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diff --git a/37103-h/37103-h.htm b/37103-h/37103-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..44c82d2 --- /dev/null +++ b/37103-h/37103-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1768 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8"/> +<title>Of the Just Shaping of Letters, by Albrecht Dürer—A Project Gutenberg eBook</title> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +p +{ + text-align: justify; + text-indent: 1.5em; +} + +p.center, +p.no-indent, +p.drop-cap, +p.large-cap, +#tnote p +{ + text-indent: 0; +} + +h1, h2, h3 +{ + text-align: center; + clear: both; + margin-top: 0; + font-weight: normal; +} + +h1 +{ + font-size: x-large; + line-height: 1.2em; + margin: 4em auto 1em auto; +} + +h2 +{ + margin: 4em auto 1.5em auto; +} + +h3 +{ + margin-top: 1.5em; +} + +a:link, +a:visited +{ + text-decoration: none; +} + +.upper-case +{ + text-transform: uppercase; +} + +.center +{ + text-align: center; +} + +.figcenter +{ + margin: 2em auto; + text-align: center; +} + +a[title].pagenum +{ + position: absolute; + right: 3%; +} + +a[title].pagenum:after +{ + content: attr(title); + border: 1px solid silver; + display: inline; + font-size: x-small; + text-align: right; + color: #808080; + background-color: inherit; + font-style: normal; + padding: 1px 4px 1px 4px; + font-variant: normal; + font-weight: normal; + text-decoration: none; + text-indent: 0; + letter-spacing: 0; +} + +p.drop-cap:first-letter +{ + font-size: 4em; + float: left; + margin: -0.2em 0.05em -0.1em 0; +} + +p.large-cap:first-letter +{ + color: Window; + visibility: hidden; + margin-left: -0.8em; +} + +img.large-cap +{ + float: left; + margin: 0 0.5em 0 0; + position: relative; +} + +#tnote +{ + max-width: 90%; + border: 1px dashed #808080; + background-color: #fafafa; + text-align: justify; + padding: 0 0.75em; + margin: 120px auto 120px auto; +} + +@page +{ + margin: 0.25em; +} + +@media screen +{ + body + { + width: 80%; + max-width: 40em; + margin: auto; + } + + p + { + margin: 0.75em auto; + } + + #tnote + { + max-width: 26em; + } + + .page-break + { + margin-top: 8em; + } + + .page-break-after + { + margin-bottom: 8em; + } +} + +@media print, handheld +{ + p + { + margin: 0; + } + + #tnote + { + background-color: white; + border: none; + width: 100%; + } + + #tnote p + { + margin: 0.25em 0; + } + + .pagenum + { + display: none; + } + + a:link, + a:visited + { + color: black; + } + + #tnote, + h1, + h2, + .page-break + { + page-break-before: always; + } + + .page-break-after + { + page-break-after: always; + } +} + +@media handheld +{ + body + { + margin: 0; + padding: 0; + width: 95%; + } +} +--> +</style> +<!--[if lt IE 8]> +<style type="text/css"> +a[title].pagenum +{ + position: static; +} +</style> +<![endif]--> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Of the Just Shaping of Letters, by Albrecht Dürer + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Of the Just Shaping of Letters + +Author: Albrecht Dürer + +Translator: R. T. Nichol + +Release Date: August 16, 2011 [EBook #37103] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OF THE JUST SHAPING OF LETTERS *** + + + + +Produced by Ben Courtney, Jana Srna and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<div id="tnote"> +<p class="center"><b>Transcriber's Note:</b></p> + +<p>Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully +as possible, including inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation. +No changes have been made to the printed text.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center page-break" style="line-height: 1.4em;">OF THE JUST SHAPING OF LETTERS<br/> +BY ALBRECHT DÜRER<br/> +TRANSLATED<br/> +BY<br/> +R. T. NICHOL<br/> +FROM THE LATIN TEXT OF<br/> +THE EDITION OF<br/> +MDXXXV<br/> +*</p> + +<div class="figcenter page-break" style="width: 391px;"> +<img id="coverpage" src="images/title-page.jpg" width="391" height="588" alt=""/> +</div> + +<h1>OF THE JUST<br/> +SHAPING OF<br/> +LETTERS</h1> + +<p class="center">FROM THE APPLIED<br/> +GEOMETRY OF<br/> +ALBRECHT<br/> +DÜRER<br/> +BOOK<br/> +JJJ</p> + +<p class="center" style="margin-top: 3em;">DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC. · NEW YORK</p> + +<h2><a class="pagenum" name="Page_1" title="1"> </a>ALBRECHT DÜRER TO WILIBALD PIRCKHEIMER<br/> HIS PATRON AND VERY GOOD FRIEND<br/> GREETING:</h2> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 231px;"> +<img src="images/i005.png" width="231" height="286" alt=""/> +</div> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">In</span> our Germany, most excellent Wilibald, are to be found at the +present day many young men of a happy talent for the Art Pictorial, +who without any artistic training whatever, but taught only +by their daily exercise of it, have run riot like an unpruned tree, so that +unhesitatingly and without compunction they turn out their works, +purely according to their own judgment. But when great and ingenious +artists behold their so inept performances, not undeservedly do +they ridicule the blindness of such men; since sane judgment abhors +nothing so much as a picture perpetrated with no technical knowledge, +although with plenty of care and diligence. Now the sole reason why +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_2" title="2"> </a> +painters of this sort are not aware of their own error is that they have +not learnt Geometry, without which no one can either be or become +an absolute artist; but the blame for this should be laid upon their +masters, who themselves are ignorant of this art. Since this is in very +truth the foundation of the whole graphic art, it seems to me a good +thing to set down for studious beginners a few rudiments, in which I +might, as it were, furnish them with a handle for using the compass +and the rule, and thence, by seeing Truth itself before their eyes, they +might become not only zealous of the arts, but even arrive at a great +and true understanding of them.</p> + +<p>Now, although in our own time, and amongst ourselves, the Art +Pictorial is in ill repute with some, as being held to minister incitement +to idolatry, yet a Christian man is no more enticed to superstition +by pictures or images, than is an honest man girt with a sword to highway +robbery. Certes he would be a witless creature who would willingly +adore either pictures or images of wood or stone. On the contrary, a +picture is the rather edifying and agreeable to Christian religion and +duty, if only it be fairly, artificially, and correctly painted.</p> + +<p>In what honour and dignity this art was anciently held amongst +the Greeks and Romans, the old authors sufficiently testify; though +afterwards all but lost, while it lay hid for more than a thousand years. +It has now at length, only within the last two hundred years, by some +Italians been brought again to light. For it is the easiest thing in the +world for the Arts to be lost and perish; but only with difficulty, and +after long time & pains are they resuscitated. Wherefore I hope that +no wise man will defame this laborious task of mine, since with good +intent & in behoof of all who love the Liberal Arts have I undertaken +it: nor for painters alone, but for goldsmiths too, & for sculptors, and +stonecutters, and woodcarvers, and for all, in short, who use compass, +and rule, and measuring line—that it may serve to their utility.</p> + +<p>Nor is anyone compelled whether or no to spend gainful hours on +these exercises of mine; although I am not ignorant that whoever is +well exercised in them will thence acquire not only the principles of +his own art, but by daily practice, an exactitude of judgment, with which +he will proceed to higher investigations & discover many more things +than I have here pointed out.</p> + +<p>But since, illustrious Sir, it is clearer than light that you are yourself, +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_3" title="3"> </a> +so to speak, an asylum of all the noble Arts, it has been my pleasure, out +of a singular love I bear towards you, to dedicate to you this book; not +because I desire to appear therein as rendering you any great service, +but because thereby you may understand how engaged my mind +is to you; and since by my work I can confer on you but +little favour, at least by the exhibition of a ready +mind I may repay the benefits +you shower upon +me.</p> + +<p class="center">Farewell.