. Under Gerberga's +government Louis III. granted a privilege, by which the office of abbess +was to continue in the ducal family of Saxony as long as any member was +found competent and willing to accept the same. Otto III. gave the abbey +a market, a right of toll and a mint; and after the bishop of Hildesheim +and the archbishop of Mainz had long contested with each other about its +supervision, Pope Innocent III. declared it altogether independent of +both. The abbey was ultimately recognized as holding directly of the +Empire, and the abbess had a vote in the imperial diet. The conventual +estates were of great extent, and among the feudatories who could be +summoned to the court of the abbess were the elector of Hanover and the +king of Prussia. Protestantism was introduced in 1568, and Magdalena, +the last Roman Catholic abbess, died in 1589; but Protestant abbesses +were appointed to the foundation, and continued to enjoy their imperial +privileges till 1803, when Gandersheim was incorporated with Brunswick. +The last abbess, Augusta Dorothea of Brunswick, was a princess of the +ducal house, and kept her rank till her death. The memory of Gandersheim +will long be preserved by its literary memorials. Hroswitha, the famous +Latin poet, was a member of the sisterhood in the 9th century; and the +rhyming chronicle of Eberhard of Gandersheim ranks as in all probability +the earliest historical work composed in low German. + + The Chronicle, which contains an account of the first period of the + monastery, is edited by L. Wieland in the _Monumenta Germ. historica_ + (1877), and has been the object of a special study by Paul Hasse + (Gottingen, 1872). See also "Agii vita Hathumodae abbatissae + Gandershemensis primae," in J.G. von Eckhart's _Veterum monumentorum + quaternio_ (Leipzig, 1720); and Hase, _Mittelalterliche Baudenkmaler + Niedersachsens_ (1870). + + + + +GANDHARVA, in Hindu mythology, the term used to denote (1) in the +Rig-Veda usually a minor deity; (2) in later writings a class of divine +beings. As a unity Gandharva has no special attributes but many duties, +and is in close relation with the great gods. Thus he is director of the +sun's horses; he is guardian of soma, the sacred liquor, and therefore +is regarded as the heavenly physician, soma being a panacea. He is +servant of Agni the god of light and of Varuna the divine judge. He is +omnipresent: in the heavens, in the air and in the waters. He is the +keeper of heaven's secrets and acts as messenger between gods and men. +He is gorgeously clothed and carries shining weapons. For wife he has +the spirit of the clouds and waters, Apsaras, and by her became father +of the first mortals, Yama and Yami. He is the tutelary deity of women +and presides over marriage ceremonies. In their collective capacity the +Gandharva share the duties allotted to the single deity. They live in +the house of Indra and with their wives, the Apsaras, beguile the time +by singing, acting and dancing. Sometimes they are represented as +numbering twelve, sometimes twenty-seven, or they are innumerable. In +Hindu law a Gandharva marriage is one contracted by mutual consent and +without formality. + + + + +GANDIA, a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of Valencia; on the +Gandia-Alcoy and Alcira-Denia railways. Pop. (1900) 10,026. Gandia is on +the left bank of the river Alcoy or Serpis, which waters one of the +richest and most populous plains of Valencia and enters the +Mediterranean Sea at the small harbour of Gandia (_El Grao_), 3 m. N.E. +The chief ancient buildings of Gandia are the Gothic church, the +college, founded by San Francisco de Borgia, director-general of the +order of Jesus (1510-1572), and the palace of the dukes of Gandia--a +title held in the 15th and 16th centuries by members of the princely +house of Borgia or Borja. A Jesuit convent, the theatre, schools and the +palace of the dukes of Osuna, are modern. Besides its manufactures of +leather, silk, velvet and ribbons, Gandia has a thriving export trade in +fruit, and imports coal, guano, timber and flour. In 1904, 400 vessels, +of 200,000 tons, entered the harbour. + + + + +GANDO, a sultanate of British West Africa, included in the protectorate +of Nigeria, situated on the left bank of the Niger above Borgu. The +sultanate was established, c. 1819, on the death of Othman Dan Fodio, +the founder of the Fula empire, and its area and importance varied +considerably during the 19th century, several of the Fula emirates being +regarded as tributaries, while Gando itself was more or less dependent +on Sokoto. Gando in the middle of the century included both banks of the +Niger at least as far N.W. as Say. The districts outside the British +protectorate now belong to France. Since 1884 Gando has been in treaty +relations with the British, and in 1903 the part assigned to the British +sphere by agreement with France came definitely under the control of the +administration in Nigeria. Gando now forms the sub-province of the +double province of Sokoto. The emir was appointed under British +authority after the conquest of Sokoto in 1903. Since that date the +province has been organized for administration on the same system as the +rest of the protectorate of Northern Nigeria. Provincial and native +courts of justice have been established, roads have been opened, the +slave trade has been abolished, and the country assessed under the new +scheme for taxation. British garrisons are stationed at Jegga and +Ambrusa. The chief town is Gando, situated on the Sokoto, the first +considerable affluent of the Niger from the east, about 60 m. S.W. of +the town of Sokoto. + + + + +GANESA, or GANESH, in Hindu mythology, the god of wisdom and prudence, +always represented with an elephant's head possibly to indicate his +sagacity. He is the son of Siva and Parvati. He is among the most +popular of Indian deities, and almost every act, religious or social, in +a Hindu's life begins with an invocation to him, as do most books. He +typifies not the wisdom of knowledge but that worldly wisdom which +results in financial success, and thus he is particularly the god of the +Hindu shopkeeper. In his divine aspect Ganesa is ruler over the hosts of +heaven, the spirits which come and go to do Indra's will. + + + + +GANGES (GANGA), a great river of northern India, formed by the drainage +of the southern ranges of the Himalayas. This mighty stream, which in +its lower course supplies the river system of Bengal, rises in the +Garhwal state, and falls into the Bay of Bengal after a course of 1500 +m. It issues, under the name of the Bhagirathi, from an ice cave at the +foot of a Himalayan snow-bed near Gangotri, 10,300 ft. above the level +of the sea. + + During its passage through the southern spurs of the Himalayas it + receives the Jahnavi from the north-west, and subsequently the + Alaknanda, after which the united stream takes the name of the Ganges. + Deo Prayag, their point of junction, is a celebrated place of + pilgrimage, as is also Gangotri, the source of the parent stream. At + Sukhi it pierces through the Himalayas, and turns south-west to + Hardwar, also a place of great sanctity. It proceeds by a tortuous + course through the districts of Dehra Dun, Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, + Bulandshahr and Farukhabad, in which last district it receives the + Ramganga. Thus far the Ganges has been little more than a series of + broad shoals, long deep pools and rapids, except, of course, during + the melting of the snows and throughout the rainy season. At + Allahabad, however, it receives the Jumna, a mighty sister stream, + which takes its rise also in the Himalayas to the west of the sources + of the Ganges. The combined river winds eastwards by south-east + through the United Provinces, receiving the Gumti and the Gogra. The + point of junction with both the Gumti and the Gogra has more or less + pretension to sanctity. But the tongue of land at Allahabad, where the + Jumna and the Ganges join, is the true Prayag, _the_ place of + pilgrimage, to which hundreds of thousands of devout Hindus repair to + wash away their sins in the sacred river. It is here that the great + festival called the Magh mela is held. + + Shortly after passing the holy city of Benares the Ganges enters + Behar, and after receiving an important tributary, the Sone from the + south, passes Patna, and obtains another accession to its volume from + the Gandak, which rises in Nepal. Farther to the east it receives the + Kusi, and then, skirting the Rajmahal hills, turns sharply to the + southward, passing near the site of the ruined city of Gaur. By this + time it has approached to within 240 m., as the crow flies, from the + sea. About 20 m. farther on it begins to branch out over the level + country, and this spot marks the commencement of the delta, 220 m. in + a straight line, or 300 by the windings of the river, from the Bay of + Bengal. The main channel takes the name of the Padma or Padda, and + proceeds in a south-easterly direction, past Pabna to Goalanda, above + which it is joined by the Jamuna or main stream of the Brahmaputra. + The vast confluence of waters rushes towards the sea, receiving + further additions from the hill country on the east, and forming a + broad estuary known under the name of the Meghna, which enters the Bay + of Bengal near Noakhali. This estuary, however, is only the largest + and most easterly of a great number of mouths or channels. The most + westerly is the Hugli, which receives the waters of a number of + distributary channels that start from the parent Ganges above + Murshidabad. Between the Hugli on the west and the Meghna on the east + lies the delta. The upper angle of it consists of rich and fertile + districts, such as Murshidabad, Nadia, Jessore and the 24 Parganas. + But towards its southern base, resting on the sea, the country sinks + into a series of great swamps, intercepted by a network of innumerable + channels. This wild waste is known as the Sundarbans, from the + _sundari_ tree, which grows in abundance in the seaboard tracts. + + The most important channel of the Ganges for commerce is the Hugli, on + which stands Calcutta, about 90 m. from the mouth. Beyond this city + the navigation is conducted by native craft,--the modern facilities + for traffic by rail and the increasing shoals in the river having put + an end to the previous steamer communication, which plied until about + 1860 as high up as Allahabad. Below Calcutta important boat routes + through the delta connect the Hugli with the eastern branches of the + river, for both native craft and steamers. + + The Ganges is essentially a river of great cities: Calcutta, Monghyr, + Patna, Benares and Allahabad all lie on its course below its junction + with the Jumna; and the ancient capitals, Agra and Delhi, are on the + Jumna, higher up. The catchment basin of the Ganges is bounded on the + N. by a length of about 700 m. of the Himalayan range, on the S. by + the Vindhya mountains, and on the E. by the ranges which separate + Bengal from Burma. The vast river basin thus enclosed embraces 432,480 + sq. m. According to the latest calculations, the length of the main + stream of the Ganges is 1540 m., or with its longest affluent, 1680; + breadth at true entrance into the sea, 20 m.; breadth of channel in + dry season, 1-1/4 to 2-1/4 m.; depth in dry season, 30 ft.; flood + discharge, 1,800,000 cub. ft. per second; ordinary discharge, 207,000 + cub. ft.; longest duration of flood, about 40 days. The average fall + from Allahabad to Benares is 6 in. per mile; from Benares to Calcutta, + between 4 and 5 in.; from Calcutta to the sea, 1 to 2 in. Great + changes take place from time to time in the river-bed, which alter the + face of the country. Extensive islands are thrown up, and attach + themselves to the mainland, while the river deserts its old bed and + seeks a new channel, it may be many miles off. Such changes are so + rapid and on so vast a scale, and the corroding power of the current + on the bank so irresistible, that in Lower Bengal it is considered + perilous to build any structure of a large or permanent character on + its margin. Many decayed or ruined cities attest the changes in the + river-bed in ancient times; and within our own times the main channel + which formerly passed Rajmahal has turned away from it, and left the + town high and dry, 7 m. from the bank. + + The Ganges is crossed by six railway bridges on its course as far as + Benares; and another, at Sara in Eastern Bengal, has been sanctioned. + + The UPPER GANGES CANAL and the LOWER GANGES CANAL are the two + principal systems of perennial irrigation in the United Provinces. The + Ganges canal was opened by Lord Dalhousie in 1854, and irrigates + 978,000 acres. The Lower Ganges canal, an extension of the original + canal, has been in operation since 1878 and irrigates 830,000 acres. + The two canals, together with the eastern Jumna, command the greater + portion of the Doab lying between the Ganges and the Jumna, above + Allahabad. Navigation in either is insignificant. (T. H. H.*) + + + + +GANGOTRI, a celebrated place of Hindu pilgrimage, among the Himalaya +Mountains. It is situated in the native state of Garhwal in the United +Provinces, on the Bhagirathi, the chief head-stream of the Ganges, which +is here not above 15 or 20 yds. broad, with a moderate current, and not +in general above 3 ft. deep. The course of the river runs N. by E.; and +on the bank near Gangotri there is a small temple about 20 ft. high, in +which are images representing Ganga, Bhagirathi and other figures of +mythology. It dates from the early part of the 18th century. The bed of +the river adjoining the temple is divided off by the Brahmans into three +basins, where the pilgrims bathe. One of these portions is dedicated to +Brahma, another to Vishnu and the third to Siva. The pilgrimage to +Gangotri is considered efficacious in washing away the sins of the +devotee, and ensuring him eternal happiness in the world to come. The +water taken from this sacred spot is exported by pilgrims to India and +sold at a high price. The elevation of the temple above the sea is +10,319 ft. + + + + +GANGPUR, a tributary state of Orissa, Bengal, included until 1905 among +the Chota Nagpur States. It is bounded N. by Ranchi district, E. by the +Singhbhum district, S. by Sambalpur and Bamra, and W. by Raigarh in the +Central Provinces. The country is for the most part an undulating plain, +broken by detached ranges of hills, one of which, the Mahavira range, +possesses a very remarkable appearance, springing abruptly from the +plain in an irregular wall of tilted and disrupted rock, with two +flanking peaks. The rivers are the Ib and the Brahmani, formed here by +the union of the Sankh and the South Koel, both navigable by canoes. The +Ib was formerly famous on account of diamonds found in its bed, and its +sands are still washed for gold. One of the largest coalfields in India +extends into the state, and iron ore is also found. Jungle +products--lac, silk cocoons, catechu and resin, which are exported; wild +animals--bisons, buffaloes, tigers, leopards, hyenas, wolves, jackals, +wild dogs and many sorts of deer. Area, 2492 sq. m.; pop. (1901) +238,896; estimated revenue, L16,000. + + + + +GANGRENE (from Gr. [Greek: gangraina], an eating sore, from [Greek: +grainein], to gnaw), a synonym in medicine for mortification (q.v.), or +a local death in the animal body due to interruption of the circulation +by various causes. + + + + +GANILH, CHARLES (1758-1836), French economist and politician, was born +at Allanche in Cantal on the 6th of January 1758. He was educated for +the profession of law and practised as _avocat_. During the troubled +period which culminated in the taking of the Bastille on the 14th of +July 1789, he came prominently forward in public affairs, and was one of +the seven members of the permanent Committee of Public Safety which sat +at the hotel de ville. He was imprisoned during the Reign of Terror, and +was only released by the counter-revolution of the 9th Thermidor. During +the first consulate he was called to the tribunate, but was excluded in +1802. In 1815 he was elected deputy for Cantal, and finally left the +Chamber on its dissolution in 1823. He died in 1836. Ganilh is best +known as the most vigorous defender of the mercantile school in +opposition to the views of Adam Smith and the English economists. + + His works, though interesting from the clearness and precision with + which these peculiar opinions are presented, do not now possess much + value for the student of political economy. He wrote _Essai politique + sur le revenue des peuples de l'antiquite, du moyen age, &c._ (1808); + _Des systemes d'economie politique_ (1809); _Theorie d'economie + politique_ (1815); _Dictionnaire analytique de l'economie politique_ + (1826). + + + + +GANJAM, a district of British India, in the extreme north-east of the +Madras Presidency. It has an area of 8372 sq. m. Much of the district is +exceedingly mountainous and rocky, but is interspersed with open valleys +and fertile plains. Pleasant groves of trees in the plains give to the +scenery a greener appearance than is usually met with in the districts +to the south. The mountainous tract known as the Maliyas, or chain of +the Eastern Ghats, has an average height of about 2000 ft.--its +principal peaks being Singharaj (4976 ft.), Mahendragiri (4923) and +Devagiri (4535). The hilly region forms the agency of Ganjam, with an +area of 3483 sq. m. and a population (in 1901) of 321,114, mostly wild +backward tribes, incapable of being governed under ordinary conditions +and therefore ruled by an agent of the governor with special powers. The +chief rivers are the Rushikulya, the Vamsadhara and the Languliya. The +sea and river fisheries afford a livelihood to a considerable section of +the population. The hilly region abounds in forests consisting +principally of _sal_, with satin-wood, ebony and sandal-wood in smaller +quantities. + +Ganjam formed part of the ancient kingdom of Kalinga. Its early history +is involved in obscurity, and it was not till after the Gajapati dynasty +ascended the throne of Orissa that this tract became even nominally a +part of their dominions. Owing to the nature of the country the rising +Mahommedan power was long kept at bay; and it was not till nearly a +century after the first invasion of Orissa that a Mahommedan governor +was sent to govern the Chicacole Circars, which included the present +district of Ganjam. In 1753 Chicacole, with the Northern Circars, were +made over to the French by Salabat Jang for the maintenance of his +French auxiliaries. In 1759 Masulipatam was taken by an English force +sent from Bengal, and the French were compelled to abandon Ganjam and +their other factories in the north. In 1765 the Northern Circars +(including Ganjam) were granted to the English by imperial firman, and +in August 1768 an English factory was founded at Ganjam, protected by a +fort. The present district of Ganjam was constituted in 1802. In the +earlier years of British rule considerable difficulty was experienced in +the administration of the district; and on more than one occasion the +refractory large landholders had to be coerced by means of regular +troops. In 1816 Ganjam was overrun by the Pindaris; and in 1836 occurred +the Gumsur campaign, when the British first came into contact with the +aboriginal Kondhs, the suppression of whose practice of human sacrifice +was successfully accomplished. A petty rising of a section of the Kondhs +occurred in 1865, which was, however, suppressed without the aid of +regular troops. + +In 1901 the pop. of the district was 2,010,256, showing an increase of +20% in the decade. There are two systems of government irrigation: (1) +the Rushikulya project, and (2) the Ganjam minor rivers system. The +principal crops are rice, other food grains, pulse, oil seeds and a +little sugar-cane and cotton. Salt is evaporated, as a government +monopoly, along the coast. Sugar is refined, according to German +methods, at Aska, where rum also is produced. A considerable trade is +conducted at the ports of Gopalpur and Calingapatam, which are only open +roadsteads. The district is traversed throughout by the East Coast +railway (Bengal-Nagpur system), which was opened from Calcutta to Madras +in 1900. There are colleges at Berhampore and Parlakimedi. The +headquarters station is Berhampore; the town of Ganjam occupied this +position till 1815, when it was found unhealthy, and its importance has +since declined. + + + + +GANNAL, JEAN NICOLAS (1791-1852), French chemist, was born at +Sarre-Louis on the 28th of July 1791. In 1808 he entered the medical +department of the French army, and witnessed the retreat from Moscow in +1812. After the downfall of the empire he worked at the Ecole +Polytechnique in Paris and subsequently at the Faculty of Sciences as +assistant to L.J. Thenard. His contributions to technical chemistry +included a method of refining borax, the introduction of elastic rollers +formed of gelatin and sugar for use in printing, and processes for +manufacturing glue and gelatin, lint, white lead, &c. The Institute +awarded him a Montyon prize in 1827 for his advocacy of chlorine as a +remedy in pulmonary phthisis, and again in 1835 for his discovery of the +efficacy of solutions of aluminium acetate and chloride for preserving +anatomical preparations. In the latter part of his life he turned his +attention to embalmment, his method depending on the injection of +solutions of aluminium salts into the arteries. He died at Paris in +January 1852. His son FELIX, born in 1829, also devoted himself to the +question of the disposal of the dead, among his publications being _Mort +reelle et mort apparente_ (1868), _Inhumation et cremation_ (1876), and +_Les Cimetieres_ (1885), a work on the history and law of burial, of +which only one volume appeared. + + + + +GANNET (O.E. _ganot_) or SOLAN GOOSE,[1] the _Pelecanus bassanus_ of +Linnaeus and the _Sula bassana_ of modern ornithologists, a large +sea-fowl long known as a numerous visitor, for the purpose of breeding, +to the Bass Rock at the entrance of the Firth of Forth, and to certain +other islands off the coast of Britain, of which four are in Scottish +waters--namely, Ailsa Craig, at the mouth of the Firth of Clyde; the +group known collectively as St Kilda; Suleskerry, some 40 m. north-east +of the Butt of Lewis; and the Stack and Skerry, about the same distance +westward of Stromness. It appears also to have two stations off the +coast of Ireland, the Skellig Islands and the Stags of Broadhaven, and +it resorts besides to Lundy Island in the Bristol Channel--its only +English breeding-place. Farther to the northward its settlements are +Myggenaes, the most westerly of the Faeroes, and various small islands +off the coast of Iceland, of which the Vestmannaeyjar, the Reykjanes +Fuglasker and Grimsey are the chief. On the western side of the Atlantic +it appears to have but five stations, one in the Bay of Fundy, and four +rocks in the Gulf of St Lawrence. On all these seventeen places the bird +arrives about the end of March or in April and departs in autumn when +its young are ready to fly; but even during the breeding-season many of +the adults may be seen on their fishing excursions at a vast distance +from their home, while at other times of the year their range is greater +still, for they not only frequent the North Sea and the English Channel, +but stray to the Baltic, and, in winter, extend their flight to the +Madeiras, while the members of the species of American birth traverse +the ocean from the shores of Greenland to the Gulf of Mexico. + +[Illustration: Gannet, or Solan Goose.] + +Apparently as bulky as a goose, and with longer wings and tail, the +gannet weighs considerably less. The plumage of the adult is white, +tinged on the head and neck with buff, while the outer edge and +principal quills of the wings are black, and some bare spaces round the +eyes and on the throat reveal a dark blue skin. The first plumage of the +young is of a deep brown above, but paler beneath, and each feather is +tipped with a triangular white spot. The nest is a shallow depression, +either on the ground itself or on a pile of turf, grass and +seaweed--which last is often conveyed from a great distance. The single +egg it contains has a white shell of the same chalky character as a +cormorant's. The young are hatched blind and naked, but the +slate-coloured skin with which their body is covered is soon clothed +with white down, replaced in due time by true feathers of the dark +colour already mentioned. The mature plumage is believed not to be +attained for some three years. Towards the end of summer the majority of +gannets, both old and young, leave the neighbourhood of their +breeding-place, and, betaking themselves to the open sea, follow the +shoals of herrings and other fishes (the presence of which they are most +useful in indicating to fishermen) to a great distance from land. Their +prey is almost invariably captured by plunging upon it from a height, +and a company of gannets fishing presents a curious and interesting +spectacle. Flying in a line, each bird, when it comes over the shoal, +closes its wings and dashes perpendicularly into the waves, whence it +emerges after a few seconds, and, shaking the water from its feathers, +mounts in a wide curve, and orderly takes its place in the rear of the +string, to repeat its headlong plunge so soon as it again finds itself +above its prey.[2] + +Structurally the gannet presents many points worthy of note, such as its +closed nostrils, its aborted tongue, and its toes all connected by a +web--characters which it possesses in common with most of the other +members of the group of birds (_Steganopodes_) to which it belongs. But +more remarkable still is the system of subcutaneous air-cells, some of +large size, pervading almost the whole surface of the body, +communicating with the lungs, and capable of being inflated or emptied +at the will of the bird. This peculiarity has attracted the attention of +several writers--Montagu, Sir R. Owen (_Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1831, p. 90), +and Macgillivray. + +In the southern hemisphere the gannet is represented by two nearly +allied but somewhat smaller forms--one, _Sula capensis_, inhabiting the +coast of South Africa, and the other, _S. serrator_, the Australian +seas. Both much resemble the northern bird, but the former seems to +have a permanently black tail, and the latter a tail the four middle +feathers of which are blackish-brown with white shafts. + +Apparently inseparable from the gannets generically are the smaller +birds well known to sailors as boobies, from the extraordinary stupidity +they commonly display. They differ, however, in having no median stripe +of bare skin down the front of the throat; they almost invariably breed +upon trees and are inhabitants of warmer climates. One of them, _S. +cyanops_, when adult has much of the aspect of a gannet, but _S. +piscator_ is readily distinguishable by its red legs, and _S. +leucogaster_ by its upper plumage and neck of deep brown. These three +are widely distributed within the tropics, and are in some places +exceedingly abundant. The fourth, _S. variegata_, which seems to +preserve throughout its life the spotted suit characteristic of the +immature _S. bassana_, has a much more limited range, being as yet only +known from the coast of Peru, where it is one of the birds which +contribute to the formation of guano. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The phrase _ganotes baed_ (gannet's bath), a periphrasis for the + sea, occurs in the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, in reference to events + which took place A.D. 975, as pointed out by Prof. Cunningham, whose + learned treatise on this bird (_Ibis_, 1866, p. 1) nearly exhausts + all that can be said of its history and habits. A few pages further + on (p. 13) this writer remarks:--"The name gannet is intimately + connected with our modern English gander, both words being + modifications of the ancient British 'gan' or 'gans,' which is the + same word as the modern German 'Gans,' which in its turn corresponds + with the old High German 'Kans,' the Greek [Greek: chen], the Latin + _anser_, and the Sanskrit 'hansa,' all of which possess the same + signification, viz. a goose. The origin of the names solan or soland, + sulan, sula and haf-sula, which are evidently all closely related, is + not so obvious. Martin [_Voy. St Kilda_] informs us that 'some + imagine that the word solan comes from the Irish souler, corrupted + and adapted to the Scottish language, _qui oculis irretortis e + longinquo respiciat praedam_.' The earlier writers in general derive + the word from the Latin _solea_, in consequence of the bird's + supposed habit of hatching its egg with its foot; and in a note + intercalated into Ray's description of the solan goose in the edition + of his Itineraries published by the Ray Society, and edited by Dr + Lankester, we are told, though no authority for the statement is + given, that 'the gannet, _Sula alba_, should be written solent goose, + i.e. a channel goose.'" Hereon an editorial note remarks that this + last statement appears to have been a suggestion of Yarrell's, and + that it seems at least as possible that the "Solent" took its name + from the bird. + + [2] The large number of gannets, and the vast quantity of fish they + take, has been frequently animadverted upon, but the computations on + this last point are perhaps fallacious. It seems to be certain that + in former days fishes, and herrings in particular, were at least as + plentiful as now, if not more so, notwithstanding that gannets were + more numerous. Those frequenting the Bass were reckoned by + Macgillivray at 20,000 in 1831, while in 1869 they were computed at + 12,000, showing a decrease of two-fifths in 38 years. On Ailsa in + 1869 there were supposed to be as many as on the Bass, but their + number was estimated at 10,000 in 1877 (_Report on the Herring + Fisheries of Scotland_, 1878, pp. xxv. and 171),--being a diminution + of one-sixth in eight years, or nearly twice as great as on the Bass. + + + + +GANODONTA (so named from the presence of bands of enamel on the teeth), +a group of specialized North American Lower and Middle Eocene mammals of +uncertain affinity. The group includes _Hemiganus_, _Psittacotherium_ +and _Conoryctes_ from the Puerco, _Calamodon_ and _Hemiganus_ from the +Wasatch, and _Stylinodon_ from the Bridger Eocene. With the exception of +_Conoryctes_, in which it is longer, the skull is short and suggests +affinity to the sloths, as does what little is known of the limb-bones. +The dentition, too, is of a type which might well be considered +ancestral to that of the Edentata. For instance, the molars when first +developed have tritubercular summits, but these soon become worn away, +leaving tall columnar crowns, with a subcircular surface of dentine +exposed at the summit of each. Moreover, while the earlier types have a +comparatively full series of teeth, all of which are rooted and invested +with enamel, in the later forms the incisors are lost, the cheek-teeth +never develop roots but grow continuously throughout life. These and +other features induced Dr J.L. Wortman to regard the Ganodonta as an +ancestral suborder of Edentata; but this view is not accepted by Prof. +W.B. Scott. Teeth provisionally assigned to _Calamodon_ have been +obtained from the Lower Tertiary deposits of Switzerland. + + See J.L. Wortman, "The Ganodonta and their Relationship to the + Edentata," _Bull. Amer. Mus._ vol. ix. p. 59 (1897); W.B. Scott, + "Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds, Edentata," _Rep. Princeton Exped. to + Patagonia_, vol. v. (1903-1904). (R. L.*) + + + + +GANS, EDUARD (1797-1839), German jurist, was born at Berlin on the 22nd +of March 1797, of prosperous Jewish parents. He studied law first at +Berlin, then at Gottingen, and finally at Heidelberg, where he attended +Hegel's lectures, and became thoroughly imbued with the principles of +the Hegelian philosophy. In 1820, after taking his doctor's degree, he +returned to Berlin as lecturer on law. In 1825 he turned Christian, and +the following year was appointed extraordinary, and in 1828 ordinary, +professor in the Berlin faculty of law. At this period the historical +school of jurisprudence was coming to the front, and Gans, predisposed +owing to his Hegelian tendencies to treat law historically, applied the +method to one special branch--the right of succession. His great work, +_Erbrecht in weltgeschichtlicher Entwicklung_ (1824, 1825, 1829 and +1835), is of permanent value, not only for its extensive survey of +facts, but for the admirable manner in which the general theory of the +slow evolution of legal principles is presented. In 1830, and again in +1835, Gans visited Paris, and formed an intimate acquaintance with the +leaders of literary culture and criticism there. The liberality of his +views, especially on political matters, drew upon Gans the displeasure +of the Prussian government, and his course of lectures on the history of +the last fifty years (published as _Vorlesungen uber d. Geschichte d. +letzten funfzig Jahre_, Leipzig, 1833-1834) was prohibited. He died at +Berlin on the 5th of May 1839. In addition to the works above mentioned, +there may be noted the treatise on the fundamental laws of property +(_Uber die Grundlage des Besitzes_, Berlin, 1829), a portion of a +systematic work on the Roman civil law (_System des romischen +Civil-Rechts_, 1827), and a collection of his miscellaneous writings +(_Vermischte Schriften_, 1832). Gans edited the _Philosophie der +Geschichte_ in Hegel's _Werke_, and contributed an admirable preface. + + See _Revue des deux mondes_ (Dec. 1839). + + + + +GANSBACHER, JOHANN BAPTIST (1778-1844), Austrian musical composer, was +born in 1778 at Sterzing in Tirol. His father, a schoolmaster and +teacher of music, undertook his son's early education, which the boy +continued under various masters till 1802, when he became the pupil of +the celebrated Abbe G.J. Vogler. To his connexion with this artist and +with his fellow-pupils, more perhaps than to his own merits, +Gansbacher's permanent place in the history of music is due; for it was +during his second stay with Vogler, then (1810) living at Darmstadt, +that he became acquainted with Weber and Meyerbeer, and the close +friendship which sprang up among the three young musicians, and was +dissolved by death only, has become celebrated in the history of their +art. But Gansbacher was himself by no means without merit. He creditably +filled the responsible and difficult post of director of the music at St +Stephen's cathedral, Vienna, from 1823 till his death (July 13, 1844); +and his compositions show high gifts and accomplishment. They consist +chiefly of church music, 17 masses, besides litanies, motets, +offertories, &c., being amongst the number. He also wrote several +sonatas, a symphony, and one or two minor compositions of a dramatic +kind. + + + + +GANTE, a cloth made from cotton or tow warp and jute weft. It is largely +used for bags for sugar and similar material, and has the appearance of +a fine hessian cloth. + + + + +GANYMEDE, in Greek mythology, son of Tros, king of Dardania, and +Callirrhoe. He was the most beautiful of mortals, and was carried off by +the gods (in the later story by Zeus himself, or by Zeus in the form of +an eagle) to Olympus to serve as cup-bearer (Apollodorus iii. 12; +Virgil, _Aeneid_, v. 254; Ovid, _Metam._ x. 255). By way of +compensation, Zeus presented his father with a team of immortal horses +(or a golden vine). Ganymede was afterwards regarded as the genius of +the fountains of the Nile, the life-giving and fertilizing river, and +identified by astronomers with the Aquarius of the zodiac. Thus the +divinity that distributed drink to the gods in heaven became the genius +who presided over the due supply of water on earth. When pederasty +became common in Greece, an attempt was made to justify it and invest it +with dignity by referring to the rape of the beautiful boy by Zeus; in +Crete, where the love of boys was reduced to a system, Minos, the +primitive ruler and law-giver, was said to have been the ravisher of +Ganymede. Thus the name which once denoted the good genius who bestowed +the precious gift of water upon man was adopted to this use in vulgar +Latin under the form _Catamitus_. Ganymede being carried off by the +eagle was the subject of a bronze group by the Athenian sculptor +Leochares, imitated in a marble statuette in the Vatican. E. Veckenstedt +(_Ganymedes_, Libau, 1881) endeavours to prove that Ganymede is the +genius of intoxicating drink ([Greek: methu], mead, for which he +postulates a form [Greek: medos]), whose original home was Phrygia. + + See article by P. Weizsacker in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_. In + the article GREEK ART, fig. 53 (Pl. 1.) gives an illustration of + Ganymede borne aloft by an eagle. + + + + +GAO, GAO-GAO, or GARO, a town of French West Africa, in the Upper +Senegal and Niger colony, on the left bank of the Niger, 400 m. by river +below Timbuktu. Pop. about 5000. The present town dates from the French +occupation in 1900; of the ancient city there are scanty ruins, the +chief being a truncated pyramid, the remains of the tomb (16th century) +of Mahommed Askia, the Songhoi conqueror, and those of the great mosque. +According to tradition a city stood on this spot in very ancient times +and its inhabitants are said to have had intercourse with the Egyptians. +It is known, however, that the city of which the French settlement is +the successor was founded by the Songhoi, probably in the 7th or 8th +century, and became the capital of their empire. Garo (Ga-rho) appears +to have been the correct name of the Songhoi city, though it was also +known as Gogo and Kuku (Kaougha)[1]. In the 12th century Idrisi +describes Kuku as a populous unwalled town devoted to commerce and +industry; it is possible, however, that Idrisi is referring not to Gao +but to another town somewhat to the south--at that period the middle +course of the Niger had many prosperous towns along its banks. In the +14th century Gao was conquered by the king of Melle, and its great +mosque was built (c. 1325) by the Melle sovereign Kunkur Musa on his +return from a pilgrimage to Mecca. In the 15th century the Songhoi +regained power and Gao attained its greatest prosperity in the reign of +Askia. It did not enjoy the commercial importance of Jenne nor the +intellectual supremacy of Timbuktu, but was the political centre of the +western Sudan for a long period. On the break up of the Songhoi power +the city declined in importance. It became subject in 1590 to the _Ruma_ +of Timbuktu, from whom it was wrested in 1770 by the Tuareg, the last +named surrendering possession to the French. The first European to reach +Gao was Mungo Park (1805); he was followed in 1851 by Heinrich Barth, +and in 1896 by the French naval lieutenant Hourst. Gao is now the +headquarters of a military district. A caravan route leads from it to +Kano and Bornu. From Gao upwards the Niger is navigable for over 1000 m. + + See TIMBUKTU. For the Gao region of the Niger see an article by F. + Dubois in _L'Afrique francaise_ (January 1909). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] There was another city called Kaoka or Gaoga east of Lake Chad in + the country now known as Bagirmi. It was the seat of the Bulala + dynasty, an offshoot of the royal family of Kanem, whose rule in the + 15th century extended from the Shari to Darfur. The existence of the + state was first mentioned by Leo Africanus. To the Bornuese it was + known as Bulala or Kuka Bulala, a name which persists as that of a + district in French Congo (see BORNU). The similarity of the name + Gaoga to that of the Songhoi capital has given rise to much + confusion. + + + + +GAOL, or JAIL, a prison (q.v.). The two forms of the word are due to the +parallel dual forms in Old Central and Norman French respectively, +_jaiole_ or _jaole_, and _gaiole_ or _gayolle_. The common origin is the +med. Lat. _gabiola_, a diminutive formed from _cavea_, a hollow, a den, +from which the English "cave" is derived. The form "gaol" still commonly +survives in English, and is in official usage, e.g. "gaol-delivery," but +the common pronunciation of both words, "jail," shows the real surviving +word. + + + + +GAON (Heb. for "Excellency," plural _Geonim_), the title given to the +heads of the two Jewish academies in Babylonia, Sura and Pumbeditha. +Though the name is far older, it is chiefly applied to Rabbis who lived +between the close of the Talmud and the transference of the centre of +Judaism from Asia to Europe--i.e. from the end of the 6th to the middle +of the 11th century A.D. The Geonim were required to do homage to the +Exilarchs (see EXILARCH) but were otherwise independent. They exercised +wide authority and were appealed to in settlement of the social and +religious affairs of the diaspora. To them must be assigned the +arrangement of the main lines of the present Synagogue liturgy. Their +chief literary activity took the form of Answers to Questions--a form +which was extensively used in later centuries. The most noted of the +Geonim, who will be found treated under their respective names, were +Ahai, Amram, Semach, Saadiah, Sherira and Hai. Hai Gaon died in 1038, +closing the period of the Geonim after an activity of four and a half +centuries. + + A full list of the Geonim is given in tabular form in the _Jewish + Encyclopaedia_, vol. v. p. 571. (I. A.) + + + + +GAP, the capital of the French department of the Hautes Alpes. Pop. +(1906) town, 6888; commune, 10,823. It is built at a height of 2418 ft. +on the right bank of the Luye (an affluent of the Durance), in an +agreeable position, and is dominated afar by snowy peaks on the N.E. The +little city has the look of a Provencal town, being white. The +17th-century cathedral church has been entirely reconstructed +(1866-1905). In the prefecture is the tomb of the constable de +Lesdiguieres (1543-1626), dating from about 1613, and due to a Lorraine +sculptor, Jacob Richier. The same building contains various scientific +and archaeological collections, as well as the very rich archives, which +include many MSS. from the monastery of Durbon, &c. There are a few +small manufactories of purely local importance. Gap is connected by +railway with Briancon (51-1/2 m.) and with Grenoble (85-1/2 m.), while +from the railway junction of Veynes (16-1/2 m. W. of Gap) it is 122 m. +by rail to Marseilles. The episcopal see of Gap, now in the +ecclesiastical province of Aix en Provence, is first certainly mentioned +in the 6th century, and in 1791 was enlarged by the annexation of that +of Embrun (then suppressed). + +Gap is the _Vapincum_ of the Romans, and was founded by Augustus about +14 B.C. It long formed part of Provence, but in 1232 most of the region +passed by marriage to the dauphins of Viennois. The town itself, +however, remained under the rule of the bishops until 1512, when it was +annexed to the crown of France. The bishops continued to bear the title +of count of Gap until the Revolution. The town was sacked by the +Huguenots in 1567 and 1577, and by the duke of Savoy in 1692. It was the +birthplace of the reformer Guillaume Farel (1489-1565), who first +preached his doctrines there about 1561-1562, but then took refuge in +Switzerland. + + See J. Roman, _Histoire de la ville de Gap_ (Gap, 1892). + (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +GAPAN, a town of the province of Nueva Ecija, Luzon, Philippine Islands, +3 m. E. of San Isidro, the capital. Pop. (1903) 11,278. It is situated +in a rich rice-growing region, and extensive forests in its vicinity +contain fine hardwoods. Its climate is comparatively cool and healthy. +The principal native dialects spoken are Tagalog and Pampangan. Gapan is +the oldest town of the province. + + + + +GARARISH (KARARISH), a semi-nomadic tribe of Semitic origin, dwelling +along the right bank of the Nile from Wadi Halfa to Merawi. Many members +of the tribe are agriculturists, others act as guides or transport +drivers. They declare themselves kinsfolk of the Ababda, but they are +more Arab than Beja. + + + + +GARASHANIN, ILIYA (1812-1874), Servian statesman, was the son of a +Servian peasant, who made money by exporting cattle and pigs to Austria +and by his intelligence and wealth attained to a certain influence in +the country. He wanted to give his son as good an education as possible, +and therefore sent him to Hungary to learn first in a Greek and then in +a German school. Highly gifted, and having passed through a regular +although somewhat short school training, the young Iliya very quickly +came to the front. In 1836 Prince Milosh appointed him a colonel and +commander of the then just organized regular army of Servia. In 1842 he +was called to the position of assistant to the home minister, and from +that time until his retirement from public life in 1867 he was +repeatedly minister of home affairs, distinguishing himself by the +energy and justice of his administration. But he rendered far greater +services to his country as minister for foreign affairs. He was the +first Servian statesman who had a political programme, and who worked to +replace the Russian protectorate over Servia by the joint protectorate +of all the great powers of Europe. As minister for foreign affairs in +1853 he was decidedly opposed to Servia joining Russia in war against +Turkey and the western powers. His anti-Russian views resulted in Prince +Menshikov, while on his mission in Constantinople, 1853, peremptorily +demanding from the prince of Servia (Alexander Karageorgevich) his +dismissal. But although dismissed, his personal influence in the country +secured the neutrality of Servia during the Crimean War. He enjoyed +esteem in France, and it was due to him that France proposed to the +peace conference of Paris (1856) that the old constitution, granted to +Servia by Turkey as suzerain and Russia as protector in 1839, should be +replaced by a more modern and liberal constitution, framed by a European +international commission. But the agreement of the powers was not +secured. Garashanin induced Prince Alexander Karageorgevich to convoke a +national assembly, which had not been called to meet for ten years. The +assembly was convoked for St Andrew's Day 1858, but its first act was to +dethrone Prince Alexander and to recall the old Prince Milosh +Obrenovich. When after the death of his father Milosh (in 1860) Prince +Michael ascended the throne, he entrusted the premiership and foreign +affairs to Iliya Garashanin. The result of their policy was that Servia +was given a new, although somewhat conservative, constitution, and that +she obtained, without war, the evacuation of all the fortresses +garrisoned by the Turkish troops on the Servian territory, including the +fortress of Belgrade (1867). Garashanin was preparing a general rising +of the Balkan nations against the Turkish rule, and had entered into +confidential arrangements with the Rumanians, Bosnians, Albanians, +Bulgarians and Greeks, and more especially with Montenegro. But the +execution of his plans was frustrated by his sudden resignation (at the +end of 1867), and more especially by the assassination of Prince Michael +a few months later (the 10th of June 1868). Although he was a +Conservative in politics, and as such often in conflict with the leader +of the Liberal movement, Yovan Ristich, he certainly was one of the +ablest statesmen whom Servia had in the 19th century. (C. Mi.) + + + + +GARAT, DOMINIQUE JOSEPH (1740-1833), French writer and politician, was +born at Bayonne on the 8th of September 1749. After receiving a good +education under the direction of a relation who was a cure, and having +been an advocate at Bordeaux, he came to Paris, where he obtained +introductions to the most distinguished writers of the time, and became +a contributor to the _Encyclopedie methodique_ and the _Mercure de +France_. He gained considerable reputation by an eloge on Michel de +L'Hopital in 1778, and was afterwards three times crowned by the Academy +for eloges on Suger, Montausier and Fontenelle. In 1785 he was named +professor of history at the _Lycee_, where his lectures enjoyed an equal +popularity with those of G.F. Laharpe on literature. Being chosen a +deputy to the states-general in 1789, he rendered important service to +the popular cause by his narrative of the proceedings of the Assembly +contributed to the _Journal de Paris_. Possessing strongly optimist +views, a mild and irresolute character, and indefinite and changeable +convictions, he played a somewhat undignified part in the great +political events of the time, and became a pliant tool in carrying out +the designs of others. Danton had him named minister of justice in 1792, +and in this capacity had entrusted to him what he called the _commission +affreuse_ of communicating to Louis XVI. his sentence of death. In 1793 +he became minister of the interior. In this capacity he proved himself +quite inefficient. Though himself uncorrupt, he winked at the most +scandalous corruption in his subordinates, and in spite of the admirably +organized detective service, which kept him accurately informed of every +movement in the capital, he entirely failed to maintain order, which +might easily have been done by a moderate display of firmness. At last, +disgusted with the excesses which he had been unable to control, he +resigned (August 15, 1793). On the 2nd of October he was arrested for +Girondist sympathies but soon released, and he escaped further +molestation owing to the friendship of Barras and, more especially, of +Robespierre, whose literary _amour-propre_ he had been careful to +flatter. On the 9th Thermidor, however, he took sides against +Robespierre, and on the 12th of September 1794 he was named by the +Convention as a member of the executive committee of public instruction. +In 1798 he was appointed ambassador to Naples, and in the following year +he became a member, then president, of the Council of the Ancients. +Alter the revolution of the 18th Brumaire he was chosen a senator by +Napoleon and created a count. During the Hundred Days he was a member of +the chamber of representatives. In 1803 he was chosen a member of the +Institute of France, but after the restoration of Louis XVIII. his name +was, in 1816, deleted from the list of members. After the revolution of +1830 he was named a member of the new Academy of Moral and Political +Science. He died at Ustaritz near Bayonne, April 25, 1833. His writings +are characterized by elegance, grace and variety of style, and by the +highest kind of rhetorical eloquence; but his grasp of his subject is +superficial, and as his criticisms have no root in fixed and +philosophical principles they are not unfrequently whimsical and +inconsistent. He must not be confounded with his elder brother Dominique +(1735-1799), who was also a deputy to the states-general. + + The works of Garat include, besides those already mentioned, + _Considerations sur la Revolution Francaise_ (Paris, 1792); _Memoires + sur la Revolution, ou expose de ma conduite_ (1795); _Memoires sur la + vie de M. Suard, sur ses ecrits, et sur le XVIII^e siecle_ (1820); + eloges on Joubert, Kleber and Desaix; several notices of distinguished + persons; and a large number of articles in periodicals. Valuable + materials for the history of Garat's tenure of the ministry, notably + the police reports of Dutard, are given in W.A. Schmidt's _Tableaux de + la Revolution Francaise_ (3 vols., Leipzig, 1867-1870). + + + + +GARAT, PIERRE-JEAN (1764-1823), French singer, nephew of Dominique +Joseph Garat, was born in Bordeaux on the 25th of April 1764. Gifted +with a voice of exceptional timbre and compass he devoted himself, from +an early age, to the cultivation of his musical talents. On account of +his manifesting a distaste for the legal profession, for which his +father wished him to study, he was deprived of his allowance, but +through the patronage of a friend he obtained the office of secretary to +Comte d'Artois, and was afterwards engaged to give musical lessons to +the queen of France. At the beginning of the Revolution he accompanied +Rode to England, where the two musicians appeared together in concerts. +He returned to Paris in 1794. After the Revolution he became a +professional singer, and on account of a song which he had composed in +reference to the misfortunes of the royal family he was thrown into +prison. On regaining his liberty he went to Hamburg, where he at once +achieved extraordinary success; and by his subsequent appearances in +Paris, and his visits to Italy, Spain, Germany and Russia, he made for +himself a reputation as a singer unequalled by any other of his own +time. He was a keen partisan of Gluck in opposition to Handel. On the +institution of the Conservatoire de Musique he became its professor of +singing. He also composed a number of songs, many of which have +considerable merit. He died on the 1st of March 1823 in Paris. + + + + +GARAY, JANOS (1812-1853), Hungarian poet and author, was born on the +10th of October 1812, at Szegszard, in the county of Tolna. From 1823 to +1828 he studied at Funfkirchen, and subsequently, in 1829, at the +university of Pest. In 1834 he brought out an heroic poem, in +hexameters, under the title _Csatar_. After this he issued in quick +succession various historical dramas, among which the most successful +were _Arbocz, Orszagh Ilona_ and _Bathori Erzsebet_,--the first two +published at Pest in 1837 and the last in 1840. Garay was an energetic +journalist, and in 1838 he removed to Pressburg, where he edited the +political journal _Hirnok_ (Herald). He returned to Pest in 1839, when +he was elected a corresponding member of the Hungarian Academy of +Sciences. In 1842 he was admitted into the Kisfaludy Society, of which +he became second secretary. Garay enriched Hungarian literature with +numerous lyrical poems, ballads and tales. The first collection of his +poems was published at Pest in 1843; and his prose tales appeared in +1845, under the title of _Tollrajzok_ (Sketches with the Pen). His +historical ballads and legends, styled _Arpadok_ (Pest, 1847, 2nd ed. +1848), showed him to be a master in the art of ballad-writing. Some of +his lyrical poems also are excellent, as, for example, _Balatoni +Kagylok_ (Shells from the Balaton Lake) (Pest, 1848). His legend +_Bosnyak Zsofia_ (Pest, 1847), and his poetical romance _Frangepan +Kristofne_ (Christopher Frangepan's Wife) (Pest, 1846), gained the prize +of the Kisfaludy Society. His last and most famous work was an +historical poem in twelve cantos, with the title _Szent Laszlo_ (Saint +Ladislaus) (Eger, 1852, 2nd ed., Pest, 1853, 3rd ed. 1863). Garay was +professor of Hungarian language and literature to the university of Pest +in 1848-1849. After about four years' illness he died on the 5th of +November 1853, in great want. A collective edition of his poems was +published at Pest the year after his death by F. Ney (2nd ed. 1860), and +several of his poems were translated by Kertbeny. + + See _Garay Janos Osszes koltemenyei_ (2nd ed., Pest, 1860); and + _Dichtungen von Johann Garay_ (2nd ed., Vienna, 1856). + + + + +GARBLE (a word derived from the Arab. _gharbala_, to sift, and related +to _ghirbal_, a sieve; the Arabic words are of foreign origin, probably +from the Lat. _cribrum_, a sieve), originally a medieval commercial term +in the Mediterranean ports, meaning to sort out, or to sift merchandize, +such as corn, spices, &c., in order to separate what was good from the +refuse or waste; hence to select the best of anything for retention. +Similarly a "garbler" was an official who was appointed to sort out, or +test the work of those who had already sorted, the spices or drugs +offered for sale in the London markets. In this original sense the word +is now obsolete, but by inversion, or rather perversion, "garble" now +means to sort out or select, chiefly from books or other literary works, +or from public speeches, some portion which twists, mutilates, or +renders ineffective the meaning of the author or speaker. + + + + +GARCAO, PEDRO ANTONIO JOAQUIM CORREA (1724-1772), Portuguese lyric poet, +was the son of Philippe Correa da Serra, a _fidalgo_ of the royal house +who held an important post in the foreign office; his mother was of +French descent. The poet's health was frail, and after going through a +Jesuit school in Lisbon and learning English, French and Italian at +home, he proceeded in 1742 to the university of Coimbra with a view to a +legal career. He took his degree in 1748, and two years later was +created a knight of the Order of Christ. In 1751 his marriage with D. +Maria Salema brought him a rich dower which enabled him to live in ease +and cultivate letters; but in later years a law-suit reduced him to +poverty. From 1760 to 1762 he edited the _Lisbon Gazette_. In 1756, in +conjunction with Cruz e Silva and others, Garcao founded the _Arcadia +Lusitana_ to reform the prevailing bad taste in literature, identified +with _Seicentismo_, which delighted in conceits, windy words and +rhetorical phrases. The _Arcadia_ fulfilled its mission to some extent, +but it lacked creative power, became dogmatic, and ultimately died of +inanition. Garcao