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diff --git a/3704-0.txt b/3704-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8e58b78 --- /dev/null +++ b/3704-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,21532 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook of Journal of Researches, by Charles Darwin + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you +will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before +using this eBook. + +Title: Journal of Researches + The Voyage Of The Beagle + +Author: Charles Darwin + +Illustrator: R.T. Pritchett + +Release Date: July 29, 2001 [eBook #3704] +[Most recently updated: August 19, 2022] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +Produced by: Sue Asscher and David Widger + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VOYAGE OF THE BEAGLE *** + + + + +A NATURALIST’S VOYAGE +ROUND THE WORLD + + First Edition May 1860 + Second Edition May 1870 + Third Edition February 1872 + Fourth Edition July 1874 + Fifth Edition March 1876 + Sixth Edition January 1879 + Seventh Edition May 1882 + Eighth Edition February 1884 + Ninth Edition August 1886 + Tenth Edition January 1888 + Eleventh Edition January 1890 + Reprinted June 1913 + +[Illustration: H.M.S. BEAGLE IN STRAITS OF MAGELLAN. MT SARMIENTO IN +THE DISTANCE.] + + + + +Journal of Researches +into the +Natural History & Geology +of the +countries visited during the voyage +round the world of H.M.S. _Beagle_ + +under the command of Captain Fitz Roy, R.N. + +By Charles Darwin, M.A., F.R.S. + +AUTHOR OF ‘ORIGIN OF SPECIES,’ ETC. + +[Illustration] + +A new edition with illustrations by R. T. Pritchett +of places visited and objects described. + +LONDON +JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET +1913. + + + + +TO +CHARLES LYELL, ESQ., F.R.S. + + +This second edition is dedicated with grateful pleasure, as an +acknowledgment that the chief part of whatever scientific merit this +journal and the other works of the author may possess, has been derived +from studying the well-known and admirable + +PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY. + + + + +PREFATORY NOTICE TO THE ILLUSTRATED EDITION. + + +This work was described, on its first appearance, by a writer in the +_Quarterly Review_ as “One of the most interesting narratives of +voyaging that it has fallen to our lot to take up, and one which must +always occupy a distinguished place in the history of scientific +navigation.” + +This prophecy has been amply verified by experience; the extraordinary +minuteness and accuracy of Mr. Darwin’s observations, combined with the +charm and simplicity of his descriptions, have ensured the popularity +of this book with all classes of readers—and that popularity has even +increased in recent years. No attempt, however, has hitherto been made +to produce an illustrated edition of this valuable work: numberless +places and objects are mentioned and described, but the difficulty of +obtaining authentic and original representations of them drawn for the +purpose has never been overcome until now. + +Most of the views given in this work are from sketches made on the spot +by Mr. Pritchett, with Mr. Darwin’s book by his side. Some few of the +others are taken from engravings which Mr. Darwin had himself selected +for their interest as illustrating his voyage, and which have been +kindly lent by his son. + +Mr. Pritchett’s name is well known in connection with the voyages of +the _Sunbeam_ and _Wanderer_, and it is believed that the +illustrations, which have been chosen and verified with the utmost care +and pains, will greatly add to the value and interest of the “VOYAGE OF +A NATURALIST.” + +JOHN MURRAY. + +_December_ 1889. + + + + +AUTHOR’S PREFACE. + + +I have stated in the preface to the first Edition of this work, and in +the _Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle_, that it was in consequence +of a wish expressed by Captain Fitz Roy, of having some scientific +person on board, accompanied by an offer from him of giving up part of +his own accommodations, that I volunteered my services, which received, +through the kindness of the hydrographer, Captain Beaufort, the +sanction of the Lords of the Admiralty. As I feel that the +opportunities which I enjoyed of studying the Natural History of the +different countries we visited have been wholly due to Captain Fitz +Roy, I hope I may here be permitted to repeat my expression of +gratitude to him; and to add that, during the five years we were +together, I received from him the most cordial friendship and steady +assistance. Both to Captain Fitz Roy and to all the Officers of the +_Beagle_[1] I shall ever feel most thankful for the undeviating +kindness with which I was treated during our long voyage. + + [1] I must take this opportunity of returning my sincere thanks to Mr. + Bynoe, the surgeon of the _Beagle_, for his very kind attention to me + when I was ill at Valparaiso. + +This volume contains, in the form of a Journal, a history of our +voyage, and a sketch of those observations in Natural History and +Geology, which I think will possess some interest for the general +reader. I have in this edition largely condensed and corrected some +parts, and have added a little to others, in order to render the volume +more fitted for popular reading; but I trust that naturalists will +remember that they must refer for details to the larger publications +which comprise the scientific results of the Expedition. The _Zoology +of the Voyage of the Beagle_ includes an account of the Fossil +Mammalia, by Professor Owen; of the Living Mammalia, by Mr. Waterhouse; +of the Birds, by Mr. Gould; of the Fish, by the Reverend L. Jenyns; and +of the Reptiles, by Mr. Bell. I have appended to the descriptions of +each species an account of its habits and range. These works, which I +owe to the high talents and disinterested zeal of the above +distinguished authors, could not have been undertaken had it not been +for the liberality of the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s +Treasury, who, through the representation of the Right Honourable the +Chancellor of the Exchequer, have been pleased to grant a sum of one +thousand pounds towards defraying part of the expenses of publication. + +I have myself published separate volumes on the _Structure and +Distribution of Coral Reefs_; on the _ Volcanic Islands visited during +the Voyage of the Beagle_; and on the _Geology of South America._ The +sixth volume of the _ Geological Transactions_ contains two papers of +mine on the Erratic Boulders and Volcanic Phenomena of South America. +Messrs. Waterhouse, Walker, Newman, and White, have published several +able papers on the Insects which were collected, and I trust that many +others will hereafter follow. The plants from the southern parts of +America will be given by Dr. J. Hooker, in his great work on the Botany +of the Southern Hemisphere. The Flora of the Galapagos Archipelago is +the subject of a separate memoir by him, in the _ Linnean +Transactions._ The Reverend Professor Henslow has published a list of +the plants collected by me at the Keeling Islands; and the Reverend J. +M. Berkeley has described my cryptogamic plants. + +I shall have the pleasure of acknowledging the great assistance which I +have received from several other naturalists in the course of this and +my other works; but I must be here allowed to return my most sincere +thanks to the Reverend Professor Henslow, who, when I was an +undergraduate at Cambridge, was one chief means of giving me a taste +for Natural History,—who, during my absence, took charge of the +collections I sent home, and by his correspondence directed my +endeavours,—and who, since my return, has constantly rendered me every +assistance which the kindest friend could offer. + +DOWN, BROMLEY, KENT, +_June_ 1845. + + + + +CONTENTS + +CHAPTER I + +Porto Praya — Ribeira Grande — Atmospheric Dust with Infusoria — Habits +of a Sea-slug and Cuttle-fish — St. Paul’s Rocks, non-volcanic — +Singular Incrustations — Insects the first Colonists of Islands — +Fernando Noronha — Bahia — Burnished Rocks — Habits of a Diodon — +Pelagic Confervæ and Infusoria — Causes of discoloured Sea. + +CHAPTER II + +Rio de Janeiro — Excursion north of Cape Frio — Great Evaporation — +Slavery — Botofogo Bay — Terrestrial Planariæ — Clouds on the +Corcovado — Heavy Rain — Musical Frogs — Phosphorescent insects — +Elater, springing powers of — Blue Haze — Noise made by a Butterfly — +Entomology — Ants — Wasp killing a Spider — Parasitical Spider — +Artifices of an Epeira — Gregarious Spider — Spider with an +unsymmetrical web. + +CHAPTER III + +Monte Video — Maldonado — Excursion to R. Polanco — Lazo and Bolas — +Partridges — Absence of trees — Deer — Capybara, or River Hog — +Tucutuco — Molothrus, cuckoo-like habits — Tyrant-flycatcher — +Mocking-bird — Carrion Hawks — Tubes formed by lightning — House +struck. + +CHAPTER IV + +Rio Negro — Estancias attacked by the Indians — Salt-Lakes — Flamingoes +— R. Negro to R. Colorado — Sacred Tree — Patagonian Hare — Indian +Families — General Rosas — Proceed to Bahia Blanca — Sand Dunes — Negro +Lieutenant — Bahia Blanca — Saline incrustations — Punta Alta — +Zorillo. + +CHAPTER V + +Bahia Blanca — Geology — Numerous gigantic extinct Quadrupeds — Recent +Extinction — Longevity of Species — Large Animals do not require a +luxuriant vegetation — Southern Africa — Siberian Fossils — Two Species +of Ostrich — Habits of Oven-bird — Armadilloes — Venomous Snake, Toad, +Lizard — Hybernation of Animals — Habits of Sea-Pen — Indian Wars and +Massacres — Arrowhead — Antiquarian Relic. + +CHAPTER VI + +Set out for Buenos Ayres — Rio Sauce — Sierra Ventana — Third Posta — +Driving Horses — Bolas — Partridges and Foxes — Features of the country +— Long-legged Plover — Teru-tero — Hail-storm — Natural enclosures in +the Sierra Tapalguen — Flesh of Puma — Meat Diet — Guardia del Monte — +Effects of cattle on the Vegetation — Cardoon — Buenos Ayres — Corral +where cattle are slaughtered. + +CHAPTER VII + +Excursion to St. Fé — Thistle Beds — Habits of the Bizcacha — Little +Owl — Saline streams — Level plains — Mastodon — St. Fé — Change in +landscape — Geology — Tooth of extinct Horse — Relation of the Fossil +and recent Quadrupeds of North and South America — Effects of a great +drought — Parana — Habits of the Jaguar — Scissor-beak — Kingfisher, +Parrot, and Scissor-tail — Revolution — Buenos Ayres — State of +Government. + +CHAPTER VIII + +Excursion to Colonia del Sacramiento — Value of an Estancia — Cattle, +how counted — Singular breed of Oxen — Perforated pebbles — +Shepherd-dogs — Horses broken-in, Gauchos riding — Character of +Inhabitants — Rio Plata — Flocks of Butterflies — Aëronaut Spiders — +Phosphorescence of the Sea — Port Desire — Guanaco — Port St. Julian — +Geology of Patagonia — Fossil gigantic Animal — Types of Organisation +constant — Change in the Zoology of America — Causes of Extinction. + +CHAPTER IX + +Santa Cruz — Expedition up the River — Indians — Immense streams of +basaltic lava — Fragments not transported by the river — Excavation of +the valley — Condor, habits of — Cordillera — Erratic boulders of great +size — Indian relics — Return to the ship — Falkland Islands — Wild +horses, cattle, rabbits — Wolf-like fox — Fire made of bones — Manner +of hunting wild cattle — Geology — Streams of stones — Scenes of +violence — Penguin — Geese — Eggs of Doris — Compound animals. + +CHAPTER X + +Tierra del Fuego, first arrival — Good Success Bay — An account of the +Fuegians on board — Interview with the savages — Scenery of the forests +— Cape Horn — Wigwam Cove — Miserable condition of the savages — +Famines — Cannibals — Matricide — Religious feelings — Great Gale — +Beagle Channel — Ponsonby Sound — Build wigwams and settle the Fuegians +— Bifurcation of the Beagle Channel — Glaciers — Return to the Ship — +Second visit in the Ship to the Settlement — Equality of condition +amongst the natives. + +CHAPTER XI + +Strait of Magellan — Port Famine — Ascent of Mount Tarn — Forests — +Edible fungus — Zoology — Great Seaweed — Leave Tierra del Fuego — +Climate — Fruit-trees and productions of the southern coasts — Height +of snow-line on the Cordillera — Descent of glaciers to the sea — +Icebergs formed — Transportal of boulders — Climate and productions of +the Antarctic Islands — Preservation of frozen carcasses — +Recapitulation. + +CHAPTER XII + +Valparaiso — Excursion to the foot of the Andes — Structure of the land +— Ascend the Bell of Quillota — Shattered masses of greenstone — +Immense valleys — Mines — State of miners — Santiago — Hot-baths of +Cauquenes — Gold-mines — Grinding-mills — Perforated stones — Habits of +the Puma — El Turco and Tapacolo — Humming-birds. + +CHAPTER XIII + +Chiloe — General aspect — Boat excursion — Native Indians — Castro — +Tame fox — Ascend San Pedro — Chonos Archipelago — Peninsula of Tres +Montes — Granitic range — Boat-wrecked sailors — Low’s Harbour — Wild +potato — Formation of peat — Myopotamus, otter and mice — Cheucau and +Barking-bird — Opetiorhynchus — Singular character of ornithology — +Petrels. + +CHAPTER XIV + +San Carlos, Chiloe — Osorno in eruption, contemporaneously with +Aconcagua and Coseguina — Ride to Cucao — Impenetrable forests — +Valdivia — Indians — Earthquake — Concepcion — Great earthquake — Rocks +fissured — Appearance of the former towns — The sea black and boiling — +Direction of the vibrations — Stones twisted round — Great Wave — +Permanent Elevation of the land — Area of volcanic phenomena — The +connection between the elevatory and eruptive forces — Cause of +earthquakes — Slow elevation of mountain-chains. + +CHAPTER XV + +Valparaiso — Portillo Pass — Sagacity of mules — Mountain-torrents — +Mines, how discovered — Proofs of the gradual elevation of the +Cordillera — Effect of snow on rocks — Geological structure of the two +main ranges, their distinct origin and upheaval — Great subsidence — +Red snow — Winds — Pinnacles of snow — Dry and clear atmosphere — +Electricity — Pampas — Zoology of the opposite sides of the Andes — +Locusts — Great Bugs — Mendoza — Uspallata Pass — Silicified trees +buried as they grew — Incas Bridge — Badness of the passes exaggerated +— Cumbre — Casuchas — Valparaiso. + +CHAPTER XVI + +Coast-road to Coquimbo — Great loads carried by the miners — Coquimbo — +Earthquake — Step-formed terraces — Absence of recent deposits — +Contemporaneousness of the Tertiary formations — Excursion up the +valley — Road to Guasco — Deserts — Valley of Copiapó — Rain and +Earthquakes — Hydrophobia — The Despoblado — Indian ruins — Probable +change of climate — River-bed arched by an earthquake — Cold gales of +wind — Noises from a hill — Iquique — Salt alluvium — Nitrate of soda — +Lima — Unhealthy country — Ruins of Callao, overthrown by an earthquake +— Recent subsidence — Elevated shells on San Lorenzo, their +decomposition — Plain with embedded shells and fragments of pottery — +Antiquity of the Indian Race. + +CHAPTER XVII + +Galapagos Archipelago — The whole group volcanic — Number of craters — +Leafless bushes — Colony at Charles Island — James Island — Salt-lake +in crater — Natural history of the group — Ornithology, curious finches +— Reptiles — Great tortoises, habits of — Marine lizard, feeds on +seaweed — Terrestrial lizard, burrowing habits, herbivorous — +Importance of reptiles in the Archipelago — Fish, shells, insects — +Botany — American type of organisation — Differences in the species or +races on different islands — Tameness of the birds — Fear of man an +acquired instinct. + +CHAPTER XVIII + +Pass through the Low Archipelago — Tahiti — Aspect — Vegetation on the +mountains — View of Eimeo — Excursion into the interior — Profound +ravines — Succession of waterfalls — Number of wild useful plants — +Temperance of the inhabitants — Their moral state — Parliament convened +— New Zealand — Bay of Islands — Hippahs — Excursion to Waimate — +Missionary establishment — English weeds now run wild — Waiomio — +Funeral of a New Zealand woman — Sail for Australia. + +CHAPTER XIX + +Sydney — Excursion to Bathurst — Aspect of the woods — Party of natives +— Gradual extinction of the aborigines — Infection generated by +associated men in health — Blue Mountains — View of the grand gulf-like +valleys — Their origin and formation — Bathurst, general civility of +the lower orders — State of Society — Van Diemen’s Land — Hobart Town — +Aborigines all banished — Mount Wellington — King George’s Sound — +Cheerless aspect of the country — Bald Head, calcareous casts of +branches of trees — Party of natives — Leave Australia. + +CHAPTER XX + +Keeling Island — Singular appearance — Scanty Flora — Transport of +seeds — Birds and insects — Ebbing and flowing springs — Fields of dead +coral — Stones transported in the roots of trees — Great crab — +Stinging corals — Coral-eating fish — Coral formations — Lagoon islands +or atolls — Depth at which reef-building corals can live — Vast areas +interspersed with low coral islands — Subsidence of their foundations — +Barrier-reefs — Fringing-reefs — Conversion of fringing-reefs into +barrier-reefs, and into atolls — Evidence of changes in level — +Breaches in barrier-reefs — Maldiva atolls, their peculiar structure — +Dead and submerged reefs — Areas of subsidence and elevation — +Distribution of volcanoes — Subsidence slow and vast in amount. + +CHAPTER XXI + +Mauritius, beautiful appearance of — Great crateriform ring of +mountains — Hindoos — St. Helena — History of the changes in the +vegetation — Cause of the extinction of land-shells — Ascension — +Variation in the imported rats — Volcanic bombs — Beds of infusoria — +Bahia, Brazil — Splendour of tropical scenery — Pernambuco — Singular +reefs — Slavery — Return to England — Retrospect on our voyage. + +List of Illustrations + +Index + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + + + +JOURNAL + +Chapter I + + +Porto Praya—Ribeira Grande—Atmospheric Dust with Infusoria—Habits of a +Sea-slug and Cuttle-fish—St. Paul’s Rocks, non-volcanic—Singular +Incrustations—Insects the first Colonists of Islands—Fernando +Noronha—Bahia—Burnished Rocks—Habits of a Diodon—Pelagic Confervæ and +Infusoria—Causes of discoloured Sea. + +ST. JAGO—CAPE DE VERD ISLANDS + +After having been twice driven back by heavy south-western gales, Her +Majesty’s ship _Beagle_, a ten-gun brig, under the command of Captain +Fitz Roy, R.N., sailed from Devonport on the 27th of December, 1831. +The object of the expedition was to complete the survey of Patagonia +and Tierra del Fuego, commenced under Captain King in 1826 to 1830—to +survey the shores of Chile, Peru, and of some islands in the +Pacific—and to carry a chain of chronometrical measurements round the +World. On the 6th of January we reached Teneriffe, but were prevented +landing, by fears of our bringing the cholera: the next morning we saw +the sun rise behind the rugged outline of the Grand Canary Island, and +suddenly illumine the Peak of +Teneriffe, whilst the lower parts were veiled in fleecy clouds. This +was the first of many delightful days never to be forgotten. On the +16th of January 1832 we anchored at Porto Praya, in St. Jago, the chief +island of the Cape de Verd archipelago. + +The neighbourhood of Porto Praya, viewed from the sea, wears a desolate +aspect. The volcanic fires of a past age, and the scorching heat of a +tropical sun, have in most places rendered the soil unfit for +vegetation. The country rises in successive steps of table-land, +interspersed with some truncate conical hills, and the horizon is +bounded by an irregular chain of more lofty mountains. The scene, as +beheld through the hazy atmosphere of this climate, is one of great +interest; if, indeed, a person, fresh from sea, and who has just +walked, for the first time, in a grove of cocoa-nut trees, can be a +judge of anything but his own happiness. The island would generally be +considered as very uninteresting, but to any one accustomed only to an +English landscape, the novel aspect of an utterly sterile land +possesses a grandeur which more vegetation might spoil. A single green +leaf can scarcely be discovered over wide tracts of the lava plains; +yet flocks of goats, together with a few cows, contrive to exist. It +rains very seldom, but during a short portion of the year heavy +torrents fall, and immediately afterwards a light vegetation springs +out of every crevice. This soon withers; and upon such naturally formed +hay the animals live. It had not now rained for an entire year. When +the island was discovered, the immediate neighbourhood of Porto Praya +was clothed with trees,[1] the reckless destruction of which has caused +here, as at St. Helena, and at some of the Canary islands, almost +entire sterility. The broad, flat-bottomed valleys, many of which serve +during a few days only in the season as watercourses, are clothed with +thickets of leafless bushes. Few living creatures inhabit these +valleys. The commonest bird is a kingfisher (Dacelo Iagoensis), which +tamely sits on the branches of the castor-oil plant, and thence darts +on grasshoppers and lizards. It is brightly coloured, but not so +beautiful as the European species: in its flight, manners, and place of +habitation, which is generally in the driest valley, there is also a +wide difference. + + [1] I state this on the authority of Dr. E. Dieffenbach, in his German + translation of the first edition of this Journal. + + +One day, two of the officers and myself rode to Ribeira Grande, a +village a few miles eastward of Porto Praya. Until we reached the +valley of St. Martin, the country presented its usual dull brown +appearance; but here, a very small rill of water produces a most +refreshing margin of luxuriant vegetation. In the course of an hour we +arrived at Ribeira Grande, and were surprised at the sight of a large +ruined fort and cathedral. This little town, before its harbour was +filled up, was the principal place in the island: it now presents a +melancholy, but very picturesque appearance. Having procured a black +Padre for a guide, and a Spaniard who had served in the Peninsular war +as an interpreter, we visited a collection of buildings, of which an +ancient church formed the principal part. It is here the governors and +captain-generals of the islands have been buried. Some of the +tombstones recorded dates of the sixteenth century.[2] The heraldic +ornaments were the only things in this retired place that reminded us +of Europe. The church or chapel formed one side of a quadrangle, in the +middle of which a large clump of bananas were growing. On another side +was a hospital, containing about a dozen miserable-looking inmates. + + [2] The Cape de Verd Islands were discovered in 1449. There was a + tombstone of a bishop with the date of 1571; and a crest of a hand and + dagger, dated 1497. + +We returned to the Vênda to eat our dinners. A considerable number of +men, women, and children, all as black as jet, collected to watch us. +Our companions were extremely merry; and everything we said or did was +followed by their hearty laughter. Before leaving the town we visited +the cathedral. It does not appear so rich as the smaller church, but +boasts of a little organ, which sent forth singularly inharmonious +cries. We presented the black priest with a few shillings, and the +Spaniard, patting him on the head, said, with much candour, he thought +his colour made no great difference. We then returned, as fast as the +ponies would go, to Porto Praya. + +Another day we rode to the village of St. Domingo, situated near the +centre of the island. On a small plain which we crossed, a few stunted +acacias were growing; their tops had been bent by the steady +trade-wind, in a singular manner—some of them even at right angles to +their trunks. The direction +of the branches was exactly north-east by north, and south-west by +south, and these natural vanes must indicate the prevailing direction +of the force of the trade-wind. The travelling had made so little +impression on the barren soil, that we here missed our track, and took +that to Fuentes. This we did not find out till we arrived there; and we +were afterwards glad of our mistake. Fuentes is a pretty village, with +a small stream; and everything appeared to prosper well, excepting, +indeed, that which ought to do so most—its inhabitants. The black +children, completely naked, and looking very wretched, were carrying +bundles of firewood half as big as their own bodies. + +Near Fuentes we saw a large flock of guinea-fowl—probably fifty or +sixty in number. They were extremely wary, and could not be approached. +They avoided us, like partridges on a rainy day in September, running +with their heads cocked up; and if pursued, they readily took to the +wing. + +The scenery of St. Domingo possesses a beauty totally unexpected, from +the prevalent gloomy character of the rest of the island. The village +is situated at the bottom of a valley, bounded by lofty and jagged +walls of stratified lava. The black rocks afford a most striking +contrast with the bright green vegetation, which follows the banks of a +little stream of clear water. It happened to be a grand feast-day, and +the village was full of people. On our return we overtook a party of +about twenty young black girls, dressed in excellent taste; their black +skins and snow-white linen being set off by coloured turbans and large +shawls. As soon as we approached near, they suddenly all turned round, +and covering the path with their shawls, sung with great energy a wild +song, beating time with their hands upon their legs. We threw them some +vintéms, which were received with screams of laughter, and we left them +redoubling the noise of their song. + +One morning the view was singularly clear; the distant mountains being +projected with the sharpest outline, on a heavy bank of dark blue +clouds. Judging from the appearance, and from similar cases in England, +I supposed that the air was saturated with moisture. The fact, however, +turned out quite the contrary. The hygrometer gave a difference of 29.6 +degrees, between the temperature of the air, and the point at which dew +was precipitated. This difference was nearly double +that which I had observed on the previous mornings. This unusual degree +of atmospheric dryness was accompanied by continual flashes of +lightning. Is it not an uncommon case, thus to find a remarkable degree +of aerial transparency with such a state of weather? + +Generally the atmosphere is hazy; and this is caused by the falling of +impalpably fine dust, which was found to have slightly injured the +astronomical instruments. The morning before we anchored at Porto +Praya, I collected a little packet of this brown-coloured fine dust, +which appeared to have been filtered from the wind by the gauze of the +vane at the masthead. Mr. Lyell has also given me four packets of dust +which fell on a vessel a few hundred miles northward of these islands. +Professor Ehrenberg[3] finds that this dust consists in great part of +infusoria with siliceous shields, and of the siliceous tissue of +plants. In five little packets which I sent him, he has ascertained no +less than sixty-seven different organic forms! The infusoria, with the +exception of two marine species, are all inhabitants of fresh-water. I +have found no less than fifteen different accounts of dust having +fallen on vessels when far out in the Atlantic. From the direction of +the wind whenever it has fallen, and from its having always fallen +during those months when the harmattan is known to raise clouds of dust +high into the atmosphere, we may feel sure that it all comes from +Africa. It is, however, a very singular fact, that, although Professor +Ehrenberg knows many species of infusoria peculiar to Africa, he finds +none of these in the dust which I sent him. On the other hand, he finds +in it two species which hitherto he knows as living only in South +America. The dust falls in such quantities as to dirty everything on +board, and to hurt people’s eyes; vessels even have run on shore owing +to the obscurity of the atmosphere. It has often fallen on ships when +several hundred, and even more than a thousand miles from the coast of +Africa, and at points sixteen hundred miles distant in a north and +south direction. In some dust which was collected on a vessel three +hundred miles from the land, I was much surprised to find particles of +stone above the thousandth of an inch square, +mixed with finer matter. After this fact one need not be surprised at +the diffusion of the far lighter and smaller sporules of cryptogamic +plants. + + [3] I must take this opportunity of acknowledging the great kindness + with which this illustrious naturalist has examined many of my + specimens. I have sent (June 1845) a full account of the falling of + this dust to the Geological Society. + +The geology of this island is the most interesting part of its natural +history. On entering the harbour, a perfectly horizontal white band in +the face of the sea cliff, may be seen running for some miles along the +coast, and at the height of about forty-five feet above the water. Upon +examination, this white stratum is found to consist of calcareous +matter, with numerous shells embedded, most or all of which now exist +on the neighbouring coast. It rests on ancient volcanic rocks, and has +been covered by a stream of basalt, which must have entered the sea +when the white shelly bed was lying at the bottom. It is interesting to +trace the changes, produced by the heat of the overlying lava, on the +friable mass, which in parts has been converted into a crystalline +limestone, and in other parts into a compact spotted stone. Where the +lime has been caught up by the scoriaceous fragments of the lower +surface of the stream, it is converted into groups of beautifully +radiated fibres resembling arragonite. The beds of lava rise in +successive gently-sloping plains, towards the interior, whence the +deluges of melted stone have originally proceeded. Within historical +times no signs of volcanic activity have, I believe, been manifested in +any part of St. Jago. Even the form of a crater can but rarely be +discovered on the summits of the many red cindery hills; yet the more +recent streams can be distinguished on the coast, forming lines of +cliffs of less height, but stretching out in advance of those belonging +to an older series: the height of the cliffs thus affording a rude +measure of the age of the streams. + +During our stay, I observed the habits of some marine animals. A large +Aplysia is very common. This sea-slug is about five inches long; and is +of a dirty yellowish colour, veined with purple. On each side of the +lower surface, or foot, there is a broad membrane, which appears +sometimes to act as a ventilator, in causing a current of water to flow +over the dorsal branchiæ or lungs. It feeds on the delicate seaweeds +which grow among the stones in muddy and shallow water; and I found in +its stomach several small pebbles, as in the gizzard of a bird. This +slug, when disturbed, emits a very fine +purplish-red fluid, which stains the water for the space of a foot +around. Besides this means of defence, an acrid secretion, which is +spread over its body, causes a sharp, stinging sensation, similar to +that produced by the Physalia, or Portuguese man-of-war. + +I was much interested, on several occasions, by watching the habits of +an Octopus, or cuttle-fish. Although common in the pools of water left +by the retiring tide, these animals were not easily caught. By means of +their long arms and suckers, they could drag their bodies into very +narrow crevices; and when thus fixed, it required great force to remove +them. At other times they darted tail first, with the rapidity of an +arrow, from one side of the pool to the other, at the same instant +discolouring the water with a dark chestnut-brown ink. These animals +also escape detection by a very extraordinary, chameleon-like power of +changing their colour. They appear to vary their tints according to the +nature of the ground over which they pass: when in deep water, their +general shade was brownish purple, but when placed on the land, or in +shallow water, this dark tint changed into one of a yellowish green. +The colour, examined more carefully, was a French grey, with numerous +minute spots of bright yellow: the former of these varied in intensity; +the latter entirely disappeared and appeared again by turns. These +changes were effected in such a manner that clouds, varying in tint +between a hyacinth red and a chestnut-brown,[4] were continually +passing over the body. Any part, being subjected to a slight shock of +galvanism, became almost black: a similar effect, but in a less degree, +was produced by scratching the skin with a needle. These clouds, or +blushes as they may be called, are said to be produced by the alternate +expansion and contraction of minute vesicles containing variously +coloured fluids.[5] + + [4] So named according to Patrick Symes’s nomenclature. + + + [5] See _Encyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology_ article + “Cephalopoda.” + +This cuttle-fish displayed its chameleon-like power both during the act +of swimming and whilst remaining stationary at the bottom. I was much +amused by the various arts to escape detection used by one individual, +which seemed fully aware that I was watching it. Remaining for a time +motionless, it would then stealthily advance an inch or two, like a cat +after a mouse; sometimes changing its colour: it thus proceeded, till +having +gained a deeper part, it darted away, leaving a dusky train of ink to +hide the hole into which it had crawled. + +While looking for marine animals, with my head about two feet above the +rocky shore, I was more than once saluted by a jet of water, +accompanied by a slight grating noise. At first I could not think what +it was, but afterwards I found out that it was this cuttle-fish, which, +though concealed in a hole, thus often led me to its discovery. That it +possesses the power of ejecting water there is no doubt, and it +appeared to me that it could certainly take good aim by directing the +tube or siphon on the under side of its body. From the difficulty which +these animals have in carrying their heads, they cannot crawl with ease +when placed on the ground. I observed that one which I kept in the +cabin was slightly phosphorescent in the dark. + +ST. PAUL’S ROCKS.—In crossing the Atlantic we hove-to, during the +morning of February 16th, 1832, close to the island of St. Paul’s. This +cluster of rocks is situated in 0° 58′ north latitude, and 29° 15′ west +longitude. It is 540 miles distant from the coast of America, and 350 +from the island of Fernando Noronha. The highest point is only fifty +feet above the level of the sea, and the entire circumference is under +three-quarters of a mile. This small point rises abruptly out of the +depths of the ocean. Its mineralogical constitution is not simple; in +some parts the rock is of a cherty, in others of a feldspathic nature, +including thin veins of serpentine. It is a remarkable fact that all +the many small islands, lying far from any continent, in the Pacific, +Indian, and Atlantic Oceans, with the exception of the Seychelles and +this little point of rock, are, I believe, composed either of coral or +of erupted matter. The volcanic nature of these oceanic islands is +evidently an extension of that law, and the effect of those same +causes, whether chemical or mechanical, from which it results that a +vast majority of the volcanoes now in action stand either near +sea-coasts or as islands in the midst of the sea. + +[Illustration] + +The rocks of St. Paul appear from a distance of a brilliantly white +colour. This is partly owing to the dung of a vast multitude of +seafowl, and partly to a coating of a hard glossy substance with a +pearly lustre, which is intimately united to the surface of the rocks. +This, when examined with a lens, is +found to consist of numerous exceedingly thin layers, its total +thickness being about the tenth of an inch. It contains much animal +matter, and its origin, no doubt, is due to the action of the rain or +spray on the birds’ dung. Below some small masses of guano at +Ascension, and on the Abrolhos Islets, I found certain stalactitic +branching bodies, formed apparently in the same manner as the thin +white coating on these rocks. The branching bodies so closely resembled +in general appearance certain nulliporæ (a family of hard calcareous +sea-plants), that in lately looking hastily over my collection I did +not perceive the difference. The globular extremities of the branches +are of a pearly texture, like the enamel of teeth, but so hard as just +to scratch plate-glass. I may here mention, that on a part of the coast +of Ascension, where there is a vast accumulation of shelly sand, an +incrustation is deposited on the tidal rocks, by the water of the sea, +resembling, as represented in the picture above, certain cryptogamic +plants (Marchantiæ) often seen on damp walls. The surface of the fronds +is beautifully glossy; and those parts formed where fully exposed to +the light, are of a jet black colour, but those shaded under ledges are +only grey. I have shown specimens of this incrustation to several +geologists, and they all thought that they were of volcanic or igneous +origin! In its hardness and translucency—in its polish, equal to that +of the finest oliva-shell—in the bad smell given out, and loss of +colour under the blowpipe—it shows a close similarity with living +sea-shells. Moreover in sea-shells, it is known that the parts +habitually covered and shaded by the mantle of the animal, are of a +paler colour than those fully exposed to the light, just as is the case +with this incrustation. When we remember that lime, either as a +phosphate or carbonate, enters into the composition of the hard parts, +such as bones and shells, of all living animals, it is an interesting +physiological +fact[6] to find substances harder than the enamel of teeth, and +coloured surfaces as well polished as those of a fresh shell, re-formed +through inorganic means from dead organic matter—mocking, also, in +shape, some of the lower vegetable productions. + + [6] Mr. Horner and Sir David Brewster have described (_Philosophical + Transactions_, 1836, p. 65) a singular “artificial substance + resembling shell.” It is deposited in fine, transparent, highly + polished, brown-coloured laminæ, possessing peculiar optical + properties, on the inside of a vessel, in which cloth, first prepared + with glue and then with lime, is made to revolve rapidly in water. It + is much softer, more transparent, and contains more animal matter, + than the natural incrustation at Ascension; but we here again see the + strong tendency which carbonate of lime and animal matter evince to + form a solid substance allied to shell. + +We found on St. Paul’s only two kinds of birds—the booby and the noddy. +The former is a species of gannet, and the latter a tern. Both are of a +tame and stupid disposition, and are so unaccustomed to visitors, that +I could have killed any number of them with my geological hammer. The +booby lays her eggs on the bare rock; but the tern makes a very simple +nest with seaweed. By the side of many of these nests a small +flying-fish was placed; which I suppose, had been brought by the male +bird for its partner. It was amusing to watch how quickly a large and +active crab (Graspus), which inhabits the crevices of the rock, stole +the fish from the side of the nest, as soon as we had disturbed the +parent birds. Sir W. Symonds, one of the few persons who have landed +here, informs me that he saw the crabs dragging even the young birds +out of their nests, and devouring them. Not a single plant, not even a +lichen, grows on this islet; yet it is inhabited by several insects and +spiders. The following list completes, I believe, the terrestrial +fauna: a fly (Olfersia) living on the booby, and a tick which must have +come here as a parasite on the birds; a small brown moth, belonging to +a genus that feeds on feathers; a beetle (Quedius) and a woodlouse from +beneath the dung; and lastly, numerous spiders, which I suppose prey on +these small attendants and scavengers of the waterfowl. The +often-repeated description of the stately palm and other noble tropical +plants, then birds, and lastly man, taking possession of the coral +islets as soon as formed, in the Pacific, is probably not quite +correct; I fear it destroys the poetry of this story, that feather and +dirt-feeding and parasitic insects and spiders should be the first +inhabitants of newly formed oceanic land. + +The smallest rock in the tropical seas, by giving a foundation +for the growth of innumerable kinds of seaweed and compound animals, +supports likewise a large number of fish. The sharks and the seamen in +the boats maintained a constant struggle which should secure the +greater share of the prey caught by the fishing-lines. I have heard +that a rock near the Bermudas, lying many miles out at sea, and at a +considerable depth, was first discovered by the circumstance of fish +having been observed in the neighbourhood. + +FERNANDO NORONHA, _Feb_. 20_th._—As far as I was enabled to observe, +during the few hours we stayed at this place, the constitution of the +island is volcanic, but probably not of a recent date. The most +remarkable feature is a conical hill, about one thousand feet high, the +upper part of which is exceedingly steep, and on one side overhangs its +base. The rock is phonolite, and is divided into irregular columns. On +viewing one of these isolated masses, at first one is inclined to +believe that it has been suddenly pushed up in a semi-fluid state. At +St. Helena, however, I ascertained that some pinnacles, of a nearly +similar figure and constitution, had been formed by the injection of +melted rock into yielding strata, which thus had formed the moulds for +these gigantic obelisks. The whole island is covered with wood; but +from the dryness of the climate there is no appearance of luxuriance. +Half-way up the mountain some great masses of the columnar rock, shaded +by laurel-like trees, and ornamented by others covered with fine pink +flowers but without a single leaf, gave a pleasing effect to the nearer +parts of the scenery. + +BAHIA, OR SAN SALVADOR. BRAZIL, _Feb_. 29_th._—The day has past +delightfully. Delight itself, however, is a weak term to express the +feelings of a naturalist who, for the first time, has wandered by +himself in a Brazilian forest. The elegance of the grasses, the novelty +of the parasitical plants, the beauty of the flowers, the glossy green +of the foliage, but above all the general luxuriance of the vegetation, +filled me with admiration. A most paradoxical mixture of sound and +silence pervades the shady parts of the wood. The noise from the +insects is so loud, that it may be heard even in a vessel anchored +several hundred yards from the shore; yet within the recesses of the +forest a universal silence appears to reign. To a person fond of +natural +history, such a day as this brings with it a deeper pleasure than he +can ever hope to experience again. After wandering about for some +hours, I returned to the landing-place; but, before reaching it, I was +overtaken by a tropical storm. I tried to find shelter under a tree, +which was so thick that it would never have been penetrated by common +English rain; but here, in a couple of minutes, a little torrent flowed +down the trunk. It is to this violence of the rain that we must +attribute the verdure at the bottom of the thickest woods: if the +showers were like those of a colder clime, the greater part would be +absorbed or evaporated before it reached the ground. I will not at +present attempt to describe the gaudy scenery of this noble bay, +because, in our homeward voyage, we called here a second time, and I +shall then have occasion to remark on it. + +Along the whole coast of Brazil, for a length of at least 2000 miles, +and certainly for a considerable space inland, wherever solid rock +occurs, it belongs to a granitic formation. The circumstance of this +enormous area being constituted of materials which most geologists +believe to have been crystallised when heated under pressure, gives +rise to many curious reflections. Was this effect produced beneath the +depths of a profound ocean? or did a covering of strata formerly extend +over it, which has since been removed? Can we believe that any power, +acting for a time short of infinity, could have denuded the granite +over so many thousand square leagues? + +On a point not far from the city, where a rivulet entered the sea, I +observed a fact connected with a subject discussed by Humboldt.[7] At +the cataracts of the great rivers Orinoco, Nile, and Congo, the +syenitic rocks are coated by a black substance, appearing as if they +had been polished with plumbago. The layer is of extreme thinness; and +on analysis by Berzelius it was found to consist of the oxides of +manganese and iron. In the Orinoco it occurs on the rocks periodically +washed by the floods, and in those parts alone where the stream is +rapid; or, as the Indians say, “the rocks are black where the waters +are white.” Here the coating is of a rich brown instead of a black +colour, and seems to be composed of ferruginous matter alone. Hand +specimens fail to give a just idea of these brown burnished stones +which glitter in the sun’s rays. They occur only within +the limits of the tidal waves; and as the rivulet slowly trickles down, +the surf must supply the polishing power of the cataracts in the great +rivers. In like manner, the rise and fall of the tide probably answer +to the periodical inundations; and thus the same effects are produced +under apparently different but really similar circumstances. The +origin, however, of these coatings of metallic oxides, which seem as if +cemented to the rocks, is not understood; and no reason, I believe, can +be assigned for their thickness remaining the same. + + [7] _Personal Narrative,_ vol. v, pt. i, p. 18. + + +[Illustration] + +One day I was amused by watching the habits of the Diodon antennatus, +which was caught swimming near the shore. This fish, with its flabby +skin, is well known to possess the singular power of distending itself +into a nearly spherical form. After having been taken out of water for +a short time, and then again immersed in it, a considerable quantity +both of water and air is absorbed by the mouth, and perhaps likewise by +the branchial orifices. This process is effected by two methods: the +air is swallowed, and is then forced into the cavity of the body, its +return being prevented by a muscular contraction which is externally +visible: but the water enters in a gentle stream through the mouth, +which is kept wide open and motionless; this latter action must, +therefore, depend on suction. The skin about the abdomen is much looser +than that on the back; hence, during the inflation, the lower surface +becomes far more distended than the upper; and the fish, in +consequence, floats with its back downwards. Cuvier doubts whether the +Diodon in this position is able to swim; but not only can it thus move +forward in a straight line, but it can turn round to either side. This +latter movement is effected solely by the aid of the pectoral fins; the +tail being collapsed and not used. From the body being buoyed up with +so much air, the branchial openings are out of water, but a stream +drawn in by the mouth constantly flows through them. + +The fish, having remained in this distended state for a short time, +generally expelled the air and water with considerable force from the +branchial apertures and mouth. It could emit, at will, a certain +portion of the water, and it appears, therefore probable that this +fluid is taken in partly for the sake of regulating its specific +gravity. This Diodon possessed several means of defence. It could give +a severe bite, and could eject water from its mouth to some distance, +at the same time making a curious noise by the movement of its jaws. By +the inflation of its body, the papillæ, with which the skin is +covered, become erect and pointed. But the most curious circumstance +is, that it secretes from the skin of its belly, when handled, a most +beautiful carmine-red fibrous matter, which stains ivory and paper in +so permanent a manner, that the tint is retained with all its +brightness to the present day: I am quite ignorant of the nature and +use of this secretion. I have heard from Dr. Allan of Forres, that he +has frequently found a Diodon, floating alive and distended, in the +stomach of the shark; and that on several occasions he has known it eat +its way, not only through the coats of the stomach, but through the +sides of the monster, which has thus been killed. Who would ever have +imagined that a little soft fish could have destroyed the great and +savage shark? + + +_March_ 18_th._—We sailed from Bahia. A few days afterwards, when not +far distant from the Abrolhos Islets, my attention +was called to a reddish-brown appearance in the sea. The whole surface +of the water, as it appeared under a weak lens, seemed as if covered by +chopped bits of hay, with their ends jagged. These are minute +cylindrical confervæ, in bundles or rafts of from twenty to sixty in +each. Mr. Berkeley informs me that they are the same species +(Trichodesmium erythræum) with that found over large spaces in the Red +Sea, and whence its name of Red Sea is derived.[8] Their numbers must +be infinite: the ship passed through several bands of them, one of +which was about ten yards wide, and, judging from the mud-like colour +of the water, at least two and a half miles long. In almost every long +voyage some account is given of these confervæ. They appear especially +common in the sea near Australia; and off Cape Leeuwin I found an +allied, but smaller and apparently different species. Captain Cook, in +his third voyage, remarks that the sailors gave to this appearance the +name of sea-sawdust. + + [8] M. Montagne in _Comptes Rendus_, etc. Juillet 1844; and _Annales + des Sciences Naturelles_, December 1844. + + +[Illustration] + +Near Keeling Atoll, in the Indian Ocean, I observed many little masses +of confervæ a few inches square, consisting of long cylindrical threads +of excessive thinness, so as to be barely visible to the naked eye, +mingled with other rather larger bodies, finely conical at both ends. +Two of these are shown above united together. They vary in length from +.04 to .06, and even to .08 of an inch in length; and in diameter from +.006 to .008 of an inch. Near one extremity of the cylindrical part, a +green septum, formed of granular matter, and thickest in the middle, +may generally be seen. This, I believe, is the bottom of a most +delicate, colourless sac, composed of a pulpy substance, which lines +the exterior case, but does not extend within the extreme conical +points. In some specimens, small but perfect spheres of brownish +granular matter supplied the places of the septa; and I observed the +curious process by which they were produced. The pulpy matter of the +internal coating suddenly grouped itself into lines, some of which +assumed a form radiating from a common centre; it then continued, with +an irregular and rapid movement, to contract itself, so that in the +course of a second +the whole was united into a perfect little sphere, which occupied the +position of the septum at one end of the now quite hollow case. The +formation of the granular sphere was hastened by any accidental injury. +I may add, that frequently a pair of these bodies were attached to each +other, as represented above, cone beside cone, at that end where the +septum occurs. + +I will here add a few other observations connected with the +discoloration of the sea from organic causes. On the coast of Chile, a +few leagues north of Concepcion, the _Beagle_ one day passed through +great bands of muddy water, exactly like that of a swollen river; and +again, a degree south of Valparaiso, when fifty miles from the land, +the same appearance was still more extensive. Some of the water placed +in a glass was of a pale reddish tint; and, examined under a +microscope, was seen to swarm with minute animalcula darting about, and +often exploding. Their shape is oval, and contracted in the middle by a +ring of vibrating curved ciliæ. It was, however, very difficult to +examine them with care, for almost the instant motion ceased, even +while crossing the field of vision, their bodies burst. Sometimes both +ends burst at once, sometimes only one, and a quantity of coarse, +brownish, granular matter was ejected. The animal an instant before +bursting expanded to half again its natural size; and the explosion +took place about fifteen seconds after the rapid progressive motion had +ceased: in a few cases it was preceded for a short interval by a +rotatory movement on the longer axis. About two minutes after any +number were isolated in a drop of water, they thus perished. The +animals move with the narrow apex forwards, by the aid of their +vibratory ciliæ, and generally by rapid starts. They are exceedingly +minute, and quite invisible to the naked eye, only covering a space +equal to the square of the thousandth of an inch. Their numbers were +infinite; for the smallest drop of water which I could remove contained +very many. In one day we passed through two spaces of water thus +stained, one of which alone must have extended over several square +miles. What incalculable numbers of these microscopical animals! The +colour of the water, as seen at some distance, was like that of a river +which has flowed through a red clay district; but under the shade of +the vessel’s side it was quite as dark as chocolate. The line where the +red and blue water joined was distinctly +defined. The weather for some days previously had been calm, and the +ocean abounded, to an unusual degree, with living creatures.[9] + + [9] M. Lesson (_Voyage de la Coquille_, tome i, p. 255) mentions red + water off Lima, apparently produced by the same cause. Peron, the + distinguished naturalist, in the _Voyage aux Terres Australes_, gives + no less than twelve references to voyagers who have alluded to the + discoloured waters of the sea (vol. ii, p. 239). To the references + given by Peron may be added, Humboldt’s _Personal Narrative_, vol. vi, + p. 804; Flinder’s _Voyage_, vol. i, p. 92; Labillardière, vol. i, p. + 287; Ulloa’s _Voyage_; _Voyage of the Astrolabe and of the Coquille_; + Captain King’s _Survey of Australia_, etc. + +In the sea around Tierra del Fuego, and at no great distance from the +land, I have seen narrow lines of water of a bright red colour, from +the number of crustacea, which somewhat resemble in form large prawns. +The sealers call them whale-food. Whether whales feed on them I do not +know; but terns, cormorants, and immense herds of great unwieldy seals +derive, on some parts of the coast, their chief sustenance from these +swimming crabs. Seamen invariably attribute the discoloration of the +water to spawn; but I found this to be the case only on one occasion. +At the distance of several leagues from the Archipelago of the +Galapagos, the ship sailed through three strips of a dark yellowish, or +mud-like water; these strips were some miles long, but only a few yards +wide, and they were separated from the surrounding water by a sinuous +yet distinct margin. The colour was caused by little gelatinous balls, +about the fifth of an inch in diameter, in which numerous minute +spherical ovules were embedded: they were of two distinct kinds, one +being of a reddish colour and of a different shape from the other. I +cannot form a conjecture as to what two kinds of animals these +belonged. Captain Colnett remarks that this appearance is very common +among the Galapagos Islands, and that the direction of the bands +indicates that of the currents; in the described case, however, the +line was caused by the wind. The only other appearance which I have to +notice, is a thin oily coat on the water which displays iridescent +colours. I saw a considerable tract of the ocean thus covered on the +coast of Brazil; the seamen attributed it to the putrefying carcass of +some whale, which probably was floating at no great distance. I do not +here mention the minute gelatinous particles, hereafter to be referred +to, which are frequently dispersed throughout the water, for they are +not sufficiently abundant to create any change of colour. + + +There are two circumstances in the above accounts which appear +remarkable: first, how do the various bodies which form the bands with +defined edges keep together? In the case of the prawn-like crabs, their +movements were as coinstantaneous as in a regiment of soldiers; but +this cannot happen from anything like voluntary action with the ovules, +or the confervæ, nor is it probable among the infusoria. Secondly, +what causes the length and narrowness of the bands? The appearance so +much resembles that which may be seen in every torrent, where the +stream uncoils into long streaks the froth collected in the eddies, +that I must attribute the effect to a similar action either of the +currents of the air or sea. Under this supposition we must believe that +the various organised bodies are produced in certain favourable places, +and are thence removed by the set of either wind or water. I confess, +however, there is a very great difficulty in imagining any one spot to +be the birthplace of the millions of millions of animalcula and +confervæ: for whence come the germs at such points?—the parent bodies +having been distributed by the winds and waves over the immense ocean. +But on no other hypothesis can I understand their linear grouping. I +may add that Scoresby remarks that green water abounding with pelagic +animals is invariably found in a certain part of the Arctic Sea. + +[Illustration] + + + + +Chapter II + + +[Illustration] + +Rio de Janeiro—Excursion north of Cape Frio—Great +Evaporation—Slavery—Botofogo Bay—Terrestrial Planariæ—Clouds on the +Corcovado—Heavy Rain—Musical Frogs—Phosphorescent Insects—Elater, +springing powers of—Blue Haze—Noise made by a +Butterfly—Entomology—Ants—Wasp killing a Spider—Parasitical +Spider—Artifices of an Epeira—Gregarious Spider—Spider with an +unsymmetrical Web. + +RIO DE JANEIRO. + +_April_ 4_th to July_ 5_th_, 1832.—A few days after our arrival I +became acquainted with an Englishman who was going to visit his estate, +situated rather more than a hundred miles from the capital, to the +northward of Cape Frio. I gladly accepted his kind offer of allowing me +to accompany him. + +_April_ 8_th_, 1832.—Our party amounted to seven. The first stage was +very interesting. The day was powerfully hot, and as we passed through +the woods, everything was motionless, excepting the large and brilliant +butterflies, which lazily fluttered about. The view seen when crossing +the hills behind Praia Grande was most beautiful; the colours were +intense, and the prevailing tint a dark blue; the sky and the calm +waters of the bay vied with each other in splendour. After passing +through some cultivated country, we entered a forest which in the +grandeur of all its parts could not be exceeded. We arrived by midday +at +Ithacaia; this small village is situated on a plain, and round the +central house are the huts of the negroes. These, from their regular +form and position, reminded me of the drawings of the Hottentot +habitations in Southern Africa. As the moon rose early, we determined +to start the same evening for our sleeping-place at the Lagoa Marica. +As it was growing dark we passed under one of the massive, bare, and +steep hills of granite which are so common in this country. This spot +is notorious from having been, for a long time, the residence of some +runaway slaves, who, by cultivating a little ground near the top, +contrived to eke out a subsistence. At length they were discovered, and +a party of soldiers being sent, the whole were seized with the +exception of one old woman, who, sooner than again be led into slavery, +dashed herself to pieces from the summit of the mountain. In a Roman +matron this would have been called the noble love of freedom: in a poor +negress it is mere brutal obstinacy. We continued riding for some +hours. For the few last miles the road was intricate, and it passed +through a desert waste of marshes and lagoons. The scene by the dimmed +light of the moon was most desolate. A few fireflies flitted by us; and +the solitary snipe, as it rose, uttered its plaintive cry. The distant +and sullen roar of the sea scarcely broke the stillness of the night. + +_April_ 9_th_, 1832.—We left our miserable sleeping-place before +sunrise. The road passed through a narrow sandy plain, lying between +the sea and the interior salt lagoons. The number of beautiful fishing +birds, such as egrets and cranes, and the succulent plants assuming +most fantastical forms, gave to the scene an interest which it would +not otherwise have possessed. The few stunted trees were loaded with +parasitical plants, among which the beauty and delicious fragrance of +some of the orchideæ were most to be admired. As the sun rose, the day +became extremely hot, and the reflection of the light and heat from the +white sand was very distressing. We dined at Mandetiba; the thermometer +in the shade being 84°. The beautiful view of the distant wooded hills, +reflected in the perfectly calm water of an extensive lagoon, quite +refreshed us. As the vênda[1] here was a very good one, and I have the +pleasant, but rare remembrance, of an excellent dinner, I will be +grateful and +presently describe it, as the type of its class. These houses are often +large, and are built of thick upright posts, with boughs interwoven, +and afterwards plastered. They seldom have floors, and never glazed +windows; but are generally pretty well roofed. Universally the front +part is open, forming a kind of verandah, in which tables and benches +are placed. The bedrooms join on each side, and here the passenger may +sleep as comfortably as he can, on a wooden platform covered by a thin +straw mat. The vênda stands in a courtyard, where the horses are fed. +On first arriving, it was our custom to unsaddle the horses and give +them their Indian corn; then, with a low bow, to ask the senhôr to do +us the favour to give us something to eat. “Anything you choose, sir,” +was his usual answer. For the few first times, vainly I thanked +Providence for having guided us to so good a man. The conversation +proceeding, the case universally became deplorable. “Any fish can you +do us the favour of giving ?”—“Oh no, sir.”—“Any soup?”—“No, sir.”—“Any +bread?”—“Oh no, sir.”—“Any dried meat?”—“Oh no, sir.” If we were lucky, +by waiting a couple of hours, we obtained fowls, rice, and farinha. It +not unfrequently happened that we were obliged to kill, with stones, +the poultry for our own supper. When, thoroughly exhausted by fatigue +and hunger, we timorously hinted that we should be glad of our meal, +the pompous, and (though true) most unsatisfactory answer was, “It will +be ready when it is ready.” If we had dared to remonstrate any further, +we should have been told to proceed on our journey, as being too +impertinent. The hosts are most ungracious and disagreeable in their +manners; their houses and their persons are often filthily dirty; the +want of the accommodation of forks, knives, and spoons is common; and I +am sure no cottage or hovel in England could be found in a state so +utterly destitute of every comfort. At Campos Novos, however, we fared +sumptuously; having rice and fowls, biscuit, wine, and spirits, for +dinner; coffee in the evening, and fish with coffee for breakfast. All +this, with good food for the horses, only cost 2 shillings 6 pence per +head. Yet the host of this vênda, being asked if he knew anything of a +whip which one of the party had lost, gruffly answered, “How should I +know? why did you not take care of it?—I suppose the dogs have eaten +it.” + + [1] Vênda, the Portuguese name for an inn. + +Leaving Mandetiba, we continued to pass through an +intricate wilderness of lakes; in some of which were fresh, in others +salt water shells. Of the former kind, I found a Limnæa in great +numbers in a lake, into which the inhabitants assured me that the sea +enters once a year, and sometimes oftener, and makes the water quite +salt. I have no doubt many interesting facts in relation to marine and +fresh-water animals might be observed in this chain of lagoons which +skirt the coast of Brazil. M. Gay[2] has stated that he found in the +neighbourhood of Rio shells of the marine genera solen and mytilus, and +fresh-water ampullariæ, living together in brackish water. I also +frequently observed in the lagoon near the Botanic Garden, where the +water is only a little less salt than in the sea, a species of +hydrophilus, very similar to a water-beetle common in the ditches of +England: in the same lake the only shell belonged to a genus generally +found in estuaries. + + [2] _Annales des Sciences Naturelles_ for 1833. + +Leaving the coast for a time, we again entered the forest. The trees +were very lofty, and remarkable, compared with those of Europe, from +the whiteness of their trunks. I see by my notebook, “wonderful and +beautiful flowering parasites,” invariably struck me as the most novel +object in these grand scenes. Travelling onwards we passed through +tracts of pasturage, much injured by the enormous conical ants’ nests, +which were nearly twelve feet high. They gave to the plain exactly the +appearance of the mud volcanoes at Jorullo, as figured by Humboldt. We +arrived at Engenhodo after it was dark, having been ten hours on +horseback. I never ceased, during the whole journey, to be surprised at +the amount of labour which the horses were capable of enduring; they +appeared also to recover from any injury much sooner than those of our +English breed. The Vampire bat is often the cause of much trouble, by +biting the horses on their withers. The injury is generally not so much +owing to the loss of blood, as to the inflammation which the pressure +of the saddle afterwards produces. The whole circumstance has lately +been doubted in England; I was therefore fortunate in being present +when one (Desmodus d’orbignyi, Wat.) was actually caught on a horse’s +back. We were bivouacking late one evening near Coquimbo, in Chile, +when my servant, noticing that one of the horses was very restive, went +to see what was the matter, and fancying he could distinguish +something, +suddenly put his hand on the beast’s withers, and secured the vampire. +In the morning the spot where the bite had been inflicted was easily +distinguished from being slightly swollen and bloody. The third day +afterwards we rode the horse, without any ill effects. + +[Illustration] + +_April_ 13_th_, 1832.—After three days’ travelling we arrived at +Socêgo, the estate of Senhôr Manuel Figuireda, a relation of one of our +party. The house was simple, and, though like a barn in form, was well +suited to the climate. In the sitting-room gilded chairs and sofas were +oddly contrasted with the whitewashed walls, thatched roof, and windows +without glass. The house, together with the granaries, the stables, and +workshops for the blacks, who had been taught various trades, formed a +rude kind of quadrangle; in the centre of which a large pile of coffee +was drying. These buildings stand on a little hill, overlooking the +cultivated ground, and surrounded on every side by a wall of dark green +luxuriant forest. The chief produce of this part of the country is +coffee. Each tree is supposed to yield annually, on an average, two +pounds; but some give as much as eight. Mandioca or cassava is likewise +cultivated in +great quantity. Every part of this plant is useful: the leaves and +stalks are eaten by the horses, and the roots are ground into a pulp, +which, when pressed dry and baked, forms the farinha, the principal +article of sustenance in the Brazils. It is a curious, though +well-known fact, that the juice of this most nutritious plant is highly +poisonous. A few years ago a cow died at this Fazênda, in consequence +of having drunk some of it. Senhôr Figuireda told me that he had +planted, the year before, one bag of feijaô or beans, and three of +rice; the former of which produced eighty, and the latter three hundred +and twenty fold. The pasturage supports a fine stock of cattle, and the +woods are so full of game that a deer had been killed on each of the +three previous days. This profusion of food showed itself at dinner, +where, if the tables did not groan, the guests surely did; for each +person is expected to eat of every dish. One day, having, as I thought, +nicely calculated so that nothing should go away untasted, to my utter +dismay a roast turkey and a pig appeared in all their substantial +reality. During the meals, it was the employment of a man to drive out +of the room sundry old hounds, and dozens of little black children, +which crawled in together, at every opportunity. As long as the idea of +slavery could be banished, there was something exceedingly fascinating +in this simple and patriarchal style of living: it was such a perfect +retirement and independence from the rest of the world. As soon as any +stranger is seen arriving, a large bell is set tolling, and generally +some small cannon are fired. The event is thus announced to the rocks +and woods, but to nothing else. One morning I walked out an hour before +daylight to admire the solemn stillness of the scene; at last, the +silence was broken by the morning hymn, raised on high by the whole +body of the blacks; and in this manner their daily work is generally +begun. On such fazêndas as these, I have no doubt the slaves pass happy +and contented lives. On Saturday and Sunday they work for themselves, +and in this fertile climate the labour of two days is sufficient to +support a man and his family for the whole week. + +[Illustration] + +_April_ 14_th_, 1832.—Leaving Socêgo, we rode to another estate on the +Rio Macâe, which was the last patch of cultivated ground in that +direction. The estate was two and a half miles long, and the owner had +forgotten how many broad. Only a very small +piece had been cleared, yet almost every acre was capable of yielding +all the various rich productions of a tropical land. Considering the +enormous area of Brazil, the proportion of cultivated ground can +scarcely be considered as anything compared to that which is left in +the state of nature: at some future age, how vast a population it will +support! During the second day’s journey we found the road so shut up +that it was necessary that a man should go ahead with a sword to cut +away the creepers. The forest abounded with beautiful objects; among +which the tree ferns, though not large, were, from their bright green +foliage, and the elegant curvature of their fronds, most worthy of +admiration. In the evening it rained very heavily, and although the +thermometer stood at 65°, I felt very cold. As soon as the rain ceased, +it was curious to observe the extraordinary evaporation which commenced +over the whole extent of the forest. At the height of a hundred feet +the hills were buried in a dense white vapour, which rose like columns +of smoke from the most thickly-wooded parts, and especially from the +valleys. I observed this phenomenon on several occasions: I suppose it +is owing to the large surface of foliage, previously heated by the +sun’s rays. + +While staying at this estate, I was very nearly being an eye-witness to +one of those atrocious acts which can only take place in a slave +country. Owing to a quarrel and a lawsuit, the owner was on the point +of taking all the women and children from the male slaves, and selling +them separately at the public auction at Rio. Interest, and not any +feeling of compassion, prevented this act. Indeed, I do not believe the +inhumanity of separating thirty families, who had lived together for +many years, even occurred to the owner. Yet I will pledge myself, that +in humanity and good feeling he was superior to the common run of men. +It may be said there exists no limit to the blindness of interest and +selfish habit. I may mention one very trifling anecdote, which at the +time struck me more forcibly than any story of cruelty. I was crossing +a ferry with a negro who was uncommonly stupid. In endeavouring to make +him understand, I talked loud, and made signs, in doing which I passed +my hand near his face. He, I suppose, thought I was in a passion, and +was going to strike him; for instantly, with a frightened look and +half-shut eyes, he dropped his hands. I shall never +forget my feelings of surprise, disgust, and shame, at seeing a great +powerful man afraid even to ward off a blow, directed, as he thought, +at his face. This man had been trained to a degradation lower than the +slavery of the most helpless animal. + +[Illustration] + +_April_ 18_th_, 1832.—In returning we spent two days at Socêgo, and I +employed them in collecting insects in the forest. The greater number +of trees, although so lofty, are not more than three or four feet in +circumference. There are, of course, a few of much greater dimension. +Senhôr Manuel was then making a canoe 70 feet in length from a solid +trunk, which had originally been 110 feet long, and of great thickness. +The contrast of palm trees, growing amidst the common branching kinds, +never fails to give the scene an intertropical character. Here the +woods were ornamented by the Cabbage Palm—one of the most beautiful of +its family. With a stem so narrow that it might be clasped with the two +hands, it waves its elegant head at the height of forty or fifty feet +above the ground. The woody creepers, themselves covered by other +creepers, were of great thickness: some which I measured were two feet +in circumference. Many of the older trees presented a very curious +appearance from the tresses of a liana hanging from their boughs, and +resembling bundles of hay. If the eye was turned from the world of +foliage above, to the ground beneath, it was attracted by the extreme +elegance of the leaves of the ferns and mimosæ. The latter, in some +parts, covered the surface with a brushwood only a few inches high. In +walking across these thick beds of mimosæ, a broad track was marked by +the change of shade, produced by the drooping +of their sensitive petioles. It is easy to specify the individual +objects of admiration in these grand scenes; but it is not possible to +give an adequate idea of the higher feelings of wonder, astonishment, +and devotion, which fill and elevate the mind. + +[Illustration] + +_April_ 19_th_, 1832.—Leaving Socêgo, during the two first days we +retraced our steps. It was very wearisome work, as the road generally +ran across a glaring hot sandy plain, not far from the coast. I noticed +that each time the horse put its foot on the fine siliceous sand, a +gentle chirping noise was produced. On the third day we took a +different line, and passed through the gay little village of Madre de +Deôs. This is one of the principal lines of road in Brazil; yet it was +in so bad a state that no wheel vehicle, excepting the clumsy +bullock-wagon, could pass along. In our whole journey we did not cross +a single bridge built of stone; and those made of logs of wood were +frequently so much out of repair that it was necessary to go on one +side to avoid them. All distances are inaccurately known. The road is +often marked by crosses, in the place of milestones, to signify where +human blood has been spilled. On the evening of the 23rd we arrived at +Rio, having finished our pleasant little excursion. + + +During the remainder of my stay at Rio, I resided in a cottage at +Botofogo Bay. It was impossible to wish for anything more delightful +than thus to spend some weeks in so magnificent a country. In England +any person fond of natural history enjoys in his walks a great +advantage, by always having something to attract his attention; but in +these fertile climates, teeming with life, the attractions are so +numerous, that he is scarcely able to walk at all. + +The few observations which I was enabled to make were almost +exclusively confined to the invertebrate animals. The existence of a +division of the genus Planaria, which inhabits the dry land, interested +me much. These animals are of so simple a structure, that Cuvier has +arranged them with the intestinal worms, though never found within the +bodies of other animals. Numerous species inhabit both salt and fresh +water; but those to which I allude were found, even in the drier parts +of the forest, beneath logs of rotten wood, on which I believe they +feed. In general form they resemble little slugs, but are very much +narrower in proportion, and several of the species are beautifully +coloured with longitudinal stripes. Their structure is very simple: +near the middle of the under or crawling surface there are two small +transverse slits, from the anterior one of which a funnel-shaped and +highly irritable mouth can be protruded. For some time after the rest +of the animal was completely dead from the effects of salt water or any +other cause, this organ still retained its vitality. + +I found no less than twelve different species of terrestrial Planariæ +in different parts of the southern hemisphere.[3] Some specimens which +I obtained at Van Diemen’s Land, I kept alive for nearly two months, +feeding them on rotten wood. Having cut one of them transversely into +two nearly equal parts, in the course of a fortnight both had the shape +of perfect animals. I had, however, so divided the body, that one of +the halves contained both the inferior orifices, and the other, in +consequence, none. In the course of twenty-five days from the +operation, the more perfect half could not have been distinguished from +any other specimen. The other had increased much in size; and towards +its posterior end, a clear space was formed in the parenchymatous mass, +in which a rudimentary cup-shaped mouth could clearly be distinguished; +on the under surface, however, no corresponding slit was yet open. If +the increased heat of the +weather, as we approached the equator, had not destroyed all the +individuals, there can be no doubt that this last step would have +completed its structure. Although so well known an experiment, it was +interesting to watch the gradual production of every essential organ, +out of the simple extremity of another animal. It is extremely +difficult to preserve these Planariæ; as soon as the cessation of life +allows the ordinary laws of change to act, their entire bodies become +soft and fluid, with a rapidity which I have never seen equalled. + + [3] I have described and named these species in the _Annals of Natural + History_, vol. xiv, p. 241. + +I first visited the forest in which these Planariæ were found, in +company with an old Portuguese priest who took me out to hunt with him. +The sport consisted in turning into the cover a few dogs, and then +patiently waiting to fire at any animal which might appear. We were +accompanied by the son of a neighbouring farmer—a good specimen of a +wild Brazilian youth. He was dressed in a tattered old shirt and +trousers, and had his head uncovered: he carried an old-fashioned gun +and a large knife. The habit of carrying the knife is universal; and in +traversing a thick wood it is almost necessary, on account of the +creeping plants. The frequent occurrence of murder may be partly +attributed to this habit. The Brazilians are so dexterous with the +knife that they can throw it to some distance with precision, and with +sufficient force to cause a fatal wound. I have seen a number of little +boys practising this art as a game of play, and from their skill in +hitting an upright stick, they promised well for more earnest attempts. +My companion, the day before, had shot two large bearded monkeys. These +animals have prehensile tails, the extremity of which, even after +death, can support the whole weight of the body. One of them thus +remained fast to a branch, and it was necessary to cut down a large +tree to procure it. This was soon effected, and down came tree and +monkey with an awful crash. Our day’s sport, besides the monkey, was +confined to sundry small green parrots and a few toucans. I profited, +however, by my acquaintance with the Portuguese padre, for on another +occasion he gave me a fine specimen of the Yagouaroundi cat. + +Every one has heard of the beauty of the scenery near Botofogo. The +house in which I lived was seated close beneath the well-known mountain +of the Corcovado. It has been remarked, with much truth, that abruptly +conical hills are characteristic of +the formation which Humboldt designates as gneiss-granite. Nothing can +be more striking than the effect of these huge rounded masses of naked +rock rising out of the most luxuriant vegetation. + +I was often interested by watching the clouds, which, rolling in from +seaward, formed a bank just beneath the highest point of the Corcovado. +This mountain, like most others, when thus partly veiled, appeared to +rise to a far prouder elevation than its real height of 2300 feet. Mr. +Daniell has observed, in his meteorological essays, that a cloud +sometimes appears fixed on a mountain summit, while the wind continues +to blow over it. The same phenomenon here presented a slightly +different appearance. In this case the cloud was clearly seen to curl +over, and rapidly pass by the summit, and yet was neither diminished +nor increased in size. The sun was setting, and a gentle southerly +breeze, striking against the southern side of the rock, mingled its +current with the colder air above; and the vapour was thus condensed: +but as the light wreaths of cloud passed over the ridge, and came +within the influence of the warmer atmosphere of the northern sloping +bank, they were immediately redissolved. + +The climate, during the months of May and June, or the beginning of +winter, was delightful. The mean temperature, from observations taken +at nine o’clock, both morning and evening, was only 72°. It often +rained heavily, but the drying southerly winds soon again rendered the +walks pleasant. One morning, in the course of six hours, 1.6 inches of +rain fell. As this storm passed over the forests which surround the +Corcovado, the sound produced by the drops pattering on the countless +multitude of leaves was very remarkable, it could be heard at the +distance of a quarter of a mile, and was like the rushing of a great +body of water. After the hotter days, it was delicious to sit quietly +in the garden and watch the evening pass into night. Nature, in these +climes, chooses her vocalists from more humble performers than in +Europe. A small frog, of the genus Hyla, sits on a blade of grass about +an inch above the surface of the water, and sends forth a pleasing +chirp: when several are together they sing in harmony on different +notes. I had some difficulty in catching a specimen of this frog. The +genus Hyla has its toes terminated by small suckers; and I found this +animal could crawl up a pane of glass, when placed +absolutely perpendicular. Various cicadæ and crickets, at the same +time, keep up a ceaseless shrill cry, but which, softened by the +distance, is not unpleasant. Every evening after dark this great +concert commenced; and often have I sat listening to it, until my +attention has been drawn away by some curious passing insect. + +At these times the fireflies are seen flitting about from hedge to +hedge. On a dark night the light can be seen at about two hundred paces +distant. It is remarkable that in all the different kinds of glowworms, +shining elaters, and various marine animals (such as the crustacea, +medusæ, nereidæ, a coralline of the genus Clytia, and Pyrosoma), +which I have observed, the light has been of a well-marked green +colour. All the fireflies, which I caught here, belonged to the +Lampyridæ (in which family the English glowworm is included), and the +greater number of specimens were of Lampyris occidentalis.[4] I found +that this insect emitted the most brilliant flashes when irritated: in +the intervals, the abdominal rings were obscured. The flash was almost +coinstantaneous in the two rings, but it was just perceptible first in +the anterior one. The shining matter was fluid and very adhesive: +little spots, where the skin had been torn, continued bright with a +slight scintillation, whilst the uninjured parts were obscured. When +the insect was decapitated the rings remained uninterruptedly bright, +but not so brilliant as before: local irritation with a needle always +increased the vividness of the light. The rings in one instance +retained their luminous property nearly twenty-four hours after the +death of the insect. From these facts it would appear probable, that +the animal has only the power of concealing or extinguishing the light +for short intervals, and that at other times the display is +involuntary. On the muddy and wet gravel-walks I found the larvæ of +this lampyris in great numbers: they resembled in general form the +female of the English glowworm. These larvæ possessed but feeble +luminous powers; very differently from their parents, on the slightest +touch they feigned death, and ceased to shine; nor did irritation +excite any fresh display. I kept several of them alive for some time: +their tails are very singular organs, for they act, by a well-fitted +contrivance, as suckers or organs of attachment, +and likewise as reservoirs for saliva, or some such fluid. I repeatedly +fed them on raw meat; and I invariably observed, that every now and +then the extremity of the tail was applied to the mouth, and a drop of +fluid exuded on the meat, which was then in the act of being consumed. +The tail, notwithstanding so much practice, does not seem to be able to +find its way to the mouth; at least the neck was always touched first, +and apparently as a guide. + + [4] I am greatly indebted to Mr. Waterhouse for his kindness in naming + for me this and many other insects, and giving me much valuable + assistance. + +When we were at Bahia, an elater or beetle (Pyrophorus luminosus, +Illig.) seemed the most common luminous insect. The light in this case +was also rendered more brilliant by irritation. I amused myself one day +by observing the springing powers of this insect, which have not, as it +appears to me, been properly described.[5] The elater, when placed on +its back and preparing to spring, moved its head and thorax backwards, +so that the pectoral spine was drawn out, and rested on the edge of its +sheath. The same backward movement being continued, the spine, by the +full action of the muscles, was bent like a spring; and the insect at +this moment rested on the extremity of its head and wing-cases. The +effort being suddenly relaxed, the head and thorax flew up, and in +consequence, the base of the wing-cases struck the supporting surface +with such force, that the insect by the reaction was jerked upwards to +the height of one or two inches. The projecting points of the thorax, +and the sheath of the spine, served to steady the whole body during the +spring. In the descriptions which I have read, sufficient stress does +not appear to have been laid on the elasticity of the spine: so sudden +a spring could not be the result of simple muscular contraction, +without the aid of some mechanical contrivance. + + [5] Kirby’s _Entomology_, vol. ii, p. 317. + + +On several occasions I enjoyed some short but most pleasant excursions +in the neighbouring country. One day I went to the Botanic Garden, +where many plants, well known for their great utility, might be seen +growing. The leaves of the camphor, pepper, cinnamon, and clove trees +were delightfully aromatic; and the bread-fruit, the jaca, and the +mango, vied with each other in the magnificence of their foliage. The +landscape in the neighbourhood of Bahia almost takes its character +from the two latter trees. Before seeing them, I had no idea that any +trees could cast so black a shade on the ground. Both of them bear to +the evergreen vegetation of these climates the same kind of relation +which laurels and hollies in England do to the lighter green of the +deciduous trees. It may be observed that the houses within the tropics +are surrounded by the most beautiful forms of vegetation, because many +of them are at the same time most useful to man. Who can doubt that +these qualities are united in the banana, the cocoa-nut, the many kinds +of palm, the orange, and the bread-fruit tree? + +[Illustration] + +During this day I was particularly struck with a remark of Humboldt’s, +who often alludes to “the thin vapour which, without changing the +transparency of the air, renders its tints more harmonious, and softens +its effects.” This is an appearance which I have never observed in the +temperate zones. The atmosphere, seen through a short space of half or +three-quarters of a mile, was perfectly lucid, but at a greater +distance all colours were blended into a most beautiful haze, of a pale +French grey, mingled with a little blue. The condition of the +atmosphere between the morning and about noon, when the effect was most +evident, had undergone little change, excepting in its dryness. In the +interval, the difference between the dew point and temperature had +increased from 7.5° to 17°. + +On another occasion I started early and walked to the Gavia, or topsail +mountain. The air was delightfully cool and fragrant; and the drops of +dew still glittered on the leaves of the large liliaceous plants, which +shaded the streamlets of clear water. Sitting down on a block of +granite, it was delightful to watch the various insects and birds as +they flew past. The humming-bird seems particularly fond of such shady +retired spots. Whenever I saw these little creatures buzzing round a +flower, with their wings vibrating so rapidly as to be scarcely +visible, I was reminded of the sphinx moths: their movements and habits +are indeed in many respects very similar. + +Following a pathway I entered a noble forest, and from a height of five +or six hundred feet, one of those splendid views was presented, which +are so common on every side of Rio. At this elevation the landscape +attains its most brilliant tint; and every form, every shade, so +completely surpasses in magnificence all that the European has ever +beheld in his own country, that +he knows not how to express his feelings. The general effect frequently +recalled to my mind the gayest scenery of the Opera-house or the great +theatres. I never returned from these excursions empty-handed. This day +I found a specimen of a curious fungus, called Hymenophallus. Most +people know the English Phallus, which in autumn taints the air with +its odious smell: this, however, as the entomologist is aware, is to +some of our beetles a delightful fragrance. So was it here; for a +Strongylus, attracted by the odour, alighted on the fungus as I carried +it in my hand. We here see in two distant countries a similar relation +between plants and insects of the same families, though the species of +both are different. When man is the agent in introducing into a country +a new species this relation is often broken: as one instance of this I +may mention that the leaves of the cabbages and lettuces, which in +England afford food to such a multitude of slugs and caterpillars, in +the gardens near Rio are untouched. + +During our stay at Brazil I made a large collection of insects. A few +general observations on the comparative importance of the different +orders may be interesting to the English entomologist. The large and +brilliantly-coloured Lepidoptera bespeak the zone they inhabit, far +more plainly than any other race of animals. I allude only to the +butterflies; for the moths, contrary to what might have been expected +from the rankness of the vegetation, certainly appeared in much fewer +numbers than in our own temperate regions. I was much surprised at the +habits of Papilio feronia. This butterfly is not uncommon, and +generally frequents the orange-groves. Although a high flier, yet it +very frequently alights on the trunks of trees. On these occasions its +head is invariably placed downwards; and its wings are expanded in a +horizontal plane, instead of being folded vertically, as is commonly +the case. This is the only butterfly which I have ever seen that uses +its legs for running. Not being aware of this fact, the insect, more +than once, as I cautiously approached with my forceps, shuffled on one +side just as the instrument was on the point of closing, and thus +escaped. But a far more singular fact is the power which this species +possesses of making a noise.