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 349px;"><a class="pagenum" name="Page_4" title="4"> </a> +<img src="images/i008.png" width="349" height="376" alt=""/> +</div> + +<h2><a class="pagenum" name="Page_5" title="5"> </a>OF THE JUST SHAPING OF LETTERS</h2> + +<p class="center" style="font-size: large; line-height: 1.4em;">FROM THE APPLIED GEOMETRY<br/> +OF ALBRECHT DÜRER<br/> +BOOK III.</p> + +<div><img class="large-cap" src="images/i009.png" width="121" height="125" alt=""/></div> + +<p class="large-cap"><span class="upper-case">Now</span>, since architects, painters & others at +times are wont to set an inscription on lofty +walls, it will make for the merit of the work +that they form the letters correctly. Accordingly +I am minded here to treat briefly of +this. And first I will give rules for a Latin +Alphabet, and then for one of our common +Text: since it is of these two sorts of letters +we customarily make use in such work; and +first, for the Roman letters: Draw for each a square of uniform size, +in which the letter is to be contained. But when you draw in it the +heavier limb of the letter, make this of the width of a tenth part of +the square, and the lighter a third as wide as the heavier: and follow +this rule for all letters of the Alphabet.</p> + +<p><a name="Letter_A">First, make an A after this fashion:</a> Indicate the angles of the square +by the letters a. b. c. d. (and so do for all the rest of the letters): then +divide the square by two lines bisecting one another at right angles—the +vertical e. f. the horizontal g. h.: then, in the lower line, take two +points, i. and k., distant respectively one-tenth of the space c. d. from +the points c. and d.: then, from the point i. draw upwards to the top +of the square the lighter limb; & thence downwards the heavier limb, +so that the outer edges of both may touch, respectively, the points i. +and k.: then let a triangle be left between the limbs, and a point e. be +fixed at top in the middle of the letter, and next join both limbs +beneath the horizontal line, and let this limb be a third as broad as the +heavier limb.</p> + +<p>Now let the arc of a circle, applied to the top of the outside edge of +the heavier limb, project beyond the square. Then cut off the top of +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_6" title="6"> </a> +the letter with a serpentine or curving line, so that the concavity decline +towards the lighter limb, and prolong acutely either limb of the +letter at the bottom to either side, so as to meet the angles of the square +at c. and d.: this you shall make with the arc of a circle, whose semi-diameter +is one-seventh of the side of the square; but the two lower +curves, mutually opposite, permit to extend so that each is a third of +the heavier limb, and this you shall obtain by the arc of a circle whose +diameter is equal to the breadth of the heavier limb.</p> + +<p>Moreover, this same letter A you may cut off at top with the side +of the square, and then produce to a fine point in either direction, as +you did the feet below, yet so that the longer production shall be to +the fore-side (namely, the left); but in this case it will be necessary to +draw in the limb k. a little closer.</p> + +<p>Likewise the same A you may draw in yet another manner—that is, +pointed at top. In that case let the limbs slope towards one another yet +more closely; then lower the transverse a little and double its width. +You may also cut off the limb at top bluntly, or sharpen it on the fore-side. +You ought to make yourself familiar with these three forms, or +whichever of them pleases you best.</p> + +<p>And note likewise that in exactly the same fashion in which this +letter is acutely prolonged at top & bottom, are the other letters to be +so prolonged which are drawn with oblique lines, as V, X, Y, although +a few changes may be necessary, as you shall hear below.</p> + +<p>I have here subjoined an engraving of this letter.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 290px;"> +<img src="images/i010.png" width="290" height="133" alt="A"/><br/> +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_7" title="7"> </a><img src="images/i011.png" width="283" height="115" alt=""/> +</div> + +<h2><a name="Letter_B">OF THE LETTER B.</a></h2> + +<p>And now you shall draw B in its square thus: First divide the square +horizontally by the line e. f.; then bisect the lines a. e. and b. f. by the +line g. h. Next, you must first set properly the broad vertical limb of +the letter, distant its own breadth from the side a. c. of the square a. b. c. d. +Then erect the line i. k. on the inner side of the limb already drawn, +and distant from it one-tenth of a side of the square, and let it cut the +line g. h. in the point l.</p> + +<p>Next, draw strips narrower and horizontal (to be produced hereafter +into the convex limbs) from the vertical band to meet the vertical +line i. k.—namely, at top, below the line a. b.; next, above the line e. f.; +and at bottom, above the line c. d.</p> + +<p>Now set a leg of the compass on the point l. and describe a semicircle +to the right of the transverse strips, so that the extremities of the +circumference, in the vertical line i. k., below the side a. b., and above +the line e. f. may coincide with those short transverse lines. Then bisect +the narrow transverse strip which is above the line e. f. in the line i. k. by +the point m.; and indicate the breadth of the letter, to the right of the +semicircle, by the point n. in the line g. h.; and afterwards draw from +the point m. above the line e. f. in the direction of f. a short horizontal +line as great as need be: then describe a semicircle which shall include +this line, and the point n., and, at the top, the side a. b.; and through n. +let pass a vertical line. These all combine to form, below, the concave +of the curved limb, and above, its convex.</p> + +<p>Next, produce the transverse strip above c. d., in the direction of d., +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_8" title="8"> </a> +as far as required, and mark this q. Then bisect the line m. q. by the +line o. p., cutting the line n. in the point r.; and next describe a semicircle +touching the horizontal line e. f., the point r., and the position +q. Then indicate the breadth of this limb of the letter by the point s. +to the right of the point r. in the line o. p. and describe a semicircle, +touching the line m., the point s., and the side of the square c. d. There +will then remain in the letter three right angles to be eliminated: the +interior and lower one may be shaped into a curve by a circle whose +semi-diameter is two-thirds of the breadth of the broad limb of the +letter, and the exterior ones you shall fine to a point by circular lines +whose semi-diameter is equal to the breadth of that limb.</p> + +<h3>Another method.</h3> + +<p>Or you may make your B in this fashion: Let the side a. c. of the +square be divided into nine equal parts, and cut off the four superior +parts by the horizontal line e. f. Then erect your vertical limb as +described above; and the superior curved limb you shall make between +a. b. and e. f.; the inferior between e. f. and c. d.</p> + +<p>Now divide a. b. into nine equal parts, and cut off four parts towards +b. in the point g.; then divide c. d. into five equal parts, and the last, +towards d. mark off in the point h. and join g. and h. by the line g. h. +which should touch on their exterior edges the superior and inferior +limbs of the letter. Now these limbs must be drawn of a particular form; +and the compass, in drawing the circular lines, must be moved up and +down their diagonals: and these two diagonals you shall determine in +this wise.</p> + +<p>Divide a. e. into four parts; the lowest, above e., call i. e.; the lowest of +the five remaining, above c., call c. k. Then join the points i. and b. and +k. and f. respectively, by the lines i. b. and k. f. Upon these lines move +and turn your compass, & in this way you shall describe both curved +limbs: and they must both be broader towards the top than towards +the bottom, as follows naturally with the stroke of a pen, and, moreover, +while approximately round, they are not to be circular; therefore +you will have to move your compass at need along the diagonals, and +withal to assist it also with the hand, as I have done in the picture on +the following page.