was the chief contributor to its proceedings, bearing +the name of "Corydon Erimantheo," and his orations and dissertations, +with many of his lyrics, were pronounced and read at its meetings. He +lived much in the society of the English residents in Lisbon, and he is +supposed to have conceived a passion for an English married lady which +completely absorbed him and contributed to his ruin. In the midst of his +literary activity and growing fame, he was arrested on the night of the +9th of April 1771, and committed to prison by Pombal, whose displeasure +he had incurred by his independence of character. The immediate cause of +his incarceration would appear to have been his connexion with a love +intrigue between a young friend of his and the daughter of a Colonel +Elsden, but he was never brought to trial, and the matter must remain in +doubt. After much solicitation, his wife obtained from the king an order +for her husband's release on the 10th of November 1772, but it came too +late. Broken by infirmities and the hardships of prison life, Garcao +expired that very day in the Limoeiro, at the age of forty-seven. + +Taking Horace as his model, and aided by sound judgment, scholarship and +wide reading, Garcao set out to raise and purify the standard of +poetical taste, and his verses are characterized by a classical +simplicity of form and expression. His sonnets _ad sodales_ show a +charming personality; his vigorous and elegant odes and epistles are +sententious in tone and reveal an inspired poet and a man chastened by +suffering. His two comedies in hendecasyllables, the _Theatro Novo_ +(played in January 1766) and the _Assemblea_, are excellent satires on +the social life of the capital; and in the _Cantata de Dido_, included +in the latter piece, the spirit of Greek art is allied to perfection of +form, making this composition perhaps the gem of Portuguese 18th century +poetry. + + Garcao wrote little and spent much time on the _labor limae_. His + works were published posthumously in 1778, and the most complete and + accessible edition is that of J.A. de Azevedo Castro (Rome, 1888). An + English version of the _Cantata de Dido_ appeared in the Academy + (January 19th, 1895). See Innocencio da Silva, _Diccionario + bibliographico Portuguez_, vol. vi. pp. 386-393, and vol. xvii. pp. + 182-184; also Dr Theophilo Braga, _A Arcadia Lusitana_ (Oporto, 1899). + (E. Pr.) + + + + +GARCIA (DEL POPOLO VICENTO), MANOEL (1775-1832), Spanish singer and +composer, was born in Seville on the 22nd of January 1775. He became a +chorister at the cathedral of Seville, and studied music under the best +masters of that city. At seventeen he made his debut on the stage at +Cadiz, in an operetta, in which were included songs of his own +composition. Soon afterwards he appeared at Madrid in the twofold +capacity of singer and composer. His reputation being established, he +proceeded to Paris, where he appeared for the first time, in 1808, in +Paer's opera _Griselda_. Here also he was received with great applause, +his style of singing being especially appreciated. This he further +improved by careful study of the Italian method in Italy itself, where +he continued his successes. His opera _Il Califo di Bagdad_ was +favourably received at Naples in 1812, but his chief successes were +again due to his perfection as a vocalist. His opera _La Morte di Tasso_ +was produced in 1821 in Paris, where it was followed in 1823 by his _Il +Fazzoletto_. In 1824 he went to London, and thence proceeded to America +(1825) with a company of artistes, amongst whom were his son Manoel and +his daughter Maria, better known under her subsequent name of Malibran. +In New York was produced his opera _La Figlia dell' aria_ in 1827. He +extended his artistic tour as far as Mexico, and was on the point of +returning to Europe in order to retire from public life when he was +robbed of his well-earned wealth by brigands on his way to Vera Cruz. +Settled again in Paris in 1829, he soon retired from the stage, and +devoted himself exclusively to teaching. He died in Paris on the 2nd of +June 1832. His method of teaching was famous, and some of the most +celebrated singers of the early part of the century were amongst his +pupils. He also wrote an excellent book on the art of singing called +_Metodo di canto_, of which the essence was subsequently incorporated by +his son Manoel in his admirable _Traite complet de l'art du chant_ +(1847). His operas have not survived their day. He wrote nearly forty in +all, but with the exception of those quoted, and _El Poeta calculista_, +produced when he was thirty, none are remarkable. Besides the children +already mentioned, his daughter Paulina, Madame Viardot (1821-1910), +worthily continued the tradition for the best singing with which his +name had become associated. + +His son, MANOEL GARCIA (1805-1906), who celebrated his hundredth +birthday in London on the 17th of March 1905, was born at Madrid, and +after his father's death devoted himself to teaching. He was a professor +at the Paris Conservatoire from 1830 to 1848, from that time to 1895 was +a professor at the Royal Academy of Music in London. He became famous +for his invention of the laryngoscope about 1850, apart from his +position as the greatest representative of the old "_bel canto_" style +of singing. + + + + +GARCIA DE LA HUERTA, VICENTE ANTONIO (1734-1787), Spanish dramatist, was +born at Zafra on the 9th of March 1734, and was educated at Salamanca. +At Madrid he soon attracted attention by his literary arrogance and +handsome person; and at an early age became chief of the National +Library, a post from which he was dismissed owing to the intrigues of +his numerous enemies. The publication of his unsatisfactory collection +of Spanish plays entitled _Theatro Hespanol_ (1785-1786) exposed him to +severe censures, which appear to have affected his reason. He died at +Madrid on the 12th of March 1787, without carrying into effect his +avowed intention of reviving the national drama. His _Agamemnon vengado_ +derives from Sophocles, his _Jaire_ is translated from Voltaire, and +even his once famous _Raquel_, though Spanish in subject, is classic in +form. + + + + +GARCIA DE PAREDES, DIEGO (1466-1534), Spanish soldier and duellist, was +a native of Trujillo in Estremadura, Spain. He never commanded an army +or rose to the position of a general, but he was a notable figure in the +wars of the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century, when +personal prowess had still a considerable share in deciding the result +of actions. His native town and its district, which lie between Talavera +and Madrid, produced many of the most noted _conquistadores_ of America, +including the Pizarro family. Diego himself served in his youth in the +war of Granada. His strength, daring and activity fitted him to shine in +operations largely composed of night marches, escalades, surprises and +hand-to-hand combats. The main scene of his achievements was in Italy, +and he betook himself to it--on his own showing--not in search of glory, +but because he had killed a relation of his own, Ruy Sanchez de Vargas, +in a street fight arising out of a quarrel about a horse. He fled to +Rome, then under the rule of the Borgias. Diego was a distant relation +to the cardinal of Santa Cruz (Carvajal), a favourite with Pope +Alexander VI., who was in conflict with the barons of the Romagna and +took Diego into his service. He remained a soldier of the pope till he +killed a man in a personal quarrel and found it necessary to pass over +to the enemy. Now he became acquainted with the Colonnas, who +appreciated his services. The wars between Ferdinand V. of Aragon (the +Catholic king) and Louis XII. gave him a more creditable opening. The +Spanish general Gonsalvo de Cordoba, who knew his value, employed him +and trusted him; and he took part in all the wars of Italy on the +frontier of Navarre, and once against the Turks on the Danube, till +1530. His countrymen made him the hero of many Munchausen-like stories +of personal prowess. It was said that he held a bridge single-handed +against 200 Frenchmen, that he stopped the wheel of a water-mill, and so +forth. In the "Brief Summary" of his life and deeds attributed to him, +and printed at the end of the _Chronicle of the Great Captain_, +published in 1584 at Alcala de Henares, he lays no claim to having done +more than was open to a very athletic man. He was killed at Bologna in +1534 by a fall while engaged in a jumping-match with some of the younger +officers of the army. His body was carried to his native town Trujillo, +and buried in the church of Santa Maria Mayor in 1545. + + + + +GARCIA GUTIERREZ, ANTONIO (1812-1884), Spanish dramatist, was born at +Chiclana (Cadiz) on the 5th of July 1812, and studied medicine in his +native town. In 1832 he removed to Madrid, and earned a scanty living by +translating plays of Scribe and the elder Dumas; despairing of success, +he was on the point of enlisting when he suddenly sprang into fame as +the author of _El Trovador_, which was played for the first time on the +1st of March 1836. Garcia Gutierrez never surpassed this first effort, +which placed him among the leaders of the romantic movement in Spain, +and which became known all over Europe through Verdi's music. His next +great success was _Simon Bocanegra_ (1843), but, as his plays were not +lucrative, he emigrated to Spanish America, working as a journalist in +Cuba and Mexico till 1850, when he returned to Spain. The best works of +his later period are a _zarzuela_ entitled _El Grumete_ (1853), _La +Venganza catalana_ (1864) and _Juan Lorenzo_ (1865). He became head of +the archaeological museum at Madrid, and died there on the 6th of August +1884. His _Poesias_ (1840) and another volume of lyrics, entitled _Luz y +tinieblas_ (1842), are unimportant; but the brilliant versification of +his plays, and his power of analysing feminine emotions, give him a +foremost place among the Spanish dramatists of the 19th century. + + + + +GARD, a department in the south of France, consisting of part of the old +province of Languedoc. Pop. (1906) 421,166. Area 2270 sq. m. It is +bounded N. by the departments of Lozere and Ardeche, E. by the Rhone, +which separates it from Vaucluse and Bouches-du-Rhone, S. by the +Mediterranean, S.W. by Herault and W. by Aveyron. Gard is divided into +three sharply-defined regions. Its north-western districts are occupied +by the range of the Cevennes, which on the frontier of Lozere attain a +height of 5120 ft. The whole of this region is celebrated for its +fruitful valleys, its gorges, its beautiful streams, its pastures, and +the chestnut, mulberry and other fruit trees with which the mountains +are often clothed to their summits. The Garrigues, a dry, hilly region +of limestone, which lends itself to the cultivation of cereals, the vine +and olive, stretches from the foot of the Cevennes over the centre of +the department, covering about half its area. The southern portion, +which extends to the sea, and was probably at one time covered by it, is +a low plain with numerous lakes and marshes. Though unhealthy, it is +prosperous, and comprises the best arable land and vineyards in Gard. + +Besides the Rhone, which bounds the department on the E., and the +Ardeche, the lower course of which forms part of its boundary on the N., +the principal rivers are the Ceze, Gard, Vidourle and Herault. The most +northern of these is the Ceze, which rises in the Cevennes, and after a +course of about 50 m. in an E.S.E. direction falls into the Rhone above +Roquemaure. The Gard, or Gardon, from which the department takes its +name, is also an affluent of the Rhone, and, rising in the Cevennes from +several sources, traverses the centre of the department, having a length +of about 60 m. In the upper part of its course it flows through a +succession of deep mountain gorges, and from the melting of the snows on +the Cevennes is subject to inundations, which often cause great damage. +Its waters not infrequently rise 18 or 20 ft. in a few hours, and its +bed is sometimes increased in width to nearly a mile. Near Remoulins it +is crossed by a celebrated Roman aqueduct--the Pont du Gard (see +AQUEDUCT). The Vidourle flows in a S.S.E. direction from its source near +Le Vigan, and after a course of about 50 m. falls into the sea. Below +Sommieres it forms the western boundary of the department. The Herault +has its source and part of its course in the west of Gard. The Canal de +Beaucaire extends from the Rhone at Beaucaire to Aigues-Mortes, which +communicates with the Mediterranean at Grau-du-Roi by means of the +Grand-Roubine canal. + +The climate is warm in the south-east, colder in the north-west; it is +rather changeable, and rain-storms are common. The cold and violent +north-west wind known as the mistral is its worst drawback. Les Fumades +(near Allegre) and Euzet have mineral springs. The chief grain crops are +wheat and oats. Rye, barley and potatoes are also grown. Gard is famed +for its cattle, its breed of small horses, and its sheep, the wool of +which is of a very fine quality. In the rearing of silk-worms it ranks +first among French departments. The principal fruit trees are the olive, +mulberry and chestnut. The vine is extensively cultivated and yields +excellent red and white wines. The department is rich in minerals, and +the mines of coal, iron, lignite, asphalt, zinc, lead and copper, which +are for the most part situated in the neighbourhoods of Alais and La +Grand'-Combe, constitute one of the chief sources of its wealth. Great +quantities of salt are obtained from the salt marshes along the coast. +The quarries of building and other stone employ a considerable number of +workmen. The fisheries are productive. The manufactures are extensive, +and include those of silk, of which Alais is the chief centre, cotton +and woollen fabrics, hosiery, ironware, hats (Anduze), liquorice, +gloves, paper, leather, earthenware and glass. There are also breweries +and distilleries, and important metallurgical works, the chief of which +are those of Besseges. The exports of Gard include coal, lignite, coke, +asphalt, building-stone, iron, steel, silk, hosiery, wine, olives, +grapes and truffles. + +The department is served by the Paris-Lyon railway. It is divided into +the arrondissements of Nimes, Alais, Uzes and Le Vigan, with 40 cantons +and 351 communes. The chief town is Nimes, which is the seat of a +bishopric of the province of Avignon and of a court of appeal. Gard +belongs to the 15th military region, which has its headquarters at +Marseilles, and to the academie (educational division) of Montpellier. +Nimes, Alais, Uzes, Aigues-Mortes, Beaucaire, Saint-Gilles, Besseges, La +Grand'-Combe and Villeneuve-les-Avignon are the principal places. +Opposite the manufacturing town of Pont-St-Esprit the Rhone is crossed +by a fine medieval bridge more than 1000 yds. long built by the Pontiff +brethren. Le Vigan, an ancient town with several old houses, carries on +silk-spinning. + + + + +GARDA, LAKE OF (the _Lacus Benacus_ of the Romans), the most easterly +and the most extensive of the great Lombard lakes, being only surpassed +in the Alpine region by those of Geneva and Constance. Save the extreme +northern extremity (Riva, which was secured from Venice by Tirol in +1517), the whole lake is Italian, being divided between the provinces of +Verona and Brescia. Its broad basin orographically represents the +southern portion of the valley of the Adige, though that river now flows +through a narrow trench which is separated from the lake by the long +narrow ridge of the Monte Baldo (7277 ft.). Nowadays the lake is fed by +the Sarca, that flows in at its north end from the glaciers of the +Adamello, while at the southern extremity of the lake the Mincio flows +out, on its way to join the Po. The area of the lake is about 143 sq. +m., its length is 32-1/4 m., its greatest breadth is about 10 m., the +height of its surface above sea-level is 216 ft. and the greatest depth +yet measured is 1916 ft. Its upper or northern end is narrow, but +between Garda (E.) and Salo (W.) the lake expands gradually into a +nearly circular basin, which at the southern extremity is divided into +two parts by the long low promontory of Sermione, that projects from the +southern shore between Peschiera and Desenzano. Owing to this +conformation the lake is much exposed to sudden and violent winds, which +Virgil alludes to in his well-known line (_Georg_. ii. line 160): +_fluctibus et fremitu assurgens, Benace, marino_. The most dangerous of +these winds is the _Borea_ or _Suer_, that sweeps down from the north as +through a funnel. In the southern portion of the lake the _Vinessa_, an +E.S.E. wind, is most dreaded. The _Ora_ is a regular wind coming from +the east which, on reaching the lake, blows from S. to N. The steep +grey limestone crags of Monte Baldo, on the eastern side of the lake, +contrast strongly with the rich vegetation on the western and southern +shores. The portion of the western shore that extends from Gargnano to +Salo is the most sheltered and warmest part of the region, so that not +merely does it resemble one continuous garden (producing lemons, figs, +mulberries, olives, &c.), but is frequented in winter, and has been +given the name of the _Riviera Benacense_. The lovely promontory of +Sermione, at the southern end of the lake, has also an extremely +luxuriant vegetation, while it contains many remains of buildings of +Roman and later date, having been the Sirmio of Catullus, who resided +here and celebrated its beauties in many of his poems. In 1827 a boat +with paddles set in motion by horses was put on the lake, but the first +steamer dates only from 1844. At the south end of the lake, E. and W. +respectively of the promontory of Sermione, are the towns of Peschiera +(14-1/4 m. by rail from Verona on the east) and of Desenzano (17-1/2 m. +by rail from Brescia on the west), which are 8-3/4 m. distant from each +other. On the west shore of the lake are Salo, Toscolano, Gargnano and +Limone, while the rugged east shore can boast only of Bardolino and +Garda. At the northern tip of the lake, and in Tirol, is Riva, the most +considerable town on the lake, and 15-1/2 m. by rail from the Mori +station on the main Brenner line. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +GARDANE, CLAUDE MATTHIEU, COUNT (1766-1818), French general and +diplomatist, was born on the 30th of January 1766. He entered the army +and rose rapidly during the revolutionary wars, becoming captain in 1793. +In May 1799 he distinguished himself by saving a division of the French +army which was about to be crushed by the Russians at the battle of +Bassignana, and was named at once brigadier-general by Moreau. He +incurred Napoleon's displeasure for an omission of duty shortly before +the battle of Marengo (June 14th, 1800), but in 1805 was appointed to be +aide-de-camp of the emperor. His chief distinction, however, was to be +won in the diplomatic sphere. In the spring of 1807, when Russia and +Prussia were at war with France, and the emperor Alexander I. of Russia +was also engaged in hostilities with Persia, the court of Teheran sent a +mission to the French emperor, then at the castle of Finkenstein in the +east of Prussia, with a view to the conclusion of a Franco-Persian +alliance. This was signed on the 4th of May 1807, at that castle; and +Napoleon designed Gardane as special envoy for the cementing of that +alliance. The secret instructions which he drew up for Gardane, and +signed on the 30th of May, are of interest as showing the strong oriental +trend of the emperor's policy. France was to guarantee the integrity of +Persia, to recognize that Georgia (then being invaded by the Russians) +belonged to the shah, and was to make all possible efforts for restoring +that territory to him. She was also to furnish to the shah arms, officers +and workmen, in the number and to the amount demanded by him. Napoleon on +his side required Persia to declare war against Great Britain, to expel +all Britons from her territory, and to come to an understanding with the +Afghans with a view to a joint Franco-Perso-Afghan invasion of India. +Gardane, whose family was well known in the Levant, had a long and +dangerous journey overland, but was cordially received at Teheran in +December 1807. The conclusion of the Franco-Russian treaty at Tilsit in +July 1807 rendered the mission abortive. Persia longed only for help +against Russia and had no desire, when all hope of that was past, to +attack India. The shah, however, promised to expel Britons and to grant +to France a commercial treaty. For a time French influence completely +replaced that of England at Teheran, and the mission of Sir John Malcolm +to that court was not allowed to proceed. Finally, however, Gardane saw +that nothing much was to be hoped for in the changed situation of +European affairs, and abruptly left the country (April 1809). This +conduct was not wholly approved by Napoleon, but he named him count and +in 1810 attached him to Massena's army in Portugal. There, during the +disastrous retreat from Santarem to Almeida, he suffered a check which +brought him into disfavour. The rest of his career calls for no notice. +He died in 1818. The report which he sent to Champagny (dated April +23rd, 1809) on the state of Persia and the prospects of a successful +invasion of India is of great interest. He admitted the difficulties of +this enterprise, but thought that a force of picked French troops, aided +by Persians and Afghans, might under favourable conditions penetrate into +India by way of Kandahar, or through Sind, especially if the British were +distracted by maritime attacks from Mauritius. + + See Count Alfred de Gardane, _Mission du general Gardane en Perse_ + (Paris, 1865); and P.A.L. de Driault, _La Politique orientale de + Napoleon: Sebastiani et Gardane_ (Paris, 1904). (J. Hl. R.) + + + + +GARDELEGEN, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the right bank of +the Milde, 20 m. W. from Stendal, on the main line of railway +Berlin-Hanover. Pop. (1905) 8193. It has a Roman Catholic and three +Evangelical churches, a hospital, founded in 1285, and a high-grade +school. There are considerable manufactures, notably agricultural +machinery and buttons, and its beer has a great repute. Gardelegen was +founded in the 10th century, and was for a long time the seat of a line +of counts. It suffered considerably in the Thirty Years' War, and in +1775 was burned by the French. On the neighbouring heath Margrave Louis +I. of Brandenburg gained, in 1343, a victory over Otto the Mild of +Brunswick. + + + + +GARDEN (from O. Fr. _gardin_, mod. Fr. _jardin_; this, like our words +"garth," a paddock attached to a building, and "yard," comes from a +Teutonic word for an enclosure which appears in Gothic as _gards_ and +O.H. Ger. _gart_, cf. Dutch _gaarde_ and Ger. _garten_), the ground +enclosed and cultivated for the growth of fruit, flowers or vegetables +(see HORTICULTURE). The word is also used for grounds laid out +ornamentally, used as places of public entertainment. Such were the +famous Ranelagh and Vauxhall Gardens in London; it is similarly used in +zoological gardens, and as a name in towns for squares, terraces or +streets. From the fact that Epicurus (q.v.) taught in the gardens at +Athens, the disciples of his school of philosophy were known as [Greek: +hoi apo ton kepon] (so Diog. Laertius x. 10); and Cicero (_De finibus_ +v. 1. 3, and elsewhere) speaks of the _Horti Epicuri_. Thus as the +"Academy" refers to the Platonic and the "Porch" ([Greek: stoa]) to the +Stoic school, so the "Garden" is the name given to the Epicurean school +of philosophy. Apollodorus was known as [Greek: kepotyrannos], the +tyrant of the garden. + + + + +GARDENIA, in botany, a genus of the natural order Rubiaceae, containing +about sixty species of evergreen trees and shrubs, natives of the warmer +parts of the old world. Several are grown in stoves or greenhouses for +their handsome, sweet-scented white flowers. The flowers are developed +singly at the end of a branch or in the leaf-axils, and are funnel- or +salver-shaped with a long tube. The double forms of _Gardenia florida_ +(a native of China) and _G. radicans_ (a native of Japan) are amongst +the most beautiful and highly perfumed of any in cultivation. Gardenias +are grown chiefly for cut flowers, and are readily propagated by +cuttings. They require plenty of heat and moisture in the growing +season, and must be kept free from insects such as the mealy bug, green +fly, red spider and scale-insect. + + + + +GARDINER, JAMES (1688-1745), Scottish soldier, was born at Carriden in +Linlithgowshire, on the 11th of January 1688. At the age of fourteen he +entered a Scottish regiment in the Dutch service, and was afterwards +present at the battle of Ramillies, where he was wounded. He +subsequently served in different cavalry regiments, and in 1730 was +advanced to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and in 1743 to that of +colonel. He fell at the battle of Prestonpans, the 21st of September +1745. The circumstances of his death are described in Sir Walter Scott's +_Waverley_. In his early years he was distinguished for his recklessness +and profligacy, but in 1719 a supernatural vision, as he regarded it, +led to his conversion, and from that time he lived a life of great +devoutness and of thorough consistency with his Christian profession. Dr +Alexander Carlyle of Inveresk, author of an autobiography, says that he +was "very ostentatious" about his conversion--speaks of him as weak, and +plainly thinks there was a great deal of delusion in Col. Gardiner's +account of his sins. + + His life was written by Dr Philip Doddridge and has been often + reprinted. + + + + +GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON (1829-1902), English historian, son of Rawson +Boddam Gardiner, was born near Alresford, Hants, on the 4th of March +1829. He was educated at Winchester and Christ Church, Oxford, where he +obtained a first class in _literae humaniores_. He was subsequently +elected to fellowships at All Souls (1884) and Merton (1892). For some +years he was professor of modern history at King's College, London, and +devoted his life to historical work. He is the historian of the Puritan +revolution, and has written its history in a series of volumes, +originally published under different titles, beginning with the +accession of James I.; the seventeenth (the third volume of the _History +of the Commonwealth and Protectorate_) appeared in 1901. This was +completed in two volumes by C.H. Firth as _The Last Years of the +Protectorate_ (1909). The series is _History of England from the +Accession of James I. to the Outbreak of the Civil War_, 1603-1642 (10 +vols.); _History of the Great Civil War_, 1642-1649 (4 vols.); and +_History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate, 1649-1660_. His treatment +is exhaustive and philosophical, taking in, along with political and +constitutional history, the changes in religion, thought and sentiment +during his period, their causes and their tendencies. Of the original +authorities on which his work is founded many of great value exist only +in manuscript, and his researches in public and private collections of +manuscripts at home, and in the archives of Simancas, Venice, Rome, +Brussels and Paris, were indefatigable and fruitful. His accuracy is +universally acknowledged. He was perhaps drawn to the Puritan period by +the fact of his descent from Cromwell and Ireton, but he has certainly +written of it with no other purpose than to set forth the truth. In his +judgments of men and their actions he is unbiassed, and his +appreciations of character exhibit a remarkable fineness of perception +and a broad sympathy. Among many proofs of these qualities it will be +enough to refer to what he says of the characters of James I., Bacon, +Laud, Strafford and Cromwell. On constitutional matters he writes with +an insight to be attained only by the study of political philosophy, +discussing in a masterly fashion the dreams of idealists and the schemes +of government proposed by statesmen. Throughout his work he gives a +prominent place to everything which illustrates human progress in moral +and religious, as well as political conceptions, and specially to the +rise and development of the idea of religious toleration, finding his +authorities not only in the words and actions of men of mark, but in the +writings of more or less obscure pamphleteers, whose essays indicate +currents in the tide of public opinion. His record of the relations +between England and other states proves his thorough knowledge of +contemporary European history, and is rendered specially valuable by his +researches among manuscript sources which have enabled him to expound +for the first time some intricate pieces of diplomacy. + +Gardiner's work is long and minute; the fifty-seven years which it +covers are a period of exceptional importance in many directions, and +the actions and characters of the principal persons in it demand careful +analysis. He is perhaps apt to attach an exaggerated importance to some +of the authorities which he was the first to bring to light, to see a +general tendency in what may only be the expression of an individual +eccentricity, to rely too much on ambassadors' reports which may have +been written for some special end, to enter too fully into the details +of diplomatic correspondence. In any case the length of his work is not +the result of verbiage or repetitions. His style is clear, absolutely +unadorned, and somewhat lacking in force; he appeals constantly to the +intellect rather than to the emotions, and is seldom picturesque, though +in describing a few famous scenes, such as the execution of Charles I., +he writes with pathos and dignity. The minuteness of his narrative +detracts from its interest; though his arrangement is generally good, +here and there the reader finds the thread of a subject broken by the +intrusion of incidents not immediately connected with it, and does not +pick it up again without an effort. And Gardiner has the defects of his +supreme qualities, of his fairness and critical ability as a judge of +character; his work lacks enthusiasm, and leaves the reader cold and +unmoved. Yet, apart from its sterling excellence, it is not without +beauties, for it is marked by loftiness of thought, a love of purity +and truth, and refinement in taste and feeling. He wrote other books, +mostly on the same period, but his great history is that by which his +name will live. It is a worthy result of a life of unremitting labour, a +splendid monument of historical scholarship. His position as an +historian was formally acknowledged: in 1862 he was given a civil list +pension of L150 per annum, "in recognition of his valuable contributions +to the history of England"; he was honorary D.C.L. of Oxford, LL.D. of +Edinburgh, and Ph.D. of Gottingen, and honorary student of Christ +Church, Oxford; and in 1894 he declined the appointment of regius +professor of modern history at Oxford, lest its duties should interfere +with the accomplishment of his history. He died on the 24th of February +1902. + + Among the more noteworthy of Gardiner's separate works are: _Prince + Charles and the Spanish Marriage_ (2 vols., London, 1869); + _Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution, 1625-1660_ (1st + ed., Oxford, 1889; 2nd ed., Oxford, 1899); _Oliver Cromwell_ (London, + 1901); _What Gunpowder Plot was_ (London, 1897); _Outline of English + History_ (1st ed., London, 1887; 2nd ed., London, 1896); and + _Student's History of England_ (2 vols., 1st ed., London, 1890-1891; + 2nd ed., London, 1891-1892). He edited collections of papers for the + Camden Society, and from 1891 was editor of the _English Historical + Review_. (W. Hu.) + + + + +GARDINER, STEPHEN (c. 1493-1555), English bishop and lord chancellor, +was a native of Bury St Edmunds. The date of his birth as commonly +given, 1483, seems to be about ten years too early, and surmises which +have passed current that he was some one's illegitimate child are of no +authority. His father is now known to have been John Gardiner, a +substantial cloth merchant of the town where he was born (see his will, +printed in _Proceedings of the Suffolk Archaeological Institute_, i. +329), who took care to give him a good education. In 1511 he, being then +a lad, met Erasmus at Paris (Nichols's _Epistles of Erasmus_, ii. 12, +13). But he had probably already been to Cambridge, where he studied at +Trinity Hall and greatly distinguished himself in the classics, +especially in Greek. He afterwards devoted himself to the canon and +civil law, in which subjects he attained so great a proficiency that no +one could dispute his pre-eminence. He received the degree of doctor of +civil law in 1520, and of canon law in the following year. + +Ere long his abilities attracted the notice of Cardinal Wolsey, who made +him his secretary, and in this capacity he is said to have been with him +at More Park in Hertfordshire, when the conclusion of the celebrated +treaty of the More brought Henry VIII. and the French ambassadors +thither. It is stated, and with great probability, that this was the +occasion on which he was first introduced to the king's notice, but he +does not appear to have been actively engaged in Henry's service till +three years later. In that of Wolsey he undoubtedly acquired a very +intimate knowledge of foreign politics, and in 1527 he and Sir Thomas +More were named commissioners on the part of England in arranging a +treaty with the French ambassadors for the support of an army in Italy +against the emperor. That year he accompanied Wolsey on his important +diplomatic mission to France, the splendour and magnificence of which +are so graphically described by Cavendish. Among the imposing train who +went with the cardinal--including, as it did, several noblemen and privy +councillors--Gardiner alone seems to have been acquainted with the real +heart of the matter which made this embassy a thing of such peculiar +moment. Henry was then particularly anxious to cement his alliance with +Francis I., and gain his co-operation as far as possible in the object +on which he had secretly set his heart--a divorce from Catherine of +Aragon. In the course of his progress through France he received orders +from Henry to send back his secretary Gardiner, or, as he was called at +court, Master Stevens, for fresh instructions; to which he was obliged +to reply that he positively could not spare him as he was the only +instrument he had in advancing the king's "secret matter." Next year +Gardiner, still in the service of Wolsey, was sent by him to Italy along +with Edward Fox, provost of King's College, Cambridge, to promote the +same business with the pope. His despatches on this occasion are still +extant, and whatever we may think of the cause on which he was engaged, +they certainly give a wonderful impression of the zeal and ability with +which he discharged his functions. Here his perfect familiarity with the +canon law gave him a great advantage. He was instructed to procure from +the pope a decretal commission, laying down principles of law by which +Wolsey and Campeggio might hear and determine the cause without appeal. +The demand, though supported by plausible pretexts, was not only unusual +but clearly inadmissible. Clement VII. was then at Orvieto, and had just +recently escaped from captivity at St Angelo at the hands of the +imperialists. But fear of offending the emperor could not have induced +him to refuse a really legitimate request from a king like Henry. He +naturally referred the question to the cardinals about him; with whom +Gardiner held long arguments, enforced, it would seem, by not a little +browbeating of the College. What was to be thought, he said, of a +spiritual guide, who either could not or would not show the wanderer his +way? The king and lords of England would be driven to think that God had +taken away from the Holy See the key of knowledge, and that pontifical +laws which were not clear to the pope himself might as well be committed +to the flames. + +This ingenious pleading, however, did not serve, and he was obliged to +be content with a general commission for Campeggio and Wolsey to try the +cause in England. This, as Wolsey saw, was quite inadequate for the +purpose in view; and he again instructed Gardiner, while thanking the +pope for the commission actually granted, to press him once more by very +urgent pleas, to send the desired decretal on, even if the latter was +only to be shown to the king and himself and then destroyed. Otherwise, +he wrote, he would lose his credit with the king, who might even be +tempted to throw off his allegiance to Rome altogether. At last the +pope--to his own bitter regret afterwards--gave what was desired on the +express conditions named, that Campeggio was to show it to the king and +Wolsey and no one else, and then destroy it, the two legates holding +their court under the general commission. After obtaining this Gardiner +returned home; but early in the following year, 1529, when proceedings +were delayed on information of the brief in Spain, he was sent once more +to Rome. This time, however, his efforts were unavailing. The pope would +make no further concessions, and would not even promise not to revoke +the cause to Rome, as he did very shortly after. + +Gardiner's services, however, were fully appreciated. He was appointed +the king's secretary. He had been already some years archdeacon of +Taunton, and the archdeaconry of Norfolk was added to it in March 1529, +which two years later he resigned for that of Leicester. In 1530 he was +sent to Cambridge to procure the decision of the university as to the +unlawfulness of marriage with a deceased brother's wife, in accordance +with the new plan devised for settling the question without the pope's +intervention. In this he succeeded, though not without a good deal of +artifice, more creditable to his ingenuity than to his virtue. In +November 1531 the king rewarded him for his services with the bishopric +of Winchester, vacant by Wolsey's death. The promotion was unexpected, +and was accompanied by expressions from the king which made it still +more honourable, as showing that if he had been in some things too +subservient, it was from no abject, self-seeking policy of his own. +Gardiner had, in fact, ere this remonstrated boldly with his sovereign +on some points, and Henry now reminded him of the fact. "I have often +_squared_ with you, Gardiner," he said familiarly, "but I love you never +the worse, as the bishopric I give will convince you." In 1532, +nevertheless, he excited some displeasure in the king by the part he +took in the preparation of the famous "Answer of the Ordinaries" to the +complaints brought against them in the House of Commons. On this subject +he wrote a very manly letter to the king in his own defence. + +His next important action was not so creditable; for he was, not +exactly, as is often said, one of Cranmer's assessors, but, according to +Cranmer's own expression, "assistant" to him as counsel for the king, +when the archbishop, in the absence of Queen Catherine, pronounced her +marriage with Henry null and void on the 23rd of May 1533. Immediately +afterwards he was sent over to Marseilles, where an interview between +the pope and Francis I. took place in September, of which event Henry +stood in great suspicion, as Francis was ostensibly his most cordial +ally, and had hitherto maintained the justice of his cause in the matter +of the divorce. It was at this interview that Bonner intimated the +appeal of Henry VIII. to a general council in case the pope should +venture to proceed to sentence against him. This appeal, and also one on +behalf of Cranmer presented with it, were of Gardiner's drawing up. In +1535 he and other bishops were called upon to vindicate the king's new +title of "Supreme Head of the Church of England." The result was his +celebrated treatise _De vera obedientia_, the ablest, certainly, of all +the vindications of royal supremacy. In the same year he had an +unpleasant dispute with Cranmer about the visitation of his diocese. He +was also employed to answer the pope's brief threatening to deprive +Henry of his kingdom. + +During the next few years he was engaged in various embassies in France +and Germany. He was indeed so much abroad that he had little influence +upon the king's councils. But in 1539 he took part in the enactment of +the severe statute of the Six Articles, which led to the resignation of +Bishops Latimer and Shaxton and the persecution of the Protestant party. +In 1540, on the death of Cromwell, earl of Essex, he was elected +chancellor of the university of Cambridge. A few years later he +attempted, in concert with others, to fasten a charge of heresy upon +Archbishop Cranmer in connexion with the Act of the Six Articles; and +but for the personal intervention of the king he would probably have +succeeded. He was, in fact, though he had supported the royal supremacy, +a thorough opponent of the Reformation in a doctrinal point of view, and +it was suspected that he even repented his advocacy of the royal +supremacy. He certainly had not approved of Henry's general treatment of +the church, especially during the ascendancy of Cromwell, and he was +frequently visited with storms of royal indignation, which he schooled +himself to bear with patience. In 1544 a relation of his own, named +German Gardiner, whom he employed as his secretary, was put to death for +treason in reference to the king's supremacy, and his enemies insinuated +to the king that he himself was of his secretary's way of thinking. But +in truth the king had need of him quite as much as he had of Cranmer; +for it was Gardiner, who even under royal supremacy, was anxious to +prove that England had not fallen away from the faith, while Cranmer's +authority as primate was necessary to upholding that supremacy. Thus +Gardiner and the archbishop maintained opposite sides of the king's +church policy; and though Gardiner was encouraged by the king to put up +articles against the archbishop himself for heresy, the archbishop could +always rely on the king's protection in the end. Heresy was gaining +ground in high places, especially after the king's marriage with +Catherine Parr; and there seems to be some truth in the story that the +queen herself was nearly committed for it at one time, when Gardiner, +with the king's approbation, censured some of her expressions in +conversation. In fact, just after her marriage, four men of the Court +were condemned at Windsor and three of them were burned. The fourth, who +was the musician Marbeck, was pardoned by Gardiner's procurement. + +Great as Gardiner's influence had been with Henry VIII., his name was +omitted at the last in the king's will, though Henry was believed to +have intended making him one of his executors. Under Edward VI. he was +completely opposed to the policy of the dominant party both in +ecclesiastical and in civil matters. The religious changes he objected +to both on principle and on the ground of their being moved during the +king's minority, and he resisted Cranmer's project of a general +visitation. His remonstrances, however, were met by his own committal to +the Fleet, and the visitation of his diocese was held during his +imprisonment. Though soon afterwards released, it was not long before he +was called before the council, and, refusing to give them satisfaction +on some points, was thrown into the Tower, where he continued during the +whole remainder of the reign, a period slightly over five years. During +this time he in vain demanded his liberty, and to be called before +parliament as a peer of the realm. His bishopric was taken from him and +given to Dr Poynet, a chaplain of Cranmer's who had not long before +been made bishop of Rochester. At the accession of Queen Mary, the duke +of Norfolk and other state prisoners of high rank were in the Tower +along with him; but the queen, on her first entry into London, set them +all at liberty. Gardiner was restored to his bishopric and appointed +lord chancellor, and he set the crown on the queen's head at her +coronation. He also opened her first parliament and for some time was +her leading councillor. + +He was now called upon, in advanced life, to undo not a little of the +work in which he had been instrumental in his earlier years--to +vindicate the legitimacy of the queen's birth and the lawfulness of her +mother's marriage, to restore the old religion, and to recant what he +himself had written touching the royal supremacy. It is said that he +wrote a formal _Palinodia_ or retractation of his book _De vera +obedientia_, but it does not seem to be now extant; and the reference is +probably to his sermon on Advent Sunday 1554, after Cardinal Pole had +absolved the kingdom from schism. As chancellor he had the onerous task +of negotiating the queen's marriage treaty with Philip, to which he +shared the general repugnance, though he could not oppose her will. In +executing it, however, he took care to make the terms as advantageous +for England as possible, with express provision that the Spaniards +should in nowise be allowed to interfere in the government of the +country. After the coming of Cardinal Pole, and the reconciliation of +the realm to the see of Rome, he still remained in high favour. How far +he was responsible for the persecutions which afterwards arose is a +debated question. He no doubt approved of the act, which passed the +House of Lords while he presided there as chancellor, for the revival of +the heresy laws. Neither is there any doubt that he sat in judgment on +Bishop Hooper, and on several other preachers whom he condemned, not +exactly to the flames, but to be degraded from the priesthood. The +natural consequence of this, indeed, was that when they declined, even +as laymen, to be reconciled to the Church, they were handed over to the +secular power to be burned. Gardiner, however, undoubtedly did his best +to persuade them to save themselves by a course which he conscientiously +followed himself; nor does it appear that, when placed on a commission +along with a number of other bishops to administer a severe law, he +could very well have acted otherwise than he did. In his own diocese no +victim of the persecution is known to have suffered till after his +death; and, much as he was already maligned by opponents, there are +strong evidences that his natural disposition was humane and generous. +In May 1553 he went over to Calais as one of the English commissioners +to promote peace with France; but their efforts were ineffectual. In +October 1555 he again opened parliament as lord chancellor, but towards +the end of the month he fell ill and grew rapidly worse till the 12th of +November, when he died over sixty years of age. + +Perhaps no celebrated character of that age has been the subject of so +much ill-merited abuse at the hands of popular historians. That his +virtue was not equal to every trial must be admitted, but that he was +anything like the morose and narrow-minded bigot he is commonly +represented there is nothing whatever to show. He has been called +ambitious, turbulent, crafty, abject, vindictive, bloodthirsty and a +good many other things besides, not quite in keeping with each other; in +addition to which it is roundly asserted by Bishop Burnet that he was +despised alike by Henry and by Mary, both of whom made use of him as a +tool. How such a mean and abject character submitted to remain five +years in prison rather than change his principles is not very clearly +explained; and as to his being despised, we have seen already that +neither Henry nor Mary considered him by any means despicable. The truth +is, there is not a single divine or statesman of that day whose course +throughout was so thoroughly consistent. He was no friend to the +Reformation, it is true, but he was at least a conscientious opponent. +In doctrine he adhered to the old faith from first to last, while as a +question of church policy, the only matter for consideration with him +was whether the new laws and ordinances were constitutionally +justifiable. + +His merits as a theologian it is unnecessary to discuss; it is as a +statesman and a lawyer that he stands conspicuous. But his learning +even in divinity was far from commonplace. The part that he was allowed +to take in the drawing up of doctrinal formularies in Henry VIII.'s time +is not clear; but at a later date he was the author of various tracts in +defence of the Real Presence against Cranmer, some of which, being +written in prison, were published abroad under a feigned name. +Controversial writings also passed between him and Bucer, with whom he +had several interviews in Germany, when he was there as Henry VIII.'s +ambassador. + +He was a friend of learning in every form, and took great interest +especially in promoting the study of Greek at Cambridge. He was, +however, opposed to the new method of pronouncing the language +introduced by Sir John Cheke, and wrote letters to him and Sir Thomas +Smith upon the subject, in which, according to Ascham, his opponents +showed themselves the better critics, but he the superior genius. In his +own household he loved to take in young university men of promise; and +many whom he thus encouraged became distinguished in after life as +bishops, ambassadors and secretaries of state. His house, indeed, was +spoken of by Leland as the seat of eloquence and the special abode of +the muses. + +He lies buried in his own cathedral at Winchester, where his effigy is +still to be seen. (J. Ga.) + + + + +GARDINER, a city of Kennebec county, Maine, U.S.A., at the confluence of +Cobbosseecontee river with the Kennebec, 6 m. below Augusta. Pop. (1890) +5491; (1900) 5501 (537 foreign-born); (1910) 5311. It is served by the +Maine Central railway. The site of the city is only a few feet above +sea-level, and the Kennebec is navigable for large vessels to this +point; the water of the Cobbosseecontee, falling about 130 ft. in a +mile, furnishes the city with good power for its manufactures (chiefly +paper, machine-shop products, and shoes). The city exports considerable +quantities of lumber and ice. Gardiner was founded in 1760 by Dr +Sylvester Gardiner (1707-1786), and for a time the settlement was called +Gardinerston; in 1779, when it was incorporated as a town, the founder +being then a Tory, it was renamed Pittston. But in 1803, when that part +of Pittston which lay on the W. bank of the Kennebec was incorporated as +a separate town and new life was given to it by the grandson of the +founder, the present name was adopted. Gardiner was chartered as a city +in 1849. The town of Pittston, on the E. bank of the Kennebec, had a +population of 1177 in 1900. + + + + +GARDNER, PERCY (1846- ), English classical archaeologist, was born in +London, and was educated at the City of London school and Christ's +College, Cambridge (fellow, 1872). He was Disney professor of +archaeology at Cambridge from 1880 to 1887, and was then appointed +professor of classical archaeology at Oxford, where he had a stimulating +influence on the study of ancient, and particularly Greek, art. He also +became prominent as an historical critic on Biblical subjects. Among his +works are: _Types of Greek Coins_ (1883); _A Numismatic Commentary on +Pausanias_ (with F. Imhoof-Blumer, 1887); _New Chapters in Greek +History_ (1892), an account of excavations in Greece and Asia Minor; +_Manual of Greek Antiquities_ (with F.B. Jevons, 2nd ed. 1898); _Grammar +of Greek Art_ (1905); _Exploratio Evangelica_ (1899), on the origin of +Christian belief; _A Historic View of the New Testament_ (1901); _Growth +of Christianity_ (1907). + +His brother, ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER (1862- ), educated at the City of +London school and Caius College, Cambridge (fellow, 1885), is also well +known as an archaeologist. From 1887 to 1895 he was director of the +British School of Archaeology at Athens, and later became professor of +archaeology at University College, London. His publications include: +_Introduction to Greek Epigraphy_ (1887); _Ancient Athens_ (1902); +_Handbook of Greek Sculpture_ (1905); _Six Greek Sculptors_ (1910). He +was elected first Public Orator of London University in 1910. + + + + +GARDNER, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop. +(1890) 8424; (1900) 10,813, of whom 3449 were foreign-born; (1910 +census) 14,699. The township is traversed by the Boston & Maine railway. +It has an area of 21.4 sq. m. of hill country, well watered with streams +and ponds, and includes the villages of Gardner (15 m. by rail W. of +Fitchburg), South Gardner and West Gardner. In the township are the +state colony for the insane, the Henry Heywood memorial hospital, and +the Levi Heywood memorial library (opened in 1886), a memorial to Levi +Heywood (1800-1882), a prominent local manufacturer of chairs, who +invented various kinds of chair-making machinery. By far the principal +industry of the township (dating from 1805) is the manufacture of +chairs, the township having in 1905 the largest chair factory in the +world; among the other manufactures are toys, baby-carriages, +silver-ware and oil stoves. In 1905 the total factory product of the +township was valued at $5,019,019, the furniture product alone amounting +to $4,267,064, or 85.2% of the total. Gardner, formed from parts of +Ashburnham, Templeton, Westminster and Winchenden, was incorporated in +1785, and was named in honour of Col. Thomas Gardner (1724-1775), a +patriot leader of Massachusetts, who was mortally wounded in the battle +of Bunker Hill. + + See W.D. Herrick, _History of the Town of Gardner_ (Gardner, 1878), + covering the years 1785-1878. + + + + +GARE-FOWL[1] (Icelandic, _Geirfugl_; Gaelic, _Gearbhul_), the anglicized +form of the Hebridean name of a large sea-bird now considered extinct, +formerly a visitor to certain remote Scottish islands, the Great Auk of +most English book-writers, and the _Alca impennis_ of Linnaeus. In size +it was hardly less than a tame goose, and in appearance it much +resembled its smaller and surviving relative the razor-bill (_Alca +torda_); but the glossy black of its head was varied by a large patch of +white occupying nearly all the space between the eye and the bill, in +place of the razor-bill's thin white line, while the bill itself bore +eight or more deep transverse grooves instead of the smaller number and +the ivory-like mark possessed by the species last named. Otherwise the +coloration was similar in both, and there is satisfactory evidence that +the gare-fowl's winter-plumage differed from that of the breeding-season +just as is ordinarily the case in other members of the family _Alcidae_ +to which it belongs. The most striking characteristic of the gare-fowl, +however, was the comparatively abortive condition of its wings, the +distal portions of which, though the bird was just about twice the +linear dimensions of the razor-bill, were almost exactly of the same +size as in that species--proving, if more direct evidence were wanting, +its inability to fly. + +[Illustration: Gare-Fowl, or Great Auk.] + +The most prevalent misconception concerning the gare-fowl is one which +has been repeated so often, and in books of such generally good repute +and wide dispersal, that a successful refutation seems almost hopeless. +This is the notion that it was a bird possessing a very high northern +range, and consequently to be looked for by Arctic explorers. How this +error arose would take too long to tell, but the fact remains +indisputable that, setting aside general assertions resting on no +evidence worthy of attention, there is but a single record deserving any +credit at all of a single example of the species having been observed +within the Arctic Circle, and this, according to Prof. Reinhardt, who +had the best means of ascertaining the truth, is open to grave doubt.