[6] Several times when a pair, +probably male and female, were chasing each other in an irregular +course, they passed within a few yards of me; and I distinctly heard a +clicking noise, similar to that produced by a toothed wheel passing +under a spring catch. The noise was continued at short intervals, and +could be distinguished at about twenty yards’ distance: I am certain +there is no error in the observation. + + [6] Mr. Doubleday has lately described (before the Entomological + Society, March 3rd, 1845) a peculiar structure in the wings of this + butterfly, which seems to be the means of its making its noise. He + says, “It is remarkable for having a sort of drum at the base of the + fore wings, between the costal nervure and the subcostal. These two + nervures, moreover, have a peculiar screw-like diaphragm or vessel in + the interior.” I find in Langsdorff’s travels (in the years 1803-7, p. + 74) it is said, that in the island of St. Catherine’s on the coast of + Brazil, a butterfly called Februa Hoffmanseggi, makes a noise, when + flying away, like a rattle. + +I was disappointed in the general aspect of the Coleoptera. The number +of minute and obscurely coloured beetles is exceedingly great.[7] The +cabinets of Europe can, as yet, boast only of the larger species from +tropical climates. It is sufficient to disturb the composure of an +entomologist’s mind, to look forward to the future dimensions of a +complete catalogue. The carnivorous beetles, or Carabidæ, appear in +extremely few numbers within the tropics: this is the more remarkable +when compared to the case of the carnivorous quadrupeds, which are so +abundant in hot countries. I was struck with this observation both on +entering Brazil, and when I saw the many elegant and active forms of +the Harpalidæ reappearing on the temperate plains of La Plata. Do the +very numerous spiders and rapacious Hymenoptera supply the place of the +carnivorous beetles? The carrion-feeders and Brachelytra are very +uncommon; on the other hand, the Rhyncophora and Chrysomelidæ, all of +which depend on the vegetable world for subsistence, are present in +astonishing numbers. I do not here refer to the number of different +species, but to that of the individual insects; for on this it is that +the most striking character in the entomology of different countries +depends. The orders Orthoptera and Hemiptera are particularly numerous; +as likewise is the stinging division of the Hymenoptera; the bees, +perhaps, being excepted. A person, on first entering a tropical +forest, is astonished at the labours of the ants: well-beaten paths +branch off in every direction, on which an army of never-failing +foragers may be seen, some going forth, and others returning, burdened +with pieces of green leaf, often larger than their own bodies. + + [7] I may mention, as a common instance of one day’s (June 23rd) + collecting, when I was not attending particularly to the Coleoptera, + that I caught sixty-eight species of that order. Among these, there + were only two of the Carabidæ, four Brachelytra, fifteen Rhyncophora, + and fourteen of the Chrysomelidæ. Thirty-seven species of Arachnidæ, + which I brought home, will be sufficient to prove that I was not + paying overmuch attention to the generally favoured order of + Coleoptera. + +A small dark-coloured ant sometimes migrates in countless numbers. One +day, at Bahia, my attention was drawn by observing many spiders, +cockroaches, and other insects, and some lizards, rushing in the +greatest agitation across a bare piece of ground. A little way behind, +every stalk and leaf was blackened by a small ant. The swarm having +crossed the bare space, divided itself, and descended an old wall. By +this means many insects were fairly enclosed; and the efforts which the +poor little creatures made to extricate themselves from such a death +were wonderful. When the ants came to the road they changed their +course, and in narrow files reascended the wall. Having placed a small +stone so as to intercept one of the lines, the whole body attacked it, +and then immediately retired. Shortly afterwards another body came to +the charge, and again having failed to make any impression, this line +of march was entirely given up. By going an inch round, the file might +have avoided the stone, and this doubtless would have happened, if it +had been originally there: but having been attacked, the lion-hearted +little warriors scorned the idea of yielding. + +Certain wasp-like insects, which construct in the corners of the +verandahs clay cells for their larvæ, are very numerous in the +neighbourhood of Rio. These cells they stuff full of half-dead spiders +and caterpillars, which they seem wonderfully to know how to sting to +that degree as to leave them paralysed but alive, until their eggs are +hatched; and the larvae feed on the horrid mass of powerless, +half-killed victims—a sight which has been described by an enthusiastic +naturalist[8] as curious and pleasing! I was much interested one day by +watching a deadly contest between a Pepsis and a large spider of the +genus Lycosa. The wasp made a sudden dash at its prey, and then flew +away: the spider was evidently wounded, for, trying to escape, it +rolled down a little slope, but had still strength +sufficient to crawl into a thick tuft of grass. The wasp soon returned, +and seemed surprised at not immediately finding its victim. It then +commenced as regular a hunt as ever hound did after fox; making short +semicircular casts, and all the time rapidly vibrating its wings and +antennæ. The spider, though well concealed, was soon discovered, and +the wasp, evidently still afraid of its adversary’s jaws, after much +manœuvring, inflicted two stings on the under side of its thorax. At +last, carefully examining with its antennæ the now motionless spider, +it proceeded to drag away the body. But I stopped both tyrant and +prey.[9] + + [8] In a Manuscript in the British Museum by Mr. Abbott, who made his + observations in Georgia; see Mr. A. White’s paper in the _Annals of + Natural History_, vol. vii, p. 472. Lieutenant Hutton has described a + sphex with similar habits in India, in the _Journal of the Asiatic + Society_, vol. i, p. 555. + + + [9] Don Felix Azara (vol. i, p. 175), mentioning a hymenopterous + insect, probably of the same genus, says he saw it dragging a dead + spider through tall grass, in a straight line to its nest, which was + one hundred and sixty-three paces distant. He adds that the wasp, in + order to find the road, every now and then made “demi-tours d’environ + trois palmes.” + +The number of spiders, in proportion to other insects, is here compared +with England very much larger; perhaps more so than with any other +division of the articulate animals. The variety of species among the +jumping spiders appears almost infinite. The genus, or rather family of +Epeira, is here characterized by many singular forms; some species have +pointed coriaceous shells, others enlarged and spiny tibiæ. Every path +in the forest is barricaded with the strong yellow web of a species, +belonging to the same division with the Epeira clavipes of Fabricius, +which was formerly said by Sloane to make, in the West Indies, webs so +strong as to catch birds. A small and pretty kind of spider, with very +long fore-legs, and which appears to belong to an undescribed genus, +lives as a parasite on almost every one of these webs. I suppose it is +too insignificant to be noticed by the great Epeira, and is therefore +allowed to prey on the minute insects, which, adhering to the lines, +would otherwise be wasted. When frightened, this little spider either +feigns death by extending its front legs, or suddenly drops from the +web. A large Epeira of the same division with Epeira tuberculata and +conica is extremely common, especially in dry situations. Its web, +which is generally placed among the great leaves of the common agave, +is sometimes strengthened near the centre by a pair or even four zigzag +ribbons, which connect two adjoining rays. When any large insect, as a +grasshopper or wasp, is caught, the spider, by a dexterous movement, +makes it revolve +very rapidly, and at the same time emitting a band of threads from its +spinners, soon envelops its prey in a case like the cocoon of a +silkworm. The spider now examines the powerless victim, and gives the +fatal bite on the hinder part of its thorax; then retreating, patiently +waits till the poison has taken effect. The virulence of this poison +may be judged of from the fact that in half a minute I opened the mesh, +and found a large wasp quite lifeless. This Epeira always stands with +its head downwards near the centre of the web. When disturbed, it acts +differently according to circumstances: if there is a thicket below, it +suddenly falls down; and I have distinctly seen the thread from the +spinners lengthened by the animal while yet stationary, as preparatory +to its fall. If the ground is clear beneath, the Epeira seldom falls, +but moves quickly through a central passage from one to the other side. +When still further disturbed, it practises a most curious manœuvre: +standing in the middle, it violently jerks the web, which is attached +to elastic twigs, till at last the whole acquires such a rapid +vibratory movement, that even the outline of the spider’s body becomes +indistinct. + +It is well known that most of the British spiders, when a large insect +is caught in their webs, endeavour to cut the lines and liberate their +prey, to save their nets from being entirely spoiled. I once, however, +saw in a hot-house in Shropshire a large female wasp caught in the +irregular web of a quite small spider; and this spider, instead of +cutting the web, most perseveringly continued to entangle the body, and +especially the wings, of its prey. The wasp at first aimed in vain +repeated thrusts with its sting at its little antagonist. Pitying the +wasp, after allowing it to struggle for more than an hour, I killed it +and put it back into the web. The spider soon returned; and an hour +afterwards I was much surprised to find it with its jaws buried in the +orifice through which the sting is protruded by the living wasp. I +drove the spider away two or three times, but for the next twenty-four +hours I always found it again sucking at the same place. The spider +became much distended by the juices of its prey, which was many times +larger than itself. + +I may here just mention, that I found, near St. Fé Bajada, many large +black spiders, with ruby-coloured marks on their backs, having +gregarious habits. The webs were placed +vertically, as is invariably the case with the genus Epeira: they were +separated from each other by a space of about two feet, but were all +attached to certain common lines, which were of great length, and +extended to all parts of the community. In this manner the tops of some +large bushes were encompassed by the united nets. Azara[10] has +described a gregarious spider in Paraguay, which Walckanaer thinks must +be a Theridion, but probably it is an Epeira, and perhaps even the same +species with mine. I cannot, however, recollect seeing a central nest +as large as a hat, in which, during autumn, when the spiders die, Azara +says the eggs are deposited. As all the spiders which I saw were of the +same size, they must have been nearly of the same age. This gregarious +habit, in so typical a genus as Epeira, among insects, which are so +bloodthirsty and solitary that even the two sexes attack each other, is +a very singular fact. + + [10] Azara’s _Voyage_, vol. 1, p. 213. + +In a lofty valley of the Cordillera, near Mendoza, I found another +spider with a singularly-formed web. Strong lines radiated in a +vertical plane from a common centre, where the insect had its station; +but only two of the rays were connected by a symmetrical mesh-work; so +that the net, instead of being, as is generally the case, circular, +consisted of a wedge-shaped segment. All the webs were similarly +constructed. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + + + +Chapter III + + +Monte Video—Maldonado—Excursion to R. Polanco—Lazo and +Bolas—Partridges—Absence of Trees—Deer—Capybara, or River +Hog—Tucutuco—Molothrus, cuckoo-like +habits—Tyrant-flycatcher—Mocking-bird—Carrion Hawks—Tubes formed by +Lightning—House struck. + +MALDONADO + +_July_ 5_th_, 1832.—In the morning we got under way, and stood out of +the splendid harbour of Rio de Janeiro. In our passage to the Plata, we +saw nothing particular, excepting on one day a great shoal of +porpoises, many hundreds in number. The whole sea was in places +furrowed by them; and a most extraordinary spectacle was presented, as +hundreds, proceeding together by jumps, in which their whole bodies +were exposed, thus cut the water. When the ship was running nine knots +an hour, these animals could cross and recross the bows with the +greatest ease, and then dash away right ahead. As soon as we entered +the estuary of the Plata, the weather was very unsettled. One dark +night we were surrounded by numerous seals and penguins, which made +such strange noises, that the officer on watch reported he could hear +the cattle bellowing on shore. On a second night we witnessed a +splendid scene of natural fireworks; the mast-head and yard-arm ends +shone with St. Elmo’s light; and the form of the vane could almost be +traced, as if it had been rubbed with phosphorus. The sea was so highly +luminous, that the tracks of the penguins were marked by a fiery wake, +and the darkness of the sky was momentarily illuminated by the most +vivid lightning. + +When within the mouth of the river, I was interested by observing how +slowly the waters of the sea and river mixed. The latter, muddy and +discoloured, from its less specific gravity, floated on the surface of +the salt water. This was curiously exhibited in the wake of the vessel, +where a line of blue water was seen mingling in little eddies with the +adjoining fluid. + +_July_ 26_th_, 1832.—We anchored at Monte Video. The _Beagle_ was +employed in surveying the extreme southern and eastern coasts of +America, south of the Plata, during the two succeeding years. To +prevent useless repetitions, I will extract those parts of my journal +which refer to the same districts, without always attending to the +order in which we visited them. + +MALDONADO is situated on the northern bank of the Plata, and not very +far from the mouth of the estuary. It is a most quiet, forlorn, little +town; built, as is universally the case in these countries, with the +streets running at right angles to each other, and having in the middle +a large plaza or square, which, from its size, renders the scantiness +of the population more evident. It possesses scarcely any trade; the +exports being confined to a few hides and living cattle. The +inhabitants are chiefly landowners, together with a few shopkeepers and +the necessary tradesmen, such as blacksmiths and carpenters, who do +nearly all the business for a circuit of fifty miles round. The town is +separated from the river by a band of sand-hillocks, about a mile +broad: it is surrounded on all other sides by an +open slightly-undulating country, covered by one uniform layer of fine +green turf, on which countless herds of cattle, sheep, and horses +graze. There is very little land cultivated even close to the town. A +few hedges made of cacti and agave mark out where some wheat or Indian +corn has been planted. The features of the country are very similar +along the whole northern bank of the Plata. The only difference is, +that here the granitic hills are a little bolder. The scenery is very +uninteresting; there is scarcely a house, an enclosed piece of ground, +or even a tree, to give it an air of cheerfulness. Yet, after being +imprisoned for some time in a ship, there is a charm in the unconfined +feeling of walking over boundless plains of turf. Moreover, if your +view is limited to a small space, many objects possess beauty. Some of +the smaller birds are brilliantly coloured; and the bright green sward, +browsed short by the cattle, is ornamented by dwarf flowers, among +which a plant, looking like the daisy, claimed the place of an old +friend. What would a florist say to whole tracts, so thickly covered by +the Verbena melindres, as, even at a distance, to appear of the most +gaudy scarlet? + +I stayed ten weeks at Maldonado, in which time a nearly perfect +collection of the animals, birds, and reptiles, was procured. Before +making any observations respecting them, I will give an account of a +little excursion I made as far as the river Polanco, which is about +seventy miles distant, in a northerly direction. I may mention, as a +proof how cheap everything is in this country, that I paid only two +dollars a day or eight shillings, for two men, together with a troop of +about a dozen riding-horses. My companions were well armed with pistols +and sabres; a precaution which I thought rather unnecessary; but the +first piece of news we heard was, that, the day before, a traveller +from Monte Video had been found dead on the road, with his throat cut. +This happened close to a cross, the record of a former murder. + +On the first night we slept at a retired little country-house; and +there I soon found out that I possessed two or three articles, +especially a pocket compass, which created unbounded astonishment. In +every house I was asked to show the compass, and by its aid, together +with a map, to point out the direction +of various places. It excited the liveliest admiration that I, a +perfect stranger, should know the road (for direction and road are +synonymous in this open country) to places where I had never been. At +one house a young woman who was ill in bed, sent to entreat me to come +and show her the compass. If their surprise was great, mine was +greater, to find such ignorance among people who possessed their +thousands of cattle, and “estancias” of great extent. It can only be +accounted for by the circumstance that this retired part of the country +is seldom visited by foreigners. I was asked whether the earth or sun +moved; whether it was hotter or colder to the north; where Spain was, +and many other such questions. The greater number of the inhabitants +had an indistinct idea that England, London, and North America, were +different names for the same place; but the better informed well knew +that London and North America were separate countries close together, +and that England was a large town in London! I carried with me some +promethean matches, which I ignited by biting; it was thought so +wonderful that a man should strike fire with his teeth, that it was +usual to collect the whole family to see it: I was once offered a +dollar for a single one. Washing my face in the morning caused much +speculation at the village of Las Minas; a superior tradesman closely +cross-questioned me about so singular a practice; and likewise why on +board we wore our beards; for he had heard from my guide that we did +so. He eyed me with much suspicion; perhaps he had heard of ablutions +in the Mahomedan religion, and knowing me to be a heretic, probably he +came to the conclusion that all heretics were Turks. It is the general +custom in this country to ask for a night’s lodging at the first +convenient house. The astonishment at the compass, and my other feats +of jugglery, was to a certain degree advantageous, as with that, and +the long stories my guides told of my breaking stones, knowing venomous +from harmless snakes, collecting insects, etc., I repaid them for their +hospitality. I am writing as if I had been among the inhabitants of +Central Africa: Banda Oriental would not be flattered by the +comparison; but such were my feelings at the time. + +The next day we rode to the village of Las Minas. The country was +rather more hilly, but otherwise continued the +same; an inhabitant of the Pampas no doubt would have considered it as +truly alpine. The country is so thinly inhabited, that during the whole +day we scarcely met a single person. Las Minas is much smaller even +than Maldonado. It is seated on a little plain, and is surrounded by +low rocky mountains. It is of the usual symmetrical form, and with its +whitewashed church standing in the centre, had rather a pretty +appearance. The outskirting houses rose out of the plain like isolated +beings, without the accompaniment of gardens or courtyards. This is +generally the case in the country, and all the houses have, in +consequence, an uncomfortable aspect. At night we stopped at a +pulperia, or drinking-shop. During the evening a great number of +Gauchos came in to drink spirits and smoke cigars: their appearance is +very striking; they are generally tall and handsome, but with a proud +and dissolute expression of countenance. They frequently wear their +moustaches, and long black hair curling down their backs. With their +brightly coloured garments, great spurs clanking about their heels, and +knives stuck as daggers (and often so used) at their waists, they look +a very different race of men from what might be expected from their +name of Gauchos, or simple countrymen. Their politeness is excessive; +they never drink their spirits without expecting you to taste it; but +whilst making their exceedingly graceful bow, they seem quite as ready, +if occasion offered, to cut your throat. + +On the third day we pursued rather an irregular course, as I was +employed in examining some beds of marble. On the fine plains of turf +we saw many ostriches (Struthio rhea). Some of the flocks contained as +many as twenty or thirty birds. These, when standing on any little +eminence, and seen against the clear sky, presented a very noble +appearance. I never met with such tame ostriches in any other part of +the country: it was easy to gallop up within a short distance of them; +but then, expanding their wings, they made all sail right before the +wind, and soon left the horse astern. + +At night we came to the house of Don Juan Fuentes, a rich landed +proprietor, but not personally known to either of my companions. On +approaching the house of a stranger, it is usual to follow several +little points of etiquette: riding up slowly to the door, the +salutation of Ave Maria is given, and +until somebody comes out and asks you to alight, it is not customary +even to get off your horse: the formal answer of the owner is, “sin +pecado concebida”—that is, conceived without sin. Having entered the +house, some general conversation is kept up for a few minutes, till +permission is asked to pass the night there. This is granted as a +matter of course. The stranger then takes his meals with the family, +and a room is assigned him, where with the horsecloths belonging to his +recado (or saddle of the Pampas) he makes his bed. It is curious how +similar circumstances produce such similar results in manners. At the +Cape of Good Hope the same hospitality, and very nearly the same points +of etiquette, are universally observed. The difference, however, +between the character of the Spaniard and that of the Dutch boor is +shown, by the former never asking his guest a single question beyond +the strictest rule of politeness, whilst the honest Dutchman demands +where he has been, where he is going, what is his business, and even +how many brothers, sisters, or children he may happen to have. + +Shortly after our arrival at Don Juan’s one of the largest herds of +cattle was driven in towards the house, and three beasts were picked +out to be slaughtered for the supply of the establishment. These +half-wild cattle are very active; and knowing full well the fatal lazo, +they led the horses a long and laborious chase. After witnessing the +rude wealth displayed in the number of cattle, men, and horses, Don +Juan’s miserable house was quite curious. The floor consisted of +hardened mud, and the windows were without glass; the sitting-room +boasted only of a few of the roughest chairs and stools, with a couple +of tables. The supper, although several strangers were present, +consisted of two huge piles, one of roast beef, the other of boiled, +with some pieces of pumpkin: besides this latter there was no other +vegetable, and not even a morsel of bread. For drinking, a large +earthenware jug of water served the whole party. Yet this man was the +owner of several square miles of land, of which nearly every acre would +produce corn, and, with a little trouble, all the common vegetables. +The evening was spent in smoking, with a little impromptu singing, +accompanied by the guitar. The signoritas all sat together in one +corner of the room, and did not sup with the men. + +[Illustration] + +So many works have been written about these countries, +that it is almost superfluous to describe either the lazo or the bolas. +The lazo consists of a very strong, but thin, well-plaited rope, made +of raw hide. One end is attached to the broad surcingle, which fastens +together the complicated gear of the recado, or saddle used in the +Pampas; the other is terminated by a small ring of iron or brass, by +which a noose can be formed. The Gaucho, when he is going to use the +lazo, keeps a small coil in his bridle-hand, and in the other holds the +running noose, which is made very large, generally having a diameter of +about eight feet. This he whirls round his head, and by the dexterous +movement of his wrist keeps the noose open; then, throwing it, he +causes it to fall on any particular spot he chooses. The lazo, when not +used, is tied up in a small coil to the after part of the recado. The +bolas, or balls, are of two kinds: the simplest, which is chiefly used +for catching ostriches, consists of two round stones, covered with +leather, and united by a thin plaited thong, about eight feet long. The +other kind differs only in having three balls united by the thongs to a +common centre. The Gaucho holds the smallest of the three in his hand, +and whirls the other two round and round his head; then, taking aim, +sends them like chain shot revolving through the air. The balls no +sooner strike any object, than, winding round it, they cross each +other, and become firmly hitched. The size and weight of the balls +varies, according to the purpose for which they are made: when of +stone, although not larger than an apple, they are sent with such force +as sometimes to break the leg even of a horse. I have seen the balls +made of wood, and as large as a turnip, for the sake of catching these +animals without injuring them. The balls are sometimes made of iron, +and these can be hurled to +the greatest distance. The main difficulty in using either lazo or +bolas is to ride so well as to be able at full speed, and while +suddenly turning about, to whirl them so steadily round the head, as to +take aim: on foot any person would soon learn the art. One day, as I +was amusing myself by galloping and whirling the balls round my head, +by accident the free one struck a bush, and its revolving motion being +thus destroyed, it immediately fell to the ground, and, like magic +caught one hind leg of my horse; the other ball was then jerked out of +my hand, and the horse fairly secured. Luckily he was an old practised +animal, and knew what it meant; otherwise he would probably have kicked +till he had thrown himself down. The Gauchos roared with laughter; they +cried out that they had seen every sort of animal caught, but had never +before seen a man caught by himself. + +During the two succeeding days, I reached the farthest point which I +was anxious to examine. The country wore the same aspect, till at last +the fine green turf became more wearisome than a dusty turnpike road. +We everywhere saw great numbers of partridges (Nothura major). These +birds do not go in coveys, nor do they conceal themselves like the +English kind. It appears a very silly bird. A man on horseback by +riding round and round in a circle, or rather in a spire, so as to +approach closer each time, may knock on the head as many as he pleases. +The more common method is to catch them with a running noose, or little +lazo, made of the stem of an ostrich’s feather, fastened to the end of +a long stick. A boy on a quiet old horse will frequently thus catch +thirty or forty in a day. In Arctic North America[1] the Indians catch +the Varying Hare by walking spirally round and round it, when on its +form: the middle of the day is reckoned the best time, when the sun is +high, and the shadow of the hunter not very long. + + [1] Hearne’s _Journey_, p. 383. + +On our return to Maldonado, we followed rather a different line of +road. Near Pan de Azucar, a landmark well known to all those who have +sailed up the Plata, I stayed a day at the house of a most hospitable +old Spaniard. Early in the morning we ascended the Sierra de las +Animas. By the aid of the rising sun the scenery was almost +picturesque. To the westward +the view extended over an immense level plain as far as the Mount, at +Monte Video, and to the eastward, over the mammillated country of +Maldonado. On the summit of the mountain there were several small heaps +of stones, which evidently had lain there for many years. My companion +assured me that they were the work of the Indians in the old time. The +heaps were similar, but on a much smaller scale, to those so commonly +found on the mountains of Wales. The desire to signalise any event, on +the highest point of the neighbouring land, seems a universal passion +with mankind. At the present day, not a single Indian, either civilised +or wild, exists in this part of the province; nor am I aware that the +former inhabitants have left behind them any more permanent records +than these insignificant piles on the summit of the Sierra de las +Animas. + + +The general, and almost entire absence of trees in Banda Oriental is +remarkable. Some of the rocky hills are partly covered by thickets, and +on the banks of the larger streams, especially to the north of Las +Minas, willow-trees are not uncommon. Near the Arroyo Tapes I heard of +a wood of palms; and one of these trees, of considerable size, I saw +near the Pan de Azucar, in lat. 35°. These, and the trees planted by +the Spaniards, offer the only exceptions to the general scarcity of +wood. Among the introduced kinds may be enumerated poplars, olives, +peach, and other fruit trees: the peaches succeed so well, that they +afford the main supply of firewood to the city of Buenos Ayres. +Extremely level countries, such as the Pampas, seldom appear favourable +to the growth of trees. This may possibly be attributed either to the +force of the winds, or the kind of drainage. In the nature of the land, +however, around Maldonado, no such reason is apparent; the rocky +mountains afford protected situations; enjoying various kinds of soil; +streamlets of water are common at the bottoms of nearly every valley; +and the clayey nature of the earth seems adapted to retain moisture. It +has been inferred, with much probability, that the presence of woodland +is generally determined[2] by the annual amount of moisture; yet in +this province abundant and heavy rain falls during the winter; and the +summer, though +dry, is not so in any excessive degree.[3] We see nearly the whole of +Australia covered by lofty trees, yet that country possesses a far more +arid climate. Hence we must look to some other and unknown cause. + + [2] Maclaren, article “America,” _Encyclopedia Britannica._ + + + [3] Azara says “Je crois que la quantité annuelle des pluies est, dans + toutes ces contrées, plus considérable qu’en Espagne.”—Vol. i, p. 36. + +Confining our view to South America, we should certainly be tempted to +believe that trees flourished only under a very humid climate; for the +limit of the forest-land follows, in a most remarkable manner, that of +the damp winds. In the southern part of the continent, where the +western gales, charged with moisture from the Pacific, prevail, every +island on the broken west coast, from lat. 38° to the extreme point of +Tierra del Fuego, is densely covered by impenetrable forests. On the +eastern side of the Cordillera, over the same extent of latitude, where +a blue sky and a fine climate prove that the atmosphere has been +deprived of its moisture by passing over the mountains, the arid plains +of Patagonia support a most scanty vegetation. In the more northern +parts of the continent, within the limits of the constant south-eastern +trade-wind, the eastern side is ornamented by magnificent forests; +whilst the western coast, from lat. 4° S. to lat. 32° S., may be +described as a desert; on this western coast, northward of lat. 4° S., +where the trade-wind loses its regularity, and heavy torrents of rain +fall periodically, the shores of the Pacific, so utterly desert in +Peru, assume near Cape Blanco the character of luxuriance so celebrated +at Guayaquil and Panama. Hence in the southern and northern parts of +the continent, the forest and desert lands occupy reversed positions +with respect to the Cordillera, and these positions are apparently +determined by the direction of the prevalent winds. In the middle of +the continent there is a broad intermediate band, including central +Chile and the provinces of La Plata, where the rain-bringing winds have +not to pass over lofty mountains, and where the land is neither a +desert nor covered by forests. But even the rule, if confined to South +America, of trees flourishing only in a climate rendered humid by +rain-bearing winds, has a strongly marked exception in the case of the +Falkland Islands. These islands, situated in the same latitude with +Tierra del Fuego and only between two and three hundred miles distant +from it, having a nearly similar +climate, with a geological formation almost identical, with favourable +situations and the same kind of peaty soil, yet can boast of few plants +deserving even the title of bushes; whilst in Tierra del Fuego it is +impossible to find an acre of land not covered by the densest forest. +In this case, both the direction of the heavy gales of wind and of the +currents of the sea are favourable to the transport of seeds from +Tierra del Fuego, as is shown by the canoes and trunks of trees drifted +from that country, and frequently thrown on the shores of the Western +Falkland. Hence perhaps it is, that there are many plants in common to +the two countries: but with respect to the trees of Tierra del Fuego, +even attempts made to transplant them have failed. + +During our stay at Maldonado I collected several quadrupeds, eighty +kinds of birds, and many reptiles, including nine species of snakes. Of +the indigenous mammalia, the only one now left of any size, which is +common, is the Cervus campestris. This deer is exceedingly abundant, +often in small herds, throughout the countries bordering the Plata and +in Northern Patagonia. If a person crawling close along the ground, +slowly advances towards a herd, the deer frequently, out of curiosity, +approach to reconnoitre him. I have by this means, killed from one +spot, three out of the same herd. Although so tame and inquisitive, yet +when approached on horseback, they are exceedingly wary. In this +country nobody goes on foot, and the deer knows man as its enemy only +when he is mounted and armed with the bolas. At Bahia Blanca, a recent +establishment in Northern Patagonia, I was surprised to find how little +the deer cared for the noise of a gun: one day I fired ten times from +within eighty yards at one animal; and it was much more startled at the +ball cutting up the ground than at the report of the rifle. My powder +being exhausted, I was obliged to get up (to my shame as a sportsman be +it spoken, though well able to kill birds on the wing) and halloo till +the deer ran away. + +The most curious fact with respect to this animal, is the +overpoweringly strong and offensive odour which proceeds from the buck. +It is quite indescribable: several times whilst skinning the specimen +which is now mounted at the Zoological Museum, I was almost overcome by +nausea. I tied up the +skin in a silk pocket-handkerchief, and so carried it home: this +handkerchief, after being well washed, I continually used, and it was +of course as repeatedly washed; yet every time, for a space of one year +and seven months, when first unfolded, I distinctly perceived the +odour. This appears an astonishing instance of the permanence of some +matter, which nevertheless in its nature must be most subtile and +volatile. Frequently, when passing at the distance of half a mile to +leeward of a herd, I have perceived the whole air tainted with the +effluvium. I believe the smell from the buck is most powerful at the +period when its horns are perfect, or free from the hairy skin. When in +this state the meat is, of course, quite uneatable; but the Gauchos +assert, that if buried for some time in fresh earth, the taint is +removed. I have somewhere read that the islanders in the north of +Scotland treat the rank carcasses of the fish-eating birds in the same +manner. + +The order Rodentia is here very numerous in species: of mice alone I +obtained no less than eight kinds.[4] The largest gnawing animal in the +world, the Hydrochærus capybara (the water-hog), is here also common. +One which I shot at Monte Video weighed ninety-eight pounds: its +length, from the end of the snout to the stump-like tail, was three +feet two inches; and its girth three feet eight. These great Rodents +occasionally frequent the islands in the mouth of the Plata, where the +water is quite salt, but are far more abundant on the borders of +fresh-water lakes and rivers. Near Maldonado three or four generally +live together. In the daytime they either lie among the aquatic plants, +or openly feed on the turf plain.[5] When viewed at a distance, from +their manner of walking and colour they resemble pigs: but when seated +on their haunches, and attentively watching any object with one eye, +they reassume the appearance of their congeners, cavies and rabbits. +Both the front and side view of their head has quite a ludicrous +aspect, from the great depth of their jaw. These animals, at Maldonado, +were very tame; by cautiously walking, I approached within three yards +of four old ones. This tameness may probably be accounted for, by the +Jaguar having been banished for some years, and by the Gaucho not +thinking it worth his while to hunt them. As I approached nearer and +nearer they frequently made their peculiar noise, which is a low abrupt +grunt, not having much actual sound, but rather arising from the sudden +expulsion of air: the only noise I know at all like it, is the first +hoarse bark of a large dog. Having watched the four from almost within +arm’s length (and they me) for several minutes, they rushed into the +water at full gallop with the greatest impetuosity, and emitted at the +same time their bark. After diving a short distance they came again to +the surface, but only just showed the upper part of their heads. When +the female is swimming in the water, and has young ones, they are said +to sit on her back. These animals are easily killed in numbers; but +their skins are of trifling value, and the meat is very indifferent. On +the islands in the Rio Parana they are exceedingly abundant, and afford +the ordinary prey to the Jaguar. + + [4] In South America I collected altogether twenty-seven species of + mice, and thirteen more are known from the works of Azara and other + authors. Those collected by myself have been named and described by + Mr. Waterhouse at the meetings of the Zoological Society. I must be + allowed to take this opportunity of returning my cordial thanks to Mr. + Waterhouse, and to the other gentleman attached to that Society, for + their kind and most liberal assistance on all occasions. + + + [5] In the stomach and duodenum of a capybara which I opened, I found + a very large quantity of a thin yellowish fluid, in which scarcely a + fibre could be distinguished. Mr. Owen informs me that a part of the + œsophagus is so constructed that nothing much larger than a crowquill + can be passed down. Certainly the broad teeth and strong jaws of this + animal are well fitted to grind into pulp the aquatic plants on which + it feeds. + +The Tucutuco (Ctenomys Brasiliensis) is a curious small animal, which +may be briefly described as a Gnawer, with the habits of a mole. It is +extremely numerous in some parts of the country, but it is difficult to +be procured, and never, I believe, comes out of the ground. It throws +up at the mouth of its burrows hillocks of earth like those of the +mole, but smaller. Considerable tracts of country are so completely +undermined by these animals that horses, in passing over, sink above +their fetlocks. The tucutucos appear, to a certain degree, to be +gregarious: the man who procured the specimens for me had caught six +together, and he said this was a common occurrence. They are nocturnal +in their habits; and their principal food is the roots of plants, which +are the object of their extensive and superficial burrows. This animal +is universally known by a very peculiar noise which it makes when +beneath the ground. A person, the first time he hears it, is much +surprised; for it is not easy to tell whence it comes, nor is it +possible to guess what +kind of creature utters it. The noise consists in a short, but not +rough, nasal grunt, which is monotonously repeated about four times in +quick succession:[6] the name Tucutuco is given in imitation of the +sound. Where this animal is abundant, it may be heard at all times of +the day, and sometimes directly beneath one’s feet. When kept in a +room, the tucutucos move both slowly and clumsily, which appears owing +to the outward action of their hind legs; and they are quite incapable, +from the socket of the thigh-bone not having a certain ligament, of +jumping even the smallest vertical height. They are very stupid in +making any attempt to escape; when angry or frightened they utter the +tucu-tuco. Of those I kept alive, several, even the first day, became +quite tame, not attempting to bite or to run away; others were a little +wilder. + + [6] At the R. Negro, in Northern Patagonia, there is an animal of the + same habits, and probably a closely allied species, but which I never + saw. Its noise is different from that of the Maldonado kind; it is + repeated only twice instead of three or four times, and is more + distinct and sonorous: when heard from a distance it so closely + resembles the sound made in cutting down a small tree with an axe, + that I have sometimes remained in doubt concerning it. + +The man who caught them asserted that very many are invariably found +blind. A specimen which I preserved in spirits was in this state; Mr. +Reid considers it to be the effect of inflammation in the nictitating +membrane. When the animal was alive I placed my finger within half an +inch of its head, and not the slightest notice was taken: it made its +way, however, about the room nearly as well as the others. Considering +the strictly subterranean habits of the tucu-tuco, the blindness, +though so common, cannot be a very serious evil; yet it appears strange +that any animal should possess an organ frequently subject to be +injured. Lamarck would have been delighted with this fact, had he known +it, when speculating[7] (probably with more truth than usual with him) +on the gradually-_acquired_ blindness of the Aspalax, a Gnawer living +under ground, and of the Proteus, a reptile living in dark caverns +filled with water; in both of which animals the eye is in an almost +rudimentary state, and is covered by a tendinous membrane and skin. In +the common mole the eye is extraordinarily small but perfect, though +many anatomists doubt whether it is connected with the true optic +nerve; its vision must certainly be imperfect, though +probably useful to the animal when it leaves its burrow. In the +tucu-tuco, which I believe never comes to the surface of the ground, +the eye is rather larger, but often rendered blind and useless, though +without apparently causing any inconvenience to the animal; no doubt +Lamarck would have said that the tucu-tuco is now passing into the +state of the Aspalax and Proteus. + + [7] _Philosoph. Zoolog._ tome i, p. 242. + +Birds of many kinds are extremely abundant on the undulating grassy +plains around Maldonado. There are several species of a family allied +in structure and manners to our Starling: one of these (Molothrus +niger) is remarkable from its habits. Several may often be seen +standing together on the back of a cow or horse; and while perched on a +hedge, pluming themselves in the sun, they sometimes attempt to sing, +or rather to hiss; the noise being very peculiar, resembling that of +bubbles of air passing rapidly from a small orifice under water, so as +to produce an acute sound. According to Azara, this bird, like the +cuckoo, deposits its eggs in other birds’ nests. I was several times +told by the country people that there certainly is some bird having +this habit; and my assistant in collecting, who is a very accurate +person, found a nest of the sparrow of this country (Zonotrichia +matutina), with one egg in it larger than the others, and of a +different colour and shape. In North America there is another species +of Molothrus (M. pecoris), which has a similar cuckoo-like habit, and +which is most closely allied in every respect to the species from the +Plata, even in such trifling peculiarities as standing on the backs of +cattle; it differs only in being a little smaller, and in its plumage +and eggs being of a slightly different shade of colour. This close +agreement in structure and habits, in representative species coming +from opposite quarters of a great continent, always strikes one as +interesting, though of common occurrence. + +Mr. Swainson has well remarked,[8] that with the exception of the +Molothrus pecoris, to which must be added the M. niger, the cuckoos are +the only birds which can be called truly parasitical; namely, such as +“fasten themselves, as it were, on another living animal, whose animal +heat brings their young into life, whose food they live upon, and whose +death would +cause theirs during the period of infancy.” It is remarkable that some +of the species, but not all, both of the Cuckoo and Molothrus should +agree in this one strange habit of their parasitical propagation, +whilst opposed to each other in almost every other habit: the +molothrus, like our starling, is eminently sociable, and lives on the +open plains without art or disguise: the cuckoo, as every one knows, is +a singularly shy bird; it frequents the most retired thickets, and +feeds on fruit and caterpillars. In structure also these two genera are +widely removed from each other. Many theories, even phrenological +theories, have been advanced to explain the origin of the cuckoo laying +its eggs in other birds’ nests. M. Prévost alone, I think, has thrown +light by his observations[9] on this puzzle: he finds that the female +cuckoo, which, according to most observers, lays at least from four to +six eggs, must pair with the male each time after laying only one or +two eggs. Now, if the cuckoo was obliged to sit on her own eggs, she +would either have to sit on all together, and therefore leave those +first laid so long, that they probably would become addled; or she +would have to hatch separately each egg or two eggs, as soon as laid: +but as the cuckoo stays a shorter time in this country than any other +migratory bird, she certainly would not have time enough for the +successive hatchings. Hence we can perceive in the fact of the cuckoo +pairing several times, and laying her eggs at intervals, the cause of +her depositing her eggs in other birds’ nests, and leaving them to the +care of foster-parents. I am strongly inclined to believe that this +view is correct, from having been independently led (as we shall +hereafter see) to an analogous conclusion with regard to the South +American ostrich, the females of which are parasitical, if I may so +express it, on each other; each female laying several eggs in the nests +of several other females, and the male ostrich undertaking all the +cares of incubation, like the strange foster-parents with the cuckoo. + + [8] _Magazine of Zoology and Botany_, vol. i, p. 217. + + + [9] Read before the Academy of Sciences in Paris. L’Institut, 1834, p. + 418. + +I will mention only two other birds, which are very common, and render +themselves prominent from their habits. The Saurophagus sulphuratus is +typical of the great American tribe of tyrant-flycatchers. In its +structure it closely approaches the true shrikes, but in its habits may +be compared to many birds. I have frequently observed it, hunting a +field, hovering over +one spot like a hawk, and then proceeding on to another. When seen thus +suspended in the air, it might very readily at a short distance be +mistaken for one of the Rapacious order; its stoop, however, is very +inferior in force and rapidity to that of a hawk. At other times the +Saurophagus haunts the neighbourhood of water, and there, like a +kingfisher, remaining stationary, it catches any small fish which may +come near the margin. These birds are not unfrequently kept either in +cages or in courtyards, with their wings cut. They soon become tame, +and are very amusing from their cunning odd manners, which were +described to me as being similar to those of the common magpie. Their +flight is undulatory, for the weight of the head and bill appears too +great for the body. In the evening the Saurophagus takes its stand on a +bush, often by the roadside, and continually repeats without change a +shrill and rather agreeable cry, which somewhat resembles articulate +words: the Spaniards say it is like the words “Bien te veo” (I see you +well), and accordingly have given it this name. + +A mocking-bird (Mimus orpheus), called by the inhabitants Calandria, is +remarkable, from possessing a song far superior to that of any other +bird in the country: indeed, it is nearly the only bird in South +America which I have observed to take its stand for the purpose of +singing. The song may be compared to that of the Sedge warbler, but is +more powerful; some harsh notes and some very high ones, being mingled +with a pleasant warbling. It is heard only during the spring. At other +times its cry is harsh and far from harmonious. Near Maldonado these +birds were tame and bold; they constantly attended the country houses +in numbers, to pick the meat which was hung up on the posts or walls: +if any other small bird joined the feast, the Calandria soon chased it +away. On the wide uninhabited plains of Patagonia another closely +allied species, O. Patagonica of d’Orbigny, which frequents the valleys +clothed with spiny bushes, is a wilder bird, and has a slightly +different tone of voice. It appears to me a curious circumstance, as +showing the fine shades of difference in habits, that judging from this +latter respect alone, when I first saw this second species, I thought +it was different from the Maldonado kind. Having afterwards procured a +specimen, and comparing the two without particular care, they appeared +so very similar, +that I changed my opinion; but now Mr. Gould says that they are +certainly distinct; a conclusion in conformity with the trifling +difference of habit, of which, however, he was not aware. + +The number, tameness, and disgusting habits of the carrion-feeding +hawks of South America make them pre-eminently striking to any one +accustomed only to the birds of Northern Europe. In this list may be +included four species of the Caracara or Polyborus, the Turkey buzzard, +the Gallinazo, and the Condor. The Caracaras are, from their structure, +placed among the eagles: we shall soon see how ill they become so high +a rank. In their habits they well supply the place of our +carrion-crows, magpies, and ravens; a tribe of birds widely distributed +over the rest of the world, but entirely absent in South America. To +begin with the Polyborus Brasiliensis: this is a common bird, and has a +wide geographical range; it is most numerous on the grassy savannahs of +La Plata (where it goes by the name of Carrancha), and is far from +unfrequent throughout the sterile plains of Patagonia. In the desert +between the rivers Negro and Colorado, numbers constantly attend the +line of road to devour the carcasses of the exhausted animals which +chance to perish from fatigue and thirst. Although thus common in these +dry and open countries, and likewise on the arid shores of the Pacific, +it is nevertheless found inhabiting the damp impervious forests of West +Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. The Carranchas, together with the +Chimango, constantly attend in numbers the estancias and +slaughtering-houses. If an animal dies on the plain the Gallinazo +commences the feast, and then the two species of Polyborus pick the +bones clean. These birds, although thus commonly feeding together, are +far from being friends. When the Carrancha is quietly seated on the +branch of a tree or on the ground, the Chimango often continues for a +long time flying backwards and forwards, up and down, in a semicircle, +trying each time at the bottom of the curve to strike its larger +relative. The Carrancha takes little notice, except by bobbing its +head. Although the Carranchas frequently assemble in numbers, they are +not gregarious; for in desert places they may be seen solitary, or more +commonly by pairs. + +The Carranchas are said to be very crafty, and to steal great +numbers of eggs. They attempt, also, together with the Chimango, to +pick off the scabs from the sore backs of horses and mules. The poor +animal, on the one hand, with its ears down and its back arched; and, +on the other, the hovering bird, eyeing at the distance of a yard the +disgusting morsel, form a picture, which has been described by Captain +Head with his own peculiar spirit and accuracy. These false eagles most +rarely kill any living bird or animal; and their vulture-like, +necrophagous habits are very evident to any one who has fallen asleep +on the desolate plains of Patagonia, for when he wakes, he will see, on +each surrounding hillock, one of these birds patiently watching him +with an evil eye: it is a feature in the landscape of these countries, +which will be recognised by every one who has wandered over them. If a +party of men go out hunting with dogs and horses, they will be +accompanied, during the day, by several of these attendants. After +feeding, the uncovered craw protrudes; at such times, and indeed +generally, the Carrancha is an inactive, tame, and cowardly bird. Its +flight is heavy and slow, like that of an English rook. It seldom +soars; but I have twice seen one at a great height gliding through the +air with much ease. It runs (in contradistinction to hopping), but not +quite so quickly as some of its congeners. At times the Carrancha is +noisy, but is not generally so: its cry is loud, very harsh and +peculiar, and may be likened to the sound of the Spanish guttural _g_, +followed by a rough double _r r_; when uttering this cry it elevates +its head higher and higher, till at last, with its beak wide open, the +crown almost touches the lower part of the back. This fact, which has +been doubted, is quite true; I have seen them several times with their +heads backwards in a completely inverted position. To these +observations I may add, on the high authority of Azara, that the +Carrancha feeds on worms, shells, slugs, grasshoppers, and frogs; that +it destroys young lambs by tearing the umbilical cord; and that it +pursues the Gallinazo, till that bird is compelled to vomit up the +carrion it may have recently gorged. Lastly, Azara states that several +Carranchas, five or six together, will unite in chase of large birds, +even such as herons. All these facts show that it is a bird of very +versatile habits and considerable ingenuity. + +The Polyborus Chimango is considerably smaller than the +last species. It is truly omnivorous, and will eat even bread; and I +was assured that it materially injures the potato-crops in Chiloe, by +stocking up the roots when first planted. Of all the carrion-feeders it +is generally the last which leaves the skeleton of a dead animal, and +may often be seen within the ribs of a cow or horse, like a bird in a +cage. Another species is the Polyborus Novæ Zelandiæ, which is +exceedingly common in the Falkland Islands. These birds in many +respects resemble in their habits the Carranchas. They live on the +flesh of dead animals and on marine productions; and on the Ramirez +rocks their whole sustenance must depend on the sea. They are +extraordinarily tame and fearless, and haunt the neighbourhood of +houses for offal. If a hunting party kills an animal, a number soon +collect and patiently await, standing on the ground on all sides. After +eating, their uncovered craws are largely protruded, giving them a +disgusting appearance. They readily attack wounded birds: a cormorant +in this state having taken to the shore, was immediately seized on by +several, and its death hastened by their blows. The _Beagle_ was at the +Falklands only during the summer, but the officers of the _ Adventure_, +who were there in the winter, mention many extraordinary instances of +the boldness and rapacity of these birds. They actually pounced on a +dog that was lying fast asleep close by one of the party; and the +sportsmen had difficulty in preventing the wounded geese from being +seized before their eyes. It is said that several together (in this +respect resembling the Carranchas) wait at the mouth of a rabbit-hole, +and together seize on the animal when it comes out. They were +constantly flying on board the vessel when in the harbour; and it was +necessary to keep a good look-out to prevent the leather being torn +from the rigging, and the meat or game from the stern. These birds are +very mischievous and inquisitive; they will pick up almost anything +from the ground; a large black glazed hat was carried nearly a mile, as +was a pair of the heavy balls used in catching cattle. Mr. Usborne +experienced during the survey a more severe loss, in their stealing a +small Kater’s compass in a red morocco leather case, which was never +recovered. These birds are, moreover, quarrelsome and very passionate; +tearing up the grass with their bills from rage. They are not truly +gregarious; they do not soar, and their +flight is heavy and clumsy; on the ground they run extremely fast, very +much like pheasants. They are noisy, uttering several harsh cries, one +of which is like that of the English rook, hence the sealers always +call them rooks. It is a curious circumstance that, when crying out, +they throw their heads upwards and backwards, after the same manner as +the Carrancha. They build in the rocky cliffs of the sea-coast, but +only on the small adjoining islets, and not on the two main islands: +this is a singular precaution in so tame and fearless a bird. The +sealers say that the flesh of these birds, when cooked, is quite white, +and very good eating; but bold must the man be who attempts such a +meal. + +We have now only to mention the turkey-buzzard (Vultur aura), and the +Gallinazo. The former is found wherever the country is moderately damp, +from Cape Horn to North America. Differently from the Polyborus +Brasiliensis and Chimango, it has found its way to the Falkland +Islands. The turkey-buzzard is a solitary bird, or at most goes in +pairs. It may at once be recognised from a long distance, by its lofty, +soaring, and most elegant flight. It is well known to be a true +carrion-feeder. On the west coast of Patagonia, among the +thickly-wooded islets and broken land, it lives exclusively on what the +sea throws up, and on the carcasses of dead seals. Wherever these +animals are congregated on the rocks, there the vultures may be seen. +The Gallinazo (Cathartes atratus) has a different range from the last +species, as it never occurs southward of lat. 41°. Azara states that +there exists a tradition that these birds, at the time of the conquest, +were not found near Monte Video, but that they subsequently followed +the inhabitants from more northern districts. At the present day they +are numerous in the valley of the Colorado, which is three hundred +miles due south of Monte Video. It seems probable that this additional +migration has happened since the time of Azara. The Gallinazo generally +prefers a humid climate, or rather the neighbourhood of fresh water; +hence it is extremely abundant in Brazil and La Plata, while it is +never found on the desert and arid plains of Northern Patagonia, +excepting near some stream. These birds frequent the whole Pampas to +the foot of the Cordillera, but I never saw or heard of one in Chile: +in Peru they are preserved as scavengers. These vultures certainly may +be called gregarious, for +they seem to have pleasure in society, and are not solely brought +together by the attraction of a common prey. On a fine day a flock may +often be observed at a great height, each bird wheeling round and round +without closing its wings, in the most graceful evolutions. This is +clearly performed for the mere pleasure of the exercise, or perhaps is +connected with their matrimonial alliances. + +I have now mentioned all the carrion-feeders, excepting the condor, an +account of which will be more appropriately introduced when we visit a +country more congenial to its habits than the plains of La Plata. + + +In a broad band of sand-hillocks which separate the Laguna del Potrero +from the shores of the Plata, at the distance of a few miles from +Maldonado, I found a group of those vitrified, siliceous tubes, which +are formed by lightning entering loose sand. These tubes resemble in +every particular those from Drigg in Cumberland, described in the +_Geological Transactions._[10] The sand-hillocks of Maldonado, not +being protected by vegetation, are constantly changing their position. +From this cause the tubes projected above the surface; and numerous +fragments lying near, showed that they had formerly been buried to a +greater depth. Four sets entered the sand perpendicularly: by working +with my hands I traced one of them two feet deep; and some fragments +which evidently had belonged to the same tube, when added to the other +part, measured five feet three inches. The diameter of the whole tube +was nearly equal, and therefore we must suppose that originally it +extended to a much greater depth. These dimensions are however small, +compared to those of the tubes from Drigg, one of which was traced to a +depth of not less than thirty feet. + + [10] _Geological Transactions_, vol. ii, p. 528. In the _Philosophical + Transactions_, 1790, p. 294, Dr. Priestley has described some + imperfect siliceous tubes and a melted pebble of quartz, found in + digging into the ground, under a tree, where a man had been killed by + lightning. + +The internal surface is completely vitrified, glossy, and smooth. A +small fragment examined under the microscope appeared, from the number +of minute entangled air or perhaps steam bubbles, like an assay fused +before the blowpipe. The sand is entirely, or in greater part, +siliceous; but some points +are of a black colour, and from their glossy surface possess a metallic +lustre. The thickness of the wall of the tube varies from a thirtieth +to a twentieth of an inch, and occasionally even equals a tenth. On the +outside the grains of sand are rounded, and have a slightly glazed +appearance: I could not distinguish any signs of crystallisation. In a +similar manner to that described in the _ Geological Transactions_, the +tubes are generally compressed, and have deep longitudinal furrows, so +as closely to resemble a shrivelled vegetable stalk, or the bark of the +elm or cork tree. Their circumference is about two inches, but in some +fragments, which are cylindrical and without any furrows, it is as much +as four inches. The compression from the surrounding loose sand, acting +while the tube was still softened from the effects of the intense heat, +has evidently caused the creases or furrows. Judging from the +uncompressed fragments, the measure or bore of the lightning (if such a +term may be used) must have been about one inch and a quarter. At +Paris, M. Hachette and M. Beudant[11] succeeded in making tubes, in +most respects similar to these fulgurites, by passing very strong +shocks of galvanism through finely-powdered glass: when salt was added, +so as to increase its fusibility, the tubes were larger in every +dimension. They failed both with powdered feldspar and quartz. One +tube, formed with pounded glass, was very nearly an inch long, namely +.982, and had an internal diameter of .019 of an inch. When we hear +that the strongest battery in Paris was used, and that its power on a +substance of such easy fusibility as glass was to form tubes so +diminutive, we must feel greatly astonished at the force of a shock of +lightning, which, striking the sand in several places, has formed +cylinders, in one instance of at least thirty feet long, and having an +internal bore, where not compressed, of full an inch and a half; and +this in a material so extraordinarily refractory as quartz! + + [11] _Annales de Chimie et de Physique_, tome xxxvii, p. 319. + +The tubes, as I have already remarked, enter the sand nearly in a +vertical direction. One, however, which was less regular than the +others, deviated from a right line, at the most considerable bend, to +the amount of thirty-three degrees. From this same tube, two small +branches, about a foot apart, were sent off; one pointed downwards, and +the other upwards. This +latter case is remarkable, as the electric fluid must have turned back +at the acute angle of 26°, to the line of its main course. Besides the +four tubes which I found vertical, and traced beneath the surface, +there were several other groups of fragments, the original sites of +which without doubt were near. All occurred in a level area of shifting +sand, sixty yards by twenty, situated among some high sand-hillocks, +and at the distance of about half a mile from a chain of hills four or +five hundred feet in height. The most remarkable circumstance, as it +appears to me, in this case as well as in that of Drigg, and in one +described by M. Ribbentrop in Germany, is the number of tubes found +within such limited spaces. At Drigg, within an area of fifteen yards, +three were observed, and the same number occurred in Germany. In the +case which I have described, certainly more than four existed within +the space of the sixty by twenty yards. As it does not appear probable +that the tubes are produced by successive distinct shocks, we must +believe that the lightning, shortly before entering the ground, divides +itself into separate branches. + +The neighbourhood of the Rio Plata seems peculiarly subject to electric +phenomena. In the year 1793,[12] one of the most destructive +thunderstorms perhaps on record happened at Buenos Ayres: thirty-seven +places within the city were struck by lightning, and nineteen people +killed. From facts stated in several books of travels, I am inclined to +suspect that thunderstorms are very common near the mouths of great +rivers. Is it not possible that the mixture of large bodies of fresh +and salt water may disturb the electrical equilibrium? Even during our +occasional visits to this part of South America, we heard of a ship, +two churches, and a house having been struck. Both the church and the +house I saw shortly afterwards: the house belonged to Mr. Hood, the +consul-general at Monte Video. Some of the effects were curious: the +paper, for nearly a foot on each side of the line where the bell-wires +had run, was blackened. The metal had been fused, and although the room +was about fifteen feet high, the globules, dropping on the chairs and +furniture, had drilled in them a chain of minute holes. A part of the +wall was shattered as if by gunpowder, and the fragments had been blown +off with force sufficient to dent the wall on the +opposite side of the room. The frame of a looking-glass was blackened, +and the gilding must have been volatilised, for a smelling-bottle, +which stood on the chimney-piece, was coated with bright metallic +particles, which adhered as firmly as if they had been enamelled. + + [12] Azara’s _Voyage_, vol. i, p. 36. + + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + + + +Chapter IV + + +Rio Negro—Estancias attacked by the Indians—Salt Lakes—Flamingoes—R. +Negro to R. Colorado—Sacred Tree—Patagonian Hare—Indian +Families—General Rosas—Proceed to Bahia Blanca—Sand Dunes—Negro +Lieutenant—Bahia Blanca—Saline Incrustations—Punta Alta—Zorillo. + +RIO NEGRO TO BAHIA BLANCA. + +_July_ 24_th_, 1833.—The _Beagle_ sailed from Maldonado, and on August +the 3rd she arrived off the mouth of the Rio Negro. This is the +principal river on the whole line of coast between the Strait of +Magellan and the Plata. It enters the sea about three hundred miles +south of the estuary of the Plata. About fifty years ago, under the old +Spanish government, a small colony was established here; and it is +still the most southern position (lat. 41°) on this eastern coast of +America inhabited by civilised man. + + +The country near the mouth of the river is wretched in the extreme: on +the south side a long line of perpendicular cliffs commences, which +exposes a section of the geological nature of the country. The strata +are of sandstone, and one layer was remarkable from being composed of a +firmly-cemented conglomerate of pumice pebbles, which must have +travelled more than four hundred miles, from the Andes. The surface is +everywhere covered up by a thick bed of gravel, which extends far and +wide over the open plain. Water is extremely scarce, and, where found, +is almost invariably brackish. The vegetation is scanty; and although +there are bushes of many kinds, all are armed with formidable thorns, +which seem to warn the stranger not to enter on these inhospitable +regions. + +The settlement is situated eighteen miles up the river. The road +follows the foot of the sloping cliff, which forms the northern +boundary of the great valley in which the Rio Negro flows. On the way +we passed the ruins of some fine estancias, which a few years since had +been destroyed by the Indians. They withstood several attacks. A man +present at one gave me a very lively description of what took place. +The inhabitants had sufficient notice to drive all the cattle and +horses into the “corral”[1] which surrounded the house, and likewise to +mount some small cannon. + + [1] The corral is an enclosure made of tall and strong stakes. Every + estancia, or farming estate, has one attached to it. + +The Indians were Araucanians from the south of Chile; several hundreds +in number, and highly disciplined. They first appeared in two bodies on +a neighbouring hill; having there dismounted, and taken off their fur +mantles, they advanced naked to the charge. The only weapon of an +Indian is a very long bamboo or chuzo, ornamented with ostrich +feathers, and pointed by a sharp spear-head. My informer seemed to +remember with the greatest horror the quivering of these chuzos as they +approached near. When close, the cacique Pincheira hailed the besieged +to give up their arms, or he would cut all their throats. As this would +probably have been the result of their entrance under any +circumstances, the answer was given by a volley of musketry. The +Indians, with great steadiness, came to the very fence of the corral: +but to their surprise they found the posts fastened +together by iron nails instead of leather thongs, and, of course, in +vain attempted to cut them with their knives. This saved the lives of +the Christians: many of the wounded Indians were carried away by their +companions, and at last, one of the under caciques being wounded, the +bugle sounded a retreat. They retired to their horses, and seemed to +hold a council of war. This was an awful pause for the Spaniards, as +all their ammunition, with the exception of a few cartridges, was +expended. In an instant the Indians mounted their horses, and galloped +out of sight. Another attack was still more quickly repulsed. A cool +Frenchman managed the gun; he stopped till the Indians approached +close, and then raked their line with grape-shot: he thus laid +thirty-nine of them on the ground; and, of course, such a blow +immediately routed the whole party. + +The town is indifferently called El Carmen or Patagones. It is built on +the face of a cliff which fronts the river, and many of the houses are +excavated even in the sandstone. The river is about two or three +hundred yards wide, and is deep and rapid. The many islands, with their +willow-trees, and the flat headlands, seen one behind the other on the +northern boundary of the broad green valley, form, by the aid of a +bright sun, a view almost picturesque. The number of inhabitants does +not exceed a few hundreds. These Spanish colonies do not, like our +British ones, carry within themselves the elements of growth. Many +Indians of pure blood reside here: the tribe of the Cacique Lucanee +constantly have their Toldos[2] on the outskirts of the town. The local +government partly supplies them with provisions, by giving them all the +old worn-out horses, and they earn a little by making horse-rugs and +other articles of riding-gear. These Indians are considered civilised; +but what their character may have gained by a lesser degree of +ferocity, is almost counterbalanced by their entire immorality. Some of +the younger men are, however, improving; they are willing to labour, +and a short time since a party went on a sealing-voyage, and behaved +very well. They were now enjoying the fruits of their labour, by being +dressed in very gay, clean clothes, and by being very idle. The taste +they showed in their dress was admirable; if you could have turned one +of these young +Indians into a statue of bronze, his drapery would have been perfectly +graceful. + + [2] The hovels of the Indians are thus called. + +One day I rode to a large salt-lake, or Salina, which is distant +fifteen miles from the town. During the winter it consists of a shallow +lake of brine, which in summer is converted into a field of snow-white +salt. The layer near the margin is from four to five inches thick, but +towards the centre its thickness increases. This lake was two and a +half miles long, and one broad. Others occur in the neighbourhood many +times larger, and with a floor of salt, two and three feet in +thickness, even when under water during the winter. One of these +brilliantly white and level expanses, in the midst of the brown and +desolate plain, offers an extraordinary spectacle. A large quantity of +salt is annually drawn from the salina: and great piles, some hundred +tons in weight, were lying ready for exportation. + +The season for working the salinas forms the harvest of Patagones; for +on it the prosperity of the place depends. Nearly the whole population +encamps on the bank of the river, and the people are employed in +drawing out the salt in bullock-waggons. This salt is crystallised in +great cubes, and is remarkably pure: Mr. Trenham Reeks has kindly +analysed some for me, and he finds in it only 0.26 of gypsum and 0.22 +of earthy matter. It is a singular fact that it does not serve so well +for preserving meat as sea-salt from the Cape de Verd islands; and a +merchant at Buenos Ayres told me that he considered it as fifty per +cent less valuable. Hence the Cape de Verd salt is constantly imported, +and is mixed with that from these salinas. The purity of the Patagonian +salt, or absence from it of those other saline bodies found in all +sea-water, is the only assignable cause for this inferiority: a +conclusion which no one, I think, would have suspected, but which is +supported by the fact lately ascertained,[3] that those salts answer +best for preserving cheese which contain most of the deliquescent +chlorides. + + [3] Report of the Agricultural Chemistry Association in the + _Agricultural Gazette_, 1845, p. 93. + +The border of the lake is formed of mud: and in this numerous large +crystals of gypsum, some of which are three inches long, lie embedded; +whilst on the surface others of sulphate of soda lie scattered about. +The Gauchos call the former +the “Padre del sal,” and the latter the “Madre;” they state that these +progenitive salts always occur on the borders of the salinas, when the +water begins to evaporate. The mud is black, and has a fetid odour. I +could not at first imagine the cause of this, but I afterwards +perceived that the froth which the wind drifted on shore was coloured +green, as if by confervæ; I attempted to carry home some of this green +matter, but from an accident failed. Parts of the lake seen from a +short distance appeared of a reddish colour, and this perhaps was owing +to some infusorial animalcula. The mud in many places was thrown up by +numbers of some kind of worm, or annelidous animal. How surprising it +is that any creatures should be able to exist in brine, and that they +should be crawling among crystals of sulphate of soda and lime! And +what becomes of these worms when, during the long summer, the surface +is hardened into a solid layer of salt? + +Flamingoes in considerable numbers inhabit this lake, and breed here, +throughout Patagonia, in Northern Chile, and at the Galapagos Islands, +I met with these birds wherever there were lakes of brine. I saw them +here wading about in search of food—probably for the worms which burrow +in the mud; and these latter probably feed on infusoria or confervæ. +Thus we have a little living world within itself, adapted to these +inland lakes of brine. A minute crustaceous animal (Cancer salinus) is +said[4] to live in countless numbers in the brine-pans at Lymington: +but only in those in which the fluid has attained, from evaporation, +considerable strength—namely, about a quarter of a pound of salt to a +pint of water. Well may we affirm that every part of the world is +habitable! Whether lakes of brine, or those subterranean ones hidden +beneath volcanic mountains—warm mineral springs—the wide expanse and +depths of the ocean—the +upper regions of the atmosphere, and even the surface of perpetual +snow—all support organic beings. + + [4] _Linnæan Transactions_, vol. xi, p. 205. It is remarkable how all + the circumstances connected with the salt-lakes in Siberia and + Patagonia are similar. Siberia, like Patagonia, appears to have been + recently elevated above the waters of the sea. In both countries the + salt-lakes occupy shallow depressions in the plains; in both the mud + on the borders is black and fetid; beneath the crust of common salt, + sulphate of soda or of magnesia occurs, imperfectly crystallised; and + in both, the muddy sand is mixed with lentils of gypsum. The Siberian + salt-lakes are inhabited by small crustaceous animals; and flamingoes + (_Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal_, Jan. 1830) likewise frequent + them. As these circumstances, apparently so trifling, occur in two + distant continents, we may feel sure that they are the necessary + results of common causes.—See _Pallas’s Travels_, 1793 to 1794, pp. + 129 to 134. + + +To the northward of the Rio Negro, between it and the inhabited country +near Buenos Ayres, the Spaniards have only one small settlement, +recently established at Bahia Blanca. The distance in a straight line +to Buenos Ayres is very nearly five hundred British miles. The +wandering tribes of horse Indians, which have always occupied the +greater part of this country, having of late much harassed the outlying +estancias, the government at Buenos Ayres equipped some time since an +army under the command of General Rosas for the purpose of +exterminating them. The troops were now encamped on the banks of the +Colorado; a river lying about eighty miles northward of the Rio Negro. +When General Rosas left Buenos Ayres he struck in a direct line across +the unexplored plains: and as the country was thus pretty well cleared +of Indians, he left behind him, at wide intervals, a small party of +soldiers with a troop of horses (_a posta_), so as to be enabled to +keep up a communication with the capital. As the _Beagle_ intended to +call at Bahia Blanca, I determined to proceed there by land; and +ultimately I extended my plan to travel the whole way by the postas to +Buenos Ayres. + + +_August_ 11_th_, 1833.—Mr. Harris, an Englishman residing at Patagones, +a guide, and five Gauchos who were proceeding to the army on business, +were my companions on the journey. The Colorado, as I have already +said, is nearly eighty miles distant: and as we travelled slowly, we +were two days and a half on the road. The whole line of country +deserves scarcely a better name than that of a desert. Water is found +only in two small wells; it is called fresh; but even at this time of +the year, during the rainy season, it was quite brackish. In the summer +this must be a distressing passage; for now it was sufficiently +desolate. + +The valley of the Rio Negro, broad as it is, has merely been excavated +out of the sandstone plain; for immediately above the bank on which the +town stands, a level country commences, which is interrupted only by a +few trifling valleys and depressions. Everywhere the landscape wears +the same sterile aspect; a dry gravelly soil supports tufts of +brown withered grass, and low scattered bushes, armed with thorns. + +Shortly after passing the first spring we came in sight of a famous +tree, which the Indians reverence as the altar of Walleechu. It is +situated on a high part of the plain; and hence is a landmark visible +at a great distance. As soon as a tribe of Indians come in sight of it, +they offer their adorations by loud shouts. The tree itself is low, +much branched, and thorny: just above the root it has a diameter of +about three feet. It stands by itself without any neighbour, and was +indeed the first tree we saw; afterwards we met with a few others of +the same kind, but they were far from common. Being winter the tree had +no leaves, but in their place numberless threads, by which the various +offerings, such as cigars, bread, meat, pieces of cloth, etc., had been +suspended. Poor Indians, not having anything better, only pull a thread +out of their ponchos, and fasten it to the tree. Richer Indians are +accustomed to pour spirits and maté into a certain hole, and likewise +to smoke upwards, thinking thus to afford all possible gratification to +Walleechu. To complete the scene, the tree was surrounded by the +bleached bones of horses which had been slaughtered as sacrifices. All +Indians of every age and sex make their offerings; they then think that +their horses will not tire, and that they themselves shall be +prosperous. The Gaucho who told me this, said that in the time of peace +he had witnessed this scene, and that he and others used to wait till +the Indians had passed by, for the sake of stealing from Walleechu the +offerings. + +The Gauchos think that the Indians consider the tree as the god itself; +but it seems far more probable that they regard it as the altar. The +only cause which I can imagine for this choice, is its being a landmark +in a dangerous passage. The Sierra de la Ventana is visible at an +immense distance; and a Gaucho told me that he was once riding with an +Indian a few miles to the north of the Rio Colorado, when the Indian +commenced making the same loud noise, which is usual at the first sight +of the distant tree, putting his hand to his head, and then pointing in +the direction of the Sierra. Upon being asked the reason of this, the +Indian said in broken Spanish, “First see the Sierra.” + + +About two leagues beyond this curious tree we halted for the night: at +this instant an unfortunate cow was spied by the lynx-eyed Gauchos, who +set off in full chase, and in a few minutes dragged her in with their +lazos, and slaughtered her. We here had the four necessaries of life +“en el campo,”—pasture for the horses, water (only a muddy puddle), +meat and firewood. The Gauchos were in high spirits at finding all +these luxuries; and we soon set to work at the poor cow. This was the +first night which I passed under the open sky, with the gear of the +recado for my bed. There is high enjoyment in the independence of the +Gaucho life—to be able at any moment to pull up your horse, and say, +“Here we will pass the night.” The deathlike stillness of the plain, +the dogs keeping watch, the gipsy-group of Gauchos making their beds +round the fire, have left in my mind a strongly-marked picture of this +first night, which will never be forgotten. + +The next day the country continued similar to that above described. It +is inhabited by few birds or animals of any kind. Occasionally a deer, +or a Guanaco (wild Llama) may be seen; but the Agouti (Cavia +Patagonica) is the commonest quadruped. This animal here represents our +hares. It differs, however, from that genus in many essential respects; +for instance, it has only three toes behind. It is also nearly twice +the size, weighing from twenty to twenty-five pounds. The Agouti is a +true friend of the desert; it is a common feature of the landscape to +see two or three hopping quickly one after the other in a straight line +across these wild plains. They are found as far north as the Sierra +Tapalguen (lat. 37° 30′), where the plain rather suddenly becomes +greener and more humid; and their southern limit is between Port Desire +and St. Julian, where there is no change in the nature of the country. + +It is a singular fact, that although the Agouti is not now found as far +south as Port St. Julian, yet that Captain Wood, in his voyage in 1670, +talks of them as being numerous there. What cause can have altered, in +a wide, uninhabited, and rarely-visited country, the range of an animal +like this? It appears also, from the number shot by Captain Wood in one +day at Port Desire, that they must have been considerably more abundant +there formerly than at present. Where the Bizcacha lives and makes its +burrows, the Agouti uses them; +but where, as at Bahia Blanca, the Bizcacha is not found, the Agouti +burrows for itself. The same thing occurs with the little owl of the +Pampas (Athene cunicularia), which has so often been described as +standing like a sentinel at the mouth of the burrows; for in Banda +Oriental, owing to the absence of the Bizcacha, it is obliged to hollow +out its own habitation. + +The next morning, as we approached the Rio Colorado, the appearance of +the country changed; we soon came on a plain covered with turf, which, +from its flowers, tall clover, and little owls, resembled the Pampas. +We passed also a muddy swamp of considerable extent, which in summer +dries, and becomes incrusted with various salts; and hence is called a +salitral. It was covered by low succulent plants, of the same kind with +those growing on the sea-shore. The Colorado, at the pass where we +crossed it, is only about sixty yards wide; generally it must be nearly +double that width. Its course is very tortuous, being marked by +willow-trees and beds of reeds: in a direct line the distance to the +mouth of the river is said to be nine leagues, but by water +twenty-five. We were delayed crossing in the canoe by some immense +troops of mares, which were swimming the river in order to follow a +division of troops into the interior. A more ludicrous spectacle I +never beheld than the hundreds and hundreds of heads, all directed one +way, with pointed ears and distended snorting nostrils, appearing just +above the water like a great shoal of some amphibious animal. Mare’s +flesh is the only food which the soldiers have when on an expedition. +This gives them a great facility of movement; for the distance to which +horses can be driven over these plains is quite surprising: I have been +assured that an unloaded horse can travel a hundred miles a day for +many days successively. + +The encampment of General Rosas was close to the river. It consisted of +a square formed by waggons, artillery, straw huts, etc. The soldiers +were nearly all cavalry; and I should think such a villainous, +banditti-like army was never before collected together. The greater +number of men were of a mixed breed, between Negro, Indian, and +Spaniard. I know not the reason, but men of such origin seldom have a +good expression of countenance. I called on the Secretary +to show my passport. He began to cross-question me in the most +dignified and mysterious manner. By good luck I had a letter of +recommendation from the government of Buenos Ayres[5] to the commandant +of Patagones. This was taken to General Rosas, who sent me a very +obliging message; and the Secretary returned all smiles and +graciousness. We took up our residence in the _rancho_, or hovel, of a +curious old Spaniard, who had served with Napoleon in the expedition +against Russia. + + [5] I am bound to express, in the strongest terms, my obligation to + the government of Buenos Ayres for the obliging manner in which + passports to all parts of the country were given me, as naturalist of + the _Beagle._ + +We stayed two days at the Colorado; I had little to do, for the +surrounding country was a swamp, which in summer (December), when the +snow melts on the Cordillera, is overflowed by the river. My chief +amusement was watching the Indian families as they came to buy little +articles at the rancho where we stayed. It was supposed that General +Rosas had about six hundred Indian allies. The men were a tall, fine +race, yet it was afterwards easy to see in the Fuegian savage the same +countenance rendered hideous by cold, want of food, and less +civilisation. + +[Illustration] + +Some authors, in defining the primary races of mankind, have separated +these Indians into two classes; but this is certainly incorrect. Among +the young women or chinas, some deserve to be called even beautiful. +Their hair was coarse, but bright and black; and they wore it in two +plaits hanging down to the waist. They had a high colour, and eyes that +glistened with brilliancy; their legs, feet, and arms were small and +elegantly formed; their ankles, and sometimes their waists, were +ornamented by broad bracelets of blue beads. Nothing could be more +interesting than some of the family groups. A mother with one or two +daughters would often come to our rancho, mounted on the same horse. +They ride like men, but with their knees tucked up much higher. This +habit, perhaps, arises from their being accustomed, when travelling, to +ride the loaded horses. The duty of the women is to load and unload the +horses; to make the tents for the night; in short to be, like the wives +of all savages, useful slaves. The men fight, hunt, take care of the +horses, and +make the riding gear. One of their chief indoor occupations is to knock +two stones together till they become round, in order to make the bolas. +With this important weapon the Indian catches his game, and also his +horse, which roams free over the plain. In fighting, his first attempt +is to throw down the horse of his adversary with the bolas, and when +entangled by the fall to kill him with the chuzo. If the balls only +catch the neck or body of an animal, they are often carried away and +lost. As the making the stones round is the labour of two days, the +manufacture of the balls is a very common employment. Several of the +men and women had their faces painted red, but I never saw the +horizontal bands which are so common among the Fuegians. Their chief +pride consists in having everything made of silver; I have seen a +cacique with his spurs, stirrups, handle of his knife, and bridle made +of this metal: the head-stall and reins being of wire, were not thicker +than whipcord; and to see a fiery steed wheeling about under the +command of so light a chain, gave to the horsemanship a remarkable +character of elegance. + +[Illustration] + +General Rosas intimated a wish to see me; a circumstance which I was +afterwards very glad of. He is a man of an extraordinary character, and +has a most predominant influence in the country, which it seems +probable he will use +to its prosperity and advancement.[6] He is said to be the owner of +seventy-four square leagues of land, and to have about three hundred +thousand head of cattle. His estates are admirably managed, and are far +more productive of corn than those of others. He first gained his +celebrity by his laws for his own estancias, and by disciplining +several hundred men, so as to resist with success the attacks of the +Indians. There are many stories current about the rigid manner in which +his laws were enforced. One of these was, that no man, on penalty of +being put into the stocks, should carry his knife on a Sunday: this +being the principal day for gambling and drinking, many quarrels arose, +which from the general manner of fighting with the knife often proved +fatal. + + [6] This prophecy has turned out entirely and miserably wrong. 