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 289px;"><a class="pagenum" name="Page_9" title="9"> </a> +<img src="images/i013.png" width="289" height="256" alt="B"/> +</div> + +<h2><a name="Letter_C">OF THE LETTER C.</a></h2> + +<p>Next you shall make the letter C in its own square thus: Bisect the +square a. b. c. d. by the horizontal line e. f. and in it let i. be the middle +point. From this point as the centre, & i. f. or i. e. as the radius, describe +a circle touching interiorly all four sides of the square. Now move the +leg of the compass, but without varying its span, to a point k. a little to +the right of i. in the line e. f., letting the space i. k. denote the greatest +breadth of the letter you desire; & from the centre k. describe another +circle which shall cut twice the line b. d., and whose circumference to +the left will mark the required breadth of the letter. Next, draw the +vertical line g. h., parallel to b. d., distant from b. a tenth part of the line +a. b. This will cut off for you at top and bottom the letter C as the ancients +were accustomed to use it. But I would have you cut off the lower +limb in the middle point between g. h. and b. d.: then make the limbs +somewhat finer and rounder on the inside towards top and bottom +from the point where the circles intersect; and for its greater perfection +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_10" title="10"> </a> +round out the letter, above and below, to touch the sides of the square +a. b. and c. d. Next, low down, where the letter with one foot crosses +the line g. h., there, under the circular line make the form a little more +incurved, yet so that with the tip of its end it shall again touch the circular +line. Similarly, but higher up, make the foot more hollow on the +inside than the circle left it: and thus two circular lines will give you +very nearly the whole form of the letter.</p> + +<h3>Another method.</h3> + +<p>Or, secondly, you may make the letter C thus: Draw in the square +a diagonal c. b.; set the leg of your compass on its middle point i. and +with the other leg describe the exterior circle as before, terminating it +above at the diagonal c. b.; but below, make your circle pass a little beyond +the former sweep. Then set the leg of your compass, but without +changing its gauge, as far above i. in the diagonal as the letter's greatest +width, and describe your inner circle; and, as though made with a pen, +let the descending stroke be heavier than the ascending. The rest you +may elaborate with your hand; & let the trimming of the ends of the +letter, above, slope upwards, & below, downwards, exactly as I have here +drawn the shapes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 288px;"> +<img src="images/i014.png" width="288" height="249" alt="C"/> +</div> + +<h2><a class="pagenum" name="Page_11" title="11"> </a><a name="Letter_D">THE LETTER D.</a></h2> + +<p>The letter D you shall make thus: Divide its square by the perpendicular +or vertical line g. h. and by the horizontal line e. f. into four +small squares, and call their point of intersection i.: then draw the +broader limb of the letter from the side a. b. downwards, to meet the +side c. d. and at the distance of its own width from a. c.; and produce +the limb at top and bottom to a sharp point at the angles a. and c. as +was shown above in <a href="#Letter_B">B</a>; using the same method in all straight limbs in +the remaining letters. Next you are to produce from this limb two +narrower tracts horizontally, and from these are to be described the +circular arcs of the letter between the line a. b. at top and the line c. d. +at bottom, and extending as far as the perpendicular g. h.; next, with +your compass join g. f. h. Then, in the line e. f. lay off a portion equal +in breadth to the widest limb of the letter, at the point k.; next, set one +foot of your compass on k. and let the other cut the said line e. f. in l.; +let this be the immovable leg of your compass, and with the other, beginning +from k., describe internally, to the narrower transverse limbs, +an arc which shall touch both, completing your acute angle above, but +rounding out the lower one by a circular arc of the same diameter as +the one by which you sharpened your exterior subtending angle.</p> + +<h3>Another method.</h3> + +<p>You may make the round limb of the same D in another fashion; +namely, as a pen naturally would, broader above than below. For this, +draw the diagonal c. b. and describe your exterior arc as before; but to +describe the interior, in the line c. b. take a point m. lower down than +i. and distant from it the width of the broader limb, and without altering +your compass describe an interior line; but where the limb must +needs be narrower, there you are to accommodate it with your hand, +both below and above, as in the following cut.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 267px;"> +<img src="images/i015.png" width="267" height="135" alt="D"/><br/> +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_12" title="12"> </a><img src="images/i016.png" width="255" height="112" alt=""/> +</div> + +<h2><a name="Letter_E">THE LETTER E.</a></h2> + +<p>The letter E you shall form in its square thus: Draw a transverse +line e. f. bisecting a. b. and c. d. in e. and f.; then draw the great vertical +limb of the letter, to the left, as you did for <a href="#Letter_D">D</a>. Next draw also +an upper transverse limb of narrower dimensions, parallel to a. b. and +in length six-tenths minus one-third of one-tenth of the length of a. b.; +and the end of this bend downwards one-tenth of the length of a. b. +and use this as the diameter of the circle with which you round out +the inner angle of this extremity: then draw your narrow middle limb +parallel to the median line e. f. and above it, so that it may be shorter +than the upper limb by one-tenth of the length of a. b., but at its terminus +double as wide; & you are to round it out (in either direction) +by the arc of a circle whose diameter is one-sixth the length of e. f. +Now construct your lowest limb upon the line c. d., so that at its ultimate +angle it may exceed in length the upper limb by one-tenth of +c. d.; the cusp, however, you are to prolong beyond this part by +two-thirds +of one-tenth part, and erect above it to one-sixth of the length +of c. d., and round out the same by a circle whose semi-diameter is also +a sixth of c. d. In like manner the final angle of the letter you shall +round out by an arc of the same circle by which you rounded out the +middle transverse limb: the other angles you are to leave acute, as in +the following cut.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 257px;"><a class="pagenum" name="Page_13" title="13"> </a> +<img src="images/i017a.png" width="257" height="128" alt="E"/> +</div> + +<h2><a name="Letter_F">THE LETTER F.</a></h2> + +<p>The letter F you are to form in the same manner as <a href="#Letter_E">E</a>; except that +you shall omit the lower limb altogether, and, in its place, round out +the letter on both sides below, as you did E on one side only, as I have +shown you below.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 249px;"> +<img src="images/i017b.png" width="249" height="126" alt="F"/> +</div> + +<h2><a name="Letter_G">THE LETTER G.</a></h2> + +<p>Likewise the letter G you are to make as you did <a href="#Letter_C">C</a>, before described; +this, however, excepted: that in front (that is, to the left) of the line g. h. +is to be erected the broad limb of the letter, upwards from the curve +to the line e. f., and above it is to be rounded to a point, on either side, +as before was said; but below, both angles are to remain.