[2] +It is clear that the older ornithologists let their imagination get the +better of their knowledge or their judgment, and their statements have +been blindly repeated by most of their successors. Another error which, +if not so widely spread, is at least as serious, since Sir R. Owen +unhappily gave it countenance, is that this bird "has not been specially +hunted down like the dodo and dinornis, but by degrees has become more +scarce." If any reliance can be placed upon the testimony of former +observers, the first part of this statement is absolutely untrue. Of the +dodo all we know is that it flourished in Mauritius, its only abode, at +the time the island was discovered, and that some 200 years later it had +ceased to exist--the mode of its extinction being open to conjecture, +and a strong suspicion existing that though indirectly due to man's acts +it was accomplished by his thoughtless agents (_Phil. Trans._, 1869, p. +354). The extinction of the _Dinornis_ lies beyond the range of recorded +history. Supposing it even to have taken place at the very latest period +as yet suggested--and there is much to be urged in favour of such a +supposition--little but oral tradition remains to tell us how its +extirpation was effected. That it existed after New Zealand was +inhabited by man is indeed certain, and there is nothing extraordinary +in the proved fact that the early settlers (of whatever race they were) +killed and ate moas. But evidence that the whole population of those +birds was done to death by man, however likely it may seem, is wholly +wanting. The contrary is the case with the gare-fowl. In Iceland there +is the testimony of a score of witnesses, taken down from their lips by +one of the most careful naturalists who ever lived, John Wolley, that +the latest survivors of the species were caught and killed by +expeditions expressly organized with the view of supplying the demands +of caterers to the various museums of Europe. In like manner the fact is +incontestable that its breeding-stations in the western part of the +Atlantic were for three centuries regularly visited and devastated with +the combined objects of furnishing food or bait to the fishermen from +very early days, and its final extinction, according to Sir Richard +Bonnycastle (_Newfoundland in 1842_, i. p. 232), was owing to "the +ruthless trade in its eggs and skin." There is no doubt that one of the +chief stations of this species in Icelandic waters disappeared through +volcanic action, and that the destruction of the old Geirfuglasker drove +some at least of the birds which frequented it to a rock nearer the +mainland, where they were exposed to danger from which they had in their +former abode been comparatively free; yet on this rock (Eldey = +fire-island) they were "specially hunted down" whenever opportunity +offered, until the stock there was wholly extirpated in 1844. + +A third misapprehension is that entertained by John Gould in his _Birds +of Great Britain_, where he says that "formerly this bird was plentiful +in all the northern parts of the British Islands, particularly the +Orkneys and the Hebrides. At the commencement of the 19th century, +however, its fate appears to have been sealed; for though it doubtless +existed, and probably bred, up to the year 1830, its numbers annually +diminished until they became so few that the species could not hold its +own." Now of the Orkneys, we know that George Low, who died in 1795, +says in his posthumously-published _Fauna Orcadensis_ that he could not +find it was ever seen there; and on Bullock's visit in 1812 he was told, +says Montagu (_Orn. Dict. App._), that one male only had made its +appearance for a long time. This bird he saw and unsuccessfully hunted, +but it was killed soon after his departure, while its mate had been +killed just before his arrival, and none have been seen there since. As +to the Hebrides, St Kilda is the only locality recorded for it, and the +last example known to have been obtained there, or in its neighbourhood, +was that given to Fleming (_Edinb. Phil. Journ._ x. p. 96) in 1821 or +1822, having been some time before captured by Mr Maclellan of Glass. +That the gare-fowl was not plentiful in either group of islands is +sufficiently obvious, as also is the impossibility of its continuing to +breed "up to the year 1830." + +But mistakes like these are not confined to British authors. As on the +death of an ancient hero myths gathered round his memory as quickly as +clouds round the setting sun, so have stories, probable as well as +impossible, accumulated over the true history of this species, and it +behoves the conscientious naturalist to exercise more than common +caution in sifting the truth from the large mass of error. Americans +have asserted that the specimen which belonged to Audubon (now at Vassar +College) was obtained by him on the banks of Newfoundland, though there +is Macgillivray's distinct statement (_Brit. Birds_, v. p. 359) that +Audubon procured it in London. The account given by Degland (_Orn. +Europ._ ii. p. 529) in 1849, and repeated in the last edition of his +work by M. Gerbe, of its extinction in Orkney, is so manifestly absurd +that it deserves to be quoted in full: "Il se trouvait en assez grand +nombre il y a une quinzaine d'annees aux Orcades; mais le ministre +presbyterien dans le Mainland, en offrant une forte prime aux personnes +qui lui apportaient cet oiseau, a ete cause de sa destruction sur ces +iles." The same author claims the species as a visitor to the shores of +France on the testimony of Hardy (_Annuaire normand_, 1841, p. 298), +which he grievously misquotes both in his own work and in another place +(_Naumannia_, 1855, p. 423), thereby misleading an anonymous English +writer (_Nat. Hist. Rev._, 1865, p. 475) and numerous German readers. + +John Milne in 1875 visited Funk Island, one of the former resorts of the +gare-fowl, or "penguin," as it was there called, in the Newfoundland +seas, a place where bones had before been obtained by Stuvitz, and +natural mummies so lately as 1863 and 1864. Landing on this rock at the +risk of his life, he brought off a rich cargo of its remains, belonging +to no fewer than fifty birds, some of them in size exceeding any that +had before been known. His collection was subsequently dispersed, most +of the specimens finding their way into various public museums. + + A literature by no means inconsiderable has grown up respecting the + gare-fowl. Neglecting works of general bearing, few of which are + without many inaccuracies, the following treatises may be especially + mentioned:--J.J.S. Steenstrup, "Et Bidrag til Geirfuglens + Naturhistorie og saerligt til Kundskaben om dens tidligere + Udbredningskreds," _Naturh. Foren. Vidensk. Meddelelser_ (Copenhagen, + 1855), p. 33; E. Charlton, "On the Great Auk," _Trans. Tyneside Nat. + Field Club_, iv. p. 111; "Abstract of Mr J. Wolley's Researches in + Iceland respecting the Gare-fowl," _Ibis_ (1861), p. 374; W. Preyer, + "_Uber Plautus impennis_," _Journ. fur Orn._ (1862), pp. 110, 337; + K.E. von Baer, "Uber das Aussterben der Tierarten in physiologischer + und nicht physiologischer Hinsicht," _Bull. de l'Acad. Imp. de + St-Petersb._ vi. p. 513; R. Owen, "Description of the Skeleton of the + Great Auk," _Trans. Zool. Soc._ v. p. 317; "The Gare-fowl and its + Historians," _Nat. Hist. Rev._ v. p. 467; J.H. Gurney, jun., "On the + Great Auk," _Zoologist_ (2nd ser.), pp. 1442, 1639; H. Reeks, "Great + Auk in Newfoundland," &c., _op. cit._ p. 1854; V. Fatio, "Sur l'Alca + impennis," _Bull. Soc. Orn. Suisse_, ii. pp. 1, 80, 147; "On existing + Remains of the Gare-fowl," _Ibis_ (1870), p. 256; J. Milne, "Relics of + the Great Auk," _Field_ (27th of March, 3rd and 10th of April 1875). + Lastly, reference cannot be omitted to the happy exercise of poetic + fancy with which Charles Kingsley was enabled to introduce the chief + facts of the gare-fowl's extinction (derived from one of the + above-named papers) into his charming _Water Babies_. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The name first appears, and in this form, in the _Account of + Hirta_ (St Kilda) _and Rona, &c._, by the lord register, Sir George + M'Kenzie, of Tarbat, printed by Pinkerton in his _Collection of + Voyages and Travels_ (iii. p. 730), and then in Sibbald's _Scotia + illustrata_ (1684). Martin soon after, in his _Voyage to St Kilda_, + spelt it "Gairfowl." Sir R. Owen adopted the form "garfowl," without, + as would seem, any precedent authority. + + [2] The specimen is in the Museum of Copenhagen; the doubt lies as to + the locality where it was obtained, whether at Disco, which is + within, or at the Fiskernas, which is without, the Arctic Circle. + + + + +GARFIELD, JAMES ABRAM (1831-1881), twentieth president of the United +States, was born on the 19th of November 1831 in a log cabin in the +little frontier town of Orange, Cuyahoga county, Ohio. His early years +were spent in the performance of such labour as fell to the lot of +every farmer's son in the new states, and in the acquisition of such +education as could be had in the district schools held for a few weeks +each winter. But life on a farm was not to his liking, and at sixteen he +left home and set off to make a living in some other way. A book of +stories of adventure on the sea, which he read over and over again when +a boy, had filled him with a longing for a seafaring life. He decided, +therefore, to become a sailor, and, in 1848, tramping across the country +to Cleveland, Ohio, he sought employment from the captain of a lake +schooner. But the captain drove him from the deck, and, wandering on in +search of work, he fell in with a canal boatman who engaged him. During +some months young Garfield served as bowsman, deck-hand and driver of a +canal boat. An attack of the ague sent him home, and on recovery, having +resolved to attend a high school and fit himself to become a teacher, he +passed the next four years in a hard struggle with poverty and in an +earnest effort to secure an education, studying for a short time in the +Geauga Seminary at Chester, Ohio. He worked as a teacher, a carpenter +and a farmer; studied for a time at the Western Reserve Eclectic +Institute at Hiram, Ohio, which afterward became Hiram College, and +finally entered Williams College. On graduation, in 1856, Garfield +became professor of ancient languages and literature in the Eclectic +Institute at Hiram, and within a year had risen to the presidency of the +institution. + +Soon afterwards he entered political life. In the early days of the +Republican party, when the shameful scenes of the Kansas struggle were +exciting the whole country, and during the campaigns of 1857 and 1858, +he became known as an effective speaker and ardent anti-slavery man. His +reward for his services was election in 1859 to the Ohio Senate as the +member from Portage and Summit counties. When the "cotton states" +seceded, Garfield appeared as a warm supporter of vigorous measures. He +was one of the six Ohio senators who voted against the proposed +amendment to the Federal Constitution (Feb. 28th, 1861) forbidding any +constitutional amendment which should give Congress the power to abolish +or interfere with slavery in any state; he upheld the right of the +government to coerce seceded states; defended the "Million War Bill" +appropriating a million dollars for the state's military expenses; and +when the call came for 75,000 troops, he moved that Ohio furnish 20,000 +soldiers and three millions of dollars as her share. He had just been +admitted to the bar, but on the outbreak of war he at once offered his +services to the governor, and became lieutenant-colonel and then colonel +of the 42nd Ohio Volunteers, recruited largely from among his former +students. He served in Kentucky, was promoted to the rank of +brigadier-general of volunteers early in 1862; took part in the second +day's fighting at the battle of Shiloh, served as chief of staff under +Rosecrans in the Army of the Cumberland in 1863, fought at Chickamauga, +and was made a major-general of volunteers for gallantry in that battle. +In 1862 he was elected a member of Congress from the Ashtabula district +of Ohio, and, resigning his military commission, took his seat in the +House of Representatives in December 1863. In Congress he joined the +radical wing of the Republican party, advocated the confiscation of +Confederate property, approved and defended the Wade-Davis manifesto +denouncing the tameness of Lincoln, and was soon recognized as a hard +worker and ready speaker. Capacity for work brought him places on +important committees--he was chairman successively of the committee on +military affairs, the committee on banking and currency, and the +committee on appropriations,--and his ability as a speaker enabled him +to achieve distinction on the floor of the House and to rise to +leadership. Between 1863 and 1873 Garfield delivered speeches of +importance on "The Constitutional Amendment to abolish Slavery," "The +Freedman's Bureau," "The Reconstruction of the Rebel States," "The +Public Debt and Specie Payments," "Reconstruction," "The Currency," +"Taxation of United States Bonds," "Enforcing the 14th Amendment," +"National Aid to Education," and "the Right to Originate Revenue Bills." +The year 1874 was one of disaster to the Republican party. The greenback +issue, the troubles growing out of reconstruction in the South, the +Credit Mobilier and the "Salary Grab," disgusted thousands of +independent voters and sent a wave of Democracy over the country. +Garfield himself was accused of corruption in connexion with the Credit +Mobilier scandal, but the charge was never proved. A Republican +convention in his district demanded his resignation, and re-election +seemed impossible; but he defended himself in two pamphlets, "Increase +of Salaries" and "Review of the Transactions of the Credit Mobilier +Company," made a village-to-village canvass, and was victorious. In 1876 +Garfield for the eighth time was chosen to represent his district; and +afterwards as one of the two representatives of the Republicans in the +House, he was a member of the Electoral Commission which decided the +dispute regarding the presidential election of 1876. When, in 1877, +James G. Blaine was made a senator from Maine, the leadership of the +House of Representatives passed to Garfield, and he became the +Republican candidate for speaker. But the Democrats had a majority in +the House, and he was defeated. Hayes, the new president, having chosen +John Sherman to be his secretary of the treasury, an effort was made to +send Garfield to the United States Senate in Sherman's place. But the +president needed his services in the House, and he was not elected to +the Senate until 1880. + +The time had now come (1880) when the Republican party must nominate a +candidate for the presidency. General Grant had served two terms +(1869-1877), and the unwritten law of custom condemned his being given +another. But the "bosses" of the Republican party in three great +States--New York, Pennsylvania and Illinois--were determined that he +should be renominated. These men and their followers were known as the +"stalwarts." Opposed to them were two other factions, one supporting +James G. Blaine, of Maine, and the other John Sherman, of Ohio. When the +convention met and the balloting began, the contest along these +factional lines started in earnest. For eight-and-twenty ballots no +change of any consequence was noticeable. Though votes were often cast +for ten names, there were but two real candidates before the convention, +Grant and Blaine. That the partisans of neither would yield in favour of +the other was certain. That the choice therefore rested with the +supporters of the minor candidates was manifest, and with the cry +"Anything to beat Grant!" an effort was made to find some man on whom +the opposition could unite. Such a man was Garfield. His long term of +service in the House, his leadership of his party on its floor, his +candidacy for the speakership, and his recent election to the United +States Senate, marked him out as the available man. Between the casting +of the first and the thirty-third ballot, Garfield, who was the leader +of Sherman's adherents in the convention, had sometimes received one or +two votes and at other times none. On the thirty-fourth he received +seventeen, on the next fifty, and on the next almost the entire vote +hitherto cast for Blaine and Sherman, and was declared nominated. During +the campaign Garfield was subject to violent personal abuse; the fact +that he was alleged to have received $329 from the Credit Mobilier as a +dividend on stock led his opponents to raise the campaign cry of "329," +and this number was placarded in the streets of the cities and printed +in flaring type in partisan newspapers. The forged "Morey letter," in +which he was made to appear as opposed to the exclusion of the Chinese, +was widely circulated and injured his candidacy in the West. That the +charges against Garfield were not generally credited, however, is shown +by the fact that he received 214 electoral votes to his opponent's 155. +He was inaugurated on the 4th of March 1881. + +Unfortunately, the new president was unequal to the task of composing +the differences in his party. For his secretary of state he chose James +G. Blaine, the bitterest political enemy of Senator Roscoe Conkling +(q.v.), the leader of the New York "stalwarts." Without consulting the +New York senators, Garfield appointed William H. Robertson, another +political enemy of Conkling's, to the desirable post of Collector of the +Port of New York, and thereby destroyed all prospects of party harmony. +On the 2nd of July, while on his way to attend the commencement +exercises at Williams College, the new president was shot in a +Washington railway station by a disappointed office-seeker named Charles +J. Guiteau, whose mind had no doubt been somewhat influenced by the +abuse lavished upon the president by his party opponents; and on the +19th of September 1881, he died at Elberon, New Jersey, whither he had +been removed on the 6th. He was buried in Cleveland, Ohio, where in 1890 +a monument was erected by popular subscription to his memory. + +In 1858 Garfield had married Miss Lucretia Rudolph, by whom he had seven +children. His son, HARRY AUGUSTUS GARFIELD (b. 1863) graduated at +Williams College in 1885, practised law in Cleveland, Ohio, in +1888-1903, was professor of politics at Princeton University in +1903-1908, and in 1908 became president of Williams College. Another +son, JAMES RUDOLPH GARFIELD (b. 1865), also graduated at Williams +College in 1885 and practised law in Cleveland; he was a Republican +member of the Ohio Senate in 1896-1899, was commissioner of +corporations, Department of Commerce and Labour, in 1903-1907, +attracting wide attention by his reports on certain large industrial +organizations, and was secretary of the interior (1907-1909) in the +cabinet of President Roosevelt. + + President Garfield's writings, edited by Burke A. Hinsdale, were + published at Boston, in two volumes, in 1882. (J. B. McM.) + + + + +GAR-FISH, the name given to a genus of fishes (_Belone_) found in nearly +all the temperate and tropical seas, and readily recognized by their +long, slender, compressed and silvery body, and by their jaws being +produced into a long, pointed, bony and sharply-toothed beak. About +fifty species are known from different parts of the globe, some +attaining to a length of 4 or 5 ft. One species is common on the British +coasts, and is well known by the names of "long-nose," "green-bone," &c. +The last name is given to those fishes on account of the peculiar green +colour of their bones, which deters many people from eating them, +although their flesh is well flavoured and perfectly wholesome. The +skipper (_Scomberesox_) and half-beak (_Hemirhamphus_), in which the +lower jaw only is prolonged, are fishes nearly akin to the gar-pikes. + + + + +GARGANEY[1] (North-Italian, _Garganello_), or SUMMER-TEAL, the _Anas +querquedula_ and _A. circia_ of Linnaeus (who made, as did Willughby and +Ray, two species out of one), and the type of Stephens's genus +_Querquedula_. This bird is one of the smallest of the _Anatidae_, and +has gained its common English name from being almost exclusively a +summer-visitant to England where nowadays it only regularly resorts to +breed in some of the East-Norfolk Broads, though possibly at one time it +was found at the same season throughout the great Fen-district. Slightly +larger than the common teal (_A. crecca_), the male is readily +distinguished therefrom by its peculiarly-coloured head, the sides of +which are nutmeg-brown, closely freckled with short whitish streaks, +while a conspicuous white curved line descends backwards from the eyes. +The upper wing-coverts are bluish grey, the scapulars black with a white +shaft-stripe, and the wing-spot (_speculum_) greyish green bordered +above and below by white. The female closely resembles the hen teal, but +possesses no wing-spot. In Ireland or Scotland the garganey is very +rare, and though it is recorded from Iceland, more satisfactory evidence +of its occurrence there is needed. It has not a high northern range, and +its appearance in Norway and Sweden is casual. Though it breeds in many +parts of Europe, in none can it be said to be common; but it ranges far +to the eastward in Asia--even to Formosa, according to Swinhoe--and +yearly visits India in winter in enormous numbers. Those that breed in +Norfolk arrive somewhat late in spring and make their nests in the vast +reed-beds which border the Broads--a situation rarely or never chosen by +the teal. The labyrinth or bony enlargement of the trachea in the male +garganey differs in form from that described in any other drake, being +more oval and placed nearly in the median line of the windpipe, instead +of on one side, as is usually the case. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The word was introduced by Willughby from Gesner (_Orn._, lib. + iii. p. 127), but, though generally adopted by authors, seems never + to have become other than a book-name in English, the bird being + invariably known in the parts of this island where it is indigenous + as "summer-teal." + + + + +GARGANO, MONTE (anc. _Garganus Mons_), a massive mountainous peninsula +projecting E. from the N. coast of Apulia, Italy, and belonging +geologically to the opposite Dalmatian coast; it was indeed separated +from the rest of Italy by an arm of the sea as late as the Tertiary +period. The highest point (Monte Calvo) is 3465 ft. above sea-level. The +oak forests for which it was renowned in Roman times have entirely +disappeared. + + + + +GARGOYLE, or GURGOYLE (from the Fr. _gargouille_, originally the throat +or gullet, cf. Lat. _gurgulio_, _gula_, and similar words derived from +root _gar_, to swallow, the word representing the gurgling sound of +water; Ital. _doccia di grande_; Ger. _Ausguss_), in architecture, the +carved termination to a spout which conveys away the water from the +gutters. Gargoyles are mostly grotesque figures. The term is applied +more especially to medieval work, but throughout all ages some means of +throwing the water off the roofs, when not conveyed in gutters, has been +adopted, and in Egypt there are gargoyles to eject the water used in the +washing of the sacred vessels which would seem to have been done on the +flat roofs of the temples. In Greek temples the water from the roof +passed through the mouths of lions whose heads were carved or modelled +in the marble or terra-cotta cymatium of the cornice. At Pompeii large +numbers of terra-cotta gargoyles have been found which were modelled in +the shape of various animals. + + + + +GARHWAL, or GURWAL. 1. A district of British India, in the Kumaon +division of the United Provinces. It has an area of 5629 sq. m., and +consists almost entirely of rugged mountain ranges running in all +directions, and separated by narrow valleys which in some cases become +deep gorges or ravines. The only level portion of the district is a +narrow strip of waterless forest between the southern slopes of the +hills and the fertile plains of Rohilkhand. The highest mountains are in +the north, the principal peaks being Nanda Devi (25,661 ft.), Kamet +(25,413), Trisul (23,382), Badrinath (23,210), Dunagiri (23,181) and +Kedarnath (22,853). The Alaknanda, one of the main sources of the +Ganges, receives with its affluents the whole drainage of the district. +At Devaprayag the Alaknanda joins the Bhagirathi, and thenceforward the +united streams bear the name of the Ganges. Cultivation is principally +confined to the immediate vicinity of the rivers, which are employed for +purposes of irrigation. Garhwal originally consisted of 52 petty +chieftainships, each chief with his own independent fortress (_garh_). +Nearly 500 years ago, one of these chiefs, Ajai Pal, reduced all the +minor principalities under his own sway, and founded the Garhwal +kingdom. He and his ancestors ruled over Garhwal and the adjacent state +of Tehri, in an uninterrupted line till 1803, when the Gurkhas invaded +Kumaon and Garhwal, driving the Garhwal chief into the plains. For +twelve years the Gurkhas ruled the country with a rod of iron, until a +series of encroachments by them on British territory led to the war with +Nepal in 1814. At the termination of the campaign, Garhwal and Kumaon +were converted into British districts, while the Tehri principality was +restored to a son of the former chief. Since annexation, Garhwal has +rapidly advanced in material prosperity. Pop. (1901) 429,900. Two +battalions of the Indian army (the 39th Garhwal Rifles) are recruited in +the district, which also contains the military cantonment of Lansdowne. +Grain and coarse cloth are exported, and salt, borax, live-stock and +wool are imported, the trade with Tibet being considerable. The +administrative headquarters are at the village of Pauri, but Srinagar is +the largest place. This is an important mart, as is also Kotdwara, the +terminus of a branch of the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway from Najibabad. + +2. A native state, also known as Tehri, after its capital; area 4180 sq. +m.; pop. (1901) 268,885. It adjoins the district mentioned above, and +its topographical features are similar. It contains the sources of both +the Ganges and the Jumna, which are visited by thousands of Hindu +pilgrims. The gross revenue is about L28,000, of which nearly half is +derived from forests. No tribute is paid to the British government. + + + + +GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE (1807-1882), Italian patriot, was born at Nice on +the 4th of July 1807. As a youth he fled from home to escape a clerical +education, but afterwards joined his father in the coasting trade. After +joining the "Giovine Italia" he entered the Sardinian navy, and, with a +number of companions on board the frigate "Euridice," plotted to seize +the vessel and occupy the arsenal of Genoa at the moment when Mazzini's +Savoy expedition should enter Piedmont. The plot being discovered, +Garibaldi fled, but was condemned to death by default on the 3rd of June +1834. Escaping to South America in 1836, he was given letters of marque +by the state of Rio Grande do Sul, which had revolted against Brazil. +After a series of victorious engagements he was taken prisoner and +subjected to severe torture, which dislocated his limbs. Regaining +liberty, he renewed the war against Brazil, and took Porto Allegro. +During the campaign he met his wife, Anita, who became his inseparable +companion and mother of three children, Anita, Ricciotti and Menotti. +Passing into the service of Uruguay, he was sent to Corrientes with a +small flotilla to oppose Rosas's forces, but was overtaken by Admiral +Brown, against whose fleet he fought for three days. When his ammunition +was exhausted he burned his ships and escaped. Returning to Montevideo, +he formed the Italian Legion, with which he won the battles of Cerro and +Sant' Antonio in the spring of 1846, and assured the freedom of Uruguay. +Refusing all honours and recompense, he prepared to return to Italy upon +receiving news of the incipient revolutionary movement. In October 1847 +he wrote to Pius IX., offering his services to the Church, whose cause +he for a moment believed to be that of national liberty. + +Landing at Nice on the 24th of June 1848, he placed his sword at the +disposal of Charles Albert, and, after various difficulties with the +Piedmontese war office, formed a volunteer army 3000 strong, but shortly +after taking the field was obliged, by the defeat of Custozza, to flee +to Switzerland. Proceeding thence to Rome, he was entrusted by the Roman +republic with the defence of San Pancrazio against the French, where he +gained the victory of the 30th of April 1849, remaining all day in the +saddle, although wounded in the side at the beginning of the fight. From +the 3rd of May until the 30th of May he was continuously engaged against +the Bourbon troops at Palestrina, Velletri and elsewhere, dispersing an +army of 20,000 men with 3000 volunteers. After the fall of Rome he left +the city at the head of 4000 volunteers, with the idea of joining the +defenders of Venice, and started on that wonderful retreat through +central Italy pursued by the armies of France, Austria, Spain and +Naples. By his consummate generalship and the matchless endurance of his +men the pursuers were evaded and San Marino reached, though with a sadly +diminished force. Garibaldi and a few followers, including his devoted +wife Anita, after vainly attempting to reach Venice, where the tricolor +still floated, took refuge in the pine forests of Ravenna; the Austrians +were seeking him in all directions, and most of his legionaries were +captured and shot. Anita died near Comacchio, and he himself fled across +the peninsula, being assisted by all classes of the people, to Tuscany, +whence he escaped to Piedmont and ultimately to America. At New York, in +order to earn a living, he became first a chandler, and afterwards a +trading skipper, returning to Italy in 1854 with a small fortune, and +purchasing the island of Caprera, on which he built the house +thenceforth his home. On the outbreak of war in 1859 he was placed in +command of the Alpine infantry, defeating the Austrians at Casale on the +8th of May, crossing the Ticino on the 23rd of May, and, after a series +of victorious fights, liberating Alpine territory as far as the frontier +of Tirol. When about to enter Austrian territory proper his advance was, +however, checked by the armistice of Villafranca. + +Returning to Como to wed the countess Raimondi, by whom he had been +aided during the campaign, he was apprised, immediately after the +wedding, of certain circumstances which caused him at once to abandon +that lady and to start for central Italy. Forbidden to invade the +Romagna, he returned indignantly to Caprera, where with Crispi and +Bertani he planned the invasion of Sicily. Assured by Sir James Hudson +of the sympathy of England, he began active preparations for the +expedition to Marsala. At the last moment he hesitated, but Crispi +succeeded in persuading him to sail from Genoa on the 5th of May 1860 +with two vessels carrying a volunteer corps of 1070 strong. Calling at +Talamone to embark arms and money, he reached Marsala on the 11th of +May, and landed under the protection of the British vessels "Intrepid" +and "Argus." On the 12th of May the dictatorship of Garibaldi was +proclaimed at Salemi, on the 15th of May the Neapolitan troops were +routed at Calatafimi, on the 25th of May Palermo was taken, and on the +6th of June 20,000 Neapolitan regulars, supported by nine frigates and +protected by two forts, were compelled to capitulate. Once established +at Palermo, Garibaldi organized an army to liberate Naples and march +upon Rome, a plan opposed by the emissaries of Cavour, who desired the +immediate annexation of Sicily to the Italian kingdom. Expelling +Lafarina and driving out Depretis, who represented Cavour, Garibaldi +routed the Neapolitans at Milazzo on the 20th of July. Messina fell on +the 20th of July, but Garibaldi, instead of crossing to Calabria, +secretly departed for Aranci Bay in Sardinia, where Bertani was fitting +out an expedition against the papal states. Cavour, however, obliged the +expedition to sail for Palermo. Returning to Messina, Garibaldi found a +letter from Victor Emmanuel II. dissuading him from invading the kingdom +of Naples. Garibaldi replied asking "permission to disobey." Next day he +crossed the Strait, won the battle of Reggio on the 21st of August, +accepted the capitulation of 9000 Neapolitan troops at San Giovanni and +of 11,000 more at Soveria. The march upon Naples became a triumphal +progress, which the wiles of Francesco II. were powerless to arrest. On +the 7th of September Garibaldi entered Naples, while Francesco fled to +Gaeta. On the 1st of October he routed the remnant of the Bourbon army +40,000 strong on the Volturno. Meanwhile the Italian troops had occupied +the Marches, Umbria and the Abruzzi, a battalion of Bersaglieri reaching +the Volturno in time to take part in the battle. Their presence put an +end to the plan for the invasion of the papal states, and Garibaldi +unwillingly issued a decree for the _plebiscite_ which was to sanction +the incorporation of the Two Sicilies in the Italian realm. On the 7th +of November Garibaldi accompanied Victor Emmanuel during his solemn +entry into Naples, and on the morrow returned to Caprera, after +disbanding his volunteers and recommending their enrolment in the +regular army. + +Indignation at the cession of Nice to France and at the neglect of his +followers by the Italian government induced him to return to political +life. Elected deputy in 1861, his anger against Cavour found violent +expression. Bixio attempted to reconcile them, but the publication by +Cialdini of a letter against Garibaldi provoked a hostility which, but +for the intervention of the king, would have led to a duel between +Cialdini and Garibaldi. Returning to Caprera, Garibaldi awaited events. +Cavour's successor, Ricasoli, enrolled the Garibaldians in the regular +army; Rattazzi, who succeeded Ricasoli, urged Garibaldi to undertake an +expedition in aid of the Hungarians, but Garibaldi, finding his +followers ill-disposed towards the idea, decided to turn his arms +against Rome. On the 29th of June 1862 he landed at Palermo and gathered +an army under the banner "Roma o morte." Rattazzi, frightened at the +prospect of an attack upon Rome, proclaimed a state of siege in Sicily, +sent the fleet to Messina, and instructed Cialdini to oppose Garibaldi. +Circumventing the Italian troops, Garibaldi entered Catania, crossed to +Melito with 3000 men on the 25th of August, but was taken prisoner and +wounded by Cialdini's forces at Aspromonte on the 27th of August. +Liberated by an amnesty, Garibaldi returned once more to Caprera amidst +general sympathy. + +In the spring of 1864 he went to London, where he was accorded an +enthusiastic reception and given the freedom of the city. From England +he returned again to Caprera. On the outbreak of war in 1866 he assumed +command of a volunteer army and, after the defeat of the Italian troops +at Custozza, took the offensive in order to cover Brescia. On the 3rd of +July he defeated the Austrians at Monte Saello, on the 7th at Lodrone, +on the 10th at Darso, on the 16th at Condino, on the 19th at Ampola, on +the 21st at Bezzecca, but, when on the point of attacking Trent, he was +ordered by General Lamarmora to retire. His famous reply "Obbedisco" ("I +obey") has often been cited as a classical example of military obedience +to a command destructive of a successful leader's hopes, but documents +now published (cf. _Corriere della sera_, 9th of August 1906) prove +beyond doubt that Garibaldi had for some days known that the order to +evacuate the Trentino would shortly reach him. The order arrived on the +9th of August, whereas Crispi had been sent as early as the 16th of July +to warn Garibaldi that, owing to Prussian opposition, Austria would not +cede the Trentino to Italy, and that the evacuation was inevitable. +Hence Garibaldi's laconic reply. From the Trentino he returned to +Caprera to mature his designs against Rome, which had been evacuated by +the French in pursuance of the Franco-Italian convention of the 15th of +September 1864. Gathering volunteers in the autumn of 1867, he prepared +to enter papal territory, but was arrested at Sinalunga by the Italian +government and conducted to Caprera. Eluding the surveillance of the +Italian cruisers, he returned to Florence, and, with the complicity of +the second Rattazzi cabinet, entered Roman territory at Passo Corese on +the 23rd of October. Two days later he took Monterotondo, but on the 2nd +of November his forces were dispersed at Mentana by French and papal +troops. Recrossing the Italian frontier, he was arrested at Figline and +taken back to Caprera, where he eked out his slender resources by +writing several romances. In 1870 he formed a fresh volunteer corps and +went to the aid of France, defeating the German troops at Chatillon, +Autun and Dijon. Elected a member of the Versailles assembly, he +resigned his mandate in anger at French insults, and withdrew to Caprera +until, in 1874, he was elected deputy for Rome. Popular enthusiasm +induced the Conservative Minghetti cabinet to propose that a sum of +L40,000 with an annual pension of L2000 be conferred upon him as a +recompense for his services, but the proposal, though adopted by +parliament (27th May 1875), was indignantly refused by Garibaldi. Upon +the advent of the Left to power, however, he accepted both gift and +pension, and worked energetically upon the scheme for the Tiber +embankment to prevent the flooding of Rome. At the same time he +succeeded in obtaining the annulment of his marriage with the countess +Raimondi (with whom he had never lived) and contracted another marriage +with the mother of his children, Clelia and Manlio. In 1880 he went to +Milan for the inauguration of the Mentana monument, and in 1882 visited +Naples and Palermo, but was prevented by illness from being present at +the 600th anniversary of the Sicilian Vespers. On the 2nd of June 1882 +his death at Caprera plunged Italy into mourning. + + See Garibaldi, _Epistolario_, ed. E.E. Ximenes (2 vols., Milan, 1885), + and _Memorie autografiche_ (11th ed., Florence, 1902; Eng. translation + by A. Werner, with supplement by J.W. Mario in vol. iii. of 1888 ed.); + Giuseppe Guerzoni, _Garibaldi_ (2 vols., Florence, 1882); Jessie White + Mario, _Garibaldi e i suoi tempi_ (Milan, 1884); G.M. Trevelyan, + _Garibaldi's Defence of the Roman Republic_ (London, 1907), which + contains an excellent sketch of Garibaldi's early career, of the + events leading up to the proclamation of the Roman Republic, and a + picturesque, detailed and authoritative account of the defence of Rome + and of Garibaldi's flight, with a very full bibliography; also + Trevelyan's _Garibaldi and the Thousand_ (1909). (H. W. S.) + + + + +GARIN LE LOHERAIN, French epic hero. The 12th century _chanson de geste_ +of Garin le Loherain is one of the fiercest and most sanguinary +narratives left by the _trouveres_. This local cycle of Lorraine, which +is completed by Hervis de Metz, Girbers de Metz, Anseis, fils de Girbert +and Yon, is obviously based on history, and the failure absolutely to +identify the events recorded does not deprive the poems of their value +as a picture of the savage feudal wars of the 11th and 12th centuries. +The episodes are evolved naturally and the usual devices adopted by the +_trouveres_ to reconcile their inconsistencies are absent. Nevertheless +no satisfactory historical explanation of the story has yet been +offered. It has been suggested by a recent critic (F. Settegast, +_Quellenstudien zur gallo-romanischen Epik_, 1904) that these poems +resume historical traditions going back to the Vandal irruption of 408 +and the battle fought by the Romans and the West Goths against the Huns +in 451. The cycle relates three wars against hosts of heathen invaders. +In the first of these Charles Martel and his faithful vassal Hervis of +Metz fight by an extraordinary anachronism against the Vandals, who have +destroyed Reims and besieged other cities. They are defeated in a great +battle near Troyes. In the second Hervis is besieged in Metz by the +"Hongres." He sends first for help to Pippin, who defers his assistance +by the advice of the traitor Hardre. Hervis then transfers his +allegiance to Anseis of Cologne, by whose help the invaders are +repulsed, though Hervis himself is slain. In the third Thierry, king of +Moriane[1] sends to Pippin for help against four Saracen kings. He is +delivered by a Frankish host, but falls in the battle. Hervis of Metz +was the son of a citizen to whom the duke of Lorraine had married his +daughter Aelis, and his sons Garin and Begue are the heroes of the +_chanson_ which gives its name to the cycle. The dying king Thierry had +desired that his daughter Blanchefleur should marry Garin, but when +Garin prefers his suit at the court of Pippin, Fromont of Bordeaux puts +himself forward as his rival and Hardre, Fromont's father, is slain by +Garin. The rest of the poem is taken up with the war that ensues between +the Lorrainers and the men of Bordeaux. They finally submit their +differences to the king, only to begin their disputes once more. +Blanchefleur becomes the wife of Pippin, while Garin remains her +faithful servant. One of the most famous passages of the poem is the +assassination of Begue by a nephew of Fromont, and Garin, after laying +waste his enemy's territory, is himself slain. The remaining songs +continue the feud between the two families. According to Paulin Paris, +the family of Bordeaux represents the early dukes of Aquitaine, the last +of whom, Waifar (745-768) was dispossessed and slain by Pippin the +Short, king of the Franks; but the _trouveres_ had in mind no doubt the +wars which marked the end of the Carolingian dynasty. + + See _Li Romans de Garin le Loherain_, ed. P. Paris (Paris, 1833); + _Hist. litt. de la France_, vol. xxii. (1852); J.M. Ludlow, _Popular + Epics of the Middle Ages_ (London and Cambridge, 1865); F. Lot, + _Etudes d'histoire du moyen age_ (Paris, 1896); F. Settegast, + _Quellenstudien zur gallo-romanischen Epik_ (Leipzig, 1904). A + complete edition of the cycle was undertaken by E. Stengel, the first + volume of which, _Hervis de Mes_ (Gesellschaft fur roman. Lit., + Dresden), appeared in 1903. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] i.e. Maurienne, now a district and diocese (St Jean de Maurienne) + of Savoy. + + + + +GARLAND, JOHN (fl. 1202-1252), Latin grammarian, known as Johannes +Garlandius, or, more commonly, Johannes de Garlandia, was born in +England, though most of his life was spent in France. John Bale in his +_Catalogus_, and John Pits, following Bale, placed him among the writers +of the 11th century. The main facts of his life, however, are stated in +a long poem _De triumphis ecclesiae_ contained in Cotton MS. Claudius A +x in the British Museum, and edited by Thomas Wright for the Roxburghe +Club in 1856. Garland narrates the history of his time from the point of +view of the victories gained by the church over heretics at home and +infidels abroad. He studied at Oxford under a certain John of London, +whom it is difficult to distinguish from others of the same name; but he +must have been in Paris in or before 1202, for he mentions as one of his +teachers Alain de Lisle, who died in that year or the next. Garland was +one of the professors chosen in 1229 for the new university of Toulouse, +and remained in the south during the Albigensian crusade, of which he +gives a detailed account in books iv.-vi. In 1232 or 1233 the hatred of +the people made further residence in Toulouse unsafe for the professors +of the university, who had been installed by the Catholic party. Garland +was one of the first to fly, and the rest of his life was spent in +Paris, where he finished his poem in 1252. Garland's grammatical works +were much used in England, and were often printed by Richard Pynson and +Wynkyn de Worde. He was also a voluminous Latin poet. Works on +mathematics and music have also been assigned to him, but the ascription +may have arisen from confusion of his works with those of Gerlandus, a +canon of Besancon in the 12th century. The treatise on alchemy, +_Compendium alchimiae_, often printed under his name, was by a +14th-century writer named Martin Ortolan, or Lortholain. + +The best known of his poems beside the "De Triumphis Ecclesiae" is +"Epithalamium beatae Mariae Virginis," contained in the same MS. Among +his other works are his "Dictionarius," a Latin vocabulary, printed by +T. Wright in the _Library of National Antiquities_ (vol. i., 1857); +_Compendium totius grammatices ..._, printed at Deventer, 1489; two +metrical treatises, entitled _Synonyma_ and _Equivoca_, frequently +printed at the close of the 15th century. + + For further bibliographical information see the British Museum + catalogue; J.A. Fabricius, _Bibliotheca Latina mediae et infimae + aetatis ..._, vol. iii. (1754); G. Brunet, _Manuel du libraire, &c._ + See also _Histoire litt. de la France_, vols. viii., xxi., xxiii. and + xxx.; the prefaces to the editions by T. Wright mentioned above; P. + Meyer, _La Chanson de la croisade contre les Albigeois_, vol. ii. pp. + xxi-xxiii. (Paris, 1875); Dr A. Scheler, _Lexicographie latine du + XII^e et du XIII^e siecles_ (Leipzig, 1867); the article by C.L. + Kingsford in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._, giving a list also of the works + on alchemy, mathematics and music, rightly or wrongly ascribed to him; + J.E. Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol._ i. (1906) 549. (E. G.) + + + + +GARLIC (O. Eng. _garleac_, i.e. "spear-leek"; Gr. [Greek: skorodon]; +Lat. _allium_; Ital. _aglio_; Fr. _ail_; Ger. _Knoblauch_), _Allium +sativum_, a bulbous perennial plant of the natural order Liliaceae, +indigenous apparently to south-west Siberia. It has long, narrow, flat, +obscurely keeled leaves, a deciduous spathe, and a globose umbel of +whitish flowers, among which are small bulbils. The bulb, which is the +only part eaten, has membranous scales, in the axils of which are 10 or +12 cloves, or smaller bulbs. From these new bulbs can be procured by +planting out in February or March. The bulbs are best preserved hung in +a dry place. If of fair size, twenty of them weigh about 1 lb. To +prevent the plant from running to leaf, Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xix. 34) +advises to bend the stalk downward and cover with earth; seeding, he +observes, may be prevented by twisting the stalk. + +Garlic is cultivated in the same manner as the shallot (q.v.). It is +stated to have been grown in England before the year 1548. The +percentage composition of the bulbs is given by E. Solly (_Trans. Hort. +Soc. Lond._, new ser., iii. p. 60) as water 84.09, organic matter 13.38, +and inorganic matter 1.53--that of the leaves being water 87.14, organic +matter 11.27 and inorganic matter 1.59. The bulb has a strong and +characteristic odour and an acrid taste, and yields an offensively +smelling oil, essence of garlic, identical with allyl sulphide (C3H5)2S +(see Hofmann and Cahours, _Journ. Chem. Soc._ x. p. 320). This, when +garlic has been eaten, is evolved by the excretory organs, the activity +of which it promotes. From the earliest times garlic has been used as an +article of diet. It formed part of the food of the Israelites in Egypt +(Numb. xi. 5) and of the labourers employed by Cheops in the +construction of his pyramid, and is still grown in Egypt, where, +however, the Syrian is the kind most esteemed (see Rawlinson's +_Herodotus_, ii. 125). It was largely consumed by the ancient Greek and +Roman soldiers, sailors and rural classes (cf. Virg. _Ecl_. ii. 11), +and, as Pliny tells us (_N.H._ xix. 32), by the African peasantry. Galen +eulogizes it as the rustic's _theriac_ (see F. Adams's _Paulus +Aegineta_, p. 99), and Alexander Neckam, a writer of the 12th century +(see Wright's edition of his works, p. 473, 1863), recommends it as a +palliative of the heat of the sun in field labour. "The people in places +where the simoon is frequent," says Mountstuart Elphinstone (_An Account +of the Kingdom of Caubul_, p. 140, 1815), "eat garlic, and rub their +lips and noses with it, when they go out in the heat of the summer, to +prevent their suffering by the simoon." "O dura messorum ilia," exclaims +Horace (_Epod_. iii.), as he records his detestation of the popular +esculent, to smell of which was accounted a sign of vulgarity (cf. +Shakespeare, _Coriol_. iv. 6, and _Meas. for Meas._ iii. 2). In England +garlic is seldom used except as a seasoning, but in the southern +countries of Europe it is a common ingredient in dishes, and is largely +consumed by the agricultural population. Garlic was placed by the +ancient Greeks on the piles of stones at cross-roads, as a supper for +Hecate (Theophrastus, _Characters_, [Greek: Deisidaimonias]); and +according to Pliny garlic and onions were invocated as deities by the +Egyptians at the taking of oaths. The inhabitants of Pelusium in lower +Egypt, who worshipped the onion, are said to have held both it and +garlic in aversion as food. Garlic possesses stimulant and stomachic +properties, and was of old, as still sometimes now, employed as a +medicinal remedy. Pliny (_N.H._ xx. 23) gives an exceedingly long list +of complaints in which it was considered beneficial. Dr T. Sydenham +valued it as an application in confluent smallpox, and, says Cullen +(_Mat. Med._ ii. p. 174, 1789), found some dropsies cured by it alone. +In the United States the bulb is given in doses of 1/2-2 drachms in +cases of bronchiectasis and phthisis pulmonalis. Garlic may also be +prescribed as an extract consisting of the inspissated juice, in doses +of 5-10 grains, and as the _syrupus allii aceticus_, in doses of 1-4 +drachms. This last preparation has recently been much extolled in the +treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis or phthisis. + +The wild "crow garlic" and "field garlic" of Britain are the species +_Allium vineale_ and _A. oleraceum_ respectively. + + + + +GARNET, or GARNETT, HENRY (1555-1606), English Jesuit, son of Brian +Garnett, a schoolmaster at Nottingham, was educated at Winchester and +afterwards studied law in London. Having become a Roman Catholic, he +went to Italy, joined the Society of Jesus in 1575, and acquired under +Bellarmine and others a reputation for varied learning. In 1586 he +joined the mission in England, becoming superior of the province on the +imprisonment of William Weston in the following year. In the dispute +between the Jesuits and the secular clergy known as the "Wisbech Stirs" +(1595-1596) he zealously supported Weston in his resistance to any +compromise with the civil government. His antagonism to the secular +clergy was also shown later, when in 1603 he, with other Jesuits, was +the means of betraying to the government the "Bye Plot," contrived by +William Watson, a secular priest. In 1598 he was professed of the four +vows. + +Garnet supervised the Jesuit mission for eighteen years with conspicuous +success. His life was one of concealment and disguises; a price was put +on his head; but he was fearless and indefatigable in carrying on his +propaganda and in ministering to the scattered Catholics, even in their +prisons. The result was that he gained many converts, while the number +of Jesuits in England increased during his tenure of office from three +to forty. It is, however, in connexion with the Gunpowder Plot that he +is best remembered. His part in this, for which he suffered death, needs +discussion in greater detail. + +In 1602 Garnet received briefs from Pope Clement VIII. directing that no +person unfavourable to the Catholic religion should be allowed to +succeed to the throne. About the same time he was consulted by Catesby, +Tresham and Winter, all afterwards involved in the Gunpowder Plot, on +the subject of the mission to be sent to Spain to induce Philip III. to +invade England. According to his own statement he disapproved, but he +gave Winter a recommendation to Father Creswell, an influential person +at Madrid. Moreover, in May 1605 he gave introductions to Guy Fawkes +when he went to Flanders, and to Sir Edmund Baynham when he went to Rome +(see GUNPOWDER PLOT). The preparations for the plot had now been +actively going forward since the beginning of 1604, and on the 9th of +June 1605 Garnet was asked by Catesby whether it was lawful to enter +upon any undertaking which should involve the destruction of the +innocent together with the guilty, to which Garnet answered in the +affirmative, giving as an illustration the fate of persons besieged in a +town in time of war. Afterwards, feeling alarmed, according to his own +accounts, he admonished Catesby against intending the death of "not only +innocents but friends and necessary persons for a commonwealth," and +showed him a letter from the pope forbidding rebellion. According to Sir +Everard Digby, however, Garnet, when asked the meaning of the brief, +replied "that they were not (meaning the priests) to undertake or +procure stirs, but yet they would not hinder any, neither was it the +pope's mind they should, that should be undertaken for Catholic good.... +This answer, with Mr Catesby's proceedings with him and me, gave me +absolute belief that the matter in general was approved, though every +particular was not known." Both men were endeavouring to exculpate +themselves, and therefore both statements are subject to suspicion. A +few days later, according to Garnet, the Jesuit, Oswald Tesemond, known +as Greenway, informed him of the whole plot "by way of confession," +when, as he declares, he expressed horror at the design and urged +Greenway to do his utmost to prevent its execution. Subsequently, after +his trial, Garnet said he "could not certainly affirm" that Greenway +intended to relate the matter to him in confession. + +Garnet's conduct in now keeping the plot a secret has been a matter of +considerable controversy not only between Roman Catholics and +Protestants, but amongst Roman Catholic writers themselves. Father +Martin del Rio, a Jesuit, writing in 1600, discusses the exact case of +the revelation of a plot in confession. Almost all the learned doctors, +he says, declare that the confessor may reveal it, but he adds, "the +contrary opinion is the safer and better doctrine, and more consistent +with religion and with the reverence due to the holy rite of +confession." According to Bellarmine, Garnet's zealous friend and +defender, "If the person confessing be concealed, it is lawful for a +priest to break the seal of confession in order to avert a great +calamity"; but he justifies Garnet's silence by insisting that it was +not lawful to disclose a treasonable secret to a heretical king. +According to Garnet's own opinion a priest cognizant of treason against +the state "is bound to find all lawful means to discover it _salvo +sigillo confessionis_." In this connexion it is worth pointing out that +Garnet had not thought it his duty to disclose the treasonable intrigue +with the king of Spain in 1602, though there was no pretence in this +case that he was restricted by the seal of confession, and his +inactivity now tells greatly in his disfavour; for, allowing even that +he was bound by confessional secrecy from taking action on Greenway's +information, he had still Catesby's earlier revelations to act upon. He +appears to have taken no steps whatever to prevent the crime, beyond +writing to Rome in vague terms that "he feared some particular desperate +courses," which aroused no suspicions in that quarter. At the same time +he wrote to Father Parsons on the 4th of September that "as far as he +could now see the minds of the Catholics were quieted." + +His movements immediately prior to the attempt were certainly +suspicious. In September, shortly before the expected meeting of +parliament on the 3rd of October, Garnet organized a pilgrimage to St +Winifred's Well in Flintshire, which started from Gothurst (now +Gayhurst), Sir Everard Digby's house in Buckinghamshire, included +Rokewood, and stopped at the houses of John Grant and Robert Winter, +three others of the conspirators. During the pilgrimage Garnet asked for +the prayers of the company "for some good success for the Catholic cause +at the beginning of parliament." After his return he went on the 29th of +October to Coughton in Warwickshire, near which place it had been +settled the conspirators were to assemble after the explosion. On the +6th of November, Bates, Catesby's servant and one of the conspirators, +brought him a letter with the news of the failure of the plot and +desiring advice. On the 30th Garnet addressed a letter to the government +in which he protested his innocence with the most solemn oaths, "as one +who hopeth for everlasting salvation." + +It was not till the 4th of December, however, that Garnet and Greenway +were, by the confession of Bates, implicated in the plot; and on the +same day Garnet removed from Coughton to Hindlip Hall, near Worcester, a +house furnished with cleverly-contrived hiding-places for the use of the +proscribed priests. Here he remained some time in concealment in company +with another priest, Oldcorne _alias_ Hall, but at last on the 30th of +January 1606, unable to bear the close confinement any longer, they +surrendered and were taken up to London, being well treated during the +journey by Salisbury's express orders. He was examined by the council on +the 13th of February and frequently questioned during the following +days, but refused to incriminate himself, and a threat to inflict +torture had no effect upon his resolution. Subsequently Garnet and +Oldcorne having been placed in adjoining rooms and enabled to +communicate with one another, their conversations were overheard on +several separate occasions and considerable information obtained. Garnet +at first denied all speech with Oldcorne, but subsequently on the 8th of +March confessed his connexion with the plot. He was tried at the +Guildhall on the 28th. + +Garnet was clearly guilty of misprision of treason, i.e. of having +concealed his knowledge of the crime, an offence which exposed him to +perpetual imprisonment and forfeiture of his property; for the law of +England took no account of religious scruples or professional etiquette +when they permit the execution of a preventable crime. Strangely enough, +however, the government passed over the incriminating conversation with +Greenway, and relied entirely on the strong circumstantial evidence to +support the charge of high treason against the prisoner. The trial was +not conducted in a manner which would be permitted in more modern days. +The rules of evidence which now govern the procedure in criminal cases +did not then exist, and Garnet's trial, like many others, was influenced +by the political situation, the case against him being supported by +general political accusations against the Jesuits as a body, and with +evidence of their complicity in former plots against the government. The +prisoner himself deeply prejudiced his cause by his numerous false +statements, and still more by his adherence to the doctrine of +equivocation. Garnet, it is true, claimed to limit the justification of +equivocation to cases "of necessary defence from injustice and wrong or +of the obtaining some good of great importance when there is no danger +of harm to others," and he could justify his conduct in lying to the +council by their own conduct towards him, which included treacherous +eavesdropping and fraud, and also threats of torture. Moreover, the +attempt of the counsel for the crown to force the prisoner to +incriminate himself was opposed to the whole spirit and tradition of the +law of England. He was declared guilty, and it is probable, in spite of +the irregularity and unjudicial character of his trial, that substantial +justice was done by his conviction. His execution took place on the 3rd +of May 1606, Garnet acknowledging himself justly condemned for his +concealment of the plot, but maintaining to the last that he had never +approved it. The king, who had shown him favour throughout and who had +forbidden his being tortured, directed that he should be hanged till he +was quite dead and that the usual frightful cruelties should be omitted. + +Soon after his death the story of the miracle of "Garnet's Straw" was +circulated all over Europe, according to which a blood-stained straw +from the scene of execution which came into the hands of one John +Wilkinson, a young and fervent Roman Catholic, who was present, +developed Garnet's likeness. In consequence of the credence which the +story obtained, Archbishop Bancroft was commissioned by the privy +council to discover and punish the impostors. Garnet's name was included +in the list of the 353 Roman Catholic martyrs sent to Rome from England +in 1880, and in the 2nd appendix of the Menology of England and Wales +compiled by order of the cardinal archbishop and the bishops of the +province of Westminster by R. Stanton in 1887, where he is styled "a +martyr whose cause is deferred for future investigation." The passage in +_Macbeth_ (Act II. Scene iii.) on equivocators no doubt refers +especially to Garnet. His _aliases_ were Farmer, Marchant, Whalley, +Darcey Meaze, Phillips, Humphreys, Roberts, Fulgeham, Allen. Garnet was +the author of a letter on the Martyrdom of Godfrey Maurice, _alias_ John +Jones, in Diego Yepres's _Historia particular de la persecucion de +Inglaterra_ (1599); a _Treatise of Schism_, a MS. treatise in reply to +_A Protestant Dialogue between a Gentleman and a Physician_; a +translation of the _Stemma Christi_ with supplements (1622); a treatise +on the Rosary; a Treatise of Christian Renovation or Birth (1616). + + AUTHORITIES.