1845. + +One Sunday the Governor came in great form to pay the estancia a visit, +and General Rosas, in his hurry, walked out to receive him with his +knife, as usual, stuck in his belt. The steward touched his arm, and +reminded him of the law; upon which turning to the Governor, he said he +was extremely sorry, but that he must go into the stocks, and that till +let out, he possessed no power even in his own house. After a little +time the steward was persuaded to open the stocks, and to let him out, +but no sooner was this done, than he turned to the steward and said, +“You now have broken the laws, so you must take my place in the +stocks.” Such actions as these delighted the Gauchos, who all possess +high notions of their own equality and dignity. + +General Rosas is also a perfect horseman—an accomplishment of no small +consequence in a country where an assembled army elected its general by +the following trial: A troop of unbroken horses being driven into a +corral, were let out through a gateway, above which was a cross-bar: it +was agreed whoever should drop from the bar on one of these wild +animals, as it rushed out, and should be able, without saddle or +bridle, not only to ride it, but also to bring it back to the door of +the corral, should be their general. The person who succeeded was +accordingly elected; and doubtless made a fit general for such an army. +This extraordinary feat has also been performed by Rosas. + +By these means, and by conforming to the dress and habits +of the Gauchos, he has obtained an unbounded popularity in the country, +and in consequence a despotic power. I was assured by an English +merchant, that a man who had murdered another, when arrested and +questioned concerning his motive, answered, “He spoke disrespectfully +of General Rosas, so I killed him.” At the end of a week the murderer +was at liberty. This doubtless was the act of the general’s party, and +not of the general himself. + +In conversation he is enthusiastic, sensible, and very grave. His +gravity is carried to a high pitch: I heard one of his mad buffoons +(for he keeps two, like the barons of old) relate the following +anecdote. “I wanted very much to hear a certain piece of music, so I +went to the general two or three times to ask him; he said to me, ‘Go +about your business, for I am engaged.’ I went a second time; he said, +‘If you come again I will punish you.’ A third time I asked, and he +laughed. I rushed out of the tent, but it was too late—he ordered two +soldiers to catch and stake me. I begged by all the saints in heaven he +would let me off; but it would not do,—when the general laughs he +spares neither mad man nor sound.” The poor flighty gentleman looked +quite dolorous, at the very recollection of the staking. This is a very +severe punishment; four posts are driven into the ground, and the man +is extended by his arms and legs horizontally, and there left to +stretch for several hours. The idea is evidently taken from the usual +method of drying hides. My interview passed away without a smile, and I +obtained a passport and order for the government post-horses, and this +he gave me in the most obliging and ready manner. + +In the morning we started for Bahia Blanca, which we reached in two +days. Leaving the regular encampment, we passed by the toldos of the +Indians. These are round like ovens, and covered with hides; by the +mouth of each, a tapering chuzo was stuck in the ground. The toldos +were divided into separate groups, which belonged to the different +caciques’ tribes, and the groups were again divided into smaller ones, +according to the relationship of the owners. For several miles we +travelled along the valley of the Colorado. The alluvial plains on the +side appeared fertile, and it is supposed that they are well adapted to +the growth of corn. + + +Turning northward from the river, we soon entered on a country, +differing from the plains south of the river. The land still continued +dry and sterile: but it supported many different kinds of plants, and +the grass, though brown and withered, was more abundant, as the thorny +bushes were less so. These latter in a short space entirely +disappeared, and the plains were left without a thicket to cover their +nakedness. This change in the vegetation marks the commencement of the +grand calcareo-argillaceous deposit, which forms the wide extent of the +Pampas, and covers the granitic rocks of Banda Oriental. From the +Strait of Magellan to the Colorado, a distance of about eight hundred +miles, the face of the country is everywhere composed of shingle: the +pebbles are chiefly of porphyry, and probably owe their origin to the +rocks of the Cordillera. North of the Colorado this bed thins out, and +the pebbles become exceedingly small, and here the characteristic +vegetation of Patagonia ceases. + +Having ridden about twenty-five miles, we came to a broad belt of +sand-dunes, which stretches, as far as the eye can reach, to the east +and west. The sand-hillocks resting on the clay, allow small pools of +water to collect, and thus afford in this dry country an invaluable +supply of fresh water. The great advantage arising from depressions and +elevations of the soil, is not often brought home to the mind. The two +miserable springs in the long passage between the Rio Negro and +Colorado were caused by trifling inequalities in the plain, without +them not a drop of water would have been found. The belt of sand-dunes +is about eight miles wide; at some former period, it probably formed +the margin of a grand estuary, where the Colorado now flows. In this +district, where absolute proofs of the recent elevation of the land +occur, such speculations can hardly be neglected by any one, although +merely considering the physical geography of the country. Having +crossed the sandy tract, we arrived in the evening at one of the +post-houses; and, as the fresh horses were grazing at a distance we +determined to pass the night there. + +The house was situated at the base of a ridge between one and two +hundred feet high—a most remarkable feature in this country. This posta +was commanded by a negro lieutenant, +born in Africa: to his credit be it said, there was not a ranche +between the Colorado and Buenos Ayres in nearly such neat order as his. +He had a little room for strangers, and a small corral for the horses, +all made of sticks and reeds; he had also dug a ditch round his house +as a defence in case of being attacked. This would, however, have been +of little avail, if the Indians had come; but his chief comfort seemed +to rest in the thought of selling his life dearly. A short time before, +a body of Indians had travelled past in the night; if they had been +aware of the posta, our black friend and his four soldiers would +assuredly have been slaughtered. I did not anywhere meet a more civil +and obliging man than this negro; it was therefore the more painful to +see that he would not sit down and eat with us. + +In the morning we sent for the horses very early, and started for +another exhilarating gallop. We passed the Cabeza del Buey, an old name +given to the head of a large marsh, which extends from Bahia Blanca. +Here we changed horses, and passed through some leagues of swamps and +saline marshes. Changing horses for the last time, we again began +wading through the mud. My animal fell, and I was well soused in black +mire—a very disagreeable accident, when one does not possess a change +of clothes. Some miles from the fort we met a man, who told us that a +great gun had been fired, which is a signal that Indians are near. We +immediately left the road, and followed the edge of a marsh, which when +chased offers the best mode of escape. We were glad to arrive within +the walls, when we found all the alarm was about nothing, for the +Indians turned out to be friendly ones, who wished to join General +Rosas. + +Bahia Blanca scarcely deserves the name of a village. A few houses and +the barracks for the troops are enclosed by a deep ditch and fortified +wall. The settlement is only of recent standing (since 1828); and its +growth has been one of trouble. The government of Buenos Ayres unjustly +occupied it by force, instead of following the wise example of the +Spanish Viceroys, who purchased the land near the older settlement of +the Rio Negro, from the Indians. Hence the need of the fortifications; +hence the few houses and little cultivated land without the limits of +the walls; even the cattle are not safe from the +attacks of the Indians beyond the boundaries of the plain on which the +fortress stands. + +The part of the harbour where the _Beagle_ intended to anchor being +distant twenty-five miles, I obtained from the Commandant a guide and +horses, to take me to see whether she had arrived. Leaving the plain of +green turf, which extended along the course of a little brook, we soon +entered on a wide level waste consisting either of sand, saline +marshes, or bare mud. Some parts were clothed by low thickets, and +others with those succulent plants which luxuriate only where salt +abounds. Bad as the country was, ostriches, deers, agoutis, and +armadilloes, were abundant. My guide told me, that two months before he +had a most narrow escape of his life: he was out hunting with two other +men, at no great distance from this part of the country, when they were +suddenly met by a party of Indians, who giving chase, soon overtook and +killed his two friends. His own horse’s legs were also caught by the +bolas, but he jumped off, and with his knife cut them free: while doing +this he was obliged to dodge round his horse, and received two severe +wounds from their chuzos. Springing on the saddle, he managed, by a +most wonderful exertion, just to keep ahead of the long spears of his +pursuers, who followed him to within sight of the fort. From that time +there was an order that no one should stray far from the settlement. I +did not know of this when I started, and was surprised to observe how +earnestly my guide watched a deer, which appeared to have been +frightened from a distant quarter. + + +We found the _Beagle_ had not arrived, and consequently set out on our +return, but the horses soon tiring, we were obliged to bivouac on the +plain. In the morning we had caught an armadillo, which, although a +most excellent dish when roasted in its shell, did not make a very +substantial breakfast and dinner for two hungry men. The ground at the +place where we stopped for the night was incrusted with a layer of +sulphate of soda, and hence, of course, was without water. Yet many of +the smaller rodents managed to exist even here, and the tucutuco was +making its odd little grunt beneath my head, during half the night. Our +horses were very poor ones, and in +the morning they were soon exhausted from not having had anything to +drink, so that we were obliged to walk. About noon the dogs killed a +kid, which we roasted. I ate some of it, but it made me intolerably +thirsty. This was the more distressing as the road, from some recent +rain, was full of little puddles of clear water, yet not a drop was +drinkable. I had scarcely been twenty hours without water, and only +part of the time under a hot sun, yet the thirst rendered me very weak. +How people survive two or three days under such circumstances, I cannot +imagine: at the same time, I must confess that my guide did not suffer +at all, and was astonished that one day’s deprivation should be so +troublesome to me. + +I have several times alluded to the surface of the ground being +incrusted with salt. This phenomenon is quite different from that of +the salinas, and more extraordinary. In many parts of South America, +wherever the climate is moderately dry, these incrustations occur; but +I have nowhere seen them so abundant as near Bahia Blanca. The salt +here, and in other parts of Patagonia, consists chiefly of sulphate of +soda with some common salt. As long as the ground remains moist in the +salitrales (as the Spaniards improperly call them, mistaking this +substance for saltpetre), nothing is to be seen but an extensive plain +composed of a black, muddy soil, supporting scattered tufts of +succulent plants. On returning through one of these tracts, after a +week’s hot weather, one is surprised to see square miles of the plain +white, as if from a slight fall of snow, here and there heaped up by +the wind into little drifts. This latter appearance is chiefly caused +by the salts being drawn up, during the slow evaporation of the +moisture, round blades of dead grass, stumps of wood, and pieces of +broken earth, instead of being crystallised at the bottoms of the +puddles of water. + +The salitrales occur either on level tracts elevated only a few feet +above the level of the sea, or on alluvial land bordering rivers. M. +Parchappe[7] found that the saline incrustation on the plain, at the +distance of some miles from the sea, consisted chiefly of sulphate of +soda, with only seven per cent of common salt; whilst nearer to the +coast, the +common salt increased to 37 parts in a hundred. This circumstance would +tempt one to believe that the sulphate of soda is generated in the +soil, from the muriate left on the surface during the slow and recent +elevation of this dry country. The whole phenomenon is well worthy the +attention of naturalists. Have the succulent, salt-loving plants, which +are well known to contain much soda, the power of decomposing the +muriate? Does the black fetid mud, abounding with organic matter, yield +the sulphur and ultimately the sulphuric acid? + + [7] _Voyage dans l’Amérique Mérid._ par M. A. d’Orbigny. Part. Hist., + tome i, p. 664. + + +Two days afterwards I again rode to the harbour: when not far from our +destination, my companion, the same man as before, spied three people +hunting on horseback. He immediately dismounted, and watching them +intently, said, “They don’t ride like Christians, and nobody can leave +the fort.” The three hunters joined company, and likewise dismounted +from their horses. At last one mounted again and rode over the hill out +of sight. My companion said, “We must now get on our horses: load your +pistol;” and he looked to his own sword. I asked, “Are they +Indians?”—“Quien sabe? (who knows?) if there are no more than three, it +does not signify.” It then struck me, that the one man had gone over +the hill to fetch the rest of his tribe. I suggested this; but all the +answer I could extort was, “Quien sabe?” His head and eye never for a +minute ceased scanning slowly the distant horizon. I thought his +uncommon coolness too good a joke, and asked him why he did not return +home. I was startled when he answered, “We are returning, but in a line +so as to pass near a swamp, into which we can gallop the horses as far +as they can go, and then trust to our own legs; so that there is no +danger.” I did not feel quite so confident of this, and wanted to +increase our pace. He said, “No, not until they do.” When any little +inequality concealed us, we galloped; but when in sight, continued +walking. At last we reached a valley, and turning to the left, galloped +quickly to the foot of a hill; he gave me his horse to hold, made the +dogs lie down, and then crawled on his hands and knees to reconnoitre. +He remained in this position for some time, and at last, bursting out +in laughter, exclaimed, “Mugeres!” (women!) He knew +them to be the wife and sister-in-law of the major’s son, hunting for +ostrich’s eggs. + +I have described this man’s conduct, because he acted under the full +impression that they were Indians. As soon, however, as the absurd +mistake was found out, he gave me a hundred reasons why they could not +have been Indians; but all these were forgotten at the time. We then +rode on in peace and quietness to a low point called Punta Alta, whence +we could see nearly the whole of the great harbour of Bahia Blanca. + +The wide expanse of water is choked up by numerous great mudbanks, +which the inhabitants call Cangrejales, or _ crabberies_, from the +number of small crabs. The mud is so soft that it is impossible to walk +over them, even for the shortest distance. Many of the banks have their +surfaces covered with long rushes, the tops of which alone are visible +at high water. On one occasion, when in a boat, we were so entangled by +these shallows that we could hardly find our way. Nothing was visible +but the flat beds of mud; the day was not very clear, and there was +much refraction, or, as the sailors expressed it, “things loomed high.” +The only object within our view which was not level was the horizon; +rushes looked like bushes unsupported in the air, and water like +mudbanks, and mudbanks like water. + +We passed the night in Punta Alta, and I employed myself in searching +for fossil bones; this point being a perfect catacomb for monsters of +extinct races. The evening was perfectly calm and clear; the extreme +monotony of the view gave it an interest even in the midst of mudbanks +and gulls, sand-hillocks and solitary vultures. In riding back in the +morning we came across a very fresh track of a Puma, but did not +succeed in finding it. We saw also a couple of Zorillos, or +skunks,—odious animals, which are far from uncommon. In general +appearance the Zorillo resembles a polecat, but it is rather larger, +and much thicker in proportion. Conscious of its power, it roams by day +about the open plain, and fears neither dog nor man. If a dog is urged +to the attack, its courage is instantly checked by a few drops of the +fetid oil, which brings on violent sickness and running at the nose. +Whatever is once polluted by it, is for ever useless. Azara +says the smell can be perceived at a league distant; more than once, +when entering the harbour of Monte Video, the wind being off shore, we +have perceived the odour on board the _Beagle._ Certain it is, that +every animal most willingly makes room for the Zorillo. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + + + +Chapter V + + +Bahia Blanca—Geology—Numerous gigantic extinct Quadrupeds—Recent +Extinction—Longevity of Species—Large Animals do not require a +luxuriant Vegetation—Southern Africa—Siberian Fossils—Two Species of +Ostrich—Habits of Oven-bird—Armadilloes—Venomous Snake, Toad, +Lizard—Hybernation of Animals—Habits of Sea-Pen—Indian Wars and +Massacres—Arrowhead, antiquarian Relic. + +BAHIA BLANCA. + +The _Beagle_ arrived here on the 24th of August, and a week afterwards +sailed for the Plata. With Captain Fitz Roy’s consent I was left +behind, to travel by land to Buenos Ayres. I will here add some +observations, which were made during this visit and on a previous +occasion, when the _Beagle_ was employed in surveying the harbour. + +The plain, at the distance of a few miles from the coast, +belongs to the great Pampean formation, which consists in part of a +reddish clay, and in part of a highly calcareous marly rock. Nearer the +coast there are some plains formed from the wreck of the upper plain, +and from mud, gravel, and sand thrown up by the sea during the slow +elevation of the land, of which elevation we have evidence in upraised +beds of recent shells, and in rounded pebbles of pumice scattered over +the country. At Punta Alta we have a section of one of these +later-formed little plains, which is highly interesting from the number +and extraordinary character of the remains of gigantic land-animals +embedded in it. These have been fully described by Professor Owen, in +the _Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle_, and are deposited in the +College of Surgeons. I will here give only a brief outline of their +nature. + +First, parts of three heads and other bones of the Megatherium, the +huge dimensions of which are expressed by its name. Secondly, the +Megalonyx, a great allied animal. Thirdly, the Scelidotherium, also an +allied animal, of which I obtained a nearly perfect skeleton. It must +have been as large as a rhinoceros: in the structure of its head it +comes, according to Mr. Owen, nearest to the Cape Ant-eater, but in +some other respects it approaches to the armadilloes. Fourthly, the +Mylodon Darwinii, a closely related genus of little inferior size. +Fifthly, another gigantic edental quadruped. Sixthly, a large animal, +with an osseous coat in compartments, very like that of an armadillo. +Seventhly, an extinct kind of horse, to which I shall have again to +refer. Eighthly, a tooth of a Pachydermatous animal, probably the same +with the Macrauchenia, a huge beast with a long neck like a camel, +which I shall also refer to again. Lastly, the Toxodon, perhaps one of +the strangest animals ever discovered: in size it equalled an elephant +or megatherium, but the structure of its teeth, as Mr. Owen states, +proves indisputably that it was intimately related to the Gnawers, the +order which, at the present day, includes most of the smallest +quadrupeds: in many details it is allied to the Pachydermata: judging +from the position of its eyes, ears, and nostrils, it was probably +aquatic, like the Dugong and Manatee, to which it is also allied. How +wonderfully are the different Orders, at the present time so well +separated, blended together in different points of the structure of the +Toxodon! + + +The remains of these nine great quadrupeds and many detached bones were +found embedded on the beach, within the space of about 200 yards +square. It is a remarkable circumstance that so many different species +should be found together; and it proves how numerous in kind the +ancient inhabitants of this country must have been. At the distance of +about thirty miles from Punta Alta, in a cliff of red earth, I found +several fragments of bones, some of large size. Among them were the +teeth of a gnawer, equalling in size and closely resembling those of +the Capybara, whose habits have been described; and therefore, +probably, an aquatic animal. There was also part of the head of a +Ctenomys; the species being different from the Tucutuco, but with a +close general resemblance. The red earth, like that of the Pampas, in +which these remains were embedded, contains, according to Professor +Ehrenberg, eight fresh-water and one salt-water infusorial animalcule; +therefore, probably, it was an estuary deposit. + +The remains at Punta Alta were embedded in stratified gravel and +reddish mud, just such as the sea might now wash up on a shallow bank. +They were associated with twenty-three species of shells, of which +thirteen are recent and four others very closely related to recent +forms.[1] From the bones of the Scelidotherium, including even the +kneecap, being entombed in their proper relative positions,[2] and from +the osseous armour of the great armadillo-like animal being so well +preserved, together with the bones of one of its legs, we may feel +assured that these remains were fresh and united by their ligaments, +when deposited in the gravel together with the shells. Hence we have +good evidence that the above enumerated gigantic quadrupeds, more +different from those of the present day than the oldest of the tertiary +quadrupeds of Europe, lived whilst the sea was peopled with most of its +present inhabitants; and we have confirmed that remarkable law so often +insisted on by Mr. Lyell, namely, that the “longevity of the species in +the mammalia is upon the whole inferior to that of the testacea.”[3] + + [1] Since this was written, M. Alcide d’Orbigny has examined these + shells, and pronounces them all to be recent. + + + [2] M. Aug. Bravard has described, in a Spanish work (_Observaciones + Geologicas_, 1857), this district, and he believes that the bones of + the extinct mammals were washed out of the underlying Pampean deposit, + and subsequently became embedded with the still existing shells; but I + am not convinced by his remarks. M. Bravard believes that the whole + enormous Pampean deposit is a sub-aerial formation, like sand-dunes: + this seems to me to be an untenable doctrine. + + + [3] _Principles of Geology_, vol. iv, p. 40. + +The great size of the bones of the Megatheroid animals, including the +Megatherium, Megalonyx, Scelidotherium, and Mylodon, is truly +wonderful. The habits of life of these animals were a complete puzzle +to naturalists, until Professor Owen[4] solved the problem with +remarkable ingenuity. The teeth indicate, by their simple structure, +that these Megatheroid animals lived on vegetable food, and probably on +the leaves and small twigs of trees; their ponderous forms and great +strong curved claws seem so little adapted for locomotion, that some +eminent naturalists have actually believed that, like the sloths, to +which they are intimately related, they subsisted by climbing back +downwards on trees, and feeding on the leaves. It was a bold, not to +say preposterous, idea to conceive even antediluvian trees, with +branches strong enough to bear animals as large as elephants. Professor +Owen, with far more probability, believes that, instead of climbing on +the trees, they pulled the branches down to them, and tore up the +smaller ones by the roots, and so fed on the leaves. The colossal +breadth and weight of their hinder quarters, which can hardly be +imagined without having been seen, become, on this view, of obvious +service, instead of being an encumbrance: their apparent clumsiness +disappears. With their great tails and their huge heels firmly fixed +like a tripod on the ground, they could freely exert the full force of +their most powerful arms and great claws. Strongly rooted, indeed, must +that tree have been, which could have resisted such force! The Mylodon, +moreover, was furnished with a long extensile tongue like that of the +giraffe, which, by one of those beautiful provisions of nature, thus +reaches with the aid of its long neck its leafy food. I may remark, +that in Abyssinia the elephant, according to Bruce, when it cannot +reach with its proboscis the branches, deeply scores with its tusks the +trunk of the tree, up and down and all round, till it is sufficiently +weakened to be broken down. + + [4] This theory was first developed in the _Zoology of the Voyage of + the Beagle_, and subsequently in Professor Owen’s _Memoir on Mylodon + robustus._ + +The beds including the above fossil remains stand only from fifteen to +twenty feet above the level of high water; and hence +the elevation of the land has been small (without there has been an +intercalated period of subsidence, of which we have no evidence) since +the great quadrupeds wandered over the surrounding plains; and the +external features of the country must then have been very nearly the +same as now. What, it may naturally be asked, was the character of the +vegetation at that period; was the country as wretchedly sterile as it +now is? As so many of the co-embedded shells are the same with those +now living in the bay, I was at first inclined to think that the former +vegetation was probably similar to the existing one; but this would +have been an erroneous inference, for some of these same shells live on +the luxuriant coast of Brazil; and generally, the characters of the +inhabitants of the sea are useless as guides to judge of those on the +land. Nevertheless, from the following considerations, I do not believe +that the simple fact of many gigantic quadrupeds having lived on the +plains round Bahia Blanca, is any sure guide that they formerly were +clothed with a luxuriant vegetation: I have no doubt that the sterile +country a little southward, near the Rio Negro, with its scattered +thorny trees, would support many and large quadrupeds. + + +That large animals require a luxuriant vegetation, has been a general +assumption which has passed from one work to another; but I do not +hesitate to say that it is completely false, and that it has vitiated +the reasoning of geologists on some points of great interest in the +ancient history of the world. The prejudice has probably been derived +from India, and the Indian islands, where troops of elephants, noble +forests, and impenetrable jungles, are associated together in every +one’s mind. If, however, we refer to any work of travels through the +southern parts of Africa, we shall find allusions in almost every page +either to the desert character of the country, or to the numbers of +large animals inhabiting it. The same thing is rendered evident by the +many engravings which have been published of various parts of the +interior. When the _ Beagle_ was at Cape Town, I made an excursion of +some days’ length into the country, which at least was sufficient to +render that which I had read more fully intelligible. + +Dr. Andrew Smith, who, at the head of his adventurous party, has lately +succeeded in passing the Tropic of Capricorn, +informs me that, taking into consideration the whole of the southern +part of Africa, there can be no doubt of its being a sterile country. +On the southern and south-eastern coasts there are some fine forests, +but with these exceptions, the traveller may pass for days together +through open plains, covered by a poor and scanty vegetation. It is +difficult to convey any accurate idea of degrees of comparative +fertility; but it may be safely said that the amount of vegetation +supported at any one time[5] by Great Britain, exceeds, perhaps even +tenfold, the quantity on an equal area in the interior parts of +Southern Africa. The fact that bullock-waggons can travel in any +direction, excepting near the coast, without more than occasionally +half an hour’s delay in cutting down bushes, gives, perhaps, a more +definite notion of the scantiness of the vegetation. Now, if we look to +the animals inhabiting these wide plains, we shall find their numbers +extraordinarily great, and their bulk immense. We must enumerate the +elephant, three species of rhinoceros, and probably, according to Dr. +Smith, two others, the hippopotamus, the giraffe, the bos caffer—as +large as a full-grown bull, and the elan—but little less, two zebras, +and the quaccha, two gnus, and several antelopes even larger than these +latter animals. It may be supposed that although the species are +numerous, the individuals of each kind are few. By the kindness of Dr. +Smith, I am enabled to show that the case is very different. He informs +me, that in lat. 24°, in one day’s march with the bullock-waggons, he +saw, without wandering to any great distance on either side, between +one hundred and one hundred and fifty rhinoceroses, which belonged to +three species: the same day he saw several herds of giraffes, amounting +together to nearly a hundred; and that, although no elephant was +observed, yet they are found in this district. At the distance of a +little more than one hour’s march from their place of encampment on the +previous night, his party actually killed at one spot eight +hippopotamuses, and saw many more. In this same river there were +likewise crocodiles. Of course it was a case quite extraordinary, to +see so many great animals crowded together, but it evidently proves +that they must exist in great numbers. Dr. Smith describes the country +passed through that day, as “being +thinly covered with grass, and bushes about four feet high, and still +more thinly with mimosa-trees.” The waggons were not prevented +travelling in a nearly straight line. + + [5] I mean by this to exclude the total amount which may have been + successively produced and consumed during a given period. + +Besides these large animals, every one the least acquainted with the +natural history of the Cape has read of the herds of antelopes, which +can be compared only with the flocks of migratory birds. The numbers +indeed of the lion, panther, and hyæna, and the multitude of birds of +prey, plainly speak of the abundance of the smaller quadrupeds: one +evening seven lions were counted at the same time prowling round Dr. +Smith’s encampment. As this able naturalist remarked to me, the carnage +each day in Southern Africa must indeed be terrific! I confess it is +truly surprising how such a number of animals can find support in a +country producing so little food. The larger quadrupeds no doubt roam +over wide tracts in search of it; and their food chiefly consists of +underwood, which probably contains much nutriment in a small bulk. Dr. +Smith also informs me that the vegetation has a rapid growth; no sooner +is a part consumed, than its place is supplied by a fresh stock. There +can be no doubt, however, that our ideas respecting the apparent amount +of food necessary for the support of large quadrupeds are much +exaggerated: it should have been remembered that the camel, an animal +of no mean bulk, has always been considered as the emblem of the +desert. + +The belief that where large quadrupeds exist, the vegetation must +necessarily be luxuriant, is the more remarkable, because the converse +is far from true. Mr. Burchell observed to me that when entering +Brazil, nothing struck him more forcibly than the splendour of the +South American vegetation contrasted with that of South Africa, +together with the absence of all large quadrupeds. In his _Travels_,[6] +he has suggested that the comparison of the respective weights (if +there were sufficient data) of an equal number of the largest +herbivorous quadrupeds of each country would be extremely curious. If +we take on the one side, the elephant,[7] hippopotamus, giraffe, bos +caffer, +elan, certainly three, and probably five species of rhinoceros; and on +the American side, two tapirs, the guanaco, three deer, the vicuna, +peccari, capybara (after which we must choose from the monkeys to +complete the number), and then place these two groups alongside each +other, it is not easy to conceive ranks more disproportionate in size. +After the above facts, we are compelled to conclude, against anterior +probability,[8] that among the mammalia there exists no close relation +between the _bulk_ of the species and the _quantity_ of the vegetation +in the countries which they inhabit. + + [6] _Travels in the Interior of South Africa_, vol. ii, p. 207. + + + [7] The elephant which was killed at Exeter Change was estimated + (being partly weighed) at five tons and a half. The elephant actress, + as I was informed, weighed one ton less; so that we may take five as + the average of a full-grown elephant. I was told at the Surry Gardens, + that a hippopotamus which was sent to England cut up into pieces was + estimated at three tons and a half; we will call it three. From these + premises we may give three tons and a half to each of the five + rhinoceroses; perhaps a ton to the giraffe, and half to the bos caffer + as well as to the elan (a large ox weighs from 1200 to 1500 pounds). + This will give an average (from the above estimates) of 2.7 of a ton + for the ten largest herbivorous animals of Southern Africa. In South + America, allowing 1200 pounds for the two tapirs together, 550 for the + guanaco and vicuna, 500 for three deer, 300 for the capybara, peccari, + and a monkey, we shall have an average of 250 pounds, which I believe + is overstating the result. The ratio will therefore be as 6048 to 250, + or 24 to 1, for the ten largest animals from the two continents. + + + [8] If we suppose the case of the discovery of a skeleton of a + Greenland whale in a fossil state, not a single cetaceous animal being + known to exist, what naturalist would have ventured conjecture on the + possibility of a carcass so gigantic being supported on the minute + crustacea and mollusca living in the frozen seas of the extreme North? + +With regard to the number of large quadrupeds, there certainly exists +no quarter of the globe which will bear comparison with Southern +Africa. After the different statements which have been given, the +extremely desert character of that region will not be disputed. In the +European division of the world, we must look back to the tertiary +epochs, to find a condition of things among the mammalia, resembling +that now existing at the Cape of Good Hope. Those tertiary epochs, +which we are apt to consider as abounding to an astonishing degree with +large animals, because we find the remains of many ages accumulated at +certain spots, could hardly boast of more large quadrupeds than +Southern Africa does at present. If we speculate on the condition of +the vegetation during those epochs, we are at least bound so far to +consider existing analogies, as not to urge as absolutely necessary a +luxuriant vegetation, when we see a state of things so totally +different at the Cape of Good Hope. + +We know[9] that the extreme regions of North America +many degrees beyond the limit where the ground at the depth of a few +feet remains perpetually congealed, are covered by forests of large and +tall trees. In a like manner, in Siberia, we have woods of birch, fir, +aspen, and larch, growing in a latitude[10] (64°) where the mean +temperature of the air falls below the freezing point, and where the +earth is so completely frozen, that the carcass of an animal embedded +in it is perfectly preserved. With these facts we must grant, as far as +_quantity alone_ of vegetation is concerned, that the great quadrupeds +of the later tertiary epochs might, in most parts of Northern Europe +and Asia, have lived on the spots where their remains are now found. I +do not here speak of the _kind_ of vegetation necessary for their +support; because, as there is evidence of physical changes, and as the +animals have become extinct, so may we suppose that the species of +plants have likewise been changed. + + [9] See _Zoological Remarks to Captain Back’s Expedition_, by Dr. + Richardson. He says, “The subsoil north of latitude 56° is perpetually + frozen, the thaw on the coast not penetrating above three feet, and at + Bear Lake, in latitude 64°, not more than twenty inches. The frozen + substratum does not of itself destroy vegetation, for forests flourish + on the surface, at a distance from the coast.” + + + [10] See Humboldt _Fragmens Asiatiques_, p. 386: Barton’s _Geography + of Plants_; and Malte Brun. In the latter work it is said that the + limit of the growth of trees in Siberia may be drawn under the + parallel of 70°. + +These remarks, I may be permitted to add, directly bear on the case of +the Siberian animals preserved in ice. The firm conviction of the +necessity of a vegetation possessing a character of tropical +luxuriance, to support such large animals, and the impossibility of +reconciling this with the proximity of perpetual congelation, was one +chief cause of the several theories of sudden revolutions of climate, +and of overwhelming catastrophes, which were invented to account for +their entombment. I am far from supposing that the climate has not +changed since the period when those animals lived, which now lie buried +in the ice. At present I only wish to show, that as far as _quantity_ +of food _alone_ is concerned, the ancient rhinoceroses might have +roamed over the _steppes_ of central Siberia (the northern parts +probably being under water) even in their present condition, as well as +the living rhinoceroses and elephants over the _Karros_ of Southern +Africa. + + +I will now give an account of the habits of some of the more +interesting birds which are common on the wild plains of Northern +Patagonia: and first for the largest, or South +American ostrich. The ordinary habits of the ostrich are familiar to +every one. They live on vegetable matter, such as roots and grass; but +at Bahia Blanca I have repeatedly seen three or four come down at low +water to the extensive mudbanks which are then dry, for the sake, as +the Gauchos say, of feeding on small fish. Although the ostrich in its +habits is so shy, wary, and solitary, and although so fleet in its +pace, it is caught without much difficulty by the Indian or Gaucho +armed with the bolas. When several horsemen appear in a semicircle, it +becomes confounded, and does not know which way to escape. They +generally prefer running against the wind; yet at the first start they +expand their wings, and like a vessel make all sail. On one fine hot +day I saw several ostriches enter a bed of tall rushes, where they +squatted concealed, till quite closely approached. It is not generally +known that ostriches readily take to the water. Mr. King informs me +that at the Bay of San Blas, and at Port Valdes in Patagonia, he saw +these birds swimming several times from island to island. They ran into +the water both when driven down to a point, and likewise of their own +accord when not frightened: the distance crossed was about two hundred +yards. When swimming, very little of their bodies appear above water; +their necks are extended a little forward, and their progress is slow. +On two occasions I saw some ostriches swimming across the Santa Cruz +river, where its course was about four hundred yards wide, and the +stream rapid. Captain Sturt,[11] when descending the Murrumbidgee, in +Australia, saw two emus in the act of swimming. + + [11] Sturt’s _Travels_, vol. ii, p. 74. + +The inhabitants of the country readily distinguish, even at a distance, +the cock bird from the hen. The former is larger and +darker-coloured,[12] and has a bigger head. The ostrich, I believe the +cock, emits a singular, deep-toned, hissing note: when first I heard +it, standing in the midst of some sand-hillocks, I thought it was made +by some wild beast, for it is a sound that one cannot tell whence it +comes, or from how far distant. When we were at Bahia Blanca in the +months of September and October, the eggs, in extraordinary numbers, +were found all +over the country. They lie either scattered and single, in which case +they are never hatched, and are called by the Spaniards huachos; or +they are collected together into a shallow excavation, which forms the +nest. Out of the four nests which I saw, three contained twenty-two +eggs each, and the fourth twenty-seven. In one day’s hunting on +horseback sixty-four eggs were found; forty-four of these were in two +nests, and the remaining twenty, scattered huachos. The Gauchos +unanimously affirm, and there is no reason to doubt their statement, +that the male bird alone hatches the eggs, and for some time afterwards +accompanies the young. The cock when on the nest lies very close; I +have myself almost ridden over one. It is asserted that at such times +they are occasionally fierce, and even dangerous, and that they have +been known to attack a man on horseback, trying to kick and leap on +him. My informer pointed out to me an old man, whom he had seen much +terrified by one chasing him. I observe in Burchell’s _Travels in South +Africa_ that he remarks, “Having killed a male ostrich, and the +feathers being dirty, it was said by the Hottentots to be a nest bird.” +I understand that the male emu in the Zoological Gardens takes charge +of the nest: this habit, therefore, is common to the family. + + [12] A Gaucho assured me that he had once seen a snow-white or Albino + variety, and that it was a most beautiful bird. + +The Gauchos unanimously affirm that several females lay in one nest. I +have been positively told that four or five hen birds have been watched +to go in the middle of the day, one after the other, to the same nest. +I may add, also, that it is believed in Africa that two or more females +lay in one nest.[13] Although this habit at first appears very strange, +I think the cause may be explained in a simple manner. The number of +eggs in the nest varies from twenty to forty, and even to fifty; and +according to Azara, sometimes to seventy or eighty. Now although it is +most probable, from the number of eggs found in one district being so +extraordinarily great in proportion to the parent birds, and likewise +from the state of the ovarium of the hen, that she may in the course of +the season lay a large number, yet the time required must be very long. +Azara states,[14] that a female in a state of domestication laid +seventeen +eggs, each at the interval of three days one from another. If the hen +was obliged to hatch her own eggs, before the last was laid the first +probably would be addled; but if each laid a few eggs at successive +periods, in different nests, and several hens, as is stated to be the +case, combined together, then the eggs in one collection would be +nearly of the same age. If the number of eggs in one of these nests is, +as I believe, not greater on an average than the number laid by one +female in the season, then there must be as many nests as females, and +each cock bird will have its fair share of the labour of incubation; +and that during a period when the females probably could not sit, from +not having finished laying.[15] I have before mentioned the great +numbers of huachos, or deserted eggs; so that in one day’s hunting +twenty were found in this state. It appears odd that so many should be +wasted. Does it not arise from the difficulty of several females +associating together, and finding a male ready to undertake the office +of incubation? It is evident that there must at first be some degree of +association between at least two females; otherwise the eggs would +remain scattered over the wide plains, at distances far too great to +allow of the male collecting them into one nest: some authors have +believed that the scattered eggs were deposited for the young birds to +feed on. This can hardly be the case in America, because the huachos, +although often found addled and putrid, are generally whole. + + [13] Burchell’s _Travels_, vol. i, p. 280. + + + [14] Azara, vol. iv, p. 173. + + + [15] Lichtenstein, however, asserts (_Travels_, vol. ii, p. 25) that + the hens begin sitting when they have laid ten or twelve eggs; and + that they continue laying, I presume in another nest. This appears to + me very improbable. He asserts that four or five hens associate for + incubation with one cock, who sits only at night. + +When at the Rio Negro in Northern Patagonia, I repeatedly heard the +Gauchos talking of a very rare bird which they called Avestruz Petise. +They described it as being less than the common ostrich (which is there +abundant), but with a very close general resemblance. They said its +colour was dark and mottled, and that its legs were shorter, and +feathered lower down than those of the common ostrich. It is more +easily caught by the bolas than the other species. The few inhabitants +who had seen both kinds, affirmed they could distinguish them apart +from a long distance. The eggs of the small species appeared, however, +more generally known; and it was remarked, with +surprise, that they were very little less than those of the Rhea but of +a slightly different form, and with a tinge of pale blue. This species +occurs most rarely on the plains bordering the Rio Negro; but about a +degree and a half farther south they are tolerably abundant. When at +Port Desire, in Patagonia (lat. 48°), Mr. Martens shot an ostrich; and +I looked at it, forgetting at the moment, in the most unaccountable +manner, the whole subject of the Petises, and thought it was a not +full-grown bird of the common sort. It was cooked and eaten before my +memory returned. Fortunately the head, neck, legs, wings, many of the +larger feathers, and a large part of the skin, had been preserved; and +from these a very nearly perfect specimen has been put together, and is +now exhibited in the museum of the Zoological Society. Mr. Gould, in +describing this new species, has done me the honour of calling it after +my name. + +Among the Patagonian Indians in the Strait of Magellan, we found a half +Indian, who had lived some years with the tribe, but had been born in +the northern provinces. I asked him if he had ever heard of the +Avestruz Petise. He answered by saying, “Why, there are none others in +these southern countries.” He informed me that the number of eggs in +the nest of the petise is considerably less than in that of the other +kind, namely, not more than fifteen on an average, but he asserted that +more than one female deposited them. At Santa Cruz we saw several of +these birds. They were excessively wary: I think they could see a +person approaching when too far off to be distinguished themselves. In +ascending the river few were seen; but in our quiet and rapid descent +many, in pairs and by fours or fives, were observed. It was remarked +that this bird did not expand its wings, when first starting at full +speed, after the manner of the northern kind. In conclusion I may +observe that the Struthio rhea inhabits the country of La Plata as far +as a little south of the Rio Negro in lat. 41°, and that the Struthio +Darwinii takes its place in Southern Patagonia; the part about the Rio +Negro being neutral territory. M. A. d’Orbigny,[16] when at the Rio +Negro, made great exertions to +procure this bird, but never had the good fortune to succeed. +Dobrizhoffer[17] long ago was aware of there being two kinds of +ostriches, he says, “You must know, moreover, that Emus differ in size +and habits in different tracts of land; for those that inhabit the +plains of Buenos Ayres and Tucuman are larger, and have black, white +and grey feathers; those near to the Strait of Magellan are smaller and +more beautiful, for their white feathers are tipped with black at the +extremity, and their black ones in like manner terminate in white.” + + [16] When at the Rio Negro, we heard much of the indefatigable labours + of this naturalist. M. Alcide d’Orbigny, during the years 1825 to + 1833, traversed several large portions of South America, and has made + a collection, and is now publishing the results on a scale of + magnificence, which at once places himself in the list of American + travellers second only to Humboldt. + + + [17] _Account of the Abipones_, A.D. 1749, vol. i, (English + translation) p. 314. + + +A very singular little bird, Tinochorus rumicivorus, is here common: in +its habits and general appearance it nearly equally partakes of the +characters, different as they are, of the quail and snipe. The +Tinochorus is found in the whole of southern South America, wherever +there are sterile plains, or open dry pasture land. It frequents in +pairs or small flocks the most desolate places, where scarcely another +living creature can exist. Upon being approached they squat close, and +then are very difficult to be distinguished from the ground. When +feeding they walk rather slowly, with their legs wide apart. They dust +themselves in roads and sandy places, and frequent particular spots, +where they may be found day after day: like partridges, they take wing +in a flock. In all these respects, in the muscular gizzard adapted for +vegetable food, in the arched beak and fleshy nostrils, short legs and +form of foot, the Tinochorus has a close affinity with quails. But as +soon as the bird is seen flying, its whole appearance changes; the long +pointed wings, so different from those in the gallinaceous order, the +irregular manner of flight, and plaintive cry uttered at the moment of +rising, recall the idea of a snipe. The sportsmen of the _Beagle_ +unanimously called it the short-billed snipe. To this genus, or rather +to the family of the Waders, its skeleton shows that it is really +related. + +The Tinochorus is closely related to some other South American birds. +Two species of the genus Attagis are in almost every respect ptarmigans +in their habits; one lives in Tierra del Fuego, above the limits of the +forest land; and the other just beneath the snow-line on the Cordillera +of Central Chile. A bird of another closely allied genus, Chionis alba, +is +an inhabitant of the antarctic regions; it feeds on seaweed and shells +on the tidal rocks. Although not web-footed, from some unaccountable +habit it is frequently met with far out at sea. This small family of +birds is one of those which, from its varied relations to other +families, although at present offering only difficulties to the +systematic naturalist, ultimately may assist in revealing the grand +scheme, common to the present and past ages, on which organised beings +have been created. + +The genus Furnarius contains several species, all small birds, living +on the ground, and inhabiting open dry countries. In structure they +cannot be compared to any European form. Ornithologists have generally +included them among the creepers, although opposed to that family in +every habit. The best known species is the common oven-bird of La +Plata, the Casara or housemaker of the Spaniards. The nest, whence it +takes its name, is placed in the most exposed situations, as on the top +of a post, a bare rock, or on a cactus. It is composed of mud and bits +of straw, and has strong thick walls: in shape it precisely resembles +an oven, or depressed beehive. The opening is large and arched, and +directly in front, within the nest, there is a partition, which reaches +nearly to the roof, thus forming a passage or antechamber to the true +nest. + +Another and smaller species of Furnarius (F. cunicularius), resembles +the oven-bird in the general reddish tint of its plumage, in a peculiar +shrill reiterated cry, and in an odd manner of running by starts. From +its affinity, the Spaniards call it Casarita (or little housebuilder), +although its nidification is quite different. The Casarita builds its +nest at the bottom of a narrow cylindrical hole, which is said to +extend horizontally to nearly six feet under ground. Several of the +country people told me, that when boys, they had attempted to dig out +the nest, but had scarcely ever succeeded in getting to the end of the +passage. The bird chooses any low bank of firm sandy soil by the side +of a road or stream. Here (at Bahia Blanca) the walls round the houses +are built of hardened mud, and I noticed that one, which enclosed a +courtyard where I lodged, was bored through by round holes in a score +of places. On asking the owner the cause of this, he bitterly +complained of the little casarita, several of which I afterwards +observed at work. It is rather curious to find how incapable these +birds +must be of acquiring any notion of thickness, for although they were +constantly flitting over the low wall, they continued vainly to bore +through it, thinking it an excellent bank for their nests. I do not +doubt that each bird, as often as it came to daylight on the opposite +side, was greatly surprised at the marvellous fact. + +I have already mentioned nearly all the mammalia common in this +country. Of armadilloes three species occur, namely, the Dasypus +minutus or _pichy_, the D. villosus or _peludo_, and the _apar._ The +first extends ten degrees farther south than any other kind; a fourth +species, the _Mulita_, does not come as far south as Bahia Blanca. The +four species have nearly similar habits; the _peludo_, however, is +nocturnal, while the others wander by day over the open plains, feeding +on beetles, larvæ, roots, and even small snakes. The _apar_, commonly +called _mataco_, is remarkable by having only three movable bands; the +rest of its tesselated covering being nearly inflexible. It has the +power of rolling itself into a perfect sphere, like one kind of English +woodlouse. In this state it is safe from the attack of dogs; for the +dog not being able to take the whole in its mouth, tries to bite one +side, and the ball slips away. The smooth hard covering of the _mataco_ +offers a better defence than the sharp spines of the hedgehog. The +_pichy_ prefers a very dry soil; and the sand-dunes near the coast, +where for many months it can never taste water, is its favourite +resort: it often tries to escape notice, by squatting close to the +ground. In the course of a day’s ride, near Bahia Blanca, several were +generally met with. The instant one was perceived, it was necessary, in +order to catch it, almost to tumble off one’s horse; for in soft soil +the animal burrowed so quickly, that its hinder quarters would almost +disappear before one could alight. It seems almost a pity to kill such +nice little animals, for as a Gaucho said, while sharpening his knife +on the back of one, “Son tan mansos” (they are so quiet). + +Of reptiles there are many kinds: one snake (a Trigonocephalus, or +Cophias, subsequently called by M. Bibron T. crepitans), from the size +of the poison channel in its fangs, must be very deadly. Cuvier, in +opposition to some other naturalists, makes this a sub-genus of the +rattlesnake, and intermediate between it and the viper. In confirmation +of this opinion, I +observed a fact, which appears to me very curious and instructive, as +showing how every character, even though it may be in some degree +independent of structure, has a tendency to vary by slow degrees. The +extremity of the tail of this snake is terminated by a point, which is +very slightly enlarged; and as the animal glides along, it constantly +vibrates the last inch; and this part striking against the dry grass +and brushwood, produces a rattling noise, which can be distinctly heard +at the distance of six feet. As often as the animal was irritated or +surprised, its tail was shaken; and the vibrations were extremely +rapid. Even as long as the body retained its irritability, a tendency +to this habitual movement was evident. This Trigonocephalus has, +therefore, in some respects the structure of a viper, with the habits +of a rattlesnake: the noise, however, being produced by a simpler +device. The expression of this snake’s face was hideous and fierce; the +pupil consisted of a vertical slit in a mottled and coppery iris; the +jaws were broad at the base, and the nose terminated in a triangular +projection. I do not think I ever saw anything more ugly, excepting, +perhaps, some of the vampire bats. I imagine this repulsive aspect +originates from the features being placed in positions, with respect to +each other, somewhat proportional to those of the human face; and thus +we obtain a scale of hideousness. + +Amongst the Batrachian reptiles, I found only one little toad +(Phryniscus nigricans), which was most singular from its colour. If we +imagine, first, that it had been steeped in the blackest ink, and then, +when dry, allowed to crawl over a board, freshly painted with the +brightest vermilion, so as to colour the soles of its feet and parts of +its stomach, a good idea of its appearance will be gained. If it had +been an unnamed species, surely it ought to have been called +_Diabolicus_, for it is a fit toad to preach in the ear of Eve. Instead +of being nocturnal in its habits, as other toads are, and living in +damp obscure recesses, it crawls during the heat of the day about the +dry sand-hillocks and arid plains, where not a single drop of water can +be found. It must necessarily depend on the dew for its moisture; and +this probably is absorbed by the skin, for it is known that these +reptiles possess great powers of cutaneous absorption. At Maldonado, I +found one in a situation nearly as dry as at Bahia Blanca, and thinking +to give it a great treat, +carried it to a pool of water; not only was the little animal unable to +swim, but I think without help it would soon have been drowned. + +Of lizards there were many kinds, but only one (Proctotretus +multimaculatus) remarkable from its habits. It lives on the bare sand +near the sea-coast, and from its mottled colour, the brownish scales +being speckled with white, yellowish red, and dirty blue, can hardly be +distinguished from the surrounding surface. When frightened, it +attempts to avoid discovery by feigning death, with outstretched legs, +depressed body, and closed eyes: if further molested, it buries itself +with great quickness in the loose sand. This lizard, from its flattened +body and short legs, cannot run quickly. + +[Illustration] + +I will here add a few remarks on the hybernation of animals in this +part of South America. When we first arrived at Bahia Blanca, September +7th, 1832, we thought nature had granted scarcely a living creature to +this sandy and dry country. By digging, however, in the ground, several +insects, large spiders, and lizards were found in a half-torpid state. +On the 15th, a few animals began to appear, and by the 18th (three days +from the equinox), everything announced the commencement of spring. The +plains were ornamented by the flowers of a pink wood-sorrel, wild peas, +œnotheræ, and geraniums; and the birds began to lay their eggs. +Numerous Lamellicorn and Heteromerous insects, the latter remarkable +for their deeply sculptured bodies, were slowly crawling about; while +the lizard tribe, the constant inhabitants of a sandy soil, darted +about in every direction. During the first eleven days, whilst nature +was dormant, the mean temperature taken from observations made every +two hours on board the _Beagle_, was 51°; and in the middle of the day +the thermometer seldom ranged above 55°. On the eleven succeeding days, +in which all living things became so animated, the mean was 58°, and +the range in the middle of the day between sixty and seventy. Here then +an increase of seven degrees in mean temperature, but a greater one of +extreme heat, was sufficient to awake the functions of life. At Monte +Video, from which we had just before sailed, in the twenty-three days +included between the 26th of July and the 19th of August, the mean +temperature from 276 observations was 58.4°; the mean hottest day being +65.5°, and +the coldest 46°. The lowest point to which the thermometer fell was +41.5°, and occasionally in the middle of the day it rose to 69° or 70°. +Yet with this high temperature, almost every beetle, several genera of +spiders, snails, and land-shells, toads and lizards, were all lying +torpid beneath stones. But we have seen that at Bahia Blanca, which is +four degrees southward, and therefore with a climate only a very little +colder, this same temperature, with a rather less extreme heat, was +sufficient to awake all orders of animated beings. This shows how +nicely the stimulus required to arouse hybernating animals is governed +by the usual climate of the district, and not by the absolute heat. It +is well known that within the tropics the hybernation, or more properly +æstivation, of animals is determined not by the temperature, but by the +times of drought. Near Rio de Janeiro, I was at first surprised to +observe that, a few days after some little depressions had been filled +with water, they were peopled by numerous full-grown shells and +beetles, which must have been lying dormant. Humboldt has related the +strange accident of a hovel having been erected over a spot where a +young crocodile lay buried in the hardened +mud. He adds, “The Indians often find enormous boas, which they call +Uji, or water serpents, in the same lethargic state. To reanimate them, +they must be irritated or wetted with water.” + +I will only mention one other animal, a zoophyte (I believe Virgularia +Patagonica), a kind of sea-pen. It consists of a thin, straight, fleshy +stem, with alternate rows of polypi on each side, and surrounding an +elastic stony axis, varying in length from eight inches to two feet. +The stem at one extremity is truncate, but at the other is terminated +by a vermiform fleshy appendage. The stony axis which gives strength to +the stem may be traced at this extremity into a mere vessel filled with +granular matter. At low water hundreds of these zoophytes might be +seen, projecting like stubble, with the truncate end upwards, a few +inches above the surface of the muddy sand. When touched or pulled they +suddenly drew themselves in with force, so as nearly or quite to +disappear. By this action, the highly elastic axis must be bent at the +lower extremity, where it is naturally slightly curved; and I imagine +it is by this elasticity alone that the zoophyte is enabled to rise +again through the mud. Each polypus, though closely united to its +brethren, has a distinct mouth, body, and tentacula. Of these polypi, +in a large specimen, there must be many thousands; yet we see that they +act by one movement: they have also one central axis connected with a +system of obscure circulation, and the ova are produced in an organ +distinct from the separate individuals.[18] Well may one be allowed to +ask, What is an individual? It is always interesting to discover the +foundation of the strange tales of the old voyagers; and I have no +doubt but that the habits of +this Virgularia explain one such case. Captain Lancaster, in his +Voyage[19] in 1601, narrates that on the sea-sands of the Island of +Sombrero, in the East Indies, he “found a small twig growing up like a +young tree, and on offering to pluck it up it shrinks down to the +ground, and sinks, unless held very hard. On being plucked up, a great +worm is found to be its root, and as the tree groweth in greatness, so +doth the worm diminish, and as soon as the worm is entirely turned into +a tree it rooteth in the earth, and so becomes great. This +transformation is one of the strangest wonders that I saw in all my +travels: for if this tree is plucked up, while young, and the leaves +and bark stripped off, it becomes a hard stone when dry, much like +white coral: thus is this worm twice transformed into different +natures. Of these we gathered and brought home many.” + + [18] The cavities leading from the fleshy compartments of the + extremity were filled with a yellow pulpy matter, which, examined + under a microscope, presented an extraordinary appearance. The mass + consisted of rounded, semi-transparent, irregular grains, aggregated + together into particles of various sizes. All such particles, and the + separate grains, possessed the power of rapid movement; generally + revolving around different axes, but sometimes progressive. The + movement was visible with a very weak power, but even with the highest + its cause could not be perceived. It was very different from the + circulation of the fluid in the elastic bag, containing the thin + extremity of the axis. On other occasions, when dissecting small + marine animals beneath the microscope, I have seen particles of pulpy + matter, some of large size, as soon as they were disengaged, commence + revolving. I have imagined, I know not with how much truth, that this + granulo-pulpy matter was in process of being converted into ova. + Certainly in this zoophyte such appeared to be the case. + + + [19] Kerr’s _Collection of Voyages_, vol. viii, p. 119. + + +During my stay at Bahia Blanca, while waiting for the _ Beagle_, the +place was in a constant state of excitement, from rumours of wars and +victories, between the troops of Rosas and the wild Indians. One day an +account came that a small party forming one of the postas on the line +to Buenos Ayres had been found all murdered. The next day three hundred +men arrived from the Colorado, under the command of Commandant Miranda. +A large portion of these men were Indians (_mansos_, or tame), +belonging to the tribe of the Cacique Bernantio. They passed the night +here; and it was impossible to conceive anything more wild and savage +than the scene of their bivouac. Some drank till they were intoxicated; +others swallowed the steaming blood of the cattle slaughtered for their +suppers, and then, being sick from drunkenness, they cast it up again, +and were besmeared with filth and gore. + +Nam simul expletus dapibus, vinoque sepultus +Cervicem inflexam posuit, jacuitque per antrum +Immensus, saniem eructans, ac frusta cruenta +Per somnum commixta mero. + +In the morning they started for the scene of the murder, with orders to +follow the rastro, or track, even if it led them +to Chile. We subsequently heard that the wild Indians had escaped into +the great Pampas, and from some cause the track had been missed. One +glance at the rastro tells these people a whole history. Supposing they +examine the track of a thousand horses, they will soon guess the number +of mounted ones by seeing how many have cantered; by the depth of the +other impressions, whether any horses were loaded with cargoes; by the +irregularity of the footsteps, how far tired; by the manner in which +the food has been cooked, whether the pursued travelled in haste; by +the general appearance, how long it has been since they passed. They +consider a rastro of ten days or a fortnight quite recent enough to be +hunted out. We also heard that Miranda struck from the west end of the +Sierra Ventana, in a direct line to the island of Cholechel, situated +seventy leagues up the Rio Negro. This is a distance of between two and +three hundred miles, through a country completely unknown. What other +troops in the world are so independent? With the sun for their guide, +mare’s flesh for food, their saddle-cloths for beds,—as long as there +is a little water, these men would penetrate to the end of the world. + +A few days afterwards I saw another troop of these banditti-like +soldiers start on an expedition against a tribe of Indians at the small +Salinas, who had been betrayed by a prisoner cacique. The Spaniard who +brought the orders for this expedition was a very intelligent man. He +gave me an account of the last engagement at which he was present. Some +Indians, who had been taken prisoners, gave information of a tribe +living north of the Colorado. Two hundred soldiers were sent; and they +first discovered the Indians by a cloud of dust from their horses’ feet +as they chanced to be travelling. The country was mountainous and wild, +and it must have been far in the interior, for the Cordillera were in +sight. The Indians, men, women, and children, were about one hundred +and ten in number, and they were nearly all taken or killed, for the +soldiers sabre every man. The Indians are now so terrified that they +offer no resistance in a body, but each flies, neglecting even his wife +and children; but when overtaken, like wild animals, they fight against +any number to the last moment. One dying Indian seized with his teeth +the thumb of his adversary, +and allowed his own eye to be forced out sooner than relinquish his +hold. Another, who was wounded, feigned death, keeping a knife ready to +strike one more fatal blow. My informer said, when he was pursuing an +Indian, the man cried out for mercy, at the same time that he was +covertly loosing the bolas from his waist, meaning to whirl it round +his head and so strike his pursuer. “I however struck him with my sabre +to the ground, and then got off my horse, and cut his throat with my +knife.” This is a dark picture; but how much more shocking is the +unquestionable fact, that all the women who appear above twenty years +old are massacred in cold blood? When I exclaimed that this appeared +rather inhuman, he answered, “Why, what can be done? they breed so!” + +Every one here is fully convinced that this is the most just war, +because it is against barbarians. Who would believe in this age that +such atrocities could be committed in a Christian civilised country? +The children of the Indians are saved, to be sold or given away as +servants, or rather slaves for as long a time as the owners can make +them believe themselves slaves; but I believe in their treatment there +is little to complain of. + +In the battle four men ran away together. They were pursued, one was +killed, and the other three were taken alive. They turned out to be +messengers or ambassadors from a large body of Indians, united in the +common cause of defence, near the Cordillera. The tribe to which they +had been sent was on the point of holding a grand council, the feast of +mare’s flesh was ready, and the dance prepared: in the morning the +ambassadors were to have returned to the Cordillera. They were +remarkably fine men, very fair, above six feet high, and all under +thirty years of age. The three survivors of course possessed very +valuable information and to extort this they were placed in a line. The +two first being questioned, answered, “No sé” (I do not know), and were +one after the other shot. The third also said “No sé;” adding, “Fire, I +am a man, and can die!” Not one syllable would they breathe to injure +the united cause of their country! The conduct of the above-mentioned +cacique was very different; he saved his life by betraying the intended +plan of warfare, and the point of union in the Andes. It was believed +that there were already six or +seven hundred Indians together, and that in summer their numbers would +be doubled. Ambassadors were to have been sent to the Indians at the +small Salinas, near Bahia Blanca, whom I have mentioned that this same +cacique had betrayed. The communication, therefore, between the +Indians, extends from the Cordillera to the coast of the Atlantic. + +General Rosas’s plan is to kill all stragglers, and having driven the +remainder to a common point, to attack them in a body, in the summer, +with the assistance of the Chilenos. This operation is to be repeated +for three successive years. I imagine the summer is chosen as the time +for the main attack, because the plains are then without water, and the +Indians can only travel in particular directions. The escape of the +Indians to the south of the Rio Negro, where in such a vast unknown +country they would be safe, is prevented by a treaty with the +Tehuelches to this effect;—that Rosas pays them so much to slaughter +every Indian who passes to the south of the river, but if they fail in +so doing, they themselves are to be exterminated. The war is waged +chiefly against the Indians near the Cordillera; for many of the tribes +on this eastern side are fighting with Rosas. The general, however, +like Lord Chesterfield, thinking that his friends may in a future day +become his enemies, always places them in the front ranks, so that +their numbers may be thinned. Since leaving South America we have heard +that this war of extermination completely failed. + +Among the captive girls taken in the same engagement, there were two +very pretty Spanish ones, who had been carried away by the Indians when +young, and could now only speak the Indian tongue. From their account +they must have come from Salta, a distance in a straight line of nearly +one thousand miles. This gives one a grand idea of the immense +territory over which the Indians roam: yet, great as it is, I think +there will not, in another half-century, be a wild Indian northward of +the Rio Negro. The warfare is too bloody to last; the Christians +killing every Indian, and the Indians doing the same by the Christians. +It is melancholy to trace how the Indians have given way before the +Spanish invaders. Schirdel[20] says that in 1535, when Buenos Ayres was +founded, there were villages +containing two and three thousand inhabitants. Even in Falconer’s time +(1750) the Indians made inroads as far as Luxan, Areco, and Arrecife, +but now they are driven beyond the Salado. Not only have whole tribes +been exterminated, but the remaining Indians have become more +barbarous: instead of living in large villages, and being employed in +the arts of fishing, as well as of the chase, they now wander about the +open plains, without home or fixed occupation. + + [20] Purchas’s _Collection of Voyages._ I believe the date was really + 1537. + +I heard also some account of an engagement which took place, a few +weeks previously to the one mentioned, at Cholechel. This is a very +important station on account of being a pass for horses; and it was, in +consequence, for some time the head-quarters of a division of the army. +When the troops first arrived there they found a tribe of Indians, of +whom they killed twenty or thirty. The cacique escaped in a manner +which astonished every one. The chief Indians always have one or two +picked horses, which they keep ready for any urgent occasion. On one of +these, an old white horse, the cacique sprung, taking with him his +little son. The horse had neither saddle nor bridle. To avoid the +shots, the Indian rode in the peculiar method of his nation; namely, +with an arm round the horse’s neck, and one leg only on its back. Thus +hanging on one side, he was seen patting the horse’s head, and talking +to him. The pursuers urged every effort in the chase; the Commandant +three times changed his horse, but all in vain. The old Indian father +and his son escaped, and were free. What a fine picture one can form in +one’s mind,—the naked, bronze-like figure of the old man with his +little boy, riding like a Mazeppa on the white horse, thus leaving far +behind him the host of his pursuers! + +I saw one day a soldier striking fire with a piece of flint, which I +immediately recognised as having been a part of the head of an arrow. +He told me it was found near the island of Cholechel, and that they are +frequently picked up there. It was between two and three inches long, +and therefore twice as large as those now used in Tierra del Fuego: it +was made of opaque cream-coloured flint, but the point and barbs had +been intentionally broken off. It is well known that no Pampas Indians +now use bows and arrows. I believe a small tribe in Banda Oriental must +be excepted; but +they are widely separated from the Pampas Indians, and border close on +those tribes that inhabit the forest, and live on foot. It appears, +therefore, that these arrow-heads are antiquarian[21] relics of the +Indians, before the great change in habits consequent on the +introduction of the horse into South America. + + [21] Azara has even doubted whether the Pampas Indians ever used bows. +[Several similar agate arrow-heads have since been dug up at Chupat, +and two were given to me, on the occasion of my visit there, by the +Governor.—R. T. Pritchett, 1880.] + + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + + + +Chapter VI + + +Set out for Buenos Ayres—Rio Sauce—Sierra Ventana—Third Posta—Driving +Horses—Bolas—Partridges and Foxes—Features of the Country—Long-legged +Plover—Teru-tero—Hail-storm—Natural Enclosures in the Sierra +Tapalguen—Flesh of Puma—Meat Diet—Guardia del Monte—Effects of Cattle +on the Vegetation—Cardoon—Buenos Ayres—Corral where Cattle are +slaughtered. + +BAHIA BLANCA TO BUENOS AYRES. + +_September_ 8_th._—I hired a Gaucho to accompany me on my ride to +Buenos Ayres, though with some difficulty, as the father of one man was +afraid to let him go, and another who seemed willing, was described to +me as so fearful that I was afraid to take him, for I was told that +even if he saw an ostrich at a distance, he would mistake it for an +Indian, and would fly like the wind away. The distance to Buenos Ayres +is about four hundred miles, and nearly the whole way through an +uninhabited country. We started early in the morning; ascending a few +hundred feet from the basin of green turf on which Bahia Blanca stands, +we entered on a wide desolate plain. It consists of a +crumbling argillaceo-calcareous rock, which, from the dry nature of the +climate, supports only scattered tufts of withered grass, without a +single bush or tree to break the monotonous uniformity. The weather was +fine, but the atmosphere remarkably hazy; I thought the appearance +foreboded a gale, but the Gauchos said it was owing to the plain, at +some great distance in the interior, being on fire. After a long +gallop, having changed horses twice, we reached the Rio Sauce: it is a +deep, rapid, little stream, not above twenty-five feet wide. The second +posta on the road to Buenos Ayres stands on its banks, a little above +there is a ford for horses, where the water does not reach to the +horses’ belly; but from that point, in its course to the sea, it is +quite impassable, and hence makes a most useful barrier against the +Indians. + +Insignificant as this stream is, the Jesuit Falconer, whose information +is generally so very correct, figures it as a considerable river, +rising at the foot of the Cordillera. With respect to its source, I do +not doubt that this is the case; for the Gauchos assured me, that in +the middle of the dry summer this stream, at the same time with the +Colorado, has periodical floods, which can only originate in the snow +melting on the Andes. It is extremely improbable that a stream so small +as the Sauce then was should traverse the entire width of the +continent; and indeed, if it were the residue of a large river, its +waters, as in other ascertained cases, would be saline. During the +winter we must look to the springs round the Sierra Ventana as the +source of its pure and limpid stream. I suspect the plains of +Patagonia, like those of Australia, are traversed by many watercourses, +which only perform their proper parts at certain periods. Probably this +is the case with the water which flows into the head of Port Desire, +and likewise with the Rio Chupat, on the banks of which masses of +highly cellular scoriæ were found by the officers employed in the +survey. + +As it was early in the afternoon when we arrived, we took fresh horses +and a soldier for a guide, and started for the Sierra de la Ventana. +This mountain is visible from the anchorage at Bahia Blanca; and +Captain Fitz Roy calculates its height to be 3340 feet—an altitude very +remarkable on this eastern side of the continent. I am not aware that +any +foreigner, previous to my visit, had ascended this mountain; and indeed +very few of the soldiers at Bahia Blanca knew anything about it. Hence +we heard of beds of coal, of gold and silver, of caves, and of forests, +all of which inflamed my curiosity, only to disappoint it. The distance +from the posta was about six leagues, over a level plain of the same +character as before. The ride was, however, interesting, as the +mountain began to show its true form. When we reached the foot of the +main ridge, we had much difficulty in finding any water, and we thought +we should have been obliged to have passed the night without any. At +last we discovered some by looking close to the mountain, for at the +distance even of a few hundred yards, the streamlets were buried and +entirely lost in the friable calcareous stone and loose detritus. I do +not think Nature ever made a more solitary, desolate pile of rock;—it +well deserves its name of _Hurtado_, or separated. The mountain is +steep, extremely rugged, and broken, and so entirely destitute of +trees, and even bushes, that we actually could not make a skewer to +stretch out our meat over the fire of thistle-stalks.