</p> + +<p>Or, you shall form G in the following fashion in the said square, +divided as before: Draw the diagonal c. b. and set your compass with +one leg on the point i. and with the other describe an arc from e. to the +middle point c. d. and mark this point l.; in like manner also, describe +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_14" title="14"> </a> +an arc upwards to the line a. b. so as to meet the perpendicular line +g. h. & mark that point z. Then, in the line g. h., take a point m. so that +the part m. h. shall be one-tenth of the line g. h.; then, with a sweep of +your hand join l. & m. with the curved line l. m. Next, you are to draw +from z. a line upwards, as broad as the standard of the letter, but oblique +and in direction midway between your circular line & the perpendicular +g. h. and from the extremity of this line you must draw a curved +line to meet a. b. at the point where your circular line touches it. Next, +cut off from the bottom of g. h. a part one-third of its length, & indicate +this by the point n., & to this height, from the level of m. upwards, +produce the broad limb of the letter, and let its extremities above be +finished in either direction, of the same size. After this set the leg of +your compass on the diagonal c. b. the breadth of the standard of the +letter above i. & at the distance e. i. describe an arc, which above shall +touch the exterior boundary a. b. but below shall stop short above l.; +& from this point you must with your hand draw a line to the vertical +limb at the height of m.</p> + +<p>And the same you shall do above in drawing the narrower limb of +the letter, as seen in the following diagram.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 271px;"> +<img src="images/i018.png" width="271" height="248" alt="G"/> +</div> + +<h2><a class="pagenum" name="Page_15" title="15"> </a><a name="Letter_H">THE LETTER H.</a></h2> + +<p>The letter H is to be formed of two broad, great, & vertical limbs of +the height of the square, in such fashion that their extremities, being +produced exteriorly, shall touch the four angles of the square, a. c. and +b. d. respectively. Now in what fashion the projections of the broader +limbs of letters are to be rounded out at top and bottom and on either +side, you have been instructed; for in any letter you please, any broad +and vertical limb is to be depicted at top and bottom thrice as broad as +at its middle: provided always it is not joined to a narrower limb. So +when this has been accomplished, then draw your narrower transverse +limb upon the line e. f. as is shown below.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 272px;"> +<img src="images/i019a.png" width="272" height="124" alt="H"/> +</div> + +<h2><a name="Letter_I">THE LETTER I.</a></h2> + +<p>The letter I you are to make of a single broad vertical tract in the +midst of its square, touching the latter top and bottom; and of this, at +both ends, and on either side, you are to round out the productions or +projections as below is shown.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 237px;"> +<img src="images/i019b.png" width="237" height="123" alt="I"/> +</div> + +<h2><a class="pagenum" name="Page_16" title="16"> </a><a name="Letter_K">THE LETTER K.</a></h2> + +<p>Now for K: You are to make the first tract vertical, in the same manner +as you formerly did for <a href="#Letter_H">H</a>; then draw another narrower limb from +the broader and erect one, so that it may, at its lower end, impinge +obliquely on the transverse line e. f. and above may ascend to the right +till it meet the line a. b., taking care to make it parallel to the diagonal +c. b.; and this, at the top, you are to produce in both directions so that +each production may represent a tenth part of the line a. b. The hitherward +projection you are to round out with a circle of which the diameter +must not exceed the breadth of the lesser limb; but of the other +arc, by means of which you round out the farther projection, you shall +make the diameter double as great as the diameter of the arcs by which +you have customarily hollowed out the preceding extensions of the +broad and vertical limbs. Next, from the narrow limb so constructed +draw in a downward direction another broad limb, so that it too may +be parallel to a diagonal of the square; & of this the beginning is to be +taken from the acute angle which the narrower limb makes with the +broad vertical limb, and let it be drawn with its projection to the angle +d., yet in this fashion: take two points this side of d. after this manner, +so that the first point may be distant from d. the tenth part of the line +c. d. & the second as far again from the first; then let the said tract be +drawn within the space which is between the two points, but in blind +and invisible lines. Afterwards you shall add the extension, which you +shall make this way: take before f. in the line e. f., a point g. no farther +distant from f. than the breadth of the narrower limb; on this point +set one leg of your compass, & let the other be extended to the angle d., +from which let it be guided back along the broad but invisible blind +limb: thence will result the lower convexity of the tail you seek; but +its upper concavity look for in this way: divide f. d. in its middle point +h.; on this set one leg of your compass, and with the other describe an +arc passing through d. to meet the broad limb.</p> + +<p>Or you may make K in this manner: First, let your broader vertical +limb, and your upper narrow one remain as they have been described, +except that the interior angle which the narrower limb forms with a. b. +shall remain acute, but the exterior one shall be rounded out, as has +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_17" title="17"> </a> +been said. Then let there be drawn the lower broad limb, obliquely +from the angle which is included between e. f. and the vertical limb, +and let it descend to meet the side c. d. so that between d. and the limb +the width of the limb be left vacant; and the hither angle is to be left, +but the farther, towards d., shall be rounded out a little, as shown below.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 353px;"> +<img src="images/i021a.png" width="353" height="128" alt="K"/> +</div> + +<h2><a name="Letter_L">THE LETTER L.</a></h2> + +<p>As for the letter L, you shall make it by a combination of parts of +two of the preceding letters: namely, you shall make the first vertical +broad limb, as you did a while back in <a href="#Letter_I">I</a>; and to this join a foot as you +did at the bottom of <a href="#Letter_E">E</a>, when you made it. Such is L depicted below.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 265px;"> +<img src="images/i021b.png" width="265" height="124" alt="L"/> +</div> + +<h2><a name="Letter_M">THE LETTER M.</a></h2> + +<p>The letter M you shall form in two ways within its square. In the +first, draw the narrower limb of the letter vertical, to the right of a. c., +distant from a. one-tenth of the distance a. b.: draw the other, & broader +limb, on the near side of b. d., also a tenth part of the whole distant +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_18" title="18"> </a> +from b. & in such fashion that both limbs touch the square at top and +bottom; then, between the two, bisect the line c. d. in the point e. and +draw a broad limb from the inner angle of the narrow limb, downwards +to the point e., & next a narrow one upwards from e. to the inner angle +of the broader vertical limb; and the inner angles at top you must not +round out, but leave acute; the exterior angles, however, at the top, and +both exterior and interior at bottom of both vertical limbs, you are to +adorn with the customary projections, as you have done in the preceding +letters. You are to know, too, that when these letters are drawn with +a pen, they are to be described with a single stroke. But for your guidance +is this letter, in the manner in which I have instructed you, depicted +below.</p> + +<h3>Another method.</h3> + +<p>Another way is thus: Divide the side a. b. of the square into six equal +parts & mark off the two extreme parts, one at either end, by the points +f. and g.; then draw the inner and broader limb, with its point at e. as +above; and to this, in an upward direction, a narrower one, so that between +f. g. be left a vacant space, and so more readily the letter slope +forward. Then you are to draw the two lateral and vertical limbs—the +near and slender, and the farther broad one—at the top, indeed, as in +the first sketch, but at the bottom produce them to the two angles c. +and d. and finally add projecting cusps, as you were instructed in the +first M; but the projection below will pass beyond the square at the +points c. and d. Or you shall make M at top with acute angles, in which +case the lateral limbs will slope the more; or shear them off obtusely, +and in this fashion (whichever pleases you best) make them as you see +them depicted in the following diagrams.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 365px;"> +<img src="images/i022.png" width="273" height="135" alt="M"/><br/> +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_19" title="19"> </a><img src="images/i023.png" width="365" height="111" alt=""/> +</div> + +<h2><a name="Letter_N">THE LETTER N.