--Of the great number of works embodying the controversy + on the question of Garnet's guilt the following may be mentioned, in + order of date: _A True and Perfect Relation of the whole Proceedings + against ... Garnet a Jesuit and his Confederates_ (1606, repr. 1679), + the official account, but incomplete and inaccurate; _Apologia pro + Henrico Garneto_ (1610), by the Jesuit L'Heureux, under the pseudonym + Eudaemon-Joannes, and Dr Robert Abbot's reply, _Antilogia versus + Apologiam Eudaemon-Joannes_, in which the whole subject is well + treated; Henry More, _Hist. Provinciae Anglicanae Societatis_ (1660); + D. Jardine, _Gunpowder Plot_ (1857); J. Morris, S.J., _Condition of + the Catholics under James I._ (1872), containing Father Gerard's + narrative; J.H. Pollen, _Father Henry Garnet and the Gunpowder Plot_ + (1888); S.R. Gardiner, _What Gunpowder Plot was_ (1897), in reply to + John Gerard, S.J., _What was the Gunpowder Plot?_ (1897); J. Gerard, + _Contributions towards a Life of Father Henry Garnet_ (1898). See also + _State Trials II._, and _Cal. of State Papers Dom._, (1603-1610). The + original documents are preserved in the _Gunpowder Plot Book_ at the + Record Office. + + + + + +GARNET, a name applied to a group of closely-related minerals, many of +which are used as gem-stones. The name probably comes from the Lat. +_granaticus_, a stone so named from its resemblance to the pulp of the +pomegranate in colour, or to its seeds in shape; or possibly from +_granum_, "cochineal," in allusion to the colour of the stone. The +garnet was included, with other red stones, by Theophrastus, under the +name of [Greek: anthrax], while the common garnet seems to have been his +[Greek: anthrakion]. Pliny groups several stones, including garnet, +under the term _carbunculus_. The modern carbuncle is a deep red garnet +(almandine) cut _en cabochon_, or with a smooth convex surface, +frequently hollowed out at the back, in consequence of the depth of +colour, and sometimes enlivened with a foil (see ALMANDINE). The Hebrew +word _nophek_, translated [Greek: anthrax] in the Septuagint, seems to +have been the garnet or carbuncle, whilst _bareketh_ ([Greek: smaragdos] +of the Septuagint), though also rendered "carbuncle," was probably +either beryl or, in the opinion of Professor Flinders Petrie, +rock-crystal. Garnets were used as beads in ancient Egypt. Though not +extensively employed by the Greeks as a material for engraved gems, it +was much used for this purpose by the Romans of the Empire. Flat +polished slabs of garnet are found inlaid in mosaic work in Anglo-Saxon +and Merovingian jewelry, the material used being almandine, or "precious +garnet." + +Garnets vary considerably in chemical composition, but the variation is +limited within a certain range. All are orthosilicates, conformable to +the general formula R''3R'''2(SiO4)3, where R'' = Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, and +R''' = Al, Fe, Cr. Although there are many kinds of garnet they may be +reduced to the following six types, which may occur intermixed +isomorphously:-- + + 1. Calcium-aluminium garnet (_Grossularite_), Ca3Al2Si3O12. + + 2. Calcium-ferric garnet (_Andradite_), Ca3Fe2Si3O12. + + 3. Calcium-chromium garnet (_Uvarovite_), Ca3Cr2Si3O12. + + 4. Magnesium-aluminium garnet (_Pyrope_), Mg3Al2Si3O12. + + 5. Ferrous-aluminium garnet (_Almandine_), Fe3Al2Si3O12. + + 6. Manganous-aluminium garnet (_Spessartine_), Mn3Al2Si3O12. + +These are frequently called respectively:--(1) Lime-alumina garnet; (2) +lime-iron garnet; (3) lime-chrome garnet; (4) magnesia-alumina garnet; +(5) iron-alumina garnet; (6) manganese-alumina garnet. + +The types are usually modified by isomorphous replacement of some of +their elements. + +[Illustration] + +All garnets crystallize in the cubic system, usually in rhombic +dodecahedra or in icositetrahedra, or in a combination of the two forms +(see fig.). Octahedra and cubes are rare, but the six-faced octahedron +occurs in some of the combinations. Cleavage obtains parallel to the +dodecahedron, but is imperfect. The hardness varies according to +composition from 6.5 to 7.5, and the specific gravity in like manner has +a wide range, varying from 3.4 in the calcium-aluminium garnets to 4.3 +in the ferrous-aluminium species. Sir Arthur H. Church found that many +garnets when fused yielded a product of lower density than the original +mineral. The colour is typically red, but may be brown, yellow, green or +even black, while some garnets are colourless. Being cubic the garnets +are normally singly refracting, but anomalies frequently occur, leading +some authorities to doubt whether the mineral is really cubic. The +refractive power of garnet is high, so that in microscopic sections, +viewed by transmitted light, the mineral stands out in relief. + + Garnets are very widely distributed, occurring in crystalline schists, + gneiss, granite, metamorphic limestone, serpentine, and occasionally + in volcanic rocks. With omphacite and smaragdite, garnet forms the + peculiar rock called eclogite. The garnets used for industrial + purposes are usually found loose in detrital deposits, weathered from + the parent rock, though in some important workings the rock is + quarried. The garnets employed as gem-stones are described under their + respective headings (see ALMANDINE, CINNAMON STONE, DEMANTOID and + PYROPE). Most of the minerals noticed in this article are of + scientific rather than commercial interest. + + Grossularite or "gooseberry-stone," is typically a brownish-green + garnet from Siberia, known also as wiluite (a name applied also to + vesuvianite, q.v.), from the river Wilui where it occurs. It is + related to hessonite, or cinnamon-stone. A Mexican variety occurs in + rose-pink dodecahedra. Romanzovite is a brown garnet, of + grossularia-type, from Finland, taking its name from Count Romanzov. + Andradite was named by J.D. Dana after B.J. d'Andrada e Silva, who + described, in 1800, one of its varieties allochroite, a Norwegian + garnet, so named from its variable colour. This species includes most + of the common garnet occurring in granular and compact masses, + sometimes forming garnet rock. To andradite may be referred melanite, + a black garnet well known from the volcanic tuffs near Rome, used + occasionally in the 18th century for mourning jewelry. Another black + garnet, in small crystals from the Pyrenees, is called pyreneite. + Under andradite may also be placed topazolite, a honey-yellow garnet, + rather like topaz, from Piedmont; colophonite, a brown resin-like + garnet, with which certain kinds of idocrase have been confused; + aplome, a green garnet from Saxony and Siberia; and jelletite, a green + Swiss garnet named after the Rev. J.H. Jellet. Here also may be placed + the green Siberian mineral termed demantoid (q.v.), sometimes + improperly called olivine by jewellers. Uvarovite, named after a + Russian minister, Count S.S. Uvarov, is a rare green garnet from + Siberia and Canada, but though of fine colour is never found in + crystals large enough for gem-stones. Spessartite, or spessartine, + named after Spessart, a German locality, is a fine aurora-red garnet, + cut for jewelry when sufficiently clear, and rather resembling + cinnamon-stone. It is found in Ceylon, and notably in the mica-mines + in Amelia county, Virginia, United States. A beautiful rose-red + garnet, forming a fine gem-stone, occurs in gravels in Macon county, + N.C., and has been described by W.E. Hidden and Dr J.H. Pratt under + the name of rhodolite. It seems related to both almandine and pyrope, + and shows the absorption-spectrum of almandine. The Bohemian garnets + largely used in jewelry belong to the species pyrope (q.v.). + + Garnets are not only cut as gems, but are used for the bearings of + pivots in watches, and are in much request for abrasive purposes. + Garnet paper is largely used, especially in America, in place of + sandpaper for smoothing woodwork and for scouring leather in the + boot-trade. As an abrasive agent it is worked at several localities in + the United States, especially in New York State, along the borders of + the Adirondacks, where it occurs in limestone and in gneiss. Much of + the garnet used as an abrasive is coarse almandine. Common garnet, + where abundant, has sometimes been used as a fluxing agent in + metallurgical operations. Garnet has been formed artificially, and is + known as a furnace-product. + + It may be noted that the name of white garnet has been given to the + mineral leucite, which occurs, like garnet, crystallized in + icositetrahedra. (F. W. R.*) + + + + +GARNETT, RICHARD (1835-1906), English librarian and author, son of the +learned philologist Rev. Richard Garnett (1789-1850), priest-vicar of +Lichfield cathedral and afterwards keeper of printed books at the +British Museum, who came of a Yorkshire family, was born at Lichfield on +the 27th of February 1835. His father was really the pioneer of modern +philological research in England; his articles in the _Quarterly Review_ +(1835, 1836) on English lexicography and dialects, and on the Celtic +question, and his essays in the _Transactions_ of the Philological +Society (reprinted 1859), were invaluable to the later study of the +English language. The son, who thus owed much to his parentage, was +educated at home and at a private school, and in 1851, just after his +father's death, entered the British Museum as an assistant in the +library. In 1875 he rose to be superintendent of the reading-room, and +from 1890 to 1899, when he retired, he was keeper of the printed books. +In 1883 he was given the degree of LL.D. at Edinburgh, an honour +repeated by other universities, and in 1895 he was made a C.B. + +His long connexion with the British Museum library, and the value of his +services there, made him a well-known figure in the literary world, and +he published much original work in both prose and verse. His chief +publications in book-form were: in verse, _Primula_ (1858), _Io in +Egypt_ (1859), _Idylls and Epigrams_ (1869, republished in 1892 as _A +Chaplet from the Greek Anthology_), _The Queen and other Poems_ (1902), +_Collected Poems_ (1893); in prose, biographies of Carlyle (1887), +Emerson (1887), Milton (1890), Edward Gibbon Wakefield (1898); a volume +of remarkably original and fanciful tales, _The Twilight of the Gods_ +(1888); a tragedy, _Iphigenia in Delphi_ (1890); _A Short History of +Italian Literature_ (1898); _Essays in Librarianship and Bibliophily_ +(1899); _Essays of an Ex-librarian_ (1901). He was an extensive +contributor to the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ and the _Dictionary of +National Biography_, editor of the _International Library of Famous +Literature_, and co-editor, with E. Gosse, of the elaborate _English +Literature: an illustrated Record_. So multifarious was his output, +however, in contributions to reviews, &c., and as translator or editor, +that this list represents only a small part of his published work. He +was a member of numerous learned literary societies, British and +foreign. His facility as an expositor, and his gift for lucid and acute +generalization, together with his eminence as a bibliophile, gave his +work an authority which was universally recognized, though it sometimes +suffered from his relying too much on his memory and his power of +generalizing--remarkable as both usually were--in cases requiring +greater precision of statement in matters of detail. But as an +interpreter, whether of biography or _belles lettres_, who brought an +unusually wide range of book-learning, in its best sense, interestingly +and comprehensibly before a large public, and at the same time +acceptably to the canons of careful scholarship, Dr Garnett's writing +was always characterized by clearness, common sense and sympathetic +appreciation. His official career at the British Museum marked an epoch +in the management of the library, in the history of which his place is +second only to that of Panizzi. Besides introducing the "sliding press" +in 1887 he was responsible for reviving the publication of the general +catalogue, the printing of which, interrupted in 1841, was resumed under +him in 1880, and gradually completed. The antipodes of a Dryasdust, his +human interest in books made him an ideal librarian, and his courtesy +and helpfulness were outstanding features in a personality of singular +charm. The whole bookish world looked on him as a friend. Among his +"hobbies" was a study of astrology, to which, without associating his +name with it in public, he devoted prolonged inquiry. Under the +pseudonym of "A.G. Trent" he published in 1880 an article (in the +_University Magazine_) on "The Soul and the Stars"--quoted in Wilde and +Dodson's _Natal Astrology_. He satisfied himself that there was more +truth in the old astrology than modern criticism supposed, and he had +intended to publish a further monograph on the subject, but the +intention was frustrated by the ill-health which led up to his death on +the 13th of April 1906. He married (1863) an Irish wife, Olivia Narney +Singleton (d. 1903), and had a family of six children; his son Edward +(b. 1868) being a well-known literary man, whose wife translated +Turgeneff's works into English. (H. Ch.) + + + + +GARNIER, CLEMENT JOSEPH (1813-1881), French economist, was born at Beuil +(Alpes maritimes) on the 3rd of October 1813. Coming to Paris he studied +at the Ecole de Commerce, of which he eventually became secretary and +finally a professor. In 1842 he founded with Gilbert-Urbain Guillaumin +(1801-1864) the Societe d'Economie politique, becoming its secretary, a +post which he held till his death; and in 1846 he organized the +Association pour la Liberte des Echanges. He also helped to establish +and edited for many years the _Journal des economistes_ and the +_Annuaire de l'economie politique_. Of the school of _laissez faire_, he +was engaged during his whole life in the advancement of the science of +political economy, and in the improvement of French commercial +education. In 1873 he became a member of the Institute, and in 1876 a +senator for the department in which he was born. He died at Paris on the +25th of September 1881. Of his writings, the following are the more +important: _Traite d'economie politique_ (1845), _Richard Cobden et la +Ligue_ (1846), _Traite des finances_ (1862), and _Principes du +population_ (1857). + + + + +GARNIER, GERMAIN, MARQUIS (1754-1821), French politician and economist, +was born at Auxerre on the 8th of November 1754. He was educated for the +law, and obtained when young the office of _procureur_ to the Chatelet +in Paris. On the calling of the states-general he was elected as one of +the _deputes suppleants_ of the city of Paris, and in 1791 administrator +of the department of Paris. After the 10th of August 1792 he withdrew to +the Pays de Vaud, and did not return to France till 1795. In public +life, however, he seems to have been singularly fortunate. In 1797 he +was on the list of candidates for the Directory; in 1800 he was prefect +of Seine-et-Oise; and in 1804 he was made senator and in 1808 a count. +After the Restoration he obtained a peerage, and on the return of Louis +XVIII., after the Hundred Days, he became minister of state and member +of privy council, and in 1817 was created a marquis. He died at Paris on +the 4th of October 1821. At court he was, when young, noted for his +facile power of writing society verse, but his literary reputation +depends rather on his later works on political economy, especially his +admirable translation, with notes and introduction, of Smith's _Wealth +of Nations_ (1805) and his _Histoire de la monnaie_ (2 vols., 1819), +which contains much sound and well-arranged material. His _Abrege des +principes de l'econ. polit._ (1796) is a very clear and instructive +manual. The valuable _Description geographique, physique, et politique +du departement de Seine-et-Oise_ (1802) was drawn up from his +instructions. Other works are _De la propriete_ (1792) and _Histoire des +banques d'escompte_ (1806). + + + + +GARNIER, JEAN LOUIS CHARLES (1825-1898), French architect, was born in +Paris on the 6th of November 1825. He was educated in a primary school, +and it was intended that he should pursue his father's craft, that of a +wheelwright. His mother, however, having heard that with a little +previous study he might enter an architect's office and eventually +become a measuring surveyor (_verificateur_), and earn as much as six +francs a day, and foreseeing that in consequence of his delicate health +he would be unfit to work at the forge, sent him to learn drawing and +mathematics at the Petite Ecole de Dessin, in the rue de Medecine, the +cradle of so many of the great artists of France. His progress was such +as to justify his being sent first into an architect's office and then +to the well-known atelier of Lebas, where he began his studies in +preparation for the examination of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, which he +passed in 1842, at the age of seventeen. Shortly after his admission it +became necessary that he should support himself, and accordingly he +worked during the day in various architects' offices, among them in that +of M. Viollet-le-Duc, and confined his studies for the Ecole to the +evening. In 1848 he carried off, at the early age of twenty-three, the +Grand Prix de Rome, and with his comrades in sculpture, engraving and +music, set off for the Villa de Medicis. His principal works were the +measured drawings of the Forum of Trajan and the temple of Vesta in +Rome, and the temple of Serapis at Pozzuoli. In the fifth year of his +travelling studentship he went to Athens and measured the temple at +Aegina, subsequently working out a complete restoration of it, with its +polychromatic decoration, which was published as a monograph in 1877. +The elaborate set of drawings which he was commissioned by the duc de +Luynes to make of the tombs of the house of Anjou were not published, +owing to the death of his patron; and since Garnier's death they have +been given to the library of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, along with other +drawings he made in Italy. On his return to Paris in 1853 he was +appointed surveyor to one or two government buildings, with a very +moderate salary, so that the commission given him by M. Victor Baltard +to make two water-colour drawings of the Hotel de Ville, to be placed in +the album presented to Queen Victoria in 1855, on the occasion of her +visit to Paris, proved very acceptable. These two drawings are now in +the library at Windsor. + +In 1860 came, at last, Garnier's chance: a competition was announced for +a design for a new imperial academy of music, and out of 163 competitors +Garnier was one of five selected for a second competition, in which, by +unanimous vote, he carried off the first prize, and the execution of the +design was placed in his hands. Begun in 1861, but delayed in its +completion by the Franco-German War, it was not till 1875 that the +structure of the present Grand Opera House of Paris was finished, at a +cost of about 35,000,000 francs (L1,420,000). During the war the +building was utilized as the municipal storehouse of provisions. The +staircase and the magnificent hall are the finest portion of the +interior, and alike in conception and realization have never been +approached. Of Garnier's other works, the most remarkable are the Casino +at Monte Carlo, the Bischoffsheim villa at Bordighera, the Hotel du +Cercle de la Librairie in Paris; and, among tombs, those of the +musicians Bizet, Offenbach, Masse and Duprato. In 1874 he was elected a +member of the Institute of France, and after passing through the grades +of chevalier, officer and commander of the Legion of Honour, received in +1895 the rank of grand officer, a high distinction that had never before +been granted to an architect. Charles Garnier's reputation was not +confined to France; it was recognized by all the countries of Europe, +and in England he received, in 1886, the royal gold medal of the Royal +Institute of Architects, given by Queen Victoria. Besides his monograph +on the temple of Aegina, he wrote several works, of which _Le Nouvel +Opera de Paris_ is the most valuable. For the International Exhibition +of 1889 he designed the buildings illustrating the "History of the +House" in all periods, and a work on this subject was afterwards +published by him in conjunction with M. Ammann. Not the least of his +claims to the gratitude of his country were the services which he +rendered on the various art juries appointed by the state, the Institute +of France, and the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, services which in France are +rendered in an honorary capacity. Garnier died on the 3rd of August +1898. (R. P. S.) + + + + +GARNIER, MARIE JOSEPH FRANCOIS [FRANCIS] (1839-1873), French officer and +explorer, was born at St Etienne on the 25th of July 1839. He entered +the navy, and after voyaging in Brazilian waters and the Pacific he +obtained a post on the staff of Admiral Charner, who from 1860 to 1862 +was campaigning in Cochin-China. After some time spent in France he +returned to the East, and in 1862 he was appointed inspector of the +natives in Cochin-China, and entrusted with the administration of +Cho-lon, a suburb of Saigon. It was at his suggestion that the marquis +de Chasseloup-Laubat determined to send a mission to explore the valley +of the Mekong, but as Garnier was not considered old enough to be put in +command, the chief authority was entrusted to Captain Doudart de Lagree. +In the course of the expedition--to quote the words of Sir Roderick +Murchison addressed to the youthful traveller when, in 1870, he was +presented with the Victoria Medal of the Royal Geographical Society of +London--from Kratie in Cambodia to Shanghai 5392 m. were traversed, and +of these 3625 m., chiefly of country unknown to European geography, were +surveyed with care, and the positions fixed by astronomical +observations, nearly the whole of the observations being taken by +Garnier himself. Volunteering to lead a detachment to Talifu, the +capital of Sultan Suleiman, the sovereign of the Mahommedan rebels in +Yunnan, he successfully carried out the more than adventurous +enterprise. When shortly afterwards Lagree died, Garnier naturally +assumed the command of the expedition, and he conducted it in safety to +the Yang-tsze-Kiang, and thus to the Chinese coast. On his return to +France he was received with enthusiasm. The preparation of his narrative +was interrupted by the Franco-German War, and during the siege of Paris +he served as principal staff officer to the admiral in command of the +eighth "sector." His experiences during the siege were published +anonymously in the feuilleton of _Le Temps_, and appeared separately as +_Le Siege de Paris, journal d'un officier de marine_ (1871). Returning +to Cochin-China he found the political circumstances of the country +unfavourable to further exploration, and accordingly he went to China, +and in 1873 followed the upper course of the Yang-tsze-Kiang to the +waterfalls. He was next commissioned by Admiral Dupre, governor of +Cochin-China, to found a French protectorate or a new colony in +Tongking. On the 20th of November 1873 he took Hanoi, the capital of +Tongking, and on the 21st of December he was slain in fight with the +Black Flags. His chief fame rests on the fact that he originated the +idea of exploring the Mekong, and carried out the larger portion of the +work. + + The narrative of the principal expedition appeared in 1873, as _Voyage + d'exploration en Indo-Chine effectue pendant les annees 1866, 1867 et + 1868, publie sous la direction de M. Francis Garnier, avec le concours + de M. Delaporte et de MM. Joubert et Thorel_ (2 vols.). An account of + the Yang-tsze-Kiang from Garnier's pen is given in the _Bulletin de la + Soc. de Geog._ (1874). His _Chronique royale du Cambodje_, was + reprinted from the _Journal Asiatique_ in 1872. See _Ocean Highways_ + (1874) for a memoir by Colonel Yule; and Hugh Clifford, _Further + India_, in the Story of Exploration series (1904). + + + + +GARNIER, ROBERT (c. 1545-c. 1600), French tragic poet, was born at Ferte +Bernard (Le Maine) in 1545. He published his first work while still a +law-student at Toulouse, where he won a prize (1565) in the _jeux +floraux_. It was a collection of lyrical pieces, now lost, entitled +_Plaintes amoureuses de Robert Garnier_ (1565). After some practice at +the Parisian bar, he became conseiller du roi au siege presidial et +senechaussee of Le Maine, his native district, and later +lieutenant-general criminel. His friend Lacroix du Maine says that he +enjoyed a great reputation as an orator. He was a distinguished +magistrate, of considerable weight in his native province, who gave his +leisure to literature, and whose merits as a poet were fully recognized +by his own generation. He died at Le Mans probably in 1599 or 1600. + +In his early plays he was a close follower of the school of dramatists +who were inspired by the study of Seneca. In these productions there is +little that is strictly dramatic except the form. A tragedy was a series +of rhetorical speeches relieved by a lyric chorus. His pieces in this +manner are _Porcie_ (published 1568, acted at the hotel de Bourgogne in +1573), _Cornelie_ and _Hippolyte_ (both acted in 1573 and printed in +1574). In _Porcie_ the deaths of Cassius, Brutus and Portia are each the +subject of an eloquent recital, but the action is confined to the death +of the nurse, who alone is allowed to die on the stage. His next group +of tragedies--_Marc-Antoine_ (1578), _La Troade_ (1579), _Antigone_ +(acted and printed 1580)--shows an advance on the theatre of Etienne +Jodelle and Jacques Grevin, and on his own early plays, in so much that +the rhetorical element is accompanied by abundance of action, though +this is accomplished by the plan of joining together two virtually +independent pieces in the same way. + +In 1582 and 1583 he produced his two masterpieces _Bradamante_ and _Les +Juives_. In _Bradamante_, which alone of his plays has no chorus, he cut +himself adrift from Senecan models, and sought his subject in Ariosto, +the result being what came to be known later as a tragi-comedy. The +dramatic and romantic story becomes a real drama in Garnier's hands, +though even there the lovers, Bradamante and Roger, never meet on the +stage. The contest in the mind of Roger supplies a genuine dramatic +interest in the manner of Corneille. _Les Juives_ is the pathetic story +of the barbarous vengeance of Nebuchadnezzar on the Jewish king Zedekiah +and his children. The Jewish women lamenting the fate of their children +take a principal part in this tragedy, which, although almost entirely +elegiac in conception, is singularly well designed, and gains unity by +the personality of the prophet. M. Faguet says that of all French +tragedies of the 16th and 17th centuries it is, with _Athalie_, the best +constructed with regard to the requirements of the stage. Actual +representation is continually in the mind of the author; his drama is, +in fact, visually conceived. + +Garnier must be regarded as the greatest French tragic poet of his +century and the precursor of the great achievements of the next. + + The best edition of his works is by Wendelin Foerster (Heilbronn, 4 + vols., 1882-1883). A detailed criticism of his works is to be found in + Emile Faguet, _La Tragedie francaise au XVI^e siecle_ (1883, pp. + 183-307). + + + + +GARNIER-PAGES, ETIENNE JOSEPH LOUIS (1801-1841), French politician, was +born at Marseilles on the 27th of December 1801. Soon after his birth +his father Jean Francois Garnier, a naval surgeon, died, and his mother +married Simon Pages, a college professor, by whom she had a son. The +boys were brought up together, and took the double name Garnier-Pages. +Etienne found employment first in a commercial house in Marseilles, and +then in an insurance office in Paris. In 1825 he began to study law, and +made some mark as an advocate. A keen opponent of the Restoration, he +joined various democratic societies, notably the _Aide-toi, le ciel +t'aidera_, an organization for purifying the elections. He took part in +the revolution of July 1830; became secretary of the _Aide-toi, le ciel +t'aidera_, whose propaganda he brought into line with his +anti-monarchical ideas; and in 1831 was sent from Isere to the chamber +of deputies. He was concerned in the preparation of the _Compte rendu_ +of 1832, and advocated universal suffrage. He was an eloquent speaker, +and his sound knowledge of business and finance gave him a marked +influence among all parties in the chamber. He died in Paris on the 23rd +of June 1841. + +His half-brother, LOUIS ANTOINE GARNIER-PAGES (1803-1878), fought on the +barricades during the revolution of July 1830, and after Etienne's death +was elected to the chamber of deputies (1842). He was a keen promoter +of reform, and was a leading spirit in the affair of the reform banquet +fixed for the 22nd of February 1848. He was a member of the provisional +government of 1848, and was named mayor of Paris. On the 5th of March +1848 he was made minister of finance, and incurred great unpopularity by +the imposition of additional taxes. He was a member of the Constituent +Assembly and of the Executive Commission. Under the Empire he was +conspicuous in the republican opposition and opposed the war with +Prussia, and after the fall of Napoleon III. became a member of the +Government of National Defence. Unsuccessful at the elections for the +National Assembly (the 8th of February 1871), he retired into private +life, and died in Paris on the 31st of October 1878. He wrote _Histoire +de la revolution de 1848_ (1860-1862); _Histoire de la commission +executive_ (1869-1872); and _L'Opposition et l'empire_ (1872). + + + + +GARNISH, a word meaning to fit out, equip, furnish, now particularly +used of decoration or ornament. It is formed from the O. Fr. _garnisant_ +or _guarnissant_, participle of _garnir_, _guarnir_, to furnish, equip. +This is of Teutonic origin, the base being represented in O. Eng. +_warnian_, to take warning, beware, and Ger. _warnen_, to warn, Eng. +_warn_; the original sense would be to guard against, fortify, hence +equip or fit out. The meaning of "warn" is seen in the law term +"garnishee," a person who owes money to or holds money belonging to +another and is "warned" by order of the court not to pay it to his +immediate creditor but to a third person who has obtained final judgment +against that creditor. (See ATTACHMENT; EXECUTION; BANKRUPTCY.) + + + + +GARO HILLS, a district of British India, in the hills division of +Eastern Bengal and Assam. It takes its name from the Garos, a tribe of +doubtful ethnical affinities and peculiar customs, by whom it is almost +entirely inhabited. The Garos are probably a section of the great Bodo +tribe, which at one time occupied a large part of Assam. According to +the census of 1901 they numbered 128,117. In the 18th century they are +mentioned as being frequently in conflict with the inhabitants of the +plains below their hills, and in 1790 the British government first tried +to reduce them. No permanent success was achieved. In 1852 raids by the +Garos were followed by a blockade of the hills, but in 1856 they were +again in revolt. Again a repressive expedition was despatched in 1861, +but in 1866 there was a further raid. A British officer was now posted +among the hills; this step was effective; in 1869 the district was +constituted, and though in 1871 an outrage was committed against a +native on the survey staff, there was little opposition when an +expedition was sent in 1872-1873 to bring the whole district into +submission, and there were thereafter no further disturbances. + +The district consists of the last spurs of the Assam hills, which here +run down almost to the bank of the Brahmaputra, where that river +debouches upon the plain of Bengal and takes its great sweep to the +south. The administrative headquarters are at Tura. The area of the +district is 3140 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 138,274, showing an +increase of 14% in the decade. The American missionaries maintain a +small training school for teachers. The public buildings at Tura were +entirely destroyed by the earthquake of June 12, 1897, and the roads in +the district were greatly damaged by subsidence and fissures. Coal in +large quantities and petroleum are known to exist. The chief exports are +cotton, timber and forest products. Trade is small, though the natives, +according to their own standard, are prosperous. They are fair +agriculturists. Communications within the district are by cart-roads, +bridle-paths and native tracks. + + + + +GARONNE (Lat. _Garumna_), a river of south-western France, rising in the +Maladetta group of the Pyrenees, and flowing in a wide curve to the +Atlantic Ocean. It is formed by two torrents, one of which has a +subterranean course of 2-1/2 m., disappearing in the sink known as the +Trou du Taureau ("bull's hole") and reappearing at the Goueil de Joueou. +After a course of 30 m. in Spanish territory, during which it flows +through the fine gorge called the Vallee d'Aran, the Garonne enters +France in the department of Haute Garonne through the narrow defile of +the Pont du Roi, and at once becomes navigable for rafts. At Montrejeau +it receives on the left the Neste, and encountering at this point the +vast plateau of Lannemezan is forced to turn abruptly east, flowing in a +wide curve to Toulouse. At Saint Martory it gives off the irrigation +canal of that name. At this point the Garonne enters a fertile plain, +and supplies the motive power to several mills. It is joined on the +right by various streams fed by the snows of the Pyrenees. Such are the +Salat, at whose confluence river navigation proper begins, and the Arize +and the Ariege (both names signifying "river"). From Toulouse the +Garonne flows to the north-west, now skirting the northern border of the +plateau of Lannemezan which here drains into it, the principal streams +being the Save, the Gers and the Baise. On its right hand the Garonne is +swelled by its two chief tributaries, the Tarn, near Moissac, and the +Lot, below Agen; farther down it is joined by the Drot (or Dropt), and +on the left by the Ciron. Between Toulouse and Castets, 33-1/2 m. above +Bordeaux, and the highest point to which ordinary spring-tides ascend, +the river is accompanied at a distance of from a 1/2 to 3 m. by the +so-called "lateral canal" of the Garonne, constructed in 1838-1856. This +canal is about 120 m. long, or 133 m. including its branches, one of +which runs off at right angles to Montauban on the Tarn. From Toulouse +to Agen the main canal follows the right bank of the Garonne, crossing +the Tarn on an aqueduct at Moissac, while another magnificent aqueduct +of twenty-three arches carries it at Agen from the right to the left +bank of the river. It has a fall of 420 ft. and over fifty locks, and is +navigable for vessels having the maximum dimensions of 98-1/2 ft. +length, 19 ft. breadth and 6-1/2 ft. draught. The carrying trade upon it +is chiefly in agricultural produce and provisions, building materials, +wood and industrial products. At Toulouse the canal connects with the +Canal du Midi, which runs to the Mediterranean. After passing Castets +the Garonne begins to widen out considerably, and from being 160 yds. +broad at Agen increases to about 650 yds. at Bordeaux, its great +commercial port. From here it flows with ever increasing width between +two flat shores to the Bec d'Ambes (15-1/2 m.), where, after a course of +357 m., it unites with the Dordogne to form the vast estuary known as +the Gironde. The triangular peninsula lying between these two great +tidal rivers is called Entre-deux-mers ("between two seas") and is +famous for its wines. The drainage area of the Garonne is nearly 33,000 +sq. m. Floods are of common occurrence, and descend very suddenly. The +most disastrous occurred in 1875, 1856 and in 1770, when the flood level +at Castets attained the record height of 42-1/2 ft. above low-water +mark. + + + + +GARRET (from the O. Fr. _garite_, modern _guerite_, a watch-tower, +connected ultimately with "guard" and "ward"), properly a small look-out +tower built on a wall, and hence the name given to a room on the top +storey of a building, the sloping ceiling of which is formed by the +roof. + + + + +GARRETT, JOAO BAPTISTA DA SILVA LEITAO DE ALMEIDA, VISCONDE DE +ALMEIDA-GARRETT (1799-1854), perhaps the greatest Portuguese poet since +Camoens, was of Irish descent. Born in Oporto, his parents moved to the +Quinta do Castello at Gaya when he was five years old. The French +invasion of Portugal drove the family to the Azores, and Garrett made +his first studies at Angra, beginning to versify at an early age under +the influence of his uncle, a poet of the school of Bocage. Going to the +university of Coimbra in 1816, he soon earned notoriety by the precocity +of his talents and his fervent Liberalism, and there he gained his first +oratorical and literary successes. His tragedy _Lucrecia_ was played +there in February 1819, and during this period he also wrote _Merope_ as +well as a great part of _Cato_, all these plays belonging to the +so-called classical school. Leaving Coimbra with a law degree, he +proceeded to Lisbon, and on the 11th of November 1822 married D. Luiza +Midosi; but the alliance proved unhappy and a formal separation took +place in 1839. + +The reactionary movement against the Radical revolution of 1820 reached +its height in 1823, and Garrett had to leave Portugal by order of the +Absolutist ministry then in power, and went to England. He became +acquainted with the masterpieces of the English and German romantic +movements during his stay abroad. + +Imbued with the spirit of nationality, he wrote in 1824 at Havre the +poem "Camoes," which destroyed the influence of the worn-out classical +and Arcadian rhymers, and in the following year composed the patriotic +poem "D. Branca," or "The Conquest of the Algarve." He was permitted to +return to Portugal in 1826, and thereupon devoted himself to journalism. +With the publication of _O Portuguez_, he raised the tone of the press, +exhibiting an elevation of ideas and moderation of language then unknown +in political controversy, and he introduced the "feuilleton." But his +defence of Liberal principles brought him three months' imprisonment, +and when D. Miguel was proclaimed absolute king on the 3rd of May 1828, +Garrett had again to leave the country. In London, where he sought +refuge, he continued his adhesion to romanticism by publishing +_Adozinda_ and _Bernal-Francez_, expansions of old folk-poems, which met +with the warmest praise from Southey and were translated by Adamson. He +spent the next three years in and about Birmingham, Warwick and London, +engaged in writing poetry and political pamphlets, and by these and by +his periodicals he did much to unite the Portuguese _emigres_ and to +keep up their spirit amid their sufferings in a foreign land. Learning +that an expedition was being organized in France for the liberation of +Portugal, Garrett raised funds and joined the forces under D. Pedro as a +volunteer. Sailing in February 1832, he disembarked at Terceira, whence +he passed to S. Miguel, then the seat of the Liberal government. Here he +became a co-operator with the statesman Mousinho da Silveira, and +assisted him in drafting those laws which were to revolutionize the +whole framework of Portuguese society, this important work being done +far from books and without pecuniary reward. In his spare time he wrote +some of the beautiful lyrics afterwards collected into _Flores sem +Fructo_. He took part in the expedition that landed at the Mindello on +the 8th of July 1832, and in the occupation of Oporto. Early in the +siege he sketched out, under the influence of Walter Scott, the +historical romance _Arco de Sant' Anna_, descriptive of the city in the +reign of D. Pedro I.; and, in addition, he organized the Home and +Foreign offices under the marquis of Palmella, drafted many important +royal decrees, and prepared the criminal and commercial codes. In the +following November he was despatched as secretary to the marquis on a +diplomatic mission to foreign courts, which involved him in much +personal hardship. In the next year the capture of Lisbon enabled him to +return home, and he was charged to prepare a scheme for the reform of +public instruction. + +In 1834-1835 he served as consul-general and charge d'affaires at +Brussels, representing Portugal with distinction under most difficult +circumstances, for which he received no thanks and little pay. When he +got back, the government employed him to draw up a proposal for the +construction of a national theatre and for a conservatoire of dramatic +art, of which he became the head. He instituted prizes for the best +plays, himself revising nearly all that were produced, and a school of +dramatists and actors arose under his influence. To give them models, he +proceeded to write a series of prose dramas, choosing his subjects from +Portuguese history. He began in 1838 with the _Auto de Gil Vicente_, +considering that the first step towards the recreation of the Portuguese +drama was to revive the memory of its founder, and he followed this up +in 1842 by the _Alfageme de Santarem_, dealing with the Holy Constable, +and in 1843 by _Frei Luiz de Sousa_, one of the few great tragedies of +the 19th century, a work as intensely national as _The Lusiads_. The +story, which in part is historically true, and has the merit of being +simple, like the action, is briefly as follows. D. Joao de Portugal, who +was supposed to have died at the battle of Alcacer, returns, years +afterwards, to find his wife married to Manoel de Sousa and the mother +of a daughter by him, named Maria. Thereupon the pair separate and enter +religion, and Manoel becomes the famous chronicler, _Frei Luiz de Sousa_ +(q.v.). The characters live and move, especially Telmo, the old servant, +who would never believe in the death of his former master D. Joao, and +the consumptive child Maria, who helps Telmo to create the atmosphere +of impending disaster; while the episodes, particularly those of the +return of D. Joao and the death of Maria, are full of power, and the +language is Portuguese of the best. + +Entering parliament in 1837, Garrett soon made his mark as an orator. In +that year he delivered many notable discourses in defence of liberal +ideas. He also brought in a literary copyright bill, which, when it +became law in 1851, served as a precedent for similar legislation in +England and Prussia. In 1840 he made his famous speech known as _Porto +Pyreu_, in which he skilfully turned the well-known anecdote of the "mad +Athenian" against his opponents. While attending with assiduity to his +duties as a deputy, he wrote, about this time, the drama _D. Filippa de +Vilhena_, founded on an incident in the revolution of 1640, for +representation by the pupils of the conservatoire, and the session of +1841 saw another of his oratorical triumphs in his speech against the +law of tithes. In July 1843 an excursion to Santarem resulted in his +prose masterpiece _Viagens na minha terra_, at once a novel and a +miscellany of literary, political and philosophic criticism, written +without plan or method, easy, jovial and epigrammatic. He took no part +in the civil war that followed the revolution of Maria da Fonte, but +continued his literary labours, producing in 1848 the comedy _A Sobrinha +do Marquez_, dealing with the times of Pombal, and in 1849 an historical +memoir on Mousinho da Silveira. He spent much of the year 1850 in +finishing his _Romanceiro_, a collection of folk-poetry of which he was +the first to perceive the value; and in June 1851 he was created a +viscount. In the following December he drew up the additional act to the +constitutional charter, and his draft was approved by the ministers at a +cabinet meeting in his house. Further, he initiated the _Conselho +Ultramarino_; and the _Law of the Misericordias_, with its preamble, +published in 1852, was entirely from his pen. In the same year he became +for a short time minister of foreign affairs. In 1853 he brought out +_Folhas Cahidas_, a collection of short poems ablaze with passion and +exquisite in form, of which his friend Herculano said: "if Camoens had +written love verses at Garrett's age, he could not have equalled him." +His final literary work was a novel, _Helena_, which he left unfinished, +and on the 10th of February 1854 he made his last notable speech in the +House. He died on the 9th of December 1854, and on the 3rd of May 1903 +his remains were translated to the national pantheon, the Jeronymos at +Belem, where they rest near to those of Camoens. As poet, novelist, +journalist, orator and dramatist, he deserves the remark of Rebello da +Silva: "Garrett was not a man of letters only but an entire literature +in himself." + +Besides his strong religious faith, Garrett was endowed with a deep +sensibility, a creative imagination, rare taste and a singular capacity +for sympathy. Thus, though a learned man and an able jurist, he was +bound to be first and always an artist. His artistic temperament +explains his many-sided activity, his expansive kindliness, his +seductive charm, especially for women, his patriotism, his aristocratic +pretensions, his huge vanity and dandyism, and the ingenuousness that +absolves him from many faults in an irregular life. From his rich +artistic nature sprang his profound, sincere, sensual and melancholy +lyrics, the variety and perfection of his scenic creations, the +splendour of his eloquence, the truth of his comic vein, the elegance of +his lighter compositions. Two books stand out in bold relief from among +his writings: _Folhas Cahidas_, and that tragedy of fatality and pity, +_Frei Luiz de Sousa_, with its gallery of noble figures incarnating the +truest realism in an almost perfect prose form. The complete collection +of his works comprises twenty-four volumes and there are several +editions. + + AUTHORITIES.