[1] The strange +aspect of this mountain is contrasted by the sea-like plain, which not +only abuts against its steep sides, but likewise separates the parallel +ranges. The uniformity of the colouring gives an extreme quietness to +the view;—the whitish grey of the quartz rock, and the light brown of +the withered grass of the plain, being unrelieved by any brighter tint. +From custom one expects to see in the neighbourhood of a lofty and bold +mountain a broken country strewed over with huge fragments. Here Nature +shows that the last movement before the bed of the sea is changed into +dry land may sometimes be one of tranquillity. Under these +circumstances I was curious to observe how far from the parent rock any +pebbles could be found. On the shores of Bahia Blanca, and near the +settlement, there were some of quartz, which certainly must have come +from this source: the distance is forty-five miles. + + [1] I call these thistle-stalks for the want of a more correct name. I + believe it is a species of Eryngium. + +The dew, which in the early part of the night wetted the saddle-cloths +under which we slept, was in the morning frozen. The plain, though +appearing horizontal, had insensibly sloped +up to a height of between 800 and 900 feet above the sea. In the +morning (9th of September) the guide told me to ascend the nearest +ridge, which he thought would lead me to the four peaks that crown the +summit. The climbing up such rough rocks was very fatiguing; the sides +were so indented, that what was gained in one five minutes was often +lost in the next. At last, when I reached the ridge, my disappointment +was extreme in finding a precipitous valley as deep as the plain, which +cut the chain traversely in two, and separated me from the four points. +This valley is very narrow, but flat-bottomed, and it forms a fine +horse-pass for the Indians, as it connects the plains on the northern +and southern sides of the range. Having descended, and while crossing +it, I saw two horses grazing: I immediately hid myself in the long +grass, and began to reconnoitre; but as I could see no signs of Indians +I proceeded cautiously on my second ascent. It was late in the day, and +this part of the mountain, like the other, was steep and rugged. I was +on the top of the second peak by two o’clock, but got there with +extreme difficulty; every twenty yards I had the cramp in the upper +part of both thighs, so that I was afraid I should not have been able +to have got down again. It was also necessary to return by another +road, as it was out of the question to pass over the saddle-back. I was +therefore obliged to give up the two higher peaks. Their altitude was +but little greater, and every purpose of geology had been answered; so +that the attempt was not worth the hazard of any further exertion. I +presume the cause of the cramp was the great change in the kind of +muscular action, from that of hard riding to that of still harder +climbing. It is a lesson worth remembering, as in some cases it might +cause much difficulty. + +I have already said the mountain is composed of white quartz rock, and +with it a little glossy clay-slate is associated. At the height of a +few hundred feet above the plain, patches of conglomerate adhered in +several places to the solid rock. They resembled in hardness, and in +the nature of the cement, the masses which may be seen daily forming on +some coasts. I do not doubt these pebbles were in a similar manner +aggregated, at a period when the great calcareous formation was +depositing beneath the surrounding sea. We may believe +that the jagged and battered forms of the hard quartz yet show the +effects of the waves of an open ocean. + +I was, on the whole, disappointed with this ascent. Even the view was +insignificant;—a plain like the sea, but without its beautiful colour +and defined outline. The scene, however, was novel, and a little +danger, like salt to meat, gave it a relish. That the danger was very +little was certain, for my two companions made a good fire—a thing +which is never done when it is suspected that Indians are near. I +reached the place of our bivouac by sunset, and drinking much maté, and +smoking several cigaritos, soon made up my bed for the night. The wind +was very strong and cold, but I never slept more comfortably. + + +_September_ 10_th._—In the morning, having fairly scudded before the +gale, we arrived by the middle of the day at the Sauce posta. On the +road we saw great numbers of deer, and near the mountain a guanaco. The +plain, which abuts against the Sierra, is traversed by some curious +gulleys, of which one was about twenty feet wide, and at least thirty +deep; we were obliged in consequence to make a considerable circuit +before we could find a pass. We stayed the night at the posta, the +conversation, as was generally the case, being about the Indians. The +Sierra Ventana was formerly a great place of resort; and three or four +years ago there was much fighting there. My guide had been present when +many Indians were killed: the women escaped to the top of the ridge, +and fought most desperately with great stones; many thus saving +themselves. + + +_September_ 11_th._—Proceeded to the third posta in company with the +lieutenant who commanded it. The distance is called fifteen leagues; +but it is only guess-work, and is generally overstated. The road was +uninteresting, over a dry grassy plain; and on our left hand at a +greater or less distance there were some low hills; a continuation of +which we crossed close to the posta. Before our arrival we met a large +herd of cattle and horses, guarded by fifteen soldiers; but we were +told many had been lost. It is very difficult to drive animals across +the plains; for if in the night a puma, or even a fox, approaches, +nothing can prevent the horses dispersing in every direction; and a +storm will have the same effect. A short time since, an officer left +Buenos Ayres with five hundred horses, and when he arrived at the army +he had under twenty. + +Soon afterwards we perceived by the cloud of dust, that a party of +horsemen were coming towards us; when far distant my companions knew +them to be Indians, by their long hair streaming behind their backs. +The Indians generally have a fillet round their heads, but never any +covering; and their black hair blowing across their swarthy faces, +heightens to an uncommon degree the wildness of their appearance. They +turned out to be a party of Bernantio’s friendly tribe, going to a +salina for salt. The Indians eat much salt, their children sucking it +like sugar. This habit is very different from that of the Spanish +Gauchos, who, leading the same kind of life, eat scarcely any: +according to Mungo Park,[2] it is people who live on vegetable food who +have an unconquerable desire for salt. The Indians gave us +good-humoured nods as they passed at full gallop, driving before them a +troop of horses, and followed by a train of lanky dogs. + + [2] _Travels in Africa_, p. 233. + + +_September_ 12_th_ and 13_th._—I stayed at this posta two days, waiting +for a troop of soldiers, which General Rosas had the kindness to send +to inform me would shortly travel to Buenos Ayres; and he advised me to +take the opportunity of the escort. In the morning we rode to some +neighbouring hills to view the country, and to examine the geology. +After dinner the soldiers divided themselves into two parties for a +trial of skill with the bolas. Two spears were stuck in the ground +twenty-five yards apart, but they were struck and entangled only once +in four or five times. The balls can be thrown fifty or sixty yards, +but with little certainty. This, however, does not apply to a man on +horseback; for when the speed of the horse is added to the force of the +arm, it is said that they can be whirled with effect to the distance of +eighty yards. As a proof of their force, I may mention, that at the +Falkland Islands, when the Spaniards murdered some of their own +countrymen and all the Englishmen, a young friendly Spaniard was +running away, when a great tall man, by name Luciano, +came at full gallop after him, shouting to him to stop, and saying that +he only wanted to speak to him. Just as the Spaniard was on the point +of reaching the boat, Luciano threw the balls: they struck him on the +legs with such a jerk, as to throw him down and to render him for some +time insensible. The man, after Luciano had had his talk, was allowed +to escape. He told us that his legs were marked by great weals, where +the thong had wound round, as if he had been flogged with a whip. In +the middle of the day two men arrived, who brought a parcel from the +next posta to be forwarded to the general: so that besides these two, +our party consisted this evening of my guide and self, the lieutenant, +and his four soldiers. The latter were strange beings; the first a fine +young negro; the second half Indian and negro; and the two others +nondescripts; namely, an old Chilian miner, the colour of mahogany, and +another partly a mulatto; but two such mongrels, with such detestable +expressions, I never saw before. At night, when they were sitting round +the fire, and playing at cards, I retired to view such a Salvator Rosa +scene. They were seated under a low cliff, so that I could look down +upon them; around the party were lying dogs, arms, remnants of deer and +ostriches; and their long spears were stuck in the turf. Farther in the +dark background their horses were tied up, ready for any sudden danger. +If the stillness of the desolate plain was broken by one of the dogs +barking, a soldier, leaving the fire, would place his head close to the +ground, and thus slowly scan the horizon. Even if the noisy teru-tero +uttered its scream, there would be a pause in the conversation, and +every head, for a moment, a little inclined. + +What a life of misery these men appear to us to lead! They were at +least ten leagues from the Sauce posta, and since the murder committed +by the Indians, twenty from another. The Indians are supposed to have +made their attack in the middle of the night; for very early in the +morning after the murder, they were luckily seen approaching this +posta. The whole party here, however, escaped, together with the troop +of horses; each one taking a line for himself, and driving with him as +many animals as he was able to manage. + +The little hovel, built of thistle-stalks, in which they slept, +neither kept out the wind nor rain; indeed in the latter case the only +effect the roof had, was to condense it into larger drops. They had +nothing to eat excepting what they could catch, such as ostriches, +deer, armadilloes, etc., and their only fuel was the dry stalks of a +small plant, somewhat resembling an aloe. The sole luxury which these +men enjoyed was smoking the little paper cigars, and sucking maté. I +used to think that the carrion vultures, man’s constant attendants on +these dreary plains, while seated on the little neighbouring cliffs, +seemed by their very patience to say, “Ah! when the Indians come we +shall have a feast.” + +[Illustration] + +In the morning we all sallied forth to hunt, and although we had not +much success, there were some animated chases. Soon after starting the +party separated, and so arranged their plans, that at a certain time of +the day (in guessing which they show much skill) they should all meet +from different points of the compass on a plain piece of ground, and +thus drive together the wild animals. One day I went out hunting at +Bahia Blanca, but the men there merely rode in a crescent, each being +about +a quarter of a mile apart from the other. A fine male ostrich being +turned by the headmost riders, tried to escape on one side. The Gauchos +pursued at a reckless pace, twisting their horses about with the most +admirable command, and each man whirling the balls round his head. At +length the foremost threw them, revolving through the air: in an +instant the ostrich rolled over and over, its legs fairly lashed +together by the thong. + +The plains abound with three kinds of partridge,[3] two of which are as +large as hen pheasants. Their destroyer, a small and pretty fox, was +also singularly numerous; in the course of the day we could not have +seen less than forty or fifty. They were generally near their earths, +but the dogs killed one. When we returned to the posta, we found two of +the party returned who had been hunting by themselves. They had killed +a puma, and had found an ostrich’s nest with twenty-seven eggs in it. +Each of these is said to equal in weight eleven hens’ eggs; so that we +obtained from this one nest as much food as 297 hens’ eggs would have +given. + + [3] Two species of Tinamus and _Eudromia elegans_ of A. d’Orbigny, + which can only be called a partridge with regard to its habits. + + +_September_ 14_th._—As the soldiers belonging to the next posta meant to +return, and we should together make a party of five, and all armed, I +determined not to wait for the expected troops. My host, the +lieutenant, pressed me much to stop. As he had been very obliging—not +only providing me with food, but lending me his private horses—I wanted +to make him some remuneration. I asked my guide whether I might do so, +but he told me certainly not; that the only answer I should receive +probably would be, “We have meat for the dogs in our country, and +therefore do not grudge it to a Christian.” It must not be supposed +that the rank of lieutenant in such an army would at all prevent the +acceptance of payment: it was only the high sense of hospitality, which +every traveller is bound to acknowledge as nearly universal throughout +these provinces. After galloping some leagues, we came to a low swampy +country, which extends for nearly eighty miles northward, as far as the +Sierra Tapalguen. In some parts there were fine damp plains, covered +with grass, while others had a soft, black, and peaty soil. There +were also many extensive but shallow lakes, and large beds of reeds. +The country on the whole resembled the better parts of the +Cambridgeshire fens. At night we had some difficulty in finding, amidst +the swamps, a dry place for our bivouac. + + +_September_ 15_th._—Rose very early in the morning, and shortly after +passed the posta where the Indians had murdered the five soldiers. The +officer had eighteen chuzo wounds in his body. By the middle of the +day, after a hard gallop, we reached the fifth posta: on account of +some difficulty in procuring horses we stayed there the night. As this +point was the most exposed on the whole line, twenty-one soldiers were +stationed here; at sunset they returned from hunting, bringing with +them seven deer, three ostriches, and many armadilloes and partridges. +When riding through the country, it is a common practice to set fire to +the plain; and hence at night, as on this occasion, the horizon was +illuminated in several places by brilliant conflagrations. This is done +partly for the sake of puzzling any stray Indians, but chiefly for +improving the pasture. In grassy plains unoccupied by the larger +ruminating quadrupeds, it seems necessary to remove the superfluous +vegetation by fire, so as to render the new year’s growth serviceable. + +The rancho at this place did not boast even of a roof, but merely +consisted of a ring of thistle-stalks, to break the force of the wind. +It was situated on the borders of an extensive but shallow lake, +swarming with wild fowl, among which the black-necked swan was +conspicuous. + +The kind of plover which appears as if mounted on stilts (Himantopus +nigricollis), is here common in flocks of considerable size. It has +been wrongfully accused of inelegance; when wading about in shallow +water, which is its favourite resort, its gait is far from awkward. +These birds in a flock utter a noise, that singularly resembles the cry +of a pack of small dogs in full chase: waking in the night, I have more +than once been for a moment startled at the distant sound. The +teru-tero (Vanellus cayanus) is another bird which often disturbs the +stillness of the night. In appearance and habits it resembles in many +respects our peewits; its wings, however, are armed with sharp spurs, +like those on the legs of the common cock. As our peewit takes its name +from the sound of its voice, +so does the teru-tero. While riding over the grassy plains, one is +constantly pursued by these birds, which appear to hate mankind, and I +am sure deserve to be hated for their never-ceasing, unvaried, harsh +screams. To the sportsman they are most annoying, by telling every +other bird and animal of his approach: to the traveller in the country +they may possibly, as Molina says, do good, by warning him of the +midnight robber. During the breeding season, they attempt, like our +peewits, by feigning to be wounded, to draw away from their nests dogs +and other enemies. The eggs of this bird are esteemed a great delicacy. + + +_September_ 16_th._—To the seventh posta at the foot of the Sierra +Tapalguen. The country was quite level, with a coarse herbage and a +soft peaty soil. The hovel was here remarkably neat, the posts and +rafters being made of about a dozen dry thistle-stalks bound together +with thongs of hide; and by the support of these Ionic-like columns, +the roof and sides were thatched with reeds. We were here told a fact, +which I would not have credited, if I had not had partly ocular proof +of it; namely, that, during the previous night, hail as large as small +apples, and extremely hard, had fallen with such violence as to kill +the greater number of the wild animals. One of the men had already +found thirteen deer (Cervus campestris) lying dead, and I saw their +_fresh_ hides; another of the party, a few minutes after my arrival, +brought in seven more. Now I well know, that one man without dogs could +hardly have killed seven deer in a week. The men believed they had seen +about fifteen dead ostriches (part of one of which we had for dinner); +and they said that several were running about evidently blind in one +eye. Numbers of smaller birds, as ducks, hawks, and partridges, were +killed. I saw one of the latter with a black mark on its back, as if it +had been struck with a paving-stone. A fence of thistle-stalks round +the hovel was nearly broken down, and my informer, putting his head out +to see what was the matter, received a severe cut, and now wore a +bandage. The storm was said to have been of limited extent: we +certainly saw from our last night’s bivouac a dense cloud and lightning +in this direction. It is marvellous how such strong animals as deer +could thus have been killed; but I have no doubt, from the evidence I +have +given, that the story is not in the least exaggerated. I am glad, +however, to have its credibility supported by the Jesuit +Dobrizhoffer,[4] who, speaking of a country much to the northward, +says, hail fell of an enormous size and killed vast numbers of cattle: +the Indians hence called the place _Lalegraicavalca_, meaning “the +little white things.” Dr. Malcolmson, also, informs me that he +witnessed in 1831 in India a hail-storm, which killed numbers of large +birds and much injured the cattle. These hail-stones were flat, and one +was ten inches in circumference, and another weighed two ounces. They +ploughed up a gravel-walk like musket-balls, and passed through +glass-windows, making round holes, but not cracking them. + + [4] _History of the Abipones_, vol. ii, p. 6. + +Having finished our dinner of hail-stricken meat, we crossed the Sierra +Tapalguen; a low range of hills, a few hundred feet in height, which +commences at Cape Corrientes. The rock in this part is pure quartz; +farther eastward I understand it is granitic. The hills are of a +remarkable form; they consist of flat patches of table-land, surrounded +by low perpendicular cliffs, like the outliers of a sedimentary +deposit. The hill which I ascended was very small, not above a couple +of hundred yards in diameter; but I saw others larger. One which goes +by the name of the “Corral,” is said to be two or three miles in +diameter, and encompassed by perpendicular cliffs between thirty and +forty feet high, excepting at one spot, where the entrance lies. +Falconer[5] gives a curious account of the Indians driving troops of +wild horses into it, and then by guarding the entrance keeping them +secure. I have never heard of any other instance of table-land in a +formation of quartz, and which, in the hill I examined, had neither +cleavage nor stratification. I was told that the rock of the “Corral” +was white, and would strike fire. + + [5] Falconer’s _Patagonia_, p. 70. + +We did not reach the posta on the Rio Tapalguen till after it was dark. +At supper, from something which was said, I was suddenly struck with +horror at thinking that I was eating one of the favourite dishes of the +country, namely, a half formed calf, long before its proper time of +birth. It turned out to be Puma; the meat is very white, and remarkably +like veal in taste. Dr. Shaw was laughed at for stating that “the flesh +of the lion is +in great esteem, having no small affinity with veal, both in colour, +taste, and flavour.” Such certainly is the case with the Puma. The +Gauchos differ in their opinion whether the Jaguar is good eating, but +are unanimous in saying that cat is excellent. + + +_September_ 17_th._—We followed the course of the Rio Tapalguen, +through a very fertile country, to the ninth posta. Tapalguen itself, +or the town of Tapalguen, if it may be so called, consists of a +perfectly level plain, studded over, as far as the eye can reach, with +the toldos, or oven-shaped huts of the Indians. The families of the +friendly Indians, who were fighting on the side of Rosas, resided here. +We met and passed many young Indian women, riding by two or three +together on the same horse: they, as well as many of the young men, +were strikingly handsome,—their fine ruddy complexions being the +picture of health. Besides the toldos, there were three ranchos; one +inhabited by the Commandant, and the two others by Spaniards with small +shops. + +We were here able to buy some biscuit. I had now been several days +without tasting anything besides meat: I did not at all dislike this +new regimen; but I felt as if it would only have agreed with me with +hard exercise. I have heard that patients in England, when desired to +confine themselves exclusively to an animal diet, even with the hope of +life before their eyes, have hardly been able to endure it. Yet the +Gaucho in the Pampas, for months together, touches nothing but beef. +But they eat, I observe, a very large proportion of fat, which is of a +less animalised nature; and they particularly dislike dry meat, such as +that of the Agouti. Dr. Richardson,[6] also, has remarked, “that when +people have fed for a long time solely upon lean animal food, the +desire for fat becomes so insatiable, that they can consume a large +quantity of unmixed and even oily fat without nausea:” this appears to +me a curious physiological fact. It is, perhaps, from their meat +regimen that the Gauchos, like other carnivorous animals, can abstain +long from food. I was told that at Tandeel some troops voluntarily +pursued a party of Indians for three days, without eating or drinking. + + [6] _Fauna Boreali-Americana_, vol. i, p. 35. + + +We saw in the shops many articles, such as horsecloths, belts, and +garters, woven by the Indian women. The patterns were very pretty, and +the colours brilliant; the workmanship of the garters was so good that +an English merchant at Buenos Ayres maintained they must have been +manufactured in England, till he found the tassels had been fastened by +split sinew. + + +_September_ 18_th._—We had a very long ride this day. At the twelfth +posta, which is seven leagues south of the Rio Salado, we came to the +first estancia with cattle and white women. Afterwards we had to ride +for many miles through a country flooded with water above our horses’ +knees. By crossing the stirrups, and riding Arab-like with our legs +bent up, we contrived to keep tolerably dry. It was nearly dark when we +arrived at the Salado; the stream was deep, and about forty yards wide; +in summer, however, its bed becomes almost dry, and the little +remaining water nearly as salt as that of the sea. We slept at one of +the great estancias of General Rosas. It was fortified, and of such an +extent, that arriving in the dark I thought it was a town and fortress. +In the morning we saw immense herds of cattle, the general here having +seventy-four square leagues of land. Formerly nearly three hundred men +were employed about this estate, and they defied all the attacks of the +Indians. + + +_September_ 19_th._—Passed the Guardia del Monte. This is a nice +scattered little town, with many gardens, full of peach and quince +trees. The plain here looked like that around Buenos Ayres; the turf +being short and bright green, with beds of clover and thistles, and +with bizcacha holes. I was very much struck with the marked change in +the aspect of the country after having crossed the Salado. From a +coarse herbage we passed on to a carpet of fine green verdure. I at +first attributed this to some change in the nature of the soil, but the +inhabitants assured me that here, as well as in Banda Oriental, where +there is as great a difference between the country around Monte Video +and the thinly-inhabited savannahs of Colonia, the whole was to be +attributed to the manuring and grazing of the cattle. Exactly the same +fact has been observed in the prairies[7] of +North America, where coarse grass, between five and six feet high, when +grazed by cattle, changes into common pasture land. I am not botanist +enough to say whether the change here is owing to the introduction of +new species, to the altered growth of the same, or to a difference in +their proportional numbers. Azara has also observed with astonishment +this change: he is likewise much perplexed by the immediate appearance +of plants not occurring in the neighbourhood, on the borders of any +track that leads to a newly-constructed hovel. In another part he +says,[8] “Ces chevaux (sauvages) ont la manie de préférer les chemins, +et le bord des routes pour déposer leurs excrémens, dont on trouve des +monceaux dans ces endroits.” Does this not partly explain the +circumstance? We thus have lines of richly manured land serving as +channels of communication across wide districts. + + [7] See Mr. Atwater’s “Account of the Prairies,” in _Silliman’s North + American Journal_, vol. i, p. 117. + + + [8] Azara’s _Voyage_, vol. i, p. 373. + + +[Illustration] + +Near the Guardia we find the southern limit of two European plants, now +become extraordinarily common. The fennel in great profusion covers the +ditch-banks in the neighbourhood of Buenos Ayres, Monte Video, and +other towns. But the cardoon (Cynara cardunculus)[9] has a far wider +range: it occurs in these latitudes on both sides of the Cordillera, +across the continent. I saw it in unfrequented spots in Chile, Entre +Rios, and Banda Oriental. In the latter country alone, very many +(probably several hundred) square miles are covered by one mass of +these prickly plants, and are impenetrable by man or beast. Over the +undulating plains, where these great beds occur, nothing else can now +live. Before their introduction, however, the surface must have +supported, as in other parts, a rank herbage. I doubt whether any case +is on record of an invasion on so grand a scale of one plant over the +aborigines. As I have already said, I nowhere saw the cardoon south of +the Salado; but it is +probable that in proportion as that country becomes inhabited, the +cardoon will extend its limits. The case is different with the giant +thistle (with variegated leaves) of the Pampas, for I met with it in +the valley of the Sauce. According to the principles so well laid down +by Mr. Lyell, few countries have undergone more remarkable changes, +since the year 1535, when the first colonist of La Plata landed with +seventy-two horses. The countless herds of horses, cattle, and sheep, +not only have altered the whole aspect of the vegetation, but they have +almost banished the guanaco, deer, and ostrich. Numberless other +changes must likewise have taken place; the wild pig in some parts +probably replaces the peccari; packs of wild dogs may be heard howling +on the wooded banks of the less-frequented streams; and the common cat, +altered into a large and fierce animal, inhabits rocky hills. As M. +d’Orbigny has remarked, the increase in numbers of the carrion-vulture, +since the introduction of the domestic animals, must have been +infinitely great; and we have given reasons for believing that they +have extended their southern range. No doubt many plants, besides the +cardoon and fennel, are naturalised; thus the islands near the mouth of +the Parana are thickly clothed with peach and orange trees, springing +from seeds carried there by the waters of the river. + + [9] M. A. d’Orbigny (vol. i, p. 474) says that the cardoon and + artichoke are both found wild. Dr. Hooker (_Botanical Magazine_, vol. + lv. p. 2862) has described a variety of the Cynara from this part of + South America under the name of inermis. He states that botanists are + now generally agreed that the cardoon and the artichoke are varieties + of one plant. I may add, that an intelligent farmer assured me that he + had observed in a deserted garden some artichokes changing into the + common cardoon. Dr. Hooker believes that Head’s vivid description of + the thistle of the Pampas applies to the cardoon, but this is a + mistake. Captain Head referred to the plant which I have mentioned a + few lines lower down under the title of giant thistle. Whether it is a + true thistle, I do not know; but it is quite different from the + cardoon; and more like a thistle properly so called. + +While changing horses at the Guardia several people questioned us much +about the army,—I never saw anything like the enthusiasm for Rosas, and +for the success of the “most just of all wars, because against +barbarians.” This expression, it must be confessed, is very natural, +for till lately, neither man, woman, nor horse was safe from the +attacks of the Indians. We had a long day’s ride over the same rich +green plain, abounding with various flocks, and with here and there a +solitary estancia, and its one _ombu_ tree. In the evening it rained +heavily: on arriving at a post-house we were told by the owner that if +we had not a regular passport we must pass on, for there were so many +robbers he would trust no one. When he read, however, my passport, +which began with “El Naturalista Don Carlos,” his respect and civility +were as unbounded as his suspicions had been before. What a naturalist +might be, neither he nor his countrymen, I suspect, had any idea; but +probably my title lost nothing of its value from that cause. + + +_September_ 20_th._—We arrived by the middle of the day at Buenos +Ayres. The outskirts of the city looked quite pretty, with the agave +hedges, and groves of olive, peach and willow trees, all just throwing +out their fresh green leaves. I rode to the house of Mr. Lumb, an +English merchant, to whose kindness and hospitality, during my stay in +the country, I was greatly indebted. + +The city of Buenos Ayres is large;[10] and I should think one of the +most regular in the world. Every street is at right angles to the one +it crosses, and the parallel ones being equidistant, the houses are +collected into solid squares of equal dimensions, which are called +quadras. On the other hand, the houses themselves are hollow squares; +all the rooms opening into a neat little courtyard. They are generally +only one story high, with flat roofs, which are fitted with seats, and +are much frequented by the inhabitants in summer. In the centre of the +town is the Plaza, where the public offices, fortress, cathedral, etc., +stand. Here also, the old viceroys, before the revolution, had their +palaces. The general assemblage of buildings possesses considerable +architectural beauty, although none individually can boast of any. + + [10] It is said to contain 60,000 inhabitants. Monte Video, the second + town of importance on the banks of the Plata, has 15,000. + +The great _corral_, where the animals are kept for slaughter to supply +food to this beef-eating population, is one of the spectacles best +worth seeing. The strength of the horse as compared to that of the +bullock is quite astonishing: a man on horseback having thrown his lazo +round the horns of a beast, can drag it anywhere he chooses. The animal +ploughing up the ground with outstretched legs, in vain efforts to +resist the force, generally dashes at full speed to one side; but the +horse, immediately turning to receive the shock, stands so firmly that +the bullock is almost thrown down, and it is surprising that their +necks are not broken. The struggle is not, however, one of fair +strength; the horse’s girth being matched against the bullock’s +extended neck. In a similar manner a man can hold the wildest horse, if +caught with the lazo, just behind the ears. When the bullock has been +dragged to the spot where it is to be slaughtered, the _matador_ with +great caution cuts the hamstrings. Then is given the death +bellow; a noise more expressive of fierce agony than any I know. I have +often distinguished it from a long distance, and have always known that +the struggle was then drawing to a close. The whole sight is horrible +and revolting: the ground is almost made of bones; and the horses and +riders are drenched with gore. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + + + +Chapter VII + + +Excursion to St. Fé—Thistle Beds—Habits of the Bizcacha—Little +Owl—Saline Streams—Level Plains—Mastodon—St. Fé—Change in +Landscape—Geology—Tooth of extinct Horse—Relation of the Fossil and +recent Quadrupeds of North and South America—Effects of a great +Drought—Parana—Habits of the Jaguar—Scissor-beak—Kingfisher, Parrot, +and Scissor-tail—Revolution—Buenos Ayres—State of Government. + +BUENOS AYRES TO ST. FÉ. + +_September_ 27_th._—In the evening I set out on an excursion to St. Fé, +which is situated nearly three hundred English miles from Buenos Ayres, +on the banks of the Parana. The roads in the neighbourhood of the city, +after the rainy weather, were extraordinarily bad. I should never have +thought it possible for a bullock waggon to have crawled along: as it +was, they scarcely went at the rate of a mile an hour, and a man was +kept ahead, to survey the best line for making the attempt. The +bullocks were terribly jaded: it is a great mistake to suppose that +with improved roads, and an accelerated rate of travelling, the +sufferings of the animals increase in the same +proportion. We passed a train of waggons and a troop of beasts on their +road to Mendoza. The distance is about 580 geographical miles, and the +journey is generally performed in fifty days. These waggons are very +long, narrow, and thatched with reeds; they have only two wheels, the +diameter of which in some cases is as much as ten feet. Each is drawn +by six bullocks, which are urged on by a goad at least twenty feet +long: this is suspended from within the roof; for the wheel bullocks a +smaller one is kept; and for the intermediate pair, a point projects at +right angles from the middle of the long one. The whole apparatus +looked like some implement of war. + +_September_ 28_th._—We passed the small town of Luxan, where there is a +wooden bridge over the river—a most unusual convenience in this +country. We passed also Areco. The plains appeared level, but were not +so in fact; for in various places the horizon was distant. The +estancias are here wide apart; for there is little good pasture, owing +to the land being covered by beds either of an acrid clover, or of the +great thistle. The latter, well known from the animated description +given by Sir F. Head, were at this time of the year two-thirds grown; +in some parts they were as high as the horse’s back, but in others they +had not yet sprung up, and the ground was bare and dusty as on a +turnpike-road. The clumps were of the most brilliant green, and they +made a pleasing miniature-likeness of broken forest land. When the +thistles are full grown, the great beds are impenetrable, except by a +few tracks, as intricate as those in a labyrinth. These are only known +to the robbers, who at this season inhabit them, and sally forth at +night to rob and cut throats with impunity. Upon asking at a house +whether robbers were numerous, I was answered, “The thistles are not up +yet;”—the meaning of which reply was not at first very obvious. There +is little interest in passing over these tracts, for they are inhabited +by few animals or birds, excepting the bizcacha and its friend the +little owl. + +The bizcacha[1] is well known to form a prominent feature in the +zoology of the Pampas. It is found as far south as the +Rio Negro, in lat. 41°, but not beyond. It cannot, like the agouti, +subsist on the gravelly and desert plains of Patagonia, but prefers a +clayey or sandy soil, which produces a different and more abundant +vegetation. Near Mendoza, at the foot of the Cordillera, it occurs in +close neighbourhood with the allied alpine species. It is a very +curious circumstance in its geographical distribution, that it has +never been seen, fortunately for the inhabitants of Banda Oriental, to +the eastward of the river Uruguay: yet in this province there are +plains which appear admirably adapted to its habits. The Uruguay has +formed an insuperable obstacle to its migration: although the broader +barrier of the Parana has been passed, and the bizcacha is common in +Entre Rios, the province between these two great rivers. Near Buenos +Ayres these animals are exceedingly common. Their most favourite resort +appears to be those parts of the plain which during one half of the +year are covered with giant thistles, to the exclusion of other plants. +The Gauchos affirm that it lives on roots; which, from the great +strength of its gnawing teeth, and the kind of places frequented by it, +seems probable. In the evening the bizcachas come out in numbers, and +quietly sit at the mouths of their burrows on their haunches. At such +times they are very tame, and a man on horseback passing by seems only +to present an object for their grave contemplation. They run very +awkwardly, and when running out of danger, from their elevated tails +and short front legs, much resemble great rats. Their flesh, when +cooked, is very white and good, but it is seldom used. + + [1] The bizcacha (Lagostomus trichodactylus) somewhat resembles a + large rabbit, but with bigger gnawing teeth and a long tail; it has, + however, only three toes behind, like the agouti. During the last + three or four years the skins of these animals have been sent to + England for the sake of the fur. + +The bizcacha has one very singular habit; namely, dragging every hard +object to the mouth of its burrow: around each group of holes many +bones of cattle, stones, thistle-stalks, hard lumps of earth, dry dung, +etc., are collected into an irregular heap, which frequently amounts to +as much as a wheelbarrow would contain. I was credibly informed that a +gentleman, when riding on a dark night, dropped his watch; he returned +in the morning, and by searching the neighbourhood of every bizcacha +hole on the line of road, as he expected, he soon found it. This habit +of picking up whatever may be lying on the ground anywhere near its +habitation must cost much trouble. For what purpose it is done, I am +quite unable to form even the most remote conjecture: it cannot be for +defence, because the rubbish is chiefly placed above the mouth of the +burrow, which enters the ground at a very small inclination. No doubt +there must exist some good reason; but the inhabitants of the country +are quite ignorant of it. The only fact which I know analogous to it, +is the habit of that extraordinary Australian bird, the Calodera +maculata, which makes an elegant vaulted passage of twigs for playing +in, and which collects near the spot land and sea-shells, bones, and +the feathers of birds, especially brightly coloured ones. Mr. Gould, +who has described these facts, informs me, that the natives, when they +lose any hard object, search the playing passages, and he has known a +tobacco-pipe thus recovered. + +The little owl (Athene cunicularia), which has been so often mentioned, +on the plains of Buenos Ayres exclusively inhabits the holes of the +bizcacha; but in Banda Oriental it is its own workman. During the open +day, but more especially in the evening, these birds may be seen in +every direction standing frequently by pairs on the hillock near their +burrows. If disturbed they either enter the hole, or, uttering a shrill +harsh cry, move with a remarkably undulatory flight to a short +distance, and then turning round, steadily gaze at their pursuer. +Occasionally in the evening they may be heard hooting. I found in the +stomachs of two which I opened the remains of mice, and I one day saw a +small snake killed and carried away. It is said that snakes are their +common prey during the daytime. I may here mention, as showing on what +various kinds of food owls subsist, that a species killed among the +islets of the Chonos Archipelago had its stomach full of good-sized +crabs. In India[2] there is a fishing genus of owls, which likewise +catches crabs. + + [2] _Journal of Asiatic Soc._, vol. v, p. 363. + +In the evening we crossed the Rio Arrecife on a simple raft made of +barrels lashed together, and slept at the post-house on the other side. +I this day paid horse-hire for thirty-one leagues; and although the sun +was glaring hot I was but little fatigued. When Captain Head talks of +riding fifty leagues a day, I do not imagine the distance is equal to +150 English miles. At all events, the thirty-one leagues was only 76 +miles in a straight line, and in an open country I should think four +additional miles for turnings would be a sufficient allowance. + + +29_th and_ 30_th._—We continued to ride over plains of the same +character. At San Nicolas I first saw the noble river of the Parana. At +the foot of the cliff on which the town stands, some large vessels were +at anchor. Before arriving at Rozario, we crossed the Saladillo, a +stream of fine clear running water, but too saline to drink. Rozario is +a large town built on a dead level plain, which forms a cliff about +sixty feet high over the Parana. The river here is very broad, with +many islands, which are low and wooded, as is also the opposite shore. +The view would resemble that of a great lake, if it were not for the +linear-shaped islets, which alone give the idea of running water. The +cliffs are the most picturesque part; sometimes they are absolutely +perpendicular, and of a red colour; at other times in large broken +masses, covered with cacti and mimosa-trees. The real grandeur, +however, of an immense river like this is derived from reflecting how +important a means of communication and commerce it forms between one +nation and another; to what a distance it travels, and from how vast a +territory it drains the great body of fresh water which flows past your +feet. + +[Illustration] + +For many leagues north and south of San Nicolas and Rozario, the +country is really level. Scarcely anything which travellers have +written about its extreme flatness can be +considered as exaggeration. Yet I could never find a spot where, by +slowly turning round, objects were not seen at greater distances in +some directions than in others; and this manifestly proves inequality +in the plain. At sea, a person’s eye being six feet above the surface +of the water, his horizon is two miles and four-fifths distant. In like +manner, the more level the plain, the more nearly does the horizon +approach within these narrow limits; and this, in my opinion, entirely +destroys that grandeur which one would have imagined that a vast level +plain would have possessed. + +[Illustration] + +_October_ 1_st._—We started by moonlight and arrived at the Rio Tercero +by sunrise. This river is also called the Saladillo, and it deserves +the name, for the water is brackish. I stayed here the greater part of +the day, searching for fossil bones. Besides a perfect tooth of the +Toxodon, and many scattered bones, I found two immense skeletons near +each other, projecting in bold relief from the perpendicular cliff of +the Parana. They were, however, so completely decayed, that I could +only bring away small fragments of one of the great molar teeth; but +these are sufficient to show that the remains belonged to a Mastodon, +probably to the same species with that which formerly must have +inhabited the Cordillera in Upper Peru in such great numbers. The men +who took me in the canoe said +they had long known of these skeletons, and had often wondered how they +had got there: the necessity of a theory being felt, they came to the +conclusion that, like the bizcacha, the mastodon was formerly a +burrowing animal! In the evening we rode another stage, and crossed the +Monge, another brackish stream, bearing the dregs of the washings of +the Pampas. + +_October_ 2_nd._—We passed through Corunda, which, from the luxuriance +of its gardens, was one of the prettiest villages I saw. From this +point to St. Fé the road is not very safe. The western side of the +Parana northward ceases to be inhabited; and hence the Indians +sometimes come down thus far, and waylay travellers. The nature of the +country also favours this, for instead of a grassy plain, there is an +open woodland, composed of low prickly mimosas. We passed some houses +that had been ransacked and since deserted; we saw also a spectacle, +which my guides viewed with high satisfaction; it was the skeleton of +an Indian with the dried skin hanging on the bones, suspended to the +branch of a tree. + +In the morning we arrived at St. Fé. I was surprised to observe how +great a change of climate a difference of only three degrees of +latitude between this place and Buenos Ayres had caused. This was +evident from the dress and complexion of the men—from the increased +size of the ombu-trees—the number of new cacti and other plants—and +especially from the birds. In the course of an hour I remarked +half-a-dozen birds, which I had never seen at Buenos Ayres. Considering +that there is no natural boundary between the two places, and that the +character of the country is nearly similar, the difference was much +greater than I should have expected. + +_October_ 3_rd and_ 4_th._—I was confined for these two days to my bed +by a headache. A good-natured old woman, who attended me, wished me to +try many odd remedies. A common practice is, to bind an orange-leaf or +a bit of black plaster to each temple: and a still more general plan +is, to split a bean into halves, moisten them, and place one on each +temple, where they will easily adhere. It is not thought proper ever to +remove the beans or plaster, but to allow them to drop off, and +sometimes, if a man, with patches on his head, is asked, what is the +matter? he will answer, “I had a headache the day before yesterday.” +Many of the remedies used by the people +of the country are ludicrously strange, but too disgusting to be +mentioned. One of the least nasty is to kill and cut open two puppies +and bind them on each side of a broken limb. Little hairless dogs are +in great request to sleep at the feet of invalids. + +St. Fé is a quiet little town, and is kept clean and in good order. The +governor, Lopez, was a common soldier at the time of the revolution; +but has now been seventeen years in power. This stability of government +is owing to his tyrannical habits; for tyranny seems as yet better +adapted to these countries than republicanism. The governor’s favourite +occupation is hunting Indians: a short time since he slaughtered +forty-eight, and sold the children at the rate of three or four pounds +apiece. + +_October_ 5_th._—We crossed the Parana to St. Fé Bajada, a town on the +opposite shore. The passage took some hours, as the river here +consisted of a labyrinth of small streams, separated by low wooded +islands. I had a letter of introduction to an old Catalonian Spaniard, +who treated me with the most uncommon hospitality. The Bajada is the +capital of Entre Rios. In 1825 the town contained 6000 inhabitants, and +the province 30,000; yet, few as the inhabitants are, no province has +suffered more from bloody and desperate revolutions. They boast here of +representatives, ministers, a standing army, and governors: so it is no +wonder that they have their revolutions. At some future day this must +be one of the richest countries of La Plata. The soil is varied and +productive; and its almost insular form gives it two grand lines of +communication by the rivers Parana and Uruguay. + + +I was delayed here five days, and employed myself in examining the +geology of the surrounding country, which was very interesting. We here +see at the bottom of the cliffs, beds containing sharks’ teeth and +sea-shells of extinct species, passing above into an indurated marl, +and from that into the red clayey earth of the Pampas, with its +calcareous concretions and the bones of terrestrial quadrupeds. This +vertical section clearly tells us of a large bay of pure salt-water, +gradually encroached on, and at last converted into the bed of a muddy +estuary, into which floating carcasses were swept. At Punta Gorda, in +Banda Oriental, I found an alternation of the Pampæan estuary deposit, +with a limestone containing some of the same extinct sea-shells; and +this shows either a change in the former currents, or more probably an +oscillation of level in the bottom of the ancient estuary. Until +lately, my reasons for considering the Pampæan formation to be an +estuary deposit were, its general appearance, its position at the mouth +of the existing great river the Plata, and the presence of so many +bones of terrestrial quadrupeds: but now Professor Ehrenberg has had +the kindness to examine for me a little of the red earth, taken from +low down in the deposit, close to the skeletons of the mastodon, and he +finds in it many infusoria, partly salt-water and partly fresh-water +forms, with the latter rather preponderating; and therefore, as he +remarks, the water must have been brackish. M. A. d’Orbigny found on +the banks of the Parana, at the height of a hundred feet, great beds of +an estuary shell, now living a hundred miles lower down nearer the sea; +and I found similar shells at a less height on the banks of the +Uruguay; this shows that just before the Pampas was slowly elevated +into dry land, the water covering it was brackish. Below Buenos Ayres +there are upraised beds of sea-shells of existing species, which also +proves that the period of elevation of the Pampas was within the recent +period. + +In the Pampæan deposit at the Bajada I found the osseous armour of a +gigantic armadillo-like animal, the inside of which, when the earth was +removed, was like a great cauldron; I found also teeth of the Toxodon +and Mastodon, and one tooth of a Horse, in the same stained and decayed +state. This latter tooth greatly interested me,[3] and I took +scrupulous care in ascertaining that it had been embedded +contemporaneously with the other remains; for I was not then aware that +amongst the fossils from Bahia Blanca there was a horse’s tooth hidden +in the matrix: nor was it then known with certainty that the remains of +horses are common in North America. Mr. Lyell has lately brought from +the United States a tooth of a horse; and it is an interesting fact, +that Professor Owen could find in no species, either fossil or recent, +a slight but peculiar curvature characterising it, until he thought of +comparing it with my +specimen found here: he has named this American horse Equus curvidens. +Certainly it is a marvellous fact in the history of the Mammalia, that +in South America a native horse should have lived and disappeared, to +be succeeded in after ages by the countless herds descended from the +few introduced with the Spanish colonists! + + [3] I need hardly state here that there is good evidence against any + horse living in America at the time of Columbus. + + +[Illustration] + +The existence in South America of a fossil horse, of the mastodon, +possibly of an elephant,[4] and of a hollow-horned ruminant, discovered +by MM. Lund and Clausen in the caves of Brazil, are highly interesting +facts with respect to the geographical distribution of animals. At the +present time, if we divide America, not by the Isthmus of Panama, but +by the southern part of Mexico[5] in lat. 20°, where the great +table-land presents an obstacle to the migration of species, by +affecting the climate, and by forming, with the exception of some +valleys and of a fringe of low land on the coast, a broad barrier; we +shall then have the two zoological provinces of North and South +America strongly contrasted with each other. Some few species alone +have passed the barrier, and may be considered as wanderers from the +south, such as the puma, opossum, kinkajou, and peccari. South America +is characterised by possessing many peculiar gnawers, a family of +monkeys, the llama, peccari, tapir, opossums, and, especially, several +genera of Edentata, the order which includes the sloths, ant-eaters, +and armadilloes. North America, on the other hand, is characterised +(putting on one side a few wandering species) by numerous peculiar +gnawers, and by four genera (the ox, sheep, goat, and antelope) of +hollow-horned ruminants, of which great division South America is not +known to possess a single species. Formerly, but within the period when +most of the now existing shells were living, North America possessed, +besides hollow-horned ruminants, the elephant, mastodon, horse, and +three genera of Edentata, namely, the Megatherium, Megalonyx, and +Mylodon. Within nearly this same period (as proved by the shells at +Bahia Blanca) South America possessed, as we have just seen, a +mastodon, horse, hollow-horned ruminant, and the same three genera (as +well as several others) of the Edentata. Hence it is evident that North +and South America, in having within a late geological period these +several genera in common, were much more closely related in the +character of their terrestrial inhabitants than they now are. The more +I reflect on this case, the more interesting it appears: I know of no +other instance where we can almost mark the period and manner of the +splitting up of one great region into two well-characterised zoological +provinces. The geologist, who is fully impressed with the vast +oscillations of level which have affected the earth’s crust within late +periods, will not fear to speculate on the recent elevation of the +Mexican platform, or, more probably, on the recent submergence of land +in the West Indian Archipelago, as the cause of the present zoological +separation of North and South America. The South American character of +the West Indian mammals[6] seems to indicate that this archipelago was +formerly united to the southern continent, and that it has subsequently +been an area of subsidence. + + [4] Cuvier, _Ossemens Fossils_, tome i, p. 158. + + + [5] This is the geographical division followed by Lichtenstein, + Swainson, Erichson, and Richardson. The section from Vera Cruz to + Acapulco, given by Humboldt in the _Polit. Essay on Kingdom of N. + Spain_ will show how immense a barrier the Mexican table-land forms. + Dr. Richardson, in his admirable _Report on the Zoology of N. America_ + read before the British Assoc. 1836 (p. 157), talking of the + identification of a Mexican animal with the _ Synetheres prehensilis_, + says, “We do not know with what propriety, but if correct, it is, if + not a solitary instance, at least very nearly so, of a rodent animal + being common to North and South America.” + + + [6] See Dr. Richardson’s _Report_, p. 157; also _L’Institut_, 1837, p. + 253. Cuvier says the kinkajou is found in the larger Antilles, but + this is doubtful. M. Gervais states that the Didelphis crancrivora is + found there. It is certain that the West Indies possess some mammifers + peculiar to themselves. A tooth of a mastodon has been brought from + Bahama; _Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal_, 1826, p. 395. + + +[Illustration] + + +When America, and especially North America, possessed its elephants, +mastodons, horse, and hollow-horned ruminants, it was much more closely +related in its zoological characters to the temperate parts of Europe +and Asia than it now is. As the remains of these genera are found on +both sides of Behring’s Straits[7] and on the plains of Siberia, we are +led to look to the north-western side of North America as the former +point of communication between the Old and so-called New World. And as +so many species, both living and extinct, of these same +genera inhabit and have inhabited the Old World, it seems most probable +that the North American elephants, mastodons, horse, and hollow-horned +ruminants migrated, on land since submerged near Behring’s Straits, +from Siberia into North America, and thence, on land since submerged in +the West Indies, into South America, where for a time they mingled with +the forms characteristic of that southern continent, and have since +become extinct. + + [7] See the admirable Appendix by Dr. Buckland to Beechey’s _Voyage_; + also the writings of Chamisso in Kotzebue’s _Voyage._ + + +While travelling through the country, I received several vivid +descriptions of the effects of a late great drought; and the account of +this may throw some light on the cases where vast numbers of animals of +all kinds have been embedded together. The period included between the +years 1827 and 1830 is called the “gran seco,” or the great drought. +During this time so little rain fell, that the vegetation, even to the +thistles, failed; the brooks were dried up, and the whole country +assumed the appearance of a dusty high-road. This was especially the +case in the northern part of the province of Buenos Ayres and the +southern part of St. Fé. Very great numbers of birds, wild animals, +cattle, and horses perished from the want of food and water. A man told +me that the deer[8] used to come into his courtyard to the well, which +he had been obliged to dig to supply his own family with water; and +that the partridges had hardly strength to fly away when pursued. The +lowest estimation of the loss of cattle in the province of Buenos Ayres +alone, was taken at one million head. A proprietor at San Pedro had +previously to these years 20,000 cattle; at the end not one remained. +San Pedro is situated in the middle of the finest country; and even now +abounds again with animals; yet during the latter part of the “gran +seco,” live cattle were brought in vessels for the consumption +of the inhabitants. The animals roamed from their estancias, and, +wandering far southward, were mingled together in such multitudes, that +a government commission was sent from Buenos Ayres to settle the +disputes of the owners. Sir Woodbine Parish informed me of another and +very curious source of dispute; the ground being so long dry, such +quantities of dust were blown about, that in this open country the +landmarks became obliterated, and people could not tell the limits of +their estates. I was informed by an eye-witness that the cattle in +herds of thousands rushed into the Parana, and being exhausted by +hunger they were unable to crawl up the muddy banks, and thus were +drowned. The arm of the river which runs by San Pedro was so full of +putrid carcasses, that the master of a vessel told me that the smell +rendered it quite impassable. Without doubt several hundred thousand +animals thus perished in the river: their bodies when putrid were seen +floating down the stream; and many in all probability were deposited in +the estuary of the Plata. All the small rivers became highly saline, +and this caused the death of vast numbers in particular spots; for when +an animal drinks of such water it does not recover. Azara describes[9] +the fury of the wild horses on a similar occasion, rushing into the +marshes, those which arrived first being overwhelmed and crushed by +those which followed. He adds that more than once he has seen the +carcasses of upwards of a thousand wild horses thus destroyed. I +noticed that the smaller streams in the Pampas were paved with a +breccia of bones, but this probably is the effect of a gradual +increase, rather than of the destruction at any one period. +Subsequently to the drought of 1827 to 1832, a very rainy season +followed which caused great floods. Hence it is almost certain that +some thousands of the skeletons were buried by the deposits of the very +next year. What would be the opinion of a geologist, viewing such an +enormous collection of bones, of all kinds of animals and of all ages, +thus embedded in one thick earthy mass? Would he not attribute it to a +flood having swept over the surface of the land, rather than to the +common order of things?[10] + + [8] In Captain Owen’s _Surveying Voyage_ (vol. ii, p. 274) there is a + curious account of the effects of a drought on the elephants, at + Benguela (west coast of Africa). “A number of these animals had some + time since entered the town, in a body, to possess themselves of the + wells, not being able to procure any water in the country. The + inhabitants mustered, when a desperate conflict ensued, which + terminated in the ultimate discomfiture of the invaders, but not until + they had killed one man, and wounded several others.” The town is said + to have a population of nearly three thousand! Dr. Malcolmson informs + me, that during a great drought in India the wild animals entered the + tents of some troops at Ellore, and that a hare drank out of a vessel + held by the adjutant of the regiment.) + + + [9] _Travels_, vol. i, p. 374. + + + [10] These droughts to a certain degree seem to be almost periodical; + I was told the dates of several others, and the intervals were about + fifteen years. + + +_October_ 12_th._—I had intended to push my excursion farther, but not +being quite well, I was compelled to return by a balandra, or +one-masted vessel of about a hundred tons’ burden, which was bound to +Buenos Ayres. As the weather was not fair, we moored early in the day +to a branch of a tree on one of the islands. The Parana is full of +islands, which undergo a constant round of decay and renovation. In the +memory of the master several large ones had disappeared, and others +again had been formed and protected by vegetation. They are composed of +muddy sand, without even the smallest pebble, and were then about four +feet above the level of the river; but during the periodical floods +they are inundated. They all present one character; numerous willows +and a few other trees are bound together by a great variety of creeping +plants, thus forming a thick jungle. These thickets afford a retreat +for capybaras and jaguars. The fear of the latter animal quite +destroyed all pleasure in scrambling through the woods. This evening I +had not proceeded a hundred yards, before, finding indubitable signs of +the recent presence of the tiger, I was obliged to come back. On every +island there were tracks; and as on the former excursion “el rastro de +los Indios” had been the subject of conversation, so in this was “el +rastro del tigre.” + +The wooded banks of the great rivers appear to be the favourite haunts +of the jaguar; but south of the Plata, I was told that they frequented +the reeds bordering lakes: wherever they are, they seem to require +water. Their common prey is the capybara, so that it is generally said, +where capybaras are numerous there is little danger from the jaguar. +Falconer states that near the southern side of the mouth of the Plata +there are many jaguars, and that they chiefly live on fish; this +account I have heard repeated. On the Parana they have killed many +wood-cutters, and have even entered vessels at night. There is a man +now living in the Bajada, who, coming up from below when it was dark, +was seized on the deck; he escaped, however, with the loss of the use +of one arm. When the floods drive these animals from the islands, they +are most dangerous. I was told that a few years since a very large one +found its way into a church at St. Fé: two padres entering one after +the other were killed, and a third, who came to see what +was the matter, escaped with difficulty. The beast was destroyed by +being shot from a corner of the building which was unroofed. They +commit also at these times great ravages among cattle and horses. It is +said that they kill their prey by breaking their necks. If driven from +the carcass, they seldom return to it. The Gauchos say that the jaguar, +when wandering about at night, is much tormented by the foxes yelping +as they follow him. This is a curious coincidence with the fact which +is generally affirmed of the jackals accompanying, in a similarly +officious manner, the East Indian tiger. The jaguar is a noisy animal, +roaring much by night, and especially before bad weather. + +One day, when hunting on the banks of the Uruguay, I was shown certain +trees, to which these animals constantly recur for the purpose, as it +is said, of sharpening their claws. I saw three well-known trees; in +front, the bark was worn smooth, as if by the breast of the animal, and +on each side there were deep scratches, or rather grooves, extending in +an oblique line, nearly a yard in length. The scars were of different +ages. A common method of ascertaining whether a jaguar is in the +neighbourhood is to examine these trees. I imagine this habit of the +jaguar is exactly similar to one which may any day be seen in the +common cat, as with outstretched legs and exserted claws it scrapes the +leg of a chair; and I have heard of young fruit-trees in an orchard in +England having been thus much injured. Some such habit must also be +common to the puma, for on the bare hard soil of Patagonia I have +frequently seen scores so deep that no other animal could have made +them. The object of this practice is, I believe, to tear off the ragged +points of their claws, and not, as the Gauchos think, to sharpen them. +The jaguar is killed, without much difficulty, by the aid of dogs +baying and driving him up a tree, where he is despatched with bullets. + +Owing to bad weather we remained two days at our moorings. Our only +amusement was catching fish for our dinner: there were several kinds, +and all good eating. A fish called the “armado” (a Silurus) is +remarkable from a harsh grating noise which it makes when caught by +hook and line, and which can be distinctly heard when the fish is +beneath the water. This same fish has the power of firmly catching hold +of any object, such as the blade of an oar or the fishing-line, with +the strong spine both of its pectoral and dorsal fin. In the evening +the weather was quite tropical, the thermometer standing at 79°. +Numbers of fireflies were hovering about, and the musquitoes were very +troublesome. I exposed my hand for five minutes, and it was soon black +with them; I do not suppose there could have been less than fifty, all +busy sucking. + +[Illustration] + +_October_ 15_th._—We got under way and passed Punta Gorda, where there +is a colony of tame Indians from the province of Missiones. We sailed +rapidly down the current, but before sunset, from a silly fear of bad +weather, we brought-to in a narrow arm of the river. I took the boat +and rowed some distance up this creek. It was very narrow, winding, and +deep; on each side a wall thirty or forty feet high, formed by trees +intwined with creepers, gave to the canal a singularly gloomy +appearance. I here saw a very extraordinary bird, called the +Scissor-beak (Rhynchops nigra). It has short legs, web feet, extremely +long-pointed wings, and is of about the size of a tern. +The beak is flattened laterally, that is, in a plane at right angles to +that of a spoonbill or duck. It is as flat and elastic as an ivory +paper-cutter, and the lower mandible, differently from every other +bird, is an inch and a half longer than the upper. In a lake near +Maldonado, from which the water had been nearly drained, and which, in +consequence, swarmed with small fry, I saw several of these birds, +generally in small flocks, flying rapidly backwards and forwards close +to the surface of the lake. They kept their bills wide open, and the +lower mandible half buried in the water. Thus skimming the surface, +they ploughed it in their course: the water was quite smooth, and it +formed a most curious spectacle to behold a flock, each bird leaving +its narrow wake on the mirror-like surface. In their flight they +frequently twist about with extreme quickness, and dexterously manage +with their projecting lower mandible to plough up small fish, which are +secured by the upper and shorter half of their scissor-like bills. This +fact I repeatedly saw, as, like swallows, they continued to fly +backwards and forwards close before me. Occasionally when leaving the +surface of the water their flight was wild, irregular, and rapid; they +then uttered loud harsh cries. When these birds are fishing, the +advantage of the long primary feathers of their wings, in keeping them +dry, is very evident. When thus employed, their forms resemble the +symbol by which many artists represent marine birds. Their tails are +much used in steering their irregular course. + +These birds are common far inland along the course of the Rio Parana; +it is said that they remain here during the whole year, and breed in +the marshes. During the day they rest in flocks on the grassy plains, +at some distance from the water. Being at anchor, as I have said, in +one of the deep creeks between the islands of the Parana, as the +evening drew to a close, one of these scissor-beaks suddenly appeared. +The water was quite still, and many little fish were rising. The bird +continued for a long time to skim the surface, flying in its wild and +irregular manner up and down the narrow canal, now dark with the +growing night and the shadows of the overhanging trees. At Monte Video, +I observed that some large flocks during the day remained on the +mud-banks at the head of the harbour, in the same manner as on the +grassy plains near the Parana; and every evening they took flight +seaward. From +these facts I suspect that the Rhynchops generally fishes by night, at +which time many of the lower animals come most abundantly to the +surface. M. Lesson states that he has seen these birds opening the +shells of the mactræ buried in the sand-banks on the coast of Chile: +from their weak bills, with the lower mandible so much projecting, +their short legs and long wings, it is very improbable that this can be +a general habit. + +In our course down the Parana, I observed only three other birds, whose +habits are worth mentioning. One is a small kingfisher (Ceryle +Americana); it has a longer tail than the European species, and hence +does not sit in so stiff and upright a position. Its flight also, +instead of being direct and rapid, like the course of an arrow, is weak +and undulatory, as among the soft-billed birds. It utters a low note, +like the clicking together of two small stones. A small green parrot +(Conurus murinus), with a grey breast, appears to prefer the tall trees +on the islands to any other situation for its building-place. A number +of nests are placed so close together as to form one great mass of +sticks. These parrots always live in flocks, and commit great ravages +on the corn-fields. I was told that near Colonia 2500 were killed in +the course of one year. A bird with a forked tail, terminated by two +long feathers (Tyrannus savana), and named by the Spaniards +scissor-tail, is very common near Buenos Ayres: it commonly sits on a +branch of the _ ombu_ tree, near a house, and thence takes a short +flight in pursuit of insects, and returns to the same spot. When on the +wing it presents in its manner of flight and general appearance a +caricature-likeness of the common swallow. It has the power of turning +very shortly in the air, and in so doing opens and shuts its tail, +sometimes in a horizontal or lateral and sometimes in a vertical +direction, just like a pair of scissors. + +_October_ 16_th._—Some leagues below Rozario, the western shore of the +Parana is bounded by perpendicular cliffs, which extend in a long line +to below San Nicolas; hence it more resembles a sea-coast than that of +a fresh-water river. It is a great drawback to the scenery of the +Parana, that, from the soft nature of its banks, the water is very +muddy. The Uruguay, flowing through a granitic country, is much +clearer; and where the two channels unite at the head of the Plata, the +waters may for a long distance be distinguished by their black and red +colours. In the evening, the wind being not quite fair, as usual we +immediately moored, and the next day, as it blew rather freshly, though +with a favouring current, the master was much too indolent to think of +starting. At Bajada, he was described to me as “hombre muy aflicto”—a +man always miserable to get on; but certainly he bore all delays with +admirable resignation. He was an old Spaniard, and had been many years +in this country. He professed a great liking to the English, but +stoutly maintained that the battle of Trafalgar was merely won by the +Spanish captains having been all bought over; and that the only really +gallant action on either side was performed by the Spanish admiral. It +struck me as rather characteristic, that this man should prefer his +countrymen being thought the worst of traitors, rather than unskilful +or cowardly. + +18_th and_ 19_th._—We continued slowly to sail down the noble stream: +the current helped us but little. We met, during our descent, very few +vessels. One of the best gifts of nature, in so grand a channel of +communication, seems here wilfully thrown away—a river in which ships +might navigate from a temperate country, as surprisingly abundant in +certain productions as destitute of others, to another possessing a +tropical climate, and a soil which, according to the best of judges, M. +Bonpland, is perhaps unequalled in fertility in any part of the world. +How different would have been the aspect of this river if English +colonists had by good fortune first sailed up the Plata! What noble +towns would now have occupied its shores! Till the death of Francia, +the Dictator of Paraguay, these two countries must remain distinct, as +if placed on opposite sides of the globe. And when the old +bloody-minded tyrant is gone to his long account, Paraguay will be torn +by revolutions, violent in proportion to the previous unnatural calm. +That country will have to learn, like every other South American state, +that a republic cannot succeed till it contains a certain body of men +imbued with the principles of justice and honour. + +_October_ 20_th._—Being arrived at the mouth of the Parana, and as I +was very anxious to reach Buenos Ayres, I went on shore at Las Conchas, +with the intention of riding there. Upon landing, I found to my great +surprise that I was to a certain degree a prisoner. A violent +revolution having broken out, all +the ports were laid under an embargo. I could not return to my vessel, +and as for going by land to the city, it was out of the question. After +a long conversation with the commandant, I obtained permission to go +the next day to General Rolor, who commanded a division of the rebels +on this side the capital. In the morning I rode to the encampment. The +general, officers, and soldiers, all appeared, and I believe really +were, great villains. The general, the very evening before he left the +city, voluntarily went to the Governor, and with his hand to his heart, +pledged his word of honour that he at least would remain faithful to +the last. The general told me that the city was in a state of close +blockade, and that all he could do was to give me a passport to the +commander-in-chief of the rebels at Quilmes. We had therefore to take a +great sweep round the city, and it was with much difficulty that we +procured horses. My reception at the encampment was quite civil, but I +was told it was impossible that I could be allowed to enter the city. I +was very anxious about this, as I anticipated the _Beagle’s_ departure +from the Rio Plata earlier than it took place. Having mentioned, +however, General Rosas’s obliging kindness to me when at the Colorado, +magic itself could not have altered circumstances quicker than did this +conversation. I was instantly told that though they could not give me a +passport, if I chose to leave my guide and horses, I might pass their +sentinels. I was too glad to accept of this, and an officer was sent +with me to give directions that I should not be stopped at the bridge. +The road for the space of a league was quite deserted. I met one party +of soldiers, who were satisfied by gravely looking at an old passport: +and at length I was not a little pleased to find myself within the +city. + +This revolution was supported by scarcely any pretext of grievances: +but in a state which, in the course of nine months (from February to +October, 1820), underwent fifteen changes in its government—each +governor, according to the constitution, being elected for three +years—it would be very unreasonable to ask for pretexts. In this case, +a party of men—who, being attached to Rosas, were disgusted with the +governor Balcarce—to the number of seventy left the city, and with the +cry of Rosas the whole country took arms. The city was then blockaded, +no provisions, cattle or horses, were allowed to enter; besides this, +there was only a little skirmishing, and a few men daily killed. The +outside party well knew that by stopping the supply of meat they would +certainly be victorious. General Rosas could not have known of this +rising; but it appears to be quite consonant with the plans of his +party. A year ago he was elected governor, but he refused it, unless +the Sala would also confer on him extraordinary powers. This was +refused, and since then his party have shown that no other governor can +keep his place. The warfare on both sides was avowedly protracted till +it was possible to hear from Rosas. A note arrived a few days after I +left Buenos Ayres, which stated that the General disapproved of peace +having been broken, but that he thought the outside party had justice +on their side. On the bare reception of this the Governor, ministers, +and part of the military, to the number of some hundreds, fled from the +city. The rebels entered, elected a new governor, and were paid for +their services to the number of 5500 men. From these proceedings, it +was clear that Rosas ultimately would become the dictator: to the term +king, the people in this, as in other republics, have a particular +dislike. Since leaving South America, we have heard that Rosas has been +elected, with powers and for a time altogether opposed to the +constitutional principles of the republic. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + + + +Chapter VIII + + +Excursion to Colonia del Sacramiento—Value of an Estancia—Cattle, how +counted—Singular Breed of Oxen—Perforated Pebbles—Shepherd-dogs—Horses +broken-in, Gauchos Riding—Character of Inhabitants—Rio Plata—Flocks of +Butterflies—Aëronaut Spiders—Phosphorescence of the Sea—Port +Desire—Guanaco—Port St. Julian—Geology of Patagonia—Fossil gigantic +Animal—Types of Organisation constant—Change in the Zoology of +America—Causes of Extinction. + +BANDA ORIENTAL AND PATAGONIA. + +Having been delayed for nearly a fortnight in the city, I was glad to +escape on board a packet bound for Monte Video. A town in a state of +blockade must always be a disagreeable place of residence; in this case +moreover there were constant apprehensions from robbers within. The +sentinels were the worst of all; for, from their office and from having +arms in their hands, they robbed with a degree of authority which other +men could not imitate. + + +Our passage was a very long and tedious one. The Plata looks like a +noble estuary on the map; but is in truth a poor affair. A wide expanse +of muddy water has neither grandeur nor beauty. At one time of the day, +the two shores, both of which are extremely low, could just be +distinguished from the deck. On arriving at Monte Video I found that +the _Beagle_ would not sail for some time, so I prepared for a short +excursion in this part of Banda Oriental. Everything which I have said +about the country near Maldonado is applicable to Monte Video; but the +land, with the one exception of the Green Mount, 450 feet high, from +which it takes its name, is far more level. Very little of the +undulating grassy plain is enclosed; but near the town there are a few +hedge-banks, covered with agaves, cacti, and fennel. + +_November_ 14_th._—We left Monte Video in the afternoon. I intended to +proceed to Colonia del Sacramiento, situated on the northern bank of +the Plata and opposite to Buenos Ayres, and thence, following up the +Uruguay, to the village of Mercedes on the Rio Negro (one of the many +rivers of this name in South America), and from this point to return +direct to Monte Video. We slept at the house of my guide at Canelones. +In the morning we rose early, in the hopes of being able to ride a good +distance; but it was a vain attempt, for all the rivers were flooded. +We passed in boats the streams of Canelones, St. Lucia, and San José, +and thus lost much time. On a former excursion I crossed the Lucia near +its mouth, and I was surprised to observe how easily our horses, +although not used to swim, passed over a width of at least six hundred +yards. On mentioning this at Monte Video, I was told that a vessel +containing some mountebanks and their horses, being wrecked in the +Plata, one horse swam seven miles to the shore. In the course of the +day I was amused by the dexterity with which a Gaucho forced a restive +horse to swim a river. He stripped off his clothes, and jumping on its +back, rode into the water till it was out of its depth; then slipping +off over the crupper, he caught hold of the tail, and as often as the +horse turned round the man frightened it back by splashing water in its +face. As soon as the horse touched the bottom on the other side, the +man pulled himself on, and was firmly seated, bridle in hand, before +the horse gained the bank. A naked man on a naked +horse is a fine spectacle; I had no idea how well the two animals +suited each other. The tail of a horse is a very useful appendage; I +have passed a river in a boat with four people in it, which was ferried +across in the same way as the Gaucho. If a man and horse have to cross +a broad river, the best plan is for the man to catch hold of the pommel +or mane, and help himself with the other arm. + +We slept and stayed the following day at the post of Cufre. In the +evening the postman or letter-carrier arrived. He was a day after his +time, owing to the Rio Rozario being flooded. It would not, however, be +of much consequence; for, although he had passed through some of the +principal towns in Banda Oriental, his luggage consisted of two +letters! The view from the house was pleasing; an undulating green +surface, with distant glimpses of the Plata. I find that I look at this +province with very different eyes from what I did upon my first +arrival. I recollect I then thought it singularly level; but now, after +galloping over the Pampas, my only surprise is, what could have induced +me ever to have called it level. The country is a series of +undulations, in themselves perhaps not absolutely great, but, as +compared to the plains of St. Fé, real mountains. From these +inequalities there is an abundance of small rivulets, and the turf is +green and luxuriant. + +_November_ 17_th._—We crossed the Rozario, which was deep and rapid, +and passing the village of Colla, arrived at mid-day at Colonia del +Sacramiento. The distance is twenty leagues, through a country covered +with fine grass, but poorly stocked with cattle or inhabitants. I was +invited to sleep at Colonia, and to accompany on the following day a +gentleman to his estancia, where there were some limestone rocks. The +town is built on a stony promontory something in the same manner as at +Monte Video. It is strongly fortified, but both fortifications and town +suffered much in the Brazilian war. It is very ancient; and the +irregularity of the streets, and the surrounding groves of old orange +and peach trees, gave it a pretty appearance. The church is a curious +ruin; it was used as a powder-magazine, and was struck by lightning in +one of the ten thousand thunderstorms of the Rio Plata. Two-thirds of +the building were blown away to the very foundation; and the rest +stands a shattered and curious monument of the +united powers of lightning and gunpowder. In the evening I wandered +about the half-demolished walls of the town. It was the chief seat of +the Brazilian war—a war most injurious to this country, not so much in +its immediate effects, as in being the origin of a multitude of +generals and all other grades of officers. More generals are numbered +(but not paid) in the United Provinces of La Plata than in the United +Kingdom of Great Britain. These gentlemen have learned to like power, +and do not object to a little skirmishing. Hence there are many always +on the watch to create disturbance and to overturn a government which +as yet has never rested on any stable foundation. I noticed, however, +both here and in other places, a very general interest in the ensuing +election for the President; and this appears a good sign for the +prosperity of this little country. The inhabitants do not require much +education in their representatives; I heard some men discussing the +merits of those for Colonia; and it was said that, “although they were +not men of business, they could all sign their names:” with this they +seemed to think every reasonable man ought to be satisfied. + +18_th._—Rode with my host to his estancia, at the Arroyo de San Juan. +In the evening we took a ride round the estate: it contained two square +leagues and a half, and was situated in what is called a rincon; that +is, one side was fronted by the Plata, and the two others guarded by +impassable brooks. There was an excellent port for little vessels, and +an abundance of small wood, which is valuable as supplying fuel to +Buenos Ayres. I was curious to know the value of so complete an +estancia. Of cattle there were 3000, and it would well support three or +four times that number; of mares 800, together with 150 broken-in +horses, and 600 sheep. There was plenty of water and limestone, a rough +house, excellent corrals, and a peach orchard. For all this he had been +offered £2000, and he only wanted £500 additional, and probably would +sell it for less. The chief trouble with an estancia is driving the +cattle twice a week to a central spot, in order to make them tame, and +to count them. This latter operation would be thought difficult, where +there are ten or fifteen thousand head together. It is managed on the +principle that the cattle invariably divide themselves into little +troops of from forty to one hundred. Each troop is recognised by a few +peculiarly +marked animals, and its number is known: so that, one being lost out of +ten thousand, it is perceived by its absence from one of the tropillas. +During a stormy night the cattle all mingle together; but the next +morning the tropillas separate as before; so that each animal must know +its fellow out of ten thousand others. + +On two occasions I met with in this province some oxen of a very +curious breed, called nãta or niata. They appear externally to hold +nearly the same relation to other cattle, which bull or pug dogs do to +other dogs. Their forehead is very short and broad, with the nasal end +turned up, and the upper lip much drawn back; their lower jaws project +beyond the upper, and have a corresponding upward curve; hence their +teeth are always exposed. Their nostrils are seated high up and are +very open; their eyes project outwards. When walking they carry their +heads low, on a short neck; and their hinder legs are rather longer +compared with the front legs than is usual. Their bare teeth, their +short heads, and upturned nostrils give them the most ludicrous +self-confident air of defiance imaginable. + +Since my return, I have procured a skeleton head, through the kindness +of my friend Captain Sulivan, R.N., which is now deposited in the +College of Surgeons.[1] Don F. Muniz, of Luxan, has kindly collected +for me all the information which he could respecting this breed. From +his account it seems that about eighty or ninety years ago, they were +rare and kept as curiosities at Buenos Ayres. The breed is universally +believed to have originated amongst the Indians southward of the Plata; +and that it was with them the commonest kind. Even to this day, those +reared in the provinces near the Plata show their less civilised +origin, in being fiercer than common cattle, and in the cow easily +deserting her first calf, if visited too often or molested. It is a +singular fact that an almost similar structure to the abnormal[2] one +of the niata breed, characterises, as I am informed by Dr. Falconer, +that great extinct ruminant of India, the Sivatherium. The breed is +very _ true_; and a niata bull and cow invariably produce niata calves. +A niata bull with a common cow, or the reverse cross, produces +offspring having an intermediate character, but with the niata +characters strongly displayed: according to Señor Muniz, there is the +clearest evidence, contrary to the common belief of agriculturists in +analogous cases, that the niata cow when crossed with a common bull +transmits her peculiarities more strongly than the niata bull when +crossed with a common cow. When the pasture is tolerably long, the +niata cattle feed with the tongue and palate as well as common cattle; +but during the great droughts, when so many animals perish, the niata +breed is under a great disadvantage, and would be exterminated if not +attended to; for the common cattle, like horses, are able just to keep +alive, by browsing with their lips on twigs of trees and reeds; this +the niatas cannot so well do, as their lips do not join, and hence they +are found to perish before the common cattle. This strikes me as a good +illustration of how little we are able to judge from the ordinary +habits of life, on what circumstances, occurring only at long +intervals, the rarity or extinction of a species may be determined. + + [1] Mr. Waterhouse has drawn up a detailed description of this head, + which I hope he will publish in some Journal. + + + [2] A nearly similar abnormal, but I do not know whether hereditary, + structure has been observed in the carp, and likewise in the crocodile + of the Ganges: _Histoire des Anomalies_, par M. Isid. Geoffroy St. + Hilaire, tome i, p. 244. + +_November_ 19_th._—Passing the valley of Las Vacas, we slept at a house +of a North American, who worked a lime-kiln on the Arroyo de las +Vivoras. In the morning we rode to a projecting headland on the banks +of the river, called Punta Gorda. On the way we tried to find a jaguar. +There were plenty of fresh tracks, and we visited the trees on which +they are said to sharpen their claws; but we did not succeed in +disturbing one. From this point the Rio Uruguay presented to our view a +noble volume of water. From the clearness and rapidity of the stream, +its appearance was far superior to that of its neighbour the Parana. On +the opposite coast, several branches from the latter river entered the +Uruguay. As the sun was shining, the two colours of the waters could be +seen quite distinct. + +In the evening we proceeded on our road towards Mercedes on the Rio +Negro. At night we asked permission to sleep at an estancia at which we +happened to arrive. It was a very large estate, being ten leagues +square, and the owner is one of the greatest landowners in the country. +His nephew had charge of it, and with him there was a captain in the +army, who the other day ran away from Buenos Ayres. Considering +their station, their conversation was rather amusing. They expressed, +as was usual, unbounded astonishment at the globe being round, and +could scarcely credit that a hole would, if deep enough, come out on +the other side. They had, however, heard of a country where there were +six months of light and six of darkness, and where the inhabitants were +very tall and thin! They were curious about the price and condition of +horses and cattle in England. Upon finding out we did not catch our +animals with the lazo, they cried out, “Ah, then, you use nothing but +the bolas:” the idea of an enclosed country was quite new to them. The +captain at last said, he had one question to ask me, which he should be +very much obliged if I would answer with all truth. I trembled to think +how deeply scientific it would be: it was, “Whether the ladies of +Buenos Ayres were not the handsomest in the world.” I replied, like a +renegade, “Charmingly so.” He added, “I have one other question: Do +ladies in any other part of the world wear such large combs?” I +solemnly assured him that they did not. They were absolutely delighted. +The captain exclaimed, “Look there! a man who has seen half the world +says it is the case; we always thought so, but now we know it.” My +excellent judgment in combs and beauty procured me a most hospitable +reception; the captain forced me to take his bed, and he would sleep on +his recado. + +21_st._—Started at sunrise, and rode slowly during the whole day. The +geological nature of this part of the province was different from the +rest, and closely resembled that of the Pampas. In consequence, there +were immense beds of the thistle, as well as of the cardoon: the whole +country, indeed, may be called one great bed of these plants. The two +sorts grow separate, each plant in company with its own kind. The +cardoon is as high as a horse’s back, but the Pampas thistle is often +higher than the crown of the rider’s head. To leave the road for a yard +is out of the question; and the road itself is partly, and in some +cases entirely, closed. Pasture, of course, there is none; if cattle or +horses once enter the bed, they are for the time completely lost. Hence +it is very hazardous to attempt to drive cattle at this season of the +year; for when jaded enough to face the thistles, they rush among them, +and are seen no more. In these districts there are very few +estancias, and these few are situated in the neighbourhood of damp +valleys, where fortunately neither of these overwhelming plants can +exist. As night came on before we arrived at our journey’s end, we +slept at a miserable little hovel inhabited by the poorest people. The +extreme though rather formal courtesy of our host and hostess, +considering their grade of life, was quite delightful. + +_November_ 22_nd._—Arrived at an estancia on the Berquelo belonging to +a very hospitable Englishman, to whom I had a letter of introduction +from my friend Mr. Lumb. I stayed here three days. One morning I rode +with my host to the Sierra del Pedro Flaco, about twenty miles up the +Rio Negro. Nearly the whole country was covered with good though coarse +grass, which was as high as a horse’s belly; yet there were square +leagues without a single head of cattle. The province of Banda +Oriental, if well stocked, would support an astonishing number of +animals, at present the annual export of hides from Monte Video amounts +to three hundred thousand; and the home consumption, from waste, is +very considerable. An estanciero told me that he often had to send +large herds of cattle a long journey to a salting establishment, and +that the tired beasts were frequently obliged to be killed and skinned; +but that he could never persuade the Gauchos to eat of them, and every +evening a fresh beast was slaughtered for their suppers! The view of +the Rio Negro from the Sierra was more picturesque than any other which +I saw in this province. The river, broad, deep, and rapid, wound at the +foot of a rocky precipitous cliff: a belt of wood followed its course, +and the horizon terminated in the distant undulations of the +turf-plain. + +When in this neighbourhood, I several times heard of the Sierra de las +Cuentas: a hill distant many miles to the northward. The name signifies +hill of beads. I was assured that vast numbers of little round stones, +of various colours, each with a small cylindrical hole, are found +there. Formerly the Indians used to collect them, for the purpose of +making necklaces and bracelets—a taste, I may observe, which is common +to all savage nations, as well as to the most polished. I did not know +what to understand from this story, but upon mentioning it at the Cape +of Good Hope to Dr. Andrew Smith, he told me that he recollected +finding on the +south-eastern coast of Africa, about one hundred miles to the eastward +of St. John’s river, some quartz crystals with their edges blunted from +attrition, and mixed with gravel on the sea-beach. Each crystal was +about five lines in diameter, and from an inch to an inch and a half in +length. Many of them had a small canal extending from one extremity to +the other, perfectly cylindrical, and of a size that readily admitted a +coarse thread or a piece of fine catgut. Their colour was red or dull +white. The natives were acquainted with this structure in crystals. I +have mentioned these circumstances because, although no crystallised +body is at present known to assume this form, it may lead some future +traveller to investigate the real nature of such stones. + + +While staying at this estancia, I was amused with what I saw and heard +of the shepherd-dogs of the country.[3] When riding, it is a common +thing to meet a large flock of sheep guarded by one or two dogs, at the +distance of some miles from any house or man. I often wondered how so +firm a friendship had been established. The method of education +consists in separating the puppy, while very young, from the bitch, and +in accustoming it to its future companions. An ewe is held three or +four times a day for the little thing to suck, and a nest of wool is +made for it in the sheep-pen; at no time is it allowed to associate +with other dogs, or with the children of the family. The puppy is, +moreover, generally castrated; so that, when grown up, it can scarcely +have any feelings in common with the rest of its kind. From this +education it has no wish to leave the flock, and just as another dog +will defend its master, man, so will these the sheep. It is amusing to +observe, when approaching a flock, how the dog immediately advances +barking, and the sheep all close in his rear, as if round the oldest +ram. These dogs are also easily taught to bring home the flock at a +certain hour in the evening. Their most troublesome fault, when young, +is their desire of playing with the sheep; for in their sport they +sometimes gallop their poor subjects most unmercifully. + + [3] M. A. d’Orbigny has given nearly a similar account of these dogs, + tome i, p. 175. + +The shepherd-dog comes to the house every day for some +meat, and as soon as it is given him, he skulks away as if ashamed of +himself. On these occasions the house-dogs are very tyrannical, and the +least of them will attack and pursue the stranger. The minute, however, +the latter has reached the flock, he turns round and begins to bark, +and then all the house-dogs take very quickly to their heels. In a +similar manner a whole pack of the hungry wild dogs will scarcely ever +(and I was told by some never) venture to attack a flock guarded by +even one of these faithful shepherds. The whole account appears to me a +curious instance of the pliability of the affections in the dog; and +yet, whether wild or however educated, he has a feeling of respect or +fear for those that are fulfilling their instinct of association. For +we can understand on no principle the wild dogs being driven away by +the single one with its flock, except that they consider, from some +confused notion, that the one thus associated gains power, as if in +company with its own kind. F. Cuvier has observed that all animals that +readily enter into domestication consider man as a member of their own +society, and thus fulfil their instinct of association. In the above +case the shepherd-dog ranks the sheep as its fellow-brethren, and thus +gains confidence; and the wild dogs, though knowing that the individual +sheep are not dogs, but are good to eat, yet partly consent to this +view when seeing them in a flock with a shepherd-dog at their head. + +One evening a “domidor” (a subduer of horses) came for the purpose of +breaking-in some colts. I will describe the preparatory steps, for I +believe they have not been mentioned by other travellers. A troop of +wild young horses is driven into the corral, or large enclosure of +stakes, and the door is shut. We will suppose that one man alone has to +catch and mount a horse, which as yet had never felt bridle or saddle. +I conceive, except by a Gaucho, such a feat would be utterly +impracticable. The Gaucho picks out a full-grown colt; and as the beast +rushes round the circus, he throws his lazo so as to catch both the +front legs. Instantly the horse rolls over with a heavy shock, and +whilst struggling on the ground, the Gaucho, holding the lazo tight, +makes a circle, so as to catch one of the hind legs just beneath the +fetlock, and draws it close to the two front legs: he then hitches the +lazo, so that the +three are bound together. Then sitting on the horse’s neck, he fixes a +strong bridle, without a bit, to the lower jaw: this he does by passing +a narrow thong through the eye-holes at the end of the reins, and +several times round both jaw and tongue. The two front legs are now +tied closely together with a strong leathern thong, fastened by a +slip-knot. The lazo, which bound the three together, being then loosed, +the horse rises with difficulty. The Gaucho, now holding fast the +bridle fixed to the lower jaw, leads the horse outside the corral. If a +second man is present (otherwise the trouble is much greater) he holds +the animal’s head, whilst the first puts on the horsecloths and saddle, +and girths the whole together. During this operation, the horse, from +dread and astonishment at thus being bound round the waist, throws +himself over and over again on the ground, and, till beaten, is +unwilling to rise. At last, when the saddling is finished, the poor +animal can hardly breathe from fear, and is white with foam and sweat. +The man now prepares to mount by pressing heavily on the stirrup, so +that the horse may not lose its balance; and at the moment that he +throws his leg over the animal’s back, he pulls the slip-knot binding +the front legs, and the beast is free. Some “domidors” pull the knot +while the animal is lying on the ground, and, standing over the saddle, +allow him to rise beneath them. The horse, wild with dread, gives a few +most violent bounds, and then starts off at full gallop: when quite +exhausted, the man, by patience, brings him back to the corral, where, +reeking hot and scarcely alive, the poor beast is let free. Those +animals which will not gallop away, but obstinately throw themselves on +the ground, are by far the most troublesome. This process is +tremendously severe, but in two or three trials the horse is tamed. It +is not, however, for some weeks that the animal is ridden with the iron +bit and solid ring, for it must learn to associate the will of its +rider with the feel of the rein, before the most powerful bridle can be +of any service. + +Animals are so abundant in these countries, that humanity and +self-interest are not closely united; therefore I fear it is that the +former is here scarcely known. One day, riding in the Pampas with a +very respectable “Estanciero,” my horse, being tired, lagged behind. +The man often shouted to me to spur him. When I remonstrated that it +was a pity, for the horse +was quite exhausted, he cried out, “Why not?