</a></h2> + +<p>Likewise the letter N you shall make in its square thus: First you +are to draw two standards vertical and slender, so that at top & bottom +they may touch the square, & that being produced, the nigh one at the +bottom, and the farther at the top, they may touch the angles at c. and +b. Now join these two by a broad oblique limb, running from the angle +a. to the point e., by which is denoted the remote side of the farther +limb, where you shall allow the acute angle to remain; but at the top, +this limb, produced beyond the angle a., you are to round out to a fifth +part of the length of a. b. This prolongation should incurve below, a +fifteenth part of the distance a. b. projected on two arcs, the upper one +the greater, the lower the less. For the lesser arc, therefore, you shall +take as diameter of its circle, a line the fifth part of the distance a. b. +and its centre is to be taken outside the square, so that the foot of the +compass may touch the tip of the extension and the angle a.; then extend +a little the feet of the compass, and shift its centre until the arc +touch both the tip of the part produced, & the broad oblique limb, in +the middle point between the side a. c. & the nearer of the two slender +vertical limbs.</p> + +<p>Or you may make the letter N in such fashion that its upper nigh +extension shall remain within the square; or you may make from it an +acute angle as shown overleaf.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 284px;"><a class="pagenum" name="Page_20" title="20"> </a> +<img src="images/i024a.png" width="284" height="252" alt="N"/> +</div> + +<h2><a name="Letter_O">THE LETTER O.</a></h2> + +<p>Now O you shall make this way in its square. Set in the square the +diameter c. b. and bisect it in the point e., so that e. may form a middle +point between the two points f. and g. which are to be your two centres; +and from each let a circle be described touching two sides of the +square; & where the circles cut one another, there with your hand you +must shape the slender outline of the letter to a juster proportion, as +below is shown.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 258px;"> +<img src="images/i024b.png" width="258" height="124" alt="O"/> +</div> + +<h2><a class="pagenum" name="Page_21" title="21"> </a><a name="Letter_P">THE LETTER P.</a></h2> + +<p>P you shall make in its square in this wise. Divide the square a. b. c. d. +by the median horizontal line e. f.; then divide a. e. & b. f. equally +by the line g. h. Next draw, first the broad vertical limb for this letter +P, as you did a short while ago for <a href="#Letter_K">K</a>, and afterwards erect the line i. k. +the distance of its own breadth to the right of your vertical limb; (here +you must ever observe that in a lettered square we speak of the angle a. +as the “hither” angle, that is, to the left; & the angle b. as the “farther” +angle, that is, to the right). Then where the line i. k. cuts g. h. call the +point l., and next draw two slender horizontal limbs, the upper below +a. b., the lower above e. f., from the broad vertical limb as far as the line +i. k. Set one leg of the compass on the point l., extending the other to +the lower side of the lower horizontal limb near k.; then describe an +arc through the line g. h. as far as the other slender horizontal limb of +this same P, & where it cuts the line g. h. set the point m. Next, on the +far side of m. measure the width of the large limb of the letter, along +the line g. h. to the point n. and let your compass be stretched so that +with one foot it may touch the line a. b. and with the other the point +n.; then set one foot of the compass on n. & the other on the line g. h. +to the right, in the point o., in which this foot is to be left standing immovable, +and with the other is to be described an arc, passing through +the point n. and touching the lines a. b. and e. f.</p> + +<p>Or you may form the loop of this letter in the following manner. +Set a leg of the compass under the transverse g. h. in the line i. k., in a +place median between the line e. f. & the lower part of the upper transverse +of the slender limb, in the point p. and describe an arc as before, +passing through m. so that the loop will be acute at the bottom, and +its tip will end in the middle space between the line i. k. and the broad +vertical limb of the letter.</p> + +<p>Or make this same P with a circular sweep, by shifting the compass +upon the diameter, so that that sweep may be broader at the top (as +though made with a pen) as will be shown in the diagram on the following +page.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 252px;"><a class="pagenum" name="Page_22" title="22"> </a> +<img src="images/i026.png" width="252" height="125" alt="P"/> +</div> + +<h2><a name="Letter_Q">THE LETTER Q.</a></h2> + +<p>Make your Q in its square in the self-same manner as was prescribed +for <a href="#Letter_O">O</a>; but add to it its tail thus: Draw a diameter of the square, +the line a. d., about which, starting from the curved outline, begin to +draw a long tail, producing it through the angle d. in such fashion that +d. may be in the middle of the thickest part of the tail; but where the +tail begins let it be a little narrower than in the angle d., where it should +attain its real thickness. Then let it be drawn out, beyond the angle d. +to the length of the entire diameter, and in a downward direction, yet +so that it curves while it slopes, & that its tip shall not fall lower than +a third of the side below the lowest side of the square, and shall tend, +as it nears the point, to grow sharper little by little, and at length end +in a very fine point indeed.</p> + +<p>Or you shall give Q a shorter tail in this fashion, to wit: set your +compasses to the length of the side c. d. and draw a tail from the bulge +of the same letter, describing through the point d. its inner arc of the +same length as c. d., taking care that the tail bend upwards until it again +reach c. d. produced, in the point h.; then shift your compasses, & with +the other leg again describe from the bulge of the letter an arc below +d. & continue it until again it reach h., but in such fashion that the tail +shall find its greatest thickness at the start, as in the following figure +is doubly depicted.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 333px;"><a class="pagenum" name="Page_23" title="23"> </a> +<img src="images/i027.png" width="333" height="305" alt="Q"/> +</div> + +<h2><a name="Letter_R">THE LETTER R.</a></h2> + +<p>Moreover R you must make in its square just as was directed for <a href="#Letter_P">P</a>; +but then erect a right line q. r. through the middle point of the square, +& let it cut the exterior arc of the rounded limb in s., from which point, +downwards towards the angle d., let there be drawn a broad tract, almost +equal to that which you made above for the letter <a href="#Letter_K">K.</a>, but this is to be +somewhat bent in, and so shaped by your hand that its tip, well formed, +may arrive directly on the angle d.</p> + +<p>Or make R in such fashion that its rounded sweep, as though made +with a pen, shall be above broader, & narrower below. To accomplish +this, you must shift your compasses on the diameter q. e. & not allow +the rounded limb to touch the vertical one, as was described in <a href="#Letter_P">P</a>. Besides, +the oblique limb is to be deduced from the rounded one with a +little more of a curve; just as I have drawn overleaf.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 352px;"><a class="pagenum" name="Page_24" title="24"> </a> +<img src="images/i028.png" width="352" height="131" alt="R"/> +</div> + +<h2><a name="Letter_S">THE LETTER S.</a></h2> + +<p>Next, the letter S you shall make as follows in its square, a. b. c. d. +First draw the horizontal line e. f. and the median & vertical one g. h. +and let them bisect one another in the point m. Then choose the main +thickness of the letter, and set it in the line g. h. so that the point m. +may divide it, having one-third of the thickness below it; next, set the +lesser thickness, at the top beneath g., indicating it by the point i., and +at bottom, above h. in the point k.; and the thickness of the letter indicate +above by n. and below by l.