--Gomes de Amorim, _Garrett, memorias biographicas_ (3 + vols., Lisbon, 1881-1888); D. Romero Ortiz, _La Litteratura Portuguesa + en el siglo XIX_ (Madrid, 1869), pp. 165-221; Dr Theophilo Braga, + _Garrett e o romantismo_ (Oporto, 1904), and _Garrett e os dramas + romanticos_ (Oporto, 1905), with a full bibliography; Innocencio da + Silva, _Diccionario bibliographico Portuguez_, vol. iii. pp. 309-316, + and vol. x. pp. 180-185. See _Revue encyclopedique Larousse_, No. 284, + for a bibliography of the foreign translations of Garrett. _Frei Luiz + de Sousa_ was translated by Edgar Prestage under the title _Brother + Luiz de Sousa_ (London, 1909). (E. Pr.) + + + + + +GARRETTING, properly Galletting, a term in architecture for the process +in which the "gallets" or small splinters of stone are inserted in the +joints of coarse masonry to protect the mortar joints; they are stuck in +while the mortar is wet. + + + + +GARRICK, DAVID (1717-1779), English actor and theatrical manager, was +descended from a good French Protestant family named Garric or Garrique +of Bordeaux, which had settled in England on the revocation of the Edict +of Nantes. His father, Captain Peter Garrick, who had married Arabella +Clough, the daughter of a vicar choral of Lichfield cathedral, was on a +recruiting expedition when his famous third son was born at Hereford on +the 19th of February 1717. Captain Garrick, who had made his home at +Lichfield, where he had a large family, in 1731 rejoined his regiment at +Gibraltar. This kept him absent from home for many years, during which +letters were written to him by "little Davy," acquainting him with the +doings at Lichfield. When the boy was about eleven years old he paid a +short visit to Lisbon where his uncle David had settled as a wine +merchant. On his father's return from Gibraltar, David, who had +previously been educated at the grammar school of Lichfield, was, +largely by the advice of Gilbert Walmesley, registrar of the +ecclesiastical court, sent with his brother George to the "academy" at +Edial, just opened in June or July 1736 by Samuel Johnson, the senior by +seven years of David, who was then nineteen. This seminary was, however, +closed in about six months, and on the 2nd of March 1736/7 both Johnson +and Garrick left Lichfield for London--Johnson, as he afterwards said, +"with twopence halfpenny in his pocket," and Garrick "with +three-halfpence in his." Johnson, whose chief asset was the MS. tragedy +of _Irene_, was at first the host of his former pupil, who, however, +before the end of the year took up his residence at Rochester with John +Colson (afterwards Lucasian professor at Cambridge). Captain Garrick +died about a month after David's arrival in London. Soon afterwards, his +uncle, the wine merchant at Lisbon, having left David a sum of L1000, he +and his brother entered into partnership as wine merchants in London and +Lichfield, David taking up the London business. The concern was not +prosperous--though Samuel Foote's assertion that he had known Garrick +with three quarts of vinegar in the cellar calling himself a wine +merchant need not be taken literally--and before the end of 1741 he had +spent nearly half of his capital. + +His passion for the stage completely engrossed him; he tried his hand +both at dramatic criticism and at dramatic authorship. His first +dramatic piece, _Lethe_, or _Aesop in the Shades_, which he was +thirty-seven years later to read from a splendidly bound transcript to +King George III. and Queen Charlotte, was played at Drury Lane on the +15th of April 1740; and he became a well-known frequenter of theatrical +circles. His first appearance on the stage was made in March 1741, +_incognito_, as harlequin at Goodman's Fields, Yates, who was ill, +having allowed him to take his place during a few scenes of the +pantomime entitled _Harlequin Student_, or _The Fall of Pantomime with +the Restoration of the Drama_. Garrick subsequently accompanied a party +of players from the same theatre to Ipswich, where he played his first +part as an actor under the name of Lyddal, in the character of Aboan (in +Southerne's _Oroonoko_). His success in this and other parts determined +his future career. On the 19th of October 1741 he made his appearance at +Goodman's Fields as Richard III. and gained the most enthusiastic +applause. Among the audience was Macklin, whose performance of Shylock, +early in the same year, had pointed the way along which Garrick was so +rapidly to pass in triumph. On the morrow the latter wrote to his +brother at Lichfield, proposing to make arrangements for his withdrawal +from the partnership, which, after much distressful complaint on the +part of his family, met by him with the utmost consideration, were +ultimately carried into effect. Meanwhile, each night had added to his +popularity on the stage. The town, as Gray (who, like Horace Walpole, at +first held out against the _furore_) declared, was "horn-mad" about him. +Before his Richard had exhausted its original effect, he won new +applause as Aboan, and soon afterwards as Lear and as Pierre in Otway's +_Venice Preserved_, as well as in several comic characters (including +that of Bayes). Glover ("Leonidas") attended every performance; the +duke of Argyll, Lords Cobham and Lyttelton, Pitt, and several other +members of parliament testified their admiration. Within the first six +months of his theatrical career he acted in eighteen characters of all +kinds, and from the 2nd of December he appeared in his own name. Pope +went to see him three times during his first performances, and +pronounced that "that young man never had his equal as an actor, and he +will never have a rival." Before next spring he had supped with "the +great Mr Murray, counsellor," and was engaged to do so with Mr Pope +through Murray's introduction, while he was dining with Halifax, +Sandwich and Chesterfield. "There was a dozen dukes of a night at +Goodman's Fields," writes Horace Walpole. Garrick's farce of _The Lying +Valet_, in which he performed the part of Sharp, was at this time +brought out with so much success that he ventured to send a copy to his +brother. + +His fortune was now made, and while the managers of Covent Garden and +Drury Lane resorted to the law to make Giffard, the manager of Goodman's +Fields, close his little theatre, Garrick was engaged by Fleetwood for +Drury Lane for the season of 1742. In June of that year he went over to +Dublin, where he found the same homage paid to his talents as he had +received from his own countrymen. He was accompanied by Margaret (Peg) +Woffington, of whom he had been for some time a fervent admirer. (His +claim to the authorship of the song to Lovely Peggy is still _sub +judice_. There remains some obscurity as to the end of their liaison.) +From September 1742 to April 1745 he played at Drury Lane, after which +he again went over to Dublin. Here he remained during the whole season, +as joint-manager with Sheridan, in the direction and profits of the +Theatre Royal in Smock Alley. In 1746-1747 he fulfilled a short +engagement with Rich at Covent Garden, his last series of performances +under a management not his own. With the close of that season +Fleetwood's patent for the management of Drury Lane expired, and +Garrick, in conjunction with Lacy, purchased the property of the +theatre, together with the renewal of the patent; contributing L8000 as +two-thirds of the purchase-money. In September 1747 it was opened with a +strong company of actors, Johnson's prologue being spoken by Garrick, +while the epilogue, written by him, was spoken by Mrs Woffington. The +negotiations involved Garrick in a bitter quarrel with Macklin, who +appears to have had a real grievance in the matter. Garrick took no part +himself till his performance of Archer in the _Beaux' Stratagem_, a +month after the opening. For a time at least "the drama's patrons" were +content with the higher entertainment furnished them; in the end Garrick +had to "please" them, like most other managers, by gratifying their love +of show. Garrick was surrounded by many players of eminence, and he had +the art, as he was told by Mrs Clive, "of contradicting the proverb that +one cannot make bricks without straw, by doing what is infinitely more +difficult, making actors and actresses without genius." He had to +encounter very serious opposition from the old actors whom he had +distanced, and with the younger actors and actresses he was involved in +frequent quarrels. But to none of them or their fellows did he, so far +as it appears, show that jealousy of real merit from which so many great +actors have been unable to remain free. For the present he was able to +hold his own against all competition. The naturalness of his acting +fascinated those who, like Partridge in _Tom Jones_, listened to +nature's voice, and justified the preference of more conscious critics. +To be "pleased with nature" was, as Churchill wrote, in the _Rosciad_ +(1761),[1] to be pleased with Garrick. For the stately declamation, the +sonorous, and beyond a doubt impressive, chant of Quin and his fellows, +Garrick substituted rapid changes of passion and humour in both voice +and gesture, which held his audiences spellbound. "It seemed," wrote +Richard Cumberland, "as if a whole century had been stepped over in the +passage of a single scene; old things were done away, and a new order at +once brought forward, bright and luminous, and clearly destined to +dispel the barbarisms of a tasteless age, too long superstitiously +devoted to the illusions of imposing declamation." Garrick's French +descent and his education may have contributed to give him the vivacity +and versatility which distinguished him as an actor; and nature had +given him an eye, if not a stature, to command, and a mimic power of +wonderful variety. The list of his characters in tragedy, comedy and +farce is large, and would be extraordinary for a modern actor of high +rank; it includes not less than seventeen Shakespearian parts. As a +manager, though he committed some grievous blunders, he did good service +to the theatre and signally advanced the popularity of Shakespeare's +plays, of which not less than twenty-four were produced at Drury Lane +under his management. Many of these were not pure Shakespeare; and he is +credited with the addition of a dying speech to the text of _Macbeth_. +On the other hand, Tate Wilkinson says that Garrick's production of +_Hamlet_ in 1773 was well received at Drury Lane even by the galleries, +"though without their favourite acquaintances the gravediggers." Among +his published adaptations are an opera, _The Fairies_ (from _Midsummer +Night's Dream_) (1755); an opera _The Tempest_ (1756); _Catherine and +Petruchio_ (1758); _Florizel and Perdita_ (1762). But not every +generation has the same notions of the way in which Shakespeare is best +honoured. Few sins of omission can be charged against Garrick as a +manager, but he refused Home's _Douglas_, and made the wrong choice +between _False Delicacy_ and _The Good Natur'd Man_. For the rest, he +purified the stage of much of its grossness, and introduced a relative +correctness of costume and decoration unknown before. To the study of +English dramatic literature he rendered an important service by +bequeathing his then unrivalled collection of plays to the British +Museum. + +After escaping from the chains of his passion for the beautiful but +reckless Mrs Woffington, Garrick had in 1749 married Mademoiselle +Violette (Eva Maria Veigel), a German lady who had attracted admiration +at Florence or at Vienna as a dancer, and had come to England early in +1746, where her modest grace and the rumours which surrounded her +created a _furore_, and where she found enthusiastic patrons in the earl +and countess of Burlington. Garrick, who called her "the best of women +and wives," lived most happily with her in his villa at Hampton, +acquired by him in 1754, whither he was glad to escape from his house in +Southampton Street. To this period belongs Garrick's quarrel with Barry, +the only actor who even temporarily rivalled him in the favour of the +public. In 1763 Garrick and his wife visited Paris, where they were +cordially received and made the acquaintance of Diderot and others at +the house of the baron d'Holbach. It was about this time that Grimm +extolled Garrick as the first and only actor who came up to the demands +of his imagination; and it was in a reply to a pamphlet occasioned by +Garrick's visit that Diderot first gave expression to the views +expounded in his _Paradoxe sur le comedien_. After some months spent in +Italy, where Garrick fell seriously ill, they returned to Paris in the +autumn of 1764 and made more friends, reaching London in April 1765. +Their union was childless, and Mrs Garrick survived her husband until +1822. Her portrait by Hogarth is at Windsor Castle. + +Garrick practically ceased to act in 1766, but he continued the +management of Drury Lane, and in 1769 organized the Shakespeare +celebrations at Stratford-on-Avon, an undertaking which ended in dismal +failure, though he composed an "Ode upon dedicating a building and +erecting a Statue to Shakespeare" on the occasion. (See, _inter alia, +Garrick's Vagary, or England Run Mad; with particulars of the Stratford +Jubilee_, 1769.) Of his best supporters on the stage, Mrs Cibber, with +whom he had been reconciled, died in 1766, and Mrs (Kitty) Clive retired +in 1769; but Garrick contrived to maintain the success of his theatre. +He sold his share in the property in 1776 for L35,000, and took leave of +the stage by playing a round of his favourite characters--Hamlet, Lear, +Richard and Benedick, among Shakespearian parts; Lusignan in _Zara_, +Aaron Hill's adaptation of Voltaire's _Zaire_; and Kitely in his own +adaptation of Ben Jonson's _Every Man in his Humour_; Archer in +Farquhar's _Beaux' Stratagem_; Abel Drugger in Ben Jonson's +_Alchemist_; Sir John Brute in Vanbrugh's _Provoked Wife_; Leon in +Fletcher's _Rule a Wife and have a Wife_. He ended the series, as Tate +Wilkinson says, "in full glory" with "the youthful Don Felix" in Mrs +Centlivre's _Wonder_ on the 10th of June 1776. He died in London on the +20th of January 1779. He was buried in Westminster Abbey at the foot of +Shakespeare's statue with imposing solemnities. An elegy on his death +was published by William Tasker, poet and physiognomist, in the same +year. + +In person, Garrick was a little below middle height; in his later years +he seems to have inclined to stoutness. The extraordinary mobility of +his whole person, and his power of as it were transforming himself at +will, are attested by many anecdotes and descriptions, but the piercing +power of his eye must have been his most irresistible feature. + +Johnson, of whose various and often merely churlish remarks on Garrick +and his doings many are scattered through the pages of Boswell, spoke +warmly of the elegance and sprightliness of his friend's conversation, +as well as of his liberality and kindness of heart; while to the great +actor's art he paid the exquisite tribute of describing Garrick's sudden +death as having "eclipsed the gaiety of nations, and impoverished the +public stock of harmless pleasure." But the most discriminating +character of Garrick, slightly tinged with satire, is that drawn by +Goldsmith in his poem of _Retaliation_. Beyond a doubt he was not +without a certain moral timidity contrasting strangely with his eager +temperament and alertness of intellect; but, though he was not cast in a +heroic mould, he must have been one of the most amiable of men. Garrick +was often happy in his epigrams and occasional verse, including his +numerous prologues and epilogues. He had the good taste to recognize, +and the spirit to make public his recognition of, the excellence of +Gray's odes at a time when they were either ridiculed or neglected. His +dramatic pieces, _The Lying Valet_, adapted from Motteux's _Novelty +Lethe_ (1740), _The Guardian_, _Linco's Travels_ (1767), _Miss in her +Teens_ (1747), _Irish Widow_, &c., and his alterations and adaptations +of old plays, which together fill four volumes, evinced his knowledge of +stage effect and his appreciation of lively dialogue and action; but he +cannot be said to have added one new or original character to the drama. +He was joint author with Colman of _The Clandestine Marriage_ (1766), in +which he is said to have written his famous part of Lord Ogleby. The +excellent farce, _High Life below Stairs_, appears to have been wrongly +attributed to Garrick, and to be by James Townley. His _Dramatic Works_ +(1798) fill three, his _Poetic_ (1735) two volumes. + +Garrick's _Private Correspondence_ (published in 1831-1832 with a short +memoir by Boaden, in 2 vols. 4to), which includes his extensive _Foreign +Correspondence_ with distinguished French men and women, and the notices +of him in the memoirs of Cumberland, Hannah More and Madame D'Arblay, +and above all in Boswell's _Life of Johnson_, bear testimony to his many +attractive qualities as a companion and to his fidelity as a friend. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A collection of unprinted Garrick letters is in the + Forster library at South Kensington. A list of publications of all + kinds for and against Garrick will be found in R. Lowe's + _Bibliographical History of English Theatrical Literature_ (1887). The + earlier biographies of Garrick are by Arthur Murphy (2 vols., 1801) + and by the bookseller Tom Davies (2 vols., 4th ed., 1805), the latter + a work of some merit, but occasionally inaccurate and confused as to + dates; and a searching if not altogether sympathetic survey of his + verses is furnished by Joseph Knight's valuable Life (1894). A memoir + of Garrick is included in a volume of French _Memoirs of Mlle Clairon + and others_, published by Levain (H.L. Cain) at Paris in 1846; and an + Italian _Biografia di Davide Garrick_ was published by C. Blasis at + Milan in 1840. Mr Percy Fitzgerald's _Life_ (2 vols., 1868; new + edition, 1899) is full and spirited, and has been reprinted, with + additions, among Sir Theodore Martin's _Monographs_ (1906). A + delightful essay on Garrick appeared in the _Quarterly Review_ (July + 1868), directing attention to the admirable criticisms of Garrick's + acting in 1775 in the letters of G.C. Lichtenberg (_Verm. Schriften_, + iii., Gottingen, 1801). See also for a very valuable survey of + Garrick's labours as an actor, with a bibliography, C. Gaehde, _David + Garrick als Shakespeare-Darsteller_, &c. (Berlin, 1904). Mrs Parsons' + _Garrick, and his Circle_ and _Some unpublished Correspondence of + David Garrick_, ed. G.P. Baker (Boston, Mass., 1907), are interesting + additions to the literature of the subject. There is also a Life by + James Smyth, _David Garrick_ (1887). T.W. Robertson's play _David + Garrick_, first acted by Sothern, and later associated with Sir + Charles Wyndham, is of course mere fiction. + + As to the portraits of Garrick, see W.T. Lawrence in The _Connoisseur_ + (April 1905). That by Gainsborough at Stratford-on-Avon was preferred + by Mrs Garrick to all others. Several remain from the hand of Hogarth, + including the famous picture of Garrick as Richard III. The portraits + by Reynolds include the celebrated "Garrick between Tragedy and + Comedy." Zoffany's are portraits in character. Roubiliac's statue of + Shakespeare, for which Garrick sat, and for which he paid the sculptor + three hundred guineas, was originally placed in a small temple at + Hampton, and is now in the entrance hall at the British Museum. + (R. Ca.; A. W. W.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] In the subsequent _Apology addressed to the Critical Reviewers_, + Churchill revenged himself for the slight which he supposed Garrick + to have put upon him, by some spiteful lines, which, however, Garrick + requited by good-humoured kindness. + + + + +GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879), the American anti-slavery leader, +was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the 10th of December +1805. His parents were from the British province of New Brunswick. The +father, Abijah, a sea-captain, went away from home when William was a +child, and it is not known whether he died at sea or on land. The +mother, whose maiden name was Lloyd, is said to have been a woman of +high character, charming in person and eminent for piety. She died in +1823. William had a taste for books, and made the most of his limited +opportunities. His mother first set him to learn the trade of a +shoemaker, first at Newburyport, and then, after 1815, at Baltimore, +Maryland, and, when she found that this did not suit him, let him try +his hand at cabinet-making (at Haverhill, Mass.). But this pleased him +no better. In October 1818, when he was in his fourteenth year, he was +made more than content by being indentured to Ephraim W. Allen, +proprietor of the Newburyport _Herald_, to learn the trade of a printer. +He soon became an expert compositor, and after a time began to write +anonymously for the _Herald_. His communications won the commendation of +the editor, who had not at first the slightest suspicion that he was the +author. He also wrote for other papers with equal success. A series of +political essays, written by him for the Salem _Gazette_, was copied by +a prominent Philadelphia journal, the editor of which attributed them to +the Hon. Timothy Pickering, a distinguished statesman of Massachusetts. +His skill as a printer won for him the position of foreman, while his +ability as a writer was so marked that the editor of the _Herald_, when +temporarily called away from his post, left the paper in his charge. + +The printing-office was for him, what it has been for many another poor +boy, no mean substitute for the academy and for the college. He was full +of enthusiasm for liberty; the struggle of the Greeks to throw off the +Turkish yoke enlisted his warmest sympathy, and at one time he seriously +thought of entering the West Point Academy and fitting himself for a +soldier's career. His apprenticeship ended in 1826, when he began the +publication of a new paper (actually the old one under a new name), the +_Free Press_, in his native place. The paper, whose motto was "Our +Country, our Whole Country, and nothing but our Country," was full of +spirit and intellectual force, but Newburyport was a sleepy place and +the enterprise failed. Garrison then went to Boston, where, after +working for a time as a journeyman printer, he became the editor of the +_National Philanthropist_, the first journal established in America to +promote the cause of total abstinence from intoxicating liquors. His +work in this paper was highly appreciated by the friends of temperance, +but a change in the proprietorship led to his withdrawal before the end +of the year. In 1828 he was induced to establish the _Journal of the +Times_ at Bennington, Vermont, to support the re-election of John Quincy +Adams to the presidency of the United States. The new paper, though +attractive in many ways, and full of force and fire, was too far ahead +of public sentiment on moral questions to win a large support. In Boston +he had met Benjamin Lundy (q.v.), who had for years been preaching the +abolition of slavery. Garrison had been deeply moved by Lundy's appeals, +and after going to Vermont he showed the deepest interest in the slavery +question. Lundy was then publishing in Baltimore a small monthly paper, +entitled _The Genius of Universal Emancipation_, and he resolved to go +to Bennington and invite Garrison to join him in the editorship. With +this object in view he walked from Boston to Bennington, through the +frost and snow of a New England winter, a distance of 125 m. His mission +was successful. Garrison was deeply impressed by the good Quaker's zeal +and devotion, and he resolved to join him and devote himself thereafter +to the work of abolishing slavery. + +In pursuance of this plan he went to Baltimore in the autumn of 1829, +and thenceforth the _Genius_ was published weekly, under the joint +editorship of the two men. It was understood, however, that Garrison +would do most of the editorial work, while Lundy would spend most of his +time in lecturing and procuring subscribers. On one point the two +editors differed radically, Lundy being the advocate of gradual and +Garrison of immediate emancipation. The former was possessed with the +idea that the negroes, on being emancipated, must be colonized somewhere +beyond the limits of the United States; the latter held that they should +be emancipated on the soil of the country, with all the rights of +freemen. In view of this difference it was agreed that each should speak +on his own individual responsibility in the paper, appending his initial +to each of his articles for the information of the reader. It deserves +mention here that Garrison was then in utter ignorance of the change +previously wrought in the opinions of English abolitionists by Elizabeth +Heyrick's pamphlet in favour of immediate, in distinction from gradual +emancipation. The sinfulness of slavery being admitted, the duty of +immediate emancipation to his clear ethical instinct was perfectly +manifest. He saw that it would be idle to expose and denounce the evils +of slavery, while responsibility for the system was placed upon former +generations, and the duty of abolishing it transferred to an indefinite +future. His demand for immediate emancipation fell like a tocsin upon +the ears of slaveholders. For general talk about the evils of slavery +they cared little, but this assertion that every slave was entitled to +instant freedom filled them with alarm and roused them to anger, for +they saw that, if the conscience of the nation were to respond to the +proposition, the system must inevitably fall. The _Genius_, now that it +had become a vehicle for this dangerous doctrine, was a paper to be +feared and intensely hated. Baltimore was then one of the centres of the +domestic slave trade, and upon this traffic Garrison heaped the +strongest denunciations. A vessel owned in Newburyport having taken a +cargo of slaves from Baltimore to New Orleans, he characterized the +transaction as an act of "domestic piracy," and avowed his purpose to +"cover with thick infamy" those engaged therein. He was thereupon +prosecuted for libel by the owner of the vessel, fined $50, mulcted in +costs, and, in default of payment, committed to gaol. His imprisonment +created much excitement, and in some quarters, in spite of the +pro-slavery spirit of the time, was a subject of indignant comment in +public as well as private. The excitement was fed by the publication of +two or three striking sonnets, instinct with the spirit of liberty, +which Garrison inscribed on the walls of his cell. One of these, +_Freedom of Mind_, is remarkable for freshness of thought and terseness +of expression. + +John G. Whittier, the Quaker poet, interceded with Henry Clay to pay +Garrison's fine and thus release him from prison. To the credit of the +slaveholding statesman it must be said that he responded favourably, but +before he had time for the requisite preliminaries Arthur Tappan, a +philanthropic merchant of New York, contributed the necessary sum and +set the prisoner free after an incarceration of seven weeks. The +partnership between Garrison and Lundy was then dissolved by mutual +consent, and the former resolved to establish a paper of his own, in +which, upon his sole responsibility, he could advocate the doctrine of +immediate emancipation and oppose the scheme of African colonization. He +was sure, after his experiences at Baltimore, that a movement against +slavery resting upon any less radical foundation than this would be +ineffectual. He first proposed to establish his paper at Washington, in +the midst of slavery, but on returning to New England and observing the +state of public opinion there, he came to the conclusion that little +could be done at the South while the non-slaveholding North was lending +her influence, through political, commercial, religious and social +channels, for the sustenance of slavery. He determined, therefore, to +publish his paper in Boston, and, having issued his prospectus, set +himself to the task of awakening an interest in the subject by means of +lectures in some of the principal cities and towns of the North. It was +an up-hill work. Contempt for the negro and indifference to his wrongs +were almost universal. In Boston, then a great cotton mart, he tried in +vain to procure a church or vestry for the delivery of his lectures, and +thereupon announced in one of the daily journals that if some suitable +place was not promptly offered he would speak on the common. A body of +infidels under the leadership of Abner Kneeland (1774-1844), who had +previously been in turn a Baptist minister and the editor of a +Universalist magazine, proffered him the use of their small hall; and, +no other place being accessible, he accepted it gratefully, and +delivered therein (in October 1830) three lectures, in which he unfolded +his principles and plans. He visited privately many of the leading +citizens of the city, statesmen, divines and merchants, and besought +them to take the lead in a national movement against slavery; but they +all with one consent made excuse, some of them listening to his plea +with manifest impatience. He was disappointed, but not disheartened. His +conviction of the righteousness of his cause, of the evils and dangers +of slavery, and of the absolute necessity of the contemplated movement, +was intensified by opposition, and he resolved to go forward, trusting +in God for success. + +On the 1st of January 1831, without a dollar of capital, and without a +single subscriber, he and his partner Isaac Knapp (1804-1843) issued the +first number of the _Liberator_, avowing their "determination to print +it as long as they could subsist on bread and water, or their hands +obtain employment." Its motto was, "Our country is the world--our +countrymen are mankind"; and the editor, in his address to the public, +uttered the words which have become memorable as embodying the whole +purpose and spirit of his life: "I am in earnest--I will not +equivocate--I will not excuse--I will not retreat a single inch--and I +will be heard." Help came but slowly. For many months Garrison and his +brave partner, who died long before the end of the conflict, made their +bed on the floor of the room, "dark, unfurnished and mean," in which +they printed their paper, and where Mayor Harrison Gray Otis of Boston, +in compliance with the request of Governor Robert Y. Hayne of South +Carolina, "ferreted them out" in "an obscure hole," "their only visible +auxiliary a negro boy." But the paper founded under such inauspicious +circumstances exerted a mighty influence, and lived to record not only +President Lincoln's proclamation of emancipation, but the adoption of an +amendment to the constitution of the United States for ever prohibiting +slavery. It was the beginning and the nucleus of an agitation that +eventually pervaded and filled every part of the country. Other +newspapers were afterwards established upon the same principles; +anti-slavery societies, founded upon the doctrine of immediate +emancipation, sprang up on every hand; the agitation was carried into +political parties, into the press, and into legislative and +ecclesiastical assemblies; until in 1861 the Southern states, taking +alarm from the election of a president known to be at heart opposed to +slavery though pledged to enforce all the constitutional safeguards of +the system, seceded from the Union and set up a separate government. + +Garrison sought the abolition of slavery by moral means alone. He knew +that the national government had no power over the system in any state, +though it could abolish it at the national capital, and prohibit it in +the territories. He thought it should bring its moral influence to bear +in favour of abolition; but neither he nor his associates ever asked +Congress to exercise any unconstitutional power. His idea was to combine +the moral influence of the North, and pour it through every open channel +upon the South. To this end he made his appeal to the Northern churches +and pulpits, beseeching them to bring the power of Christianity to bear +against the slave system, and to advocate the rights of the slaves to +immediate and unconditional freedom. He was a man of peace, hating war +not less than he did slavery; but he warned his countrymen that if they +refused to abolish slavery by moral power a retributive war must sooner +or later ensue. The conflict was irrepressible. Slavery must be +overthrown, if not by peaceful means, then in blood. The first society +organized under Garrison's auspices, and in accordance with his +principles, was the New England Anti-Slavery Society, which adopted its +constitution in January 1832. In the spring of this year Garrison issued +his _Thoughts on African Colonization_, in which he showed by ample +citations from official documents that the American Colonization Society +was organized in the interest of slavery, and that in offering itself to +the people of the North as a practical remedy for that system it was +guilty of deception. His book, aided by others taking substantially the +same view, smote the society with a paralysis from which it never +recovered. Agents of the American Colonization Society in England having +succeeded in deceiving leading Abolitionists there as to its character +and tendency, Garrison was deputed by the New England Anti-Slavery +Society to visit England for the purpose of counteracting their +influence. He went in the spring of 1833, when he was but twenty-seven +years of age, and was received with great cordiality by British +Abolitionists, some of whom had heard of his bold assaults upon American +slavery, and had seen a few numbers of the _Liberator_. The struggle for +emancipation in the West Indies was then at the point of culmination; +the leaders of the cause, from all parts of the kingdom, were assembled +in London, and Garrison was at once admitted to their councils and +treated with distinguished consideration. He took home with him a +"protest" against the American Colonization Society, signed by +Wilberforce, Zachary Macaulay, Samuel Gurney, William Evans, S. +Lushington, T. Fowell Buxton, James Cropper, Daniel O'Connell and +others, in which they declared their deliberate judgment that "its +precepts were delusive," and "its real effects of the most dangerous +nature." He also received assurances of the cordial sympathy of British +Abolitionists with him in his efforts to abolish American slavery. He +gained a hearing before a large popular assembly in London, and won the +confidence of those whom he addressed by his evident earnestness, +sincerity and ability. + +Garrison's visit to England enraged the pro-slavery people and press of +the United States at the outset, and when he returned home in September +with the "protest" against the Colonization Society, and announced that +he had engaged the services of George Thompson as a lecturer against +American slavery, there were fresh outbursts of rage on every hand. The +American Anti-Slavery Society was organized in December of that year +(1833), putting forth a masterly declaration of its principles and +purposes from the pen of Garrison. This added fresh fuel to the public +excitement, and when Thompson came over in the next spring, the +hostility to the cause began to manifest itself in mobs organized to +suppress the discussion of the slavery question. Now began what Harriet +Martineau called "the martyr age in America." In the autumn of 1835 +Thompson was compelled, in order to save his life, to embark secretly +for England. Just before his departure the announcement that he would +address the Woman's Anti-Slavery Society of Boston created "a mob of +gentlemen of property and standing," from which, if he had been present, +he could hardly have escaped with his life. The whole city was in an +uproar. Garrison, almost denuded of his clothing, was dragged through +the streets with a rope by infuriated men. He was rescued with great +difficulty, and consigned to the gaol for safety, until he could be +secretly removed from the city. + +Anti-slavery societies were greatly multiplied throughout the North, and +many men of influence, both in the church and in the state, were won to +the cause. Garrison, true to his original purpose, never faltered or +turned back. The Abolitionists of the United States were a united body +until 1839-1840, when divisions sprang up among them. Garrison +countenanced the activity of women in the cause, even to the extent of +allowing them to vote and speak in the anti-slavery societies, and +appointing them as lecturing agents; moreover, he believed in the +political equality of the sexes, to which a strong party was opposed +upon social and religious grounds. Then there were some who thought +Garrison dealt too severely with the churches and pulpits for their +complicity with slavery, and who accused him of a want of religious +orthodoxy; indeed, according to the standards of his time he was +decidedly heterodox, though he had an intensely religious nature and was +far from being an infidel, as he was often charged with being. He was, +moreover, not only a non-resistant but also an opponent of all political +systems based on force. "As to the governments of this world," he said, +"whatever their titles or forms we shall endeavour to prove that in +their essential elements, as at present administered, they are all +anti-Christ; that they can never by human wisdom be brought into +conformity with the will of God; that they cannot be maintained except +by naval and military power to carry them into effect; that all their +penal enactments, being a dead letter without any army to carry them +into effect, are virtually written in human blood; and that the +followers of Jesus should instinctively shun their stations of honor, +power, and emolument--at the same time 'submitting to every ordinance of +man for the Lord's sake' and offering no physical resistance to any of +their mandates, however unjust or tyrannical." These views were very +distasteful to many, who, moreover, felt that Garrison greatly injured +abolitionism by causing it to be associated in men's minds with these +unpopular views on other subjects. The dissentients from his opinions +determined to form an anti-slavery political party, while he believed in +working by moral rather than political party instrumentalities. These +differences led to the organization of a new National Anti-Slavery +Society in 1840, and to the formation of the "Liberty Party" (q.v.) in +politics. (See BIRNEY, JAMES G.) The two societies sent their delegates +to the World's Anti-Slavery Convention in London in 1840, and Garrison +refused to take his seat in that body, because the women delegates from +the United States were excluded. The discussions of the next few years +served to make clearer than before the practical workings of the +constitution of the United States as a shield and support of slavery; +and Garrison, after a long and painful reflection, came to the +conclusion that its pro-slavery clauses were immoral, and that it was +therefore wrong to take an oath for its support. The Southern states had +greatly enlarged representation in Congress on account of their slaves, +and the national government was constitutionally bound to assist in the +capture of fugitive slaves, and to suppress every attempt on their part +to gain their freedom by force. In view of these provisions, Garrison, +adopting a bold scriptural figure of speech, denounced the constitution +as "a covenant with death and an agreement with hell," and chose as his +motto, "No union with slaveholders." + +One class of Abolitionists sought to evade the difficulty by strained +interpretations of the clauses referred to, while others, admitting that +they were immoral, felt themselves obliged, notwithstanding, to support +the constitution in order to avoid what they thought would be still +greater evils. The American Anti-Slavery Society, of which Garrison was +the president from 1843 to the day of emancipation, was during all this +period the nucleus of an intense and powerful moral agitation, which was +greatly valued by many of the most faithful workers in the field of +politics, who respected Garrison for his fidelity to his convictions. On +the other hand, he always had the highest respect for every earnest and +faithful opponent of slavery, however far their special views might +differ. When in 1861 the Southern states seceded from the Union and took +up arms against it, he saw clearly that slavery would perish in the +struggle, that the constitution would be purged of its pro-slavery +clauses, and that the Union henceforth would rest upon the sure +foundations of liberty, justice and equality to all men. He therefore +ceased from that hour to advocate disunion, and devoted himself to the +task of preparing the way for and hastening on the inevitable event. His +services at this period were recognized and honoured by President +Lincoln and others in authority, and the whole country knew that the +agitation which made the abolition of slavery feasible and necessary was +largely due to his uncompromising spirit and indomitable courage. + +In 1865 at the close of the war, he declared that, slavery being +abolished, his career as an abolitionist was ended. He counselled a +dissolution of the American Anti-Slavery Society, insisting that it had +become _functus officiis_, and that whatever needed to be done for the +protection of the freedmen could best be accomplished by new +associations formed for that purpose. The _Liberator_ was discontinued +at the end of the same year, after an existence of thirty-five years. He +visited England for the second time in 1846, and again in 1867, when he +was received with distinguished honours, public as well as private. In +1877, when he was there for the last time, he declined every form of +public recognition. He died in New York on the 24th of May 1879, in the +seventy-fourth year of his age, and was buried in Boston, after a most +impressive funeral service, four days later. In 1843 a small volume of +his _Sonnets and other Poems_ was published, and in 1852 appeared a +volume of _Selections from his Writings and Speeches_. His wife, Helen +Eliza Benson, died in 1876. Four sons and one daughter survived them. + +Garrison's son, WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON (1838-1909), was a prominent +advocate of the single tax, free trade, woman's suffrage, and of the +repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act, and an opponent of imperialism; +another son, WENDELL PHILLIPS GARRISON (1840-1907), was literary editor +of the New York _Nation_ from 1865 to 1906. + + The above article, with certain modifications, reproduces the account + given in the 9th edition of this work by Oliver Johnson (reprinted + from his _Garrison: an Outline of his Life_, New York, 1879). The + writer (1809-1889) was a prominent Abolitionist, editor, and an + intimate friend of Garrison; he edited the _Liberator_ during + Garrison's absence in England in 1833, and later was an editor or an + associate editor of various journals, including, after the Civil War, + the New York _Tribune_ and the New York _Evening Post_. He also + published an excellent brief biography in _William Lloyd Garrison and + his Times_ (Boston, 1880). + + The great authority on the life of Garrison is the thorough and candid + work of his sons, W.P. and F.J. Garrison, _William Lloyd Garrison + 1805-1879: The Story of his Life told by his Children_ (4 vols., New + York, 1885-1889), which is indispensable for the student of the + anti-slavery struggle in America. Goldwin Smith's _The Moral Crusader: + a Biographical Essay on William Lloyd Garrison_ (New York, 1892) is a + brilliant sketch. + + + + +GARRISON, originally a term for stores or supplies, also a defence or +protection, now confined in meaning to a body of troops stationed in a +town or fortress for the purpose of defence. In form the word is derived +from O. Fr. _garison_, modern _guerison_, from _guerir_, to furnish with +stores, to preserve, but in its later meaning it has been confused with +the Fr. _garnison_, the regular word for troops stationed for purposes +of defence. In English "garnison" was used till the 16th century, when +"garrison" took its place. In the British army "garrison troops," +especially "garrison artillery," are troops trained and employed for +garrison work as distinct from field operations. + + + + +GARROTE (Spanish for "cudgel"), an appliance used in Spain and Portugal +for the execution of criminals condemned to death. The criminal is +conducted to the place of execution (which is public) on horseback or in +a cart, wearing a black tunic, and is attended by a procession of +priests, &c. He is seated on a scaffold fastened to an upright post by +an iron collar (the garrote), and a knob worked by a screw or lever +dislocates his spinal column, or a small blade severs the spinal column +at the base of the brain. (See CAPITAL PUNISHMENT.) Originally a stout +cord or bandage was tied round the neck of the criminal, who was seated +in a chair fixed to a post. Between the cord and the neck a stick was +inserted (hence the name) and twisted till strangulation ensued. + +"Garrotting" is the name given in England to a form of robbery with +violence which became rather common in the winter of 1862-1863. The +thief came up behind his victim, threw a cord over his head, and +tightened it nearly to strangulation point, while robbing him. An act of +1863, imposing the penalty of flogging in addition to penal servitude +for this offence, had the effect of stopping garrotting almost entirely. +At any rate, the practice was checked; and, though the opponents of any +sort of flogging refuse to admit that this was due to the penalty, that +view has always been taken by the English judges who had experience of +such cases. + + + + +GARRUCHA, a seaport of south-eastern Spain, in the province of Almeria; +on the Mediterranean Sea and on the right bank of the river Antas. Pop. +(1900) 4461. The harbour of Garrucha, which is defended by an ancient +castle, affords shelter to large ships, and is the natural outlet for +the commerce of a thriving agricultural and mining district. Despite its +small size and the want of railway communication, Garrucha has thus a +considerable trade in lead, silver, copper, iron, esparto grass, fruit, +&c. Besides sea-going ships, many small coasters enter in ballast, and +clear with valuable cargoes. In 1902, 135 vessels of 390,000 tons +entered the harbour, the majority being British or Spanish; and in the +same year the value of the exports reached L478,000, and that of the +imports L128,000. Both imports and exports trebled their value in the +ten years 1892-1902. + + + + +GARSTON, a seaport in the Widnes parliamentary division of Lancashire, +England, on the Mersey, 6 m. S.E. of Liverpool. Pop. (1891) 13,444; +(1901) 17,289. The docks, belonging to the London & North Western +railway company, employ most of the working population. There is about a +mile of quayage, with special machinery for the shipping of coal, which +forms the chief article of export. + + + + +GARTH, SIR SAMUEL (1661-1719), English physician and poet, was born of a +good Yorkshire family in 1661. He entered Peterhouse, Cambridge, in +1676, graduating B.A. in 1679 and M.A. in 1684. He took his M.D. and +became a member of the College of Physicians in 1691. In 1697 he +delivered the Harveian oration, in which he advocated a scheme dating +from some ten years back for providing dispensaries for the relief of +the sick poor, as a protection against the greed of the apothecaries. In +1699 he published a mock-heroic poem, _The Dispensary_, in six cantos, +which had an instant success, passing through three editions within a +year. In this he ridiculed the apothecaries and their allies among the +physicians. The poem has little interest at the present day, except as a +proof that the heroic couplet was written with smoothness and polish +before the days of Pope. Garth was a member of the Kit-Kat Club, and +became the leading physician of the Whigs, as Radcliffe was of the +Tories. In 1714 he was knighted by George I. and he died on the 18th of +January 1719. He wrote little besides his best-known work _The +Dispensary_ and _Claremont_, a moral epistle in verse. He made a Latin +oration (1700) in praise of Dryden and translated the _Life of Otho_ in +the fifth volume of Dryden's Plutarch. In 1717 he edited a translation +of Ovid's _Metamorphoses_, himself supplying the fourteenth and part of +the fifteenth book. + + + + +GARTOK, a trade-market of Tibet, situated on the bank of the Indus on +the road between Shigatse and Leh, to the east of Simla. In accordance +with the Tibet treaty of 1904, Gartok, together with Yatung and Gyantse, +was thrown open to British trade. On the return of the column from Lhasa +in that year Gartok was visited by a party under Captain Ryder, who +found only a few dozen people in winter quarters, their houses being in +the midst of a bare plain. In summer, however, all the trade between +Tibet and Ladakh passes through this place. + + + + +GARY, a city of Lake county, Indiana, U.S.A., at the southern end of +Lake Michigan, about 25 m. S.E. of Chicago, Ill. Pop. (1910 census) +16,802. Gary is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Lake Shore & +Michigan Southern, the Michigan Central, the Pennsylvania, the Wabash, +and (for freight only) the Chicago, Lake Shore & Eastern, and the +Indiana Harbor Belt railways, and by several steamship lines plying the +Great Lakes. There are about 21 sq. m. within the municipal limits, but +the city lies chiefly within a tract of about 8000 acres composed at the +time of its settlement mainly of sand dunes and swamps intersected from +east to west by the Grand Calumet and the Little Calumet rivers, small +streams respectively about 1 and 3 m. S. of the lake shore. In 1906 the +United States Steel Corporation bought this tract to establish on it a +great industrial community, as direct water connexion with the Lake +Superior ore region was possible, and it was comparatively accessible to +West Virginia coal and Michigan limestone, with unusual railroad +facilities. The Steel Corporation began the actual building of the town +in June 1906, the first step being the installation of an elaborate +system of sewers, and of mains and conduits, for the distribution of +water, gas and electricity. The water-supply is taken from the lake at a +point 2 m. offshore by means of a tunnel. These public utilities the +Steel Corporation controls, and it has built about 500 dwellings, two +hotels, a bank, and its own plant. A small patch of land, now within the +limits of the city, has been from the beginning in the hands of private +owners, but the remainder of the lots (except those already sold) are +owned by the Steel Corporation, and are sold under certain restrictions +intended to prevent real estate speculation, to guarantee bona fide +improvement of the property, and to restrict the sale of intoxicating +drinks. Between the Grand Calumet river (which has been dredged out into +a canal) and the lake lies the plant of the Steel Corporation, covering +about 1200 acres. All the machinery in this great plant is driven by +electricity from generators whose motive power is supplied by the +combustion of gases from the blast furnaces. From the same sources is +also supplied the electricity for lighting the city. The rail mill is +operated by three-phase induction motors of from 2000 to 6000 +horse-power capacity. The city was chartered in 1906 and was named in +honour of Elbert Henry Gary (b. 1846), chairman of the board of +directors and chairman of the finance committee of the United States +Steel Corporation. + + + + +GAS, a general term for one of the three states of aggregation of +matter; also more specifically applied to coal-gas, the gaseous product +formed in the destructive distillation of coal or other carbonaceous +matter (see below, section _Gas Manufacture_; for gas engines see the +separate heading GAS ENGINE). + +_The Gaseous State._--Matter is studied under three physical +phases--solids, liquids and gases, the latter two being sometimes +grouped as "fluids." The study of the physical properties of fluids in +general constitutes the science of hydromechanics, and their +applications in the arts is termed hydraulics; the special science +dealing with the physical properties of gases is named pneumatics. + +The gaseous fluid with which we have chiefly to do is our atmosphere. +Though practically invisible, it appeals in its properties to other of +our senses, so that the evidences of its presence are manifold. Thus we +feel it in its motion as wind, and observe the dynamical effects of this +motion in the quiver of the leaf or the motion of a sailing ship. It +offers resistance to the passage of bodies through it, destroying their +motion and transforming their energy--as is betrayed to our hearing in +the whiz of the rifle bullet, to our sight in the flash of the meteor. + +The practically obvious distinction between solids and fluids may be +stated in dynamical language thus:--solids can sustain a longitudinal +pressure without being supported by a lateral pressure; fluids cannot. +Hence any region of space enclosed by a rigid boundary can be easily +filled with a fluid, which then takes the form of the bounding surface +at every point of it. But here we distinguish between fluids according +as they are gases or liquids. The gas will always completely fill the +region, however small the quantity put in. Remove any portion and the +remainder will expand so as to fill the whole space again. On the other +hand, it requires a definite quantity of liquid to fill the region. +Remove any portion and a part of the space will be left unoccupied by +liquid. Part of the liquid surface is then otherwise conditioned than by +the form of the wall or bounding surface of the region; and if the +portion of the wall not in contact with the liquid is removed the form +and quantity of the liquid are in no way affected. Hence a liquid can be +kept in an open vessel; a gas cannot so be. To quote the differentia of +Sir Oliver Lodge: "A solid has volume and shape; a liquid has volume, +but no shape; a gas has neither volume nor shape." + +It is necessary to distinguish between a gas and a "vapour." The latter +possesses the physical property stated above which distinguishes a gas +from a fluid, but it differs from a gas by being readily condensible to +a liquid, either by lowering the temperature or moderately increasing +the pressure. The study of the effects of pressure and temperature on +many gases led to the introduction of the term "permanent gases" to +denote gases which were apparently not liquefiable. The list included +hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen; but with improved methods these gases +have been liquefied and even solidified, thus rendering the term +meaningless (see LIQUID GASES). The term "perfect gas" is applied to an +imaginary substance in which there is no frictional retardation of +molecular motion; or, in other words, the time during which any molecule +is influenced by other molecules is infinitesimally small compared with +the time during which it traverses its mean free path. It serves as a +means of research, more particularly in mathematical investigations, the +simple laws thus deduced being subsequently modified by introducing +assumptions in order to co-ordinate actual experiences. + +The gaseous state was well known to the ancients; for instance, in Greek +cosmology, "air" ([Greek: pneuma]) was one of the fundamental elements. +The alchemists used such terms as _spiritus_, _flatus_, _halitus_, +_aura_, _emanatio nubila_, &c., words implying a "wind" or "breath." The +word "gas" was invented by J.B. van Helmont in his _Ortus medicinae_, +posthumously published in 1648, in the course of his description of the +gas now known as carbon dioxide. He found that charcoal on burning +yielded a "spirit," which he named _spiritus sylvestris_ on account of +its supposed untamable nature ("Gas sylvestre sive incoercibile, quod in +corpus cogi non potest visibile"); and he invented the word "gas" in the +expression: "... this spirit, hitherto unknown, ... I call by a new name +_gas_" ("hunc spiritum, incognitum hactenus, novo nomine _gas_ voco"). +The word was suggested by the Gr. [Greek: chaos], chaos, for he also +writes: "I have called this spirit _gas_, it being scarcely +distinguishable from the Chaos of the ancients" ("halitum illum _Gas_ +vocavi, non longe a Chao veterum secretum"). The view that the word was +suggested by the Dutch _geest_, spirit, is consequently erroneous. Until +the end of the 18th century the word "air," qualified by certain +adjectives, was in common use for most of the gases known--a custom due +in considerable measure to the important part which common air played in +chemical and physical investigations. + +The study of gases may be divided into two main branches: the physical +and the chemical. The former investigates essentially general +properties, such as the weight and density, the relation between +pressure, volume and temperature (piezometric and thermometric +properties), calorimetric properties, diffusion, viscosity, electrical +and thermal conductivity, &c., and generally properties independent of +composition. These subjects are discussed in the articles DENSITY; +THERMOMETRY; CALORIMETRY; DIFFUSION; CONDUCTION OF HEAT; and +CONDENSATION OF GASES. The latter has for its province the preparation, +collection and identification of gases, and the volume relations in +which they combine; in general it deals with specific properties. The +historical development of the chemistry of gases--pneumatic +chemistry--is treated in the article CHEMISTRY; the technical analysis +of gaseous mixtures is treated below under _Gas Analysis_. Connecting +the experimental study of the physical and chemical properties is the +immense theoretical edifice termed the kinetic theory of gases. This +subject, which is discussed in the article MOLECULE, has for its purpose +(1) the derivation of a physical structure of a gas which will agree +with the experimental observations of the diverse physical properties, +and (2) a correlation of the physical properties and chemical +composition. + +_Gas Analysis._--The term "gas analysis" is given to that branch of +analytical chemistry which has for its object the quantitative +determination of the components of a gaseous mixture. The chief +applications are found in the analysis of flue gases (in which much +information is gained as to the completeness and efficiency of +combustion), and of coal gas (where it is necessary to have a product of +a definite composition within certain limits). There are, in addition, +many other branches of chemical technology in which the methods are +employed. In general, volumetric methods are used, i.e. a component is +absorbed by a suitable reagent and the diminution in volume noted, or it +is absorbed in water and the amount determined by titration with a +standard solution. Exact analysis is difficult and tedious, and +consequently the laboratory methods are not employed in technology, +where time is an important factor and moderate accuracy is all that is +necessary. In this article an outline of the technical practice will be +given. + +The apparatus consists of (1) a measuring vessel, and (2) a series of +absorption pipettes. A convenient form of measuring vessel is that +devised by W. Hempel. It consists of two vertical tubes provided with +feet and connected at the bottom by flexible rubber tubing. One tube, +called the "measuring tube," is provided with a capillary stopcock at +the top and graduated downwards; the other tube, called the "level +tube," is plain and open. To use the apparatus, the measuring tube is +completely filled with water by pouring water into both tubes, raising +the level tube until water overflows at the stopcock, which is then +turned. The test gas is brought to the stopcock, by means of a fine tube +which has been previously filled with water or in which the air has been +displaced by running the gas through. By opening the stopcock and +lowering the level tube any desired quantity of the gas can be aspirated +over. In cases where a large quantity of gas, i.e. sufficient for +several tests, is to be collected, the measuring tube is replaced by a +large bottle. + +[Illustration: (By permission of Messrs Baird & Tatlock.) + + FIG. 1. + + FIG. 2.] + +The volume of the gas in the measuring tube is determined by bringing +the water in both tubes to the same level, and reading the graduation on +the tube, avoiding parallax and the other errors associated with +recording the coincidence of a graduation with a meniscus. The +temperature and atmospheric pressure are simultaneously noted. If the +tests be carried out rapidly, the temperature and pressure may be +assumed to be constant, and any diminution in volume due to the +absorption of a constituent may be readily expressed as a percentage. +If, however, the temperature and pressure vary, the volumes are reduced +to 0 deg. and 760 mm. by means of the formula V0 = V(P-p)/(1 + +.00366t)760, in which V is the observed volume, P the barometric +pressure, p the vapour tension of water at the temperature t of the +experiment. This reduction is facilitated by the use of tables. + +Some common forms of absorption pipettes are shown in figs. 1 and 2. The +simpler form consists of two bulbs connected at the bottom by a wide +tube. The lower bulb is provided with a smaller bulb bearing a capillary +through which the gas is led to the apparatus, the higher bulb has a +wider outlet tube. The arrangement is mounted vertically on a stand. +Sometimes the small bulb on the left is omitted. The form of the pipette +varies with the nature of the absorbing material. For solutions which +remain permanent in air the two-bulbed form suffices; in other cases a +composite pipette (fig. 2) is employed, in which the absorbent is +protected by a second pipette containing water. In the case of solid +reagents, e.g. phosphorus, the absorbing bulb has a tubulure at the +bottom. To use a pipette, the absorbing liquid is brought to the outlet +of the capillary by tilting or by squeezing a rubber ball fixed to the +wide end, and the liquid is maintained there by closing with a clip. The +capillary is connected with the measuring tube by a fine tube previously +filled with water. The clip is removed, the stopcock opened, and the +level tube of the measuring apparatus raised, so that the gas passes +into the first bulb. There it is allowed to remain, the pipette being +shaken from time to time. It is then run back into the measuring tube by +lowering the level tube, the stopcock is closed, and the volume noted. +The operation is repeated until there is no further absorption. + +The choice of absorbents and the order in which the gases are to be +estimated is strictly limited. Confining ourselves to cases where +titration methods are not employed, the general order is as follows: +carbon dioxide, olefines, oxygen, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane and +nitrogen (by difference). This scheme is particularly applicable to +coal-gas. Carbon dioxide is absorbed by a potash solution containing one +part of potash to between two and three of water; the stronger solution +absorbs about 40 volumes of the gas. The olefines--ethylene, &c.