—never mind—spur him—it is +_my_ horse.” I had then some difficulty in making him comprehend that +it was for the horse’s sake, and not on his account, that I did not +choose to use my spurs. He exclaimed, with a look of great surprise, +“Ah, Don Carlos, que cosa!” It was clear that such an idea had never +before entered his head. + +The Gauchos are well known to be perfect riders. The idea of being +thrown, let the horse do what it likes; never enters their head. Their +criterion of a good rider is, a man who can manage an untamed colt, or +who, if his horse falls, alights on his own feet, or can perform other +such exploits. I have heard of a man betting that he would throw his +horse down twenty times, and that nineteen times he would not fall +himself. I recollect seeing a Gaucho riding a very stubborn horse, +which three times successively reared so high as to fall backwards with +great violence. The man judged with uncommon coolness the proper moment +for slipping off, not an instant before or after the right time; and as +soon as the horse got up, the man jumped on his back, and at last they +started at a gallop. The Gaucho never appears to exert any muscular +force. I was one day watching a good rider, as we were galloping along +at a rapid pace, and thought to myself, “Surely if the horse starts, +you appear so careless on your seat, you must fall.” At this moment a +male ostrich sprang from its nest right beneath the horse’s nose: the +young colt bounded on one side like a stag; but as for the man, all +that could be said was, that he started and took fright with his horse. + +In Chile and Peru more pains are taken with the mouth of the horse than +in La Plata, and this is evidently a consequence of the more intricate +nature of the country. In Chile a horse is not considered perfectly +broken till he can be brought up standing, in the midst of his full +speed, on any particular spot,—for instance, on a cloak thrown on the +ground: or, again, he will charge a wall, and rearing, scrape the +surface with his hoofs. I have seen an animal bounding with spirit, yet +merely reined by a forefinger and thumb, taken at full gallop across a +courtyard, and then made to wheel round the post of a veranda with +great speed, but at so equal a distance, that the rider, with +outstretched arm, all the while kept one finger rubbing the post. +Then making a demi-volte in the air, with the other arm outstretched in +a like manner, he wheeled round, with astonishing force, in an opposite +direction. + +Such a horse is well broken; and although this at first may appear +useless, it is far otherwise. It is only carrying that which is daily +necessary into perfection. When a bullock is checked and caught by the +lazo, it will sometimes gallop round and round in a circle, and the +horse being alarmed at the great strain, if not well broken, will not +readily turn like the pivot of a wheel. In consequence many men have +been killed; for if the lazo once takes a twist round a man’s body, it +will instantly, from the power of the two opposed animals, almost cut +him in twain. On the same principle the races are managed; the course +is only two or three hundred yards long, the wish being to have horses +that can make a rapid dash. The racehorses are trained not only to +stand with their hoofs touching a line, but to draw all four feet +together, so as at the first spring to bring into play the full action +of the hind-quarters. In Chile I was told an anecdote, which I believe +was true; and it offers a good illustration of the use of a well-broken +animal. A respectable man riding one day met two others, one of whom +was mounted on a horse, which he knew to have been stolen from himself. +He challenged them; they answered him by drawing their sabres and +giving chase. The man, on his good and fleet beast, kept just ahead: as +he passed a thick bush he wheeled round it, and brought up his horse to +a dead check. The pursuers were obliged to shoot on one side and ahead. +Then instantly dashing on, right behind them, he buried his knife in +the back of one, wounded the other, recovered his horse from the dying +robber, and rode home. For these feats of horsemanship two things are +necessary: a most severe bit, like the Mameluke, the power of which, +though seldom used, the horse knows full well; and large blunt spurs, +that can be applied either as a mere touch, or as an instrument of +extreme pain. I conceive that with English spurs, the slightest touch +of which pricks the skin, it would be impossible to break in a horse +after the South American fashion. + +At an estancia near Las Vacas large numbers of mares are weekly +slaughtered for the sake of their hides, although worth only five paper +dollars, or about half a crown apiece. It seems +at first strange that it can answer to kill mares for such a trifle; +but as it is thought ridiculous in this country ever to break in or +ride a mare, they are of no value except for breeding. The only thing +for which I ever saw mares used, was to tread out wheat from the ear, +for which purpose they were driven round a circular enclosure, where +the wheat-sheaves were strewed. The man employed for slaughtering the +mares happened to be celebrated for his dexterity with the lazo. +Standing at the distance of twelve yards from the mouth of the corral, +he has laid a wager that he would catch by the legs every animal, +without missing one, as it rushed past him. There was another man who +said he would enter the corral on foot, catch a mare, fasten her front +legs together, drive her out, throw her down, kill, skin, and stake the +hide for drying (which latter is a tedious job); and he engaged that he +would perform this whole operation on twenty-two animals in one day. Or +he would kill and take the skin off fifty in the same time. This would +have been a prodigious task, for it is considered a good day’s work to +skin and stake the hides of fifteen or sixteen animals. + +_November_ 26_th._—I set out on my return in a direct line for Monte +Video. Having heard of some giant’s bones at a neighbouring farmhouse +on the Sarandis, a small stream entering the Rio Negro, I rode there +accompanied by my host, and purchased for the value of eighteenpence +the head of the Toxodon.[4] When found it was quite perfect; but the +boys knocked out some of the teeth with stones, and then set up the +head as a mark to throw at. By a most fortunate chance I found a +perfect tooth, which exactly fitted one of the sockets in this skull, +embedded by itself on the banks of the Rio Tercero, at the distance of +about 180 miles from this place. I found remains of this extraordinary +animal at two other places, so that it must formerly have been common. +I found here, also, some large portions of the armour of a gigantic +armadillo-like animal, and part of the great head of a Mylodon. The +bones of this head are so fresh, that they contain, according to the +analysis by Mr. T. Reeks, seven per cent of animal matter; and when +placed in a spirit-lamp, they burn with a small flame. +The number of the remains embedded in the grand estuary deposit which +forms the Pampas and covers the granitic rocks of Banda Oriental, must +be extraordinarily great. I believe a straight line drawn in any +direction through the Pampas would cut through some skeleton or bones. +Besides those which I found during my short excursions, I heard of many +others, and the origin of such names as “the stream of the animal,” +“the hill of the giant,” is obvious. At other times I heard of the +marvellous property of certain rivers, which had the power of changing +small bones into large; or, as some maintained, the bones themselves +grew. As far as I am aware, not one of these animals perished, as was +formerly supposed, in the marshes or muddy river-beds of the present +land, but their bones have been exposed by the streams intersecting the +subaqueous deposit in which they were originally embedded. We may +conclude that the whole area of the Pampas is one wide sepulchre of +these extinct gigantic quadrupeds. + + [4] I must express my obligation to Mr. Keane, at whose house I was + staying on the Berquelo, and to Mr. Lumb at Buenos Ayres, for without + their assistance these valuable remains would never have reached + England. + +By the middle of the day, on the 28th, we arrived at Monte Video, +having been two days and a half on the road. The country for the whole +way was of a very uniform character, some parts being rather more rocky +and hilly than near the Plata. Not far from Monte Video we passed +through the village of Las Pietras, so named from some large rounded +masses of syenite. Its appearance was rather pretty. In this country a +few fig-trees round a group of houses, and a site elevated a hundred +feet above the general level, ought always to be called picturesque. + +During the last six months I have had an opportunity of seeing a little +of the character of the inhabitants of these provinces. The Gauchos, or +countrymen, are very superior to those who reside in the towns. The +Gaucho is invariably most obliging, polite, and hospitable: I did not +meet with even one instance of rudeness or inhospitality. He is modest, +both respecting himself and country, but at the same time a spirited, +bold fellow. On the other hand, many robberies are committed, and there +is much bloodshed: the habit of constantly wearing the knife is the +chief cause of the latter. It is lamentable to hear how many lives are +lost in trifling quarrels. In fighting, each party tries to mark the +face of his adversary by slashing +his nose or eyes; as is often attested by deep and horrid-looking +scars. Robberies are a natural consequence of universal gambling, much +drinking, and extreme indolence. At Mercedes I asked two men why they +did not work. One gravely said the days were too long; the other that +he was too poor. The number of horses and the profusion of food are the +destruction of all industry. Moreover, there are so many feast-days; +and again, nothing can succeed without it be begun when the moon is on +the increase; so that half the month is lost from these two causes. + +Police and justice are quite inefficient. If a man who is poor commits +murder and is taken, he will be imprisoned, and perhaps even shot; but +if he is rich and has friends, he may rely on it no very severe +consequence will ensue. It is curious that the most respectable +inhabitants of the country invariably assist a murderer to escape: they +seem to think that the individual sins against the government, and not +against the people. A traveller has no protection besides his firearms; +and the constant habit of carrying them is the main check to more +frequent robberies. + +The character of the higher and more educated classes who reside in the +towns, partakes, but perhaps in a lesser degree, of the good parts of +the Gaucho, but is, I fear, stained by many vices of which he is free. +Sensuality, mockery of all religion, and the grossest corruption, are +far from uncommon. Nearly every public officer can be bribed. The head +man in the post-office sold forged government franks. The governor and +prime minister openly combined to plunder the State. Justice, where +gold came into play, was hardly expected by any one. I knew an +Englishman who went to the Chief Justice (he told me that, not then +understanding the ways of the place, he trembled as he entered the +room), and said, “Sir, I have come to offer you two hundred (paper) +dollars (value about five pounds sterling) if you will arrest before a +certain time a man who has cheated me. I know it is against the law, +but my lawyer (naming him) recommended me to take this step.” The Chief +Justice smiled acquiescence, thanked him, and the man before night was +safe in prison. With this entire want of principle in many of the +leading men, with the country full of ill-paid turbulent officers, the +people yet hope that a democratic form of government can succeed! + + +On first entering society in these countries, two or three features +strike one as particularly remarkable. The polite and dignified manners +pervading every rank of life, the excellent taste displayed by the +women in their dresses, and the equality amongst all ranks. At the Rio +Colorado some men who kept the humblest shops used to dine with General +Rosas. A son of a major at Bahia Blanca gained his livelihood by making +paper cigars, and he wished to accompany me, as guide or servant, to +Buenos Ayres, but his father objected on the score of the danger alone. +Many officers in the army can neither read nor write, yet all meet in +society as equals. In Entre Rios, the Sala consisted of only six +representatives. One of them kept a common shop, and evidently was not +degraded by the office. All this is what would be expected in a new +country; nevertheless the absence of gentlemen by profession appears to +an Englishman something strange. + +When speaking of these countries, the manner in which they have been +brought up by their unnatural parent, Spain, should always be borne in +mind. On the whole, perhaps, more credit is due for what has been done, +than blame for that which may be deficient. It is impossible to doubt +but that the extreme liberalism of these countries must ultimately lead +to good results. The very general toleration of foreign religions, the +regard paid to the means of education, the freedom of the press, the +facilities offered to all foreigners, and especially, as I am bound to +add, to every one professing the humblest pretensions to science, +should be recollected with gratitude by those who have visited Spanish +South America. + + +_December_ 6_th._—The _Beagle_ sailed from the Rio Plata, never again +to enter its muddy stream. Our course was directed to Port Desire, on +the coast of Patagonia. Before proceeding any farther, I will here put +together a few observations made at sea. + +Several times when the ship has been some miles off the mouth of the +Plata, and at other times when off the shores of Northern Patagonia, we +have been surrounded by insects. One evening, when we were about ten +miles from the Bay of San Blas, vast numbers of butterflies, in bands +or flocks of countless myriads, extended as far as the eye could range. +Even by the +aid of a telescope it was not possible to see a space free from +butterflies. The seamen cried out “it was snowing butterflies,” and +such in fact was the appearance. More species than one were present, +but the main part belonged to a kind very similar to, but not identical +with, the common English Colias edusa. Some moths and hymenoptera +accompanied the butterflies; and a fine beetle (Calosoma) flew on +board. Other instances are known of this beetle having been caught far +out at sea; and this is the more remarkable, as the greater number of +the Carabidæ seldom or never take wing. The day had been fine and +calm, and the one previous to it equally so, with light and variable +airs. Hence we cannot suppose that the insects were blown off the land, +but we must conclude that they voluntarily took flight. The great bands +of the Colias seem at first to afford an instance like those on record +of the migrations of another butterfly, Vanessa cardui;[5] but the +presence of other insects makes the case distinct, and even less +intelligible. Before sunset a strong breeze sprung up from the north, +and this must have caused tens of thousands of the butterflies and +other insects to have perished. + + [5] Lyell’s _Principles of Geology_, vol. iii, p. 63. + +On another occasion, when seventeen miles off Cape Corrientes, I had a +net overboard to catch pelagic animals. Upon drawing it up, to my +surprise I found a considerable number of beetles in it, and although +in the open sea, they did not appear much injured by the salt water. I +lost some of the specimens, but those which I preserved belonged to the +genera Colymbetes, Hydroporus, Hydrobius (two species), Notaphus, +Cynucus, Adimonia, and Scarabæus. At first I thought that these +insects had been blown from the shore; but upon reflecting that out of +the eight species four were aquatic, and two others partly so in their +habits, it appeared to me most probable that they were floated into the +sea by a small stream which drains a lake near Cape Corrientes. On any +supposition it is an interesting circumstance to find live insects +swimming in the open ocean seventeen miles from the nearest point of +land. There are several accounts of insects having been blown off the +Patagonian shore. Captain Cook observed it, as did more lately Captain +King of the _Adventure_. The cause probably is due to the want of +shelter, both of trees and hills, so that an +insect on the wing with an offshore breeze, would be very apt to be +blown out to sea. The most remarkable instance I have known of an +insect being caught far from the land, was that of a large grasshopper +(Acrydium), which flew on board, when the “Beagle” was to windward of +the Cape de Verd Islands, and when the nearest point of land, not +directly opposed to the trade-wind, was Cape Blanco on the coast of +Africa, 370 miles distant.[6] + + [6] The flies which frequently accompany a ship for some days on its + passage from harbour to harbour, wandering from the vessel, are soon + lost, and all disappear. + +On several occasions, when the _Beagle_ has been within the mouth of +the Plata, the rigging has been coated with the web of the Gossamer +Spider. One day (November 1st, 1832) I paid particular attention to +this subject. The weather had been fine and clear, and in the morning +the air was full of patches of the flocculent web, as on an autumnal +day in England. The ship was sixty miles distant from the land, in the +direction of a steady though light breeze. Vast numbers of a small +spider, about one-tenth of an inch in length, and of a dusky red +colour, were attached to the webs. There must have been, I should +suppose, some thousands on the ship. The little spider, when first +coming in contact with the rigging, was always seated on a single +thread, and not on the flocculent mass. This latter seems merely to be +produced by the entanglement of the single threads. The spiders were +all of one species, but of both sexes, together with young ones. These +latter were distinguished by their smaller size and more dusky colour. +I will not give the description of this spider, but merely state that +it does not appear to me to be included in any of Latreille’s genera. +The little aëronaut as soon as it arrived on board was very active, +running about, sometimes letting itself fall, and then reascending the +same thread; sometimes employing itself in making a small and very +irregular mesh in the corners between the ropes. It could run with +facility on the surface of water. When disturbed it lifted up its front +legs, in the attitude of attention. On its first arrival it appeared +very thirsty, and with exserted maxillæ drank eagerly of drops of +water; this same circumstance has been observed by Strack: may it not +be in consequence of the little insect having passed through a dry and +rarefied atmosphere? Its stock of web seemed inexhaustible. While +watching some that were suspended by a single thread, I several times +observed that the slightest breath of air bore them away out of sight, +in a horizontal line. On another occasion (25th) under similar +circumstances, I repeatedly observed the same kind of small spider, +either when placed or having crawled on some little eminence, elevate +its abdomen, send forth a thread, and then sail away horizontally, but +with a rapidity which was quite unaccountable. I thought I could +perceive that the spider, before performing the above preparatory +steps, connected its legs together with the most delicate threads, but +I am not sure whether this observation was correct. + +One day, at St. Fé, I had a better opportunity of observing some +similar facts. A spider which was about three-tenths of an inch in +length, and which in its general appearance resembled a Citigrade +(therefore quite different from the gossamer), while standing on the +summit of a post, darted forth four or five threads from its spinners. +These, glittering in the sunshine, might be compared to diverging rays +of light; they were not, however, straight, but in undulations like +films of silk blown by the wind. They were more than a yard in length, +and diverged in an ascending direction from the orifices. The spider +then suddenly let go its hold of the post, and was quickly borne out of +sight. The day was hot and apparently quite calm; yet under such +circumstances, the atmosphere can never be so tranquil as not to affect +a vane so delicate as the thread of a spider’s web. If during a warm +day we look either at the shadow of any object cast on a bank, or over +a level plain at a distant landmark, the effect of an ascending current +of heated air is almost always evident: such upward currents, it has +been remarked, are also shown by the ascent of soap-bubbles, which will +not rise in an indoors room. Hence I think there is not much difficulty +in understanding the ascent of the fine lines projected from a spider’s +spinners, and afterwards of the spider itself; the divergence of the +lines has been attempted to be explained, I believe by Mr. Murray, by +their similar electrical condition. The circumstance of spiders of the +same species, but of different sexes and ages, being found on several +occasions at the distance of many leagues from the land, attached in +vast numbers to the lines, renders it probable that the habit of +sailing through the air is as characteristic of +this tribe, as that of diving is of the Argyroneta. We may then reject +Latreille’s supposition, that the gossamer owes its origin +indifferently to the young of several genera of spiders: although, as +we have seen, the young of other spiders do possess the power of +performing aërial voyages.[7] + + [7] Mr. Blackwall, in his _Researches in Zoology_, has many excellent + observations on the habits of spiders. + +During our different passages south of the Plata, I often towed astern +a net made of bunting, and thus caught many curious animals. Of +Crustacea there were many strange and undescribed genera. One, which in +some respects is allied to the Notopods (or those crabs which have +their posterior legs placed almost on their backs, for the purpose of +adhering to the under side of rocks), is very remarkable from the +structure of its hind pair of legs. The penultimate joint, instead of +terminating in a simple claw, ends in three bristle-like appendages of +dissimilar lengths—the longest equalling that of the entire leg. These +claws are very thin, and are serrated with the finest teeth, directed +backwards: their curved extremities are flattened, and on this part +five most minute cups are placed which seem to act in the same manner +as the suckers on the arms of the cuttle-fish. As the animal lives in +the open sea, and probably wants a place of rest, I suppose this +beautiful and most anomalous structure is adapted to take hold of +floating marine animals. + +In deep water, far from the land, the number of living creatures is +extremely small: south of the latitude 35°, I never succeeded in +catching anything besides some beroe, and a few species of minute +entomostracous crustacea. In shoaler water, at the distance of a few +miles from the coast, very many kinds of crustacea and some other +animals are numerous, but only during the night. Between latitudes 56° +and 57° south of Cape Horn, the net was put astern several times; it +never, however, brought up anything besides a few of two extremely +minute species of Entomostraca. Yet whales and seals, petrels and +albatross, are exceedingly abundant throughout this part of the ocean. +It has always been a mystery to me on what the albatross, which lives +far from the shore, can subsist; I presume that, like the condor, it is +able to fast long; and that one good feast on the carcass of a putrid +whale lasts for a long +time. The central and intertropical parts of the Atlantic swarm with +Pteropoda, Crustacea, and Radiata, and with their devourers the +flying-fish, and again with their devourers the bonitos and albicores; +I presume that the numerous lower pelagic animals feed on the +Infusoria, which are now known, from the researches of Ehrenberg, to +abound in the open ocean: but on what, in the clear blue water, do +these Infusoria subsist? + +While sailing a little south of the Plata on one very dark night, the +sea presented a wonderful and most beautiful spectacle. There was a +fresh breeze, and every part of the surface, which during the day is +seen as foam, now glowed with a pale light. The vessel drove before her +bows two billows of liquid phosphorus, and in her wake she was followed +by a milky train. As far as the eye reached, the crest of every wave +was bright, and the sky above the horizon, from the reflected glare of +these livid flames, was not so utterly obscure as over the vault of the +heavens. + +As we proceed farther southward the sea is seldom phosphorescent; and +off Cape Horn I do not recollect more than once having seen it so, and +then it was far from being brilliant. This circumstance probably has a +close connection with the scarcity of organic beings in that part of +the ocean. After the elaborate paper[8] by Ehrenberg, on the +phosphorescence of the sea, it is almost superfluous on my part to make +any observations on the subject. I may however add, that the same torn +and irregular particles of gelatinous matter, described by Ehrenberg, +seem in the southern as well as in the northern hemisphere to be the +common cause of this phenomenon. The particles were so minute as easily +to pass through fine gauze; yet many were distinctly visible by the +naked eye. The water when placed in a tumbler and agitated gave out +sparks, but a small portion in a watch-glass scarcely ever was +luminous. Ehrenberg states that these particles all retain a certain +degree of irritability. My observations, some of which were made +directly after taking up the water, gave a different result. I may also +mention, that having used the net during one night, I allowed it to +become partially dry, and having occasion twelve hours afterwards to +employ it again, I found +the whole surface sparkled as brightly as when first taken out of the +water. It does not appear probable in this case that the particles +could have remained so long alive. On one occasion having kept a +jelly-fish of the genus Dianæa till it was dead, the water in which it +was placed became luminous. When the waves scintillate with bright +green sparks, I believe it is generally owing to minute crustacea. But +there can be no doubt that very many other pelagic animals, when alive, +are phosphorescent. + + [8] An abstract is given in No. IV of the _ Magazine of Zoology and + Botany._ + +On two occasions I have observed the sea luminous at considerable +depths beneath the surface. Near the mouth of the Plata some circular +and oval patches, from two to four yards in diameter, and with defined +outlines, shone with a steady but pale light; while the surrounding +water only gave out a few sparks. The appearance resembled the +reflection of the moon, or some luminous body; for the edges were +sinuous from the undulations of the surface. The ship, which drew +thirteen feet water, passed over, without disturbing these patches. +Therefore we must suppose that some animals were congregated together +at a greater depth than the bottom of the vessel. + +Near Fernando Noronha the sea gave out light in flashes. The appearance +was very similar to that which might be expected from a large fish +moving rapidly through a luminous fluid. To this cause the sailors +attributed it; at the time, however, I entertained some doubts, on +account of the frequency and rapidity of the flashes. I have already +remarked that the phenomenon is very much more common in warm than in +cold countries; and I have sometimes imagined that a disturbed +electrical condition of the atmosphere was most favourable to its +production. Certainly I think the sea is most luminous after a few days +of more calm weather than ordinary, during which time it has swarmed +with various animals. Observing that the water charged with gelatinous +particles is in an impure state, and that the luminous appearance in +all common cases is produced by the agitation of the fluid in contact +with the atmosphere, I am inclined to consider that the phosphorescence +is the result of the decomposition of the organic particles, by which +process (one is tempted almost to call it a kind of respiration) the +ocean becomes purified. + + +_December_ 23_rd._—We arrived at Port Desire, situated in lat. 47°, on +the coast of Patagonia. The creek runs for about twenty miles inland, +with an irregular width. The _ Beagle_ anchored a few miles within the +entrance, in front of the ruins of an old Spanish settlement. + +The same evening I went on shore. The first landing in any new country +is very interesting, and especially when, as in this case, the whole +aspect bears the stamp of a marked and individual character. At the +height of between two and three hundred feet above some masses of +porphyry a wide plain extends, which is truly characteristic of +Patagonia. The surface is quite level, and is composed of well-rounded +shingle mixed with a whitish earth. Here and there scattered tufts of +brown wiry grass are supported, and still more rarely, some low thorny +bushes. The weather is dry and pleasant, and the fine blue sky is but +seldom obscured. When standing in the middle of one of these desert +plains and looking towards the interior, the view is generally bounded +by the escarpment of another plain, rather higher, but equally level +and desolate; and in every other direction the horizon is indistinct +from the trembling mirage which seems to rise from the heated surface. + +In such a country the fate of the Spanish settlement was soon decided; +the dryness of the climate during the greater part of the year, and the +occasional hostile attacks of the wandering Indians, compelled the +colonists to desert their half-finished buildings. The style, however, +in which they were commenced shows the strong and liberal hand of Spain +in the old time. The result of all the attempts to colonise this side +of America south of 41° has been miserable. Port Famine expresses by +its name the lingering and extreme sufferings of several hundred +wretched people, of whom one alone survived to relate their +misfortunes. At St. Joseph’s Bay, on the coast of Patagonia, a small +settlement was made; but during one Sunday the Indians made an attack +and massacred the whole party, excepting two men, who remained captives +during many years. At the Rio Negro I conversed with one of these men, +now in extreme old age. + +The zoology of Patagonia is as limited as its Flora.[9] On +the arid plains a few black beetles (Heteromera) might be seen slowly +crawling about, and occasionally a lizard darted from side to side. Of +birds we have three carrion hawks, and in the valleys a few finches and +insect-feeders. An ibis (Theristicus melanops—a species said to be +found in central Africa) is not uncommon on the most desert parts: in +their stomachs I found grasshoppers, cicadæ, small lizards, and even +scorpions.[10] At one time of the year these birds go in flocks, at +another in pairs, their cry is very loud and singular, like the +neighing of the guanaco. + + [9] I found here a species of cactus, described by Professor Henslow, + under the name of _Opuntia Darwinii (Magazine of Zoology and Botany)_, + vol. i, p. 466, which was remarkable for the irritability of the + stamens, when I inserted either a piece of stick or the end of my + finger in the flower. The segments of the perianth also closed on the + pistil, but more slowly than the stamens. Plants of this family, + generally considered as tropical, occur in North America (_Lewis and + Clarke’s Travels_, p. 221), in the same high latitude as here, namely, + in both cases, in 47°. + + + [10] These insects were not uncommon beneath stones. I found one + cannibal scorpion quietly devouring another. + + +[Illustration] + +The guanaco, or wild llama, is the characteristic quadruped of the +plains of Patagonia; it is the South American representative of the +camel of the East. It is an elegant animal in a state of nature, with a +long slender neck and fine legs. It is very common over the whole of +the temperate parts of the continent, as far south as the islands near +Cape Horn. It generally lives in small herds of from half a dozen to +thirty in each; but on the banks of the St. Cruz we saw one herd which +must have contained at least five hundred. + +They are generally wild and extremely wary. Mr. Stokes +told me that he one day saw through a glass a herd of these animals +which evidently had been frightened, and were running away at full +speed, although their distance was so great that he could not +distinguish them with his naked eye. The sportsman frequently receives +the first notice of their presence, by hearing from a long distance +their peculiar shrill neighing note of alarm. If he then looks +attentively, he will probably see the herd standing in a line on the +side of some distant hill. On approaching nearer, a few more squeals +are given, and off they set at an apparently slow, but really quick +canter, along some narrow beaten track to a neighbouring hill. If, +however, by chance he abruptly meets a single animal, or several +together, they will generally stand motionless and intently gaze at +him; then perhaps move on a few yards, turn round, and look again. What +is the cause of this difference in their shyness? Do they mistake a man +in the distance for their chief enemy the puma? Or does curiosity +overcome their timidity? That they are curious is certain; for if a +person lies on the ground, and plays strange antics, such as throwing +up his feet in the air, they will almost always approach by degrees to +reconnoitre him. It was an artifice that was repeatedly practised by +our sportsmen with success, and it had moreover the advantage of +allowing several shots to be fired, which were all taken as parts of +the performance. On the mountains of Tierra del Fuego, I have more than +once seen a guanaco, on being approached, not only neigh and squeal, +but prance and leap about in the most ridiculous manner, apparently in +defiance as a challenge. These animals are very easily domesticated, +and I have seen some thus kept in Northern Patagonia near a house, +though not under any restraint. They are in this state very bold, and +readily attack a man by striking him from behind with both knees. It is +asserted that the motive for these attacks is jealousy on account of +their females. The wild guanacos, however, have no idea of defence; +even a single dog will secure one of these large animals, till the +huntsman can come up. In many of their habits they are like sheep in a +flock. Thus when they see men approaching in several directions on +horseback, they soon become bewildered, and know not which way to run. +This greatly facilitates the Indian method of hunting, for they are +thus easily driven to a central point, and are encompassed. + + +The guanacos readily take to the water: several times at Port Valdes +they were seen swimming from island to island. Byron, in his voyage, +says he saw them drinking salt water. Some of our officers likewise saw +a herd apparently drinking the briny fluid from a salina near Cape +Blanco. I imagine in several parts of the country, if they do not drink +salt water, they drink none at all. In the middle of the day they +frequently roll in the dust, in saucer-shaped hollows. The males fight +together; two one day passed quite close to me, squealing and trying to +bite each other; and several were shot with their hides deeply scored. +Herds sometimes appear to set out on exploring parties: at Bahia +Blanca, where, within thirty miles of the coast, these animals are +extremely unfrequent, I one day saw the tracks of thirty or forty, +which had come in a direct line to a muddy salt-water creek. They then +must have perceived that they were approaching the sea, for they had +wheeled with the regularity of cavalry, and had returned back in as +straight a line as they had advanced. The guanacos have one singular +habit, which is to me quite inexplicable; namely, that on successive +days they drop their dung in the same defined heap. I saw one of these +heaps which was eight feet in diameter, and was composed of a large +quantity. This habit, according to M. A. d’Orbigny, is common to all +the species of the genus; it is very useful to the Peruvian Indians, +who use the dung for fuel, and are thus saved the trouble of collecting +it. + +The guanacos appear to have favourite spots for lying down to die. On +the banks of the St. Cruz, in certain circumscribed spaces, which were +generally bushy and all near the river, the ground was actually white +with bones. On one such spot I counted between ten and twenty heads. I +particularly examined the bones; they did not appear, as some scattered +ones which I had seen, gnawed or broken, as if dragged together by +beasts of prey. The animals in most cases must have crawled, before +dying, beneath and amongst the bushes. Mr. Bynoe informs me that during +a former voyage he observed the same circumstance on the banks of the +Rio Gallegos. I do not at all understand the reason of this, but I may +observe, that the wounded guanacos at the St. Cruz invariably walked +towards the river. At St. Jago in the Cape de Verd Islands, I remember +having seen in a ravine a retired corner covered with bones of the +goat; we +at the time exclaimed that it was the burial-ground of all the goats in +the island. I mention these trifling circumstances, because in certain +cases they might explain the occurrence of a number of uninjured bones +in a cave, or buried under alluvial accumulations; and likewise the +cause why certain animals are more commonly embedded than others in +sedimentary deposits. + +One day the yawl was sent under the command of Mr. Chaffers with three +days’ provisions to survey the upper part of the harbour. In the +morning we searched for some watering-places mentioned in an old +Spanish chart. We found one creek, at the head of which there was a +trickling rill (the first we had seen) of brackish water. Here the tide +compelled us to wait several hours; and in the interval I walked some +miles into the interior. The plain as usual consisted of gravel, +mingled with soil resembling chalk in appearance, but very different +from it in nature. From the softness of these materials it was worn +into many gulleys. There was not a tree, and, excepting the guanaco, +which stood on the hilltop a watchful sentinel over its herd, scarcely +an animal or a bird. All was stillness and desolation. Yet in passing +over these scenes, without one bright object near, an ill-defined but +strong sense of pleasure is vividly excited. One asked how many ages +the plain had thus lasted, and how many more it was doomed thus to +continue. + +None can reply—all seems eternal now. +The wilderness has a mysterious tongue, +Which teaches awful doubt.[11] + + + [11] Shelley, _Lines on M. Blanc._ + +In the evening we sailed a few miles farther up, and then pitched the +tents for the night. By the middle of the next day the yawl was +aground, and from the shoalness of the water could not proceed any +higher. The water being found partly fresh, Mr. Chaffers took the +dingey and went up two or three miles farther, where she also grounded, +but in a fresh-water river. The water was muddy, and though the stream +was most insignificant in size, it would be difficult to account for +its origin, except from the melting snow on the Cordillera. At the spot +where we bivouacked, we were surrounded by bold cliffs and steep +pinnacles of porphyry. I do not think I ever saw a spot which appeared +more secluded from the rest of the world than this rocky crevice in the +wide plain. + + +The second day after our return to the anchorage, a party of officers +and myself went to ransack an old Indian grave, which I had found on +the summit of a neighbouring hill. Two immense stones, each probably +weighing at least a couple of tons, had been placed in front of a ledge +of rock about six feet high. At the bottom of the grave on the hard +rock there was a layer of earth about a foot deep, which must have been +brought up from the plain below. Above it a pavement of flat stones was +placed, on which others were piled, so as to fill up the space between +the ledge and the two great blocks. To complete the grave, the Indians +had contrived to detach from the ledge a huge fragment, and to throw it +over the pile so as to rest on the two blocks. We undermined the grave +on both sides, but could not find any relics, or even bones. The latter +probably had decayed long since (in which case the grave must have been +of extreme antiquity), for I found in another place some smaller heaps, +beneath which a very few crumbling fragments could yet be distinguished +as having belonged to a man. Falconer states, that where an Indian dies +he is buried, but that subsequently his bones are carefully taken up +and carried, let the distance be ever so great, to be deposited near +the sea-coast. This custom, I think, may be accounted for by +recollecting that, before the introduction of horses, these Indians +must have led nearly the same life as the Fuegians now do, and +therefore generally have resided in the neighbourhood of the sea. The +common prejudice of lying where one’s ancestors have lain, would make +the now roaming Indians bring the less perishable part of their dead to +their ancient burial-ground on the coast. + +_January_ 9_th._—Before it was dark the _Beagle_ anchored in the fine +spacious harbour of Port St. Julian, situated about one hundred and ten +miles to the south of Port Desire. We remained here eight days. The +country is nearly similar to that of Port Desire, but perhaps rather +more sterile. One day a party accompanied Captain Fitz Roy on a long +walk round the head of the harbour. We were eleven hours without +tasting any water, and some of the party were quite exhausted. From the +summit of a hill (since well named Thirsty Hill) a fine lake was spied, +and two of the party proceeded with concerted signals to show whether +it was fresh water. What was our disappointment to find a snow-white +expanse of salt, crystallised in great +cubes! We attributed our extreme thirst to the dryness of the +atmosphere; but whatever the cause might be, we were exceedingly glad +late in the evening to get back to the boats. Although we could nowhere +find, during our whole visit, a single drop of fresh water, yet some +must exist; for by an odd chance I found on the surface of the salt +water, near the head of the bay, a Colymbetes not quite dead, which +must have lived in some not far distant pool. Three other insects (a +Cincindela, like _hybrida_, a Cymindis, and a Harpalus, which all live +on muddy flats occasionally overflowed by the sea), and one other found +dead on the plain, complete the list of the beetles. A good-sized fly +(Tabanus) was extremely numerous, and tormented us by its painful bite. +The common horsefly, which is so troublesome in the shady lanes of +England, belongs to this same genus. We here have the puzzle that so +frequently occurs in the case of musquitoes—on the blood of what +animals do these insects commonly feed? The guanaco is nearly the only +warm-blooded quadruped, and it is found in quite inconsiderable numbers +compared with the multitude of flies. + + +The geology of Patagonia is interesting. Differently from Europe, where +the tertiary formations appear to have accumulated in bays, here along +hundreds of miles of coast we have one great deposit, including many +tertiary shells, all apparently extinct. The most common shell is a +massive gigantic oyster, sometimes even a foot in diameter. These beds +are covered by others of a peculiar soft white stone, including much +gypsum, and resembling chalk, but really of a pumiceous nature. It is +highly remarkable, from being composed, to at least one-tenth part of +its bulk, of Infusoria: Professor Ehrenberg has already ascertained in +it thirty oceanic forms. This bed extends for 500 miles along the +coast, and probably for a considerably greater distance. At Port St. +Julian its thickness is more than 800 feet! These white beds are +everywhere capped by a mass of gravel, forming probably one of the +largest beds of shingle in the world: it certainly extends from near +the Rio Colorado to between 600 and 700 nautical miles southward, at +Santa Cruz (a river a little south of St. Julian) it reaches to the +foot of the Cordillera; half way up the river its thickness is more +than 200 feet; it probably everywhere extends to this great chain, +whence the well-rounded pebbles of porphyry have been derived: we may +consider its average breadth as 200 miles, and its average thickness as +about 50 feet. If this great bed of pebbles, without including the mud +necessarily derived from their attrition, was piled into a mound, it +would form a great mountain chain! When we consider that all these +pebbles, countless as the grains of sand in the desert, have been +derived from the slow falling of masses of rock on the old coast-lines +and banks of rivers, and that these fragments have been dashed into +smaller pieces, and that each of them has since been slowly rolled, +rounded, and far transported, the mind is stupefied in thinking over +the long, absolutely necessary, lapse of years. Yet all this gravel has +been transported, and probably rounded, subsequently to the deposition +of the white beds, and long subsequently to the underlying beds with +the tertiary shells. + +Everything in this southern continent has been effected on a grand +scale: the land, from the Rio Plata to Tierra del Fuego, a distance of +1200 miles, has been raised in mass (and in Patagonia to a height of +between 300 and 400 feet), within the period of the now existing +sea-shells. The old and weathered shells left on the surface of the +upraised plain still partially retain their colours. The uprising +movement has been interrupted by at least eight long periods of rest, +during which the sea ate deeply back into the land, forming at +successive levels the long lines of cliffs or escarpments, which +separate the different plains as they rise like steps one behind the +other. The elevatory movement, and the eating-back power of the sea +during the periods of rest, have been equable over long lines of coast; +for I was astonished to find that the step-like plains stand at nearly +corresponding heights at far distant points. The lowest plain is 90 +feet high; and the highest, which I ascended near the coast, is 950 +feet; and of this only relics are left in the form of flat +gravel-capped hills. The upper plain of Santa Cruz slopes up to a +height of 3000 feet at the foot of the Cordillera. I have said that +within the period of existing sea-shells, Patagonia has been upraised +300 to 400 feet: I may add, that within the period when icebergs +transported boulders over the upper plain of Santa Cruz, the elevation +has been at least 1500 feet. Nor has Patagonia been +affected only by upward movements: the extinct tertiary shells from +Port St. Julian and Santa Cruz cannot have lived, according to +Professor E. Forbes, in a greater depth of water than from 40 to 250 +feet; but they are now covered with sea-deposited strata from 800 to +1000 feet in thickness: hence the bed of the sea, on which these shells +once lived, must have sunk downwards several hundred feet, to allow of +the accumulation of the superincumbent strata. What a history of +geological changes does the simply-constructed coast of Patagonia +reveal! + +[Illustration] + +At Port St. Julian,[12] in some red mud capping the gravel on the +90-feet plain, I found half the skeleton of the Macrauchenia +Patachonica, a remarkable quadruped, full as large as a camel. It +belongs to the same division of the Pachydermata with the rhinoceros, +tapir, and palæotherium; but in the structure of the bones of its long +neck it shows a clear relation to the camel, or rather to the guanaco +and llama. From recent sea-shells being found on two of the higher +step-formed plains, which must have been modelled and upraised before +the mud was deposited in which the Macrauchenia was intombed, it is +certain that this curious quadruped lived long after the sea was +inhabited by its present shells. I was at first much surprised how a +large quadruped could so lately have subsisted, in lat. 49° 15′, on +these wretched gravel plains with their stunted vegetation; but the +relationship of the Macrauchenia to the Guanaco, now an inhabitant of +the most sterile parts, partly explains this difficulty. + + [12] I have lately heard that Captain Sulivan, R.N., has found + numerous fossil bones, embedded in regular strata, on the banks of the + R. Gallegos, in lat. 51° 4′. Some of the bones are large; others are + small, and appear to have belonged to an armadillo. This is a most + interesting and important discovery. + +The relationship, though distant, between the Macrauchenia and the +Guanaco, between the Toxodon and the Capybara,—the closer relationship +between the many extinct Edentata and the living sloths, ant-eaters, +and armadillos, now so eminently characteristic of South American +zoology,—and the still closer relationship between the fossil and +living species of Ctenomys and Hydrochærus, are most interesting facts. +This relationship is shown wonderfully—as wonderfully as between the +fossil and extinct Marsupial animals of Australia—by the +great collection lately brought to Europe from the caves of Brazil by +MM. Lund and Clausen. In this collection there are extinct species of +all the thirty-two genera, excepting four, of the terrestrial +quadrupeds now inhabiting the provinces in which the caves occur; and +the extinct species are much more numerous than those now living: there +are fossil ant-eaters, armadillos, tapirs, peccaries, guanacos, +opossums, and numerous South American gnawers and monkeys, and other +animals. This wonderful relationship in the same continent between the +dead and the living, will, I do not doubt, hereafter throw more light +on the appearance of organic beings on our earth, and their +disappearance from it, than any other class of facts. + +It is impossible to reflect on the changed state of the American +continent without the deepest astonishment. Formerly it must have +swarmed with great monsters: now we find mere pigmies, compared with +the antecedent allied races. If Buffon had known of the gigantic sloth +and armadillo-like animals, and of the lost Pachydermata, he might have +said with a greater semblance of truth that the creative force in +America had lost its power, rather than that it had never possessed +great vigour. The greater number, if not all, of these extinct +quadrupeds lived at a late period, and were the contemporaries of most +of the existing sea-shells. Since they lived, no very great change in +the form of the land can have taken place. What, then, has exterminated +so many species and whole genera? The mind at first is irresistibly +hurried into the belief of some great catastrophe; but thus to destroy +animals, both large and small, in Southern Patagonia, in Brazil, on the +Cordillera of Peru, in North America up to Behring’s Straits, we must +shake the entire framework of the globe. An examination, moreover, of +the geology of La Plata and Patagonia, leads to the belief that all the +features of the land result from slow and gradual changes. It appears +from the character of the fossils in Europe, Asia, Australia, and in +North and South America, that those conditions which favour the life of +the _larger_ quadrupeds were lately coextensive with the world: what +those conditions were, no one has yet even conjectured. It could hardly +have been a change of temperature, which at about the same time +destroyed the inhabitants of tropical, temperate, and arctic latitudes +on both sides of the globe. In North America we positively know from +Mr. Lyell that the large quadrupeds lived subsequently to that period, +when boulders were brought into latitudes at which icebergs now never +arrive: from conclusive but indirect reasons we may feel sure, that in +the southern hemisphere the Macrauchenia, also, lived long subsequently +to the ice-transporting boulder-period. Did man, after his first inroad +into South America, destroy, as has been suggested, the unwieldy +Megatherium and the other Edentata? We must at least look to some other +cause for the destruction of the little tucutuco at Bahia Blanca, and +of the many fossil mice and other small quadrupeds in Brazil. No one +will imagine that a drought, even far severer than those which cause +such losses in the provinces of La Plata, could destroy every +individual of every species from Southern Patagonia to Behring’s +Straits. What shall we say of the extinction of the horse? Did those +plains fail of pasture, which have since been overrun by thousands and +hundreds of thousands of the descendants of the stock introduced by the +Spaniards? Have the subsequently introduced species consumed the food +of the great antecedent races? Can we believe that the Capybara has +taken the food of the Toxodon, the Guanaco of the Macrauchenia, the +existing small Edentata of their numerous gigantic prototypes? +Certainly, no fact in the long history of the world is so startling as +the wide and repeated exterminations of its inhabitants. + +Nevertheless, if we consider the subject under another point of view, +it will appear less perplexing. We do not steadily bear in mind how +profoundly ignorant we are of the conditions of existence of every +animal; nor do we always remember that some check is constantly +preventing the too rapid increase of every organised being left in a +state of nature. The supply of food, on an average, remains constant, +yet the tendency in every animal to increase by propagation is +geometrical; and its surprising effects have nowhere been more +astonishingly shown, than in the case of the European animals run wild +during the last few centuries in America. Every animal in a state of +nature regularly breeds; yet in a species long established, any _great_ +increase in numbers is obviously impossible, and must be checked by +some means. We are, nevertheless, seldom able with certainty to tell in +any given +species, at what period of life, or at what period of the year, or +whether only at long intervals, the check falls; or, again, what is the +precise nature of the check. Hence probably it is that we feel so +little surprise at one, of two species closely allied in habits, being +rare and the other abundant in the same district; or, again, that one +should be abundant in one district, and another, filling the same place +in the economy of nature, should be abundant in a neighbouring +district, differing very little in its conditions. If asked how this +is, one immediately replies that it is determined by some slight +difference in climate, food, or the number of enemies: yet how rarely, +if ever, we can point out the precise cause and manner of action of the +check! We are therefore, driven to the conclusion that causes generally +quite inappreciable by us, determine whether a given species shall be +abundant or scanty in numbers. + +In the cases where we can trace the extinction of a species through +man, either wholly or in one limited district, we know that it becomes +rarer and rarer, and is then lost: it would be difficult to point out +any just distinction[13] between a species destroyed by man or by the +increase of its natural enemies. The evidence of rarity preceding +extinction is more striking in the successive tertiary strata, as +remarked by several able observers; it has often been found that a +shell very common in a tertiary stratum is now most rare, and has even +long been thought to be extinct. If then, as appears probable, species +first become rare and then extinct—if the too rapid increase of every +species, even the most favoured, is steadily checked, as we must admit, +though how and when it is hard to say—and if we see, without the +smallest surprise, though unable to assign the precise reason, one +species abundant and another closely-allied species rare in the same +district—why should we feel such great astonishment at the rarity being +carried a step farther to extinction? An action going on, on every side +of us, and yet barely appreciable, might surely be carried a little +farther without exciting our observation. Who would feel any great +surprise at hearing that the Magalonyx was formerly rare compared with +the Megatherium, or that one of the fossil monkeys was few in number +compared with one of the now +living monkeys? and yet in this comparative rarity, we should have the +plainest evidence of less favourable conditions for their existence. To +admit that species generally become rare before they become extinct—to +feel no surprise at the comparative rarity of one species with another, +and yet to call in some extraordinary agent and to marvel greatly when +a species ceases to exist, appears to me much the same as to admit that +sickness in the individual is the prelude to death—to feel no surprise +at sickness—but when the sick man dies to wonder, and to believe that +he died through violence. + + [13] See the excellent remarks on this subject by Mr. Lyell, in his + _Principles of Geology._ + + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + + + +Chapter IX + + +Santa Cruz—Expedition up the River—Indians—Immense Streams of basaltic +lava—Fragments not transported by the River—Excavation of the +valley—Condor, habits of—Cordillera—Erratic boulders of great +size—Indian relics—Return to the ship—Falkland Islands—Wild horses, +cattle, rabbits—Wolf-like fox—Fire made of bones—Manner of hunting wild +cattle—Geology—Streams of stones—Scenes of violence—Penguin—Geese—Eggs +of Doris—Compound animals. + +SANTA CRUZ, PATAGONIA, AND THE FALKLAND ISLANDS. + +_April_ 13_th_, 1834.—The _Beagle_ anchored within the mouth of the +Santa Cruz. This river is situated about sixty miles south of Port St. +Julian. During the last voyage Captain Stokes proceeded thirty miles up +it, but then, from the want of provisions, +was obliged to return. Excepting what was discovered at that time, +scarcely anything was known about this large river. Captain Fitz Roy +now determined to follow its course as far as time would allow. On the +18th three whale-boats started, carrying three weeks’ provisions; and +the party consisted of twenty-five souls—a force which would have been +sufficient to have defied a host of Indians. With a strong flood-tide +and a fine day we made a good run, soon drank some of the fresh water, +and were at night nearly above the tidal influence. + +The river here assumed a size and appearance which, even at the highest +point we ultimately reached, was scarcely diminished. It was generally +from three to four hundred yards broad, and in the middle about +seventeen feet deep. The rapidity of the current, which in its whole +course runs at the rate of from four to six knots an hour, is perhaps +its most remarkable feature. The water is of a fine blue colour, but +with a slight milky tinge, and not so transparent as at first sight +would have been expected. It flows over a bed of pebbles, like those +which compose the beach and the surrounding plains. It runs in a +winding course through a valley, which extends in a direct line +westward. This valley varies from five to ten miles in breadth; it is +bounded by step-formed terraces, which rise in most parts, one above +the other, to the height of five hundred feet, and have on the opposite +sides a remarkable correspondence. + +_April_ 19_th._—Against so strong a current it was, of course, quite +impossible to row or sail: consequently the three boats were fastened +together head and stern, two hands left in each, and the rest came on +shore to track. As the general arrangements made by Captain Fitz Roy +were very good for facilitating the work of all, and as all had a share +in it, I will describe the system. The party, including every one, was +divided into two spells, each of which hauled at the tracking line +alternately for an hour and a half. The officers of each boat lived +with, ate the same food, and slept in the same tent with their crew, so +that each boat was quite independent of the others. After sunset the +first level spot where any bushes were growing was chosen for our +night’s lodging. Each of the crew took it in turns to be cook. +Immediately the boat was hauled up, the cook made his fire; two others +pitched the tent; the coxswain handed the things out of the boat; the +rest carried them up to the tents +and collected firewood. By this order, in half an hour everything was +ready for the night. A watch of two men and an officer was always kept, +whose duty it was to look after the boats, keep up the fire, and guard +against Indians. Each in the party had his one hour every night. + +During this day we tracked but a short distance, for there were many +islets, covered by thorny bushes, and the channels between them were +shallow. + +_April_ 20_th._—We passed the islands and set to work. Our regular +day’s march, although it was hard enough, carried us on an average only +ten miles in a straight line, and perhaps fifteen or twenty altogether. +Beyond the place where we slept last night, the country is completely +_terra incognita_, for it was there that Captain Stokes turned back. We +saw in the distance a great smoke, and found the skeleton of a horse, +so we knew that Indians were in the neighbourhood. On the next morning +(21st) tracks of a party of horse, and marks left by the trailing of +the chuzos, or long spears, were observed on the ground. It was +generally thought that the Indians had reconnoitred us during the +night. Shortly afterwards we came to a spot where, from the fresh +footsteps of men, children, and horses, it was evident that the party +had crossed the river. + +_April_ 22_nd._—The country remained the same, and was extremely +uninteresting. The complete similarity of the productions throughout +Patagonia is one of its most striking characters. The level plains of +arid shingle support the same stunted and dwarf plants; and in the +valleys the same thorn-bearing bushes grow. Everywhere we see the same +birds and insects. Even the very banks of the river and of the clear +streamlets which entered it, were scarcely enlivened by a brighter tint +of green. The curse of sterility is on the land, and the water flowing +over a bed of pebbles partakes of the same curse. Hence the number of +waterfowl is very scanty; for there is nothing to support life in the +stream of this barren river. + +Patagonia, poor as she is in some respects, can however boast of a +greater stock of small rodents[1] than perhaps any other country in the +world. Several species of mice are externally +characterised by large thin ears and a very fine fur. These little +animals swarm amongst the thickets in the valleys, where they cannot +for months together taste a drop of water excepting the dew. They all +seem to be cannibals; for no sooner was a mouse caught in one of my +traps than it was devoured by others. A small and delicately-shaped +fox, which is likewise very abundant, probably derives its entire +support from these small animals. The guanaco is also in his proper +district, herds of fifty or a hundred were common; and, as I have +stated, we saw one which must have contained at least five hundred. The +puma, with the condor and other carrion-hawks in its train, follows and +preys upon these animals. The footsteps of the puma were to be seen +almost everywhere on the banks of the river; and the remains of several +guanacos, with their necks dislocated and bones broken, showed how they +had met their death. + + [1] The desserts of Syria are characterised, according to Volney (tome + i, p. 351), by woody bushes, numerous rats, gazelles and hares. In the + landscape of Patagonia the guanaco replaces the gazelle, and the + agouti the hare. + +_April_ 24_th._—Like the navigators of old when approaching an unknown +land, we examined and watched for the most trivial sign of a change. +The drifted trunk of a tree, or a boulder of primitive rock, was hailed +with joy, as if we had seen a forest growing on the flanks of the +Cordillera. The top, however, of a heavy bank of clouds, which remained +almost constantly in one position, was the most promising sign, and +eventually turned out a true harbinger. At first the clouds were +mistaken for the mountains themselves, instead of the masses of vapour +condensed by their icy summits. + +_April_ 26_th._—We this day met with a marked change in the geological +structure of the plains. From the first starting I had carefully +examined the gravel in the river, and for the two last days had noticed +the presence of a few small pebbles of a very cellular basalt. These +gradually increased in number and in size, but none were as large as a +man’s head. This morning, however, pebbles of the same rock, but more +compact, suddenly became abundant, and in the course of half an hour we +saw, at the distance of five or six miles, the angular edge of a great +basaltic platform. When we arrived at its base we found the stream +bubbling among the fallen blocks. For the next twenty-eight miles the +river-course was encumbered with these basaltic masses. Above that +limit immense fragments of primitive rocks, derived from the +surrounding boulder-formation, were equally numerous. None of the +fragments of any considerable size had been washed +more than three or four miles down the river below their parent-source: +considering the singular rapidity of the great body of water in the +Santa Cruz, and that no still reaches occur in any part, this example +is a most striking one, of the inefficiency of rivers in transporting +even moderately-sized fragments. + +The basalt is only lava which has flowed beneath the sea; but the +eruptions must have been on the grandest scale. At the point where we +first met this formation it was 120 feet in thickness; following up the +river-course, the surface imperceptibly rose and the mass became +thicker, so that at forty miles above the first station it was 320 feet +thick. What the thickness may be close to the Cordillera, I have no +means of knowing, but the platform there attains a height of about +three thousand feet above the level of the sea: we must therefore look +to the mountains of that great chain for its source; and worthy of such +a source are streams that have flowed over the gently inclined bed of +the sea to a distance of one hundred miles. At the first glance of the +basaltic cliffs on the opposite sides of the valley it was evident that +the strata once were united. What power, then, has removed along a +whole line of country a solid mass of very hard rock, which had an +average thickness of nearly three hundred feet, and a breadth varying +from rather less than two miles to four miles? The river, though it has +so little power in transporting even inconsiderable fragments, yet in +the lapse of ages might produce by its gradual erosion an effect, of +which it is difficult to judge the amount. But in this case, +independently of the insignificance of such an agency, good reasons can +be assigned for believing that this valley was formerly occupied by an +arm of the sea. It is needless in this work to detail the arguments +leading to this conclusion, derived from the form and the nature of the +step-formed terraces on both sides of the valley, from the manner in +which the bottom of the valley near the Andes expands into a great +estuary-like plain with sand-hillocks on it, and from the occurrence of +a few sea-shells lying in the bed of the river. If I had space I could +prove that South America was formerly here cut off by a strait, joining +the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, like that of Magellan. But it may yet +be asked, how has the solid basalt been removed? Geologists formerly +would have brought into play the violent action of some overwhelming +debacle; but in this case such a +supposition would have been quite inadmissible; because, the same +step-like plains with existing sea-shells lying on their surface, which +front the long line of the Patagonian coast, sweep up on each side of +the valley of Santa Cruz. No possible action of any flood could thus +have modelled the land, either within the valley or along the open +coast; and by the formation of such step-like plains or terraces the +valley itself has been hollowed out. Although we know that there are +tides which run within the Narrows of the Strait of Magellan at the +rate of eight knots an hour, yet we must confess that it makes the head +almost giddy to reflect on the number of years, century after century, +which the tides, unaided by a heavy surf, must have required to have +corroded so vast an area and thickness of solid basaltic lava. +Nevertheless, we must believe that the strata undermined by the waters +of this ancient strait were broken up into huge fragments, and these +lying scattered on the beach were reduced first to smaller blocks, then +to pebbles, and lastly to the most impalpable mud, which the tides +drifted far into the Eastern or Western Ocean. + +With the change in the geological structure of the plains the character +of the landscape likewise altered. While rambling up some of the narrow +and rocky defiles, I could almost have fancied myself transported back +again to the barren valleys of the island of St. Jago. Among the +basaltic cliffs I found some plants which I had seen nowhere else, but +others I recognised as being wanderers from Tierra del Fuego. These +porous rocks serve as a reservoir for the scanty rain-water; and +consequently on the line where the igneous and sedimentary formations +unite, some small springs (most rare occurrences in Patagonia) burst +forth; and they could be distinguished at a distance by the +circumscribed patches of bright green herbage. + +[Illustration] + +_April_ 27_th._—The bed of the river became rather narrower, and hence +the stream more rapid. It here ran at the rate of six knots an hour. +From this cause, and from the many great angular fragments, tracking +the boats became both dangerous and laborious. + + +This day I shot a condor. It measured from tip to tip of the wings +eight and a half feet, and from beak to tail four +feet. This bird is known to have a wide geographical range, being found +on the west coast of South America, from the Strait of Magellan along +the Cordillera as far as eight degrees north of the equator. The steep +cliff near the mouth of the Rio Negro is its northern limit on the +Patagonian coast; and they have there wandered about four hundred miles +from the great central line of their habitation in the Andes. Further +south, among the bold precipices at the head of Port Desire, the condor +is not uncommon; yet only a few stragglers occasionally visit the +sea-coast. A line of cliff near the mouth of the Santa Cruz is +frequented by these birds, and about eighty miles up the river, where +the sides of the valley are formed by steep basaltic precipices, the +condor reappears. From these facts, it seems that the condors require +perpendicular cliffs. In Chile, they haunt, during the greater part of +the year, the lower country near the shores of the Pacific, and at +night several roost together in one tree; but in the early part of +summer they retire to the most inaccessible parts of the inner +Cordillera, there to breed in peace. + +With respect to their propagation, I was told by the country people in +Chile that the condor makes no sort of nest, but in the months of +November and December lays two large white eggs on a shelf of bare +rock. It is said that the young condors cannot fly for an entire year; +and long after they are able, they continue to roost by night, an hunt +by day with their parents. The old birds generally live in pairs; but +among the inland basaltic cliffs of the Santa Cruz I found a spot where +scores must usually haunt. On coming suddenly to the brow of the +precipice, it was a grand spectacle to see between twenty and thirty of +these great birds start heavily from their resting-place, and wheel +away in majestic circles. From the quantity of dung on the rocks, they +must long have frequented this cliff for roosting and breeding. Having +gorged themselves with carrion on the plains below, they retire to +these favourite ledges to digest their food. From these facts, the +condor, like the gallinazo must to a certain degree be considered as a +gregarious bird. In this part of the country they live altogether on +the guanacos which have died a natural death, or as more commonly +happens, have been killed by the pumas. I believe, from what I saw in +Patagonia, that they do not on ordinary occasions +extend their daily excursions to any great distance from their regular +sleeping-places. + +The condors may oftentimes be seen at a great height, soaring over a +certain spot in the most graceful circles. On some occasions I am sure +that they do this only for pleasure, but on others, the Chileno +countryman tells you that they are watching a dying animal, or the puma +devouring its prey. If the condors glide down, and then suddenly all +rise together, the Chileno knows that it is the puma which, watching +the carcass, has sprung out to drive away the robbers. Besides feeding +on carrion, the condors frequently attack young goats and lambs; and +the shepherd-dogs are trained, whenever they pass over, to run out, and +looking upwards to bark violently. The Chilenos destroy and catch +numbers. Two methods are used; one is to place a carcass on a level +piece of ground within an enclosure of sticks with an opening, and when +the condors are gorged, to gallop up on horseback to the entrance, and +thus enclose them: for when this bird has not space to run, it cannot +give its body sufficient momentum to rise from the ground. The second +method is to mark the trees in which, frequently to the number of five +or six together, they roost, and then at night to climb up and noose +them. They are such heavy sleepers, as I have myself witnessed, that +this is not a difficult task. At Valparaiso I have seen a living condor +sold for sixpence, but the common price is eight or ten shillings. One +which I saw brought in, had been tied with rope, and was much injured; +yet, the moment the line was cut by which its bill was secured, +although surrounded by people, it began ravenously to tear a piece of +carrion. In a garden at the same place, between twenty and thirty were +kept alive. They were fed only once a week, but they appeared in pretty +good health.[2] The Chileno countrymen assert that the condor will +live, and retain its vigour, between five and six weeks without eating: +I cannot answer for the truth of this, but it is a cruel experiment, +which very likely has been tried. + + [2] I noticed that several hours before any one of the condors died, + all the lice, with which it was infested, crawled to the outside + feathers. I was assured that this always happens. + +When an animal is killed in the country, it is well known that the +condors, like other carrion-vultures, soon gain intelligence +of it, and congregate in an inexplicable manner. In most cases it must +not be overlooked, that the birds have discovered their prey, and have +picked the skeleton clean, before the flesh is in the least degree +tainted. Remembering the experiments of M. Audubon, on the little +smelling powers of carrion-hawks, I tried in the above-mentioned garden +the following experiment: the condors were tied, each by a rope, in a +long row at the bottom of a wall; and having folded up a piece of meat +in white paper, I walked backwards and forwards, carrying it in my hand +at the distance of about three yards from them, but no notice whatever +was taken. I then threw it on the ground, within one yard of an old +male bird; he looked at it for a moment with attention, but then +regarded it no more. With a stick I pushed it closer and closer, until +at last he touched it with his beak; the paper was then instantly torn +off with fury, and at the same moment, every bird in the long row began +struggling and flapping its wings. Under the same circumstances it +would have been quite impossible to have deceived a dog. The evidence +in favour of and against the acute smelling powers of carrion-vultures +is singularly balanced. Professor Owen has demonstrated that the +olfactory nerves of the turkey-buzzard (Cathartes aura) are highly +developed, and on the evening when Mr. Owen’s paper was read at the +Zoological Society, it was mentioned by a gentleman that he had seen +the carrion-hawks in the West Indies on two occasions collect on the +roof of a house, when a corpse had become offensive from not having +been buried: in this case, the intelligence could hardly have been +acquired by sight. On the other hand, besides the experiments of +Audubon and that one by myself, Mr. Bachman has tried in the United +States many varied plans, showing that neither the turkey-buzzard (the +species dissected by Professor Owen) nor the gallinazo find their food +by smell. He covered portions of highly-offensive offal with a thin +canvas cloth, and strewed pieces of meat on it: these the +carrion-vultures ate up, and then remained quietly standing, with their +beaks within the eighth of an inch of the putrid mass, without +discovering it. A small rent was made in the canvas, and the offal was +immediately discovered; the canvas was replaced by a fresh piece, and +meat again put on it, and was again devoured by the vultures without +their discovering the +hidden mass on which they were trampling. These facts are attested by +the signatures of six gentlemen, besides that of Mr. Bachman.[3] + + [3] Loudon’s _Magazine of Natural History_, vol. vii. + +Often when lying down to rest on the open plains, on looking upwards, I +have seen carrion-hawks sailing through the air at a great height. +Where the country is level I do not believe a space of the heavens, of +more than fifteen degrees above the horizon, is commonly viewed with +any attention by a person either walking or on horseback. If such be +the case, and the vulture is on the wing at a height of between three +and four thousand feet, before it could come within the range of +vision, its distance in a straight line from the beholder’s eye would +be rather more than two British miles. Might it not thus readily be +overlooked? When an animal is killed by the sportsman in a lonely +valley, may he not all the while be watched from above by the +sharp-sighted bird? And will not the manner of its descent proclaim +throughout the district to the whole family of carrion-feeders, that +their prey is at hand? + +When the condors are wheeling in a flock round and round any spot, their +flight is beautiful. Except when rising from the ground, I do not +recollect ever having seen one of these birds flap its wings. Near +Lima, I watched several for nearly half an hour, without once taking +off my eyes: they moved in large curves, sweeping in circles, +descending and ascending without giving a single flap. As they glided +close over my head, I intently watched from an oblique position the +outlines of the separate and great terminal feathers of each wing; and +these separate feathers, if there had been the least vibratory +movement, would have appeared as if blended together; but they were +seen distinct against the blue sky. The head and neck were moved +frequently, and apparently with force; and the extended wings seemed to +form the fulcrum on which the movements of the neck, body and tail +acted. If the bird wished to descend, the wings were for a moment +collapsed; and when again expanded with an altered inclination, the +momentum gained by the rapid descent seemed to urge the bird upwards +with the even and steady movement of a paper kite. In the case of any +bird _soaring_, its motion must be +sufficiently rapid, so that the action of the inclined surface of its +body on the atmosphere may counterbalance its gravity. The force to +keep up the momentum of a body moving in a horizontal plane in the air +(in which there is so little friction) cannot be great, and this force +is all that is wanted. The movement of the neck and body of the condor, +we must suppose is sufficient for this. However this may be, it is +truly wonderful and beautiful to see so great a bird, hour after hour, +without any apparent exertion, wheeling and gliding over mountain and +river. + + +_April_ 29_th._—From some high land we hailed with joy the white +summits of the Cordillera, as they were seen occasionally peeping +through their dusky envelope of clouds. During the few succeeding days +we continued to get on slowly, for we found the river-course very +tortuous, and strewed with immense fragments of various ancient slaty +rocks, and of granite. The plain bordering the valley had here attained +an elevation of about 1100 feet above the river, and its character was +much altered. The well-rounded pebbles of porphyry were mingled with +many immense angular fragments of basalt and of primary rocks. The +first of these erratic boulders which I noticed was sixty-seven miles +distant from the nearest mountain; another which I measured was five +yards square, and projected five feet above the gravel. Its edges were +so angular, and its size so great, that I at first mistook it for a +rock _in situ_, and took out my compass to observe the direction of its +cleavage. The plain here was not quite so level as that nearer the +coast, but yet it betrayed no signs of any great violence. Under these +circumstances it is, I believe, quite impossible to explain the +transportal of these gigantic masses of rock so many miles from their +parent-source, on any theory except by that of floating icebergs. + +During the two last days we met with signs of horses, and with several +small articles which had belonged to the Indians—such as parts of a +mantle and a bunch of ostrich feathers—but they appeared to have been +lying long on the ground. Between the place where the Indians had so +lately crossed the river and this neighbourhood, though so many miles +apart, the country appears to be quite unfrequented. At first, +considering +the abundance of the guanacos, I was surprised at this; but it is +explained by the stony nature of the plains, which would soon disable +an unshod horse from taking part in the chase. Nevertheless, in two +places in this very central region, I found small heaps of stones, +which I do not think could have been accidentally thrown together. They +were placed on points projecting over the edge of the highest lava +cliff, and they resembled, but on a small scale, those near Port +Desire. + + +_May_ 4_th._—Captain Fitz Roy determined to take the boats no higher. +The river had a winding course, and was very rapid; and the appearance +of the country offered no temptation to proceed any farther. Everywhere +we met with the same productions, and the same dreary landscape. We +were now one hundred and forty miles distant from the Atlantic, and +about sixty from the nearest arm of the Pacific. The valley in this +upper part expanded into a wide basin, bounded on the north and south +by the basaltic platforms, and fronted by the long range of the +snow-clad Cordillera. But we viewed these grand mountains with regret, +for we were obliged to imagine their nature and productions, instead of +standing, as we had hoped, on their summits. Besides the useless loss +of time which an attempt to ascend the river any higher would have cost +us, we had already been for some days on half allowance of bread. This, +although really enough for reasonable men, was, after a hard day’s +march, rather scanty food: a light stomach and an easy digestion are +good things to talk about, but very unpleasant in practice. + + +5_th._—Before sunrise we commenced our descent. We shot down the stream +with great rapidity, generally at the rate of ten knots an hour. In +this one day we effected what had cost us five and a half hard days’ +labour in ascending. On the 8th we reached the _Beagle_ after our +twenty-one days’ expedition. Every one, excepting myself, had cause to +be dissatisfied; but to me the ascent afforded a most interesting +section of the great tertiary formation of Patagonia. + + +On _March_ 1_st_, 1833, and again on _March_ 16_th, 1834, the +_Beagle_ anchored in Berkeley Sound, in East Falkland Island. This +archipelago is situated in nearly the same latitude with the mouth of +the Strait of Magellan; it covers a space of one hundred and twenty by +sixty geographical miles, and is a little more than half the size of +Ireland. After the possession of these miserable islands had been +contested by France, Spain, and England, they were left uninhabited. +The government of Buenos Ayres then sold them to a private individual, +but likewise used them, as old Spain had done before, for a penal +settlement. England claimed her right an seized them. The Englishman +who was left in charge of the flag was consequently murdered. A British +officer was next sent, unsupported by any power: and when we arrived, +we found him in charge of a population, of which rather more than half +were runaway rebels and murderers. + +The theatre is worthy of the scenes acted on it. An undulating land, +with a desolate and wretched aspect, is everywhere covered by a peaty +soil and wiry grass, of one monotonous brown colour. Here and there a +peak or ridge of grey quartz rock breaks through the smooth surface. +Every one has heard of the climate of these regions; it may be compared +to that which is experienced at the height of between one and two +thousand feet, on the mountains of North Wales; having however less +sunshine and less frost, but more wind and rain.[4] + + [4] From accounts published since our voyage, and more especially from + several interesting letters from Capt. Sulivan, R.N., employed on the + survey, it appears that we took an exaggerated view of the badness of + the climate on these islands. But when I reflect on the almost + universal covering of peat, and on the fact of wheat seldom ripening + here, I can hardly believe that the climate in summer is so fine and + dry as it has lately been represented. + + +16_th._—I will now describe a short excursion which I made round a part +of this island. In the morning I started with six horses and two +Gauchos: the latter were capital men for the purpose, and well +accustomed to living on their own resources. The weather was very +boisterous and cold, with heavy hail-storms. We got on, however, pretty +well, but, except the geology, nothing could be less interesting than +our day’s ride. The country is uniformly the same undulating moorland; +the surface being covered by light brown withered grass and a few very +small shrubs, all springing out of an elastic peaty soil. In the +valleys +here and there might be seen a small flock of wild geese, and +everywhere the ground was so soft that the snipe were able to feed. +Besides these two birds there were few others. There is one main range +of hills, nearly two thousand feet in height, and composed of quartz +rock, the rugged and barren crests of which gave us some trouble to +cross. On the south side we came to the best country for wild cattle; +we met, however, no great number, for they had been lately much +harassed. + +In the evening we came across a small herd. One of my companions, St. +Jago by name, soon separated a fat cow; he threw the bolas, and it +struck her legs, but failed in becoming entangled. Then dropping his +hat to mark the spot where the balls were left, while at full gallop he +uncoiled his lazo, and after a most severe chase again came up to the +cow, and caught her round the horns. The other Gaucho had gone on ahead +with the spare horses, so that St. Jago had some difficulty in killing +the furious beast. He managed to get her on a level piece of ground, by +taking advantage of her as often as she rushed at him; and when she +would not move, my horse, from having been trained, would canter up, +and with his chest give her a violent push. But when on level ground it +does not appear an easy job for one man to kill a beast mad with +terror. Nor would it be so if the horse, when left to itself without +its rider, did not soon learn, for its own safety, to keep the lazo +tight; so that, if the cow or ox moves forward, the horse moves just as +quickly forward; otherwise, it stands motionless leaning on one side. +This horse, however, was a young one, and would not stand still, but +gave in to the cow as she struggled. It was admirable to see with what +dexterity St. Jago dodged behind the beast, till at last he contrived +to give the fatal touch to the main tendon of the hind leg; after +which, without much difficulty, he drove his knife into the head of the +spinal marrow, and the cow dropped as if struck by lightning. He cut +off pieces of flesh with the skin to it, but without any bones, +sufficient for our expedition. We then rode on to our sleeping-place, +and had for supper “carne con cuero,” or meat roasted with the skin on +it. This is as superior to common beef as venison is to mutton. A large +circular piece taken from the back is roasted on the embers with the +hide downwards and in the form of a saucer, so that none of the gravy +is lost. If any +worthy alderman had supped with us that evening, “carne con cuero,” +without doubt, would soon have been celebrated in London. + +During the night it rained, and the next day (17th) was very stormy, +with much hail and snow. We rode across the island to the neck of land +which joins the Rincon del Tor (the great peninsula at the S.W. +extremity) to the rest of the island. From the great number of cows +which have been killed, there is a large proportion of bulls. These +wander about single, or two and three together, and are very savage. I +never saw such magnificent beasts; they equalled in the size of their +huge heads and necks the Grecian marble sculptures. Captain Sulivan +informs me that the hide of an average-sized bull weighs forty-seven +pounds, whereas a hide of this weight, less thoroughly dried, is +considered as a very heavy one at Monte Video. The young bulls +generally run away for a short distance; but the old ones do not stir a +step, except to rush at man and horse; and many horses have been thus +killed. An old bull crossed a boggy stream, and took his stand on the +opposite side to us; we in vain tried to drive him away, and failing, +were obliged to make a large circuit. The Gauchos in revenge determined +to emasculate him and render him for the future harmless. It was very +interesting to see how art completely mastered force. One lazo was +thrown over his horns as he rushed at the horse, and another round his +hind legs: in a minute the monster was stretched powerless on the +ground. After the lazo has once been drawn tightly round the horns of a +furious animal, it does not at first appear an easy thing to disengage +it again without killing the beast: nor, I apprehend, would it be so if +the man was by himself. By the aid, however, of a second person +throwing his lazo so as to catch both hind legs, it is quickly managed: +for the animal, as long as its hind legs are kept outstretched, is +quite helpless, and the first man can with his hands loosen his lazo +from the horns, and then quietly mount his horse; but the moment the +second man, by backing ever so little, relaxes the strain, the lazo +slips off the legs of the struggling beast which then rises free, +shakes himself, and vainly rushes at his antagonist. + +During our whole ride we saw only one troop of wild horses. These +animals, as well as the cattle, were introduced by the +French in 1764, since which time both have greatly increased. It is a +curious fact that the horses have never left the eastern end of the +island, although there is no natural boundary to prevent them from +roaming, and that part of the island is not more tempting than the +rest. The Gauchos whom I asked, though asserting this to be the case, +were unable to account for it, except from the strong attachment which +horses have to any locality to which they are accustomed. Considering +that the island does not appear fully stocked, and that there are no +beasts of prey, I was particularly curious to know what has checked +their originally rapid increase. That in a limited island some check +would sooner or later supervene, is inevitable; but why has the +increase of the horse been checked sooner than that of the cattle? +Capt. Sulivan has taken much pains for me in this inquiry. The Gauchos +employed here attribute it chiefly to the stallions constantly roaming +from place to place, and compelling the mares to accompany them, +whether or not the young foals are able to follow. One Gaucho told +Capt. Sulivan that he had watched a stallion for a whole hour, +violently kicking and biting a mare till he forced her to leave her +foal to its fate. Captain Sulivan can so far corroborate this curious +account, that he has several times found young foals dead, whereas he +has never found a dead calf. Moreover, the dead bodies of full-grown +horses are more frequently found, as if more subject to disease or +accidents than those of the cattle. From the softness of the ground +their hoofs often grow irregularly to a great length, and this causes +lameness. The predominant colours are roan and iron-grey. All the +horses bred here, both tame and wild, are rather small-sized, though +generally in good condition; and they have lost so much strength, that +they are unfit to be used in taking wild cattle with the lazo: in +consequence, it is necessary to go to the great expense of importing +fresh horses from the Plata. At some future period the southern +hemisphere probably will have its breed of Falkland ponies, as the +northern has its Shetland breed. + +The cattle, instead of having degenerated like the horses, seem, as +before remarked, to have increased in size; and they are much more +numerous than the horses. Capt. Sulivan informs me that they vary much +less in the general form of their bodies and in the shape of their +horns than English cattle. In colour they differ much; and it is a +remarkable circumstance, +that in different parts of this one small island, different colours +predominate. Round Mount Usborne, at a height of from 1000 to 1500 feet +above the sea, about half of some of the herds are mouse or lead +coloured, a tint which is not common in other parts of the island. Near +Port Pleasant dark brown prevails, whereas south of Choiseul Sound +(which almost divides the island into two parts) white beasts with +black heads and feet are the most common: in all parts black, and some +spotted animals may be observed. Capt. Sulivan remarks that the +difference in the prevailing colours was so obvious, that in looking +for the herds near Port Pleasant, they appeared from a long distance +like black spots, whilst south of Choiseul Sound they appeared like +white spots on the hill-sides. Capt. Sulivan thinks that the herds do +not mingle; and it is a singular fact, that the mouse-coloured cattle, +though living on the high land, calve about a month earlier in the +season than the other coloured beasts on the lower land. It is +interesting thus to find the once domesticated cattle breaking into +three colours, of which some one colour would in all probability +ultimately prevail over the others, if the herd were left undisturbed +for the next several centuries. + +The rabbit is another animal which has been introduced, and has +succeeded very well; so that they abound over large parts of the +island. Yet, like the horses, they are confined within certain limits; +for they have not crossed the central chain of hills, nor would they +have extended even so far as its base, if, as the Gauchos informed me, +small colonies had not been carried there. I should not have supposed +that these animals, natives of Northern Africa, could have existed in a +climate so humid as this, and which enjoys so little sunshine that even +wheat ripens only occasionally. It is asserted that in Sweden, which +any one would have thought a more favourable climate, the rabbit cannot +live out of doors. The first few pairs, moreover, had here to contend +against pre-existing enemies, in the fox and some large hawks. The +French naturalists have considered the black variety a distinct +species, and called it Lepus Magellanicus.