</p> + +<p>Next, set a leg of your compasses on the line g. h. in the mid-point +between i. and n., and with the other describe a circle passing through +i. and n.; in like manner, upon the line g. h. set your compasses upon +the mid-point of g. l. and describe a circle passing through g. & l. Then +once more set your compass on the same line g. h. in the mid-point of +n. h. and describe a circle through n. & h.; and lastly, in the mid-point +of l. k. you must set one leg, & with the other is a circle to be described +through these same points l. & k.; afterwards cut off by vertical section +the upper portion of this letter, so that the part thus cut off may contain +in its extremity the maximum thickness of the letter and a third +part besides, & also that its tip may project downwards so far as to stand +midway between the centre of the circle i. n. and the side b. d.; in other +words, let the tip be distant on the right, from the circle i. n. the first +third of the interval between the greater and lesser circles.</p> + +<p>Next cut the lower limb of the letter to the left, by a vertical line +through the mid-point between the two circles, & in such fashion that +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_25" title="25"> </a> +the part so cut off may be a fourth part wider & higher than the upper, +and that its tip may rise to the height of the centre of the circle n. h.</p> + +<h3>Another method.</h3> + +<p>Yet another way may you make the letter S. In the square a. b. c. d. +bisect the horizontal line e. f. in the point m.; then set one leg of your +compass upon the mid-point between g. and m. & with the other describe +a segment of a circle in the direction of a. e. passing through the +points m. and g.; next, set your compass upon the mid-point between +m. and h. and describe a segment of a circle through m. and h. in the +direction of f. d. The two arcs will touch above, in front, and below, in +the rear, the exterior curvatures of this same letter S.</p> + +<p>Next, draw through m. the diameter c. b. and at its middle indicate +the maximum thickness of the letter by the two points p. and q. from +which let there be drawn two right lines, one up, & one down, to those +two arcs; & next, from the two points p. & q. draw two curved parallels +to the same arcs, regulating the distance between them, their elevation +& depression from the centres of the same circles. Next, indicate below +g. and above h. the minimum thickness of the letter; and from these +points you will with your hand fashion the inner shape of the letter, +both above and below, & produce the limb of S, above towards b. Cut +it off so that its lower tip may touch the segment, & that the part cut +off upwards may contain a tenth part of a. b. and that the segment may +still exceed the part cut off. Then construct a vertical line r. s. to the +right of e. c. and distant from it a fifth part of c. d.; let it cut the diagonal +c. b. in t. and to the angle just formed produce the extremity of +the letter, making the part so cut off a third broader than the upper portion. +Lastly, you will have to produce the tip ever so little beyond t.; as +I have briefly indicated.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 263px;"> +<img src="images/i029.png" width="263" height="136" alt="S"/><br/> +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_26" title="26"> </a><img src="images/i030.png" width="215" height="111" alt=""/> +</div> + +<h2><a name="Letter_T">THE LETTER T.</a></h2> + +<p>Set the broad limb of T in the midst of its square erect, produced & +drawn to a point on either side below, just as you did before in the letter +<a href="#Letter_I">I</a>; then take two points e. and f., distant respectively one-tenth of the +whole space from a. and b., and let the transverse limb of the letter be +drawn below e. f. and of an equal length with it; but the projecting extremities +of this line are to be cut obliquely, and the tips of these projections +shall so far extend above the line a. b. to the right as below they +depend to the left. The oblique lines of these projections are to be each +a fifth part of the length of a. b.; & the angles of these projections you +shall round out by means of circles of diverse radius—namely, for the +lesser angle you are to use a diameter only two-thirds of the width of +the broader limb; but for the greater angle you shall take a diameter +equal to the side of a square contained between the broad and vertical +limb and the intercepted portion of the line a. b.</p> + +<h3>Another method.</h3> + +<p>Or you make T thus in its square: Take your point e. as before, to +the right of a., and cut your transverse limb diagonally, as before, yet +so that the projection be dimidiated to the right, and at top the angle +remain as it falls; and so at the other extremity, only the point f. must +be moved as near again to b., the cutting line to be a little more erect, +& the projection formed a trifle broader than at the hither end; otherwise +shall everything remain as before; as I have delineated for you on +the opposite page.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 343px;"><a class="pagenum" name="Page_27" title="27"> </a> +<img src="images/i031a.png" width="343" height="146" alt="T"/> +</div> + +<h2><a name="Letter_V">THE LETTER V.</a></h2> + +<p>V you shall thus make in its square: Bisect c. d. in the point e.; then +set the point f. one-tenth of the whole line a. b. beyond a., and in like +fashion g. to the hither side of b. Then draw the broad limb of your +letter downwards from f. to e. and sharpen it; & thence draw upwards +your slender limb to g.; and at the top produce it in either direction, +as you did before at the bottom of <a href="#Letter_A">A</a>; just as you see it shown below.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 256px;"> +<img src="images/i031b.png" width="256" height="132" alt="V"/> +</div> + +<h2><a name="Letter_X">THE LETTER X.</a></h2> + +<p>X you shall form thus: Draw two vertical lines e. f. and g. h. distant +respectively one-tenth part of the line a. b. from the sides a. c. and b. d. +Then draw the two limbs intersecting one another in the form of a +cross—the broad one so that at top, & with its hither side it shall touch +e., & at the bottom, and with its farther side h.; but the narrow limb so +that at top, and with its farther side it may touch g., & at bottom, with +its hither side f. Then add its projections, touching, at top and bottom, +the four angles a. b. c. d., & choose a semi-diameter of the larger circle +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_28" title="28"> </a> +of the length of a fifth part of a. b.; & with that you shall round out the +four greater angles; but for the lesser circle you shall take a diameter +as long as two-thirds the width of the broader limb.</p> + +<p>Or you may vary X thus: Let everything be left as before except the +narrower limb, which at top you shall make more erect by one-half the +breadth of the wider limb; and so the upper part of the letter shall be +less and narrower than the lower, and shall have a different aspect, as +is shown below.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 354px;"> +<img src="images/i032a.png" width="354" height="143" alt="X"/> +</div> + +<h2><a name="Letter_Y">THE LETTER Y.</a></h2> + +<p>Y you shall achieve in the midst of its square, as far as its lower half +is concerned, after the instructions before given for <a href="#Letter_I">I</a>; but its upper part +you shall divide so that its hither limb shall contain two-thirds, and its +farther one-third of the broad standard; and let them slope to either +side so that produced they may touch the two angles a. and b.; and the +greater circles, by which you are to round out their obtuse or greater +angles, make of a diameter as great as a containing side of the square +enclosed between the standard and the sides of the great square, as in +<a href="#Letter_T">T</a> was shown; but the diameters of the circles which you apply to the +lesser angles, make double the width of the broad standard, as below.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 278px;"> +<img src="images/i032b.png" width="278" height="131" alt="Y"/> +</div> + +<h2><a class="pagenum" name="Page_29" title="29"> </a><a name="Letter_Z">THE LETTER Z.