--are +generally absorbed by a very strong sulphuric acid prepared by adding +sulphur trioxide to sulphuric acid to form a mixture which solidifies +when slightly cooled. Bromine water is also employed. Oxygen is absorbed +by stick phosphorus contained in a tubulated pipette filled with water. +The temperature must be above 18 deg.; and the absorption is prevented by +ammonia, olefines, alcohol, and some other substances. An alkaline +solution of pyrogallol is also used; this solution rapidly absorbs +oxygen, becoming black in colour, and it is necessary to prepare the +solution immediately before use. Carbon monoxide is absorbed by a +solution of cuprous chloride in hydrochloric acid or, better, in +ammonia. When small in amount, it is better to estimate as carbon +dioxide by burning with oxygen and absorbing in potash; when large in +amount, the bulk is absorbed in ammoniacal cuprous chloride and the +residue burned. Hydrogen may be estimated by absorption by heated +palladium contained in a capillary through which the gas is passed, or +by exploding (under reduced pressure) with an excess of oxygen, and +measuring the diminution in volume, two-thirds of which is the volume of +hydrogen. The explosion method is unsatisfactory when the gas is +contained over water, and is improved by using mercury. Methane cannot +be burnt in this way even when there is much hydrogen present, and +several other methods have been proposed, such as mixing with air and +aspirating over copper oxide heated to redness, or mixing with oxygen +and burning in a platinum tube heated to redness, the carbon dioxide +formed being estimated by absorption in potash. Gases soluble in water, +such as ammonia, hydrochloric acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphur +dioxide, &c., are estimated by passing a known volume of the gas through +water and titrating the solution with a standard solution. Many types of +absorption vessel are in use, and the standard solutions are generally +such that 1 c.c. of the solution corresponds to 1 c.c. of the gas under +normal conditions. + +[Illustration: (By permission of Messrs Baird & Tatlock.) + + FIG. 3.] + +Many forms of composite gas-apparatus are in use. One of the commonest +is the Orsat shown in fig. 3. The gas is measured in the graduated +cylinder on the right, which is surrounded by a water jacket and +provided with a levelling bottle. At the top it is connected by a +capillary tube bent at right angles to a series of absorbing vessels, +the connexion being effected by stopcocks. These vessels consist of two +vertical cylinders joined at the bottom by a short tube. The cylinder in +direct communication with the capillary is filled with glass tubes so as +to expose a larger surface of the absorbing solution to the gas. The +other cylinder is open to the air and serves to hold the liquid ejected +from the absorbing cylinder. Any number of bulbs can be attached to the +horizontal capillary; in the form illustrated there are four, the last +being a hydrogen pipette in which the palladium is heated in a +horizontal tube by a spirit lamp. At the end of the horizontal tube +there is a three-way cock connecting with the air or an aspirator. To +use the apparatus, the measuring tube is completely filled with water by +raising the levelling bottle. The absorbing vessels are then about half +filled with the absorbents, and, by opening the cocks and aspirating, +the liquid is brought so as completely to fill the bulbs nearer the +capillary. The cocks are then closed. By opening the three-way cock to +the supply of the test gas and lowering the levelling bottle, any +desired amount can be drawn into the measuring tube. The absorption is +effected by opening the cock of an absorbing vessel and raising the +levelling bottle. The same order of absorption and general directions +pertaining to the use of Hempel pipettes have to be adopted. + + Although the earliest attempts at gas analysis were made by Scheele, + Priestley, Cavendish, Lavoisier, Dalton, Gay-Lussac and others, the + methods were first systematized by R. Bunsen, who began his researches + in 1838. He embodied his results in his classical _Gasometrische + Methoden_ (1857, second edition 1877), a work translated into English + by H. Roscoe. Clemens Winkler contributed two works, _Anleitung zur + chemischen Untersuchung der Industriegase_ (1876-1877) and _Lehrbuch + der technischen Gasanalyse_ (2nd ed., 1892), both of which are very + valuable for the commercial applications of the methods. W. Hempel's + researches are given in his _Neue Methode zur Analyse der Gase_ (1880) + and _Gasanalytische Methoden_ (1890, 3rd ed. 1900). + + +GAS MANUFACTURE + + Historical. + +1. _Illuminating Gas._--The first practical application of gas distilled +from coal as an illuminating agent is generally ascribed to William +Murdoch, who between the years of 1792 and 1802 demonstrated the +possibility of making gas from coal and using it as a lighting agent on +a large scale. Prior to 1691, however, Dr John Clayton, dean of Kildare, +filled bladders with inflammable gas obtained by the distillation of +coal, and showed that on pricking the bladders and applying a light to +the escaping gas it burnt with a luminous flame, and in 1726 Stephen +Hales published the fact that by the distillation of 158 grains of +Newcastle coal, 180 cub. in. of inflammable air would be obtained. Jean +Pierre Minckelers, professor of natural philosophy in the university of +Louvain, and later of chemistry and physics at Maestricht, made +experiments on distilling gas from coal with the view of obtaining a +permanent gas sufficiently light for filling balloons, and in 1785 +experimentally lighted his lecture room with gas so obtained as a +demonstration to his students, but no commercial application was made of +the fact. Lord Dundonald, in 1787, whilst distilling coal for the +production of tar and oil, noticed the formation of inflammable gas, and +even used it for lighting the hall of Culross Abbey. It is clear from +these facts that, prior to Murdoch's experiments, it was known that +illuminating gas could be obtained by the destructive distillation of +coal, but the experiments which he began at Redruth in 1792, and which +culminated in the lighting of Messrs Boulton, Watt & Co.'s engine works +at Soho, near Birmingham, in 1802, undoubtedly demonstrated the +practical possibility of making the gas on a large scale, and burning it +in such a way as to make coal-gas the most important of the artificial +illuminants. An impression exists in Cornwall, where Murdoch's early +experiments were made, that it was a millwright named Hornblower who +first suggested the process of making gas to Murdoch, but, as has been +shown, the fact that illuminating gas could be obtained from coal by +distillation was known a century before Murdoch made his experiments, +and the most that can be claimed for him is that he made the first +successful application of it on a practical scale. + +In 1799 a Frenchman named Philippe Lebon took out a patent in Paris for +making an illuminating gas from wood, and gave an exhibition of it in +1802, which excited a considerable amount of attention on the European +continent. It was seen by a German, F.A. Winsor, who made Lebon an offer +for his secret process for Germany. This offer was, however, declined, +and Winsor returned to Frankfort determined to find out how the gas +could be made. Having quickly succeeded in discovering this, he in 1803 +exhibited before the reigning duke of Brunswick a series of experiments +with lighting gas made from wood and from coal. Looking upon London as a +promising field for enterprise, he came over to England, and at the +commencement of 1804 took the Lyceum theatre, where he gave +demonstrations of his process. He then proceeded to float a company, +and in 1807 the first public street gas lighting took place in Pall +Mall, whilst in 1809 he applied to parliament to incorporate the +National Heat and Light Company with a capital of half a million +sterling. This application was opposed by Murdoch on the ground of his +priority in invention, and the bill was thrown out, but coming to +parliament for a second time in 1810, Winsor succeeded in getting it +passed in a very much curtailed form, and, a charter being granted later +in 1812, the company was called the Chartered Gas Light and Coke +Company, and was the direct forerunner of the present London Gas Light +and Coke Company. During this period Frederick C. Accum (1769-1838), Dr +W. Henry and S. Clegg did so much by their writings and by the +improvements they introduced in the manufacture, distribution and +burning of coal gas, that their names have become inseparably connected +with the subject. + + + The growth of gas lighting. + +In 1813 Westminster Bridge, and in the following year the streets of +Westminster, were lighted with gas, and in 1816 it became common in +London. After this so rapid was the progress of this new mode of +illumination that in the course of a few years it was adopted by all the +principal towns in the United Kingdom for lighting streets as well as +shops and public edifices. In private houses it found its way more +slowly, partly from an apprehension of danger attending its use, and +partly from the discomfort which was experienced in many cases through +the gas being distributed without purification, and to the careless and +imperfect manner in which the service pipes were first fitted. It was +during the last four decades of the 19th century that the greatest +advance was made, this period having been marked not only by many +improvements in the manufacture of illuminating gas, but by a complete +revolution in the methods of utilizing it for the production of light. +In 1875 the London Argand, giving a duty of 3.2 candles illuminating +power per cubic foot of ordinary 16 candle gas, was looked upon as the +most perfect burner of the day, and little hope was entertained that any +burner capable of universal adoption would surpass it in its power of +developing light from the combustion of coal gas; but the close of the +century found the incandescent mantle and the atmospheric burner +yielding six times the light that was given by the Argand for the +consumption of an equal volume of gas, and to-day, by supplying gas at +an increased pressure, a light of ten times the power may be obtained. +Since the advent of the incandescent mantle, the efficiency of which is +dependent upon the heating power of the gas more than on its +illuminating power, the manufacture of coal gas has undergone +considerable modifications. + + + Coals used for gas-making. + + Coal, the raw material from which the gas is produced by a process of + destructive distillation, varies very widely in composition (see + COAL), and it is only the class of coals rich in hydrogen, known as + bituminous coal, that can with advantage be utilized in gas + manufacture. Coals of this character are obtained in England from the + Newcastle and Durham field, South Yorkshire, Derbyshire and Barnsley + districts, and an idea of their ultimate composition may be derived + from the following table:-- + + +--------------------------+-------+------+--------+------+-------+------+------+ + | |Carbon.|Hydro-|Sulphur.|Nitro-|Oxygen.| Ash. |Moist-| + | | | gen. | | gen. | | | ure. | + +--------------------------+-------+------+--------+------+-------+------+------+ + | Newcastle gas coal | 82.16 | 4.83 | 1.00 | 1.23 | 6.82 | 3.20 | 0.76 | + | Durham gas coal | 84.34 | 5.30 | 0.73 | 1.73 | 4.29 | 2.42 | 1.14 | + | South Yorkshire silkstone| 80.46 | 5.09 | 1.66 | 1.67 | 6.79 | 3.30 | 1.03 | + | Derbyshire silkstone | 76.96 | 5.04 | 2.39 | 1.77 | 6.92 | 3.28 | 3.64 | + | Barnsley gas coal | 75.64 | 4.94 | 2.84 | 1.65 | 7.25 | 4.28 | 3.40 | + +--------------------------+-------+------+--------+------+-------+------+------+ + + Our knowledge of the composition of coal is limited to the total + amount of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and foreign materials + which it contains; and at present we know practically but little of + the way in which these bodies are combined. This being so, the + ordinary analysis of a coal affords but little indication of its value + for gas-making purposes, which can only be really satisfactorily + arrived at by extended use on a practical scale. Bituminous coal, + however, may be looked upon as containing carbon and also simple + hydrocarbons, such as some of the higher members of the paraffin + series, and likewise organic bodies containing carbon, hydrogen, + nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur. + + + Destructive distillation of coal. + + On submitting a complex substance of this character to destructive + distillation, it will be found that the yield and quality of the + products will vary very considerably with the temperature existing in + the retorts, with the size of the charge of coal used, with its + distribution in the retort, with the length of time the distillation + has been going on, and with an infinity of other factors of a more or + less complex nature. If bituminous coal is distilled at a low + temperature, the tar is found to contain considerable quantities of + light paraffin oils; and there is no doubt that paraffin hydrocarbons + are present in the original coal. These paraffins, under the influence + of heat, split up into simpler members of the same series and into + olefines; and if we imagine the action in its simplest form, we should + have the gases, as they were evolved, consisting of (say) ethane and + ethylene. These have now to pass down the heated retort on their way + to the ascension pipe, and the contact with the heated sides of the + retort, and the baking from the radiant heat in the retort, set up an + infinity of changes. Ethane, when heated to this degree, splits up + into ethylene and hydrogen, whilst ethylene decomposes to methane and + acetylene, and the acetylene at once polymerizes to benzene, + styrolene, retene, &c. A portion also condenses, and at the same time + loses some hydrogen, becoming naphthalene; and the compounds so formed + by interactions amongst themselves build up the remainder of the + hydrocarbons present in the coal tar, whilst the organic substances + containing oxygen in the coal break down, and cause the formation of + the phenols in the tar. + + There is very little doubt that the general course of the + decompositions follows these lines; but any such simple explanation of + the actions taking place is rendered impossible by the fact that, + instead of the breaking-down of the hydrocarbons being completed in + the coal, and only secondary reactions taking place in the retort, in + practice the hydrocarbons to a great extent leave the coal as the + vapours of condensible hydrocarbons, and the breaking down of these to + such simple gaseous compounds as ethylene is proceeding in the retort + at the same time as the breaking up of the ethylene already formed + into acetylene and methane, and the polymerization of the former into + higher compounds. Starting with a solid hydrocarbon of definite + composition, it would be theoretically possible to decompose it + entirely into carbon, hydrogen, ethylene and methane, and, by rapidly + removing these from the heating zone before any secondary actions took + place, to prevent formation of tar. But any such ideal is hopeless in + practice, as the coal is not a definite compound, and it is impossible + to subject it to a fixed temperature. + + + Effect of temperature in the retort. + + If the retorts are at a temperature of 1000 deg. C. when the charge of + coal is put in, the temperature of the distillation will vary from + about 800 deg. C. close to the walls, to about 400 deg. C. in the + centre of the coal; and in the same way, in the space above the coal, + the products which come in contact with the sides of the retort are + heated to 1000 deg. C., whilst the gas near the coal is probably + heated to only 600 deg. C. Moreover, the gases and vapours in the + retort are subjected to a period of heating which varies widely with + the distance from the mouth of the retort of the coal that is + undergoing carbonization. The gas developed by the coal near the mouth + of the retort is quickly washed out into the ascension pipe by the + push of the gas behind, and the period for which it has been exposed + to the radiant heat from the walls of the retort is practically nil; + whilst the gas evolved in the portion of the retort farthest from the + mouthpiece has only its own rate of evolution to drive it forward, and + has to traverse the longest run possible in the retort, exposed during + the whole of that period to radiant heat and to contact with the + highly heated surface of the retort itself. Hence we find that the tar + is formed of two distinct sets of products, the first due to + incomplete decomposition and the second to secondary reactions due to + the products of the decomposition being kept too long in the zone of + heat. + + Of the first class, the light paraffin oils and pitch may be taken as + examples; whilst benzene, naphthalene and retort carbon represent the + second. The formation of the second class of bodies is a great loss to + the gas manufacturer, as, with the exception of the trace of benzene + carried with the gas as vapour, these products are not only useless in + the gas, but one of them, naphthalene, is a serious trouble, because + any trace carried forward by the gas condenses with sudden changes of + temperature, and causes obstructions in the service pipes, whilst + their presence in the tar means the loss of a very large proportion of + the illuminating constituents of the gas. Moreover, these secondary + products cannot be successfully reduced, by further heating, to + simpler hydrocarbons of any high illuminating value, and such bodies + as naphthalene and anthracene have so great a stability that, when + once formed, they resist any efforts again to decompose them by heat, + short of the temperature which breaks them up into methane, carbon and + hydrogen. + + The ammonia is derived from the nitrogen present in the coal combining + with hydrogen during destructive distillation, the nitrogen becoming + distributed amongst all three classes of products. The following table + will give an approximate idea of the proportions which go to each:-- + + Per cent. + + Nitrogen as ammonia 14.50 + " as cyanogen 1.56 + " free in gas and combined in tar 35.26 + " remaining in coke 48.68 + ------ + 100.00 + + The effect produced by alteration in the temperature of the retort + upon the composition of both gas and tar is very marked. As the + temperature is raised, the yield of gas from a given weight of coal + increases; but with the increase of volume there is a marked decrease + in the illuminating value of the gas evolved. Lewis T. Wright found, + in a series of experiments, that, when four portions of the same coal + were distilled at temperatures ranging from a dull red heat to the + highest temperature attainable in an iron retort, he obtained the + following results as to yield and illuminating power:-- + + +-----------------+-------------+------------+---------+ + | | Cubic ft. of|Illuminating| Total | + | Temperature. | Gas per ton.| Power, | Candles | + | | | Candles. | per ton.| + +-----------------+-------------+------------+---------+ + | 1. Dull red | 8,250 | 20.5 | 33.950 | + | 2. Hotter | 9,693 | 17.8 | 34.510 | + | 3. " | 10,821 | 16.7 | 36.140 | + | 4. Bright orange| 12,006 | 15.6 | 37.460 | + +-----------------+-------------+------------+---------+ + + _Composition of the Gas._ + + +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | 1. | 2. | 4. | + | | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | + +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Hydrogen | 38.09 | 43.77 | 48.02 | + | Marsh gas | 42.72 | 34.50 | 30.70 | + | Olefines | 7.55 | 5.83 | 4.51 | + | Carbon monoxide | 8.72 | 12.50 | 13.96 | + | Nitrogen | 2.92 | 3.40 | 2.81 | + | +-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | + +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + + The gas analysis of No. 3 was lost, but the illuminating power shows + that it was intermediate in composition between Nos. 2 and 4. From + this it will be seen that, with the increase of temperature, the + hydrocarbons--the olefines and marsh gas series--gradually break up, + depositing carbon in the crown of the retort, and liberating hydrogen, + the percentage of which steadily increases with the rise of + temperature. + + The tar formed is affected to an even greater extent than the gas by + alterations in the temperature at which the destructive distillation + takes place. The lower the temperature, the smaller will be the volume + of gas produced, and the lighter the specific gravity of the tar, + whilst with increase of temperature, the volume of gas rapidly rises, + and so does the specific gravity of the tar. Working with a caking + coal Wright obtained the following results:-- + + +--------------+------------------+ + | Yield of Gas | Specific Gravity | + | per ton, | of Tar. | + | Cub. ft. | | + +--------------+------------------+ + | 6,600 | 1.086 | + | 7,200 | 1.120 | + | 8,900 | 1.140 | + | 10,162 | 1.154 | + | 11,700 | 1.206 | + +--------------+------------------+ + + Analysis of the tar showed that the increase of the specific gravity + was due to the increase in the quantity of pitch, which rose from + 28.89 to 64.08% in the residuals; whilst the ammonia, naphtha and + light oils steadily fell in quantity, the creosote and anthracene oils + doing the same, but to a smaller extent. Naphthalene also begins to + show in quantity in the tar as soon as the yield of gas reaches 10,000 + cub. ft. per ton of coal carbonized. + + In spite of these variations, however, the products in their main + characteristics will remain the same. They may be divided into--(a) + Solids, such as the coke and retort carbon; (b) liquids, consisting of + the tar and ammoniacal liquor; and (c) gases, consisting of the + unpurified coal gas. The proportions in which the products are + approximately obtained from a ton of gas coal have been given as + follows:-- + + 10,000 cub. ft. of gas = 380 lb. = 17.0 per cent. + 10 gallons of tar = 115 " = 5.1 " + Gas liquor[1] = 177 " = 7.9 " + Coke = 1568 " = 70.0 " + ---- ----- + 2240 100.0 + + + Solid products. + + The chief solid residue, coke, is not absolutely pure carbon, as it + contains the mineral non-volatile constituents which remain behind as + ash when the original coal is burnt, and which, to a great extent, + existed in the sap that filled the cells of the plant from which the + coal was formed. The retort carbon formed as a dense deposit on the + crown of the retort by the action of the high temperature on the + hydrocarbons is, however, carbon in a very pure form, and, on account + of its density, is largely used for electrical purposes. + + + Liquid products. + + The liquid products of the destructive distillation of coal are tar + and ammoniacal liquor. Tar derived from ordinary bituminous coal is a + black, somewhat viscid liquid, varying in specific gravity from 1.1 to + 1.2. The ultimate composition of tar made in the London Gas Works is + approximately as follows:-- + + Carbon 77.53 + Hydrogen 6.33 + Nitrogen 1.03 + Sulphur 0.61 + Oxygen 14.50 + ------ + 100.00 + + These elements in tar are built up into an enormous number of + compounds (see COAL TAR), and its value as a by-product may be + gathered from the fact that on fractional distillation it yields--(1) + benzene and its homologues, from which aniline, the source of most of + the coal-tar colours, can be derived; (2) carbolic acid, from which + picric acid, used as a dye, a powerful explosive, and to give the + bitter flavour to some kinds of beer, is made, also many most valuable + disinfectants; (3) naphthalene, used for disinfecting, and also as the + "Albo-carbon" employed in an enriching burner for gas; (4) pitch, + extensively used in path-making, from which such bodies as anthracene + and saccharin can be extracted. + + The second liquid product of the destructive distillation of coal is + the ammoniacal or gas liquor, which consists of water containing + ammonia salts in solution, partly condensed from the hot gas, and + partly added to wash the gas in the scrubbers. It contains, as its + principal constituents, ammonia, partly combined with carbonic acid + and sulphuretted hydrogen to form compounds which are decomposed on + boiling, with evolution of ammonia gas, and partly combined with + stronger acids to form compounds which require to be acted upon by a + strong alkali before the ammonia contained in them can be liberated. + The ammonia in the first class of compounds is technically spoken of + as "free"; that present in the latter as "fixed." The following + analysis by L.T. Wright will give an idea of the relative quantities + in which these compounds exist in the liquor:-- + + Grammes per litre. + + / Ammonium sulphide 3.03 + Free < Ammonium carbonate 39.16 + \ Ammonium chloride 14.23 + / Ammonium thiocyanate 1.80 + Fixed < Ammonium sulphate 0.19 + | Ammonium thiosulphate 2.80 + \ Ammonium ferrocyanide 0.41 + + From a scientific point of view, the term "free" is absolutely + incorrect, and in using it the fact must be clearly borne in mind that + in this case it merely stands for ammonia, which can be liberated on + simply boiling the liquor. + + + Gaseous products. + + The gas which is obtained by the destructive distillation of coal, and + which we employ as our chief illuminant, is not a definite compound, + but a mechanical mixture of several gases, some of which are reduced + to the lowest limit, in order to develop as fully as possible the + light-giving properties of the most important constituents of the gas. + The following analysis gives a fair idea of the composition of an + average sample of gas made from coal, purified but without + enrichment:-- + + Hydrogen 52.22 + Unsaturated hydrocarbons 3.47 + Saturated hydrocarbons 34.76 + Carbon monoxide 4.23 + Carbon dioxide 0.60 + Nitrogen 4.23 + Oxygen 0.49 + ------ + 100.00 + + These constituents may be divided into--(a) light-yielding + hydrocarbons, (b) combustible diluents and (c) impurities. The + hydrocarbons, upon which the luminosity of the flame entirely depends, + are divided in the analysis into two groups, saturated and + unsaturated, according to their behaviour with a solution of bromine + in potassium bromide, which has the power of absorbing those termed + "unsaturated," but does not affect in diffused daylight the gaseous + members of the "saturated" series of hydrocarbons. They may be + separated in a similar way by concentrated sulphuric acid, which has + the same absorbent effect on the one class, and not on the other. The + chief unsaturated hydrocarbons present in coal gas are: ethylene, + C2H4, butylene, C4H8, acetylene, C2H2, benzene, C6H6, and naphthalene, + C10H8, and the saturated hydrocarbons consist chiefly of methane, CH4, + and ethane, C2H6. + + The light-giving power of coal gas is undoubtedly entirely due to the + hydrocarbons. The idea held up to about 1890 was that the illuminating + value depended upon the amount of ethylene present. This, however, is + manifestly incorrect, as, if it were true, 4% of ethylene mixed with + 96% of a combustible diluent such as hydrogen should give 16- to + 17-candle gas, whereas a mixture of 10% of ethylene and 90% of + hydrogen is devoid of luminosity. In 1876 M.P.E. Berthelot came to + the conclusion that the illuminating value of the Paris coal gas was + almost entirely due to benzene vapour. But here again another mistaken + idea arose, owing to a faulty method of estimating the benzene, and + there is no doubt that methane is one of the most important of the + hydrocarbons present, when the gas is burnt in such a way as to evolve + from it the proper illuminating power, whilst the benzene vapour, + small as the quantity is, comes next in importance and the ethylene + last. It is the combined action of the hydrocarbons which gives the + effect, not any one of them acting alone. + + The series of operations connected with the manufacture and + distribution of coal gas embraces the processes of distillation, + condensation, exhaustion, wet purification by washing and scrubbing, + dry purification, measuring, storing and distribution to the mains + whence the consumer's supply is drawn. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Plan of Works.] + + + Site of gas works. + + The choice of a site for a gas works is necessarily governed by local + circumstances; but it is a necessity that there should be a ready + means of transport available, and for this reason the works should be + built upon the banks of a navigable river or canal, and should have a + convenient railway siding. By this means coal may be delivered direct + to the store or retort-house, and in the same way residual products + may be removed. The fact that considerable area is required and that + the works do not improve the neighbourhood are important conditions, + and although economy of space should be considered, arrangements + should be such as to allow of extension. In the case of a works whose + daily make of gas exceeds four to five million cub. ft., it is usual + to divide the works into units, there being an efficiency limit to the + size of apparatus employed. Under these conditions the gas is dealt + with in separate streams, which mix when the holder is reached. From + the accompanying ground plan of a works (fig. 4) it will be possible + to gain an idea of the order in which the operations in gas + manufacture are carried out and the arrangement of the plant. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Cross Section of Retorts.] + + + Retorts. + + The retorts in which the coal is carbonized are almost universally + made of fire-clay, and in all but small country works the old + single-ended retort, which was about 9 ft. in length, has given way to + a more economical construction known as doubles, double-ended, or + "through" retorts. These are from 18 to 22 ft. long, and as it is + found inconvenient to produce this length in one piece, they are + manufactured in three sections, the jointing together of which demands + great care. The two outer pieces are swelled at one end to take an + iron mouthpiece. The cross sections generally employed for retorts are + known as "D-shaped," "oval" and "round" (fig. 5). The "D" form is + mostly adopted owing to its power of retaining its shape after long + exposure to heat, and the large amount of heating surface it presents + at its base. The life of this retort is about thirty working months. A + cast iron mouthpiece and lid is bolted to the exterior end of each + retort, the mouthpiece carrying a socket end to receive the ascension + pipe, through which the gas passes on leaving the retort. The retorts + are heated externally and are set in an arch, the construction + depending upon the number of retorts, which varies from three to + twelve. The arch and its retorts is termed a bed or setting, and a row + of beds constitutes a bench. It is usual to have a separate furnace + for each setting, the retorts resting upon walls built transversely in + the furnace. + + The heating of the retorts is carried out either by the "direct + firing" or by the "regenerative" system, the latter affording marked + advantages over the former method, which is now becoming extinct. In + the regenerative system of firing, a mixture of carbon monoxide and + nitrogen is produced by passing air through incandescent gas coke in a + generator placed below the bench of retorts, and the heating value of + the gases so produced is increased in most cases by the admixture of a + small proportion of steam with the primary air supply, the steam being + decomposed by contact with the red-hot coke in the generator into + water gas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen (see FUEL: + _Gaseous_). The gases so formed vary in proportion with the + temperature of the generator and the amount of steam, but generally + contain 32 to 38% of combustible gas, the remainder being the residual + nitrogen of the air and carbon dioxide. These gases enter the + combustion chamber around the retorts at a high temperature, and are + there supplied with sufficient air to complete their combustion, this + secondary air supply being heated by the hot products of combustion on + their way to the exit flue. This method of firing results in the + saving of about one-third the weight of coke used in the old form of + furnace per ton of coal carbonized, and enables higher temperatures to + be obtained, the heat being also more equally distributed. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Regenerative Setting.] + + There are a great number of methods of applying the regenerative + principle which vary only in detail. Fig. 6 gives an idea of the + general arrangement. The furnace A is built of fire-brick, coke is + charged at the top through the iron door B, and near the bottom are + placed fire bars C, upon which the fuel lies. The primary air + necessary for the partial combustion of the coke to "producer" gas + enters between these bars. The gases are conducted from the furnace to + the combustion chamber E through the nostrils D D, and the secondary + air is admitted at the inlet F a little above, this air having been + already heated by traversing the setting. Complete combustion takes + place at this point with the production of intense heat, the gases on + rising are baffled in order to circulate them in every direction round + the retorts, and upon arriving at the top of the setting they are + conducted down a hollow chamber communicating with the main flue and + shaft. The amount of draft which is necessary to carry out the + circulation of the gases and to draw in the adequate amount of air is + regulated by dampers placed in the main flue. By analysis of the + "producer" and "spent" gases this amount can be readily gauged. + + Retorts are set in either the horizontal, inclined or vertical + position, and the advantages of the one over the other is a question + upon which almost every gas engineer has his own views. + + + Charging and drawing. + + The introduction of labour-saving appliances into gas works has + rendered the difficult work of charging and discharging horizontal + retorts comparatively simple. Formerly it was the practice to carry + out such operations entirely by hand, men charging the retorts either + by means of shovel or hand-scoop, and the coke produced being + withdrawn with hand rakes. Now, however, only the smaller gas works + adhere to this system, and this work is done by machinery driven by + either compressed air, hydraulic or electric power. In the first two + cases a scoop, filled with coal from an overhead hopper carried by the + travelling machine, is made to enter the retort and is turned over; + the operation is then repeated, but this time the scoop is turned over + in the opposite direction, the coal thus assuming such a position that + as much of its under surface as possible is exposed to the heated side + of the retort. With "through" retorts charging machines feed the + retorts at both ends, the scoop, which has a capacity of about 1-1/2 + cwt., entering and discharging its contents twice at each end, so that + the total charge is about 6 cwt., which is allowed from four to six + hours to distil off according to the quality of the gas required. The + machines charge simultaneously at each end, so that the lids of the + retorts may be shut immediately the coal enters. The charging machines + travel on lines in front of the retort bench, and the power is + transmitted by connexions made with flexible hose. A device of more + recent introduction is an electrically-driven charging machine, in + which the centrifugal force created by a fly-wheel revolving at high + speed is applied to drive coal into the retort. If the velocity is + sufficiently high the coal may be carried the whole length of a 20-ft. + retort, the coal following banking up until an even layer is formed + throughout the length of the retort. + + For the purpose of discharging the coke from the retort either + compressed air or hydraulic machinery is employed, a rake being made + to enter the retort and withdraw the coke on returning. With this + method it is necessary that the rake should enter and discharge + several times before the retort is clear, and thus the use of a + telescopic ram worked by hydraulic power, which pushes the coke before + it and discharges it at the other end, is an advantage. As much as + one-third on each ton of coal carbonized is saved by the use of + machinery in the retort-house. Taking into account the original cost + of such machines, and the unavoidable wear and tear upon the retorts + brought about by using labour-saving appliances, and the fact that the + coke-dust is very detrimental to the machinery, it is clear that the + suggestion of setting the retorts at an incline in order to facilitate + the work presented great inducements to the gas manager. The object + aimed at in thus setting retorts is to allow gravity to play the part + of charging and discharging the coal and coke, the retorts being + inclined at an angle to suit the slip of the class of coal used; this + angle is between 28 deg. and 34 deg. The coal, previously elevated to + hoppers, is dropped into the feeding chambers, which are so arranged + that they can travel from end to end of the retort-house and feed the + coal into the retorts. When the retort is to be charged, an iron stop + or barrier is placed in the lower mouthpiece, and the door closed. The + shoot is placed in the upper mouthpiece, and the stop or door, which + retains the coal in the chamber, is released; the coal is then + discharged into the retort, and rushing down the incline, is arrested + by the barrier, and banks up, forming a continuous backing to the coal + following. By experience with the class of coal used and the + adjustment of the stops in the shoot, the charge can be run into the + retort to form an even layer of any desired depth. For the withdrawal + of the residual coke at the end of the carbonization, the lower + mouthpiece door is opened, the barrier removed and the coke in the + lower part of the retort is "tickled" or gently stirred with an iron + rod to overcome a slight adhesion to the retort; the entire mass then + readily discharges itself. Guides are placed in front of the retort to + direct its course to the coke hoppers or conveyer below, and to + prevent scattering of the hot material. This system shows a greater + economy in the cost of carbonizing the coal, but the large outlay and + the wear and tear of the mechanical appliances involved have so far + prevented its very general adoption. + + The vertical retort was one of the first forms experimented with by + Murdoch, but owing to the difficulty of withdrawing the coke, the low + illuminating power of the gas made in it, and the damage to the retort + itself, due to the swelling of the charge during distillation, it was + quickly abandoned. About the beginning of the 20th century, however, + the experiments of Messrs Settle and Padfield at Exeter, Messrs + Woodall and Duckham at Bournemouth, and Dr Bueb in Germany showed such + encouraging results that the idea of the vertical retort again came to + the front, and several systems were proposed and tried. The cause of + the failure of Murdoch's original vertical retort was undoubtedly that + it was completely filled with coal during charging, with the result + that the gas liberated from the lower portions of the retort had to + pass through a deep bed of red-hot coke, which, by over-baking the + gas, destroyed the illuminating hydrocarbons. There is no doubt that + the question of rapidly removing the gas, as soon as it is properly + formed, from the influence of the highly-heated walls of the retort + and residual coke, is one of the most important in gas manufacture. + + In the case of horizontal retorts the space between the top of the + coal and the retort is of necessity considerable in order to permit + the introduction of the scoop and rake; the gas has therefore a free + channel to travel along, but has too much contact with the highly + heated surface of the retort before it leaves the mouthpiece. In the + case of inclined retorts this disadvantage is somewhat reduced, but + with vertical retorts the ideal conditions can be more nearly + approached. The heating as well as the illuminating value of the gas + per unit volume is lowered by over-baking, and Dr Bueb gives the + following figures as to the heating value of gas obtained from the + same coal but by different methods of carbonization:-- + + Vertical Retorts, 604 British thermal units per cub. ft. + Inclined " 584 " " " + Horizontal " 570 " " " + + Of the existing forms of vertical retort it remains a matter to be + decided whether the coal should be charged in bulk to the retort or + whether it should be introduced in small quantities at regular and + short intervals; by this latter means (the characteristic feature of + the Settle-Padfield process) a continuous layer of coal is in process + of carbonization on the top, whilst the gas escapes without contact + with the mass of red-hot coke, a considerable increase in volume and + value in the gas and a much denser coke being the result. + + + Hydraulic main. + + From the retort the gas passes by the ascension pipe to the hydraulic + main (fig. 7). This is a long reservoir placed in a horizontal + position and supported by columns upon the top of the retort stack, + and through it is maintained a slow but constant flow of water, the + level of which is kept uniform. The ascension pipe dips about 2 in. + into the liquid, and so makes a seal that allows of any retort being + charged singly without the risk of the gas produced from the other + retorts in the bench escaping through the open retort. Coal gas, + being a mixture of gases and vapours of liquids having very varying + boiling points, must necessarily undergo physical changes when the + temperature is lowered. Vapours of liquids of high boiling point will + be condensed more quickly than those having lower boiling points, but + condensation of each vapour will take place in a definite ratio with + the decrease of temperature, the rate being dependent upon the boiling + point of the liquid from which it is formed. The result is that from + the time the gaseous mixture leaves the retort it begins to deposit + condensation products owing to the decrease in temperature. + Condensation takes place in the ascension pipe, in the arch piece + leading to the hydraulic main, and to a still greater extent in the + hydraulic main itself where the gas has to pass through water. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Hydraulic Main.] + + Ascension pipes give trouble unless they are frequently cleared by an + instrument called an "auger," whilst the arch pipe is fitted with hand + holes through which it may be easily cleared in case of stoppage. The + most soluble of the constituents of crude coal gas is ammonia, 780 + volumes of which are soluble in one volume of water at normal + temperature and pressure, and the water in the hydraulic main absorbs + a considerable quantity of this compound from the gas and helps to + form the ammoniacal liquor, whilst, although the liquor is well + agitated by the gas bubbling through it, a partial separation of tar + from liquor is effected by gravitation. The liquor is run off at a + constant rate from the hydraulic main to the store tank, and the gas + passes from the top of the hydraulic main to the foul main. + + + Condensation. + + The gas as it leaves the hydraulic main is still at a temperature of + from 130 deg. to 150 deg. F., and should now be reduced as nearly as + possible to the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. The + operation of efficient condensing is not by any means as simple as + might be supposed. The tar and liquor when condensed have a dissolving + action on various valuable light-giving constituents of the gas, which + in the ordinary way would not be deposited by the lowering of + temperature, and for this reason the heavy tar, and especially that + produced in the hydraulic main, should come in contact with the gas as + little as possible, and condensation should take place slowly. + + The main difficulty which the condenser ought to overcome and upon + which its efficiency should depend is the removal of naphthalene: this + compound, which is present in the gas, condenses on cooling to a solid + which crystallizes out in the form of white flakes, and the trouble + caused by pipe stoppages in the works as well as in the district + supplied is very considerable. The higher the heat of carbonization + the more naphthalene appears to be produced, and gas managers of + to-day find the removal of naphthalene from the gas a difficult + problem to solve. It was for some time debated as to whether + naphthalene added materially to the illuminating value of the gas, and + whether an endeavour should be made to carry it to the point of + combustion; but it is now acknowledged that it is a troublesome + impurity, and that the sooner it is extracted the better. Gas leaves + the retorts saturated with naphthalene, and its capacity for holding + that impurity seems to be augmented by the presence of water vapour. + The condenser, by effecting the condensation of water vapour, also + brings about the deposition of solid naphthalene, apart from that + which naturally condenses owing to reduction of temperature. + + Condensers are either air-cooled or water-cooled, or both. In the + former case the gas traverses pipes exposed to the atmosphere and so + placed that the resulting products of condensation may be collected at + the lowest point. Water is a more efficient cooling medium than air, + owing to its high specific heat, and the degree of cooling may be more + easily regulated by its use. In water-cooled condensers it is usual to + arrange that the water passes through a large number of small pipes + contained in a larger one through which the gas flows, and as it + constantly happened that condenser pipes became choked by naphthalene, + the so-called reversible condenser, in which the stream of gas may be + altered from time to time and the walls of the pipes cleaned by + pumping tar over them, is a decided advance. + + The solubility of naphthalene by various oils has led some engineers + to put in naphthalene washers, in which gas is brought into contact + with a heavy tar oil or certain fractions distilled from it, the + latter being previously mixed with some volatile hydrocarbon to + replace in the gas those illuminating vapours which the oil dissolves + out; and by fractional distillation of the washing oil the naphthalene + and volatile hydrocarbons are afterwards recovered. + + + Exhauster. + + The exhauster is practically a rotary gas pump which serves the + purpose of drawing the gas from the hydraulic main through the + condensers, and then forcing it through the purifying vessels to the + holder. Moreover, by putting the retorts under a slight vacuum, the + amount of gas produced is increased by about 12%, and is of better + quality, owing to its leaving the heated retort more quickly. A + horizontal compound steam-engine is usually employed to drive the + exhauster. + + At this point in the manufacturing process the gas has already + undergone some important changes in its composition, but there yet + remain impurities which must be removed, these being ammonia, + sulphuretted hydrogen, carbon disulphide and carbon dioxide. Ammonia + is of considerable marketable value, and even in places where the + local Gas Act does not prescribe that it shall be removed, it is + extracted. Sulphuretted hydrogen is a noxious impurity, and its + complete removal from the gas is usually imposed by parliament. As + nearly as possible all the carbon dioxide is extracted, but most gas + companies are now exempt from having to purify the gas from sulphur + compounds other than sulphuretted hydrogen. Cyanogen compounds also + are present in the gas, and in large works, where the total quantity + is sufficient, their extraction is effected for the production of + either prussiate or cyanide of soda. + + Atkinson Butterfield gives the composition of the gas at this point to + be about + + per cent. by vol. + + Hydrogen from 42 to 53 + Methane " 32 " 39 + Carbon monoxide " 3 " 10 + Hydrocarbons-- + Gases " 2.5 " 4.5 + Light condensable + vapours " 0.5 " 1.2 + Carbon dioxide " 1.1 " 1.8 + Nitrogen " 1.0 " 5.0 + Sulphuretted hydrogen " 1.0 " 2.0 + Ammonia " 0.5 " 0.95 + Cyanogen " 0.05 " 0.12 + Carbon disulphide " 0.02 " 0.035 + Naphthalene " 0.005 " 0.015 + + + Washers. + + It happens that ammonia, being a strong base, will effect the + extraction of a certain proportion of such compounds as sulphuretted + hydrogen, carbon dioxide and hydrocyanic acid, and the gas is now + washed with water and ammoniacal liquor. The process is termed washing + or scrubbing, and is carried out in various forms of apparatus, the + efficiency of which is dependent upon the amount of contact the + apparatus allows between the finely divided gas and water in a unit + area and the facility with which it may be cleared out. The "Livesey" + washer, a well-known type, is a rectangular cast iron vessel. The gas + enters in the centre, and to make its escape again it has to pass into + long wrought iron inverted troughs through perforations one-twentieth + of an inch in diameter. A constant flow of liquor is regulated through + the washer, and the gas, in order to pass through the perforations, + drives the liquor up into the troughs. The liquor foams up owing to + agitation by the finely divided streams of gas, and is brought into + close contact with it. Two or three of these washers are connected in + series according to the quantity of gas to be dealt with. + + + Scrubbers. + + The final washing for ammonia is effected in an apparatus termed a + "scrubber," which is a cylindrical tower packed with boards 1/4 in. + thick by 11 in. broad, placed on end and close together; water is + caused to flow down over the surface of these boards, the object being + to break up the gas as much as possible and bring it into close + contact with the water. In this wet purifying apparatus the gas is + almost wholly freed from ammonia and from part of the sulphuretted + hydrogen, whilst carbon dioxide and carbon disulphide are also + partially extracted. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Purifier.] + + + Purifiers. + + The final purification is carried out in rectangular vessels, known as + "dry purifiers" (fig. 8). Internally, each purifier is filled with + ranges of wooden trays or sieves A, made in the form of grids (fig. + 9), and covered with the purifying material B to a depth of about 6 + in., the number of tiers and size of purifier boxes being proportional + to the quantity of gas to be purified. The gas enters at the bottom by + the pipe C, the inlet being protected from any falling material by the + cover D; it forces its way upwards through all the trays until, + reaching the lid or cover E, it descends by the exit tube F, which + leads to the next purifier. The edges of the lid dip into an external + water seal or lute G, whereby the gas is prevented from escaping. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Purifier Grid.] + + When the gas had to be purified from carbon disulphide as well as from + sulphuretted hydrogen, slaked lime was employed for the removal of + carbon dioxide and the greater quantity of the sulphur compounds, + whilst a catch box or purifier of oxide of iron served to remove the + last traces of sulphuretted hydrogen. Not fewer than four lime + purifiers were employed, and as the one which was first in the series + became exhausted, i.e. began to show signs of allowing carbon dioxide + to pass through it unabsorbed, it was filled with fresh slaked lime + and made the last of the series, the one which was second becoming + first, and this procedure went on continuously. This operation was + necessitated by the fact that carbon dioxide has the power of breaking + up the sulphur compounds formed by the lime, so that until all carbon + dioxide is absorbed with the formation of calcium carbonate, the + withdrawal of sulphuretted hydrogen cannot proceed, whilst since it is + calcium sulphide formed by the absorption of sulphuretted hydrogen by + the slaked lime that absorbs the vapour of carbon disulphide, + purification from the latter can only be accomplished after the + necessary calcium sulphide has been formed. The foul gas leaving the + scrubbers contains, as a general average, 30 grains of sulphuretted + hydrogen, 40 grains of carbon disulphide and 200 grains of carbon + dioxide per 100 cub. ft. On entering the first purifier, which + contains calcium thiocarbonate and other combinations of calcium and + sulphur in small quantity, the sulphuretted hydrogen and disulphide + vapour have practically no action upon the material, but the carbon + dioxide immediately attacks the calcium thiocarbonate, forming calcium + carbonate with the production of carbon disulphide vapour, which is + carried over with the gas into the second box. In the connexion + between the first and the second box the gas is found to contain 500 + grains of sulphuretted hydrogen and 80 grains of carbon disulphide per + 100 cub. ft., but no trace of carbon dioxide. In the second box the + formation of calcium thiocarbonate takes place by the action of carbon + disulphide upon the calcium sulphide with the liberation of + sulphuretted hydrogen, which is carried over to the third purifier. + The gas in the connecting pipe between the second and third purifier + will be found to contain 400 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen and 20 + grains of carbon disulphide. The contents of the third box, being + mostly composed of slaked lime, take up sulphuretted hydrogen forming + calcium sulphide, and practically remove the remaining impurities, the + outlet gas showing 20 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen and 8 grains of + carbon disulphide per 100 cub. ft., whilst the catch box of oxide of + iron then removes all traces of sulphuretted hydrogen. It will be + noticed that in the earlier stages the quantity of sulphur impurities + is actually increased between the purifiers--in fact, the greater + amount of sulphiding procures the ready removal of the carbon + disulphide,--but it is the carbon dioxide in the gas that is the + disturbing element, inasmuch as it decomposes the combinations of + sulphur and calcium; consequently it is a paramount object in this + system to prevent this latter impurity finding its way through the + first box of the series. The finding of any traces of carbon dioxide + in the gas between the first two boxes is generally the signal for a + new clean purifier being put into action, and the first one shut off, + emptied and recharged with fresh lime, the impregnated material being + sometimes sold for dressing certain soils. + + The action of oxide of iron, which has now partly replaced the lime + purification, depends on its power of combining with sulphuretted + hydrogen to form sulphide of iron. Such is the affinity of the oxide + for this impurity that it may contain from 50 to 60% by weight of free + sulphur after revivification and still remain active. Upon removing + the material from the vessel and exposing it to the atmosphere the + sulphide of iron undergoes a revivifying process, the oxygen of the + air displacing the sulphur from the sulphide as free sulphur, and with + moisture converting the iron into hydrated oxide of iron. This + revivification can be carried on a number of times until the material + when dry contains about 50% of free sulphur and even occasionally 60% + and over; it is then sold to manufacturers of sulphuric acid to be + used in the sulphur kilns instead of pyrites (see SULPHURIC ACID). + + Apart from the by-products coke, coke-breeze, tar and retort carbon, + which are sold direct, gas companies are now in many cases preparing + from their spent purifying material pure chemical products which are + in great demand. The most important of these is sulphate of ammonia, + which is used for agricultural purposes as a manure, and is obtained + by passing ammonia into sulphuric acid and crystallizing out the + ammonium sulphate produced. To do this, saturated ammoniacal liquor is + decomposed by lime in the presence of steam, and the freed ammonia is + passed into strong sulphuric acid, the saturated solution of ammonium + sulphate being carefully crystallized. The market value of the salt + varies, but an average figure is L12 per ton, whilst the average yield + is about 24 lb. of salt per ton of coal carbonized. In large works the + sulphuric acid is usually manufactured on the spot from the spent + oxide, so that the sulphuretted hydrogen, which in the gas is + considered an undesirable impurity, plays a valuable part in the + manufacture of an important by-product. + + Cyanogen compounds are extracted either direct from the gas, from the + spent oxide or from ammoniacal liquor, and some large gas works now + produce sodium cyanide, this being one of the latest developments in + the gas chemical industry. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Gasholder.