[5] +They imagined that Magellan, when talking of an animal under the name +of “conejos” in the Strait of Magellan, referred to this species; but +he was alluding to a small cavy, which to this day is thus called by +the Spaniards. The Gauchos laughed at the idea of the black kind being +different from the grey, and they said that at all events it had not +extended its range any farther than the grey kind; that the two were +never found separate; and that they readily bred together, and produced +piebald offspring. Of the latter I now possess a specimen, and it is +marked about the head differently from the French specific description. +This circumstance shows how cautious naturalists should be in making +species; for even Cuvier, on looking at the skull of one of these +rabbits, thought it was probably distinct! + + [5] Lesson’s _Zoology of the Voyage of the Coquille_, tome i, p. 168. + All the early voyagers, and especially Bougainville, distinctly state + that the wolf-like fox was the only native animal on the island. The + distinction of the rabbit as a species is taken from peculiarities in + the fur, from the shape of the head, and from the shortness of the + ears. I may here observe that the difference between the Irish and + English hare rests upon nearly similar characters, only more strongly + marked. + +The only quadruped native to the island[6] is a large wolf-like fox +(Canis antarcticus), which is common to both East and West Falkland. I +have no doubt it is a peculiar species, and confined to this +archipelago; because many sealers, Gauchos, and Indians, who have +visited these islands, all maintain that no such animal is found in any +part of South America. Molina, from a similarity in habits, thought +that this was the same with his “culpeu”;[7] but I have seen both, and +they are quite distinct. These wolves are well known from Byron’s +account of their tameness and curiosity, which the sailors, who ran +into the water to avoid them, mistook for fierceness. To this day their +manners remain the same. They have been observed to enter a tent, and +actually pull some meat from beneath the head of a sleeping seaman. The +Gauchos also have frequently in the evening killed them, by holding out +a piece of meat in one hand, and in the other a knife ready to stick +them. As far as I am aware, there is no other instance in any part of +the world, of so small a mass of broken land, distant from a continent, +possessing so large an aboriginal quadruped peculiar to itself. Their +numbers have rapidly decreased; they are already banished from that +half of the island which lies to the eastward of the neck of land +between St. Salvador Bay and Berkeley Sound. +Within a very few years after these islands shall have become regularly +settled, in all probability this fox will be classed with the dodo, as +an animal which has perished from the face of the earth. + + [6] I have reason, however, to suspect that there is a field-mouse. + The common European rat and mouse have roamed far from the habitations + of the settlers. The common hog has also run wild on one islet; all + are of a black colour: the boars are very fierce, and have great + tusks. + + + [7] The “culpeu” is the Canis Magellanicus brought home by Captain + King from the Strait of Magellan. It is common in Chile. + +At night (17th) we slept on the neck of land at the head of Choiseul +Sound, which forms the south-west peninsula. The valley was pretty well +sheltered from the cold wind; but there was very little brushwood for +fuel. The Gauchos, however, soon found what, to my great surprise, made +nearly as hot a fire as coals; this was the skeleton of a bullock +lately killed, from which the flesh had been picked by the +carrion-hawks. They told me that in winter they often killed a beast, +cleaned the flesh from the bones with their knives and then with these +same bones roasted the meat for their suppers. + + +18_th._—It rained during nearly the whole day. At night we managed, +however, with our saddle-cloths to keep ourselves pretty well dry and +warm; but the ground on which we slept was on each occasion nearly in +the state of a bog, and there was not a dry spot to sit down on after +our day’s ride. I have in another part stated how singular it is that +there should be absolutely no trees on these islands, although Tierra +del Fuego is covered by one large forest. The largest bush in the +island (belonging to the family of Compositæ) is scarcely so tall as +our gorse. The best fuel is afforded by a green little bush about the +size of common heath, which has the useful property of burning while +fresh and green. It was very surprising to see the Gauchos, in the +midst of rain and everything soaking wet, with nothing more than a +tinder-box and a piece of rag, immediately make a fire. They sought +beneath the tufts of grass and bushes for a few dry twigs, and these +they rubbed into fibres; then surrounding them with coarser twigs, +something like a bird’s nest, they put the rag with its spark of fire +in the middle and covered it up. The nest being then held up to the +wind, by degrees it smoked more and more, and at last burst out in +flames. I do not think any other method would have had a chance of +succeeding with such damp materials. + + +19_th._—Each morning, from not having ridden for some time previously, +I was very stiff. I was surprised to hear the +Gauchos, who have from infancy almost lived on horseback, say that, +under similar circumstances, they always suffer. St. Jago told me, that +having been confined for three months by illness, he went out hunting +wild cattle, and in consequence, for the next two days, his thighs were +so stiff that he was obliged to lie in bed. This shows that the +Gauchos, although they do not appear to do so, yet really must exert +much muscular effort in riding. The hunting wild cattle, in a country +so difficult to pass as this is on account of the swampy ground, must +be very hard work. The Gauchos say they often pass at full speed over +ground which would be impassable at a slower pace; in the same manner +as a man is able to skate over thin ice. When hunting, the party +endeavours to get as close as possible to the herd without being +discovered. Each man carries four or five pair of the bolas; these he +throws one after the other at as many cattle, which, when once +entangled, are left for some days, till they become a little exhausted +by hunger and struggling. They are then let free and driven towards a +small herd of tame animals, which have been brought to the spot on +purpose. From their previous treatment, being too much terrified to +leave the herd, they are easily driven, if their strength last out, to +the settlement. + +The weather continued so very bad that we determine to make a push, and +try to reach the vessel before night. From the quantity of rain which +had fallen, the surface of the whole country was swampy. I suppose my +horse fell at least a dozen times, and sometimes the whole six horses +were floundering in the mud together. All the little streams are +bordered by soft peat, which makes it very difficult for the horses to +leap them without falling. To complete our discomforts we were obliged +to cross the head of a creek of the sea, in which the water was as high +as our horses’ backs; and the little waves, owing to the violence of +the wind, broke over us, and made us very wet and cold. Even the +iron-framed Gauchos professed themselves glad when they reached the +settlement, after our little excursion. + + +The geological structure of these islands is in most respects simple. +The lower country consists of clay-slate and sandstone, containing +fossils, very closely related to, but not identical with, +those found in the Silurian formations of Europe; the hills are formed +of white granular quartz rock. The strata of the latter are frequently +arched with perfect symmetry, and the appearance of some of the masses +is in consequence most singular. Pernety[8] has devoted several pages +to the description of a Hill of Ruins, the successive strata of which +he has justly compared to the seats of an amphitheatre. The quartz rock +must have been quite pasty when it underwent such remarkable flexures +without being shattered into fragments. As the quartz insensibly passes +into the sandstone, it seems probable that the former owes its origin +to the sandstone having been heated to such a degree that it became +viscid, and upon cooling crystallised. While in the soft state it must +have been pushed up through the overlying beds. + + [8] Pernety, _Voyage aux Isles Malouines_, p. 526. + +In many parts of the island the bottoms of the valleys are covered in +an extraordinary manner by myriads of great loose angular fragments of +the quartz rock, forming “streams of stones.” These have been mentioned +with surprise by every voyager since the time of Pernety. The blocks +are not waterworn, their angles being only a little blunted; they vary +in size from one or two feet in diameter to ten, or even more than +twenty times as much. They are not thrown together into irregular +piles, but are spread out into level sheets or great streams. It is not +possible to ascertain their thickness, but the water of small +streamlets can be heard trickling through the stones many feet below +the surface. The actual depth is probably great, because the crevices +between the lower fragments must long ago have been filled up with +sand. The width of these sheets of stones varies from a few hundred +feet to a mile; but the peaty soil daily encroaches on the borders, and +even forms islets wherever a few fragments happen to lie close +together. In a valley south of Berkeley Sound, which some of our party +called the “great valley of fragments,” it was necessary to cross an +uninterrupted band half a mile wide, by jumping from one pointed stone +to another. So large were the fragments, that being overtaken by a +shower of rain, I readily found shelter beneath one of them. + +Their little inclination is the most remarkable circumstance in these +“streams of stones.” On the hill-sides I have seen +them sloping at an angle of ten degrees with the horizon; but in some +of the level, broad-bottomed valleys, the inclination is only just +sufficient to be clearly perceived. On so rugged a surface there was no +means of measuring the angle; but to give a common illustration, I may +say that the slope would not have checked the speed of an English +mail-coach. In some places a continuous stream of these fragments +followed up the course of a valley, and even extended to the very crest +of the hill. On these crests huge masses, exceeding in dimensions any +small building, seemed to stand arrested in their headlong course: +there, also, the curved strata of the archways lay piled on each other, +like the ruins of some vast and ancient cathedral. In endeavouring to +describe these scenes of violence one is tempted to pass from one +simile to another. We may imagine that streams of white lava had flowed +from many parts of the mountains into the lower country, and that when +solidified they had been rent by some enormous convulsion into myriads +of fragments. The expression “streams of stones,” which immediately +occurred to every one, conveys the same idea. These scenes are on the +spot rendered more striking by the contrast of the low, rounded forms +of the neighbouring hills. + +I was interested by finding on the highest peak of one range (about 700 +feet above the sea) a great arched fragment, lying on its convex side, +or back downwards. Must we believe that it was fairly pitched up in the +air, and thus turned? Or, with more probability, that there existed +formerly a part of the same range more elevated than the point on which +this monument of a great convulsion of nature now lies. As the +fragments in the valleys are neither rounded nor the crevices filled up +with sand, we must infer that the period of violence was subsequent to +the land having been raised above the waters of the sea. In a +transverse section within these valleys the bottom is nearly level, or +rises but very little towards either side. Hence the fragments appear +to have travelled from the head of the valley; but in reality it seems +more probable that they have been hurled down from the nearest slopes; +and that since, by a vibratory movement of overwhelming force,[9] the +fragments have been levelled into one continuous sheet. If during the +earthquake[10] which in 1835 overthrew Concepcion, in Chile, it was +thought wonderful that small bodies should have been pitched a few +inches from the ground, what must we say to a movement which has caused +fragments many tons in weight to move onwards like so much sand on a +vibrating board, and find their level? I have seen, in the Cordillera +of the Andes, the evident marks where stupendous mountains have been +broken into pieces like so much thin crust, and the strata thrown on +their vertical edges; but never did any scene, like these “streams of +stones,” so forcibly convey to my mind the idea of a convulsion, of +which in historical records we might in vain seek for any counterpart: +yet the progress of knowledge will probably some day give a simple +explanation of this phenomenon, as it already has of the so long +thought inexplicable transportal of the erratic boulders which are +strewed over the plains of Europe. + + [9] “Nous n’avons pas été moins saisis d’étonnement à la vûe de + l’innombrable quantité de pierres de toutes grandeurs, bouleversées + les unes sur les autres, et cependant rangées, comme si elles avoient + été amoncelées négligemment pour remplir des ravins. On ne se lassoit + pas d’admirer les effets prodigieux de la nature.”—_Pernety_, p. 526. + + + [10] An inhabitant of Mendoza, and hence well capable of judging, + assured me that, during the several years he had resided on these + islands, he had never felt the slightest shock of an earthquake. + + +I have little to remark on the zoology of these islands. I have before +described the carrion-vulture of Polyborus. There are some other hawks, +owls, and a few small land-birds. The waterfowl are particularly +numerous, and they must formerly, from the accounts of the old +navigators, have been much more so. One day I observed a cormorant +playing with a fish which it had caught. Eight times successively the +bird let its prey go, then dived after it, and although in deep water, +brought it each time to the surface. In the Zoological Gardens I have +seen the otter treat a fish in the same manner, much as a cat does a +mouse: I do not know of any other instance where dame Nature appears so +wilfully cruel. Another day, having placed myself between a penguin +(Aptenodytes demersa) and the water, I was much amused by watching its +habits. It was a brave bird; and till reaching the sea, it regularly +fought and drove me backwards. Nothing less than heavy blows would have +stopped him; every inch he gained he firmly kept, standing +close before me erect and determined. When thus opposed he continually +rolled his head from side to side, in a very odd manner, as if the +power of distinct vision lay only in the anterior and basal part of +each eye. This bird is commonly called the jackass penguin, from its +habit, while on shore, of throwing its head backwards, and making a +loud strange noise, very like the braying of an ass; but while at sea, +and undisturbed, its note is very deep and solemn, and is often heard +in the night-time. In diving, its little wings are used as fins; but on +the land, as front legs. When crawling, it may be said on four legs, +through the tussocks or on the side of a grassy cliff, it moves so very +quickly that it might easily be mistaken for a quadruped. When at sea +and fishing, it comes to the surface for the purpose of breathing with +such a spring, and dives again so instantaneously, that I defy any one +at first sight to be sure that it was not a fish leaping for sport. + +Two kinds of geese frequent the Falklands. The upland species (Anas +Magellanica) is common, in pairs and in small flocks, throughout the +island. They do not migrate, but build on the small outlying islets. +This is supposed to be from fear of the foxes: and it is perhaps from +the same cause that these birds, though very tame by day, are shy and +wild in the dusk of the evening. They live entirely on vegetable +matter. The rock-goose, so called from living exclusively on the +sea-beach (Anas antarctica), is common both here and on the west coast +of America, as far north as Chile. In the deep and retired channels of +Tierra del Fuego, the snow-white gander, invariably accompanied by his +darker consort, and standing close by each other on some distant rocky +point, is a common feature in the landscape. + +In these islands a great loggerheaded duck or goose (Anas brachyptera), +which sometimes weighs twenty-two pounds, is very abundant. These birds +were in former days called, from their extraordinary manner of paddling +and splashing upon the water, racehorses; but now they are named, much +more appropriately, steamers. Their wings are too small and weak to +allow of flight, but by their aid, partly swimming and partly flapping +the surface of the water, they move very quickly. The manner is +something like that by which the common house-duck escapes when pursued +by a dog; but I am nearly sure that the steamer +moves its wings alternately, instead of both together, as in other +birds. These clumsy, loggerheaded ducks make such a noise and +splashing, that the effect is exceedingly curious. + +Thus we find in South America three birds which use their wings for +other purposes besides flight; the penguin as fins, the steamer as +paddles, and the ostrich as sails: and the Apteryx of New Zealand, as +well as its gigantic extinct prototype the Deinornis, possess only +rudimentary representatives of wings. The steamer is able to dive only +to a very short distance. It feeds entirely on shell-fish from the kelp +and tidal rocks; hence the beak and head, for the purpose of breaking +them, are surprisingly heavy and strong: the head is so strong that I +have scarcely been able to fracture it with my geological hammer; and +all our sportsmen soon discovered how tenacious these birds were of +life. When in the evening pluming themselves in a flock, they make the +same odd mixture of sounds which bull-frogs do within the tropics. + + +In Tierra del Fuego, as well as in the Falkland Islands, I made many +observations on the lower marine animals,[11] but they are of little +general interest. I will mention only one class of facts, relating to +certain zoophytes in the more highly organised division of that class. +Several genera (Flustra, Eschara, Cellaria, Crisia, and others) agree +in having singular movable organs (like those of Flustra avicularia, +found in the European seas) attached to their cells. The organ, in the +greater number of cases, very closely resembles the head of a vulture; +but the lower mandible can be opened much wider than in a real bird’s +beak. The head itself possesses considerable powers of movement, by +means of a short neck. In one zoophyte the head itself was fixed, but +the lower jaw free: in another it was replaced by +a triangular hood, with a beautifully-fitted trap-door, which evidently +answered to the lower mandible. In the greater number of species, each +cell was provided with one head, but in others each cell had two. + + [11] I was surprised to find, on counting the eggs of a large white + Doris (this sea-slug was three and a half inches long), how + extraordinarily numerous they were. From two to five eggs (each + three-thousandths of an inch in diameter) were contained in spherical + little case. These were arranged two deep in transverse rows forming a + ribbon. The ribbon adhered by its edge to the rock in an oval spire. + One which I found measured nearly twenty inches in length and half in + breadth. By counting how many balls were contained in a tenth of an + inch in the row, and how many rows in an equal length of the ribbon, + on the most moderate computation there were six hundred thousand eggs. + Yet this Doris was certainly not very common: although I was often + searching under the stones, I saw only seven individuals. _No fallacy + is more common with naturalists, than that the numbers of an + individual species depend on its powers of propagation._ + +The young cells at the end of the branches of these corallines contain +quite immature polypi, yet the vulture-heads attached to them, though +small, are in every respect perfect. When the polypus was removed by a +needle from any of the cells, these organs did not appear in the least +affected. When one of the vulture-like heads was cut off from the cell, +the lower mandible retained its power of opening and closing. Perhaps +the most singular part of their structure is, that when there were more +than two rows of cells on a branch, the central cells were furnished +with these appendages, of only one-fourth the size of the outside ones. +Their movements varied according to the species; but in some I never +saw the least motion; while others, with the lower mandible generally +wide open, oscillated backwards and forwards at the rate of about five +seconds each turn; others moved rapidly and by starts. When touched +with a needle, the beak generally seized the point so firmly that the +whole branch might be shaken. + +These bodies have no relation whatever with the production of the eggs +or gemmules, as they are formed before the young polypi appear in the +cells at the end of the growing branches; as they move independently of +the polypi, and do not appear to be in any way connected with them; and +as they differ in size on the outer and inner rows of cells, I have +little doubt that in their functions they are related rather to the +horny axis of the branches than to the polypi in the cells. The fleshy +appendage at the lower extremity of the sea-pen (described at Bahia +Blanca) also forms part of the zoophyte, as a whole, in the same manner +as the roots of a tree form part of the whole tree, and not of the +individual leaf or flower-buds. + +In another elegant little coralline (Crisia?) each cell was furnished +with a long-toothed bristle, which had the power of moving quickly. +Each of these bristles and each of the vulture-like heads generally +moved quite independently of the others, but sometimes all on both +sides of a branch, sometimes only those on one side, moved together +coinstantaneously; sometimes each moved in regular order one after +another. In these actions we +apparently behold as perfect a transmission of will in the zoophyte, +though composed of thousands of distinct polypi, as in any single +animal. The case, indeed, is not different from that of the sea-pens, +which, when touched, drew themselves into the sand on the coast of +Bahia Blanca. I will state one other instance of uniform action, though +of a very different nature, in a zoophyte closely allied to Clytia, and +therefore very simply organised. Having kept a large tuft of it in a +basin of salt-water, when it was dark I found that as often as I rubbed +any part of a branch, the whole became strongly phosphorescent with a +green light: I do not think I ever saw any object more beautifully so. +But the remarkable circumstance was, that the flashes of light always +proceeded up the branches, from the base towards the extremities. + +The examination of these compound animals was always very interesting +to me. What can be more remarkable than to see a plant-like body +producing an egg, capable of swimming about and of choosing a proper +place to adhere to, which then sprouts into branches, each crowded with +innumerable distinct animals, often of complicated organisations. The +branches, moreover, as we have just seen, sometimes possess organs +capable of movement and independent of the polypi. Surprising as this +union of separate individuals in a common stock must always appear, +every tree displays the same fact, for buds must be considered as +individual plants. It is, however, natural to consider a polypus, +furnished with a mouth, intestines, and other organs, as a distinct +individual, whereas the individuality of a leaf-bud is not easily +realised; so that the union of separate individuals in a common body is +more striking in a coralline than in a tree. Our conception of a +compound animal, where in some respects the individuality of each is +not completed, may be aided, by reflecting on the production of two +distinct creatures by bisecting a single one with a knife, or where +Nature herself performs the task of bisection. We may consider the +polypi in a zoophyte, or the buds in a tree, as cases where the +division of the individual has not been completely effected. Certainly +in the case of trees, and judging from analogy in that of corallines, +the individuals propagated by buds seem more intimately related to each +other, than eggs or seeds are to their parents. It seems now pretty +well established that plants propagated by buds all +partake of a common duration of life; and it is familiar to every one, +what singular and numerous peculiarities are transmitted with +certainty, by buds, layers, and grafts, which by seminal propagation +never or only casually reappear. + +[Illustration: Berkeley Sound, Falkland Islands.] + +[Illustration: York Minster, bearing S. 66° E.] + + + + +Chapter X + + +Tierra del Fuego, first arrival—Good Success Bay—An account of the +Fuegians on board—Interview with the savages—Scenery of the +forests—Cape Horn—Wigwam Cove—Miserable condition of the +savages—Famines—Cannibals—Matricide—Religious feelings—Great +gale—Beagle Channel—Ponsonby Sound—Build wigwams and settle the +Fuegians—Bifurcation of the Beagle Channel—Glaciers—Return to the +ship—Second visit in the ship to the settlement—Equality of condition +amongst the natives. + +TIERRA DEL FUEGO. + +_December_ 17_th_, 1832.—Having now finished with Patagonia and the +Falkland Islands, I will describe our first arrival in Tierra del +Fuego. A little after noon we doubled Cape St. Diego, and entered the +famous Strait of Le Maire. We kept close to the Fuegian shore, but the +outline of the rugged, inhospitable Staten-land was visible amidst the +clouds. In the afternoon we anchored in the Bay of Good Success. While +entering we were saluted in a manner becoming the inhabitants of this +savage land. A group of Fuegians partly concealed by the entangled +forest, were perched on a wild point overhanging the +sea; and as we passed by, they sprang up and waving their tattered +cloaks sent forth a loud and sonorous shout. The savages followed the +ship, and just before dark we saw their fire, and again heard their +wild cry. The harbour consists of a fine piece of water half surrounded +by low rounded mountains of clay-slate, which are covered to the +water’s edge by one dense gloomy forest. A single glance at the +landscape was sufficient to show me how widely different it was from +anything I had ever beheld. At night it blew a gale of wind, and heavy +squalls from the mountains swept past us. It would have been a bad time +out at sea, and we, as well as others, may call this Good Success Bay. + +In the morning the Captain sent a party to communicate with the +Fuegians. When we came within hail, one of the four natives who were +present advanced to receive us, and began to shout most vehemently, +wishing to direct us where to land. When we were on shore the party +looked rather alarmed, but continued talking and making gestures with +great rapidity. It was without exception the most curious and +interesting spectacle I ever beheld: I could not have believed how wide +was the difference between savage and civilised man: it is greater than +between a wild and domesticated animal, inasmuch as in man there is a +greater power of improvement. The chief spokesman was old, and appeared +to be the head of the family; the three others were powerful young men, +about six feet high. The women and children had been sent away. These +Fuegians are a very different race from the stunted, miserable wretches +farther westward; and they seem closely allied to the famous +Patagonians of the Strait of Magellan. Their only garment consists of a +mantle made of guanaco skin, with the wool outside: this they wear just +thrown over their shoulders, leaving their persons as often exposed as +covered. Their skin is of a dirty coppery-red colour. + +The old man had a fillet of white feathers tied round his head, which +partly confined his black, coarse, and entangled hair. His face was +crossed by two broad transverse bars; one, painted bright red, reached +from ear to ear and included the upper lip; the other, white like +chalk, extended above and parallel to the first, so that even his +eyelids were thus coloured. The other two men were ornamented by +streaks of black powder, made of +charcoal. The party altogether closely resembled the devils which come +on the stage in plays like Der Freischutz. + +Their very attitudes were abject, and the expression of their +countenances distrustful, surprised, and startled. After we had +presented them with some scarlet cloth, which they immediately tied +round their necks, they became good friends. This was shown by the old +man patting our breasts, and making a chuckling kind of noise, as +people do when feeding chickens. I walked with the old man, and this +demonstration of friendship was repeated several times; it was +concluded by three hard slaps, which were given me on the breast and +back at the same time. He then bared his bosom for me to return the +compliment, which being done, he seemed highly pleased. The language of +these people, according to our notions, scarcely deserves to be called +articulate. Captain Cook has compared it to a man clearing his throat, +but certainly no European ever cleared his throat with so many hoarse, +guttural, and clicking sounds. + +They are excellent mimics: as often as we coughed or yawned, or made +any odd motion, they immediately imitated us. Some of our party began +to squint and look awry; but one of the young Fuegians (whose whole +face was painted black, excepting a white band across his eyes) +succeeded in making far more hideous grimaces. They could repeat with +perfect correctness each word in any sentence we addressed them, and +they remembered such words for some time. Yet we Europeans all know how +difficult it is to distinguish apart the sounds in a foreign language. +Which of us, for instance, could follow an American Indian through a +sentence of more than three words? All savages appear to possess, to an +uncommon degree, this power of mimicry. I was told, almost in the same +words, of the same ludicrous habit among the Caffres; the Australians, +likewise, have long been notorious for being able to imitate and +describe the gait of any man, so that he may be recognised. How can +this faculty be explained? is it a consequence of the more practised +habits of perception and keener senses, common to all men in a savage +state, as compared with those long civilised? + +When a song was struck up by our party, I thought the Fuegians would +have fallen down with astonishment. With equal surprise they viewed our +dancing; but one of the young men, when asked, had no objection to a +little waltzing. Little +accustomed to Europeans as they appeared to be, yet they knew and +dreaded our firearms; nothing would tempt them to take a gun in their +hands. They begged for knives, calling them by the Spanish word +“cuchilla.” They explained also what they wanted, by acting as if they +had a piece of blubber in their mouth, and then pretending to cut +instead of tear it. + +I have not as yet noticed the Fuegians whom we had on board. During the +former voyage of the _Adventure_ and _Beagle_ in 1826 to 1830, Captain +Fitz Roy seized on a party of natives, as hostages for the loss of a +boat, which had been stolen, to the great jeopardy of a party employed +on the survey; and some of these natives, as well as a child whom he +bought for a pearl-button, he took with him to England, determining to +educate them and instruct them in religion at his own expense. To +settle these natives in their own country was one chief inducement to +Captain Fitz Roy to undertake our present voyage; and before the +Admiralty had resolved to send out this expedition, Captain Fitz Roy +had generously chartered a vessel, and would himself have taken them +back. The natives were accompanied by a missionary, R. Matthews; of +whom and of the natives, Captain Fitz Roy has published a full and +excellent account. Two men, one of whom died in England of the +smallpox, a boy and a little girl, were originally taken; and we had +now on board, York Minster, Jemmy Button (whose name expresses his +purchase-money), and Fuegia Basket. York Minster was a full-grown, +short, thick, powerful man: his disposition was reserved, taciturn, +morose, and when excited violently passionate; his affections were very +strong towards a few friends on board; his intellect good. Jemmy Button +was a universal favourite, but likewise passionate; the expression of +his face at once showed his nice disposition. He was merry and often +laughed, and was remarkably sympathetic with any one in pain: when the +water was rough, I was often a little sea-sick, and he used to come to +me and say in a plaintive voice, “Poor, poor fellow!” but the notion, +after his aquatic life, of a man being sea-sick, was too ludicrous, and +he was generally obliged to turn on one side to hide a smile or laugh, +and then he would repeat his “Poor, poor fellow!” He was of a patriotic +disposition; and he liked to praise his own tribe and country, in which +he truly said there were “plenty of trees,” and he abused all the other +tribes: he stoutly declared that there +was no Devil in his land. Jemmy was short, thick, and fat, but vain of +his personal appearance; he used always to wear gloves, his hair was +neatly cut, and he was distressed if his well-polished shoes were +dirtied. He was fond of admiring himself in a looking glass; and a +merry-faced little Indian boy from the Rio Negro, whom we had for some +months on board, soon perceived this, and used to mock him: Jemmy, who +was always rather jealous of the attention paid to this little boy, did +not at all like this, and used to say, with rather a contemptuous twist +of his head, “Too much skylark.” It seems yet wonderful to me, when I +think over all his many good qualities, that he should have been of the +same race, and doubtless partaken of the same character, with the +miserable, degraded savages whom we first met here. Lastly, Fuegia +Basket was a nice, modest, reserved young girl, with a rather pleasing +but sometimes sullen expression, and very quick in learning anything, +especially languages. This she showed in picking up some Portuguese and +Spanish, when left on shore for only a short time at Rio de Janeiro and +Monte Video, and in her knowledge of English. York Minster was very +jealous of any attention paid to her; for it was clear he determined to +marry her as soon as they were settled on shore. + +Although all three could both speak and understand a good deal of +English, it was singularly difficult to obtain much information from +them concerning the habits of their countrymen; this was partly owing +to their apparent difficulty in understanding the simplest alternative. +Every one accustomed to very young children knows how seldom one can +get an answer even to so simple a question as whether a thing is black +_or_ white; the idea of black or white seems alternately to fill their +minds. So it was with these Fuegians, and hence it was generally +impossible to find out, by cross-questioning, whether one had rightly +understood anything which they had asserted. Their sight was remarkably +acute; it is well known that sailors, from long practice, can make out +a distant object much better than a landsman; but both York and Jemmy +were much superior to any sailor on board: several times they have +declared what some distant object has been, and though doubted by every +one, they have proved right when it has been examined through a +telescope. They were quite conscious of this power; and Jemmy, when he +had any little quarrel +with the officer on watch, would say, “Me see ship, me no tell.” + +It was interesting to watch the conduct of the savages, when we landed, +towards Jemmy Button: they immediately perceived the difference between +him and ourselves, and held much conversation one with another on the +subject. The old man addressed a long harangue to Jemmy, which it seems +was to invite him to stay with them. But Jemmy understood very little +of their language, and was, moreover, thoroughly ashamed of his +countrymen. When York Minster afterwards came on shore, they noticed +him in the same way, and told him he ought to shave; yet he had not +twenty dwarf hairs on his face, whilst we all wore our untrimmed +beards. They examined the colour of his skin, and compared it with +ours. One of our arms being bared, they expressed the liveliest +surprise and admiration at its whiteness, just in the same way in which +I have seen the ourang-outang do at the Zoological Gardens. We thought +that they mistook two or three of the officers, who were rather shorter +and fairer, though adorned with large beards, for the ladies of our +party. The tallest amongst the Fuegians was evidently much pleased at +his height being noticed. When placed back to back with the tallest of +the boat’s crew, he tried his best to edge on higher ground, and to +stand on tiptoe. He opened his mouth to show his teeth, and turned his +face for a side view; and all this was done with such alacrity, that I +daresay he thought himself the handsomest man in Tierra del Fuego. +After our first feeling of grave astonishment was over, nothing could +be more ludicrous than the odd mixture of surprise and imitation which +these savages every moment exhibited. + + +The next day I attempted to penetrate some way into the country. Tierra +del Fuego may be described as a mountainous land, partly submerged in +the sea, so that deep inlets and bays occupy the place where valleys +should exist. The mountain sides, except on the exposed western coast, +are covered from the water’s edge upwards by one great forest. The +trees reach to an elevation of between 1000 and 1500 feet, and are +succeeded by a band of peat, with minute alpine plants; and this again +is succeeded by the line of perpetual snow, which, +according to Captain King, in the Strait of Magellan descends to +between 3000 and 4000 feet. To find an acre of level land in any part +of the country is most rare. I recollect only one little flat piece +near Port Famine, and another of rather larger extent near Goeree Road. +In both places, and everywhere else, the surface is covered by a thick +bed of swampy peat. Even within the forest, the ground is concealed by +a mass of slowly putrefying vegetable matter, which, from being soaked +with water, yields to the foot. + +Finding it nearly hopeless to push my way through the wood, I followed +the course of a mountain torrent. At first, from the waterfalls and +number of dead trees, I could hardly crawl along; but the bed of the +stream soon became a little more open, from the floods having swept the +sides. I continued slowly to advance for an hour along the broken and +rocky banks, and was amply repaid by the grandeur of the scene. The +gloomy depth of the ravine well accorded with the universal signs of +violence. On every side were lying irregular masses of rock and torn-up +trees; other trees, though still erect, were decayed to the heart and +ready to fall. The entangled mass of the thriving and the fallen +reminded me of the forests within the tropics—yet there was a +difference: for in these still solitudes, Death, instead of Life, +seemed the predominant spirit. I followed the watercourse till I came +to a spot where a great slip had cleared a straight space down the +mountain side. By this road I ascended to a considerable elevation, and +obtained a good view of the surrounding woods. The trees all belong to +one kind, the Fagus betuloides; for the number of the other species of +Fagus and of the Winter’s Bark is quite inconsiderable. This beech +keeps its leaves throughout the year; but its foliage is of a peculiar +brownish-green colour, with a tinge of yellow. As the whole landscape +is thus coloured, it has a sombre, dull appearance; nor is it often +enlivened by the rays of the sun. + +_December_ 20_th._—One side of the harbour is formed by a hill about +1500 feet high, which Captain Fitz Roy has called after Sir J. Banks, +in commemoration of his disastrous excursion which proved fatal to two +men of his party, and nearly so to Dr. Solander. The snow-storm, which +was the cause of their misfortune, happened in the middle of January, +corresponding +to our July, and in the latitude of Durham! I was anxious to reach the +summit of this mountain to collect alpine plants; for flowers of any +kind in the lower parts are few in number. We followed the same +watercourse as on the previous day, till it dwindled away, and we were +then compelled to crawl blindly among the trees. These, from the +effects of the elevation and of the impetuous winds, were low, thick +and crooked. At length we reached that which from a distance appeared +like a carpet of fine green turf, but which, to our vexation, turned +out to be a compact mass of little beech-trees about four or five feet +high. They were as thick together as box in the border of a garden, and +we were obliged to struggle over the flat but treacherous surface. +After a little more trouble we gained the peat, and then the bare slate +rock. + +Cape Horn + +A ridge connected this hill with another, distant some miles, and more +lofty, so that patches of snow were lying on it. As the day was not far +advanced, I determined to walk there and collect plants along the road. +It would have been very hard work, had it not been for a well-beaten +and straight path made by the guanacos; for these animals, like sheep, +always follow the same line. When we reached the hill we found it the +highest in the immediate neighbourhood, and the waters flowed to the +sea in opposite directions. We obtained a wide view over the +surrounding country: to the north a swampy moorland extended, but to +the south we had a scene of savage +magnificence, well becoming Tierra del Fuego. There was a degree of +mysterious grandeur in mountain behind mountain, with the deep +intervening valleys, all covered by one thick, dusky mass of forest. +The atmosphere, likewise, in this climate, where gale succeeds gale, +with rain, hail, and sleet, seems blacker than anywhere else. In the +Strait of Magellan, looking due southward from Port Famine, the distant +channels between the mountains appeared from their gloominess to lead +beyond the confines of this world. + +Cape Horn (another view) + +_December_ 21_st._—The _Beagle_ got under way: and on the succeeding +day, favoured to an uncommon degree by a fine easterly breeze, we +closed in with the Barnevelts, and running past Cape Deceit with its +stony peaks, about three o’clock doubled the weather-beaten Cape Horn. +The evening was calm and bright, and we enjoyed a fine view of the +surrounding isles. Cape Horn, however, demanded his tribute, and before +night sent us a gale of wind directly in our teeth. We stood out to +sea, and on the second day again made the land, when we saw on our +weather-bow this notorious promontory in its proper form—veiled in a +mist, and its dim outline surrounded by a storm of wind and water. +Great black clouds were rolling across the heavens, and squalls of +rain, with hail, swept by us with such extreme violence, that the +Captain determined to run into Wigwam Cove. This is a snug little +harbour, not far from Cape Horn; and here, at Christmas-eve, we +anchored in +smooth water. The only thing which reminded us of the gale outside was +every now and then a puff from the mountains, which made the ship surge +at her anchors. + +_December_ 25_th._—Close by the cove, a pointed hill, called Kater’s +Peak, rises to the height of 1700 feet. The surrounding islands all +consist of conical masses of greenstone, associated sometimes with less +regular hills of baked and altered clay-slate. This part of Tierra del +Fuego may be considered as the extremity of the submerged chain of +mountains already alluded to. The cove takes its name of “Wigwam” from +some of the Fuegian habitations; but every bay in the neighbourhood +might be so called with equal propriety. The inhabitants, living +chiefly upon shell-fish, are obliged constantly to change their place +of residence; but they return at intervals to the same spots, as is +evident from the piles of old shells, which must often amount to many +tons in weight. These heaps can be distinguished at a long distance by +the bright green colour of certain plants, which invariably grow on +them. Among these may be enumerated the wild celery and scurvy grass, +two very serviceable plants, the use of which has not been discovered +by the natives. + +The Fuegian wigwam resembles, in size and dimensions, a haycock. It +merely consists of a few broken branches stuck in the ground, and very +imperfectly thatched on one side with a few tufts of grass and rushes. +The whole cannot be the work of an hour, and it is only used for a few +days. At Goeree Roads I saw a place where one of these naked men had +slept, which absolutely offered no more cover than the form of a hare. +The man was evidently living by himself, and York Minster said he was +“very bad man,” and that probably he had stolen something. On the west +coast, however, the wigwams are rather better, for they are covered +with seal-skins. We were detained here several days by the bad weather. +The climate is certainly wretched: the summer solstice was now past, +yet every day snow fell on the hills, and in the valleys there was +rain, accompanied by sleet. The thermometer generally stood about 45°, +but in the night fell to 38° or 40°. From the damp and boisterous state +of the atmosphere, not cheered by a gleam of sunshine, one fancied the +climate even worse than it really was. + +While going one day on shore near Wollaston Island, we +pulled alongside a canoe with six Fuegians. These were the most abject +and miserable creatures I anywhere beheld. On the east coast the +natives, as we have seen, have guanaco cloaks, and on the west they +possess seal-skins. Amongst these central tribes the men generally have +an otter-skin, or some small scrap about as large as a +pocket-handkerchief, which is barely sufficient to cover their backs as +low down as their loins. It is laced across the breast by strings, and +according as the wind blows, it is shifted from side to side. But these +Fuegians in the canoe were quite naked, and even one full-grown woman +was absolutely so. It was raining heavily, and the fresh water, +together with the spray, trickled down her body. In another harbour not +far distant, a woman, who was suckling a recently-born child, came one +day alongside the vessel, and remained there out of mere curiosity, +whilst the sleet fell and thawed on her naked bosom, and on the skin of +her naked baby! These poor wretches were stunted in their growth, their +hideous faces bedaubed with white paint, their skins filthy and greasy, +their hair entangled, their voices discordant, and their gestures +violent. Viewing such men, one can hardly make oneself believe that +they are fellow-creatures, and inhabitants of the same world. It is a +common subject of conjecture what pleasure in life some of the lower +animals can enjoy: how much more reasonably the same question may be +asked with respect to these barbarians! At night five or six human +beings, naked and scarcely protected from the wind and rain of this +tempestuous climate, sleep on the wet ground coiled up like animals. +Whenever it is low water, winter or summer, night or day, they must +rise to pick shellfish from the rocks; and the women either dive to +collect sea-eggs, or sit patiently in their canoes, and with a baited +hair-line without any hook, jerk out little fish. If a seal is killed, +or the floating carcass of a putrid whale is discovered, it is a feast; +and such miserable food is assisted by a few tasteless berries and +fungi. + +They often suffer from famine: I heard Mr. Low, a sealing-master +intimately acquainted with the natives of this country, give a curious +account of the state of a party of one hundred and fifty natives on the +west coast, who were very thin and in great distress. A succession of +gales prevented the women from getting shell-fish on the rocks, and +they could not go out in +their canoes to catch seal. A small party of these men one morning set +out, and the other Indians explained to him that they were going a four +days’ journey for food: on their return, Low went to meet them, and he +found them excessively tired, each man carrying a great square piece of +putrid whales-blubber with a hole in the middle, through which they put +their heads, like the Gauchos do through their ponchos or cloaks. As +soon as the blubber was brought into a wigwam, an old man cut off thin +slices, and muttering over them, broiled them for a minute, and +distributed them to the famished party, who during this time preserved +a profound silence. Mr. Low believes that whenever a whale is cast on +shore, the natives bury large pieces of it in the sand, as a resource +in time of famine; and a native boy, whom he had on board, once found a +stock thus buried. The different tribes when at war are cannibals. From +the concurrent, but quite independent evidence of the boy taken by Mr. +Low, and of Jemmy Button, it is certainly true, that when pressed in +winter by hunger they kill and devour their old women before they kill +their dogs: the boy, being asked by Mr. Low why they did this, +answered, “Doggies catch otters, old women no.” This boy described the +manner in which they are killed by being held over smoke and thus +choked; he imitated their screams as a joke, and described the parts of +their bodies which are considered best to eat. Horrid as such a death +by the hands of their friends and relatives must be, the fears of the +old women, when hunger begins to press, are more painful to think of; +we were told that they then often run away into the mountains, but that +they are pursued by the men and brought back to the slaughter-house at +their own firesides! + +Captain Fitz Roy could never ascertain that the Fuegians have any +distinct belief in a future life. They sometimes bury their dead in +caves, and sometimes in the mountain forests; we do not know what +ceremonies they perform. Jemmy Button would not eat land-birds, because +“eat dead men”; they are unwilling even to mention their dead friends. +We have no reason to believe that they perform any sort of religious +worship; though perhaps the muttering of the old man before he +distributed the putrid blubber to his famished party may be of this +nature. Each family or tribe has a wizard or conjuring doctor, whose +office we could never clearly ascertain. Jemmy believed in dreams, +though not, as I have said, in the devil: I do not think that our +Fuegians were much more superstitious than some of the sailors; for an +old quartermaster firmly believed that the successive heavy gales, +which we encountered off Cape Horn, were caused by our having the +Fuegians on board. The nearest approach to a religious feeling which I +heard of, was shown by York Minster, who, when Mr. Bynoe shot some very +young ducklings as specimens, declared in the most solemn manner, “Oh, +Mr. Bynoe, much rain, snow, blow much.” This was evidently a +retributive punishment for wasting human food. In a wild and excited +manner he also related that his brother one day, whilst returning to +pick up some dead birds which he had left on the coast, observed some +feathers blown by the wind. His brother said (York imitating his +manner), “What that?” and crawling onwards, he peeped over the cliff, +and saw “wild man” picking his birds; he crawled a little nearer, and +then hurled down a great stone and killed him. York declared for a long +time afterwards storms raged, and much rain and snow fell. As far as we +could make out, he seemed to consider the elements themselves as the +avenging agents: it is evident in this case, how naturally, in a race a +little more advanced in culture, the elements would become personified. +What the “bad wild men” were, has always appeared to me most +mysterious: from what York said, when we found the place like the form +of a hare, where a single man had slept the night before, I should have +thought that they were thieves who had been driven from their tribes; +but other obscure speeches made me doubt this; I have sometimes +imagined that the most probable explanation was that they were insane. + +The different tribes have no government or chief; yet each is +surrounded by other hostile tribes, speaking different dialects, and +separated from each other only by a deserted border or neutral +territory: the cause of their warfare appears to be the means of +subsistence. Their country is a broken mass of wild rocks, lofty hills, +and useless forests: and these are viewed through mists and endless +storms. The habitable land is reduced to the stones on the beach; in +search of food they are compelled unceasingly to wander from spot to +spot, and so steep is the coast, that they can only move about in their +wretched canoes. They cannot know the feeling of having a home, and +still less that of domestic affection; for the husband is to the wife a +brutal master to a laborious slave. Was a more horrid deed ever +perpetrated, than that witnessed on the west coast by Byron, who saw a +wretched mother pick up her bleeding dying infant-boy, whom her husband +had mercilessly dashed on the stones for dropping a basket of sea-eggs! +How little can the higher powers of the mind be brought into play: what +is there for imagination to picture, for reason to compare, for +judgment to decide upon? to knock a limpet from the rock does not +require even cunning, that lowest power of the mind. Their skill in +some respects may be compared to the instinct of animals; for it is not +improved by experience: the canoe, their most ingenious work, poor as +it is, has remained the same, as we know from Drake, for the last two +hundred and fifty years. + +Whilst beholding these savages, one asks, Whence have they come? What +could have tempted, or what change compelled, a tribe of men, to leave +the fine regions of the north, to travel down the Cordillera or +backbone of America, to invent and build canoes, which are not used by +the tribes of Chile, Peru, and Brazil, and then to enter on one of the +most inhospitable countries within the limits of the globe? Although +such reflections must at first seize on the mind, yet we may feel sure +that they are partly erroneous. There is no reason to believe that the +Fuegians decrease in number; therefore we must suppose that they enjoy +a sufficient share of happiness, of whatever kind it may be, to render +life worth having. Nature by making habit omnipotent, and its effects +hereditary, has fitted the Fuegian to the climate and the productions +of his miserable country. + +Bad weather, Magellan Straits + + +After having been detained six days in Wigwam Cove by very bad weather, +we put to sea on the 30th of December. Captain Fitz Roy wished to get +westward to land York and Fuegia in their own country. When at sea we +had a constant succession of gales, and the current was against us: we +drifted to 57° 23′ south. On the 11th of January, 1833, by carrying a +press of sail, we fetched within a few miles of the great rugged +mountain of York Minster (so called by Captain Cook, and the origin of +the name of the elder Fuegian), when a violent squall +compelled us to shorten sail and stand out to sea. The surf was +breaking fearfully on the coast, and the spray was carried over a cliff +estimated at 200 feet in height. On the 12th the gale was very heavy, +and we did not know exactly where we were: it was a most unpleasant +sound to hear constantly repeated, “Keep a good lookout to leeward.” On +the 13th the storm raged with its full fury: our horizon was narrowly +limited by the sheets of spray borne by the wind. The sea looked +ominous, like a dreary waving plain with patches of drifted snow: +whilst the ship laboured heavily, the albatross glided with its +expanded wings right up the wind. At noon a great sea broke over us, +and filled one of the whale-boats, which was obliged to be instantly +cut away. The poor _Beagle_ trembled at the shock, and for a few +minutes would not obey her helm; but soon, like a good ship that she +was, she righted and came up to the wind again. Had another sea +followed the first, our fate would have been decided soon, and for +ever. We had now been twenty-four days trying in vain to get westward; +the men were worn out with fatigue, and they had not had for many +nights or days a dry thing to put on. Captain Fitz Roy gave up the +attempt to get westward by the outside coast. In the evening we ran in +behind False Cape Horn, and +dropped our anchor in forty-seven fathoms, fire flashing from the +windlass as the chain rushed round it. How delightful was that still +night, after having been so long involved in the din of the warring +elements! + +Fuegian basket and bone weapons + +_January_ 15, 1833.—The _Beagle_ anchored in Goeree Roads. Captain Fitz +Roy having resolved to settle the Fuegians, according to their wishes, +in Ponsonby Sound, four boats were equipped to carry them there through +the Beagle Channel. This channel, which was discovered by Captain Fitz +Roy during the last voyage, is a most remarkable feature in the +geography of this, or indeed of any other country: it may be compared +to the valley of Loch Ness in Scotland, with its chain of lakes and +friths. It is about one hundred and twenty miles long, with an average +breadth, not subject to any very great variation, of about two miles; +and is throughout the greater part so perfectly straight, that the +view, bounded on each side by a line of mountains, gradually becomes +indistinct in the long distance. It crosses the southern part of Tierra +del Fuego in an east and west line, and in the middle is joined at +right angles on the south side by an irregular channel, which has been +called Ponsonby Sound. This is the residence of Jemmy Button’s tribe +and family. + +19_th._—Three whale-boats and the yawl, with a party of +twenty-eight, started under the command of Captain Fitz Roy. In the +afternoon we entered the eastern mouth of the channel, and shortly +afterwards found a snug little cove concealed by some surrounding +islets. Here we pitched our tents and lighted our fires. Nothing could +look more comfortable than this scene. The glassy water of the little +harbour, with the branches of the trees hanging over the rocky beach, +the boats at anchor, the tents supported by the crossed oars, and the +smoke curling up the wooded valley, formed a picture of quiet +retirement. The next day (20th) we smoothly glided onwards in our +little fleet, and came to a more inhabited district. Few if any of +these natives could ever have seen a white man; certainly nothing could +exceed their astonishment at the apparition of the four boats. Fires +were lighted on every point (hence the name of Tierra del Fuego, or the +land of fire), both to attract our attention and to spread far and wide +the news. Some of the men ran for miles along the shore. I shall never +forget how wild and savage one group appeared: suddenly four or five +men came to the edge of an overhanging cliff; they were absolutely +naked, and their long hair streamed about their faces; they held rugged +staffs in their hands, and, springing from the ground, they waved their +arms round their heads, and sent forth the most hideous yells. + +At dinner-time we landed among a party of Fuegians. At first they were +not inclined to be friendly; for until the Captain pulled in ahead of +the other boats, they kept their slings in their hands. We soon, +however, delighted them by trifling presents, such as tying red tape +round their heads. They liked our biscuit: but one of the savages +touched with his finger some of the meat preserved in tin cases which I +was eating, and feeling it soft and cold, showed as much disgust at it, +as I should have done at putrid blubber. Jemmy was thoroughly ashamed +of his countrymen, and declared his own tribe were quite different, in +which he was woefully mistaken. It was as easy to please as it was +difficult to satisfy these savages. Young and old, men and children, +never ceased repeating the word “yammerschooner,” which means “give +me.” After pointing to almost every object, one after the other, even +to the buttons on our coats, and saying their favourite word in as many +intonations as possible, they would then use it in a neuter sense, and +vacantly repeat “yammerschooner.” After yammerschoonering for any +article very +eagerly, they would by a simple artifice point to their young women or +little children, as much as to say, “If you will not give it me, surely +you will to such as these.” + +At night we endeavoured in vain to find an uninhabited cove; and at +last were obliged to bivouac not far from a party of natives. They were +very inoffensive as long as they were few in numbers, but in the +morning (21st) being joined by others they showed symptoms of +hostility, and we thought that we should have come to a skirmish. An +European labours under great disadvantages when treating with savages +like these who have not the least idea of the power of firearms. In the +very act of levelling his musket he appears to the savage far inferior +to a man armed with a bow and arrow, a spear, or even a sling. Nor is +it easy to teach them our superiority except by striking a fatal blow. +Like wild beasts, they do not appear to compare numbers; for each +individual, if attacked, instead of retiring, will endeavour to dash +your brains out with a stone, as certainly as a tiger under similar +circumstances would tear you. Captain Fitz Roy, on one occasion being +very anxious, from good reasons, to frighten away a small party, first +flourished a cutlass near them, at which they only laughed; he then +twice fired his pistol close to a native. The man both times looked +astounded, and carefully but quickly rubbed his head; he then stared +awhile, and gabbled to his companions, but he never seemed to think of +running away. We can hardly put ourselves in the position of these +savages, and understand their actions. In the case of this Fuegian, the +possibility of such a sound as the report of a gun close to his ear +could never have entered his mind. He perhaps literally did not for a +second know whether it was a sound or a blow, and therefore very +naturally rubbed his head. In a similar manner, when a savage sees a +mark struck by a bullet, it may be some time before he is able at all +to understand how it is effected; for the fact of a body being +invisible from its velocity would perhaps be to him an idea totally +inconceivable. Moreover, the extreme force of a bullet that penetrates +a hard substance without tearing it, may convince the savage that it +has no force at all. Certainly I believe that many savages of the +lowest grade, such as these of Tierra del Fuego, have seen objects +struck, and even small animals killed by the musket, +without being in the least aware how deadly an instrument it is. + +22_nd._—After having passed an unmolested night, in what would appear +to be neutral territory between Jemmy’s tribe and the people whom we +saw yesterday, we sailed pleasantly along. I do not know anything which +shows more clearly the hostile state of the different tribes, than +these wide border or neutral tracts. Although Jemmy Button well knew +the force of our party, he was, at first, unwilling to land amidst the +hostile tribe nearest to his own. He often told us how the savage Oens +men “when the leaf red,” crossed the mountains from the eastern coast +of Tierra del Fuego, and made inroads on the natives of this part of +the country. It was most curious to watch him when thus talking, and +see his eyes gleaming and his whole face assume a new and wild +expression. As we proceeded along the Beagle Channel, the scenery +assumed a peculiar and very magnificent character; but the effect was +much lessened from the lowness of the point of view in a boat, and from +looking along the valley, and thus losing all the beauty of a +succession of ridges. The mountains were here about three thousand feet +high, and terminated in sharp and jagged points. They rose in one +unbroken sweep from the water’s edge, and were covered to the height of +fourteen or fifteen hundred feet by the dusky-coloured forest. It was +most curious to observe, as far as the eye could range, how level and +truly horizontal the line on the mountain side was, at which trees +ceased to grow: it precisely resembled the high-water mark of driftweed +on a sea-beach. + +At night we slept close to the junction of Ponsonby Sound with the +Beagle Channel. A small family of Fuegians, who were living in the +cove, were quiet and inoffensive, and soon joined our party round a +blazing fire. We were well clothed, and though sitting close to the +fire were far from too warm; yet these naked savages, though farther +off, were observed, to our great surprise, to be streaming with +perspiration at undergoing such a roasting. They seemed, however, very +well pleased, and all joined in the chorus of the seamen’s songs: but +the manner in which they were invariably a little behindhand was quite +ludicrous. + +During the night the news had spread, and early in the +morning (23rd) a fresh party arrived, belonging to the Tekenika, or +Jemmy’s tribe. Several of them had run so fast that their noses were +bleeding, and their mouths frothed from the rapidity with which they +talked; and with their naked bodies all bedaubed with black, white,[1] +and red, they looked like so many demoniacs who had been fighting. We +then proceeded (accompanied by twelve canoes, each holding four or five +people) down Ponsonby Sound to the spot where poor Jemmy expected to +find his mother and relatives. He had already heard that his father was +dead; but as he had had a “dream in his head” to that effect, he did +not seem to care much about it, and repeatedly comforted himself with +the very natural reflection—“Me no help it.” He was not able to learn +any particulars regarding his father’s death, as his relations would +not speak about it. + + [1] This substance, when dry, is tolerably compact, and of little + specific gravity: Professor Ehrenberg has examined it: he states + (_König Akad. der Wissen:_ Berlin, Feb. 1845) that it is composed of + infusoria, including fourteen polygastrica and four phytolitharia. He + says that they are all inhabitants of fresh water; this is a beautiful + example of the results obtainable through Professor Ehrenberg’s + microscopic researches; for Jemmy Button told me that it is always + collected at the bottoms of mountain-brooks. It is, moreover, a + striking fact in the geographical distribution of the infusoria, which + are well known to have very wide ranges, that all the species in this + substance, although brought from the extreme southern point of Tierra + del Fuego, are old, known forms. + +Jemmy was now in a district well known to him, and guided the boats to +a quiet pretty cove named Woollya, surrounded by islets, every one of +which and every point had its proper native name. We found here a +family of Jemmy’s tribe, but not his relations: we made friends with +them; and in the evening they sent a canoe to inform Jemmy’s mother and +brothers. The cove was bordered by some acres of good sloping land, not +covered (as elsewhere) either by peat or by forest-trees. Captain Fitz +Roy originally intended, as before stated, to have taken York Minster +and Fuegia to their own tribe on the west coast; but as they expressed +a wish to remain here, and as the spot was singularly favourable, +Captain Fitz Roy determined to settle here the whole party, including +Matthews, the missionary. Five days were spent in building for them +three large wigwams, in landing their goods, in digging two gardens, +and sowing seeds. + +The next morning after our arrival (the 24th) the Fuegians +began to pour in, and Jemmy’s mother and brothers arrived. Jemmy +recognised the stentorian voice of one of his brothers at a prodigious +distance. The meeting was less interesting than that between a horse, +turned out into a field, when he joins an old companion. There was no +demonstration of affection; they simply stared for a short time at each +other; and the mother immediately went to look after her canoe. We +heard, however, through York that the mother had been inconsolable for +the loss of Jemmy, and had searched everywhere for him, thinking that +he might have been left after having been taken in the boat. The women +took much notice of and were very kind to Fuegia. We had already +perceived that Jemmy had almost forgotten his own language. I should +think there was scarcely another human being with so small a stock of +language, for his English was very imperfect. It was laughable, but +almost pitiable, to hear him speak to his wild brother in English, and +then ask him in Spanish (“no sabe?”) whether he did not understand him. + +Everything went on peaceably during the three next days, whilst the +gardens were digging and wigwams building. We estimated the number of +natives at about one hundred and twenty. The women worked hard, whilst +the men lounged about all day long, watching us. They asked for +everything they saw, and stole what they could. They were delighted at +our dancing and singing, and were particularly interested at seeing us +wash in a neighbouring brook; they did not pay much attention to +anything else, not even to our boats. Of all the things which York saw, +during his absence from his country, nothing seems more to have +astonished him than an ostrich, near Maldonado: breathless with +astonishment he came running to Mr. Bynoe, with whom he was out +walking—“Oh, Mr. Bynoe, oh, bird all same horse!” Much as our white +skins surprised the natives, by Mr. Low’s account a negro-cook to a +sealing vessel did so more effectually, and the poor fellow was so +mobbed and shouted at that he would never go on shore again. Everything +went on so quietly, that some of the officers and myself took long +walks in the surrounding hills and woods. Suddenly, however, on the +27th, every woman and child disappeared. We were all uneasy at this, as +neither York nor Jemmy could make out the cause. It was thought by some +that they had been frightened by our cleaning and firing off our +muskets on the previous evening: by others, that it was owing to +offence taken by an old savage, who, when told to keep farther off, had +coolly spit in the sentry’s face, and had then, by gestures acted over +a sleeping Fuegian, plainly showed, as it was said, that he should like +to cut up and eat our man. Captain Fitz Roy, to avoid the chance of an +encounter, which would have been fatal to so many of the Fuegians, +thought it advisable for us to sleep at a cove a few miles distant. +Matthews, with his usual quiet fortitude (remarkable in a man +apparently possessing little energy of character), determined to stay +with the Fuegians, who evinced no alarm for themselves; and so we left +them to pass their first awful night. + +On our return in the morning (28th) we were delighted to find all +quiet, and the men employed in their canoes spearing fish. Captain Fitz +Roy determined to send the yawl and one whale-boat back to the ship; +and to proceed with the two other boats, one under his own command (in +which he most kindly allowed me to accompany him), and one under Mr. +Hammond, to survey the western parts of the Beagle Channel, and +afterwards to return and visit the settlement. The day to our +astonishment was overpoweringly hot, so that our skins were scorched; +with this beautiful weather, the view in the middle of the Beagle +Channel was very remarkable. Looking towards either hand, no object +intercepted the vanishing points of this long canal between the +mountains. The circumstance of its being an arm of the sea was rendered +very evident by several huge whales[2] spouting in different +directions. On one occasion I saw two of these monsters, probably male +and female, slowly swimming one after the other, within less than a +stone’s throw of the shore, over which the beech-tree extended its +branches. + + [2] One day, off the East coast of Tierra del Fuego, we saw a grand + sight in several spermaceti whales jumping upright quite out of the + water, with the exception of their tail-fins. As they fell down + sideways, they splashed the water high up, and the sound reverberated + like a distant broadside. + +We sailed on till it was dark, and then pitched our tents in a quiet +creek. The greatest luxury was to find for our beds a beach of pebbles, +for they were dry and yielded to the body. Peaty soil is damp; rock is +uneven and hard; sand gets into one’s meat, when cooked and eaten +boat-fashion; but when lying +in our blanket-bags, on a good bed of smooth pebbles, we passed most +comfortable nights. + +It was my watch till one o’clock. There is something very solemn in +these scenes. At no time does the consciousness in what a remote corner +of the world you are then standing come so strongly before the mind. +Everything tends to this effect; the stillness of the night is +interrupted only by the heavy breathing of the seamen beneath the +tents, and sometimes by the cry of a night-bird. The occasional barking +of a dog, heard in the distance, reminds one that it is the land of the +savage. + +_January_ 29_th._—Early in the morning we arrived at the point where +the Beagle Channel divides into two arms; and we entered the northern +one. The scenery here becomes even grander than before. The lofty +mountains on the north side compose the granitic axis, or backbone of +the country, and boldly rise to a height of between three and four +thousand feet, with one peak above six thousand feet. They are covered +by a wide mantle of perpetual snow, and numerous cascades pour their +waters, through the woods, into the narrow channel below. In many +parts, magnificent glaciers extend from the mountain side to the +water’s edge. It is scarcely possible to imagine anything more +beautiful than the beryl-like blue of these glaciers, and especially as +contrasted with the dead white of the upper expanse of snow. The +fragments which had fallen from the glacier into the water were +floating away, and the channel with its icebergs presented, for the +space of a mile, a miniature likeness of the Polar Sea. The boats being +hauled on shore at our dinner-hour, we were admiring from the distance +of half a mile a perpendicular cliff of ice, and were wishing that some +more fragments would fall. At last, down came a mass with a roaring +noise, and immediately we saw the smooth outline of a wave travelling +towards us. The men ran down as quickly as they could to the boats; for +the chance of their being dashed to pieces was evident. One of the +seamen just caught hold of the bows, as the curling breaker reached it: +he was knocked over and over, but not hurt, and the boats, though +thrice lifted on high and let fall again, received no damage. This was +most fortunate for us, for we were a hundred miles distant from the +ship, and we should have been left without provisions or firearms. I +had previously observed that some large fragments of rock on the beach +had been lately displaced; +but until seeing this wave I did not understand the cause. One side of +the creek was formed by a spur of mica-slate; the head by a cliff of +ice about forty feet high; and the other side by a promontory fifty +feet high, built up of huge rounded fragments of granite and +mica-slate, out of which old trees were growing. This promontory was +evidently a moraine, heaped up at a period when the glacier had greater +dimensions. + +When we reached the western mouth of this northern branch of the Beagle +Channel, we sailed amongst many unknown desolate islands, and the +weather was wretchedly bad. We met with no natives. The coast was +almost everywhere so steep that we had several times to pull many miles +before we could find space enough to pitch our two tents: one night we +slept on large round boulders, with putrefying sea-weed between them; +and when the tide rose, we had to get up and move our blanket-bags. The +farthest point westward which we reached was Stewart Island, a distance +of about one hundred and fifty miles from our ship. We returned into +the Beagle Channel by the southern arm, and thence proceeded, with no +adventure, back to Ponsonby Sound. + +_February_ 6_th._—We arrived at Woollya. Matthews gave so bad an +account of the conduct of the Fuegians, that Captain Fitz Roy +determined to take him back to the _Beagle_; and ultimately he was left +at New Zealand, where his brother was a missionary. From the time of +our leaving, a regular system of plunder commenced; fresh parties of +the natives kept arriving: York and Jemmy lost many things, and +Matthews almost everything which had not been concealed underground. +Every article seemed to have been torn up and divided by the natives. +Matthews described the watch he was obliged always to keep as most +harassing; night and day he was surrounded by the natives, who tried to +tire him out by making an incessant noise close to his head. One day an +old man, whom Matthews asked to leave his wigwam, immediately returned +with a large stone in his hand: another day a whole party came armed +with stones and stakes, and some of the younger men and Jemmy’s brother +were crying: Matthews met them with presents. Another party showed by +signs that they wished to strip him naked and pluck all the hairs out +of his face and body. I think we arrived just in time to save his life. +Jemmy’s relatives had been so vain and foolish, that they had showed to +strangers their plunder, and their manner +of obtaining it. It was quite melancholy leaving the three Fuegians +with their savage countrymen; but it was a great comfort that they had +no personal fears. York, being a powerful resolute man, was pretty sure +to get on well, together with his wife Fuegia. Poor Jemmy looked rather +disconsolate, and would then, I have little doubt, have been glad to +have returned with us. His own brother had stolen many things from him; +and as he remarked, “What fashion call that:” he abused his countrymen, +“all bad men, no sabe (know) nothing” and, though I never heard him +swear before, “damned fools.” Our three Fuegians, though they had been +only three years with civilised men, would, I am sure, have been glad +to have retained their new habits; but this was obviously impossible. I +fear it is more than doubtful whether their visit will have been of any +use to them. + +In the evening, with Matthews on board, we made sail back to the ship, +not by the Beagle Channel, but by the southern coast. The boats were +heavily laden and the sea rough, and we had a dangerous passage. By the +evening of the 7th we were on board the _ Beagle_ after an absence of +twenty days, during which time we had gone three hundred miles in the +open boats. On the 11th Captain Fitz Roy paid a visit by himself to the +Fuegians and found them going on well; and that they had lost very few +more things. + + +On the last day of February in the succeeding year (1834) the _Beagle_ +anchored in a beautiful little cove at the eastern entrance of the +Beagle Channel. Captain Fitz Roy determined on the bold, and as it +proved successful, attempt to beat against the westerly winds by the +same route which we had followed in the boats to the settlement at +Woollya. We did not see many natives until we were near Ponsonby Sound, +where we were followed by ten or twelve canoes. The natives did not at +all understand the reason of our tacking, and, instead of meeting us at +each tack, vainly strove to follow us in our zigzag course. I was +amused at finding what a difference the circumstance of being quite +superior in force made, in the interest of beholding these savages. +While in the boats I got to hate the very sound of their voices, so +much trouble did they give us. The first and last word was +“yammerschooner.” When, entering some quiet little cove, we have looked +round and thought to pass a quiet +night, the odious word “yammerschooner” has shrilly sounded from some +gloomy nook, and then the little signal-smoke has curled up to spread +the news far and wide. On leaving some place we have said to each +other, “Thank heaven, we have at last fairly left these wretches!” when +one more faint halloo from an all-powerful voice, heard at a prodigious +distance, would reach our ears, and clearly could we +distinguish—“yammerschooner.” But now, the more Fuegians the merrier; +and very merry work it was. Both parties laughing, wondering, gaping at +each other; we pitying them, for giving us good fish and crabs for +rags, etc.; they grasping at the chance of finding people so foolish as +to exchange such splendid ornaments for a good supper. It was most +amusing to see the undisguised smile of satisfaction with which one +young woman with her face painted black, tied several bits of scarlet +cloth round her head with rushes. Her husband, who enjoyed the very +universal privilege in this country of possessing two wives, evidently +became jealous of all the attention paid to his young wife; and, after +a consultation with his naked beauties, was paddled away by them. + +Some of the Fuegians plainly showed that they had a fair notion of +barter. I gave one man a large nail (a most valuable present) without +making any signs for a return; but he immediately picked out two fish, +and handed them up on the point of his spear. If any present was +designed for one canoe, and it fell near another, it was invariably +given to the right owner. The Fuegian boy, whom Mr. Low had on board, +showed, by going into the most violent passion, that he quite +understood the reproach of being called a liar, which in truth he was. +We were this time, as on all former occasions, much surprised at the +little notice, or rather none whatever, which was taken of many things, +the use of which must have been evident to the natives. Simple +circumstances—such as the beauty of scarlet cloth or blue beads, the +absence of women, our care in washing ourselves,—excited their +admiration far more than any grand or complicated object, such as our +ship. Bougainville has well remarked concerning these people, that they +treat the “chefs d’œuvres de l’industrie humaine, comme ils traitent +les loix de la nature et ses phénomènes.” + +On the 5th of March we anchored in a cove at Woollya, +but we saw not a soul there. We were alarmed at this, for the natives +in Ponsonby Sound showed by gestures that there had been fighting; and +we afterwards heard that the dreaded Oens men had made a descent. Soon +a canoe, with a little flag flying, was seen approaching, with one of +the men in it washing the paint off his face. This man was poor +Jemmy,—now a thin, haggard savage, with long disordered hair, and +naked, except a bit of blanket round his waist. We did not recognize +him till he was close to us, for he was ashamed of himself, and turned +his back to the ship. We had left him plump, fat, clean, and +well-dressed;—I never saw so complete and grievous a change. As soon +however as he was clothed, and the first flurry was over, things wore a +good appearance. He dined with Captain Fitz Roy, and ate his dinner as +tidily as formerly. He told us that he had “too much” (meaning enough) +to eat, that he was not cold, that his relations were very good people, +and that he did not wish to go back to England: in the evening we found +out the cause of this great change in Jemmy’s feelings, in the arrival +of his young and nice-looking wife. With his usual good feeling, he +brought two beautiful otter-skins for two of his best friends, and some +spear-heads and arrows made with his own hands for the Captain. He said +he had built a canoe for himself, and he boasted that he could talk a +little of his own language! But it is a most singular fact, that he +appears to have taught all his tribe some English: an old man +spontaneously announced “Jemmy Button’s wife.” Jemmy had lost all his +property. He told us that York Minster had built a large canoe, and +with his wife Fuegia,[3] had several months since gone to his own +country, and had taken farewell by an act of consummate villainy; he +persuaded Jemmy and his mother to come with him, and then on the way +deserted them by night, stealing every article of their property. + + [3] Captain Sulivan, who, since his voyage in the _Beagle_, has been + employed on the survey of the Falkland Islands, heard from a sealer in + (1842?), that when in the western part of the Strait of Magellan, he + was astonished by a native woman coming on board, who could talk some + English. Without doubt this was Fuegia Basket. She lived (I fear the + term probably bears a double interpretation) some days on board. + +Jemmy went to sleep on shore, and in the morning returned, and remained +on board till the ship got under weigh, which frightened his wife, who +continued crying violently till he got +into his canoe. He returned loaded with valuable property. Every soul +on board was heartily sorry to shake hands with him for the last time. +I do not now doubt that he will be as happy as, perhaps happier than, +if he had never left his own country. Every one must sincerely hope +that Captain Fitz Roy’s noble hope may be fulfilled, of being rewarded +for the many generous sacrifices which he made for these Fuegians, by +some shipwrecked sailor being protected by the descendants of Jemmy +Button and his tribe! When Jemmy reached the shore, he lighted a signal +fire, and the smoke curled up, bidding us a last and long farewell, as +the ship stood on her course into the open sea. + + +The perfect equality among the individuals composing the Fuegian tribes +must for a long time retard their civilisation. As we see those +animals, whose instinct compels them to live in society and obey a +chief, are most capable of improvement, so is it with the races of +mankind. Whether we look at it as a cause or a consequence, the more +civilised always have the most artificial governments. For instance, +the inhabitants of Otaheite, who, when first discovered, were governed +by hereditary kings, had arrived at a far higher grade than another +branch of the same people, the New Zealanders,—who, although benefited +by being compelled to turn their attention to agriculture, were +republicans in the most absolute sense. In Tierra del Fuego, until some +chief shall arise with power sufficient to secure any acquired +advantage, such as the domesticated animals, it seems scarcely possible +that the political state of the country can be improved. At present, +even a piece of cloth given to one is torn into shreds and distributed; +and no one individual becomes richer than another. On the other hand, +it is difficult to understand how a chief can arise till there is +property of some sort by which he might manifest his superiority and +increase his power. + +I believe, in this extreme part of South America, man exists in a lower +state of improvement than in any other part of the world. The South Sea +Islanders, of the two races inhabiting the Pacific, are comparatively +civilised. The Esquimaux, in his subterranean hut, enjoys some of the +comforts of life, and in his canoe, when fully equipped, manifests much +skill. Some of the +tribes of Southern Africa, prowling about in search of roots, and +living concealed on the wild and arid plains, are sufficiently +wretched. The Australian, in the simplicity of the arts of life, comes +nearest the Fuegian: he can, however, boast of his boomerang, his spear +and throwing-stick, his method of climbing trees, of tracking animals, +and of hunting. Although the Australian may be superior in +acquirements, it by no means follows that he is likewise superior in +mental capacity: indeed, from what I saw of the Fuegians when on board +and from what I have read of the Australians, I should think the case +was exactly the reverse. + +[Illustration: False Horn, Cape Horn.] + +[Illustration: Wollaston Island, Tierra del Fuego] + + + + +Chapter XI + + +Strait of Magellan—Port Famine—Ascent of Mount Tarn—Forests—Edible +fungus—Zoology—Great Seaweed—Leave Tierra del Fuego—Climate—Fruit-trees +and productions of the southern coasts—Height of snow-line on the +Cordillera—Descent of glaciers to the sea—Icebergs formed—Transportal +of boulders—Climate and productions of the Antarctic +Islands—Preservation of frozen carcasses—Recapitulation. + +STRAIT OF MAGELLAN.