</a></h2> + +<p>Z you shall make thus: Set upon either side, both beneath & beyond +the angle a., two points e. & f., each at a distance of the tenth part of a. b.; +so also, set two other points g. and h. both before and above the angle d. +and with right lines join e. f. and g. h.; then draw your narrower transverse +limb, beneath a. b. backwards as far as the angle b.; from thence +draw your broad limb diagonally to c.; and then again a narrower one +from c. to g.; and with your hand round out the two tips e. and h.</p> + +<p>Or make Z thus: Divide the square a. b. c. d. by the vertical line e. f. +and in this reduced space construct the letter as before; but so that the +two transverse limbs be cut short, above on the nigh side, and below on +the far, by the vertical lines a. c. and e. f. respectively as below.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 281px;"> +<img src="images/i033.png" width="281" height="249" alt="Z"/> +</div> + +<p>So likewise, in other fashion, can we make all the letters already +drawn, on a scale of ninths, just as we have now drawn them on a scale +of tenths; in just the same manner, according to the due proportion of +each, in its own square, a. b. c. d., dividing them into nine, as just now +into ten parts; & that this may be the better understood, I have chosen +to append here letters of such fashion. Also these letters are to be made +five parts high when written small & rapidly, by hand. In such writing +the versals are made of the same proportion and form, but one-third +larger than the ordinary letters of the writing.</p> + +<div class="figcenter page-break" style="width: 412px;"><a class="pagenum" name="Page_30" title="30"> </a> +<img src="images/i034.png" width="412" height="565" alt="A to D"/> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 417px;"><a class="pagenum" name="Page_31" title="31"> </a> +<img src="images/i035.png" width="417" height="557" alt="E to L"/> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 408px;"><a class="pagenum" name="Page_32" title="32"> </a> +<img src="images/i036.png" width="408" height="556" alt="M to P"/> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 408px;"><a class="pagenum" name="Page_33" title="33"> </a> +<img src="images/i037.png" width="408" height="553" alt="Q to V"/> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;"><a class="pagenum" name="Page_34" title="34"> </a> +<img src="images/i038.png" width="330" height="378" alt="X to Z"/> +</div> + +<h2><a class="pagenum" name="Page_35" title="35"> </a>DIRECTIONS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE TEXT OR QUADRATE LETTERS</h2> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">The</span> letters which are usually called “text,” or quadrate, it was formerly +customary so to write, although they are now imitated by +the new art, as presently I shall show below. Although the alphabet +begins with the writing of A, yet shall I (not needlessly) in the first +place undertake to draw an I; because almost all the other letters are +formed after this letter, although always something has to be added to +it or taken away.</p> + +<p>First make your I of equal squares, of which three are properly set +one over the other; and the top of the top one, and the bottom of the +bottom one, divide in two points, that is to say, into three equal parts: +then set a square equal to the others in an oblique manner, so that its +diagonal be vertical, and its angle on the first point of the top square. In +this way, this oblique square shall extend with its angles more to the left +than the right. Then produce upwards on either side, after the width +of the superposed squares, right lines to meet the sides of the oblique +set square. Next do below precisely as you did above, except that you +must set the angle of the oblique square on the second point, that is, the +one farthest to the right in the bottom of the lowest square; and let fall +your lines on either side upon the transposed square: so will I be perfect; +only above it draw with a fine pen a tiny in-crescent.</p> + +<p>So shall you make N from two standards of this same I, set so that +their angles at top and bottom touch; and in this manner the space between +the two shall be narrower than the breadth of either: also, you +shall no longer put little crescents above them; you must make of the +same length all the short letters throughout the alphabet.</p> + +<p>In like manner make M of three standards, just as you made N of +two.</p> + +<p>R make as I, except only that at top you must set an equal square +diagonally, to the right, so that angle touch angle. R you may make also +in this fashion: below leave its foot as before, but above add two diagonal +squares, which shall touch each other with their angles in the +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_36" title="36"> </a> +middle point of the vertical limb, and then produce upwards both sides +of the latter to meet the diagonal square.</p> + +<p>V is made in three ways. First let it be made simply, as N; only that +in the farther limb, you shall omit at the top the diagonal square; and +instead shall draw an oblique line, so that it may make two angles in +this limb (produced) of which the farther shall be of the same height +as that of the topmost angle of the diagonal square, & the higher angle +of the same height as the angle nearest to it in the said square.</p> + +<p>The second V, which we use at the beginning of a sentence, make +thus: Draw the first limb as before for I; only, at the bottom, push the +diagonal square a little further to the right, so that its hither angle does +not project beyond the side of the vertical limb, but falls in the line of +its descent. Then set the second limb to the right of this, and cut it off +below by an oblique line, drawn from the lowest angle upwards to the +right, as far as the middle point of the lowest of the three superposed +squares.</p> + +<p>Next make W (i. e., double V) just as you made V-simplex; only you +shall set before it the standard limb of I.</p> + +<p>B make as the second V-simplex; but in the first upright omit the +diagonal square at the top, and set upon the three original squares three +others similar, but the seventh one you shall cut off diagonally from its +lower hither angle.</p> + +<p>Likewise when your B so made is turned upside down, then it will be +a Q.</p> + +<p>X you shall construct from I. Append from top angle to the right a +diagonally set square, as you did before in R; and at the bottom draw +an acute tail to the left from the diagonal, and at the middle of the vertical +limb describe a transverse, in such way that the former is cut before +and aft by the latter's diagonal; let the hither and lower angle be terminated +as far in front of the upright as would measure one-half of the +cutting diagonal, which at top shall just touch the upright; but to the +right let the transverse at top project to a point just below the angle of +the oblique square; from thence downwards let it be cut off by an oblique +line parallel to the anterior diagonal.</p> + +<p>C you shall construct from I after this fashion: Remove the top diagonal +square, & let lines be produced on either side to the proper height +of the letter, and cut off the hither angle by a diagonal; then draw at +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_37" title="37"> </a> +top a broad transverse, projecting beyond the vertical to the right the +width of the latter, and cut this off by a diagonal in such a way that it +project below only half as far as above.</p> + +<p>The vertical standard of E you shall make as for C; but from above +let there descend to the right a broad limb from the diagonal bisecting +the right angles of one square, and one-third again as long as broad; and +let there be drawn from its lower angle a small diagonal line to the vertical +limb.</p> + +<p>T shall be made like C, except that at top something is added to its +diagonal, so that its tip converges to a fine point, and the like to the left +on the hither side of the broad standard, just as at the top: and because +of this is T at top more elegant than C, and has not the same incurved +appearance.</p> + +<p>L you are to make below like I; only six squares are to be set on end; +then cut off the hither side of the seventh by a diagonal, and so the apex +of the letter shall remain to the right.</p> + +<p>The letter S you shall make as L; except that at top to the right must +be drawn a broad limb of the length of the diagonal, which afterwards +you are to cut off by a line parallel to the diagonal.