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Cup and Grip.] + + + Gasholder. + + The purified gas now passes to a gasholder (sometimes known as a + gasometer), which may be either single lift, i.e. a simple bell + inverted in a tank of water, or may be constructed on the telescopic + principle, in which case much ground space is saved, as a holder of + much greater capacity can be contained in the same-sized tank. The + tank for the gasholder is usually made by excavating a circular + reservoir somewhat larger in diameter than the proposed holder. A + banking is allowed to remain in the centre, as shown in fig. 10, which + is known as the "dumpling," this arrangement not only saving work and + water, but acting as a support for the king post of a trussed holder + when the holder is empty. The tank must be water-tight, and the + precaution necessary to be taken in order to ensure this is dependent + upon the nature of the soil; it is usual, however, for the tanks to be + lined with concrete. Where the conditions of soil are very bad, steel + tanks are built above ground, but the cost of these is much greater. + The holder is made of sheet iron riveted together, the thickness + depending upon the size of the holder. The telescopic form consists of + two or more lifts which slide in one another, and may be described as + a single lift holder encircled by other cylinders of slightly larger + diameter, but of about the same length. Fig. 10 shows the general + construction. Gas on entering at A causes the top lift to rise; the + bottom of this lift being turned up all round to form a cup, whilst + the top of the next lift is turned down to form a so-called grip, the + two interlock (see fig. 11), forming what is known as the hydraulic + cup. Under these conditions the cup will necessarily be filled with + water, and a seal will be formed, preventing the escape of gas. A + guide framing is built round the holder, and guide rollers are fixed + at various intervals round the grips of each lift, whilst at the + bottom of the cup guide rollers are also fixed (fig. 11). In the year + 1892 the largest existing gasholder was built at the East Greenwich + works of the South Metropolitan Gas Company; it has six lifts, its + diameter is 293 ft., and when filled with gas stands 180 ft. high. The + capacity for gas is 12 million cub. ft. + + + Governor. + + The governor consists usually of a bell floating in a cast iron tank + partially filled with water, and is in fact a small gasholder, from + the centre of which is suspended a conical valve controlling the gas + inlet and closing it as the bell fills. Any deviation in pressure will + cause the floating bell to be lifted or lowered, and the size of the + inlet will be decreased or increased, thus regulating the flow. + + + Enrichment. + + The fact that coal gas of an illuminating power of from 14 to 16 + candles can be made from the ordinary gas coal at a fairly low rate, + while every candle power added to the gas increases the cost in an + enormous and rapidly growing ratio, has, from the earliest days of + the gas industry, caused the attention of inventors to be turned to + the enrichment of coal gas. Formerly cannel coal was used for + producing a very rich gas which could be mixed with the ordinary gas, + thereby enriching it, but as the supply became limited and the price + prohibitive, other methods were from time to time advocated to replace + its use in the enrichment of illuminating gas. These may be classified + as follows:-- + + 1. Enriching the gas by vapours and permanent gases obtained by + decomposing the tar formed at the same time as the gas. + + 2. Mixing with the coal gas oil gas, obtained by decomposing crude + oils by heat. + + 3. The carburetting of low-power gas by impregnating it with the + vapours of volatile hydrocarbons. + + 4. Mixing the coal gas with water gas, which has been highly + carburetted by passing it with the vapours of various hydrocarbons + through superheaters in order to give permanency to the hydrocarbon + gases. + + + Enrichment by tar. + + Very many attempts have been made to utilize tar for the production + and enrichment of gas, and to do this two methods may be adopted:-- + + (a) Condensing the tar in the ordinary way, and afterwards using the + whole or portions of it for cracking into a permanent gas. + + (b) Cracking the tar vapours before condensation by passing the gas + and vapours through superheaters. + + If the first method be adopted, the trouble which presents itself is + that the tar contains a high percentage of pitch, which tends rapidly + to choke and clog up all the pipes. A partly successful attempt to + make use of certain portions of the liquid products of distillation of + coal before condensation by the second method was the Dinsmore + process, in which the coal gas and vapours which, if allowed to cool, + would form tar, were made to pass through a heated chamber, and a + certain proportion of otherwise condensible hydrocarbons was thus + converted into permanent gases. Even with a poor class of coal it was + claimed that 9800 cub. ft. of 20- to 21-candle gas could be made by + this process, whereas by the ordinary process 9000 cub. ft. of + 15-candle gas would have been produced. This process, although + strongly advocated by the gas engineer who experimented with it, was + never a commercial success. The final solution of the question of + enrichment of gas by hydrocarbons derived from tar may be arrived at + by a process which prevents the formation of part of the tar during + the carbonization of the coal, or by the process devised by C.B. Tully + and now in use at Truro, in which tar is injected into the + incandescent fuel in a water-gas generator and enriches the water gas + with methane and other hydrocarbons, the resulting pitch and carbon + being filtered off by the column of coke through which the gas passes. + + + Enrichment by oil gas. + + The earliest attempts at enrichment by oil gas consisted in spraying + oil upon the red hot mass in the retort during carbonization; but + experience soon showed that this was not an economical method of + working, and that it was far better to decompose the liquid + hydrocarbon in the presence of the diluents which are to mingle with + it and act as its carrier, since, if this were done, a higher + temperature could be employed and more of the heavier portions of the + oil converted into gas, without at the same time breaking down the + gaseous hydrocarbons too much. In carburetting poor coal gas with + hydrocarbons from mineral oil it must be borne in mind that, as coal + is undergoing distillation, a rich gas is given off in the earlier + stages, but towards the end of the operation the gas is very poor in + illuminants, the methane disappearing with the other hydrocarbons, and + the increase in hydrogen being very marked. Lewis T. Wright employed a + coal requiring six hours for its distillation, and took samples of the + gas at different periods of the time. On analysis these yielded the + following results:-- + + _Time after beginning Distillation._ + + +------------------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+ + | | 10 | 1 hour | 3 hours | 5 hours | + | | minutes. | 30 minutes.| 25 minutes.| 35 minutes.| + +------------------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+ + | Sulphuretted hydrogen | 1.30 | 1.42 | 0.49 | 0.11 | + | Carbon dioxide | 2.21 | 2.09 | 1.49 | 1.50 | + | Hydrogen | 20.10 | 38.33 | 52.68 | 67.12 | + | Carbon monoxide | 6.19 | 5.66 | 6.21 | 6.12 | + | Saturated hydrocarbons | 57.38 | 44.03 | 33.54 | 22.58 | + | Unsaturated " | 10.62 | 5.98 | 3.04 | 1.79 | + | Nitrogen | 2.20 | 2.47 | 2.55 | 0.78 | + +------------------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+ + + This may be regarded as a fair example of the changes which take place + in the quality of the gas during the distillation of the coal. In + carburetting such a gas by injecting mineral oil into the retort, many + of the products of the decomposition of the oil being vapours, it + would be wasteful to do so for the first two hours, as a rich gas is + being given off which has not the power of carrying in suspension a + much larger quantity of hydrocarbon vapours without being + supersaturated with them. Consequently, to make it carry any further + quantity in a condition not easily deposited, the oil would have to be + completely decomposed into permanent gases, and the temperature + necessary to do this would seriously affect the quality of the gas + given off by the coal. When, however, the distillation has gone on + for three hours, the rich portions of coal have distilled off and the + temperature of the retort has reached its highest point, and this is + the best time to feed in the oil. + + Undoubtedly the best process which has been proposed for the + production of oil gas to be used in the enrichment of coal gas is the + "Young" or "Peebles" process, which depends on the principle of + washing the oil gas retorted at a moderate temperature by means of oil + which is afterwards to undergo decomposition, because in this way it + is freed from all condensible vapours, and only permanent gases are + allowed to escape to the purifiers. In the course of this treatment + considerable quantities of the ethylenes and other fixed gases are + also absorbed, but no loss takes place, as these are again driven out + by the heat in the subsequent retorting. The gas obtained by the Young + process, when tested by itself in the burners most suited for its + combustion, gives on the photometer an illuminating value averaging + from 50 to 60 candle-power, but it is claimed, and quite correctly, + that the enriching power of the gas is considerably greater. This is + accounted for by the fact that it is impossible to construct a burner + which will do justice to a gas of such illuminating power. + + The fundamental objections to oil gas for the enrichment of coal gas + are, first, that its manufacture is a slow process, requiring as much + plant and space for retorting as coal gas; and, secondly, that + although on a small scale it can be made to mix perfectly with coal + gas and water gas, great difficulties are found in doing this on the + large scale, because in spite of the fact that theoretically gases of + such widely different specific gravities ought to form a perfect + mixture by diffusion, layering of the gas is very apt to take place in + the holder, and thus there is an increased liability to wide + variations in the illuminating value of the gas sent out. + + + Enrichment by volatile hydrocarbons. + + The wonderful carburetting power of benzol vapour is well known, a + large proportion of the total illuminating power of coal gas being due + to the presence of a minute trace of its vapour carried in suspension. + For many years the price of benzol has been falling, owing to the + large quantities produced in the coke ovens, and at its present price + it is by far the cheapest enriching material that can be obtained. + Hence at many gas-works where it is found necessary to do so it is + used in various forms of carburettor, in which it is volatilized and + its vapour used for enriching coal gas up to the requisite + illuminating power. + + + Enrichment by carburetted water gas. + + One of the most generally adopted methods of enrichment now is by + means of carburetted water gas mixed with poor coal gas. When steam + acts upon carbon at a high temperature the resultant action may be + looked upon as giving a mixture of equal volumes of hydrogen and + carbon monoxide, both of which are inflammable but non-luminous gases. + This water gas is then carburetted, i.e. rendered luminous by passing + it through chambers in which oils are decomposed by heat, the mixture + being made so as to give an illuminating value of 22 to 25 candles. + This, mixed with the poor coal gas, brings up its illuminating value + to the required limit. Coke or anthracite is heated to incandescence + by an air blast in a generator lined with fire-brick, and the heated + products of combustion as they leave the generator and enter the + superheaters are supplied with more air, which causes the combustion + of carbon monoxide present in the producer gas and heats up the + fire-brick baffles with which the superheater is filled. When the + necessary temperature of the fuel and superheater has been reached, + the air blast is cut off, and steam is blown through the generator, + forming water gas, which meets the enriching oil at the top of the + first superheater, called the carburettor, and carries the vapours + with it through the main superheaters, where the fixing of the + hydrocarbons takes place. The chief advantage of this apparatus is + that a low temperature can be used for fixing owing to the enormous + surface for superheating, and thus to a great extent the deposition of + carbon is avoided. This form of apparatus has been very generally + adopted in Great Britain as well as in America, and practically all + carburetted water-gas plants are founded upon the same set of actions. + Important factors in the use of carburetted water gas for enrichment + are that it can be made with enormous rapidity and with a minimum of + labour; and not only is the requisite increase in illuminating power + secured, but the volume of the enriched gas is increased by the bulk + of carburetted water gas added, which in ordinary English practice + amounts to from 25 to 50%. The public at first strongly opposed its + introduction on the ground of the poisonous properties of the carbon + monoxide, which is present in it to the extent of about 28 to 30%. + Still when this comes to be diluted with 60 to 75% of ordinary coal + gas, containing as a rule only 4 to 6% of carbon monoxide, the + percentage of poisonous monoxide in the mixture falls to below 16%, + which experience has shown to be a fairly safe limit. + + A rise in the price of oil suitable for carburetting has caused the + gas industry to consider other methods by which the volume of gas + obtainable from coal can be increased by admixture with blue or + non-luminous water gas. In Germany, at several important gas-works, + non-luminous water gas is passed into the foul main or through the + retorts in the desired proportion, and the mixture of water gas and + coal gas is then carburetted to the required extent by benzol vapour, + a process which at the present price of oil and benzol is distinctly + more economical than the use of carburetted water gas. In 1896 Karl + Dellwik introduced a modification in the process of making water gas + which entirely altered the whole aspect of the industry. In all the + attempts to make water gas, up to that date, the incandescence of the + fuel had been obtained by "blowing" so deep a bed of fuel that carbon + monoxide and the residual nitrogen of the air formed the chief + products, this mixture being known as "producer" gas. In the Dellwik + process, however, the main point is the adjustment of the air supplied + to the fuel in the generator in such a way that carbon dioxide is + formed instead of carbon monoxide. Under these conditions producer gas + ceases to exist as a by-product, and the gases of the blow consist + merely of the incombustible products of complete combustion, carbon + dioxide and nitrogen, the result being that more than three times the + heat is developed for the combustion of the same amount of fuel, and + nearly double the quantity of water gas can be made per pound of fuel + than was before possible. The runs or times of steaming can also be + continued for longer periods. The possibility of making from 60,000 to + 70,000 cub. ft. of water gas per ton of coke used in the Dellwik + generator as against 34,000 to 45,000 cub. ft. per ton made by + previous processes reduces the price of water gas to about 3-1/2d. per + thousand, so that the economic value of using it in admixture with + coal gas and then enriching the mixture by any cheap carburetting + process is manifest. The universal adoption of the incandescent mantle + for lighting purposes has made it evident that the illuminating value + of the gas is a secondary consideration, and the whole tendency now is + to do away with enrichment and produce a gas of low-candle power but + good heating power at a cheap rate for fuel purposes and incandescent + lighting. (See also LIGHTING: _Gas_.) (V. B. L.) + +2. _Gas for Fuel and Power_--The first gas-producers, which were built +by Faber du Faur at Wasseralfingen in 1836 and by C.G.C. Bischof at +Magdesprung (both in Germany), consisted of simple perpendicular shafts +of masonry contracted at the top and the bottom, with or without a grate +for the coal. Such producers, frequently strengthened by a wrought iron +casing, are even now used to a great extent. Sometimes the purpose of a +gas-producer is attained in a very simple manner by lowering the grate +of an ordinary fireplace so much that a layer of coal 4 or 5 ft. deep is +maintained in the fire. The effect of this arrangement is that the great +body of coal reaches a higher temperature than in an ordinary fireplace, +and this, together with the reduction of the carbon dioxide formed +immediately above the grate by the red-hot coal in the upper part of the +furnace, leads to the formation of carbon monoxide which later on, on +the spot where the greatest heat is required, is burned into dioxide by +admitting fresh air, preferably pre-heated. This simple and inexpensive +arrangement has the further advantage that the producer-gas is utilized +immediately after its formation, without being allowed to cool down. But +it is not very well adapted to large furnaces, and especially not to +those cases where all the space round the furnace is required for +manipulating heavy, white-hot masses of iron, or for similar purposes. +In these cases the producers are arranged outside the iron-works, +glass-works, &c., in an open yard where all the manipulations of feeding +them with coal, of stoking, and of removing the ashes are performed +without interfering with the work inside. But care must always be taken +to place the producers at such a low level that the gas has an upward +tendency, in order to facilitate its passage to the furnace where it is +to be burned. This purpose can be further promoted by various means. The +gas-producers constructed by Messrs Siemens Brothers, from 1856 onwards, +were provided with a kind of brick chimney; on the top of this there was +a horizontal iron tube, continued into an iron down-draught, and only +from this the underground flues were started which sent the gas into the +single furnaces. This arrangement, by which the gas was cooled down by +the action of the air, acted as a gas-siphon for drawing the gas out of +the producer, but it has various drawbacks and has been abandoned in all +modern constructions. Where the "natural draught" is not sufficient, it +is aided either by blowing air under the grate or else by suction at the +other end. + +We shall now describe a few of the very large number of gas-producers +producers constructed, selecting some of the most widely applied in +practice. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12[2]--Siemens Producer (Sectional Elevation).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Lurmann's Producer.] + +[Illustration: FIGS. 14 and 15.--Liegel's Producer.] + + The Siemens Producer in its original shape, of which hundreds have + been erected and many may be still at work, is shown in fig. 12. A is + the charging-hole; B, the inclined front wall, consisting of a cast + iron plate with fire-brick lining; C, the equally inclined + "step-grate"; D, a damper by which the producer may be isolated in + case of repairs; E, a water-pipe, by which the cinders at the bottom + may be quenched before taking away; the steam here formed rises into + the producer where it forms some "semi-water gas" (see FUEL: + _Gaseous_). Openings like that shown at G serve for introducing a + poker in order to clean the brickwork from adhering slags. H is the + gas flue; I, the perpendicularly ascending shaft, 10 or 12 ft. high; + JJ, the horizontal iron tube; K, the descending branch mentioned + above, for producing a certain amount of suction by means of the + gas-siphon thus formed. In the horizontal branch JJ much of the tar + and flue-dust is also condensed, which is of importance where + bituminous coal is employed for firing. + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Taylor's Producer.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Dowson Gas Plant.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Mond Gas Plant.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Mond Gas Plant.] + + This as well as most other descriptions of gas-producers, is not + adapted to being worked with such coal as softens in the heat and + forms cakes, impenetrable to the air and impeding the regular sinking + of the charge in the producer. The fuel employed should be + non-bituminous coal, anthracite or coke, or at least so much of these + materials should be mixed with ordinary coal that no semi-solid cakes + of the kind just described are formed. Where it is unavoidable to work + with coal softening in the fire, Lurmann's producer may be employed, + which is shown in fig. 13. V shows a gas-producer of the ordinary + kind, which during regular work is filled with the coke formed in the + horizontal retort E. The door _b_ serves for removing the slags and + ashes from the bottom of V, as far as they do not fall through the + grate. The hot producer-gas formed in V is passed round the retort E + in the flues n2 n2, and ultimately goes away through K to the furnace + where it is to be used. The retort E is charged with ordinary + bituminous coal which is submitted to destructive distillation by the + heat communicated through the flues n2 n2 and is thus converted into + coke. The gases formed during this process pass into the upper portion + of V and get mixed with the producer-gas formed in the lower portion. + From time to time, as the level of the coke in V goes down, some of + the freshly formed coke in E is pushed into V, whereby the level of + the coke in V should assume the shape shown by the dotted line _l ... + m_. If the level became too low, such as is shown by the dotted line + x ... y, the working of the producer would be wrong, as in this case + the layer of coke at the front side would be too low, and carbon + dioxide would be formed in lieu of monoxide. + + [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Blass' Gas Plant.] + + Figs. 14 and 15 show Liegel's producer, the special object of which is + to deal with any fuel (coal or coke) giving a tough, pasty slag on + combustion. Such slags act very prejudicially by impeding the + up-draught of the air and the sinking of the fuel; nor can they be + removed by falling through a grate, like ordinary coal-ashes. To + obviate these drawbacks the producer A is kept at a greater heat than + is otherwise usual, the air required for feeding the producer being + pre-heated in the channels e, e. The inside shape of the producer is + such that the upper, less hot portion cannot get stopped, as it widens + out towards the bottom; the lower, hotter portion, where the ashes are + already fluxed, is contracted to a slit a, through which the air + ascends. The grate b retains any small pieces of fuel, but allows the + liquid cinder to pass through. The lateral flues c, c prevent the + brickwork from being melted. + + One of the best-known gas-producers for working with compressed air + from below is Taylor's, shown in fig. 16. A is the feeding-hopper, on + the same principle as is used in blast-furnaces. L is the + producer-shaft, with an iron casing B and peep-holes B1 to B4, + passing through the brick lining M. F is the contracted part, leading + to the closed ash-pit, accessible through the doors D. An injector I, + worked by means of the steam-pipe J, forces air through K into F. The + circular grate G can be turned round K by means of the crank E from + the outside. This is done, without interfering with the blast, in + order to keep the fuel at the proper level in L, according to the + indications of the burning zone, as shown through the peep-holes B1 to + B4. The ashes collecting at the bottom are from time to time removed + by the doors D. As the steam, introduced by J, is decomposed in the + producer, we here obtain a "semi-water gas," with about 27% CO and 12% + H2. + + Fig. 17 shows the Dowson gas-producer, together with the arrangements + for purifying the gas for the purpose of working a gas engine. _a_ is + a vertical steam boiler, heated by a central shaft filled with coke, + with superheating tubes _b_ passing through the central shaft. _c_ is + the steam-pipe, carrying the dry steam into the air-injector _d_. This + mixture of steam and air enters into the gas-producer _e_ below the + fire-grate _f_. _g_ is the feeding-hopper for the anthracite which is + usually employed in this kind of producer. _h_, _h_ are cooling-pipes + for the gas where most of the undecomposed steam (say 10% of the whole + employed in _d_) is condensed. _i_ is a hydraulic box with water seal; + _j_, a coke-scrubber; _k_, a filter; _l_, a sawdust-scrubber; _m_, + inlet of gas-holder; _n_, gas-holder; _o_, outlet of same; _p_, a + valve with weighted lever to regulate the admission of steam to the + gas-producer; _q_, the weight which actuates the lever automatically + by the rise or fall of the bell of the gas-holder. In practical work + about 3/4 lb. of steam is decomposed for each pound of anthracite + consumed, and no more than 5% of carbon dioxide is found in the + resulting gas. The latter has an average calorific power of 1732 + calories per cubic metre, or 161 B.T.U. per cubic foot, at 0 deg. and + 760 mm. + + The Mond plant is shown in figs. 18 and 19. The gases produced in the + generators G are passed through pipes _r_ into washers W, in which + water is kept in violent motion by means of paddle-wheels. The spray + of water removes the dust and part of the tar and ammonia from the + gases, much steam being produced at the same time. This water is + withdrawn from time to time and worked for the ammonia it contains. + The gases, escaping from W at a temperature of about 100 deg. C., and + containing much steam, pass though _g_ and _a_ into a tower, fed with + an acid-absorbing liquid, coming from the tank _s_, which is spread + into many drops by the brick filling of the tower. This liquid is a + strong solution of ammonium sulphate, containing about 2.5% free + sulphuric acid which absorbs nearly all the ammonia from the gases, + without dissolving much of the tarry substances. Most of the liquor + arriving at the bottom, after mechanically separating the tar, is + pumped back into _s_, but a portion is always withdrawn and worked for + ammonium sulphate. When escaping from the acid tower, the gas contains + about 0.013% NH3, and has a temperature of about 80 deg. C. and is + saturated with aqueous vapour. It is passed through _c_ into a second + tower B, filled with blocks of wood, where it meets with a stream of + comparatively cold water. At the bottom of this the water runs away, + its temperature being 78 deg. C.; at the top the gas passes away + through _d_ into the distributing main. The hot water from B, freed + from tar, is pumped into a third tower C, through which cold air is + forced by means of a Root's blower by the pipe _w_. This air, after + being heated to 76 deg. C., and saturated with steam in the tower C, + passes through _l_ into the generator G. The water in C leaves this + tower cold enough to be used in the scrubber B. Thus two-thirds of the + steam originally employed in the generator is reintroduced into it, + leaving only one-third to be supplied by the exhaust steam of the + steam-engine. The gas-generators G have a rectangular section, 6 X 12 + ft., several of them being erected in series. The introduction of the + air and the removal of the ashes takes place at the narrower ends. The + bottom is formed by a water-tank and the ashes are quenched here. The + air enters just above the water-level, at a pressure of 4 in. The + Mond gas in the dry state contains 15% carbon dioxide, 10% monoxide, + 23% hydrogen, 3% hydrocarbons, 49% nitrogen. The yield of ammonium + sulphate is 75 lb. from a ton of coal (slack with 11.5% ashes and 55% + fixed carbon). + + One of the best plants for the generation of _water-gas_ is that + constructed by E. Blass (fig. 20). Steam enters through the valve V at + D into the generator, filled with coke, and passes away at the bottom + through A. The pressure of the gas should not be such that it could + get into the pipe conveying the air-blast, by which an explosive + mixture would be formed. This is prevented by the water-cooled damper + S, which always closes the air-blast when the gas-pipe is open and + vice versa. Below the entry W of the air-blast there is a throttle + valve _d_ which is closed as soon as the damper S opens the gas canal; + thus a second security against the production of a mixture of air and + gas is afforded. The water-cooled ring channel K protects the bottom + outlet of the generator and causes the cinders to solidify, so that + they can be easily removed. But sometimes no such cooling is effected, + in which case the cinders run away in the liquid form. Below K the + fuel is lying in a conical heap, leaving the ring channel A free. + During the period of hot-blowing (heating-up) S is turned so that the + air-blast communicates with the generator; _d_ and G are open; _g_ + (the damper connected with the scrubber) and V are closed. During the + period of gas-making G and _d_ are closed, S now closes the air-blast + and connects the generator with the scrubber; V is opened, and the gas + passes from the scrubber into the gas-holder, the inlet w being under + a pressure of 4 in. All these various changes in the opening of the + valves and dampers are automatically performed in the proper order by + means of a hand-wheel H, the shaft m resting on the standards t and + shaft _v_. This hand-wheel has merely to be turned one way for + starting the hot-blowing, and the opposite way for gas-making, to open + and shut all the connexions, without any mistake being possible on the + part of the attendant. The feeding-hopper E is so arranged that, when + the cone e2 opens, e1 is shut, and vice versa, thus no more gas can + escape, on feeding fresh coke into the generator, than that which is + contained in E. G is the pipe through which the blowing-up gas + (Siemens gas) is carried away, either into the open air (where it is + at once burned) or into a pre-heater for the blast, or into some place + where it can be utilized as fuel. This gas, which is made for 10 or 11 + minutes, contains from 23 to 32% carbon monoxide, 7 to 1.5% carbon + dioxide, 2 to 3% hydrogen, a little methane, 64 to 66% nitrogen, and + has a heating value of 950 calories per cub. metre. The water-gas + itself is made for 7 minutes, and has an average composition of 3.3% + carbon dioxide, 44% carbon monoxide, 0.4% methane, 48.6% hydrogen, + 3.7% nitrogen, and a heating value of 2970 calories per cub. metre. 1 + kilogram coke yields 1.13 cub. metre water-gas and 3.13 Siemens gas. + 100 parts coke (of 7000 calories) furnish 42% of their heat value as + water-gas and 42% as Siemens gas. + + [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Dellwik-Fleischer Producer.] + + Lastly we give a section of the Dellwik-Fleischer gas-producer (fig. + 21). The feeding-hoppers A are alternately charged every half-hour, so + that the layer of fuel in the generator always remains 4 ft. deep. B + is the chimney-damper, C the grate, D the door for removing the slags, + E the ash-door, F the inlet of the air-blast, G the upper, G1 the + lower outlet for the water-gas which is removed alternately at top and + bottom by means of an outside valve, steam being always admitted at + the opposite end. The blowing-up generally lasts 1-3/4 minutes, the + gas-making 8 or 10 minutes. The air-blast works under a pressure of 8 + or 9 in. below the grate, or 4 to 4-1/2 in. above the coke. The + blowing-up gas contains 17 or 18% carbon dioxide and 1.5% oxygen, with + mere traces of carbon monoxide. The water-gas shows 4 to 5% carbon + dioxide, 40% carbon monoxide, 0.8% methane, 48 to 51% hydrogen, 4 or + 5% nitrogen. About 2.5 cub. metres is obtained per kilogram of best + coke. + + See Mills and Rowan, _Fuel and its Application_ (London, 1889); Samuel + S. Wyer, _Producer-Gas and Gas-Producers_, published by the + _Engineering and Mining Journal_ (New York); F. Fischer, _Chemische + Technologie der Brennstoffe_ (1897-1901); _Gasformige Heizstoffe_, in + Stohmann and Kerl's _Handbuch der technischen Chemie_, 4th edition, + iii. 642 et seq. (G. L.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Liquor condensed from gas alone, without wash water. + + [2] Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21 of this article are from + Lunge's _Coal-tar and Ammonia_, by permission of Friedr. Vieweg u. + Sohn. + + + + +GASCOIGNE, GEORGE (c. 1535-1577), English poet, eldest son of Sir John +Gascoigne of Cardington, Bedfordshire, was born probably between 1530 +and 1535. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and on leaving +the university is supposed to have joined the Middle Temple. He became +a member of Gray's Inn in 1555. He has been identified without much show +of evidence with a lawyer named Gastone who was in prison in 1548 under +very discreditable circumstances. There is no doubt that his escapades +were notorious, and that he was imprisoned for debt. George Whetstone +says that Sir John Gascoigne disinherited his son on account of his +follies, but by his own account he was obliged to sell his patrimony to +pay the debts contracted at court. He was M.P. for Bedford in 1557-1558 +and 1558-1559, but when he presented himself in 1572 for election at +Midhurst he was refused on the charges of being "a defamed person and +noted for manslaughter," "a common Rymer and a deviser of slaunderous +Pasquelles," "a notorious ruffianne," an atheist and constantly in debt. +His poems, with the exception of some commendatory verses, were not +published before 1572, but they were probably circulated in MS. before +that date. He tells us that his friends at Gray's Inn importuned him to +write on Latin themes set by them, and there two of his plays were +acted. He repaired his fortunes by marrying the wealthy widow of William +Breton, thus becoming step-father to the poet, Nicholas Breton. In 1568 +an inquiry into the disposition of William Breton's property with a view +to the protection of the children's rights was instituted before the +lord mayor, but the matter was probably settled in a friendly manner, +for Gascoigne continued to hold the Walthamstow estate, which he had +from his wife, until his death. He sailed as a soldier of fortune to the +Low Countries in 1572, and was driven by stress of weather to Brill, +which luckily for him had just fallen into the hands of the Dutch. He +obtained a captain's commission, and took an active part in the +campaigns of the next two years, during which he acquired a profound +dislike of the Dutch, and a great admiration for William of Orange, who +had personally intervened on his behalf in a quarrel with his colonel, +and secured him against the suspicion caused by his clandestine visits +to a lady at the Hague. Taken prisoner after the evacuation of +Valkenburg by the English troops, he was sent to England in the autumn +of 1574. He dedicated to Lord Grey of Wilton the story of his +adventures, "The Fruites of Warres" (printed in the edition of 1575) and +"Gascoigne's Voyage into Hollande." In 1575 he had a share in devising +the masques, published in the next year as _The Princely Pleasures at +the Courte at Kenelworth_, which celebrated the queen's visit to the +Earl of Leicester. At Woodstock in 1575 he delivered a prose speech +before Elizabeth, and presented her with the _Pleasant Tale of Hemetes +the Heremite_[1] in four languages. Most of his works were actually +published during the last years of his life, after his return from the +wars. He died at Bernack, near Stamford, where he was the guest of +George Whetstone, on the 7th of October 1577. George Whetstone wrote a +long dull poem in honour of his friend, entitled "A Remembrance of the +wel-imployed life and godly end of George Gaskoigne, Esquire." + +His theory of metrical composition is explained in a short critical +treatise, "Certayne Notes of Instruction concerning the making of verse +or ryme in English, written at the request of Master Edouardo +Donati,"[2] prefixed to his _Posies_ (1575). He acknowledged Chaucer as +his master, and differed from the earlier poets of the school of Surrey +and Wyatt chiefly in the added smoothness and sweetness of his verse. +His poems were published in 1572 during his absence in Holland, +surreptitiously, according to his own account, but it seems probable +that the "editor" who supplied the running comment was none other than +Gascoigne himself. _A hundreth Sundrie Floures bound up in one small +Posie. Gathered partely (by translation) in the fyne outlandish Gardens +of Euripides, Ovid, Petrarke, Ariosto and others; and partely by +Invention out of our owne fruitfull Orchardes in Englande, Yelding +Sundrie Savours of tragical, comical and moral discourse, bothe +pleasaunt and profitable, to the well-smelling noses of learned +Readers_, was followed in 1575 by an authorized edition, _The Posies of +G.G. Esquire_ ... (not dated). + +Gascoigne had an adventurous and original mind, and was a pioneer in +more than one direction. In 1576 he published _The Steele Glas_, +sometimes called the earliest regular English satire. Although this poem +is Elizabethan in form and manner, it is written in the spirit of _Piers +Plowman_. Gascoigne begins with a comparison between the sister arts of +Satire and Poetry, and under a comparison between the old-fashioned +"glas of trustie steele," and the new-fangled crystal mirrors which he +takes as a symbol of the "Italianate" corruption of the time, he attacks +the amusements of the governing classes, the evils of absentee +landlordism, the corruption of the clergy, and pleads for the +restoration of the feudal ideal.[3] + +His dramatic work belongs to the period of his residence at Gray's Inn, +both _Jocasta_ (of which Acts i. and iv. were contributed by Francis +Kinwelmersh) and _Supposes_ being played there in 1566. _Jocasta_ was +said by J.P. Collier (_Hist. of Dram. Poetry_ iii. 8) to be the "first +known attempt to introduce a Greek play upon the English stage," but it +turns out that Gascoigne was only very indirectly acquainted with +Euripides. His play is a literal version of Lodovico Dolce's _Giocasta_, +which was derived probably from the _Phoenissae_ in the Latin +translation of R. Winter. _Supposes_,[4] a version of Ariosto's _I +Suppositi_, is notable as an early and excellent adaptation of Italian +comedy, and moreover, as "the earliest play in English prose acted in +public or private." Udal's _Ralph Roister Doister_ had been inspired +directly by Latin comedy; _Gammer Gurton's Needle_ was a purely native +product; but _Supposes_ is the first example of the acclimatization of +the Italian models that were to exercise so prolonged an influence on +the English stage. A third play of Gascoigne's, _The Glasse of +Government_ (published in 1575), is a school drama of the "Prodigal Son" +type, familiar on the continent at the time, but rare in England. It is +defined by Mr C.H. Herford as an attempt "to connect _Terentian +situation_ with a _Christian moral_ in a picture of _school life_," and +it may be assumed that Gascoigne was familiar with the didactic drama of +university life in vogue on the continent. The scene is laid at Antwerp, +and the two prodigals meet with retribution in Geneva and Heidelberg +respectively. + +_The Spoyle of Antwerpe_, written by an eyewitness of the sack of the +city in 1576, has sometimes been attributed to Gascoigne, but although a +George Gascoigne was employed in that year to carry letters for +Walsingham, internal evidence is against Gascoigne's authorship. A +curious editorial preface by Gascoigne to Sir Humphrey Gilbert's +_Discourse of a Discoverie for a new Passage to Cataia_ (1576) has led +to the assertion that Gascoigne printed the tract against its author's +wish, but it is likely that he was really serving Gilbert, who desired +the publication, but dared not avow it. The _Wyll of the Devill_ ... +(reprinted for private circulation by Dr F.J. Furnivall, 1871), an +anti-popish tract, once attributed, on slender evidence, to Gascoigne, +is almost certainly by another hand. + + Gascoigne's works not already mentioned include: "G. G. in + commendation of the noble Arte of Venerie," prefixed to _The Noble Art + of Venerie or Hunting_ (1575); _The Complaynte of Phylomene, bound up + with The Steele Glas_ (1576); _The Droomme of Doomes-day_ (1576), a + prose compilation from various authors, especially from the _De + contemptu mundi sive de miseria humanae conditionis_ of Pope Innocent + III., printed with varying titles, earliest ed. (1470?); _A Delicate + Diet for daintie mouthde droonkardes ..._ (1576), a free version of St + Augustine's _De ebrietate_. _The Posies_ (1572) included _Supposes_, + _Jocasta_, _A Discourse of the Adventures of Master F[erdinando] + J[eronimi]_, in imitation of an Italian novella, a partly + autobiographical _Don Bartholomew of Bath_, and miscellaneous poems. + Real personages, some of whom were well known at court, were supposed + to be concealed under fictitious names in _The Adventures of Master F. + J._, and the poem caused considerable scandal, so that the names are + disguised in the second edition. A more comprehensive collection, _The + Whole Workes of G. G._ ... appeared in 1587. In 1868-1870 _The + Complete Poems of G. G._ ... were edited for the Roxburghe Library by + Mr W.C. Hazlitt. In his _English Reprints_ Prof. E. Arber included + _Certayne Notes of Instruction, The Steele Glas_ and the _Complaynt of + Philomene_. _The Steele Glas_ was also edited for the _Library of + English Literature_, by Henry Morley, vol. i. p. 184 (1889). A new + edition, _The Works of George Gascoigne_ (The Cambridge English + Classics, 1907, &c.) is edited by Dr J.W. Cunliffe. See also _The Life + and Writings of George Gascoigne_, by Prof. Felix E. Schelling + (Publications of the Univ. of Pennsylvania series in Philology, vol. + ii. No. 4 [1894]); C.H. Herford, _Studies in the Literary Relations of + England and Germany in the Sixteenth Century_, pp. 149-164 (1886); + C.H. Herford, "Gascoigne's Glasse of Government," in _Englische + Studien_, vol. ix. (Halle, 1877, &c.). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Printed in 1579 in a pamphlet called _The Paradoxe_, the author + of which, Abraham Fleming, does not mention Gascoigne's name. + + [2] Reprinted in vol. ii. of J. Haslewood's _Ancient Critical Essays_ + (1811-1815), and in Gregory Smith's _Elizabethan Critical Essays_ + (1904). + + [3] "Againe I see, within my glasse of Steele + But foure estates, to serve each country soyle, + The King, the Knight, the Pesant, and the Priest. + The King should care for al the subjects still, + The Knight should fight, for to defend the same, + The Pesant, he shoulde labor for their ease, + And Priests shuld pray, for them and for themselves."-- + + (Arber's ed. p. 57.) + + [4] The influence of this play on the Shakespearian _Taming of the + Shrew_ is dealt with by Prof. A.H. Tolman in _Shakespeare's Part in + the Taming of the Shrew_ (Pub. of the Mod. Lang. Assoc. vol. v. No. + 4, pp. 215, 216, 1890). + + + + +GASCOIGNE, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1350-1419), chief justice of England in the +reign of Henry IV. Both history and tradition testify to the fact that +he was one of the great lawyers who in times of doubt and danger have +asserted the principle that the head of the state is subject to law, and +that the traditional practice of public officers, or the expressed voice +of the nation in parliament, and not the will of the monarch or any part +of the legislature, must guide the tribunals of the country. He was a +descendant of an ancient Yorkshire family. The date of his birth is +uncertain, but it appears from the year-books that he practised as an +advocate in the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II. On the banishment +of Henry of Lancaster Gascoigne was appointed one of his attorneys, and +soon after Henry's accession to the throne was made chief justice of the +court of king's bench. After the suppression of the rising in the north +in 1405, Henry eagerly pressed the chief justice to pronounce sentence +upon Scrope, the archbishop of York, and the earl marshal Thomas +Mowbray, who had been implicated in the revolt. This he absolutely +refused to do, asserting the right of the prisoners to be tried by their +peers. Although both were afterwards executed, the chief justice had no +part in the transaction. It has been very much doubted, however, whether +Gascoigne could have displayed such independence of action without +prompt punishment or removal from office following. The oft-told tale of +his committing the prince of Wales to prison must also be regarded as +unauthentic, though it is both picturesque and characteristic. The judge +had directed the punishment of one of the prince's riotous companions, +and the prince, who was present and enraged at the sentence, struck or +grossly insulted the judge. Gascoigne immediately committed him to +prison, using firm and forcible language, which brought him to a more +reasonable mood, and secured his voluntary obedience to the sentence. +The king is said to have approved of the act, but there appears to be +good ground for the supposition that Gascoigne was removed from his post +or resigned soon after the accession of Henry V. He died in 1419, and +was buried in the parish church of Harewood in Yorkshire. Some +biographies of the judge have stated that he died in 1412, but this is +clearly disproved by Foss in his _Lives of the Judges_; and although it +is clear that Gascoigne did not hold office long under Henry V., it is +not absolutely impossible that the scene in the fifth act of the second +part of Shakespeare's _Henry IV._ has some historical basis, and that +the judge's resignation was voluntary. + + + + +GASCONY (_Wasconia_), an old province in the S.W. of France. It takes +its name from the Vascones, a Spanish tribe which in 580 and 587 crossed +the Pyrenees and invaded the district known to the Romans as +Novempopulana or Aquitania tertia. Basque, the national language of the +Vascones, took root only in a few of the high valleys of the Pyrenees, +such as Soule and Labourd; in the plains Latin dialects prevailed, +Gascon being a Romance language. In the 7th century the name of Vasconia +was substituted for that of Novempopulana. The Vascones readily +recognized the sovereignty of the Merovingian kings. In 602 they +consented to be governed by a duke called Genialis, but in reality they +remained independent. They even appointed national dukes, against whom +Charlemagne had to fight at the beginning of his reign. Finally Duke +Lupus II. made his submission in 819, and the Carolingians were able to +establish Frankish dukes in the country. Three of these are known: +Seguin (Sighivinus), William (Guillaume), and Arnaud (Arnaldus). They +were at the same time counts of Bordeaux, and succumbed to the Normans. +After the death of Arnaud in 864 the history of Gascony falls into the +profoundest obscurity. The lists of the 10th-century dukes prepared by +ancient and modern historians can only be established by means of +hypotheses based in many cases on spurious documents (e.g. the charter +of Alaon), and little confidence can be placed in them. During this +troubled period Gascony was from time to time attached to one or other +of the other Vascon states which had been formed on the southern slope +of the Pyrenees, but in the reign of Hugh Capet it was considered as +forming part of France, from which it has never been separated. Disputed +in the 11th century by the counts of Poitiers, who were also dukes of +Aquitaine, and by the counts of Armagnac, the duchy finally passed to +the house of Poitiers in 1073, when the title of duke of Gascony was +merged in that of duke of Aquitaine and disappeared. In the feudal +period Gascony comprised a great number of countships (including +Armagnac, Bigorre, Fezensac, Gaure and Pardiac), viscountships +(including Bearn, Lomagne, Dax, Juliac, Soule, Marsan, Tartas, Labourd +and Maremne), and seigneuries (e.g. Albret, &c.). From the +ecclesiastical point of view, it corresponded nearly to the +archbishopric of Auch. + +From about 1073 to 1137 Gascony was governed by the dukes of Aquitaine +and counts of Poitiers, one of whom, William IX., gave the first charter +of privileges to the town of Bayonne; but the duchy was weakened by the +increasing independence of its great feudatories, especially the +viscounts of Bearn and the counts of Armagnac. In 1137, the year of her +father's death, Eleanor, the daughter and heiress of Duke William X., +married the king of France, Louis VII., and with the rest of Aquitaine +Gascony passed under his direct rule. In 1151, however, this marriage +was annulled, and almost at once Eleanor married Henry of Anjou, who +three years later became king of England as Henry II. Thus was the house +of Plantagenet introduced into Gascony and a fresh bone of contention +was thrown between the kings of England and of France. Having +established himself in the duchy by force of arms, Henry handed it over +to his son Richard, against whom many of the great Gascon lords +revolted, and from Richard it passed to his brother John. The crusade +against the Albigenses was carried into Gascony, and this warfare gave a +new impetus to the process of disintegration which was already at work +in the duchy. King John and his successor Henry III. were weak; the +neighbouring counts of Toulouse were powerful and aggressive; and the +house of Bearn was growing in strength. Gascony served Henry III. as +headquarters during his two short and disastrous wars (1230 and 1242) +with Louis IX., and in 1259 he did homage for it to this king; his son, +Edward I., lost and then regained the duchy. + +During the Hundred Years' War Gascony was obviously a battle-field for +the forces of England and of France. The French seized the duchy, but, +aided by the rivalry between the powerful houses of Foix and Armagnac, +Edward III. was able to recover it, and by the treaty of Bretigny in +1360 John II. recognized the absolute sovereignty of England therein. +Handed over as a principality by Edward to his son, the Black Prince, it +was used by its new ruler as a base during his expedition into Spain, in +which he received substantial help from the Gascon nobles. The renewal +of the war between England and France, which took place in 1369, was due +in part to a dispute over the sovereignty of Gascony, and during its +course the position of the English was seriously weakened, the whole of +the duchy save a few towns and fortresses being lost; but the victories +of Henry V. in northern France postponed for a time the total expulsion +of the foreigner. This was reserved for the final stage of the war and +was one result of the efforts of Joan of Arc, the year 1451 witnessing +the capture of Bayonne and the final retreat of the English troops from +the duchy. During this time the inhabitants of Gascony suffered severely +from the ravages of both parties, and the nobles ruled or misruled +without restraint. + +The French kings, especially Louis XI., managed to restore the royal +authority in the duchy, although this was not really accomplished until +the close of the 15th century when the house of Armagnac was overthrown. +It was by means of administrative measures that these kings attained +their object. Gascony was governed on the same lines as other parts of +France and from the time of Henry IV., who was prince of Bearn, and who +united his hereditary lands with the crown, its history differs very +slightly from that of the rest of the country. The Renaissance inspired +the foundation of educational institutions and the Reformation was +largely accepted in Bearn, but not in other parts of Gascony. The wars +of religion swept over the land, which was the scene of some of the +military exploits of Henry IV., and Louis XIV. made some slight changes +in its government. As may be surmised the boundaries of Gascony varied +from time to time, but just before the outbreak of the Revolution they +were the Atlantic Ocean, Guienne, Languedoc and the Pyrenees, and from +east to west the duchy at its greatest extent measured 170 m. + +At the end of the _ancien regime_ Gascony was united with Guienne to +form a great military government. After the division of France into +departments, Gascony, together with Bearn, French Navarre and the Basque +country, formed the departments of Basses-Pyrenees, Landes, +Hautes-Pyrenees and Gers. Parts of Gascony also now form arrondissements +and cantons of the departments of Lot-et-Garonne, Haute-Garonne, Ariege +and Tarn-et-Garonne. + + See Arnaud Oihenart, _Notitia utriusque Vasconiae, tam Ibericae quam + Aquitanicae_ (1637); L'Abbe Monlezun, _Histoire de la Gascogne_ + (1846-1850), comprising a number of useful but uncritically edited + documents; and Jean de Jaurgain, _La Vasconie, etude historique et + critique sur les origines ... du duche de Gascogne ... et des grands + fiefs du duche de Gascogne_ (1898-1902), a learned and ingenious work, + but characterized by unbridled genealogical fancy. This last work was + rectified by Ferdinand Lot in his _Etudes sur le regne de Hugues + Capet_ (1903; see especially appendix x.). See also Barrau-Dihigo, "La + Gascogne," a bibliography of manuscript sources and of printed works + published in the _Revue de synthese historique_ (1903). (C. B.