—CLIMATE OF THE SOUTHERN COASTS. + +In the end of May 1834 we entered for a second time the eastern mouth +of the Strait of Magellan. The country on both sides of this part of +the Strait consists of nearly level plains, like those of Patagonia. +Cape Negro, a little within the second Narrows, may be considered as +the point where the land begins to assume the marked features of Tierra +del Fuego. On the east coast, south of the Strait, broken park-like +scenery in a like manner connects these two countries, which are +opposed to each other in almost every feature. It is truly surprising +to find in a space of twenty miles such a change in the landscape. If +we take a rather greater distance, as between Port Famine and +Gregory Bay, that is about sixty miles, the difference is still more +wonderful. At the former place we have rounded mountains concealed by +impervious forests, which are drenched with the rain brought by an +endless succession of gales; while at Cape Gregory there is a clear and +bright blue sky over the dry and sterile plains. The atmospheric +currents,[1] although rapid, turbulent, and unconfined by any apparent +limits, yet seem to follow, like a river in its bed, a regularly +determined course. + + [1] The south-westerly breezes are generally very dry. January 29th, + being at anchor under Cape Gregory: a very hard gale from west by + south, clear sky with few cumuli; temperature 57°, dew-point + 36°,—difference 21°. On January 15th, at Port St. Julian: in the + morning light winds with much rain, followed by a very heavy squall + with rain,—settled into heavy gale with large cumuli,—cleared up, + blowing very strong from south-south-west. Temperature 60°, dew-point + 42°,—difference 18°. + + +Patagonians from Cape Gregory + +During our previous visit (in January), we had an interview at Cape +Gregory with the famous so-called gigantic Patagonians, who gave us a +cordial reception. Their height appears greater than it really is, from +their large guanaco mantles, their long flowing hair, and general +figure: on an average their height is about six feet, with some men +taller and only a few shorter; and the women are also tall; altogether +they are certainly the tallest race which we anywhere saw. In features +they strikingly +resemble the more northern Indians whom I saw with Rosas, but they have +a wilder and more formidable appearance: their faces were much painted +with red and black, and one man was ringed and dotted with white like a +Fuegian. Captain Fitz Roy offered to take any three of them on board, +and all seemed determined to be of the three. It was long before we +could clear the boat; at last we got on board with our three giants, +who dined with the Captain, and behaved quite like gentlemen, helping +themselves with knives, forks, and spoons: nothing was so much relished +as sugar. This tribe has had so much communication with sealers and +whalers, that most of the men can speak a little English and Spanish; +and they are half civilised, and proportionally demoralised. + +Port Famine, Magellan + +The next morning a large party went on shore, to barter for skins and +ostrich-feathers; fire-arms being refused, tobacco was in greatest +request, far more so than axes or tools. The whole population of the +toldos, men, women, and children, were arranged on a bank. It was an +amusing scene, and it was impossible not to +like the so-called giants, they were so thoroughly good-humoured and +unsuspecting: they asked us to come again. They seem to like to have +Europeans to live with them; and old Maria, an important woman in the +tribe, once begged Mr. Low to leave any one of his sailors with them. +They spend the greater part of the year here; but in summer they hunt +along the foot of the Cordillera: sometimes they travel as far as the +Rio Negro, 750 miles to the north. They are well stocked with horses, +each man having, according to Mr. Low, six or seven, and all the women, +and even children, their one own horse. In the time of Sarmiento (1580) +these Indians had bows and arrows, now long since disused; they then +also possessed some horses. This is a very curious fact, showing the +extraordinarily rapid multiplication of horses in South America. The +horse was first landed at Buenos Ayres in 1537, and the colony being +then for a time deserted, the horse ran wild;[2] in 1580, only +forty-three years afterwards, we hear of them at the Strait of +Magellan! Mr. Low informs me, that a neighbouring tribe of foot-Indians +is now changing into horse-Indians: the tribe at Gregory Bay giving +them their worn-out horses, and sending in winter a few of their best +skilled men to hunt for them. + + [2] Rengger, _Natur. der Saeugethiere von Paraguay._ S. 334. + +_June_ 1_st._—We anchored in the fine bay of Port Famine. It was now +the beginning of winter, and I never saw a more cheerless prospect; the +dusky woods, piebald with snow, could be only seen indistinctly through +a drizzling hazy atmosphere. We were, however, lucky in getting two +fine days. On one of these, Mount Sarmiento, a distant mountain 6800 +feet high, presented a very noble spectacle. I was frequently +surprised, in the scenery of Tierra del Fuego, at the little apparent +elevation of mountains really lofty. I suspect it is owing to a cause +which would not at first be imagined, namely, that the whole mass, from +the summit to the water’s edge, is generally in full view. I remember +having seen a mountain, first from the Beagle Channel, where the whole +sweep from the summit to the base was full in view, and then from +Ponsonby Sound across several successive ridges; and it was curious to +observe in the latter case, as each fresh ridge afforded fresh means of +judging of the distance, how the mountain rose in height. + +Before reaching Port Famine, two men were seen running along the shore +and hailing the ship. A boat was sent for them. +They turned out to be two sailors who had run away from a +sealing-vessel, and had joined the Patagonians. These Indians had +treated them with their usual disinterested hospitality. They had +parted company through accident, and were then proceeding to Port +Famine in hopes of finding some ship. I daresay they were worthless +vagabonds, but I never saw more miserable-looking ones. They had been +living for some days on mussel-shells and berries, and their tattered +clothes had been burnt by sleeping so near their fires. They had been +exposed night and day, without any shelter, to the late incessant +gales, with rain, sleet, and snow, and yet they were in good health. + +[Illustration] + +During our stay at Port Famine, the Fuegians twice came and plagued us. +As there were many instruments, clothes, and men on shore, it was +thought necessary to frighten them away. The first time a few great +guns were fired, when they were far distant. It was most ludicrous to +watch through a glass the Indians, as often as the shot struck the +water, take up stones, and, as a bold defiance, throw them towards the +ship, though about a mile and a half distant! A boat was then sent with +orders to fire a few musket-shots wide of them. The Fuegians hid +themselves behind the trees, and for every discharge of the muskets +they fired their arrows; all, however, fell short of the boat, and the +officer as he pointed at them laughed. This made the Fuegians frantic +with passion, and they shook their mantles in vain rage. At last, +seeing the balls cut and strike the trees, they ran away, and we were +left in peace and quietness. During the former voyage the Fuegians were +here very troublesome, and to frighten them a rocket was fired at night +over their wigwams; it answered effectually, and one of the officers +told me that the clamour first raised, and the barking of the dogs, was +quite ludicrous in contrast with the profound silence which in a minute +or two afterwards prevailed. The next morning not a single Fuegian was +in the neighbourhood. + +Patagonian spurs and pipe + + +When the _Beagle_ was here in the month of February, I started one +morning at four o’clock to ascend Mount Tarn, which is 2600 feet high, +and is the most elevated point in this immediate district. We went in a +boat to the foot of the mountain (but unluckily not to the best part), +and then began our ascent. The forest commences at the line of +high-water mark, and during the first two hours I gave over all hopes +of reaching the summit. So thick was the wood, that it was necessary to +have constant recourse to the compass; for every landmark, though in a +mountainous country, was completely shut out. In the deep ravines the +death-like scene of desolation exceeded all description; outside it was +blowing a gale, but in these hollows not even a breath of wind stirred +the leaves of the tallest trees. So gloomy, cold, and wet was every +part, that not even the fungi, mosses, or ferns could flourish. In the +valleys it was scarcely possible to crawl along, they were so +completely barricaded by great mouldering trunks, which had fallen down +in every direction. When passing over these natural bridges, one’s +course was often arrested by sinking knee deep into the rotten wood; at +other times, when attempting to lean against a firm tree, one was +startled by finding a mass of decayed matter ready to fall at the +slightest touch. We at last found ourselves among the stunted trees, +and then soon reached the bare ridge, which conducted us to the summit. +Here was a view characteristic of Tierra del Fuego; irregular chains of +hills, mottled with patches +of snow, deep yellowish-green valleys, and arms of the sea intersecting +the land in many directions. The strong wind was piercingly cold, and +the atmosphere rather hazy, so that we did not stay long on the top of +the mountain. Our descent was not quite so laborious as our ascent, for +the weight of the body forced a passage, and all the slips and falls +were in the right direction. + + +I have already mentioned the sombre and dull character of the evergreen +forests,[3] in which two or three species of trees grow, to the +exclusion of all others. Above the forest land there are many dwarf +alpine plants, which all spring from the mass of peat, and help to +compose it: these plants are very remarkable from their close alliance +with the species growing on the mountains of Europe, though so many +thousand miles distant. The central part of Tierra del Fuego, where the +clay-slate formation occurs, is most favourable to the growth of trees; +on the outer coast the poorer granitic soil, and a situation more +exposed to the violent winds, do not allow of their attaining any great +size. Near Port Famine I have seen more large trees than anywhere else: +I measured a Winter’s Bark which was four feet six inches in girth, and +several of the beech were as much as thirteen feet. Captain King also +mentions a beech which was seven feet in diameter seventeen feet above +the roots. + + [3] Captain Fitz Roy informs me that in April (our October) the leaves + of those trees which grow near the base of the mountains change + colour, but not those on the more elevated parts. I remember having + read some observations, showing that in England the leaves fall + earlier in a warm and fine autumn than in a late and cold one. The + change in the colour being here retarded in the more elevated, and + therefore colder situations, must be owing to the same general law of + vegetation. The trees of Tierra del Fuego during no part of the year + entirely shed their leaves. + + +[Illustration] + +There is one vegetable production deserving notice from its importance +as an article of food to the Fuegians. It is a globular, bright-yellow +fungus, which grows in vast numbers on the beech-trees. When young it +is elastic and turgid, with a smooth surface; but when mature, it +shrinks, becomes tougher, and has its entire surface deeply pitted or +honeycombed, as represented in the figure at right. This fungus belongs +to a new and curious genus;[4] I found a second +species on another species of beech in Chile: and Dr. Hooker informs me +that just lately a third species has been discovered on a third species +of beech in Van Diemen’s Land. How singular is this relationship +between parasitical fungi and the trees on which they grow, in distant +parts of the world! In Tierra del Fuego the fungus in its tough and +mature state is collected in large quantities by the women and +children, and is eaten uncooked. It has a mucilaginous, slightly sweet +taste, with a faint smell like that of a mushroom. With the exception +of a few berries, chiefly of a dwarf arbutus, the natives eat no +vegetable food besides this fungus. In New Zealand, before the +introduction of the potato, the roots of the fern were largely +consumed; at the present time, I believe, Tierra del Fuego is the only +country in the world where a cryptogamic plant affords a staple article +of food. + + [4] Described from my specimens and notes by the Reverend J. M. + Berkeley in the _Linnean Transactions_ (vol. xix, p. 37), under the + name of Cyttaria Darwinii: the Chilean species is the C. Berteroii. + This genus is allied to Bulgaria. + +The zoology of Tierra del Fuego, as might have been expected from the +nature of its climate and vegetation, is very poor. Of mammalia, +besides whales and seals, there is one bat, a kind of mouse (Reithrodon +chinchilloides), two true mice, a ctenomys allied to or identical with +the tucutuco, two foxes (Canis Magellanicus and C. Azaræ), a sea-otter, +the guanaco, and a deer. Most of these animals inhabit only the drier +eastern parts of the country; and the deer has never been seen south of +the Strait of Magellan. Observing the general correspondence of the +cliffs of soft sandstone, mud, and shingle, on the opposite sides of +the Strait, and on some intervening islands, one is strongly tempted to +believe that the land was once joined, and thus allowed animals so +delicate and helpless as the tucutuco and Reithrodon to pass over. The +correspondence of the cliffs is far from proving any junction; because +such cliffs generally are formed by the intersection of sloping +deposits, which, before the elevation of the land, had been accumulated +near the then existing shores. It is, however, a remarkable +coincidence, that in the two large islands cut off by the Beagle +Channel from the rest of Tierra del Fuego, one has cliffs composed of +matter that may be called stratified alluvium, which front similar ones +on the opposite side of the +channel,—while the other is exclusively bordered by old crystalline +rocks; in the former, called Navarin Island, both foxes and guanacos +occur; but in the latter, Hoste Island, although similar in every +respect, and only separated by a channel a little more than half a mile +wide, I have the word of Jemmy Button for saying that neither of these +animals is found. + +The gloomy woods are inhabited by few birds: occasionally the plaintive +note of a white-tufted tyrant-flycatcher (Myiobius albiceps) may be +heard, concealed near the summit of the most lofty trees; and more +rarely the loud strange cry of a black woodpecker, with a fine scarlet +crest on its head. A little, dusky-coloured wren (Scytalopus +Magellanicus) hops in a skulking manner among the entangled mass of the +fallen and decaying trunks. But the creeper (Oxyurus tupinieri) is the +commonest bird in the country. Throughout the beech forests, high up +and low down, in the most gloomy, wet, and impenetrable ravines, it may +be met with. This little bird no doubt appears more numerous than it +really is, from its habit of following with seeming curiosity any +person who enters these silent woods: continually uttering a harsh +twitter, it flutters from tree to tree, within a few feet of the +intruder’s face. It is far from wishing for the modest concealment of +the true creeper (Certhia familiaris); nor does it, like that bird, run +up the trunks of trees, but industriously, after the manner of a +willow-wren, hops about, and searches for insects on every twig and +branch. In the more open parts, three or four species of finches, a +thrush, a starling (or Icterus), two Opetiorhynchi, and several hawks +and owls occur. + +The absence of any species whatever in the whole class of Reptiles is a +marked feature in the zoology of this country, as well as in that of +the Falkland Islands. I do not ground this statement merely on my own +observation, but I heard it from the Spanish inhabitants of the latter +place, and from Jemmy Button with regard to Tierra del Fuego. On the +banks of the Santa Cruz, in 50 degrees south, I saw a frog; and it is +not improbable that these animals, as well as lizards, may be found as +far south as the Strait of Magellan, where the country retains the +character of Patagonia; but within the damp and cold limit of Tierra +del Fuego not one occurs. That the climate would not have +suited some of the orders, such as lizards, might have been foreseen; +but with respect to frogs, this was not so obvious. + +Beetles occur in very small numbers: it was long before I could believe +that a country as large as Scotland, covered with vegetable productions +and with a variety of stations, could be so unproductive. The few which +I found were alpine species (Harpalidæ and Heteromidæ) living under +stones. The vegetable-feeding Chrysomelidæ, so eminently characteristic +of the Tropics, are here almost entirely absent;[5] I saw very few +flies, butterflies, or bees, and no crickets or Orthoptera. In the +pools of water I found but few aquatic beetles, and not any fresh-water +shells: Succinea at first appears an exception; but here it must be +called a terrestrial shell, for it lives on the damp herbage far from +water. Land-shells could be procured only in the same alpine situations +with the beetles. I have already contrasted the climate as well as the +general appearance of Tierra del Fuego with that of Patagonia; and the +difference is strongly exemplified in the entomology. I do not believe +they have one species in common; certainly the general character of the +insects is widely different. + + [5] I believe I must except one alpine Haltica, and a single specimen + of a Melasoma. Mr. Waterhouse informs me, that of the Harpalidæ there + are eight or nine species—the forms of the greater number being very + peculiar; of Heteromera, four or five species; of Rhyncophora, six or + seven; and of the following families one species in each: + Staphylinidæ, Elateridæ, Cebrionidæ, Melolonthidæ. The species in the + other orders are even fewer. In all the orders, the scarcity of the + individuals is even more remarkable than that of the species. Most of + the Coleoptera have been carefully described by Mr. Waterhouse in the + _Annals of Nat. Hist._ + +If we turn from the land to the sea, we shall find the latter as +abundantly stocked with living creatures as the former is poorly so. In +all parts of the world a rocky and partially protected shore perhaps +supports, in a given space, a greater number of individual animals than +any other station. There is one marine production which, from its +importance, is worthy of a particular history. It is the kelp, or +Macrocystis pyrifera. This plant grows on every rock from low-water +mark to a great depth, both on the outer coast and within the +channels.[6] I +believe, during the voyages of the _Adventure_ and _ Beagle_, not one +rock near the surface was discovered which was not buoyed by this +floating weed. The good service it thus affords to vessels navigating +near this stormy land is evident; and it certainly has saved many a one +from being wrecked. I know few things more surprising than to see this +plant growing and flourishing amidst those great breakers of the +western ocean, which no mass of rock, let it be ever so hard, can long +resist. The stem is round, slimy, and smooth, and seldom has a diameter +of so much as an inch. A few taken together are sufficiently strong to +support the weight of the large loose stones, to which in the inland +channels they grow attached; and yet some of these stones were so heavy +that when drawn to the surface, they could scarcely be lifted into a +boat by one person. Captain Cook, in his second voyage, says that this +plant at Kerguelen Land rises from a greater depth than twenty-four +fathoms; “and as it does not grow in a perpendicular direction, but +makes a very acute angle with the bottom, and much of it afterwards +spreads many fathoms on the surface of the sea, I am well warranted to +say that some of it grows to the length of sixty fathoms and upwards.” +I do not suppose the stem of any other plant attains so great a length +as three hundred and sixty feet, as stated by Captain Cook. Captain +Fitz Roy, moreover, found it growing[7] up from the greater depth of +forty-five fathoms. The beds of this sea-weed, even when of not great +breadth, make excellent natural floating breakwaters. It is quite +curious to see, in an exposed harbour, how soon the waves from the open +sea, as they travel through the straggling stems, sink in height, and +pass into smooth water. + + [6] Its geographical range is remarkably wide; it is found from the + extreme southern islets near Cape Horn, as far north on the eastern + coast (according to information given me by Mr. Stokes) as lat. + 43°,—but on the western coast, as Dr. Hooker tells me, it extends to + the R. San Francisco in California, and perhaps even to Kamtschatka. + We thus have an immense range in latitude; and as Cook, who must have + been well acquainted with the species, found it at Kerguelen Land, no + less than 140° in longitude. + + + [7] _Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle_, vol. i, p. 363. It appears + that seaweed grows extremely quick. Mr. Stephenson found (Wilson’s + _Voyage round Scotland_ vol. ii, p. 228) that a rock uncovered only at + spring-tides, which had been chiselled smooth in November, on the + following May, that is, within six months afterwards, was thickly + covered with Fucus digitatus two feet, and F. esculentus six feet, in + length. + +The number of living creatures of all Orders, whose existence +intimately depends on the kelp, is wonderful. A great volume might be +written, describing the inhabitants of one of these beds of seaweed. +Almost all the leaves, excepting those that float on the surface, are +so thickly incrusted with corallines as +to be of a white colour. We find exquisitely delicate structures, some +inhabited by simple hydra-like polypi, others by more organised kinds, +and beautiful compound Ascidiæ. On the leaves, also, various +patelliform shells, Trochi, uncovered molluscs, and some bivalves are +attached. Innumerable crustacea frequent every part of the plant. On +shaking the great entangled roots, a pile of small fish, shells, +cuttlefish, crabs of all orders, sea-eggs, starfish, beautiful +Holothuriæ, Planariæ, and crawling nereidous animals of a multitude of +forms, all fall out together. Often as I recurred to a branch of the +kelp, I never failed to discover animals of new and curious structures. +In Chiloe, where the kelp does not thrive very well, the numerous +shells, corallines, and crustacea are absent; but there yet remain a +few of the Flustraceæ, and some compound Ascidiæ; the latter, however, +are of different species from those in Tierra del Fuego; we see here +the fucus possessing a wider range than the animals which use it as an +abode. I can only compare these great aquatic forests of the southern +hemisphere with the terrestrial ones in the intertropical regions. Yet +if in any country a forest was destroyed, I do not believe nearly so +many species of animals would perish as would here, from the +destruction of the kelp. Amidst the leaves of this plant numerous +species of fish live, which nowhere else could find food or shelter; +with their destruction the many cormorants and other fishing birds, the +otters, seals, and porpoises, would soon perish also; and lastly, the +Fuegian savage, the miserable lord of this miserable land, would +redouble his cannibal feast, decrease in numbers, and perhaps cease to +exist. + +_June_ 8_th._—We weighed anchor early in the morning and left Port +Famine. Captain Fitz Roy determined to leave the Strait of Magellan by +the Magdalen Channel, which had not long been discovered. Our course +lay due south, down that gloomy passage which I have before alluded to +as appearing to lead to another and worse world. The wind was fair, but +the atmosphere was very thick; so that we missed much curious scenery. +The dark ragged clouds were rapidly driven over the mountains, from +their summits nearly down to their bases. The glimpses which we caught +through the dusky mass were highly interesting; jagged points, cones of +snow, blue glaciers, strong outlines, marked on a lurid sky, were seen +at different distances and +heights. In the midst of such scenery we anchored at Cape Turn, close +to Mount Sarmiento, which was then hidden in the clouds. At the base of +the lofty and almost perpendicular sides of our little cove there was +one deserted wigwam, and it alone reminded us that man sometimes +wandered into these desolate regions. But it would be difficult to +imagine a scene where he seemed to have fewer claims or less authority. +The inanimate works of nature—rock, ice, snow, wind, and water, all +warring with each other, yet combined against man—here reigned in +absolute sovereignty. + +_June_ 9_th._—In the morning we were delighted by seeing the veil of +mist gradually rise from Sarmiento, and display it to our view. This +mountain, which is one of the highest in Tierra del Fuego, has an +altitude of 6800 feet. Its base, for about an eighth of its total +height, is clothed by dusky woods, and above this a field of snow +extends to the summit. These vast piles of snow, which never melt, and +seem destined to last as long as the world holds together, present a +noble and even sublime spectacle. The outline of the mountain was +admirably clear and defined. Owing to the abundance of light reflected +from the white and glittering surface, no shadows were cast on any +part; and those lines which intersected the sky could alone be +distinguished: hence the mass stood out in the boldest relief. Several +glaciers descended in a winding course from the upper great expanse of +snow to the sea-coast: they may be likened to great frozen Niagaras; +and perhaps these cataracts of blue ice are full as beautiful as the +moving ones of water. By night we reached the western part of the +channel; but the water was so deep that no anchorage could be found. We +were in consequence obliged to stand off and on in this narrow arm of +the sea, during a pitch-dark night of fourteen hours long. + +_June_ 10_th._—In the morning we made the best of our way into the open +Pacific. The western coast generally consists of low, rounded, quite +barren hills of granite and greenstone. Sir J. Narborough called one +part South Desolation, because it is “so desolate a land to behold:” +and well indeed might he say so. Outside the main islands there are +numberless scattered rocks on which the long swell of the open ocean +incessantly rages. We passed out between the East and West Furies; +and a little farther northward there are so many breakers that the sea +is called the Milky Way. One sight of such a coast is enough to make a +landsman dream for a week about shipwrecks, peril, and death; and with +this sight we bade farewell for ever to Tierra del Fuego. + + +The following discussion on the climate of the southern parts of the +continent with relation to its productions, on the snow-line, on the +extraordinarily low descent of the glaciers, and on the zone of +perpetual congelation in the antarctic islands, may be passed over by +any one not interested in these curious subjects, or the final +recapitulation alone may be read. I shall, however, here give only an +abstract, and must refer for details to the Thirteenth Chapter and the +Appendix of the former edition of this work. + +_On the Climate and Productions of Tierra del Fuego and of the +South-west Coast._—The following table gives the mean temperature of +Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands, and, for comparison, that of +Dublin:— + + Summer Winter Mean of Summer + Latitude. Temp. Temp. and Winter. + +Tierra del Fuego 53° 38′ S. 50° 33.08° 41.54° +Falkland Islands 51° 30′ S. 51° — — +Dublin 53° 21′ N. 59.54° 39.20° 49.37° + +Hence we see that the central part of Tierra del Fuego is colder in +winter, and no less than 9.5° less hot in summer, than Dublin. +According to von Buch the mean temperature of July (not the hottest +month in the year) at Saltenfiord in Norway, is as high as 57.8°, and +this place is actually 13° nearer the pole than Port Famine![8] +Inhospitable as this climate appears to our feelings, evergreen trees +flourish luxuriantly under it. Humming-birds may be seen sucking the +flowers, and parrots feeding on the seeds of the Winter’s Bark, in +latitude 55 degrees south. I have already remarked to what a degree the +sea swarms with living creatures; and the shells +(such as the Patellæ, Fissurellæ, Chitons, and Barnacles), according to +Mr. G. B. Sowerby, are of a much larger size, and of a more vigorous +growth, than the analogous species in the northern hemisphere. A large +Voluta is abundant in southern Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland +Islands. At Bahia Blanca, in lat. 39° S., the most abundant shells were +three species of Oliva (one of large size), one or two Volutas, and a +Terebra. Now these are amongst the best characterised tropical forms. +It is doubtful whether even one small species of Oliva exists on the +southern shores of Europe, and there are no species of the two other +genera. If a geologist were to find in lat. 39° on the coast of +Portugal a bed containing numerous shells belonging to three species of +Oliva, to a Voluta, and Terebra, he would probably assert that the +climate at the period of their existence must have been tropical; but, +judging from South America, such an inference might be erroneous. + + [8] With respect to Tierra del Fuego, the results are deduced from the + observations of Capt. King (_Geographical Journal_, 1830), and those + taken on board the _Beagle._ For the Falkland Islands, I am indebted + to Captain Sulivan for the mean of the mean temperature (reduced from + careful observation at midnight, 8 A.M., noon, and 8 P.M.) of the + three hottest months, namely, December, January, and February. The + temperature of Dublin is taken from Barton. + +The equable, humid, and windy climate of Tierra del Fuego extends, with +only a small increase of heat, for many degrees along the west coast of +the continent. The forests for 600 miles northward of Cape Horn, have a +very similar aspect. As a proof of the equable climate, even for 300 or +400 miles still farther northward, I may mention that in Chiloe +(corresponding in latitude with the northern parts of Spain) the peach +seldom produces fruit, whilst strawberries and apples thrive to +perfection. Even the crops of barley and wheat[9] are often brought +into the houses to be dried and ripened. At Valdivia (in the same +latitude of 40° with Madrid) grapes and figs ripen, but are not common; +olives seldom ripen even partially, and oranges not at all. These +fruits, in corresponding latitudes in Europe, are well known to succeed +to perfection; and even in this continent, at the Rio Negro, under +nearly the same parallel with Valdivia, sweet potatoes (convolvulus) +are cultivated; and grapes, figs, olives, oranges, water and musk +melons, produce abundant fruit. Although the humid and equable climate +of Chiloe, and of the coast northward and southward of it, is so +unfavourable to our fruits, yet the native forests, from lat. 45° to +38°, almost rival in luxuriance those of the glowing intertropical +regions. Stately trees of many kinds, with smooth and highly coloured +barks, are loaded by parasitical monocotyledonous +plants; large and elegant ferns are numerous, and arborescent grasses +entwine the trees into one entangled mass to the height of thirty or +forty feet above the ground. Palm-trees grow in latitude 37°; an +arborescent grass, very like a bamboo, in 40°; and another closely +allied kind, of great length, but not erect, flourishes even as far +south as 45° S. + + [9] Agüeros, _Descrip. Hist. de la Prov. de Chiloé_, 1791, p. 94. + +An equable climate, evidently due to the large area of sea compared +with the land, seems to extend over the greater part of the southern +hemisphere; and as a consequence, the vegetation partakes of a +semi-tropical character. Tree-ferns thrive luxuriantly in Van Diemen’s +Land (lat. 45°), and I measured one trunk no less than six feet in +circumference. An arborescent fern was found by Forster in New Zealand +in 46°, where orchideous plants are parasitical on the trees. In the +Auckland Islands, ferns, according to Dr. Dieffenbach,[10] have trunks +so thick and high that they may be almost called tree-ferns; and in +these islands, and even as far south as lat. 55° in the Macquarie +Islands, parrots abound. + + [10] See the German Translation of this Journal; and for the other + facts Mr. Brown’s Appendix to Flinders’s _ Voyage._ + +_On the Height of the Snow-line, and on the Descent of the Glaciers, in +South America._—For the detailed authorities for the following table, I +must refer to the former edition:— + + Latitude. Height in feet Observer + of Snow-line +Equatorial region: mean result 15,748 Humboldt. +Bolivia, lat. 16° to 18° S. 17,000 Pentland. +Central Chile, lat. 33° S. 14,500 to 15,000 Gillies, and the Author. +Chiloe, lat. 41° to 43° S. 6000 Officers of the Beagle and the Author. +Tierra del Fuego, 54° S. 3500 to 4000 King. + +As the height of the plane of perpetual snow seems chiefly to be +determined by the extreme heat of the summer, rather than by the mean +temperature of the year, we ought not to be surprised at its descent in +the Strait of Magellan, where the summer is so cool, to only 3500 or +4000 feet above the level of the sea; although in Norway, we must +travel to between lat. 67° and 70° N., that is, about 14° nearer the +pole, to meet with perpetual snow at this low level. The difference in +height, namely, about 9000 feet, between the snow-line on the +Cordillera behind Chiloe (with its highest points ranging from +only 5600 to 7500 feet) and in central Chile[11] (a distance of only 9° +of latitude), is truly wonderful. The land from the southward of Chiloe +to near Concepcion (lat. 37°) is hidden by one dense forest dripping +with moisture. The sky is cloudy, and we have seen how badly the fruits +of southern Europe succeed. In central Chile, on the other hand, a +little northward of Concepcion, the sky is generally clear, rain does +not fall for the seven summer months, and southern European fruits +succeed admirably; and even the sugar-cane has been cultivated.[12] No +doubt the plane of perpetual snow undergoes the above remarkable +flexure of 9000 feet, unparalleled in other parts of the world, not far +from the latitude of Concepcion, where the land ceases to be covered +with forest-trees; for trees in South America indicate a rainy climate, +and rain a clouded sky and little heat in summer. + + [11] On the Cordillera of central Chile, I believe the snow-line + varies exceedingly in height in different summers. I was assured that + during one very dry and long summer, all the snow disappeared from + Aconcagua, although it attains the prodigious height of 23,000 feet. + It is probable that much of the snow at these great heights is + evaporated, rather than thawed. + + + [12] Miers’s _Chile_, vol. i, p. 415. It is said that the sugar-cane + grew at Ingenio, lat. 32° to 33°, but not in sufficient quantity to + make the manufacture profitable. In the valley of Quillota, south of + Ingenio, I saw some large date-palm trees. + + +Eyre Sound + +The descent of glaciers to the sea must, I conceive, mainly depend +(subject, of course, to a proper supply of snow in the upper region) on +the lowness of the line of perpetual snow on steep mountains near the +coast. As the snow-line is so low in Tierra del Fuego, we might have +expected that many of the glaciers would have reached the sea. +Nevertheless I was astonished when I first saw a range, only from 3000 +to 4000 feet in height, in the latitude of Cumberland, with every +valley filled with streams of ice descending to the sea-coast. Almost +every arm of the sea, which penetrates to the interior higher chain, +not only in Tierra del Fuego, but on the coast for 650 miles +northwards, is terminated by “tremendous and astonishing glaciers,” as +described by one of the officers on the survey. Great masses of ice +frequently fall from these icy cliffs, and the crash reverberates like +the broadside of a man-of-war through the lonely channels. These falls, +as noticed in the last chapter, produce great waves which break on the +adjoining coasts. It is known that earthquakes frequently cause masses +of earth to fall from sea-cliffs: how terrific, then, would be the +effect of a severe shock (and such occur here[13]) on a body like a +glacier, already in motion, and traversed by fissures! I can readily +believe that the water would be fairly beaten back out of the deepest +channel, and then, returning with an overwhelming force, would whirl +about huge masses of rock like so much chaff. In Eyre’s Sound, in the +latitude of Paris, there are immense glaciers, and yet the loftiest +neighbouring mountain is only 6200 feet high. In this Sound, about +fifty icebergs were seen at one time floating outwards, and one of them +must have been _at least_ 168 feet in total height. Some of the +icebergs were loaded with blocks of no inconsiderable size, of granite +and other rocks, different from the clay-slate of the surrounding +mountains. The glacier farthest from the Pole, surveyed during the +voyages of the _Adventure_ and _Beagle_, is in lat. 46° 50′, in the +Gulf of Penas. It is 15 miles long, and in one part 7 broad, and +descends to the sea-coast. But even a few miles northward of this +glacier, in the Laguna de San Rafael, some Spanish missionaries[14] +encountered “many icebergs, some great, some small, and others +middle-sized,” in a narrow arm of the sea, on the 22nd of the month +corresponding with our +June, and in a latitude corresponding with that of the Lake of Geneva! + + [13] Bulkeley’s and Cummin’s _Faithful Narrative of the Loss of the + Wager._ The earthquake happened August 25, 1741. + + + [14] Agüeros, _Desc. Hist. de Chiloé_, p. 227. + + +Glacier in Gulf of Penas + +In Europe, the most southern glacier which comes down to the sea is met +with, according to Von Buch, on the coast of Norway, in lat. 67°. Now, +this is more than 20° of latitude, or 1230 miles, nearer the pole than +the Laguna de San Rafael. The position of the glaciers at this place +and in the Gulf of Penas may be put even in a more striking point of +view, for they descend to the sea-coast within 7½° degrees of latitude, +or 450 miles, of a harbour, where three species of Oliva, a Voluta, and +a Terebra, are the commonest shells, within less than 9° from where +palms grow, within 4½° of a region where the jaguar and puma range over +the plains, less than 2½° from arborescent grasses, and (looking to the +westward in the same hemisphere) less than 2° from orchideous +parasites, and within a single degree of tree-ferns! + +These facts are of high geological interest with respect to the climate +of the northern hemisphere, at the period when boulders were +transported. I will not here detail how simply the theory of icebergs +being charged with fragments of rock explains the origin and position +of the gigantic boulders of eastern Tierra del Fuego, on the high plain +of Santa Cruz, and on the island of Chiloe. In Tierra del Fuego the +greater number of boulders lie on the lines of old sea-channels, now +converted into dry valleys by the elevation of the land. They are +associated with a great unstratified formation of mud and sand, +containing rounded and angular fragments of all sizes, which has +originated[15] in the repeated ploughing up of the sea-bottom by the +stranding of icebergs, and by the matter transported on them. Few +geologists now doubt that those erratic boulders which lie near lofty +mountains have been pushed forward by the glaciers themselves, and that +those distant from mountains, and embedded in subaqueous deposits, have +been conveyed thither either on icebergs, or frozen in coast-ice. The +connection between the transportal of boulders and the presence of ice +in some form, is strikingly shown by their geographical distribution +over the earth. In South America they are not found farther than 48° of +latitude, measured from the southern pole; in North America it appears +that the limit of their transportal extends to 53½° from the northern +pole; but in Europe to not more than 40° of latitude, measured from the +same point. On the other hand, in the intertropical parts of America, +Asia, and Africa, they have never been observed; nor at the Cape of +Good Hope, nor in Australia.[16] + + [15] _Geological Transactions_, vol. vi, p. 415. + + + [16] I have given details (the first, I believe, published) on this + subject in the first edition, and in the Appendix to it. I have there + shown that the apparent exceptions to the absence of erratic boulders + in certain hot countries are due to erroneous observations; several + statements there given I have since found confirmed by various + authors. + + +_On the Climate and Productions of the Antarctic Islands._—Considering +the rankness of the vegetation in Tierra del Fuego, and on the coast +northward of it, the condition of the islands south and south-west of +America is truly surprising. Sandwich Land, in the latitude of the +north part of Scotland, was found by Cook, during the hottest month of +the year, “covered many fathoms thick with everlasting snow;” and there +seems to be scarcely any vegetation. Georgia, an island 96 miles long +and 10 broad, in the latitude of Yorkshire, “in the very height of +summer, is in a manner wholly covered with frozen snow.” It can boast +only of moss, some tufts of grass, and wild burnet; it has only one +land-bird (Anthus correndera), yet Iceland, which is 10° nearer the +pole, has, according to Mackenzie, fifteen land-birds. The South +Shetland Islands, in the same latitude as the southern half of Norway, +possess only some lichens, moss, and a little grass; and Lieut. +Kendall[17] found the bay in which he was at anchor, beginning to +freeze at a period corresponding with our 8th of September. The soil +here consists of ice and volcanic ashes interstratified; and at a +little depth beneath the surface it must remain perpetually congealed, +for Lieut. Kendall found the body of a foreign sailor which had long +been buried, with the flesh and all the features perfectly preserved. +It is a singular fact that on the two great continents in the northern +hemisphere (but not in the broken land of Europe between them) we have +the zone of perpetually frozen under-soil in a low latitude—namely, in +56 degrees in North America at the depth of three feet,[18] and in 62° +in Siberia at the depth of twelve to fifteen feet—as the result of a +directly opposite condition of things to those of the southern +hemisphere. On the northern continents, the winter is rendered +excessively cold by the radiation from a large area of land into a +clear sky, nor is it moderated by the warmth-bringing currents of the +sea; the short summer, on the other hand, is hot. In the Southern Ocean +the winter is not so excessively cold, but the summer is far less hot, +for the clouded sky seldom allows the sun to warm the ocean, itself a +bad absorbent of heat: and hence the mean temperature of the year, +which regulates the zone of perpetually congealed under-soil, is low. +It is evident that a rank vegetation, which does not so much require +heat as it does protection from intense cold, would approach much +nearer to this zone of perpetual congelation under the equable climate +of the southern hemisphere, than under the extreme climate of the +northern continents. + + [17] _Geographical Journal_, 1830, pp. 65, 66. + + + [18] Richardson’s _Append. to Back’s Exped._ and Humboldt’s _ Fragm. + Asiat._ tome ii, p. 386. + + +[Illustration] + +The case of the sailor’s body perfectly preserved in the icy soil of +the South Shetland Islands (lat. 62° to 63° S.), in a rather lower +latitude than that (lat. 64° N.) under which Pallas found the frozen +rhinoceros in Siberia, is very interesting. Although it is a fallacy, +as I have endeavoured to show in a former chapter, to suppose that the +larger quadrupeds require a luxuriant vegetation for their support, +nevertheless it is important to find in the South Shetland Islands a +frozen under-soil within 360 miles of the forest-clad islands near Cape +Horn, where, as far as the _ bulk_ of vegetation is concerned, any +number of great quadrupeds might be supported. The perfect preservation +of the carcasses of the Siberian elephants and rhinoceroses is +certainly one of the most wonderful facts in geology; but independently +of the imagined difficulty of supplying them with food from the +adjoining countries, the whole case is not, I think, so perplexing as +it has generally been considered. The plains of Siberia, like those of +the Pampas, appear to have been formed under the sea, into which rivers +brought down the bodies of many animals; of the greater number of these +only the skeletons have been preserved, but of others the perfect +carcass. Now it is known that in the shallow sea on the Arctic coast of +America the bottom freezes,[19] and does not thaw in spring so soon as +the surface +of the land, moreover, at greater depths, where the bottom of the sea +does not freeze, the mud a few feet beneath the top layer might remain +even in summer below 32°, as is the case on the land with the soil at +the depth of a few feet. At still greater depths the temperature of the +mud and water would probably not be low enough to preserve the flesh; +and hence, carcasses drifted beyond the shallow parts near an arctic +coast, would have only their skeletons preserved: now in the extreme +northern parts of Siberia bones are infinitely numerous, so that even +islets are said to be almost composed of them;[20] and those islets lie +no less than ten degrees of latitude north of the place where Pallas +found the frozen rhinoceros. On the other hand, a carcass washed by a +flood into a shallow part of the Arctic Sea, would be preserved for an +indefinite period, if it were soon afterwards covered with mud +sufficiently thick to prevent the heat of the summer water penetrating +to it; and if, when the sea-bottom was upraised into land, the covering +was sufficiently thick to prevent the heat of the summer air and sun +thawing and corrupting it. + + [19] Messrs. Dease and Simpson, in _Geographical Journal_ vol. viii, + pp. 218 and 220. + + + [20] Cuvier (_Ossemens Fossiles,_ tome i, p. 151), from Billing’s + _Voyage._ + + +_Recapitulation._—I will recapitulate the principal facts with regard +to the climate, ice-action, and organic productions of the southern +hemisphere, transposing the places in imagination to Europe, with which +we are so much better acquainted. Then, near Lisbon, the commonest +sea-shells, namely, three species of Oliva, a Voluta, and a Terebra, +would have a tropical character. In the southern provinces of France, +magnificent forests, intwined by arborescent grasses and with the trees +loaded with parasitical plants, would hide the face of the land. The +puma and the jaguar would haunt the Pyrenees. In the latitude of Mont +Blanc, but on an island as far westward as Central North America, +tree-ferns and parasitical Orchideæ would thrive amidst the thick +woods. Even as far north as central Denmark humming-birds would be seen +fluttering about delicate flowers, and parrots feeding amidst the +evergreen woods; and in the sea there we should have a Voluta, and all +the shells of large size and vigorous growth. Nevertheless, on some +islands only 360 miles northward of our new Cape Horn in Denmark, a +carcass buried in the soil (or if washed into a shallow sea, and +covered up with mud) would be preserved perpetually frozen. If some +bold navigator attempted to penetrate northward of these islands, he +would run a thousand dangers amidst gigantic icebergs, on some of which +he would see great blocks of rock borne far away from their original +site. Another island of large size in the latitude of southern +Scotland, but twice as far to the west, would be “almost wholly covered +with everlasting snow,” and would have each bay terminated by +ice-cliffs, whence great masses would be yearly detached: this island +would boast only of a little moss, grass, and burnet, and a titlark +would be its only land inhabitant. From our new Cape Horn in Denmark, a +chain of mountains, scarcely half the height of the Alps, would run in +a straight line due southward; and on its western flank every deep +creek of the sea, or fiord, would end in “bold and astonishing +glaciers.” These lonely channels would frequently reverberate with the +falls of ice, and so often would great waves rush along their coasts; +numerous icebergs, some as tall as cathedrals, and occasionally loaded +with “no inconsiderable blocks of rock,” would be stranded on the +outlying islets; at intervals violent earthquakes would shoot +prodigious masses of ice into the waters below. Lastly, some +missionaries +attempting to penetrate a long arm of the sea, would behold the not +lofty surrounding mountains, sending down their many grand icy streams +to the sea-coast, and their progress in the boats would be checked by +the innumerable floating icebergs, some small and some great; and this +would have occurred on our twenty-second of June, and where the Lake of +Geneva is now spread out![21] + + [21] In the former edition and Appendix, I have given some facts on + the transportal of erratic boulders and icebergs in the Antarctic + Ocean. This subject has lately been treated excellently by Mr. Hayes, + in the _Boston Journal_ (vol. iv, p. 426). The author does not appear + aware of a case published by me (_Geographical Journal_, vol. ix, p. + 528), of a gigantic boulder embedded in an iceberg in the Antarctic + Ocean, almost certainly one hundred miles distant from any land, and + perhaps much more distant. In the Appendix I have discussed at length + the probability (at that time hardly thought of) of icebergs, when + stranded, grooving and polishing rocks, like glaciers. This is now a + very commonly received opinion; and I cannot still avoid the suspicion + that it is applicable even to such cases as that of the Jura. Dr. + Richardson has assured me that the icebergs off North America push + before them pebbles and sand, and leave the submarine rocky flats + quite bare; it is hardly possible to doubt that such ledges must be + polished and scored in the direction of the set of the prevailing + currents. Since writing that Appendix I have seen in North Wales + (_London Phil. Mag._ vol. xxi, p. 180) the adjoining action of + glaciers and floating icebergs. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration: Trochilus Forficatus] + + + + +Chapter XII + + +Valparaiso—Excursion to the Foot of the Andes—Structure of the +land—Ascend the Bell of Quillota—Shattered masses of greenstone—Immense +valleys—Mines—State of miners—Santiago—Hot-baths of +Cauquenes—Gold-mines—Grinding-mills—Perforated stones—Habits of the +Puma—El Turco and Tapacolo—Humming-birds. + +CENTRAL CHILE + +_July_ 23_rd._—The _Beagle_ anchored late at night in the bay of +Valparaiso, the chief seaport of Chile. When morning came, everything +appeared delightful. After Tierra del Fuego, the climate felt quite +delicious—the atmosphere so dry, and the heavens so clear and blue with +the sun shining brightly, that all nature seemed sparkling with life. +The view from the anchorage is very pretty. The town is built at the +very foot of a range of hills, about 1600 feet high, and rather steep. +From its position, it consists of one long, straggling street, which +runs parallel to the beach, and wherever a ravine comes down, the +houses are piled up on each side of it. The rounded hills, being only +partially protected by a very scanty vegetation, are worn into +numberless little gullies, which expose a singularly bright red soil. +From this cause, and from the low whitewashed houses with tile roofs, +the view reminded me of St. Cruz in Teneriffe. In a north-easterly +direction there are some fine glimpses of the Andes: but these +mountains appear much grander when viewed from the neighbouring hills: +the great distance at which they are situated can then more readily be +perceived. The volcano of Aconcagua is particularly magnificent. This +huge and irregularly conical mass has an elevation greater than that of +Chimborazo; for, from measurements made by the officers in the +_Beagle_, its height is no less than 23,000 feet. The Cordillera, +however, viewed from this point, owe the greater part of their beauty +to the atmosphere through which they are seen. When the sun was setting +in the Pacific, it was admirable to watch how clearly their rugged +outlines could be distinguished, yet how varied and how delicate were +the shades of their colour. + +I had the good fortune to find living here Mr. Richard Corfield, an old +schoolfellow and friend, to whose hospitality and kindness I was +greatly indebted, in having afforded me a most pleasant residence +during the _Beagle’s_ stay in Chile. The immediate neighbourhood of +Valparaiso is not very productive to the naturalist. During the long +summer the wind blows steadily from the southward, and a little off +shore, so that rain never falls; during the three winter months, +however, it is sufficiently abundant. The vegetation in consequence is +very scanty: except in some deep valleys there are no trees, and only a +little grass and a few low bushes are scattered over the less steep +parts of the hills. When we reflect that at the distance of 350 miles +to the south, this side of the Andes is completely hidden by one +impenetrable forest, the contrast is very remarkable. I took several +long walks while collecting objects of natural history. The country is +pleasant for exercise. There are many very beautiful flowers; and, as +in most other dry climates, the plants and shrubs possess strong and +peculiar odours—even one’s clothes by brushing through them became +scented. I did not cease from wonder at finding each succeeding day as +fine as the foregoing. What a difference does climate make in the +enjoyment of life! How opposite are the sensations when viewing black +mountains half-enveloped in clouds, and seeing another range through +the light blue haze of a fine day! The one for a time may be very +sublime; the other is all gaiety and happy life. + +_August_ 14_th._—I set out on a riding excursion, for the purpose of +geologising the basal parts of the Andes, which alone at this time of +the year are not shut up by the winter snow. Our first day’s ride was +northward along the sea-coast. After dark we reached the Hacienda of +Quintero, the estate which formerly belonged to Lord Cochrane. My +object in coming here was to see the great beds of shells which stand +some yards above the level of the sea, and are burnt for lime. The +proofs of the elevation of this whole line of coast are unequivocal: at +the height of a few hundred feet old-looking shells are numerous, and I +found some at 1300 feet. These shells either lie loose on the surface, +or are embedded in a reddish-black vegetable mould. I was much +surprised to find under the microscope that this vegetable mould is +really marine mud, full of minute particles of organic bodies. + +15_th._—We returned towards the valley of Quillota. The country was +exceedingly pleasant; just such as poets would call pastoral: green +open lawns, separated by small valleys with rivulets, and the cottages, +we may suppose of the shepherds, scattered on the hill-sides. We were +obliged to cross the ridge of the Chilicauquen. At its base there were +many fine evergreen forest-trees, but these flourished only in the +ravines, where there was running water. Any person who had seen only +the country near Valparaiso would never have imagined that there had +been such picturesque spots in Chile. As soon as we reached the brow of +the Sierra, the valley of Quillota was immediately under our feet. The +prospect was one of remarkable artificial luxuriance. The valley is +very broad and quite flat, and is thus easily irrigated in all parts. +The little square gardens are crowded with orange and olive trees and +every sort of vegetable. On each side huge bare mountains rise, and +this from the contrast renders the patchwork valley the more pleasing. +Whoever called “Valparaiso” the “Valley of +Paradise,” must have been thinking of Quillota. We crossed over to the +Hacienda de San Isidro, situated at the very foot of the Bell Mountain. + +Hacienda, condor, cactus, etc. + +Chile, as may be seen in the maps, is a narrow strip of land between +the Cordillera and the Pacific; and this strip is itself traversed by +several mountain-lines, which in this part run parallel to the great +range. Between these outer lines and the main Cordillera, a succession +of level basins, generally opening into each other by narrow passages, +extend far to the southward: in these, the principal towns are +situated, as San Felipe, Santiago, San Fernando. These basins or +plains, together with the transverse flat valleys (like that of +Quillota) which connect them with the coast, I have no doubt are the +bottoms of ancient inlets and deep bays, such as at the present day +intersect every part of Tierra del Fuego and the western coast. Chile +must formerly have resembled the latter country in the configuration of +its land and water. The resemblance was occasionally shown strikingly +when a level fog-bank covered, as with a mantle, all the lower parts of +the country: the white vapour curling into the ravines, beautifully +represented +little coves and bays; and here and there a solitary hillock peeping up +showed that it had formerly stood there as an islet. The contrast of +these flat valleys and basins with the irregular mountains gave the +scenery a character which to me was new and very interesting. + +From the natural slope to seaward of these plains, they are very easily +irrigated, and in consequence singularly fertile. Without this process +the land would produce scarcely anything, for during the whole summer +the sky is cloudless. The mountains and hills are dotted over with +bushes and low trees, and excepting these the vegetation is very +scanty. Each landowner in the valley possesses a certain portion of +hill-country, where his half-wild cattle, in considerable numbers, +manage to find sufficient pasture. Once every year there is a grand +“rodeo,” when all the cattle are driven down, counted, and marked, and +a certain number separated to be fattened in the irrigated fields. +Wheat is extensively cultivated, and a good deal of Indian corn: a kind +of bean is, however, the staple article of food for the common +labourers. The orchards produce an overflowing abundance of peaches, +figs, and grapes. With all these advantages the inhabitants of the +country ought to be much more prosperous than they are. + +16_th._—The mayor-domo of the Hacienda was good enough to give me a +guide and fresh horses; and in the morning we set out to ascend the +Campana, or Bell Mountain, which is 6400 feet high. The paths were very +bad, but both the geology and scenery amply repaid the trouble. We +reached, by the evening, a spring called the Agua del Guanaco, which is +situated at a great height. This must be an old name, for it is very +many years since a guanaco drank its waters. During the ascent I +noticed that nothing but bushes grew on the northern slope, whilst on +the southern slope there was a bamboo about fifteen feet high. In a few +places there were palms, and I was surprised to see one at an elevation +of at least 4500 feet. These palms are, for their family, ugly trees. +Their stem is very large, and of a curious form, being thicker in the +middle than at the base or top. They are excessively numerous in some +parts of Chile, and valuable on account of a sort of treacle made from +the sap. On one estate near Petorca they tried to count them, but +failed, after having numbered several +hundred thousand. Every year in the early spring, in August, very many +are cut down, and when the trunk is lying on the ground, the crown of +leaves is lopped off. The sap then immediately begins to flow from the +upper end, and continues so doing for some months: it is, however, +necessary that a thin slice should be shaved off from that end every +morning, so as to expose a fresh surface. A good tree will give ninety +gallons, and all this must have been contained in the vessels of the +apparently dry trunk. It is said that the sap flows much more quickly +on those days when the sun is powerful; and likewise, that it is +absolutely necessary to take care, in cutting down the tree, that it +should fall with its head upwards on the side of the hill; for if it +falls down the slope, scarcely any sap will flow; although in that case +one would have thought that the action would have been aided, instead +of checked, by the force of gravity. The sap is concentrated by +boiling, and is then called treacle, which it very much resembles in +taste. + +We unsaddled our horses near the spring, and prepared to pass the +night. The evening was fine, and the atmosphere so clear that the masts +of the vessels at anchor in the bay of Valparaiso, although no less +than twenty-six geographical miles distant, could be distinguished +clearly as little black streaks. A ship doubling the point under sail +appeared as a bright white speck. Anson expresses much surprise, in his +voyage, at the distance at which his vessels were discovered from the +coast; but he did not sufficiently allow for the height of the land and +the great transparency of the air. + +The setting of the sun was glorious; the valleys being black, whilst +the snowy peaks of the Andes yet retained a ruby tint. When it was +dark, we made a fire beneath a little arbour of bamboos, fried our +charqui (or dried slips of beef), took our maté, and were quite +comfortable. There is an inexpressible charm in thus living in the open +air. The evening was calm and still;—the shrill noise of the mountain +bizcacha, and the faint cry of a goatsucker, were occasionally to be +heard. Besides these, few birds, or even insects, frequent these dry, +parched mountains. + + +_August_ 17_th._—In the morning we climbed up the rough mass of +greenstone which crowns the summit. This rock, as +frequently happens, was much shattered and broken into huge angular +fragments. I observed, however, one remarkable circumstance, namely, +that many of the surfaces presented every degree of freshness—some +appearing as if broken the day before, whilst on others lichens had +either just become, or had long grown, attached. I so fully believed +that this was owing to the frequent earthquakes, that I felt inclined +to hurry from below each loose pile. As one might very easily be +deceived in a fact of this kind, I doubted its accuracy, until +ascending Mount Wellington, in Van Diemen’s Land, where earthquakes do +not occur; and there I saw the summit of the mountain similarly +composed and similarly shattered, but all the blocks appeared as if +they had been hurled into their present position thousands of years +ago. + +We spent the day on the summit, and I never enjoyed one more +thoroughly. Chile, bounded by the Andes and the Pacific, was seen as in +a map. The pleasure from the scenery, in itself beautiful, was +heightened by the many reflections which arose from the mere view of +the Campana range with its lesser parallel ones, and of the broad +valley of Quillota directly intersecting them. Who can avoid wondering +at the force which has upheaved these mountains, and even more so at +the countless ages which it must have required to have broken through, +removed, and levelled whole masses of them? It is well in this case to +call to mind the vast shingle and sedimentary beds of Patagonia, which, +if heaped on the Cordillera, would increase its height by so many +thousand feet. When in that country, I wondered how any mountain-chain +could have supplied such masses, and not have been utterly obliterated. +We must not now reverse the wonder, and doubt whether all-powerful time +can grind down mountains—even the gigantic Cordillera—into gravel and +mud. + +The appearance of the Andes was different from that which I had +expected. The lower line of the snow was of course horizontal, and to +this line the even summits of the range seemed quite parallel. Only at +long intervals a group of points or a single cone showed where a +volcano had existed, or does now exist. Hence the range resembled a +great solid wall, surmounted here and there by a tower, and making a +most perfect barrier to the country. + + +Almost every part of the hill had been drilled by attempts to open +gold-mines: the rage for mining has left scarcely a spot in Chile +unexamined. I spent the evening as before, talking round the fire with +my two companions. The Guasos of Chile, who correspond to the Gauchos +of the Pampas, are, however, a very different set of beings. Chile is +the more civilised of the two countries, and the inhabitants, in +consequence, have lost much individual character. Gradations in rank +are much more strongly marked: the Guaso does not by any means consider +every man his equal; and I was quite surprised to find that my +companions did not like to eat at the same time with myself. This +feeling of inequality is a necessary consequence of the existence of an +aristocracy of wealth. It is said that some few of the greater +landowners possess from five to ten thousand pounds sterling per annum: +an inequality of riches which I believe is not met with in any of the +cattle-breeding countries eastward of the Andes. A traveller does not +here meet that unbounded hospitality which refuses all payment, but yet +is so kindly offered that no scruples can be raised in accepting it. +Almost every house in Chile will receive you for the night, but a +trifle is expected to be given in the morning; even a rich man will +accept two or three shillings. The Gaucho, although he may be a +cutthroat, is a gentleman; the Guaso is in few respects better, but at +the same time a vulgar, ordinary fellow. The two men, although employed +much in the same manner, are different in their habits and attire; and +the peculiarities of each are universal in their respective countries. +The Gaucho seems part of his horse, and scorns to exert himself +excepting when on its back; the Guaso may be hired to work as a +labourer in the fields. The former lives entirely on animal food; the +latter almost wholly on vegetable. We do not here see the white boots, +the broad drawers, and scarlet chilipa; the picturesque costume of the +Pampas. Here, common trousers are protected by black and green worsted +leggings. The poncho, however, is common to both. The chief pride of +the Guaso lies in his spurs, which are absurdly large. I measured one +which was six inches in the _diameter_ of the rowel, and the rowel +itself contained upwards of thirty points. The stirrups are on the same +scale, each consisting of a square, carved +block of wood, hollowed out, yet weighing three or four pounds. The +Guaso is perhaps more expert with the lazo than the Gaucho; but, from +the nature of the country, he does not know the use of the bolas. + + +_August_ 18_th._—We descended the mountain, and passed some beautiful +little spots, with rivulets and fine trees. Having slept at the same +hacienda as before, we rode during the two succeeding days up the +valley, and passed through Quillota, which is more like a collection of +nursery-gardens than a town. The orchards were beautiful, presenting +one mass of peach-blossoms. I saw, also, in one or two places the +date-palm; it is a most stately tree; and I should think a group of +them in their native Asiatic or African deserts must be superb. We +passed likewise San Felipe, a pretty straggling town like Quillota. The +valley in this part expands into one of those great bays or plains, +reaching to the foot of the Cordillera, which have been mentioned as +forming so curious a part of the scenery of Chile. In the evening we +reached the mines of Jajuel, situated in a ravine at the flank of the +great chain. I stayed here five days. My host, the superintendent of +the mine, was a shrewd but rather ignorant Cornish miner. He had +married a Spanish woman, and did not mean to return home; but his +admiration for the mines of Cornwall remained unbounded. Amongst many +other questions, he asked me, “Now that George Rex is dead, how many +more of the family of Rexes are yet alive?” This Rex certainly must be +a relation of the great author Finis, who wrote all books! + +These mines are of copper, and the ore is all shipped to Swansea, to be +smelted. Hence the mines have an aspect singularly quiet, as compared +to those in England: here no smoke, furnaces, or great steam-engines, +disturb the solitude of the surrounding mountains. + +The Chilian government, or rather the old Spanish law, encourages by +every method the searching for mines. The discoverer may work a mine on +any ground, by paying five shillings; and before paying this he may +try, even in the garden of another man, for twenty days. + +[Illustration] + +It is now well known that the Chilian method of mining is the cheapest. +My host says that the two principal +improvements introduced by foreigners have been, first, reducing by +previous roasting the copper pyrites—which, being the common ore in +Cornwall, the English miners were astounded on their arrival to find +thrown away as useless: secondly, stamping and washing the scoriæ from +the old furnaces—by which process particles of metal are recovered in +abundance. I have actually seen mules carrying to the coast, for +transportation to England, a cargo of such cinders. But the first case +is much the most curious. The Chilian miners were so convinced that +copper pyrites contained not a particle of copper, that they laughed at +the Englishmen for their ignorance, who laughed in turn, and bought +their richest veins for a few dollars. It is very odd that, in a +country where mining had been extensively carried on for many years, so +simple a process as gently roasting the ore to expel the sulphur +previous to smelting it, had never been discovered. A few improvements +have likewise been introduced in some of the simple machinery; but even +to the present day, water is removed from some mines by men carrying it +up the shaft in leathern bags! + +The labouring men work very hard. They have little time allowed for +their meals, and during summer and winter they begin when it is light, +and leave off at dark. They are paid one pound sterling a month, and +their food is given them: this for breakfast consists of sixteen figs +and two small loaves of bread; for dinner, boiled beans; for supper, +broken roasted wheat grain. They scarcely ever taste meat; as, with the +twelve pounds per annum, they have to clothe themselves and support +their families. The miners who work in the mine itself have twenty-five +shillings per month, and are allowed +a little charqui. But these men come down from their bleak habitations +only once in every fortnight or three weeks. + +Cactus; Cereus Peruviana + +During my stay here I thoroughly enjoyed scrambling about these huge +mountains. The geology, as might have been expected, was very +interesting. The shattered and baked rocks, traversed by innumerable +dikes of greenstone, showed what commotions had formerly taken place. +The scenery was much the same as that near the Bell of Quillota—dry +barren mountains, dotted at intervals by bushes with a scanty foliage. +The cactuses, or rather opuntias, were here very numerous. I measured +one of a spherical figure, which, including the spines, was six feet +and four inches in circumference. The height of the common cylindrical, +branching kind, is from twelve to fifteen feet, and the girth (with +spines) of the branches between three and four feet. + +A heavy fall of snow on the mountains prevented me, during the last two +days, from making some interesting excursions. I attempted to reach a +lake which the inhabitants, from some +unaccountable reason, believe to be an arm of the sea. During a very +dry season, it was proposed to attempt cutting a channel from it for +the sake of the water, but the padre, after a consultation, declared it +was too dangerous, as all Chile would be inundated, if, as generally +supposed, the lake was connected with the Pacific. We ascended to a +great height, but becoming involved in the snow-drifts failed in +reaching this wonderful lake, and had some difficulty in returning. I +thought we should have lost our horses; for there was no means of +guessing how deep the drifts were, and the animals, when led, could +only move by jumping. The black sky showed that a fresh snowstorm was +gathering, and we therefore were not a little glad when we escaped. By +the time we reached the base the storm commenced, and it was lucky for +us that this did not happen three hours earlier in the day. + + +_August_ 26_th._—We left Jajuel and again crossed the basin of San +Felipe. The day was truly Chilian: glaringly bright, and the atmosphere +quite clear. The thick and uniform covering of newly-fallen snow +rendered the view of the volcano of Aconcagua and the main chain quite +glorious. We were now on the road to Santiago, the capital of Chile. We +crossed the Cerro del Talguen, and slept at a little rancho. The host, +talking about the state of Chile as compared to other countries, was +very humble: “Some see with two eyes, and some with one, but for my +part I do not think that Chile sees with any.” + + +_August_ 27_th._—After crossing many low hills we descended into the +small land-locked plain of Guitron. In the basins, such as this one, +which are elevated from one thousand to two thousand feet above the +sea, two species of acacia, which are stunted in their forms, and stand +wide apart from each other, grow in large numbers. These trees are +never found near the sea-coast; and this gives another characteristic +feature to the scenery of these basins. We crossed a low ridge which +separates Guitron from the great plain on which Santiago stands. The +view was here pre-eminently striking: the dead level surface, covered +in parts by woods of acacia, and with the city in the distance, +abutting horizontally against the base of the Andes, +whose snowy peaks were bright with the evening sun. At the first glance +of this view, it was quite evident that the plain represented the +extent of a former inland sea. As soon as we gained the level road we +pushed our horses into a gallop, and reached the city before it was +dark. + +I stayed a week in Santiago and enjoyed myself very much. In the +morning I rode to various places on the plain, and in the evening dined +with several of the English merchants, whose hospitality at this place +is well known. A never-failing source of pleasure was to ascend the +little hillock of rock (St. Lucia) which projects in the middle of the +city. The scenery certainly is most striking, and, as I have said, very +peculiar. I am informed that this same character is common to the +cities on the great Mexican platform. Of the town I have nothing to say +in detail: it is not so fine or so large as Buenos Ayres, but is built +after the same model. I arrived here by a circuit to the north; so I +resolved to return to Valparaiso by a rather longer excursion to the +south of the direct road. + + +_September_ 5_th._—By the middle of the day we arrived at one of the +suspension bridges made of hide, which cross the Maypu, a large +turbulent river a few leagues southward of Santiago. These bridges are +very poor affairs. The road, following the curvature of the suspending +ropes, is made of bundles of sticks placed close together. It was full +of holes, and oscillated rather fearfully, even with the weight of a +man leading his horse. In the evening we reached a comfortable +farm-house, where there were several very pretty señoritas. They were +much horrified at my having entered one of their churches out of mere +curiosity. They asked me, “Why do you not become a Christian—for our +religion is certain?” I assured them I was a sort of Christian; but +they would not hear of it—appealing to my own words, “Do not your +padres, your very bishops, marry?” The absurdity of a bishop having a +wife particularly struck them: they scarcely knew whether to be most +amused or horror-struck at such an enormity. + + +6_th._—We proceeded due south, and slept at Rancagua. The road passed +over the level but narrow plain, bounded on +one side by lofty hills, and on the other by the Cordillera. The next +day we turned up the valley of the Rio Cachapual, in which the +hot-baths of Cauquenes, long celebrated for their medicinal properties, +are situated. The suspension bridges, in the less frequented parts, are +generally taken down during the winter when the rivers are low. Such +was the case in this valley, and we were therefore obliged to cross the +stream on horseback. This is rather disagreeable, for the foaming +water, though not deep, rushes so quickly over the bed of large rounded +stones, that one’s head becomes quite confused, and it is difficult +even to perceive whether the horse is moving onward or standing still. +In summer, when the snow melts, the torrents are quite impassable; +their strength and fury are then extremely great, as might be plainly +seen by the marks which they had left. We reached the baths in the +evening, and stayed there five days, being confined the two last by +heavy rain. The buildings consist of a square of miserable little +hovels, each with a single table and bench. They are situated in a +narrow deep valley just without the central Cordillera. It is a quiet, +solitary spot, with a good deal of wild beauty. + +The mineral springs of Cauquenes burst forth on a line of dislocation, +crossing a mass of stratified rock, the whole of which betrays the +action of heat. A considerable quantity of gas is continually escaping +from the same orifices with the water. Though the springs are only a +few yards apart, they have very different temperatures; and this +appears to be the result of an unequal mixture of cold water: for those +with the lowest temperature have scarcely any mineral taste. After the +great earthquake of 1822 the springs ceased, and the water did not +return for nearly a year. They were also much affected by the +earthquake of 1835; the temperature being suddenly changed from 118° to +92°.[1] It seems probable that mineral waters rising deep from the +bowels of the earth would always be more deranged by subterranean +disturbances than those nearer the surface. The man who had charge of +the baths assured me that in summer the water is hotter and more +plentiful than in winter. The former circumstance I should have +expected, from the less mixture, during the dry season, of cold water; +but the latter statement appears very strange and contradictory. The +periodical increase during the summer, when rain never falls, can, I +think, only be accounted for by the melting of the snow: yet the +mountains which are covered by snow during that season are three or +four leagues distant from the springs. I have no reason to doubt the +accuracy of my informer, who, having lived on the spot for several +years, ought to be well acquainted with the circumstance,—which, if +true, certainly is very curious: for we must suppose that the +snow-water, being conducted through porous strata to the regions of +heat, is again thrown up to the surface by the line of dislocated and +injected rocks at Cauquenes; and the regularity of the phenomenon would +seem to indicate that in this district heated rock occurred at a depth +not very great. + + [1] Caldcleugh, in _Philosoph. Transact._ for 1836. + +One day I rode up the valley to the farthest inhabited spot. Shortly +above that point, the Cachapual divides into two deep tremendous +ravines, which penetrate directly into the great range. I scrambled up +a peaked mountain, probably more than six thousand feet high. Here, as +indeed everywhere else, scenes of the highest interest presented +themselves. It was by one of these ravines that Pincheira entered Chile +and ravaged the neighbouring country. This is the same man whose attack +on an estancia at the Rio Negro I have described. He was a renegade +half-caste Spaniard, who collected a great body of Indians together and +established himself by a stream in the Pampas, which place none of the +forces sent after him could ever discover. From this point he used to +sally forth, and crossing the Cordillera by passes hitherto +unattempted, he ravaged the farm-houses and drove the cattle to his +secret rendezvous. Pincheira was a capital horseman, and he made all +around him equally good, for he invariably shot any one who hesitated +to follow him. It was against this man, and other wandering Indian +tribes, that Rosas waged the war of extermination. + +Cordilleras from Santiago de Chile + + +_September_ 13_th._—We left the baths of Cauquenes, and, rejoining the +main road, slept at the Rio Claro. From this place we rode to the town +of San Fernando. Before arriving there, the last land-locked basin had +expanded into a great plain, which extended so far to the south that +the snowy summits of the more distant Andes were seen as if above the +horizon of the sea. San Fernando is forty leagues from Santiago; and it +was my +farthest point southward; for we here turned at right angles towards +the coast. We slept at the gold-mines of Yaquil, which are worked by +Mr. Nixon, an American gentleman, to whose kindness I was much indebted +during the four days I stayed at his house. The next morning we rode to +the mines, which are situated at the distance of some leagues, near the +summit of a lofty hill. On the way we had a glimpse of the lake +Tagua-tagua, celebrated for its floating islands, which have been +described by M. Gay.[2] They are composed of the stalks of various dead +plants intertwined together, and on the surface of which other living +ones take root. Their form is generally circular, and their thickness +from four to six feet, of which the greater part is immersed in the +water. As the wind blows, they pass from one side of the lake to the +other, and often carry cattle and horses as passengers. + + [2] _Annales des Sciences Naturelles_, March, 1833. M. Gay, a zealous + and able naturalist, was then occupied in studying every branch of + natural history throughout the kingdom of Chile. + +When we arrived at the mine, I was struck by the pale appearance of +many of the men, and inquired from Mr. Nixon respecting their +condition. The mine is 450 feet deep, and each man brings up about 200 +pounds weight of stone. With this load they have to climb up the +alternate notches cut in the trunks of trees, placed in a zigzag line +up the shaft. Even beardless young men, eighteen and twenty years old, +with little muscular development of their bodies (they are quite naked +excepting drawers) ascend with this great load from nearly the same +depth. A strong man, who is not accustomed to this labour, perspires +most profusely, with merely carrying up his own body. With this very +severe labour, they live entirely on boiled beans and bread. They would +prefer having bread alone; but their masters, finding that they cannot +work so hard upon this, treat them like horses, and make them eat the +beans. Their pay is here rather more than at the mines of Jajuel, being +from 24 to 28 shillings per month. They leave the mine only once in +three weeks; when they stay with their families for two days. One of +the rules of this mine sounds very harsh, but answers pretty well for +the master. The only method of stealing gold is to secrete pieces of +the ore, and take them out as occasion may offer. Whenever the +major-domo +finds a lump thus hidden, its full value is stopped out of the wages of +all the men; who thus, without they all combine, are obliged to keep +watch over each other. + +When the ore is brought to the mill, it is ground into an impalpable +powder; the process of washing removes all the lighter particles, and +amalgamation finally secures the gold-dust. The washing, when +described, sounds a very simple process; but it is beautiful to see how +the exact adaptation of the current of water to the specific gravity of +the gold so easily separates the powdered matrix from the metal. The +mud which passes from the mills is collected into pools, where it +subsides, and every now and then is cleared out, and thrown into a +common heap. A great deal of chemical action then commences, salts of +various kinds effloresce on the surface, and the mass becomes hard. +After having been left for a year or two, and then rewashed, it yields +gold; and this process may be repeated even six or seven times; but the +gold each time becomes less in quantity, and the intervals required (as +the inhabitants say, to generate the metal) are longer. There can be no +doubt that the chemical action, already mentioned, each time liberates +fresh gold from some combination. The discovery of a method to effect +this before the first grinding would without doubt raise the value of +gold-ores many fold. It is curious to find how the minute particles of +gold, being scattered about and not corroding, at last accumulate in +some quantity. A short time since a few miners, being out of work, +obtained permission to scrape the ground round the house and mill; they +washed the earth thus got together, and so procured thirty dollars +worth of gold. This is an exact counterpart of what takes place in +nature. Mountains suffer degradation and wear away, and with them the +metallic veins which they contain. The hardest rock is worn into +impalpable mud, the ordinary metals oxidate, and both are removed; but +gold, platina, and a few others are nearly indestructible, and from +their weight, sinking to the bottom, are left behind. After whole +mountains have passed through this grinding mill, and have been washed +by the hand of nature, the residue becomes metalliferous, and man finds +it worth his while to complete the task of separation. + +Bad as the above treatment of the miners appears, it is +gladly accepted of by them; for the condition of the labouring +agriculturists is much worse. Their wages are lower, and they live +almost exclusively on beans. This poverty must be chiefly owing to the +feudal-like system on which the land is tilled: the landowner gives a +small plot of ground to the labourer, for building on and cultivating, +and in return has his services (or those of a proxy) for every day of +his life, without any wages. Until a father has a grown-up son, who can +by his labour pay the rent, there is no one, except on occasional days, +to take care of his own patch of ground. Hence extreme poverty is very +common among the labouring classes in this country. + +There are some old Indian ruins in this neighbourhood, and I was shown +one of the perforated stones, which Molina mentions as being found in +many places in considerable numbers. They are of a circular flattened +form, from five to six inches in diameter, with a hole passing quite +through the centre. It has generally been supposed that they were used +as heads to clubs, although their form does not appear at all well +adapted for that purpose. Burchell[3] states that some of the tribes in +Southern Africa dig up roots by the aid of a stick pointed at one end, +the force and weight of which are increased by a round stone with a +hole in it, into which the other end is firmly wedged. It appears +probable that the Indians of Chile formerly used some such rude +agricultural instrument. + + [3] Burchell’s _Travels_, vol. ii, p. 45. + +One day, a German collector in natural history, of the name of Renous, +called, and nearly at the same time an old Spanish lawyer. I was amused +at being told the conversation which took place between them. Renous +speaks Spanish so well that the old lawyer mistook him for a Chilian. +Renous alluding to me, asked him what he thought of the King of England +sending out a collector to their country, to pick up lizards and +beetles, and to break stones? The old gentleman thought seriously for +some time, and then said, “It is not well,—_hay un gato encerrado aqui_ +(there is a cat shut up here). No man is so rich as to send out people +to pick up such rubbish. I do not like it: if one of us were to go and +do such things in England, do not you think the King of England would +very soon send us out of his country?” And this old gentleman, from +his profession, belongs to the better informed and more intelligent +classes! Renous himself, two or three years before, left in a house at +San Fernando some caterpillars, under charge of a girl to feed, that +they might turn into butterflies. This was rumoured through the town, +and at last the Padres and Governor consulted together, and agreed it +must be some heresy. Accordingly, when Renous returned, he was +arrested. + + +_September_ 19_th._—We left Yaquil, and followed the flat valley, +formed like that of Quillota, in which the Rio Tinderidica flows. Even +at these few miles south of Santiago the climate is much damper; in +consequence there were fine tracts of pasturage which were not +irrigated. (_20th._) We followed this valley till it expanded into a +great plain, which reaches from the sea to the mountains west of +Rancagua. We shortly lost all trees and even bushes; so that the +inhabitants are nearly as badly off for firewood as those in the +Pampas. Never having heard of these plains, I was much surprised at +meeting with such scenery in Chile. The plains belong to more than one +series of different elevations, and they are traversed by broad +flat-bottomed valleys; both of which circumstances, as in Patagonia, +bespeak the action of the sea on gently rising land. In the steep +cliffs bordering these valleys there are some large caves, which no +doubt were originally formed by the waves: one of these is celebrated +under the name of Cueva del Obispo; having formerly been consecrated. +During the day I felt very unwell, and from that time till the end of +October did not recover. + + +_September_ 22_nd._—We continued to pass over green plains without a +tree. The next day we arrived at a house near Navedad, on the +sea-coast, where a rich Haciendero gave us lodgings. I stayed here the +two ensuing days, and although very unwell, managed to collect from the +tertiary formation some marine shells. + + +24_th._—Our course was now directed towards Valparaiso, which with +great difficulty I reached on the 27th, and was there confined to my +bed till the end of October. During this +time I was an inmate in Mr. Corfield’s house, whose kindness to me I do +not know how to express. + + +I will here add a few observations on some of the animals and birds of +Chile. The Puma, or South American Lion, is not uncommon. This animal +has a wide geographical range; being found from the equatorial forests, +throughout the deserts of Patagonia, as far south as the damp and cold +latitudes (53° to 54°) of Tierra del Fuego. I have seen its footsteps +in the Cordillera of central Chile, at an elevation of at least 10,000 +feet. In La Plata the puma preys chiefly on deer, ostriches, bizcacha, +and other small quadrupeds; it there seldom attacks cattle or horses, +and most rarely man. In Chile, however, it destroys many young horses +and cattle, owing probably to the scarcity of other quadrupeds: I +heard, likewise, of two men and a woman who had been thus killed. It is +asserted that the puma always kills its prey by springing on the +shoulders, and then drawing back the head with one of its paws, until +the vertebræ break: I have seen in Patagonia the skeletons of guanacos, +with their necks thus dislocated. + +The puma, after eating its fill, covers the carcass with many large +bushes, and lies down to watch it. This habit is often the cause of its +being discovered; for the condors wheeling in the air, every now and +then descend to partake of the feast, and being angrily driven away, +rise all together on the wing. The Chileno Guaso then knows there is a +lion watching his prey—the word is given—and men and dogs hurry to the +chase. Sir F. Head says that a Gaucho in the Pampas, upon merely seeing +some condors wheeling in the air, cried “A lion!” I could never myself +meet with any one who pretended to such powers of discrimination. It is +asserted that if a puma has once been betrayed by thus watching the +carcass, and has then been hunted, it never resumes this habit; but +that having gorged itself, it wanders far away. The puma is easily +killed. In an open country it is first entangled with the bolas, then +lazoed, and dragged along the ground till rendered insensible. At +Tandeel (south of the Plata), I was told that within three months one +hundred were thus destroyed. In Chile they are generally driven up +bushes or trees, and are then either shot, or baited to death by dogs. +The dogs employed in this chase +belong to a particular breed, called Leoneros: they are weak, slight +animals, like long-legged terriers, but are born with a particular +instinct for this sport. The puma is described as being very crafty: +when pursued, it often returns on its former track, and then suddenly +making a spring on one side, waits there till the dogs have passed by. +It is a very silent animal, uttering no cry even when wounded, and only +rarely during the breeding season. + +Of birds, two species of the genus Pteroptochos (megapodius and +albicollis of Kittlitz) are perhaps the most conspicuous. The former, +called by the Chilenos “el Turco,” is as large as a fieldfare, to which +bird it has some alliance; but its legs are much longer, tail shorter, +and beak stronger: its colour is a reddish brown. The Turco is not +uncommon. It lives on the ground, sheltered among the thickets which +are scattered over the dry and sterile hills. With its tail erect, and +stilt-like legs, it may be seen every now and then popping from one +bush to another with uncommon quickness. It really requires little +imagination to believe that the bird is ashamed of itself, and is aware +of its most ridiculous figure. On first seeing it, one is tempted to +exclaim, “A vilely stuffed specimen has escaped from some museum, and +has come to life again!” It cannot be made to take flight without the +greatest trouble, nor does it run, but only hops. The various loud +cries which it utters when concealed amongst the bushes are as strange +as its appearance. It is said to build its nest in a deep hole beneath +the ground. I dissected several specimens: the gizzard, which was very +muscular, contained beetles, vegetable fibres, and pebbles. From this +character, from the length of its legs, scratching feet, membranous +covering to the nostrils, short and arched wings, this bird seems in a +certain degree to connect the thrushes with the gallinaceous order. + +The second species (or P. albicollis) is allied to the first in its +general form. It is called Tapacolo, or “cover your posterior;” and +well does the shameless little bird deserve its name; for it carries +its tail more than erect, that is, inclined backwards towards its head. +It is very common, and frequents the bottoms of hedgerows, and the +bushes scattered over the barren hills, where scarcely another bird can +exist. In its general manner of feeding, of quickly hopping out of the +thickets +and back again, in its desire of concealment, unwillingness to take +flight, and nidification, it bears a close resemblance to the Turco; +but its appearance is not quite so ridiculous. The Tapacolo is very +crafty: when frightened by any person, it will remain motionless at the +bottom of a bush, and will then, after a little while, try with much +address to crawl away on the opposite side. It is also an active bird, +and continually making a noise: these noises are various and strangely +odd; some are like the cooing of doves, others like the bubbling of +water, and many defy all similes. The country people say it changes its +cry five times in the year—according to some change of season, I +suppose.