</p> + +<p>F you shall make as S, just adding to it a transverse limb at the height +of the shorter letters and double as long as broad, so that the point on +the hither side & below shall project as far as half the limb's breadth, so +that the two diagonal abscissions may be equidistant from one another.</p> + +<p>The near limb of the letter H make like L, and to it join by its top, in +the proper place, the farther made like I; but below, for the diagonal +square, substitute a fourth square in line with the others, and the fifth +and lowest cut off on the far side by its diagonal.</p> + +<p>Of K make the near limb like L; and to the right of it append a diagonal +square, from the lowest angle of which let a line be obliquely +produced to meet the said vertical limb; and next from this line let a +broad limb be obliquely drawn, and this, at the bottom, you are to cut +off by a diagonal, in such fashion that the space below, between the two +tips shall not be more than the diagonal of a single square.</p> + +<p>D in its lower half make like B; but at top let the anterior limb +ascend upwards to the maximum height of the letters, and then cut off +the hither angle by its diagonal; next superpose to the same height half +a square upon the other three squares of the farther limb, & once more +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_38" title="38"> </a> +do here as you did below, and let this broken limb rest on the angle of +the near limb, and let it extend beyond it as far as the end of the upright +near limb; and so will it all but contain three conjunct squares; +for when it meets the near vertical limb, that fraction is to be cut off +at right angles.</p> + +<p>O you are to make below as D, and also the same at the top as the +bottom, only, as it were, turning it upside down.</p> + +<p>The anterior limb of P make like L inverted; but the posterior like +the standard of I: at bottom, however, you are not to add an oblique +square, but amputate the limb diagonally, & draw at the bottom a broad +transverse limb, which likewise is to be cut off diagonally, so that the +lower point shall project to the left, a distance of half the breadth of +the limb.</p> + +<p>Likewise A in the lower half you are to make like N; but of its anterior +vertical limb, you are to cut off the hither angle of the middle +square by its diagonal; of the posterior, however, allow three squares to +remain superposed, and incline the top part (the fourth square) rather +to the left, so that if at this side is joined to it the half of a square, then +it shall attain the height of the letter; and cut off the square obliquely, +yet so that the lower point shall project farther than the upper; then +describe to the left a circle, sweeping downwards, so that its contents +shall embrace the farthest limit of the anterior limb.</p> + +<p>Z is made in threefold fashion. First set a diagonal square which +shall touch the height of the letter; then add another like it, on the +right, joining their sides, & let these form a quadrangle sloping downwards +on the right: next set a diagonal square in straight line under the +top square, and distant from the lower one the length of its diameter: +then draw a diagonal line between the near angles of these two squares, +or make a rounded limb to reach the lower square; but from the said +lowest square of all you shall draw downwards and to the right, by the +aid of divers circles, a round extension, whose bottom shall mark the +length of the letter; and let its tip, sharp and tenuous, verge to the left. +Or construct Z of three oblique limbs, one above the other, & to connect +them draw the diagonal, which shall slope upwards to the right.</p> + +<p>Another Z you may make in this way: Let three diagonal squares +be set atop of one another; and let the lowest have a rounded extension, +as in the first Z.</p> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_39" title="39"> </a>The first limb of G make below like I, and add at the bottom another +diagonal square, joining the two by their angles; but at top produce the +farther tip of this limb upwards to the height of the letter, & from this +point draw a diagonal downward to the left, as far as the hither angle of +the first right square of the three set one on other. Next draw the farther +vertical standard entire, of the same length as the hither standard, and +at the bottom draw a diagonal from the angle of the lowest oblique +square to touch the tip of the angle of the farther limb, & on the inner +side produce downwards the side of the limb, to meet the tip of the said +diagonal; to this also, by one line, join the lowest of the hither squares. +Now draw at top a transverse limb of the customary breadth, from the +back of the nearer vertical limb, passing through the farther one, and +reaching as far beyond this as its breadth; & this limb, finally, you shall +cut off by an oblique line parallel to that of the near limb.</p> + +<p>Y you shall make as N, only at bottom must be omitted the farther +diagonal square, & in its place is to be set a right square under the other +three superposed squares; then split the fifth square by a diagonal, so +that the tip shall be in front; from which let there be produced a diagonal +line, equal in length to a single side of the square.</p> + +<p>Curved, or short S, you shall make on this wise. At the middle height +of the letter, let there be set, close to one another, their angles touching, +two oblique squares; from the near square draw a broad vertical limb +to the height of the letter; and in the same fashion, from the farther +square let one fall downwards—just as you constructed I top & bottom. +Next cut off both these limbs, one at top and one at bottom, by diagonals, +in such fashion that the sharp tips of both may be on the side +near the middle. Then let there be drawn two broad limbs—namely, +from the upper, to the right, and downwards; and in like manner, from +the lower, upwards, and to the left; of the breadth of the limb, above +and below, but let them be produced no further than the breadth of +the distance between the limbs: then draw a diagonal downwards, from +right to left, which shall cut off both oblique limbs. To it also you must +produce the sides of the squares set in the midst.</p> + +<p>So, accordingly, have I set them down—in skeleton in rotation, and +in proper order in black. This (as I said above) is the antique form of +the letters; but in these days there is used a more elegant text, and a +diagonal square is substituted in the middle place for a right square, so +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_40" title="40"> </a> +that the lines of the letters are not so much curved; and there are made +certain limbs adjoined and cleft; and there are set one on another three +squares & a half; and spaces are left between two limbs as great as their +width. Letters of this sort also have I set forth on the third page following; +as also capital letters, which are called “versals,” because +they are customarily set at the beginning of a verse; +and these ought to be made one-third +higher than the remaining +shorter letters in +writing.</p> + +<div class="figcenter page-break" style="width: 398px;"><a class="pagenum" name="Page_41" title="41"> </a> +<img src="images/i045.png" width="398" height="552" alt="Antique form of the letters in skeleton"/> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter page-break" style="width: 409px;"><a class="pagenum" name="Page_42" title="42"> </a> +<img src="images/i046.png" width="409" height="600" alt="Antique form of the letters in black"/> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter page-break" style="width: 387px;"><a class="pagenum" name="Page_43" title="43"> </a> +<img src="images/i047.png" width="387" height="436" alt="More elegant form of the letters, including versals"/> +</div> + +<p class="center page-break-after">Here ends this little Book.</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Of the Just Shaping of Letters, by Albrecht Dürer + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OF THE JUST SHAPING OF LETTERS *** + +***** This file should be named 37103-h.htm or 37103-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/7/1/0/37103/ + +Produced by Ben Courtney, Jana Srna and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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