*) + + + + +GAS ENGINE. A gas engine is a heat engine in which the working fluid is +atmospheric air and the fuel an inflammable gas. It differs from a +hot-air or a steam engine in that the heat is given to the working fluid +by combustion within the motive power cylinder. In most gas engines--in +fact, in all those at present on the market--the working fluid and the +fuel that supplies it with heat are mixed with each other before the +combustion of the fuel. The fuel--which in the steam and in most hot-air +engines is burned in a separate furnace--is, in the gas engine, +introduced directly to the motor cylinder and burned there; it is, +indeed, part of the working fluid. A gas engine, therefore, is an +internal combustion engine using gaseous fuel. + + The commercial history of the gas engine dates from 1876, when Dr N.A. + Otto patented the well-known engine now in extensive use, but long + before that year inventors had been at work, attempting to utilize gas + for producing motive power. The first proposal made in Great Britain + is found in Street's Patent No. 1983 of 1794, where an explosion + engine is suggested, the explosion to be caused by vaporizing spirits + of turpentine on a heated metal surface, mixing the vapour with air in + a cylinder, firing the mixture, and driving a piston by the explosion + produced. Most of the early engines were suggested by the fact that a + mixture of an inflammable gas and atmospheric air gives an explosion + when ignited--that is, produces pressure which can be applied in a + cylinder to propel a piston. Lebon, in France, proposed a gas engine + in which the gas and air were raised to a pressure above that of the + atmosphere before use in the cylinder, but he did not appear to be + clear in his ideas. + + Some interesting particulars of early experiments are given in a paper + read at the Cambridge Philosophical Society in 1820 entitled, "On the + Application of Hydrogen Gas to produce a Moving Power in Machinery, + with a description of an Engine which is moved by the pressure of the + Atmosphere upon a Vacuum caused by Explosions of Hydrogen Gas and + Atmospheric Air." In that paper the Rev. W. Cecil describes an engine + of his invention constructed to operate on the explosion vacuum + method. This engine was stated to run with perfect regularity at 60 + revolutions per minute, consuming 17.6 cub. ft. of hydrogen gas per + hour. The hydrogen explosion, however, does not seem to have been + noiseless, because Mr Cecil states that in building a larger engine + "... to remedy the noise which is occasioned by the explosion, the + lower end of the cylinder A, B, C, D may be buried in a well or it may + be enclosed in a large air-tight vessel." Mr Cecil also mentions + previous experiments at Cambridge by Prof. Farish, who exhibited at + his lectures on mechanics an engine actuated by the explosion of a + mixture of gas and air within a cylinder, the explosion taking place + from atmospheric pressure. Prof. Farish is also stated to have + operated an engine by gunpowder. These engines of Farish and Cecil + appear to be the very earliest in actual operation in the world. + + Samuel Brown, in patents dated 1823 and 1826, proposed to fill a + closed chamber with a gas flame, and so expel the air; then he + condensed the flame by injecting water, and operated an air engine by + exhausting into the partial vacuum so obtained. The idea was evidently + suggested by Watt's condensing steam engine, flame being employed + instead of steam to obtain a vacuum. Brown's engine is said to have + been actually employed to pump water, drive a boat on the Thames, and + propel a road carriage. L.W. Wright in 1833 described an explosion + engine working at atmospheric pressure and exploding on both sides of + the piston. The cylinder is shown as water-jacketed. In William + Barnett's engine of 1838 two great advances were made. The engine was + so constructed that the mixture of gas and air was compressed to a + considerable extent in the motor cylinder before ignition. The method + of igniting the compressed charge was also effective. The problem of + transferring a flame to the interior of a cylinder when the pressure + is much in excess of that of the external air was solved by means of a + hollow plug cock having a gas jet burning within the hollow. In one + position the hollow was opened to the atmosphere, and a gas jet + issuing within it was lit by an external flame, so that it burned + within the hollow. The plug was then quickly rotated, so that it + closed to the external air and opened to the engine cylinder; the + flame continued to burn with the air contained in the cock, until the + compressed inflammable mixture rushed into the space from the cylinder + and ignited at the flame. This mode of ignition is in essentials the + one adopted by Otto about thirty years later. To Barnett belongs the + credit of being the first to realize clearly the great idea of + compression before explosion in gas engines, and to show one way of + carrying out the idea in practice. Barnett appears to have constructed + an engine, but he attained no commercial success. Several attempts to + produce gas engines were made between 1838 and 1860, but they were all + failures. Several valuable ideas were published in 1855. Drake, an + American, described a mode of igniting a combustible gaseous mixture + by raising a thimble-shaped piece of metal to incandescence. In 1857 + Barsanti and Matteucci proposed a free-piston engine, in which the + explosion propelled a free piston against the atmosphere, and the work + was done on the return stroke by the atmospheric pressure, a partial + vacuum being produced under the piston. The engine never came into + commercial use, although the fundamental idea was good. + + Previous to 1860 the gas engine was entirely in the experimental + stage, and in spite of many attempts no practical success was + attained. E. Lenoir, whose patent is dated 1860, was the inventor of + the first gas engine that was brought into general use. The piston, + moving forward for a portion of its stroke by the energy stored in the + fly-wheel, drew into the cylinder a charge of gas and air at the + ordinary atmospheric pressure. At about half stroke the valves closed, + and an explosion, caused by an electric spark, propelled the piston to + the end of its stroke. On the return stroke the burnt gases were + discharged, just as a steam engine exhausts. These operations were + repeated on both sides of the piston, and the engine was thus + double-acting. Four hundred of these engines were said to be at work + in Paris in 1865, and the Reading Iron Works Company Limited built and + sold one hundred of them in Great Britain. They were quiet, and smooth + in running; the gas consumption, however, was excessive, amounting to + about 100 cub. ft. per indicated horse-power per hour. The electrical + ignition also gave trouble. Hugon improved on the engine in 1865 by + the introduction of a flame ignition, but no real commercial success + was attained till 1867, when Otto and Langen exhibited their + free-piston engine in the Paris Exhibition of that year. This engine + was identical in principle with the Barsanti and Matteucci, but Otto + succeeded where those inventors failed. He worked out the engine in a + very perfect manner, used flame ignition, and designed a practical + clutch, which allowed the piston free movement in one direction but + engaged with the fly-wheel shaft when moved in the other; it consisted + of rollers and wedge-shaped pockets--the same clutch, in fact, as has + since been so much used in free-wheel bicycles. This engine consumed + about 40 cub. ft. of gas per brake horse-power per hour--less than + half as much as the Lenoir. Several thousands were made and sold, but + its strange appearance and unmechanical operation raised many + objections. Several inventors meanwhile again advocated compression of + the gaseous mixture before ignition, among them being Schmidt, a + German, and Million, a Frenchman, both in 1861. + + To a Frenchman, Alph. Beau de Rochas, belongs the credit of proposing, + with perfect clearness, the cycle of operations now widely used in + compression gas engines. In a pamphlet published in Paris in 1862, he + stated that to obtain economy with an explosion engine four conditions + are requisite: (1) The greatest possible cylinder volume with the + least possible cooling surface; (2) the greatest possible rapidity of + explosion; (3) the greatest possible expansion; and (4) the greatest + possible pressure at the beginning of the expansion. The sole + arrangement capable of satisfying these conditions he stated would be + found in an engine operating as follows: (1) Suction during an entire + out-stroke of the piston; (2) compression during the following + in-stroke; (3) ignition at the dead point, and expansion during the + third stroke; (4) forcing out of the burnt gases from the cylinder on + the fourth and last return stroke. Beau de Rochas thus exactly + contemplated, in theory at least, the engine produced by Dr Otto + fourteen years later. He did not, however, put his engine into + practice, and probably had no idea of the practical difficulties to be + overcome before realizing his conception in iron and steel. To Dr Otto + belongs the honour of independently inventing the same cycle, now + correctly known as the Otto cycle, and at the same time overcoming all + practical difficulties and making the gas engine of world-wide + application. This he did in 1876, and his type of engine very rapidly + surpassed all others, so that now the Otto-cycle engine is + manufactured over the whole world by hundreds of makers. In 1876 Dr + Otto used low compression, only about 30 lb. per sq. in. above + atmosphere. Year by year compression was increased and greater power + and economy were obtained, and at present compressions of more than + 100 lb. per sq. in. are commonly used with most satisfactory results. + +The history of the subject since 1876 is one of gradual improvement in +detail of construction, enabling higher compressions to be used with +safety, and of gradual but accelerating increase in dimensions and +power. In the same period light and heavy oil engines have been +developed, mostly using the Otto cycle (see OIL ENGINE). + +Gas engines may be divided, so far as concerns their working process, +into three well-defined types:-- + +(1) Engines igniting at constant volume, but without previous +compression. + +(2) Engines igniting at constant pressure, with previous compression. + +(3) Engines igniting at constant volume, with previous compression. + +For practical purposes engines of the first type may be disregarded. Gas +engines without compression are now considered to be much too wasteful +of gas to be of commercial importance. Those of the second type have +never reached the stage of extended commercial application; they are +scientifically interesting, however, and may take an important place in +the future development of the gas engine. The expectations of Sir +William Siemens with regard to them have not been realized, although he +spent many years in experiments. Of other engineers who also devoted +much thought and work to this second type may be mentioned Brayton +(1872); Foulis (1878); Crowe (1883); Hargreaves (1888); Clerk (1889); +and Diesel (1892). Diesel's engines are proving successful as oil +engines but have not been introduced as gas engines. + + The working cycles of the three types are as follows:-- + + _First Type._--Four operations. + + (a) Charging the cylinder with explosive mixture at atmospheric + pressure. + (b) Exploding the charge. + (c) Expanding after explosion. + (d) Expelling the burnt gases. + + _Second Type._--Five operations. + + (a) Charging the pump cylinder with gas and air mixture at + atmospheric pressure. + (b) Compressing the charge into an intermediate receiver. + (c) Admitting the charge to the motor cylinder, in a state of + flame, at the pressure of compression. + (d) Expanding after admission. + (e) Expelling the burnt gases. + + _Third Type._--Five operations. + + (a) Charging the cylinder with gas and air mixture at atmospheric + pressure. + (b) Compressing the charge into a combustion space. + (c) Exploding the charge. + (d) Expanding after explosion. + (e) Expelling the burnt gases. + + In all these types the heating of the working fluid is accomplished by + the rapid method of combustion within the cylinder, and for the + cooling necessary in all heat engines is substituted the complete + rejection of the working fluid with the heat it contains, and its + replacement by a fresh portion taken from the atmosphere at + atmospheric temperature. This is the reason why those cycles can be + repeated with almost indefinite rapidity, while the old hot-air + engines had to run slowly in order to give time for the working fluid + to heat or cool through metal surfaces. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Side Elevation of Otto Cycle Engine.] + +_Four-cycle Engines._--Otto-cycle engines belong to the third type, +being explosion engines in which the combustible mixture is compressed +previous to explosion. Fig. 1 is a side elevation, fig. 2 is a sectional +plan, and fig. 3 is an end elevation of an engine built about 1892 by +Messrs Crossley of Manchester, who were the original makers of Otto +engines in Great Britain. In external appearance it somewhat resembles a +modern high-pressure steam engine, of which the working parts are +exceedingly strong. In its motor and only cylinder, which is horizontal +and open-ended, works a long trunk piston, the front end of which +carries the crosshead pin. The crank shaft is heavy, and the fly-wheel +large, considerable stored energy being required to carry the piston +through the negative part of the cycle. The cylinder is considerably +longer than the stroke, so that the piston when full in leaves a space +into which it does not enter. This is the combustion space, in which the +charge is first compressed and then burned. On the forward stroke, the +piston A (fig. 2) takes into the cylinder a charge of mixed gas and air +at atmospheric pressure, which is compressed by a backward stroke into +the space Z at the end of the cylinder. The compressed charge is then +ignited, and so the charge is exploded with the production of a high +pressure. The piston now makes a forward stroke under the pressure of +the explosion, and on its return, after the exhaust valve is opened, +discharges the products of combustion. The engine is then ready to go +through the same cycle of operations. It thus takes four strokes or two +revolutions of the shaft to complete the Otto cycle, the cylinder being +used alternately as a pump and a motor, and the engine, when working at +full load, thus gives one impulse for every two revolutions. The valves, +which are all of the conical-seated lift type, are four in +number--charge inlet valve, gas inlet valve, igniting valve, and exhaust +valve. The igniting valve is usually termed the timing valve, because it +determines the time of the explosion. Since the valves have each to act +once in every two revolutions, they cannot be operated by cams or +eccentrics placed directly on the crank shaft. The valve shaft D is +driven at half the rate of revolution of the crank shaft C by means of +the skew or worm gear E, one wheel of which is mounted on the crank +shaft and the other on the valve shaft. Ignition is accomplished by +means of a metal tube heated to incandescence by a Bunsen burner. At the +proper moment the ignition or timing valve is opened, and the mixed gas +and air under pressure being admitted to the interior of the tube, the +inflammable gases come into contact with the incandescent metal surface +and ignite; the flame at once spreads back to the cylinder and fires its +contents, thus producing the motive explosion. + + The working parts are as follows:--A the piston, B the connecting rod, + C the crank shaft, D the side or valve shaft, E the skew gearing, F + the exhaust valve, G the exhaust valve lever, H the exhaust valve cam, + I the charge inlet valve, J the charge inlet valve lever, K the + charging valve cam, L the gas inlet valve, M the gas valve cam, N + lever and link operating gas valve, O igniting or timing valve, P + timing valve cam, Q timing valve lever or tumbler, R igniting tube, S + governor, T water jacket and cylinder, U Bunsen burner for heating + ignition tube. On the first forward or charging stroke the charge of + gas and air is admitted by the inlet valve I, which is operated by the + lever J from the cam K, on the valve shaft D. The gas supply is + admitted to the inlet valve I by the lift valve L, which is also + operated by the lever and link N from the cam M, controlled, however, + by the centrifugal governor S. The governor operates either to admit + gas wholly, or to cut it off completely, so that the variation in + power is obtained by varying the number of the explosions. + + Since the engine shown in figs. 1 to 3 was built further modifications + have been made, principally in the direction of dispensing with or + diminishing port space, that is, so arranging the ports that the + compression space is not broken up into several separate chambers. In + this way the cooling surface in contact with the intensely hot gases + is reduced to a minimum. This is especially important when high + compressions are used, as then the compression space being small, the + port spaces form a large proportion of the total space. For maximum + economy it is necessary to get rid of port space altogether; this is + done by making the lift valves open directly into the compression + space. This arrangement can be readily made in small- and medium-sized + engines, but in the larger engines it becomes necessary to provide + ports, so as to allow the valves to be more easily removed for + cleaning. + +The construction of pressure gas plant in 1878 by J.E. Dowson for the +production of inflammable gas from anthracite and coke by the action of +air mixed with steam, soon led to the development of larger and larger +Otto cycle engines. The gas obtained consisted of a mixture of carbon +monoxide, hydrogen, nitrogen and some carbon dioxide and oxygen, having +a lower heating value of about 150 British thermal units per cubic foot. +With this gas these engines used about 1 lb. of anthracite per b.h.p. +per hour. + +From the pressure producer sprang the suction producer first placed on +the market in practical form by M. Benier of Paris in 1894, but then +presenting many difficulties which were not removed till about nine +years later when Dowson and others placed effective suction plants in +use in considerable numbers. Such suction plants are now built by all +the leading gas engine constructors for powers varying from 10 to 500 +i.h.p. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Plan of Otto Cycle Engine.] + +Dr Ludwig Mond and Crossley Bros. also attacked the problem of the +bituminous fuel producer, of which many examples are now at work for +powers as large as 2000 i.h.p. In 1895 B.H. Thwaite demonstrated that +the so-called waste gas from blast furnaces could be used in gas +engines, and this undoubtedly led to the design and construction of the +very large gas engines now becoming common both in Europe and in +America. It appears from Thwaite's experiments that the surplus gas from +the blast furnaces of Great Britain is capable of supplying at least +three-quarters of a million horse-power continuously day and night, and +it is calculated that in America nearly three million horse-power is +available from this source. Thwaite's system was put into operation in +1895 at the Glasgow Iron Works, and it was also successfully applied +near Barrow-in-Furness. For many reasons the system did not take +immediate root in England, but in 1898 the Societe Cockerill of Seraing +near Liege applied an engine designed by Delamere-Deboutteville to +utilize blast furnace gas. This engine indicated 213 h.p. running at 105 +revolutions per minute. This was followed in 1899 by an engine giving +600 b.h.p. at 90 revolutions per minute used for driving a blowing +cylinder for a blast furnace. It had a single cylinder of 51.2 in. +diameter and a piston stroke of 55.1 in. About 1900 the Gasmotoren +Fabrik Deutz built an Otto cycle engine of 1000 b.h.p. having four +cylinders each 33 in. diameter and 39.3 in. stroke, speed 135 +revolutions per minute. It was coupled direct to a dynamo. Crossley +Bros. Ltd. took up the large gas engine at an early date, and a 400 h.p. +engine by them was at work at Brunner, Mond & Co.'s works, Winnington, +in 1900; it had two cylinders of 26 in. diameter and 36 in. stroke, and +it ran at 150 revolutions per minute. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--End Elevation of Otto Cycle Engine.] + +Gas engines operating on the Otto cycle are usually of the single acting +open cylinder type up to about 200 b.h.p., but for the larger engines +closed cylinders of the double acting type are used. The engine then +closely resembles a double acting steam engine. It has a cylinder cover +with packing box of a special type, and, in addition to the water jacket +surrounding the cylinder and combustion spaces, the piston and piston +rod are hollow and cooling water is forced through them by a pump. Such +a double acting cylinder gives two succeeding power impulses and then +two charging strokes so that one revolution of the crank shaft is +occupied in charging and compression, while the succeeding revolution +gets two power impulses. For still larger engines two such double acting +cylinders are arranged in tandem, so that one piston rod runs through +two pistons and connects to a slide in front and to one crank pin by a +connecting rod. Such an engine gives two power impulses for every +revolution of the crank shaft. The greatest power developed in one +double acting cylinder is claimed by Ehrhardt and Sehmer for a cylinder +of 45-1/4 in. diameter by 51-1/4 in. stroke, which at 94 revolutions per +minute gives 1100 i.h.p. + +_Two-Cycle Engine._--While the Otto or four-cycle engine was developing +as above described, inventors were hard at work on the two-cycle engine. +In Britain this work fell mostly upon Clerk, Robson and Atkinson, while +on the continent of Europe the most persevering and determined worker +was Koerting. + +Dugald Clerk began work on the gas engine at the end of 1876. His first +patent was dated 1877 and dealt with an engine of the air pressure +vacuum type. His next patent was No. 3045 of 1878, and the engine there +described was exhibited at the Royal Agricultural Show at Kilburn, +London, 1879. In it a pump compressed a mixture of air and gas into a +reservoir, from which it entered the motor cylinder during the first +part of its stroke. After cut-off ignition was caused by a platinum +igniter, the piston was driven forward, and exhausting was performed on +the return stroke. This engine gave three b.h.p., and it was the first +compression explosion engine ever run giving one impulse for each +revolution of the crank shaft. It had difficulties, however, which +prevented it from reaching the market. + +The particular type of engine now widely known as operating on the Clerk +cycle was patented in 1881 (Brit. Pat. No. 1089). One of the earliest of +these engines was set up at Lord Kelvin's laboratory at the Glasgow +university and used for the purpose of driving a Siemens dynamo and +supplying his house with electric light. The engine was first exhibited +in the Paris Electrical Exhibition of 1881 and the London Smoke +Abatement Exhibition of the same year. In this engine the charge was not +compressed by a separate pump. A pumping cylinder, it is true, was used, +but its function was to act merely as a displacer to take in a mixture +of gas and air and transfer it to the motor cylinder at as low a +pressure as possible, in such a way that the entering charge displaced +the exhaust gases through ports which were opened by the overrunning of +the piston. The motor piston thus timed and controlled the exhaust +discharge, and gave a power impulse for every revolution of the crank. +Engines of the Clerk type were built largely by Messrs Sterne & Co. of +Glasgow, the Clerk Gas Engine Co. of Philadelphia, U.S.A., the Campbell +Gas Engine Co., and a modification was made and sold in considerable +numbers by the Stockport Company. The lapsing of the Otto patent, +however, in 1876 caused engineers to neglect the two cycle for a time, +although a little later it was introduced for small engines in an +ingenious and simple modification known as the Day engine. This +two-cycle engine later became very popular, especially for motor launch +work. The Clerk cycle is now much in use for large gas engines up to +about 2000 horse as modified by Messrs Koerting of Hanover. + + The Clerk cycle engine, as built in 1881, is shown in sectional plan + at fig. 4. The engine contains two cylinders--a power cylinder A and a + displacer cylinder B. The function of the displacer cylinder is to + take in a combustible charge of gas and air and transfer it to the + power cylinder, displacing as it enters the exhaust gases of the + previous explosion. A compression space G is formed at the end of the + motor cylinder A. It is of conical shape and communicates with the + displacer cylinder B by means of a large automatic lift valve which + opens into the compression space from a chamber communicating by a + pipe with the displacer cylinder. At the out-end of the motor cylinder + are placed V-shaped ports E which open to the atmosphere by an exhaust + pipe. The outward travel of the motor piston C causes it to overrun + these ports, as seen in fig. 4, and allows the pressure in the + cylinder to fall to atmosphere. The action of the engine is as + follows:--The displacer piston D on its forward movement draws in its + charge of gas and air, and it is so timed with reference to the motor + piston C that it has returned a small portion of its stroke just when + the motor piston overruns the exhaust ports. The overrunning of the + exhaust ports at once causes the pressure in the cylinder to fall to + atmosphere, and then the pressure in the displacer overcomes the + pressure in the motor cylinder and opens the lift valve, when the + charge flows in to the motor cylinder through the conical compression + space and displaces the exhaust gases through the ports E, while it + fills up the cylinder A with the inflammable charge. The exhaust gases + are sufficiently displaced and the fresh charge introduced into the + cylinder by the time the motor piston has opened the exhaust ports E + on the out-stroke and closed them on the return stroke. The two + cylinders are so proportioned that the exhaust gases are expelled as + completely as possible and replaced by fresh explosive mixture without + any material part of this mixture escaping with the exhaust. Unless + the proportions are carefully made such an escape is possible. The + relative operations of the motor piston C and the displacer piston D + are secured by advancing the crank of the displacer about a right + angle compared to the motor crank. The motor piston on its in-stroke + compresses the mixed charge into the conical space G; and, when + compression is complete, the mixture is ignited by the slide valve F. + This produces the power explosion which forces the piston forward + until the exhaust ports are opened again. By this cycle of operations + one power impulse is given for every revolution of the crank. The + motor cylinder is surrounded by a water jacket in the usual manner, + but it is unnecessary to water-jacket the displacer, as the gases are + never hot. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Sectional Plan of Clerk Cycle Engine, 1881.] + + Robson also invented two-cycle engines. His first patent was taken out + in 1877 (No. 2334). The engines described in his patents of 1879-1880 + were of the two-cycle type, and in them no second cylinder was used. + The front end of the motor cylinder was enclosed by a cover and + packing box, and was used as a pump to force gas and air into a + reservoir at a few lb. above atmosphere. The motor piston was arranged + to overrun ports in the side of the cylinder, but the exhaust + discharge was not timed in that way. A separate lift valve controlled + the overrun ports and determined when the exhaust should be + discharged. When the exhaust was discharged at the end of the stroke + the pressure from the gas and air reservoir was admitted by a lift + valve to the cylinder to displace the remaining exhaust gases and fill + the cylinder with charge. This mixture was compressed into a space at + the end of the cylinder and ignited by means of a flame ignition + device. Robson's engine was built in considerable numbers by Messrs + Tangye of Birmingham, the first exhibited by them at Bingley Hall at + the end of 1880. The modern Day engine closely resembles the Robson + engine so far as its broad operations are concerned. + + Atkinson's work on the gas engine was begun in 1878, his first patent + being No. 3212 of 1879. The engine described in that patent somewhat + resembled the 1878 engine of Clerk as exhibited at Kilburn. Atkinson + was ingenious and persevering in the invention of two-cycle engines. + Two of his engines were made in considerable numbers. The first was + known as the "Differential" engine, exhibited at the Inventions + Exhibition, London, in 1885. A later engine produced by him was called + the "Cycle" engine, and it proved to be the most economical of all the + motors tested at the Society of Arts trials of motors for electric + lighting in 1888-1889. Atkinson joined Crossley Bros., and many of his + ingenious contrivances are now at work on the well-known engines of + that firm. + +Four-cycle engines now practically monopolize the field of the smaller +internal combustion engines, and very large engines are also constructed +on this plan. The two-cycle, or Clerk cycle engines, however, compete +strongly with the four-cycle for large gas engines using blast furnace +gas. Koerting engines on the Clerk cycle are now built giving 1000 +i.h.p. per double acting motor cylinder, and one power cylinder on this +method gives two impulses per revolution. Messrs Mather & Platt build a +Koerting engine of a modified type in England; an engine of their +construction with a power cylinder of about 29 in. and 40-1/2 in. stroke +gives 700 b.h.p. + + Fig. 5 shows in longitudinal section the power and pump cylinders of a + Mather & Platt Koerting engine on the Clerk cycle; the power cylinder + section is shown above that of the pump cylinders, but it is to be + understood that both cylinders are in the same horizontal plane as in + the Clerk engine shown at fig. 4. The Koerting engine, however, is + double acting, whereas the Clerk engine was single acting. The power + cylinder A has a power piston A^1 and compression spaces A^2 A^3. At + the centre of the cylinders are exhaust ports E which open to the + atmosphere and are overrun by the piston A^1 at both ends of the + stroke. A^4 and A^5 are inlet valves for gas and air. The single + acting pump cylinders BB^1 supply the air required for the charge, and + the double acting gas cylinder CC^1 supplies the gas. Both gas and air + are led from these cylinders by separate passages to the inlet valves + A^4 A^5. The air pump pistons are lettered B^2 B^3 and the gas pump + piston C^2. The main crank D connects as usual to the piston rod of + the power piston A^1, and the pump crank F to the trunk air pump + piston B^2 which drives the other air pump piston B^3 and the gas pump + piston C^2 by a piston rod passing through all three. The gas mixture + is not made until the inlet valves A^4 A^5 are reached, so that no + explosive mixture exists until it is formed within the cylinder A. The + air is first introduced into the power cylinder to discharge some of + the hot gases, and when the gas is also admitted the contents of the + cylinder are cooled to some extent. The action of the engine is + exactly as described with regard to the Clerk cycle, and the + arrangement of the two cranks at about right angles to each other is + also similar. The exhaust is discharged through the ports E, and the + incoming charge fills the cylinder in the same way as in the Clerk + engine. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Longitudinal Section of Two-Cycle Engine + (Koerting-Clerk), new type, by Messrs Mather & Platt, Ltd.] + + Another large continental gas engine, known as the Oechelhauser, + operates on a modified Clerk cycle and is shown in sectional plan at + fig. 6. The motor cylinder A has two pistons A^1 A^2, A^1 being + operated by a centre and A^2 by two outside cranks, side rods, and + cross head; the pistons A^1 A^2 thus move in opposite directions and + give an effective stroke of double that due to one crank. B is the air + and gas pump dealing with air on one side of its piston and gas on the + other. A chamber C opens to an air reservoir supplied from the pump + and to the power cylinder by ports C^1; a similar chamber D opens to a + gas reservoir supplied from the pump and to the power cylinder by + ports D^1. The exhaust ports E are provided at the other end of the + cylinder. When the front piston overruns the exhaust ports E the + pressure within the power cylinder falls to atmosphere; the back + piston then opens the air ports C^1 and air under slight pressure + flows in, to be followed a little later by gas under slight pressure + from the gas ports D^1. In this way the power cylinder A is charged + with gas and air mixture at each stroke, and when the pistons A^1 A^2 + approach each other the charge is compressed into the space between + and then ignited by the electric spark. The pistons are then forced + apart and perform their power stroke. The Oechelhauser engine, which + is built in Great Britain by Messrs Beardmore of Glasgow, has attained + considerable success in driving blowing pumps for blast furnaces, in + producing electric light, and in driving iron rolling mills. + + Large gas engines are undoubtedly making great progress, as will be + seen from the following interesting particulars prepared in 1908 by Mr + R.E. Mathot of Brussels giving the numbers and horse power of large + gas engines which had then been recently manufactured in Europe:-- + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Arrangement of Oechelhauser Gas Engine.] + + Messrs Crossley Brothers, Limited, 57 motors, with an aggregate of + 23,660 h.p.; Messrs Ehrhardt & Sehmer, 59 motors, total, 69,790 h.p.; + the Otto Gasmotoren Fabrik, 82, total 47,400 h.p.; Gebruder Koerting, + 198, total 165,760 h.p.; Societe Alsacienne, 55, total 23,410 h.p.; + Societe John Cockerill, 148, total 102,925 h.p.; Societe Suisse, + Winterthur, 67, total 8620 h.p.; Vereinigte Maschinenfabriken, + Augsburg and Nurnberg, 215, total 256,240 h.p. The mean power of each + gas engine made by Messrs Ehrhardt & Sehmer and the Augsburg and + Nurnberg companies is in each case 1200 h.p. It is stated that in one + factory there are gas engines representing a total output of 35,000 + h.p. These European large gas engines thus give nearly 575,000 h.p. + between them. + + The installation of large gas engines has made considerable progress + in America. Mr E.L. Adams estimated that 350,000 h.p. was at work or + in construction in the United States in 1908. The first large engines + were installed at the works of the Lackawanna Steel Co., Buffalo, New + York. They were of the Koerting-Clerk type, and were built by the De + La Vergne Co. of New York. They included 16 blowing engines, each of + 2000 h.p., and 8 engines of 1000 h.p. each, driving dynamos to produce + electric light. This large power plant was started in 1902. The + Westinghouse Co. of Pittsburgh have also built large engines, several + of which are in operation at the various works of the Carnegie Steel + Co. These Westinghouse engines are of the horizontal twin tandem type, + having two cranks and four double-acting cylinders in each unit, the + cylinders being 38 in. in diameter and the stroke 54 in. The Snow + Steam Pump Co. have built similar horizontal tandem engines with + cylinders of 42 in. diameter and 54 in. stroke. The English + Westinghouse Co. have also designed large gas engines, and they + exhibited a very interesting vertical multiple cylinder gas engine + having four cranks and eight single-acting cylinders, four pairs, in + tandem, at the Franco-British Exhibition of 1908; it gave 750 h.p., + and the pistons were not watered. + + Over two million horse-power of the smaller gas engines are now at + work in the world, and certainly above one million horse-power of + petrol motors. + +The application of large gas engines to marine work, the compounding of +the gas engine, and many other matters are being strenuously pursued. +Capitaine of Frankfort-on-Main has built several vessels used for towing +purposes in which the vessel is driven by gas engines operated by means +of suction gas-producers consuming anthracite. Messrs Thornycroft and +Messrs Beardmore in Great Britain have adopted the Capitaine designs, +and both firms have applied them to sea-going vessels, Thornycroft to a +gas launch which has been tested in the Solent, and Beardmore to an old +gunboat, the "Rattler." The "Rattler" was fitted with five-cylinder Otto +cycle engines and suction gas-producers giving 500 i.h.p.; and has +sailed some 1500 m. under gas power only. There are many difficulties to +be overcome before large light and sufficiently slow-moving gas engines +can be installed on board ship, but progress is being made, and without +doubt all difficulties will be ultimately surmounted and gas power +successfully applied to ships for both large and small power. + +The flame and incandescent tube methods of ignition have been displaced +by electrical ignition of both high and low tension types; all large gas +engines are ignited electrically and generally by more than one igniter +per cylinder. + +The governing of large gas engines, too, is now effected so as to keep +up continuity of impulses by the method either of throttling the charge +inlet or by varying the point of admission of gas alone or air and gas +mixed. + +It may be said, indeed, without exaggeration, that the whole world is +now alive to the possibilities of the internal-combustion motor, and +that progress will be more and more rapid. This motor has almost +fulfilled the expectations of those engineers who have devoted a large +part of their lives to its study and advancement. They are looking +forward now to the completion of the work begun so many years ago, and +expect, at no distant date, to find the internal-combustion motor +competing with the steam engine even in its latest form, the steam +turbine, on sea as vigorously as it does at present on land. + + _Thermal Efficiency of Four-Cycle Engines._--The Otto and Clerk type + engines are usually designated respectively four-cycle and two-cycle, + because in the Otto type four strokes are necessary to complete the + power-producing cycle of the engine and in the Clerk engine two + strokes complete the cycle. + + Indicated thermal efficiency may be defined as the proportion of the + total heat of combustion which appears as work done by the explosion + and expansion upon the piston. Brake thermal efficiency may be defined + as the proportion of the total heat of combustion which appears as + work given out by the engine available for overcoming external + resistances; that is, brake thermal efficiency is the effective + efficiency of the engine for doing work. In the early gas engines the + indicated thermal efficiency was only 16%, as shown by tests of Otto + engines from about 1877 to 1882, but now indicated thermal + efficiencies of from 35% to 37% are often obtained. Some experimenters + claim even higher efficiencies, but even 37% is higher than ordinary + best practice of 1909. Table I. has been prepared to show this + advance. It shows, in addition to indicated thermal efficiency, the + brake thermal efficiency and the mechanical efficiency, together with + other particulars such as engine dimensions, types and names of + experimenters. It will be seen that brake thermal efficiency has also + increased from 14% to 32%; that is, practically one-third of the whole + heat of combustion is obtained by these engines in effective work + available for all motive power purposes. + + TABLE I.--_Indicated and Brake Thermal Efficiency of Four-Cycle + Engines from 1882 to 1908._ + + +---+-----------+------------------+------+---------------+-----------+-----------+------------------+ + | |Mechanical | Names of | | Dimensions | Indicated | Brake | Type of | + |No.|Efficiency.| Experimenters. | Year.| of Engine. | Thermal | Thermal | Engine. | + | | | | | |Efficiency.|Efficiency.| | + +---+-----------+------------------+------+---------------+-----------+-----------+------------------+ + | | Per cent. | | | Diam. Stroke. | Per cent. | Per cent. | | + | 1 | 87.6 | Slaby | 1882 | 6.75"X13.7" | 16 | 14 | Deutz | + | 2 | 84.2 | Thurston | 1884 | 8.5" X14" | 17 | 14.3 | Crossley | + | 3 | 86.1 | Society of Arts | 1888 | 9.5" X18" | 22 | 18.9 | Crossley | + | 4 | 80.9 | Society of Arts | 1888 | 9.02"X14" | 21 | 17 | Griffin (6-cycle)| + | 5 | 87.3 | Kennedy | 1888 | 7.5" X15" | 21 | 18.3 | Beck (6-cycle) | + | 6 | 82.0 | Capper | 1892 | 8.5" X18" | 22.8 | 17.4 | Crossley | + | 7 | 87.0 | Robinson | 1898 | 10" X18" | 28.7 | 25 | National | + | 8 | 83 | Humphrey | 1900 | 26" X36" | 31 | 25.7 | Crossley | + | 9 | 81.7 | Witz | 1900 | 51.2" X55.13" | 28 | 22.9 | Cockerill | + |10 | 85.5 | Inst. Civil. Eng.| 1905 | 14" X22" | 35[1] | 29.9 | National | + |11 | 77.1 | Burstall | 1907 | 16" X24" | 41.5[2] | 32 | Premier | + |12 | 87.5 | Hopkinson | 1908 | 11.5" X21" | 36.8 | 32.2 | Crossley | + +---+-----------+------------------+------+---------------+-----------+-----------+------------------+ + + _Thermal Efficiency of Two-Cycle Engines._--It has been found that + two-cycle engines present greater practical difficulties in regard to + obtaining high indicated and brake thermal efficiencies, but the + thermodynamic considerations are not affected by the practical + difficulties. As shown by Table II., these engines improved in + indicated thermal efficiency from the value of 16.4% attained in 1884 + to 38% in 1903, while the brake thermal efficiency rose in the same + period from 14% to 29%. The numbers in Table II. are not so well + established as those in Table I. The four-cycle engines have been so + far subjected to much more rigid and authoritative tests than those of + the two-cycle. It is interesting to see from the table that the + mechanical efficiency of the early Clerk engines was 84%, while in the + later large engines of the same type it has fallen to 75%. + + _Standards of Thermal Efficiency_.--To set up an absolute standard of + thermal efficiency it is necessary to know in a complete manner the + physical and chemical properties and occurrences in a gaseous + explosion. A great deal of attention has been devoted to gaseous + explosions by experimenters in England and on the continent of Europe, + and much knowledge has been obtained from the work of Mallard and Le + Chatelier, Clerk, Langen, Petavel, Hopkinson and Bairstow and + Alexander. From these and other experiments it is possible to measure + approximately the internal energy or the specific heats of the gases + of combustion at very high temperatures, such as 2000 deg. C.; and to + advance the knowledge on the subject a committee of the British + Association was formed at Leicester in 1907. Recognizing, in 1882, + that it was impossible to base any standard cycle of efficiency upon + the then existing knowledge of gaseous explosions Dugald Clerk + proposed what is called the air standard. This standard has been used + for many years, and it was officially adopted by a committee of the + Institution of Civil Engineers appointed in 1903, this committee's two + reports, dated March 1905 and December 1905, definitely adopting the + air-standard cycle as the standard of efficiency for internal + combustion engines. This standard assumes that the working fluid is + air, that its specific heat is constant throughout the range of + temperature, and that the value of the ratio between the specific heat + at constant volume and constant pressure is 1.4. The air-standard + efficiency for different cycles will be found fully discussed in the + report of that committee, but space here only allows of a short + discussion of the various cycles using compression previous to + ignition. + + TABLE II.--_Indicated and Brake Thermal Efficiency of Two-cycle + Engines from 1884 to 1908_. + + +-----------+---------------+------+-------------+-----------+-----------+--------------+ + |Mechanical | Name of | | Dimensions | Indicated | Brake | Type of | + |Efficiency.| Experimenter. | Year.| of Motor | Thermal | Thermal | Engine. | + | | | | Cylinders. |Efficiency.|Efficiency.| | + +-----------+---------------+------+-------------+-----------+-----------+--------------+ + | Per cent. | | |Diam. Stroke.| Per cent. | Per cent. | | + | 84 | Garrett | 1884 | 9" X 20" | 16.4 | 14 | Clerk-Sterne | + | .. | Stockport Co. | 1884 | .. .. | .. | 11.2 | Andrews & Co.| + | 83 | Clerk | 1887 | 9" X 15" | 20.2 | 16.9 | Clerk-Tangye | + | .. | Atkinson | 1885 | 7-1/2" .. | .. | 15 | Atkinson | + | 75 | Meyer | 1903 | 26-5/8" X | 38 | 29 | Oechelhauser | + | | | | (2"X37-1/2")| | | | + | 75 | Mather & Platt| 1907 | .. .. | 30.6 | 23 | Koerting | + +-----------+---------------+------+-------------+-----------+-----------+--------------+ + + For such engines there are three symmetrical thermodynamic cycles, and + each cycle has the maximum thermal efficiency possible for the + conditions assumed. The three types may be defined as cycles of (1) + constant temperature, (2) constant pressure, and (3) constant volume. + + The term constant temperature indicates that the supply of heat is + added at constant temperature. In this cycle adiabatic compression is + assumed to raise the temperature of the working fluid from the lowest + to the highest point. The fluid then expands at constant temperature, + so that the whole of the heat is added at a constant temperature, + which is the highest temperature of the cycle. The heat supply is + stopped at a certain period, and then the fluid adiabatically expands + until the temperature falls to the lowest temperature. A compression + operation then takes place at the lowest temperature, so that the + necessary heat is discharged by isothermal compression at the lower + temperature. It will be recognized that this is the Carnot cycle, and + the efficiency E is the maximum possible between the temperature + limits in accordance with the well-known second law of + thermo-dynamics. This efficiency is E = (T - T^1)/T = 1 - T^1/T, where + T is the absolute temperature at which heat is supplied and T^1 the + absolute temperature at which heat is discharged. + + It is obvious that the temperatures before and after compression are + here the same as the lower and the higher temperatures, so that if t + be the temperature before compression and t_c the temperature after + compression, then E = 1 - t/t_c. This equation in effect says that + thermal efficiency operating on the Carnot cycle depends upon the + temperatures before and after compression. + + The constant pressure cycle is so called because heat is added to the + working fluid at constant pressure. In this cycle adiabatic + compression raises the pressure--not the temperature--from the lower + to the higher limit. At the higher limit of pressure, heat is added + while the working fluid expands at a constant pressure. The + temperature thus increases in proportion to increase of volume. When + the heat supply ceases, adiabatic expansion proceeds and reduces the + pressure of the working fluid from the higher to the lower point. + Again here we are dealing with pressure and not temperature. The heat + in this case is discharged from the cycle at the lower pressure but at + diminishing temperature. It can be shown in this case also that E = 1 + - t/t_c, that is, that although the maximum temperature of the working + fluid is higher than the temperature of compression and the + temperature at the end of adiabatic expansion is higher than the lower + temperature, yet the proportion of heat convertible into work is + determined here also by the ratio of the temperatures before and after + compression. + + The constant volume cycle is so called because the heat required is + added to the working fluid at constant volume. In this cycle + adiabatic compression raises the pressure and temperature of the + working fluid through a certain range; the heat supply is added while + the volume remains constant, that is, the volume to which the fluid is + diminished by compression. Adiabatic expansion reduces the pressure + and temperature of the working fluid until the volume is the same as + the original volume before compression, and the necessary heat is + discharged from the cycle at constant volume during falling + temperature. Here also it can be shown that the thermal efficiency + depends on the ratio between the temperature before compression and + the temperature after compression. It is as before E = 1 - t/t_c. + Where t is the temperature and v the volume before compression, and + t_c the temperature and v_c the volume after adiabatic compression, it + can be shown that (vc/v)^([gamma]-1) = t/t_c, so that E may be written + + /vc\^([gamma]-1) + E = 1 - ( -- ) , + \v / + + and if v_c/v = 1/r, the compression ratio, then + + /1\^([gamma]-1) + E = 1 - ( --) . + \r/ + + Thus in all three symmetrical cycles of constant temperature, constant + pressure and constant volume the thermal efficiency depends only on + the ratio of the maximum volume before compression to the volume after + compression; and, given this ratio, called 1/r, which does not depend + in any way upon temperature determinations but only upon the + construction and valve-setting of the engine, we have a means of + settling the ideal efficiency proper for the particular engine. Any + desired ideal efficiency may be obtained from any of the cycles by + selecting a suitable compression ratio. Table III., giving the + theoretical thermal efficiency for these three symmetrical cycles of + constant temperature, pressure and volume, extends from a compression + ratio of 1/2 to 1/100th. Such compression ratios as + + TABLE III.--_Theoretical Thermal Efficiency for the Three Symmetrical + Cycles of Constant Temperature, Pressure and Volume._ + + 1/r E | 1/7 0.55 + 1/2 0.026 | 1/10 0.61 + 1/3 0.36 | 1/20 0.70 + 1/4 0.43 | 1/100 0.85 + 1/5 0.48 | + + 100 are, of course, not used in practice. The ordinary value in + constant volume engines ranges from 1/5th to 1/7th. In the Diesel + engine, which is a constant pressure engine, the ratio is usually + 1/12th. As the value of 1/r increases beyond certain limits, the + effective power for given cylinder dimensions diminishes, because the + temperature of compression is rapidly approaching the maximum + temperature possible by explosion; thus a compression of 1/100th + raises the temperature of air from 17 deg. C. to about 1600 deg. C, + and as 2000 deg. C. is the highest available explosion temperature for + ordinary purposes, it follows that a very small amount of work would + be possible from an engine using such compressions, apart from other + mechanical considerations. It has long been recognized that constant + pressure and constant volume engines have the same thermal efficiency + for similar range of compression temperature, but Prof. H.L. Callendar + first pointed out the interesting fact that a Carnot cycle engine is + equally dependent upon the ratio of the temperature before and after + compression, and that its efficiency for a given compression ratio is + the same as the efficiencies proper for constant pressure and constant + volume engines. Prof. Callendar demonstrated this at a meeting of the + Institution of Civil Engineers Committee on thermal standards in 1904. + The work of this committee, together with Clerk's investigations, + prove that in modern gas-engines up to to 50 h.p. it may be taken that + the best result possible in practice is given by multiplying the + air-standard value by .7. For instance, an engine with a compression + ratio of one-third has an air-standard efficiency of 0.36, and the + actual indicated efficiency of a well-designed engine should be .36 + multiplied by .7 = 0.25. If, however, the compression ratio be raised + to one-fifth, then the air-standard value .48 multiplied by .7 gives + .336. The ideal efficiency of the real working fluid can be proved to + be about 20% short of the air-standard values given. (D. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The value 35% is deduced by the author from the Inst. C.E. + Committee's values. + + [2] This value is, in the author's view, too high; probably due to + indicator error. + + + + +GASKELL, ELIZABETH CLEGHORN (1810-1865), English novelist and +biographer, was born on the 29th of September 1810 in Lindsay Row, +Chelsea, London, since destroyed to make way for Cheyne Walk. Her +father, William Stevenson (1772-1829), came from Berwick-on-Tweed, and +had been successively Unitarian minister, farmer, boarding-house keeper +for students at Edinburgh, editor of the _Scots Magazine_, and +contributor to the _Edinburgh Review_, before he received the post of +Keeper of the Records to the Treasury, which he held until his death. +His first wife, Elizabeth Holland, was Mrs Gaskell's mother. She was a +Holland of Sandlebridge, Knutsford, Cheshire, in which county the family +name had long been and is still of great account. Mrs Stevenson died a +month after her daughter was born, and the babe was carried into +Cheshire to Knutsford to be adopted by her aunt, Mrs Lumb. Thus her +childhood was spent in the pleasant environment that she has idealized +in _Cranford_. At fifteen years of age she went to a boarding-school at +Stratford-on-Avon, kept by Miss Byerley, where she remained until her +seventeenth year. Then came occasional visits to London to see her +father and his second wife, and after her father's death in 1829 to her +uncle, Swinton Holland. Two winters seem to have been spent in +Newcastle-on-Tyne In the family of William Turner, a Unitarian minister, +and a third in Edinburgh. On the 30th of August 1832 she was married in +the parish church of Knutsford to William Gaskell, minister of the +Unitarian chapel in Cross Street, Manchester, and the author of many +treatises and sermons in support of his own religious denomination. Mr +Gaskell held the chair of English history and literature in Manchester +New College. + +Henceforth Mrs Gaskell's life belonged to Manchester. She and her +husband lived first in Dover Street, then in Rumford Street, and finally +in 1850 at 84 Plymouth Grove. Her literary life began with poetry. She +and her husband aspired to emulate George Crabbe and write the annals of +the Manchester poor. One poetic "Sketch," which appeared in _Blackwood's +Magazine_ for January 1837, seems to have been the only outcome of this +ambition. Henceforth, while in perfect union in all else, husband and +wife were to go their separate literary ways, Mrs Gaskell to become a +successful novelist, whose books were to live side by side with those of +greater masters, Mr Gaskell to be a distinguished Unitarian divine, +whose sermons, lectures and hymns are now all but forgotten. In her +earlier married life Mrs Gaskell was mainly occupied with domestic +duties--she had seven children--and philanthropic work among the poor. +Her first published prose effort was probably a letter that she +addressed to William Howitt on hearing that he contemplated a volume +entitled _Visits to Remarkable Places_. She then told the legend of +Clopton Hall, Warwickshire, as she had heard it in schooldays, and +Howitt incorporated the letter in that book, which was published in +1840. Serious authorship, however, does not seem to have been commenced +until four or five years later. In 1844 Mr and Mrs Gaskell visited North +Wales, where their only son "Willie" died of scarlet fever at the age of +ten months, and it was, it is said, to distract Mrs Gaskell from her +sorrow that her husband suggested a long work of fiction, and _Mary +Barton_ was begun. There were earlier short stories in _Howitt's +Journal_, where "Libbie Marsh's Three Eras" and "The Sexton's Hero" +appeared in 1847. But it was _Mary Barton: A Tale of Manchester Life_ +that laid the foundation of Mrs Gaskell's literary career. It was +completed in 1847 and offered to a publisher who returned it unread. It +was then sent to Chapman & Hall, who retained the manuscript for a year +without reading it or communicating with the author. A reminder, +however, led to its being sought for, considered and accepted, the +publishers agreeing to pay the author L100 for the copyright. It was +published anonymously in two volumes in 1848. This story had a wide +popularity, and its author secured first the praise and then the +friendship of Carlyle, Landor and Dickens. Dickens indeed asked her in +1850 to become a contributor to his new magazine _Household Words_, and +here the whole of _Cranford_ appeared at intervals from December 1851 to +May 1853, exclusive of one sketch, reprinted in the "World's Classics" +edition (1907), that was published in _All the Year Round_ for November +1863. Earlier than this, indeed, for the very first number of _Household +Words_ she had written "Lizzie Leigh." Mrs Gaskell's second book, +however, was _The Moorland Cottage_, a dainty little volume that +appeared at Christmas 1850 with illustrations by Birket Foster. In the +Christmas number of _Household Words_ for 1853 appeared "The Squire's +Story," reprinted in _Lizzie Leigh and other Tales_ in 1865. In 1853 +appeared another long novel, _Ruth_, and the incomparable _Cranford_. +This last--now the most popular of her books--is an idyll of village +life, largely inspired by girlish memories of Knutsford and its people. +In _Ruth_, which first appeared in three volumes, Mrs Gaskell turned to +a delicate treatment of a girl's betrayal and her subsequent rescue. +Once more we are introduced to Knutsford, thinly disguised, and to the +little Unitarian chapel in that town where the author had worshipped in +early years. In 1855 _North and South_ was published. It had previously +appeared serially in _Household Words_. Then came--in 1857--the _Life of +Charlotte Bronte_, in two volumes. Miss Bronte, who had enjoyed the +friendship of Mrs Gaskell and had exchanged visits, died in March 1855. +Two years earlier she had begged her publishers to postpone the issue of +her own novel _Villette_ in order that her friend's _Ruth_ should not +suffer. This biography, by its vivid presentation of the sad, melancholy +and indeed tragic story of the three Bronte sisters, greatly widened the +interest in their writings and gave its author a considerable place +among English biographers. But much matter was contained in the first +and second editions that was withdrawn from the third. Certain +statements made by the writer as to the school of Charlotte Bronte's +infancy, an identification of the "Lowood" of _Jane Eyre_ with the +existing school, and the acceptance of the story of Bramwell Bronte's +ruin having been caused by the woman in whose house he had lived as +tutor, brought threats of libel actions. Apologies were published, and +the third edition of the book was modified, as Mrs Gaskell declares, by +"another hand." The book in any case remains one of the best biographies +in the language. An introduction by Mrs Gaskell to the then popular +novel, _Mabel Vaughan_, was also included in her work of this year 1857, +but no further book was published by her until 1859, when, under the +title of _Round the Sofa_, she collected many of her contributions to +periodical literature. _Round the Sofa_ appeared in two volumes, the +first containing only "My Lady Ludlow," the second five short stories. +These stories reappeared the same year in one volume as _My Lady Ludlow +and other Tales_. In the next year 1860 appeared yet another volume of +short stories, entitled _Right at Last and other Tales_. The title story +had appeared two years earlier in _Household Words_ as "The Sin of a +Father." In 1862 Mrs Gaskell wrote a preface to a little book by Colonel +Vecchj, translated from the Italian--_Garibaldi and Caprera_, and in +1863 she published her last long novel, _Sylvia's Lovers_, dedicated "to +My dear Husband by her who best knows his Value." After this we have--in +1863--a one-volume story, _A Dark Night's Work_, and in the same year +_Cousin Phyllis and other Tales_ appeared. Reprinted short stories from +_All the Year Round_, _Cornhill Magazine_, and other publications, tend +to lengthen the number of books published by Mrs Gaskell during her +lifetime. _The Grey Woman and other Tales_ appeared in 1865. + +Mrs Gaskell died on the 12th of November 1865 at Holyburn, Alton, +Hampshire, in a house she had just purchased with the profits of her +writings as a present for her husband. She was buried in the little +graveyard of the Knutsford Unitarian church. Her unfinished novel _Wives +and Daughters_ was published in two volumes in 1866. + +Mrs Gaskell has enjoyed an ever gaining popularity since her death. +_Cranford_ has been published in a hundred forms and with many +illustrators. It is unanimously accepted as a classic. Scarcely less +recognition is awarded to the _Life of Charlotte Bronte_, which is in +every library. The many volumes of novels and stories seemed of less +secure permanence until the falling in of their copyrights revealed the +fact that a dozen publishers thought them worth reprinting. The most +complete editions, however, are the "Knutsford Edition," edited with +introductions by A.W. Ward, in eight volumes (Smith, Elder), and the +"World's Classics" edition, edited by Clement Shorter, in 10 volumes +(Henry Froude, 1908). + + There is no biography of Mrs Gaskell, she having forbidden the + publication of any of her letters. See, however, the biographical + introduction to the "Knutsford" _Mary Barton_ by A.W. Ward; the + _Letters of Charles Dickens_; _Women Writers_, by C.J. Hamilton, + second series; _H.B. Stowe's Life and Letters_, edited by Annie + Fields; _Autobiography of Mrs Fletcher_; _Mrs Gaskell and Knutsford_, + by G.A. Payne; _Cranford_, with a preface by Anne Thackeray Ritchie; + _Ecrivains modernes de l'Angleterre_, by Emile Montegut. + (C. K. S.) + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 11, Slice 4, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 37160.txt or 37160.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/7/1/6/37160/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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