[4] + + [4] It is a remarkable fact that Molina, though describing in detail + all the birds and animals of Chile, never once mentions this genus, + the species of which are so common, and so remarkable in their habits. + Was he at a loss how to classify them, and did he consequently think + that silence was the more prudent course? It is one more instance of + the frequency of omissions by authors on those very subjects where it + might have been least expected. + +Two species of humming-birds are common; Trochilus forficatus is found +over a space of 2500 miles on the west coast, from the hot dry country +of Lima to the forests of Tierra del Fuego—where it may be seen +flitting about in snow-storms. In the wooded island of Chiloe, which +has an extremely humid climate, this little bird, skipping from side to +side amidst the dripping foliage, is perhaps more abundant than almost +any other kind. I opened the stomachs of several specimens, shot in +different parts of the continent, and in all, remains of insects were +as numerous as in the stomach of a creeper. When this species migrates +in the summer southward, it is replaced by the arrival of another +species coming from the north. This second kind (Trochilus gigas) is a +very large bird for the delicate family to which it belongs: when on +the wing its appearance is singular. Like others of the genus, it moves +from place to place with a rapidity which may be compared to that of +Syrphus amongst flies, and Sphinx among moths; but whilst hovering over +a flower, it flaps its wings with a very slow and powerful movement, +totally different from that vibratory one common to most of the +species, which produces the humming noise. I never saw any other bird +where the force of its wings appeared (as in a butterfly) so powerful +in proportion to the weight of its body. When hovering by a flower, its +tail is constantly expanded and shut like a fan, the +body being kept in a nearly vertical position. This action appears to +steady and support the bird, between the slow movements of its wings. +Although flying from flower to flower in search of food, its stomach +generally contained abundant remains of insects, which I suspect are +much more the object of its search than honey. The note of this +species, like that of nearly the whole family, is extremely shrill. + +[Illustration: Chilian spurs, stirrup, etc.] + +[Illustration: Old Church, Castro, Chiloe] + + + + +Chapter XIII + + +Chiloe—General Aspect—Boat excursion—Native Indians—Castro—Tame +fox—Ascend San Pedro—Chonos Archipelago—Peninsula of Tres +Montes—Granitic range—Boat-wrecked sailors—Low’s Harbour—Wild +potato—Formation of peat—Myopotamus, otter and mice—Cheucau and +Barking-bird—Opetiorhynchus—Singular character of ornithology—Petrels. + +CHILOE AND CHONOS ISLANDS + +_November_ 10_th._—The _Beagle_ sailed from Valparaiso to the south, +for the purpose of surveying the southern part of Chile, the island of +Chiloe, and the broken land called the Chonos Archipelago, as far south +as the Peninsula of Tres Montes. On the 21st we anchored in the bay of +S. Carlos, the capital of Chiloe. + +This island is about ninety miles long, with a breadth of rather less +than thirty. The land is hilly, but not mountainous, and is covered by +one great forest, except where a few green patches have been cleared +round the thatched cottages. From +a distance the view somewhat resembles that of Tierra del Fuego; but +the woods, when seen nearer, are incomparably more beautiful. Many +kinds of fine evergreen trees, and plants with a tropical character, +here take the place of the gloomy beech of the southern shores. In +winter the climate is detestable, and in summer it is only a little +better. I should think there are few parts of the world, within the +temperate regions, where so much rain falls. The winds are very +boisterous, and the sky almost always clouded: to have a week of fine +weather is something wonderful. It is even difficult to get a single +glimpse of the Cordillera: during our first visit, once only the +volcano of Osorno stood out in bold relief, and that was before +sunrise; it was curious to watch, as the sun rose, the outline +gradually fading away in the glare of the eastern sky. + +The inhabitants, from their complexion and low stature, appear to have +three-fourths of Indian blood in their veins. They are an humble, +quiet, industrious set of men. Although the fertile soil, resulting +from the decomposition of the volcanic rocks, supports a rank +vegetation, yet the climate is not favourable to any production which +requires much sunshine to ripen it. There is very little pasture for +the larger quadrupeds; and in consequence, the staple articles of food +are pigs, potatoes, and fish. The people all dress in strong woollen +garments, which each family makes for itself, and dyes with indigo of a +dark blue colour. The arts, however, are in the rudest state;—as may be +seen in their strange fashion of ploughing, their method of spinning, +grinding corn, and in the construction of their boats. The forests are +so impenetrable that the land is nowhere cultivated except near the +coast and on the adjoining islets. Even where paths exist, they are +scarcely passable from the soft and swampy state of the soil. The +inhabitants, like those of Tierra del Fuego, move about chiefly on the +beach or in boats. Although with plenty to eat, the people are very +poor: there is no demand for labour, and consequently the lower orders +cannot scrape together money sufficient to purchase even the smallest +luxuries. There is also a great deficiency of a circulating medium. I +have seen a man bringing on his back a bag of charcoal, with which to +buy some trifle, and another carrying a plank to exchange for a bottle +of wine. Hence every tradesman must also be +a merchant, and again sell the goods which he takes in exchange. + +_November_ 24_th._—The yawl and whale-boat were sent under the command +of Mr. (now Captain) Sulivan to survey the eastern or inland coast of +Chiloe; and with orders to meet the _ Beagle_ at the southern extremity +of the island; to which point she would proceed by the outside, so as +thus to circumnavigate the whole. I accompanied this expedition, but +instead of going in the boats the first day, I hired horses to take me +to Chacao, at the northern extremity of the island. The road followed +the coast; every now and then crossing promontories covered by fine +forests. In these shaded paths it is absolutely necessary that the +whole road should be made of logs of wood, which are squared and placed +by the side of each other. From the rays of the sun never penetrating +the evergreen foliage, the ground is so damp and soft, that except by +this means neither man nor horse would be able to pass along. I arrived +at the village of Chacao shortly after the tents belonging to the boats +were pitched for the night. + +The land in this neighbourhood has been extensively cleared, and there +were many quiet and most picturesque nooks in the forest. Chacao was +formerly the principal port in the island; but many vessels having been +lost, owing to the dangerous currents and rocks in the straits, the +Spanish government burnt the church, and thus arbitrarily compelled the +greater number of inhabitants to migrate to S. Carlos. We had not long +bivouacked, before the barefooted son of the governor came down to +reconnoitre us. Seeing the English flag hoisted at the yawl’s masthead, +he asked with the utmost indifference, whether it was always to fly at +Chacao. In several places the inhabitants were much astonished at the +appearance of men-of-war’s boats, and hoped and believed it was the +forerunner of a Spanish fleet, coming to recover the island from the +patriot government of Chile. All the men in power, however, had been +informed of our intended visit, and were exceedingly civil. While we +were eating our supper, the governor paid us a visit. He had been a +lieutenant-colonel in the Spanish service, but now was miserably poor. +He gave us two sheep, and accepted in return two cotton handkerchiefs, +some brass trinkets, and a little tobacco. + + +25_th._—Torrents of rain: we managed, however, to run down the coast as +far as Huapi-lenou. The whole of this eastern side of Chiloe has one +aspect; it is a plain, broken by valleys and divided into little +islands, and the whole thickly covered with one impervious +blackish-green forest. On the margins there are some cleared spaces, +surrounding the high-roofed cottages. + +26_th._—The day rose splendidly clear. The volcano of Orsono was +spouting out volumes of smoke. This most beautiful mountain, formed +like a perfect cone, and white with snow, stands out in front of the +Cordillera. Another great volcano, with a saddle-shaped summit, also +emitted from its immense crater little jets of steam. Subsequently we +saw the lofty-peaked Corcovado—well deserving the name of “el famoso +Corcovado.” Thus we beheld, from one point of view, three great active +volcanoes, each about seven thousand feet high. In addition to this, +far to the south there were other lofty cones covered with snow, which, +although not known to be active, must be in their origin volcanic. The +line of the Andes is not, in this neighbourhood, nearly so elevated as +in Chile; neither does it appear to form so perfect a barrier between +the regions of the earth. This great range, although running in a +straight north and south line, owing to an optical deception always +appeared more or less curved; for the lines drawn from each peak to the +beholder’s eye necessarily converged like the radii of a semicircle, +and as it was not possible (owing to the clearness of the atmosphere +and the absence of all intermediate objects) to judge how far distant +the farthest peaks were off, they appeared to stand in a flattish +semicircle. + +Landing at midday, we saw a family of pure Indian extraction. The +father was singularly like York Minster; and some of the younger boys, +with their ruddy complexions, might have been mistaken for Pampas +Indians. Everything I have seen convinces me of the close connexion of +the different American tribes, who nevertheless speak distinct +languages. This party could muster but little Spanish, and talked to +each other in their own tongue. It is a pleasant thing to see the +aborigines advanced to the same degree of civilisation, however low +that may be, which their white conquerors have attained. +More to the south we saw many pure Indians: indeed, all the inhabitants +of some of the islets retain their Indian surnames. In the census of +1832 there were in Chiloe and its dependencies forty-two thousand +souls: the greater number of these appear to be of mixed blood. Eleven +thousand retain their Indian surnames, but it is probable that not +nearly all of these are of a pure breed. Their manner of life is the +same with that of the other poor inhabitants, and they are all +Christians; but it is said that they yet retain some strange +superstitious ceremonies, and that they pretend to hold communication +with the devil in certain caves. Formerly, every one convicted of this +offence was sent to the Inquisition at Lima. Many of the inhabitants +who are not included in the eleven thousand with Indian surnames, +cannot be distinguished by their appearance from Indians. Gomez, the +governor of Lemuy, is descended from noblemen of Spain on both sides; +but by constant intermarriages with the natives the present man is an +Indian. On the other hand, the governor of Quinchao boasts much of his +purely kept Spanish blood. + +We reached at night a beautiful little cove, north of the island of +Caucahue. The people here complained of want of land. This is partly +owing to their own negligence in not clearing the woods, and partly to +restrictions by the government, which makes it necessary, before buying +ever so small a piece, to pay two shillings to the surveyor for +measuring each quadra (150 yards square), together with whatever price +he fixes for the value of the land. After his valuation the land must +be put up three times to auction, and if no one bids more, the +purchaser can have it at that rate. All these exactions must be a +serious check to clearing the ground, where the inhabitants are so +extremely poor. In most countries, forests are removed without much +difficulty by the aid of fire; but in Chiloe, from the damp nature of +the climate, and the sort of trees, it is necessary first to cut them +down. This is a heavy drawback to the prosperity of Chiloe. In the time +of the Spaniards the Indians could not hold land; and a family, after +having cleared a piece of ground, might be driven away, and the +property seized by the government. The Chilian authorities are now +performing an act of justice by making retribution to these poor +Indians, giving to each +man, according to his grade of life, a certain portion of land. The +value of uncleared ground is very little. The government gave Mr. +Douglas (the present surveyor, who informed me of these circumstances) +eight and a half square miles of forest near S. Carlos, in lieu of a +debt; and this he sold for 350 dollars, or about £70 sterling. + +The two succeeding days were fine, and at night we reached the island +of Quinchao. This neighbourhood is the most cultivated part of the +Archipelago; for a broad strip of land on the coast of the main island, +as well as on many of the smaller adjoining ones, is almost completely +cleared. Some of the farmhouses seemed very comfortable. I was curious +to ascertain how rich any of these people might be, but Mr. Douglas +says that no one can be considered as possessing a regular income. One +of the richest landowners might possibly accumulate, in a long +industrious life, as much as £1000 sterling; but should this happen, it +would all be stowed away in some secret corner, for it is the custom of +almost every family to have a jar or treasure-chest buried in the +ground. + +_November_ 30_th._—Early on Sunday morning we reached Castro, the +ancient capital of Chiloe, but now a most forlorn and deserted place. +The usual quadrangular arrangement of Spanish towns could be traced, +but the streets and plaza were coated with fine green turf, on which +sheep were browsing. The church, which stands in the middle, is +entirely built of plank, and has a picturesque and venerable +appearance. The poverty of the place may be conceived from the fact, +that although containing some hundreds of inhabitants, one of our party +was unable anywhere to purchase either a pound of sugar or an ordinary +knife. No individual possessed either a watch or a clock; and an old +man who was supposed to have a good idea of time, was employed to +strike the church bell by guess. The arrival of our boats was a rare +event in this quiet retired corner of the world; and nearly all the +inhabitants came down to the beach to see us pitch our tents. They were +very civil, and offered us a house; and one man even sent us a cask of +cider as a present. In the afternoon we paid our respects to the +governor—a quiet old man, who, in his appearance and manner of life, +was scarcely superior to an English cottager. At night heavy rain set +in, which was +hardly sufficient to drive away from our tents the large circle of +lookers on. An Indian family, who had come to trade in a canoe from +Caylen, bivouacked near us. They had no shelter during the rain. In the +morning I asked a young Indian, who was wet to the skin, how he had +passed the night. He seemed perfectly content, and answered, “Muy bien, +señor.” + +_December_ 1_st._—We steered for the island of Lemuy. I was anxious to +examine a reported coal-mine which turned out to be lignite of little +value, in the sandstone (probably of an ancient tertiary epoch) of +which these islands are composed. When we reached Lemuy we had much +difficulty in finding any place to pitch our tents, for it was +spring-tide, and the land was wooded down to the water’s edge. In a +short time we were surrounded by a large group of the nearly pure +Indian inhabitants. They were much surprised at our arrival, and said +one to the other, “This is the reason we have seen so many parrots +lately; the cheucau (an odd red-breasted little bird, which inhabits +the thick forest, and utters very peculiar noises) has not cried +‘beware’ for nothing.” They were soon anxious for barter. Money was +scarcely worth anything, but their eagerness for tobacco was something +quite extraordinary. After tobacco, indigo came next in value; then +capsicum, old clothes, and gunpowder. The latter article was required +for a very innocent purpose: each parish has a public musket, and the +gunpowder was wanted for making a noise on their saint or feast days. + +The people here live chiefly on shell-fish and potatoes. At certain +seasons they catch also, in “corrales,” or hedges under water, many +fish which are left on the mud-banks as the tide falls. They +occasionally possess fowls, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and cattle; the +order in which they are here mentioned, expressing their respective +numbers. I never saw anything more obliging and humble than the manners +of these people. They generally began with stating that they were poor +natives of the place, and not Spaniards and that they were in sad want +of tobacco and other comforts. At Caylen, the most southern island, the +sailors bought with a stick of tobacco, of the value of +three-halfpence, two fowls, one of which, the Indian stated, had skin +between its toes, and turned out to +be a fine duck; and with some cotton handkerchiefs, worth three +shillings, three sheep and a large bunch of onions were procured. The +yawl at this place was anchored some way from the shore, and we had +fears for her safety from robbers during the night. Our pilot, Mr. +Douglas, accordingly told the constable of the district that we always +placed sentinels with loaded arms, and not understanding Spanish, if we +saw any person in the dark, we should assuredly shoot him. The +constable, with much humility, agreed to the perfect propriety of this +arrangement, and promised us that no one should stir out of his house +during that night. + +During the four succeeding days we continued sailing southward. The +general features of the country remained the same, but it was much less +thickly inhabited. On the large island of Tanqui there was scarcely one +cleared spot, the trees on every side extending their branches over the +sea-beach. I one day noticed, growing on the sandstone cliffs, some +very fine plants of the panke (Gunnera scabra), which somewhat +resembles the rhubarb on a gigantic scale. The inhabitants eat the +stalks, which are subacid, and tan leather with the roots, and prepare +a black dye from them. The leaf is nearly circular, but deeply indented +on its margin. I measured one which was nearly eight feet in diameter, +and therefore no less than twenty-four in circumference! The stalk is +rather more than a yard high, and each plant sends out four or five of +these enormous leaves, presenting together a very noble appearance. + +_December_ 6_th._—We reached Caylen, called “el fin del Cristiandad.” +In the morning we stopped for a few minutes at a house on the northern +end of Laylec, which was the extreme point of South American +Christendom, and a miserable hovel it was. The latitude is 43° 10′, +which is two degrees farther south than the Rio Negro on the Atlantic +coast. These extreme Christians were very poor, and, under the plea of +their situation, begged for some tobacco. As a proof of the poverty of +these Indians, I may mention that shortly before this we had met a man, +who had travelled three days and a half on foot, and had as many to +return, for the sake of recovering the value of a small axe and a few +fish. How very difficult it must be to buy the smallest article, when +such trouble is taken to recover so small a debt. + + +In the evening we reached the island of San Pedro, where we found the +_Beagle_ at anchor. In doubling the point, two of the officers landed +to take a round of angles with the theodolite. A fox (Canis fulvipes), +of a kind said to be peculiar to the island, and very rare in it, and +which is a new species, was sitting on the rocks. He was so intently +absorbed in watching the work of the officers, that I was able, by +quietly walking up behind, to knock him on the head with my geological +hammer. This fox, more curious or more scientific, but less wise, than +the generality of his brethren, is now mounted in the museum of the +Zoological Society. + +We stayed three days in this harbour, on one of which Captain Fitz Roy, +with a party, attempted to ascend to the summit of San Pedro. The woods +here had rather a different appearance from those on the northern part +of the island. The rock, also, being micaceous slate, there was no +beach, but the steep sides dipped directly beneath the water. The +general aspect in consequence was more like that of Tierra del Fuego +than of Chiloe. In vain we tried to gain the summit: the forest was so +impenetrable, that no one who has not beheld it can imagine so +entangled a mass of dying and dead trunks. I am sure that often, for +more than ten minutes together, our feet never touched the ground, and +we were frequently ten or fifteen feet above it, so that the seamen as +a joke called out the soundings. At other times we crept one after +another, on our hands and knees, under the rotten trunks. In the lower +part of the mountain, noble trees of the Winter’s Bark, and a laurel +like the sassafras with fragrant leaves, and others, the names of which +I do not know, were matted together by a trailing bamboo or cane. Here +we were more like fishes struggling in a net than any other animal. On +the higher parts, brushwood takes the place of larger trees, with here +and there a red cedar or an alerce pine. I was also pleased to see, at +an elevation of a little less than 1000 feet, our old friend the +southern beech. They were, however, poor stunted trees, and I should +think that this must be nearly their northern limit. We ultimately gave +up the attempt in despair. + +_December_ 10_th._—The yawl and whale-boat, with Mr. Sulivan, proceeded +on their survey, but I remained on board the _ Beagle_, which the next +day left San Pedro for the southward. On the +13th we ran into an opening in the southern part of Guayatecas, or the +Chonos Archipelago; and it was fortunate we did so, for on the +following day a storm, worthy of Tierra del Fuego, raged with great +fury. White massive clouds were piled up against a dark blue sky, and +across them black ragged sheets of vapour were rapidly driven. The +successive mountain ranges appeared like dim shadows, and the setting +sun cast on the woodland a yellow gleam, much like that produced by the +flame of spirits of wine. The water was white with the flying spray, +and the wind lulled and roared again through the rigging: it was an +ominous, sublime scene. During a few minutes there was a bright +rainbow, and it was curious to observe the effect of the spray, which, +being carried along the surface of the water, changed the ordinary +semicircle into a circle—a band of prismatic colours being continued, +from both feet of the common arch across the bay, close to the vessel’s +side: thus forming a distorted, but very nearly entire ring. + +Inside Chonos Archipelago + +We stayed here three days. The weather continued bad; but this did not +much signify, for the surface of the land in all these islands is all +but impassable. The coast is so very rugged that to attempt to walk in +that direction requires +continued scrambling up and down over the sharp rocks of mica-slate; +and as for the woods, our faces, hands, and shin-bones all bore witness +to the maltreatment we received, in merely attempting to penetrate +their forbidden recesses. + +_December_ 18_th._—We stood out to sea. On the 20th we bade farewell to +the south, and with a fair wind turned the ship’s head northward. From +Cape Tres Montes we sailed pleasantly along the lofty weather-beaten +coast, which is remarkable for the bold outline of its hills, and the +thick covering of forest even on the almost precipitous flanks. The +next day a harbour was discovered, which on this dangerous coast might +be of great service to a distressed vessel. It can easily be recognised +by a hill 1600 feet high, which is even more perfectly conical than the +famous sugar-loaf at Rio de Janeiro. The next day, after anchoring, I +succeeded in reaching the summit of this hill. It was a laborious +undertaking, for the sides were so steep that in some parts it was +necessary to use the trees as ladders. There were also several +extensive brakes of the Fuchsia, covered with its beautiful drooping +flowers, but very difficult to crawl through. In these wild countries +it gives much delight to gain the summit of any mountain. There is an +indefinite expectation of seeing something very strange, which, however +often it may be balked, never failed with me to recur on each +successive attempt. Every one must know the feeling of triumph and +pride which a grand view from a height communicates to the mind. In +these little frequented countries there is also joined to it some +vanity, that you perhaps are the first man who ever stood on this +pinnacle or admired this view. + +A strong desire is always felt to ascertain whether any human being has +previously visited an unfrequented spot. A bit of wood with a nail in +it is picked up and studied as if it were covered with hieroglyphics. +Possessed with this feeling, I was much interested by finding, on a +wild part of the coast, a bed made of grass beneath a ledge of rock. +Close by it there had been a fire, and the man had used an axe. The +fire, bed, and situation showed the dexterity of an Indian; but he +could scarcely have been an Indian, for the race is in this part +extinct, owing to the Catholic desire of making at one blow Christians +and Slaves. I had at the time some misgivings +that the solitary man who had made his bed on this wild spot, must have +been some poor shipwrecked sailor, who, in trying to travel up the +coast, had here laid himself down for his dreary night. + +_December_ 28_th._—The weather continued very bad, but it at last +permitted us to proceed with the survey. The time hung heavy on our +hands, as it always did when we were delayed from day to day by +successive gales of wind. In the evening another harbour was +discovered, where we anchored. Directly afterwards a man was seen +waving his shirt, and a boat was sent which brought back two seamen. A +party of six had run away from an American whaling vessel, and had +landed a little to the southward in a boat, which was shortly +afterwards knocked to pieces by the surf. They had now been wandering +up and down the coast for fifteen months, without knowing which way to +go, or where they were. What a singular piece of good fortune it was +that this harbour was now discovered! Had it not been for this one +chance, they might have wandered till they had grown old men, and at +last have perished on this wild coast. Their sufferings had been very +great, and one of their party had lost his life by falling from the +cliffs. They were sometimes obliged to separate in search of food, and +this explained the bed of the solitary man. Considering what they had +undergone, I think they had kept a very good reckoning of time, for +they had lost only four days. + +_December_ 30_th._—We anchored in a snug little cove at the foot of +some high hills, near the northern extremity of Tres Montes. After +breakfast the next morning a party ascended one of these mountains, +which was 2400 feet high. The scenery was remarkable. The chief part of +the range was composed of grand, solid, abrupt masses of granite, which +appeared as if they had been coeval with the beginning of the world. +The granite was capped with mica-slate, and this in the lapse of ages +had been worn into strange finger-shaped points. These two formations, +thus differing in their outlines, agree in being almost destitute of +vegetation. This barrenness had to our eyes a strange appearance, from +having been so long accustomed to the sight of an almost universal +forest of dark-green trees. I took much delight in examining the +structure of these mountains. The complicated and lofty ranges bore a +noble aspect of durability—equally profitless, however, to man and to +all other animals. Granite to the geologist is classic ground: from its +widespread limits, and its beautiful and compact texture, few rocks +have been more anciently recognised. Granite has given rise, perhaps, +to more discussion concerning its origin than any other formation. We +generally see it constituting the fundamental rock, and, however +formed, we know it is the deepest layer in the crust of this globe to +which man has penetrated. The limit of man’s knowledge in any subject +possesses a high interest, which is perhaps increased by its close +neighbourhood to the realms of imagination. + +_January_ 1_st_, 1835.—The new year is ushered in with the ceremonies +proper to it in these regions. She lays out no false hopes: a heavy +north-western gale, with steady rain, bespeaks the rising year. Thank +God, we are not destined here to see the end of it, but hope then to be +in the Pacific Ocean, where a blue sky tells one there is a heaven,—a +something beyond the clouds above our heads. + +The north-west winds prevailing for the next four days, we only managed +to cross a great bay, and then anchored in another secure harbour. I +accompanied the Captain in a boat to the head of a deep creek. On the +way the number of seals which we saw was quite astonishing: every bit +of flat rock and parts of the beach were covered with them. They +appeared to be of a loving disposition, and lay huddled together, fast +asleep, like so many pigs; but even pigs would have been ashamed of +their dirt, and of the foul smell which came from them. Each herd was +watched by the patient but inauspicious eyes of the turkey-buzzard. +This disgusting bird, with its bald scarlet head, formed to wallow in +putridity, is very common on the west coast, and their attendance on +the seals shows on what they rely for their food. We found the water +(probably only that of the surface) nearly fresh: this was caused by +the number of torrents which, in the form of cascades, came tumbling +over the bold granite mountains into the sea. The fresh water attracts +the fish, and these bring many terns, gulls, and two kinds of +cormorant. We saw also a pair of the beautiful black-necked swans, and +several small sea-otters, the fur of which is held in such high +estimation. In returning, we +were again amused by the impetuous manner in which the heap of seals, +old and young, tumbled into the water as the boat passed. They did not +remain long under water, but rising, followed us with outstretched +necks, expressing great wonder and curiosity. + +7_th._—Having run up the coast, we anchored near the northern end of +the Chonos Archipelago, in Low’s Harbour, where we remained a week. The +islands were here, as in Chiloe, composed of a stratified, soft, +littoral deposit; and the vegetation in consequence was beautifully +luxuriant. The woods came down to the sea-beach, just in the manner of +an evergreen shrubbery over a gravel walk. We also enjoyed from the +anchorage a splendid view of four great snowy cones of the Cordillera, +including “el famoso Corcovado;” the range itself had in this latitude +so little height, that few parts of it appeared above the tops of the +neighbouring islets. We found here a party of five men from Caylen, “el +fin del Cristiandad,” who had most adventurously crossed in their +miserable boat-canoe, for the purpose of fishing, the open space of sea +which separates Chonos from Chiloe. These islands will, in all +probability, in a short time become peopled like those adjoining the +coast of Chiloe. + + +The wild potato grows on these islands in great abundance, on the +sandy, shelly soil near the sea-beach. The tallest plant was four feet +in height. The tubers were generally small, but I found one, of an oval +shape, two inches in diameter: they resembled in every respect, and had +the same smell as English potatoes; but when boiled they shrunk much, +and were watery and insipid, without any bitter taste. They are +undoubtedly here indigenous: they grow as far south, according to Mr. +Low, as lat. 50°, and are called Aquinas by the wild Indians of that +part: the Chilotan Indians have a different name for them. Professor +Henslow, who has examined the dried specimens which I brought home, +says that they are the same with those described by Mr. Sabine[1] from +Valparaiso, but that they form a +variety which by some botanists has been considered as specifically +distinct. It is remarkable that the same plant should be found on the +sterile mountains of central Chile, where a drop of rain does not fall +for more than six months, and within the damp forests of these southern +islands. + + [1] _Horticultural Transact._ vol. v, p. 249. Mr. Caldeleugh sent home + two tubers, which, being well manured, even the first season produced + numerous potatoes and an abundance of leaves. See Humboldt’s + interesting discussion on this plant, which it appears was unknown in + Mexico,—in _Polit. Essay on New Spain_, book iv, chap. ix. + +In the central parts of the Chonos Archipelago (lat. 45°), the forest +has very much the same character with that along the whole west coast, +for 600 miles southward to Cape Horn. The arborescent grass of Chiloe +is not found here; while the beech of Tierra del Fuego grows to a good +size, and forms a considerable proportion of the wood; not, however, in +the same exclusive manner as it does farther southward. Cryptogamic +plants here find a most congenial climate. In the Strait of Magellan, +as I have before remarked, the country appears too cold and wet to +allow of their arriving at perfection; but in these islands, within the +forest, the number of species and great abundance of mosses, lichens, +and small ferns, is quite extraordinary.[2] In Tierra del Fuego trees +grow only on the hillsides; every level piece of land being invariably +covered by a thick bed of peat; but in Chiloe flat land supports the +most luxuriant forests. Here, within the Chonos Archipelago, the nature +of the climate more closely approaches that of Tierra del Fuego than +that of northern Chiloe; for every patch of level ground is covered by +two species of plants (Astelia pumila and Donatia magellanica), which +by their joint decay compose a thick bed of elastic peat. + + [2] By sweeping with my insect-net, I procured from these situations a + considerable number of minute insects, of the family of Staphylinidæ, + and others allied to Pselaphus, and minute Hymenoptera. But the most + characteristic family in number, both of individuals and species, + throughout the more open parts of Chiloe and Chonos is that of + Telephoridæ. + +In Tierra del Fuego, above the region of woodland, the former of these +eminently sociable plants is the chief agent in the production of peat. +Fresh leaves are always succeeding one to the other round the central +tap-root, the lower ones soon decay, and in tracing a root downwards in +the peat, the leaves, yet holding their place, can be observed passing +through every stage of decomposition, till the whole becomes blended in +one confused mass. The Astelia is assisted by a few other plants,—here +and there a small creeping Myrtus (M. nummularia), with a woody stem +like our cranberry and with a sweet berry,—an +Empetrum (E. rubrum), like our heath,—a rush (Juncus grandiflorus), are +nearly the only ones that grow on the swampy surface. These plants, +though possessing a very close general resemblance to the English +species of the same genera, are different. In the more level parts of +the country, the surface of the peat is broken up into little pools of +water, which stand at different heights, and appear as if artificially +excavated. Small streams of water, flowing underground, complete the +disorganisation of the vegetable matter, and consolidate the whole. + +The climate of the southern part of America appears particularly +favourable to the production of peat. In the Falkland Islands almost +every kind of plant, even the coarse grass which covers the whole +surface of the land, becomes converted into this substance: scarcely +any situation checks its growth; some of the beds are as much as twelve +feet thick, and the lower part becomes so solid when dry, that it will +hardly burn. Although every plant lends its aid, yet in most parts the +Astelia is the most efficient. It is rather a singular circumstance, as +being so very different from what occurs in Europe, that I nowhere saw +moss forming by its decay any portion of the peat in South America. +With respect to the northern limit at which the climate allows of that +peculiar kind of slow decomposition which is necessary for its +production, I believe that in Chiloe (lat. 41° to 42°), although there +is much swampy ground, no well-characterised peat occurs: but in the +Chonos Islands, three degrees farther southward, we have seen that it +is abundant. On the eastern coast in La Plata (lat. 35°) I was told by +a Spanish resident who had visited Ireland, that he had often sought +for this substance, but had never been able to find any. He showed me, +as the nearest approach to it which he had discovered, a black peaty +soil, so penetrated with roots as to allow of an extremely slow and +imperfect combustion. + + +The zoology of these broken islets of the Chonos Archipelago is, as +might have been expected, very poor. Of quadrupeds two aquatic kinds +are common. The Myopotamus Coypus (like a beaver, but with a round +tail) is well known from its fine fur, which is an object of trade +throughout the tributaries of La +Plata. It here, however, exclusively frequents salt water; which same +circumstance has been mentioned as sometimes occurring with the great +rodent, the Capybara. A small sea-otter is very numerous; this animal +does not feed exclusively on fish, but, like the seals, draws a large +supply from a small red crab, which swims in shoals near the surface of +the water. Mr. Bynoe saw one in Tierra del Fuego eating a cuttle-fish; +and at Low’s Harbour, another was killed in the act of carrying to its +hole a large volute shell. At one place I caught in a trap a singular +little mouse (M. brachiotis); it appeared common on several of the +islets, but the Chilotans at Low’s Harbour said that it was not found +in all. What a succession of chances,[3] or what changes of level must +have been brought into play, thus to spread these small animals +throughout this broken archipelago! + + [3] It is said that some rapacious birds bring their prey alive to + their nests. If so, in the course of centuries, every now and then, + one might escape from the young birds. Some such agency is necessary, + to account for the distribution of the smaller gnawing animals on + islands not very near each other. + +In all parts of Chiloe and Chonos, two very strange birds occur, which +are allied to, and replace, the Turco and Tapacolo of central Chile. +One is called by the inhabitants “Cheucau” (Pteroptochos rubecula): it +frequents the most gloomy and retired spots within the damp forests. +Sometimes, although its cry may be heard close at hand, let a person +watch ever so attentively he will not see the cheucau; at other times +let him stand motionless and the red-breasted little bird will approach +within a few feet in the most familiar manner. It then busily hops +about the entangled mass of rotting canes and branches, with its little +tail cocked upwards. The cheucau is held in superstitious fear by the +Chilotans, on account of its strange and varied cries. There are three +very distinct cries: One is called “chiduco,” and is an omen of good; +another, “huitreu,” which is extremely unfavourable; and a third, which +I have forgotten. These words are given in imitation of the noises; and +the natives are in some things absolutely governed by them. The +Chilotans assuredly have chosen a most comical little creature for +their prophet. An allied species, but rather larger, is called by the +natives “Guid-guid” (Pteroptochos Tarnii), and by the English the +barking-bird. This latter name is well given; for +I defy any one at first to feel certain that a small dog is not yelping +somewhere in the forest. Just as with the cheucau, a person will +sometimes hear the bark close by, but in vain may endeavour by +watching, and with still less chance by beating the bushes, to see the +bird; yet at other times the guid-guid fearlessly comes near. Its +manner of feeding and its general habits are very similar to those of +the cheucau. + +On the coast,[4] a small dusky-coloured bird (Opetiorhynchus +Patagonicus) is very common. It is remarkable from its quiet habits; it +lives entirely on the sea-beach, like a sandpiper. Besides these birds +only few others inhabit this broken land. In my rough notes I describe +the strange noises, which, although frequently heard within these +gloomy forests, yet scarcely disturb the general silence. The yelping +of the guid-guid, and the sudden whew-whew of the cheucau, sometimes +come from afar off, and sometimes from close at hand; the little black +wren of Tierra del Fuego occasionally adds its cry; the creeper +(Oxyurus) follows the intruder screaming and twittering; the +humming-bird may be seen every now and then darting from side to side, +and emitting, like an insect, its shrill chirp; lastly, from the top of +some lofty tree the indistinct but plaintive note of the white-tufted +tyrant-flycatcher (Myiobius) may be noticed. From the great +preponderance in most countries of certain common genera of birds, such +as the finches, one feels at first surprised at meeting with the +peculiar forms above enumerated, as the commonest birds in any +district. In central Chile two of them, namely, the Oxyurus and +Scytalopus, occur, although most rarely. When finding, as in this case, +animals which seem to play so insignificant a part in the great scheme +of nature, one is apt to wonder why they were created. But it should +always be recollected, that in some other country perhaps they are +essential members of society, or at some former period may have been +so. If America south of 37° were sunk beneath the waters of the ocean, +these two birds might continue to exist in central Chile for a long +period, but it is very improbable that their numbers would increase. We +should then see a case which must inevitably have happened with very +many animals. + + [4] I may mention, as a proof of how great a difference there is + between the seasons of the wooded and the open parts of this coast, + that on September 20th, in lat. 34°, these birds had young ones in the + nest, while among the Chonos Islands, three months later in the + summer, they were only laying, the difference in latitude between + these two places being about 700 miles. + +These southern seas are frequented by several species of Petrels: the +largest kind, Procellaria gigantea, or nelly (quebrantahuesos, or +break-bones, of the Spaniards), is a common bird, both in the inland +channels and on the open sea. In its habits and manner of flight there +is a very close resemblance with the albatross; and as with the +albatross, a person may watch it for hours together without seeing on +what it feeds. The “break-bones” is, however, a rapacious bird, for it +was observed by some of the officers at Port St. Antonio chasing a +diver, which tried to escape by diving and flying, but was continually +struck down, and at last killed by a blow on its head. At Port St. +Julian these great petrels were seen killing and devouring young gulls. +A second species (Puffinus cinereus), which is common to Europe, Cape +Horn, and the coast of Peru, is of a much smaller size than the P. +gigantea, but, like it, of a dirty black colour. It generally frequents +the inland sounds in very large flocks: I do not think I ever saw so +many birds of any other sort together, as I once saw of these behind +the island of Chiloe. Hundreds of thousands flew in an irregular line +for several hours in one direction. When part of the flock settled on +the water the surface was blackened, and a noise proceeded from them as +of human beings talking in the distance. + +There are several other species of petrels, but I will only mention one +other kind, the Pelacanoides Berardi, which offers an example of those +extraordinary cases, of a bird evidently belonging to one well-marked +family, yet both in its habits and structure allied to a very distinct +tribe. This bird never leaves the quiet inland sounds. When disturbed +it dives to a distance, and on coming to the surface, with the same +movement takes flight. After flying by the rapid movement of its short +wings for a space in a straight line, it drops, as if struck dead, and +dives again. The form of its beak and nostrils, length of foot, and +even the colouring of its plumage, show that this bird is a petrel: on +the other hand, its short wings and consequent little power of flight, +its form of body and shape of tail, the absence of a hind toe to its +foot, its habit of living, and its choice of situation, make it at +first doubtful +whether its relationship is not equally close with the auks. It would +undoubtedly be mistaken for an auk, when seen from a distance, either +on the wing, or when diving and quietly swimming about the retired +channels of Tierra del Fuego. + +[Illustration: Gunnera Scabra, Chiloe] + +[Illustration: Antuco Volcano, near Talcahuano] + + + + +Chapter XIV + + +San Carlos, Chiloe—Osorno in eruption, contemporaneously with Aconcagua +and Coseguina—Ride to Cucao—Impenetrable +forests—Valdivia—Indians—Earthquake—Concepcion—Great earthquake—Rocks +fissured—Appearance of the former towns—The sea black and +boiling—Direction of the vibrations—Stones twisted round—Great +wave—Permanent elevation of the land—Area of volcanic phenomena—The +connection between the elevatory and eruptive forces—Cause of +earthquakes—Slow elevation of mountain-chains. + +CHILOE AND CONCEPCION: GREAT EARTHQUAKE + +On January the 15th, 1835 we sailed from Low’s Harbour, and three days +afterwards anchored a second time in the bay of S. Carlos in Chiloe. On +the night of the 19th the volcano of Osorno was in action. At midnight +the sentry observed something like a large star, which gradually +increased in size till about three o’clock, when it presented a very +magnificent +spectacle. By the aid of a glass, dark objects, in constant succession, +were seen, in the midst of a great glare of red light, to be thrown up +and to fall down. The light was sufficient to cast on the water a long +bright reflection. Large masses of molten matter seem very commonly to +be cast out of the craters in this part of the Cordillera. I was +assured that when the Corcovado is in eruption, great masses are +projected upwards and are seen to burst in the air, assuming many +fantastical forms, such as trees: their size must be immense, for they +can be distinguished from the high land behind S. Carlos, which is no +less than ninety-three miles from the Corcovado. In the morning the +volcano became tranquil. + +Panoramic view of coast + +I was surprised at hearing afterwards that Aconcagua in Chile, 480 +miles northwards, was in action on the same night; and still more +surprised to hear that the great eruption of Coseguina (2700 miles +north of Aconcagua), accompanied by an earthquake felt over 1000 miles, +also occurred within six hours of this same time. This coincidence is +the more remarkable, as Coseguina had been dormant for twenty-six +years: and Aconcagua most rarely shows any signs of action. It is +difficult even to conjecture whether this coincidence was accidental, +or shows some subterranean connection. If Vesuvius, Etna, and Hecla in +Iceland (all three relatively nearer each other than the corresponding +points in South America), +suddenly burst forth in eruption on the same night, the coincidence +would be thought remarkable; but it is far more remarkable in this +case, where the three vents fall on the same great mountain-chain, and +where the vast plains along the entire eastern coast, and the upraised +recent shells along more than 2000 miles on the western coast, show in +how equable and connected a manner the elevatory forces have acted. + +Inside island of Chiloe + +Captain Fitz Roy being anxious that some bearings should be taken on +the outer coast of Chiloe, it was planned that Mr. King and myself +should ride to Castro, and thence across the island to the Capella de +Cucao, situated on the west coast. Having hired horses and a guide, we +set out on the morning of the 22nd. We had not proceeded far, before we +were joined by a woman and two boys, who were bent on the same journey. +Every one on this road acts on a “hail-fellow-well-met” fashion; and +one may here enjoy the privilege, so rare in South America, of +travelling without firearms. At first the country consisted of a +succession of hills and valleys: nearer to Castro it became very level. +The road itself is a curious affair; it consists in its whole length, +with the exception of very few parts, of great logs of wood, which are +either broad and laid longitudinally, or narrow and placed +transversely. In summer the road is not very bad: but in winter, when +the wood is rendered slippery from rain, travelling is exceedingly +difficult. At that time of the year, the ground on each side becomes a +morass, and is often overflowed: hence it is necessary that the +longitudinal logs should be fastened down by transverse poles, which +are pegged on each side into the earth. These pegs render a fall from a +horse dangerous, as the chance of alighting on one of them is not +small. It is remarkable, however, how active custom has made the +Chilotan horses. In crossing bad parts, where the logs had been +displaced, they skipped from one to the other, almost with the +quickness and certainty of a dog. On both hands the road is bordered by +the lofty forest-trees, with their bases matted together by canes. When +occasionally a long reach of this avenue could be beheld, it presented +a curious scene of uniformity: the white line of logs, narrowing in +perspective, became hidden by the gloomy forest, or terminated in a +zigzag which ascended some steep hill. + +Although the distance from S. Carlos to Castro is only twelve leagues +in a straight line, the formation of the road must have been a great +labour. I was told that several people had formerly lost their lives in +attempting to cross the forest. The first who succeeded was an Indian, +who cut his way through the canes in eight days, and reached S. Carlos: +he was rewarded by the Spanish government with a grant of land. During +the summer, many of the Indians wander about the forests (but chiefly +in the higher parts, where the woods are not quite so thick), in search +of the half-wild cattle which live on the leaves of the cane and +certain trees. It was one of these huntsmen who by chance discovered, a +few years since, an English vessel, which had been wrecked on the outer +coast. The crew were beginning to fail in provisions, and it is not +probable that, without the aid of this man, they would ever have +extricated themselves from these scarcely penetrable woods. As it was, +one seaman died on the march, from fatigue. The Indians in these +excursions steer by the sun; so that if there is a continuance of +cloudy weather, they cannot travel. + +The day was beautiful, and the number of trees which were in full +flower perfumed the air; yet even this could hardly dissipate the +effect of the gloomy dampness of the forest. Moreover, the many dead +trunks that stand like skeletons, never fail to give to these primeval +woods a character of solemnity, absent +in those of countries long civilised. Shortly after sunset we +bivouacked for the night. Our female companion, who was rather +good-looking, belonged to one of the most respectable families in +Castro: she rode, however, astride, and without shoes or stockings. I +was surprised at the total want of pride shown by her and her brother. +They brought food with them, but at all our meals sat watching Mr. King +and myself whilst eating, till we were fairly shamed into feeding the +whole party. The night was cloudless; and while lying in our beds, we +enjoyed the sight (and it is a high enjoyment) of the multitude of +stars which illumined the darkness of the forest. + +_January_ 23_rd._—We rose early in the morning, and reached the pretty +quiet town of Castro by two o’clock. The old governor had died since +our last visit, and a Chileno was acting in his place. We had a letter +of introduction to Don Pedro, whom we found exceedingly hospitable and +kind, and more disinterested than is usual on this side of the +continent. The next day Don Pedro procured us fresh horses, and offered +to accompany us himself. We proceeded to the south—generally following +the coast, and passing through several hamlets, each with its large +barn-like chapel built of wood. At Vilipilli, Don Pedro asked the +commandant to give us a guide to Cucao. The old gentleman offered to +come himself; but for a long time nothing would persuade him that two +Englishmen really wished to go to such an out-of-the-way place as +Cucao. We were thus accompanied by the two greatest aristocrats in the +country, as was plainly to be seen in the manner of all the poorer +Indians towards them. At Chonchi we struck across the island, following +intricate winding paths, sometimes passing through magnificent forests, +and sometimes through pretty cleared spots, abounding with corn and +potato crops. This undulating woody country, partially cultivated, +reminded me of the wilder parts of England, and therefore had to my eye +a most fascinating aspect. At Vilinco, which is situated on the borders +of the lake of Cucao, only a few fields were cleared; and all the +inhabitants appeared to be Indians. This lake is twelve miles long, and +runs in an east and west direction. From local circumstances, the +sea-breeze blows very regularly during the day, and during the night it +falls calm: this has given rise to strange exaggerations, +for the phenomenon, as described to us at S. Carlos, was quite a +prodigy. + +The road to Cucao was so very bad that we determined to embark in a +_periagua._ The commandant, in the most authoritative manner, ordered +six Indians to get ready to pull us over, without deigning to tell them +whether they would be paid. The periagua is a strange rough boat, but +the crew were still stranger: I doubt if six uglier little men ever got +into a boat together. They pulled, however, very well and cheerfully. +The stroke-oarsman gabbled Indian, and uttered strange cries, much +after the fashion of a pig-driver driving his pigs. We started with a +light breeze against us, but yet reached the Capella de Cucao before it +was late. The country on each side of the lake was one unbroken forest. +In the same periagua with us a cow was embarked. To get so large an +animal into a small boat appears at first a difficulty, but the Indians +managed it in a minute. They brought the cow alongside the boat, which +was heeled towards her; then placing two oars under her belly, with +their ends resting on the gunwale, by the aid of these levers they +fairly tumbled the poor beast heels over head into the bottom of the +boat, and then lashed her down with ropes. At Cucao we found an +uninhabited hovel (which is the residence of the padre when he pays +this Capella a visit), where, lighting a fire, we cooked our supper, +and were very comfortable. + +The district of Cucao is the only inhabited part on the whole west +coast of Chiloe. It contains about thirty or forty Indian families, who +are scattered along four or five miles of the shore. They are very much +secluded from the rest of Chiloe, and have scarcely any sort of +commerce, except sometimes in a little oil, which they get from +seal-blubber. They are tolerably dressed in clothes of their own +manufacture, and they have plenty to eat. They seemed, however, +discontented, yet humble to a degree which it was quite painful to +witness. These feelings are, I think, chiefly to be attributed to the +harsh and authoritative manner in which they are treated by their +rulers. Our companions, although so very civil to us, behaved to the +poor Indians as if they had been slaves, rather than free men. They +ordered provisions and the use of their horses, without ever +condescending to say how much, or indeed whether the owners should +be paid at all. In the morning, being left alone with these poor +people, we soon ingratiated ourselves by presents of cigars and maté. A +lump of white sugar was divided between all present, and tasted with +the greatest curiosity. The Indians ended all their complaints by +saying, “And it is only because we are poor Indians, and know nothing; +but it was not so when we had a King.” + +The next day after breakfast we rode a few miles northward to Punta +Huantamó. The road lay along a very broad beach, on which, even after +so many fine days, a terrible surf was breaking. I was assured that +after a heavy gale, the roar can be heard at night even at Castro, a +distance of no less than twenty-one sea-miles across a hilly and wooded +country. We had some difficulty in reaching the point, owing to the +intolerably bad paths; for everywhere in the shade the ground soon +becomes a perfect quagmire. The point itself is a bold rocky hill. It +is covered by a plant allied, I believe, to Bromelia, and called by the +inhabitants Chepones. In scrambling through the beds, our hands were +very much scratched. I was amused by observing the precaution our +Indian guide took, in turning up his trousers, thinking that they were +more delicate than his own hard skin. This plant bears a fruit, in +shape like an artichoke, in which a number of seed-vessels are packed: +these contain a pleasant sweet pulp, here much esteemed. I saw at Low’s +Harbour the Chilotans making chichi, or cider, with this fruit: so true +is it, as Humboldt remarks, that almost everywhere man finds means of +preparing some kind of beverage from the vegetable kingdom. The +savages, however, of Tierra del Fuego, and I believe of Australia, have +not advanced thus far in the arts. + +The coast to the north of Punta Huantamó is exceedingly rugged and +broken, and is fronted by many breakers, on which the sea is eternally +roaring. Mr. King and myself were anxious to return, if it had been +possible, on foot along this coast; but even the Indians said it was +quite impracticable. We were told that men have crossed by striking +directly through the woods from Cucao to S. Carlos, but never by the +coast. On these expeditions, the Indians carry with them only roasted +corn, and of this they eat sparingly twice a day. + +26_th._—Re-embarking in the periagua, we returned across the lake, and +then mounted our horses. The whole of Chiloe took advantage of this +week of unusually fine weather, to clear +the ground by burning. In every direction volumes of smoke were curling +upwards. Although the inhabitants were so assiduous in setting fire to +every part of the wood, yet I did not see a single fire which they had +succeeded in making extensive. We dined with our friend the commandant, +and did not reach Castro till after dark. The next morning we started +very early. After having ridden for some time, we obtained from the +brow of a steep hill an extensive view (and it is a rare thing on this +road) of the great forest. Over the horizon of trees, the volcano of +Corcovado, and the great flat-topped one to the north, stood out in +proud pre-eminence: scarcely another peak in the long range showed its +snowy summit. I hope it will be long before I forget this farewell view +of the magnificent Cordillera fronting Chiloe. At night we bivouacked +under a cloudless sky, and the next morning reached S. Carlos. We +arrived on the right day, for before evening heavy rain commenced. + +_February_ 4_th._—Sailed from Chiloe. During the last week I made +several short excursions. One was to examine a great bed of +now-existing shells, elevated 350 feet above the level of the sea: from +among these shells, large forest-trees were growing. Another ride was +to P. Huechucucuy. I had with me a guide who knew the country far too +well; for he would pertinaciously tell me endless Indian names for +every little point, rivulet, and creek. In the same manner as in Tierra +del Fuego, the Indian language appears singularly well adapted for +attaching names to the most trivial features of the land. I believe +every one was glad to say farewell to Chiloe; yet if we could forget +the gloom and ceaseless rain of winter, Chiloe might pass for a +charming island. There is also something very attractive in the +simplicity and humble politeness of the poor inhabitants. + +We steered northward along shore, but owing to thick weather did not +reach Valdivia till the night of the 8th. The next morning the boat +proceeded to the town, which is distant about ten miles. We followed +the course of the river, occasionally passing a few hovels, and patches +of ground cleared out of the otherwise unbroken forest; and sometimes +meeting a canoe with an Indian family. The town is situated on the low +banks of the stream, and is so completely buried in a wood of +apple-trees that the streets are merely paths in an +orchard. I have never seen any country where apple-trees appeared to +thrive so well as in this damp part of South America: on the borders of +the roads there were many young trees evidently self-sown. In Chiloe +the inhabitants possess a marvellously short method of making an +orchard. At the lower part of almost every branch, small, conical, +brown, wrinkled points project: these are always ready to change into +roots, as may sometimes be seen, where any mud has been accidentally +splashed against the tree. A branch as thick as a man’s thigh is chosen +in the early spring, and is cut off just beneath a group of these +points, all the smaller branches are lopped off, and it is then placed +about two feet deep in the ground. During the ensuing summer the stump +throws out long shoots, and sometimes even bears fruit: I was shown one +which had produced as many as twenty-three apples, but this was thought +very unusual. In the third season the stump is changed (as I have +myself seen) into a well-wooded tree, loaded with fruit. An old man +near Valdivia illustrated his motto, “Necesidad es la madre del +invencion,” by giving an account of the several useful things he +manufactured from his apples. After making cider, and likewise wine, he +extracted from the refuse a white and finely flavoured spirit; by +another process he procured a sweet treacle, or, as he called it, +honey. His children and pigs seemed almost to live, during this season +of the year, in his orchard. + +_February_ 11_th._—I set out with a guide on a short ride, in which, +however, I managed to see singularly little, either of the geology of +the country or of its inhabitants. There is not much cleared land near +Valdivia: after crossing a river at the distance of a few miles, we +entered the forest, and then passed only one miserable hovel, before +reaching our sleeping-place for the night. The short difference in +latitude, of 150 miles, has given a new aspect to the forest compared +with that of Chiloe. This is owing to a slightly different proportion +in the kinds of trees. The evergreens do not appear to be quite so +numerous, and the forest in consequence has a brighter tint. As in +Chiloe, the lower parts are matted together by canes: here also another +kind (resembling the bamboo of Brazil and about twenty feet in height) +grows in clusters, and ornaments the banks of some of the streams in a +very pretty manner. It +is with this plant that the Indians make their chuzos, or long tapering +spears. Our resting-house was so dirty that I preferred sleeping +outside: on these journeys the first night is generally very +uncomfortable, because one is not accustomed to the tickling and biting +of the fleas. I am sure, in the morning, there was not a space on my +legs of the size of a shilling which had not its little red mark where +the flea had feasted. + +12_th._—We continued to ride through the uncleared forest; only +occasionally meeting an Indian on horseback, or a troop of fine mules +bringing alerce-planks and corn from the southern plains. In the +afternoon one of the horses knocked up; we were then on a brow of a +hill, which commanded a fine view of the Llanos. The view of these open +plains was very refreshing, after being hemmed in and buried in the +wilderness of trees. The uniformity of a forest soon becomes very +wearisome. This west coast makes me remember with pleasure the free, +unbounded plains of Patagonia; yet, with the true spirit of +contradiction, I cannot forget how sublime is the silence of the +forest. The Llanos are the most fertile and thickly peopled parts of +the country, as they possess the immense advantage of being nearly free +from trees. Before leaving the forest we crossed some flat little +lawns, around which single trees stood, as in an English park: I have +often noticed with surprise, in wooded undulatory districts, that the +quite level parts have been destitute of trees. On account of the tired +horse, I determined to stop at the Mission of Cudico, to the friar of +which I had a letter of introduction. Cudico is an intermediate +district between the forest and the Llanos. There are a good many +cottages, with patches of corn and potatoes, nearly all belonging to +Indians. The tribes dependent on Valdivia are “reducidos y cristianos.” +The Indians farther northward, about Arauco and Imperial, are still +very wild, and not converted; but they have all much intercourse with +the Spaniards. The padre said that the Christian Indians did not much +like coming to mass, but that otherwise they showed respect for +religion. The greatest difficulty is in making them observe the +ceremonies of marriage. The wild Indians take as many wives as they can +support, and a cacique will sometimes have more than ten: on entering +his house, the number may be told by that of the separate fires. Each +wife lives a week in turn with the cacique; +but all are employed in weaving ponchos, etc., for his profit. To be +the wife of a cacique is an honour much sought after by the Indian +women. + +The men of all these tribes wear a coarse woolen poncho: those south of +Valdivia wear short trousers, and those north of it a petticoat, like +the chilipa of the Gauchos. All have their long hair bound by a scarlet +fillet, but with no other covering on their heads. These Indians are +good-sized men; their cheek-bones are prominent, and in general +appearance they resemble the great American family to which they +belong; but their physiognomy seemed to me to be slightly different +from that of any other tribe which I had before seen. Their expression +is generally grave, and even austere, and possesses much character: +this may pass either for honest bluntness or fierce determination. The +long black hair, the grave and much-lined features, and the dark +complexion, called to my mind old portraits of James I. On the road we +met with none of that humble politeness so universal in Chiloe. Some +gave their “mari-mari” (good morning) with promptness, but the greater +number did not seem inclined to offer any salute. This independence of +manners is probably a consequence of their long wars, and the repeated +victories which they alone, of all the tribes in America, have gained +over the Spaniards. + +I spent the evening very pleasantly, talking with the padre. He was +exceedingly kind and hospitable; and coming from Santiago, had +contrived to surround himself with some few comforts. Being a man of +some little education, he bitterly complained of the total want of +society. With no particular zeal for religion, no business or pursuit, +how completely must this man’s life be wasted! The next day, on our +return, we met seven very wild-looking Indians, of whom some were +caciques that had just received from the Chilian government their +yearly small stipend for having long remained faithful. They were +fine-looking men, and they rode one after the other, with most gloomy +faces. An old cacique, who headed them, had been, I suppose, more +excessively drunk than the rest, for he seemed both extremely grave and +very crabbed. Shortly before this, two Indians joined us, who were +travelling from a distant mission to Valdivia concerning some lawsuit. +One was a good-humoured old man, but from his wrinkled beardless +face looked more like an old woman than a man. I frequently presented +both of them with cigars; and though ready to receive them, and I +daresay grateful, they would hardly condescend to thank me. A Chilotan +Indian would have taken off his hat, and given his “Dios le page!” The +travelling was very tedious, both from the badness of the roads and +from the number of great fallen trees, which it was necessary either to +leap over or to avoid by making long circuits. We slept on the road, +and next morning reached Valdivia, whence I proceeded on board. + +A few days afterwards I crossed the bay with a party of officers, and +landed near the fort called Niebla. The buildings were in a most +ruinous state, and the gun-carriages quite rotten. Mr. Wickham remarked +to the commanding officer, that with one discharge they would certainly +all fall to pieces. The poor man, trying to put a good face upon it, +gravely replied, “No, I am sure, sir, they would stand two!” The +Spaniards must have intended to have made this place impregnable. There +is now lying in the middle of the courtyard a little mountain of +mortar, which rivals in hardness the rock on which it is placed. It was +brought from Chile, and cost 7000 dollars. The revolution having broken +out prevented its being applied to any purpose, and now it remains a +monument of the fallen greatness of Spain. + +I wanted to go to a house about a mile and a half distant, but my guide +said it was quite impossible to penetrate the wood in a straight line. +He offered, however, to lead me, by following obscure cattle-tracks, +the shortest way: the walk, nevertheless, took no less than three +hours! This man is employed in hunting strayed cattle; yet, well as he +must know the woods, he was not long since lost for two whole days, and +had nothing to eat. These facts convey a good idea of the +impracticability of the forests of these countries. A question often +occurred to me—how long does any vestige of a fallen tree remain? This +man showed me one which a party of fugitive royalists had cut down +fourteen years ago; and taking this as a criterion, I should think a +bole a foot and a half in diameter would in thirty years be changed +into a heap of mould. + +_February_ 20_th._—This day has been memorable in the annals of +Valdivia, for the most severe earthquake experienced +by the oldest inhabitant. I happened to be on shore, and was lying down +in the wood to rest myself. It came on suddenly, and lasted two +minutes, but the time appeared much longer. The rocking of the ground +was very sensible. The undulations appeared to my companion and myself +to come from due east, whilst others thought they proceeded from +south-west: this shows how difficult it sometimes is to perceive the +direction of the vibrations. There was no difficulty in standing +upright, but the motion made me almost giddy: it was something like the +movement of a vessel in a little cross-ripple, or still more like that +felt by a person skating over thin ice, which bends under the weight of +his body. + +A bad earthquake at once destroys our oldest associations: the earth, +the very emblem of solidity, has moved beneath our feet like a thin +crust over a fluid;—one second of time has created in the mind a +strange idea of insecurity, which hours of reflection would not have +produced. In the forest, as a breeze moved the trees, I felt only the +earth tremble, but saw no other effect. Captain Fitz Roy and some +officers were at the town during the shock, and there the scene was +more striking; for although the houses, from being built of wood, did +not fall, they were violently shaken, and the boards creaked and +rattled together. The people rushed out of doors in the greatest alarm. +It is these accompaniments that create that perfect horror of +earthquakes, experienced by all who have thus seen, as well as felt, +their effects. Within the forest it was a deeply interesting, but by no +means an awe-exciting phenomenon. The tides were very curiously +affected. The great shock took place at the time of low water; and an +old woman who was on the beach told me that the water flowed very +quickly, but not in great waves, to high-water mark, and then as +quickly returned to its proper level; this was also evident by the line +of wet sand. The same kind of quick but quiet movement in the tide +happened a few years since at Chiloe, during a slight earthquake, and +created much causeless alarm. In the course of the evening there were +many weaker shocks, which seemed to produce in the harbour the most +complicated currents, and some of great strength. + + +_March_ 4_th._—We entered the harbour of Concepcion. +While the ship was beating up to the anchorage, I landed on the island +of Quiriquina. The mayor-domo of the estate quickly rode down to tell +me the terrible news of the great earthquake of the 20th:—“That not a +house in Concepcion or Talcahuano (the port) was standing; that seventy +villages were destroyed; and that a great wave had almost washed away +the ruins of Talcahuano.” Of this latter statement I soon saw abundant +proofs—the whole coast being strewed over with timber and furniture as +if a thousand ships had been wrecked. Besides chairs, tables, +book-shelves, etc., in great numbers, there were several roofs of +cottages, which had been transported almost whole. The storehouses at +Talcahuano had been burst open, and great bags of cotton, yerba, and +other valuable merchandise were scattered on the shore. During my walk +round the island, I observed that numerous fragments of rock, which, +from the marine productions adhering to them, must recently have been +lying in deep water, had been cast up high on the beach; one of these +was six feet long, three broad, and two thick. + +The island itself as plainly showed the overwhelming power of the +earthquake, as the beach did that of the consequent great wave. The +ground in many parts was fissured in north and south lines, perhaps +caused by the yielding of the parallel and steep sides of this narrow +island. Some of the fissures near the cliffs were a yard wide. Many +enormous masses had already fallen on the beach; and the inhabitants +thought that when the rains commenced far greater slips would happen. +The effect of the vibration on the hard primary slate, which composes +the foundation of the island, was still more curious: the superficial +parts of some narrow ridges were as completely shivered as if they had +been blasted by gunpowder. This effect, which was rendered conspicuous +by the fresh fractures and displaced soil, must be confined to near the +surface, for otherwise there would not exist a block of solid rock +throughout Chile; nor is this improbable, as it is known that the +surface of a vibrating body is affected differently from the central +part. It is, perhaps, owing to this same reason that earthquakes do not +cause quite such terrific havoc within deep mines as would be expected. +I believe this convulsion has been more effectual in lessening the size +of the island of +Quiriquina, than the ordinary wear-and-tear of the sea and weather +during the course of a whole century. + +The next day I landed at Talcahuano, and afterwards rode to Concepcion. +Both towns presented the most awful yet interesting spectacle I ever +beheld. To a person who had formerly known them, it possibly might have +been still more impressive; for the ruins were so mingled together, and +the whole scene possessed so little the air of a habitable place, that +it was scarcely possible to imagine its former condition. The +earthquake commenced at half-past eleven o’clock in the forenoon. If it +had happened in the middle of the night, the greater number of the +inhabitants (which in this one province amount to many thousands) must +have perished, instead of less than a hundred: as it was, the +invariable practice of running out of doors at the first trembling of +the ground, alone saved them. In Concepcion each house, or row of +houses, stood by itself, a heap or line of ruins; but in Talcahuano, +owing to the great wave, little more than one layer of bricks, tiles, +and timber, with here and there part of a wall left standing, could be +distinguished. From this circumstance Concepcion, although not so +completely desolated, was a more terrible, and if I may so call it, +picturesque sight. The first shock was very sudden. The mayor-domo at +Quiriquina told me that the first notice he received of it, was finding +both the horse he rode and himself rolling together on the ground. +Rising up, he was again thrown down. He also told me that some cows +which were standing on the steep side of the island were rolled into +the sea. The great wave caused the destruction of many cattle; on one +low island near the head of the bay, seventy animals were washed off +and drowned. It is generally thought that this has been the worst +earthquake ever recorded in Chile; but as the very severe ones occur +only after long intervals, this cannot easily be known; nor indeed +would a much worse shock have made any great difference, for the ruin +was now complete. Innumerable small tremblings followed the great +earthquake, and within the first twelve days no less than three hundred +were counted. + +After viewing Concepcion, I cannot understand how the greater number of +inhabitants escaped unhurt. The houses in many parts fell outwards; +thus forming in the middle of the +streets little hillocks of brickwork and rubbish. Mr. Rouse, the +English consul, told us that he was at breakfast when the first +movement warned him to run out. He had scarcely reached the middle of +the courtyard, when one side of his house came thundering down. He +retained presence of mind to remember that, if he once got on the top +of that part which had already fallen, he would be safe. Not being able +from the motion of the ground to stand, he crawled up on his hands and +knees; and no sooner had he ascended this little eminence, than the +other side of the house fell in, the great beams sweeping close in +front of his head. With his eyes blinded and his mouth choked with the +cloud of dust which darkened the sky, at last he gained the street. As +shock succeeded shock, at the interval of a few minutes, no one dared +approach the shattered ruins, and no one knew whether his dearest +friends and relations were not perishing from the want of help. Those +who had saved any property were obliged to keep a constant watch, for +thieves prowled about, and at each little trembling of the ground, with +one hand they beat their breasts and cried “misericordia!” and then +with the other filched what they could from the ruins. The thatched +roofs fell over the fires, and flames burst forth in all parts. +Hundreds knew themselves ruined, and few had the means of providing +food for the day. + +Earthquakes alone are sufficient to destroy the prosperity of any +country. If beneath England the now inert subterranean forces should +exert those powers which most assuredly in former geological ages they +have exerted, how completely would the entire condition of the country +be changed! What would become of the lofty houses, thickly packed +cities, great manufactories, the beautiful public and private edifices? +If the new period of disturbance were first to commence by some great +earthquake in the dead of the night, how terrific would be the carnage! +England would at once be bankrupt; all papers, records, and accounts +would from that moment be lost. Government being unable to collect the +taxes, and failing to maintain its authority, the hand of violence and +rapine would remain uncontrolled. In every large town famine would go +forth, pestilence and death following in its train. + +Shortly after the shock, a great wave was seen from the +distance of three or four miles, approaching in the middle of the bay +with a smooth outline; but along the shore it tore up cottages and +trees, as it swept onwards with irresistible force. At the head of the +bay it broke in a fearful line of white breakers, which rushed up to a +height of 23 vertical feet above the highest spring-tides. Their force +must have been prodigious; for at the Fort a cannon with its carriage, +estimated at four tons in weight, was moved 15 feet inwards. A schooner +was left in the midst of the ruins, 200 yards from the beach. The first +wave was followed by two others, which in their retreat carried away a +vast wreck of floating objects. In one part of the bay, a ship was +pitched high and dry on shore, was carried off, again driven on shore, +and again carried off. In another part two large vessels anchored near +together were whirled about, and their cables were thrice wound round +each other: though anchored at a depth of 36 feet, they were for some +minutes aground. The great wave must have travelled slowly, for the +inhabitants of Talcahuano had time to run up the hills behind the town; +and some sailors pulled out seaward, trusting successfully to their +boat riding securely over the swell, if they could reach it before it +broke. One old woman with a little boy, four or five years old, ran +into a boat, but there was nobody to row it out: the boat was +consequently dashed against an anchor and cut in twain; the old woman +was drowned, but the child was picked up some hours afterwards clinging +to the wreck. Pools of salt-water were still standing amidst the ruins +of the houses, and children, making boats with old tables and chairs, +appeared as happy as their parents were miserable. It was, however, +exceedingly interesting to observe, how much more active and cheerful +all appeared than could have been expected. It was remarked with much +truth, that from the destruction being universal, no one individual was +humbled more than another, or could suspect his friends of +coldness—that most grievous result of the loss of wealth. Mr. Rouse, +and a large party whom he kindly took under his protection, lived for +the first week in a garden beneath some apple-trees. At first they were +as merry as if it had been a picnic; but soon afterwards heavy rain +caused much discomfort, for they were absolutely without shelter. + +In Captain Fitz Roy’s excellent account of the earthquake it is said +that two explosions, one like a column of smoke and +another like the blowing of a great whale, were seen in the bay. The +water also appeared everywhere to be boiling; and it “became black, and +exhaled a most disagreeable sulphureous smell.” These latter +circumstances were observed in the Bay of Valparaiso during the +earthquake of 1822; they may, I think, be accounted for by the +disturbance of the mud at the bottom of the sea containing organic +matter in decay. In the Bay of Callao, during a calm day, I noticed, +that as the ship dragged her cable over the bottom, its course was +marked by a line of bubbles. The lower orders in Talcahuano thought +that the earthquake was caused by some old Indian women, who two years +ago, being offended, stopped the volcano of Antuco. This silly belief +is curious, because it shows that experience has taught them to observe +that there exists a relation between the suppressed action of the +volcanos, and the trembling of the ground. It was necessary to apply +the witchcraft to the point where their perception of cause and effect +failed; and this was the closing of the volcanic vent. This belief is +the more singular in this particular instance because, according to +Captain Fitz Roy, there is reason to believe that Antuco was noways +affected. + +The town of Concepcion was built in the usual Spanish fashion, with all +the streets running at right angles to each other; one set ranging +south-west by west, and the other set north-west by north. The walls in +the former direction certainly stood better than those in the latter; +the greater number of the masses of brickwork were thrown down towards +the N.E. Both these circumstances perfectly agree with the general idea +of the undulations having come from the S.W.; in which quarter +subterranean noises were also heard; for it is evident that the walls +running S.W. and N.E. which presented their ends to the point whence +the undulations came, would be much less likely to fall than those +walls which, running N.W. and S.E., must in their whole lengths have +been at the same instant thrown out of the perpendicular; for the +undulations, coming from the S.W., must have extended in N.W. and S.E. +waves, as they passed under the foundations. This may be illustrated by +placing books edgeways on a carpet, and then, after the manner +suggested by Michell, imitating the undulations of an earthquake: it +will be found that they fall with more or less +readiness, according as their direction more or less nearly coincides +with the line of the waves. The fissures in the ground generally, +though not uniformly, extended in a S.E. and N.W. direction, and +therefore corresponded to the lines of undulation or of principal +flexure. Bearing in mind all these circumstances, which so clearly +point to the S.W. as the chief focus of disturbance, it is a very +interesting fact that the island of S. Maria, situated in that quarter, +was, during the general uplifting of the land, raised to nearly three +times the height of any other part of the coast. + +The different resistance offered by the walls, according to their +direction, was well exemplified in the case of the Cathedral. The side +which fronted the N.E. presented a grand pile of ruins, in the midst of +which door-cases and masses of timber stood up, as if floating in a +stream. Some of the angular blocks of brickwork were of great +dimensions; and they were rolled to a distance on the level plaza, like +fragments of rock at the base of some high mountain. The side walls +(running S.W. and N.E.), though exceedingly fractured, yet remained +standing; but the vast buttresses (at right angles to them, and +therefore parallel to the walls that fell) were in many cases cut clean +off, as if by a chisel, and hurled to the ground. Some square ornaments +on the coping of these same walls were moved by the earthquake into a +diagonal position. A similar circumstance was observed after an +earthquake at Valparaiso, Calabria, and other places, including some of +the ancient Greek temples.[1] This twisting displacement at first +appears to indicate a vorticose movement beneath each point thus +affected; but this is highly improbable. May it not be caused by a +tendency in each stone to arrange itself in some particular position +with respect to the lines of vibration,—in a manner somewhat similar to +pins on a sheet of paper when shaken? Generally speaking, arched +doorways or windows stood much better than any other part of the +buildings. Nevertheless, a poor lame old man, who had been in the +habit, during trifling shocks, of crawling to a certain doorway, was +this time crushed to pieces. + + [1] M. Arago in _L’Institut_, 1839, p. 337. See also Miers’s _Chile_, + vol. i, p. 392; also Lyell’s _ Principles of Geology_, chap. xv, book + ii. + +I have not attempted to give any detailed description of the appearance +of Concepcion, for I feel that it is quite +impossible to convey the mingled feelings which I experienced. Several +of the officers visited it before me, but their strongest language +failed to give a just idea of the scene of desolation. It is a bitter +and humiliating thing to see works, which have cost man so much time +and labour, overthrown in one minute; yet compassion for the +inhabitants was almost instantly banished, by the surprise in seeing a +state of things produced in a moment of time, which one was accustomed +to attribute to a succession of ages. In my opinion, we have scarcely +beheld, since leaving England, any sight so deeply interesting. + +In almost every severe earthquake, the neighbouring waters of the sea +are said to have been greatly agitated. The disturbance seems +generally, as in the case of Concepcion, to have been of two kinds: +first, at the instant of the shock, the water swells high up on the +beach with a gentle motion, and then as quietly retreats; secondly, +some time afterwards, the whole body of the sea retires from the coast, +and then returns in waves of overwhelming force. The first movement +seems to be an immediate consequence of the earthquake affecting +differently a fluid and a solid, so that their respective levels are +slightly deranged: but the second case is a far more important +phenomenon. During most earthquakes, and especially during those on the +west coast of America, it is certain that the first great movement of +the waters has been a retirement. Some authors have attempted to +explain this, by supposing that the water retains its level, whilst the +land oscillates upwards; but surely the water close to the land, even +on a rather steep coast, would partake of the motion of the bottom: +moreover, as urged by Mr. Lyell, similar movements of the sea have +occurred at islands far distant from the chief line of disturbance, as +was the case with Juan Fernandez during this earthquake, and with +Madeira during the famous Lisbon shock. I suspect (but the subject is a +very obscure one) that a wave, however produced, first draws the water +from the shore, on which it is advancing to break: I have observed that +this happens with the little waves from the paddles of a steam-boat. It +is remarkable that whilst Talcahuano and Callao (near Lima), both +situated at the head of large shallow bays, have suffered during every +severe earthquake from great waves, Valparaiso, seated close to the +edge of profoundly deep water, has never +been overwhelmed, though so often shaken by the severest shocks. From +the great wave not immediately following the earthquake, but sometimes +after the interval of even half an hour, and from distant islands being +affected similarly with the coasts near the focus of the disturbance, +it appears that the wave first rises in the offing; and as this is of +general occurrence, the cause must be general: I suspect we must look +to the line where the less disturbed waters of the deep ocean join the +water nearer the coast, which has partaken of the movements of the +land, as the place where the great wave is first generated; it would +also appear that the wave is larger or smaller, according to the extent +of shoal water which has been agitated together with the bottom on +which it rested. + + +The most remarkable effect of this earthquake was the permanent +elevation of the land; it would probably be far more correct to speak +of it as the cause. There can be no doubt that the land round the Bay +of Concepcion was upraised two or three feet; but it deserves notice, +that owing to the wave having obliterated the old lines of tidal action +on the sloping sandy shores, I could discover no evidence of this fact, +except in the united testimony of the inhabitants, that one little +rocky shoal, now exposed, was formerly covered with water. At the +island of S. Maria (about thirty miles distant) the elevation was +greater; on one part, Captain Fitz Roy found beds of putrid +mussel-shells _still adhering to the rocks,_ ten feet above high-water +mark: the inhabitants had formerly dived at lower-water spring-tides +for these shells. The elevation of this province is particularly +interesting, from its having been the theatre of several other violent +earthquakes, and from the vast numbers of sea-shells scattered over the +land, up to a height of certainly 600, and I believe, of 1000 feet. At +Valparaiso, as I have remarked, similar shells are found at the height +of 1300 feet: it is hardly possible to doubt that this great elevation +has been effected by successive small uprisings, such as that which +accompanied or caused the earthquake of this year, and likewise by an +insensibly slow rise, which is certainly in progress on some parts of +this coast. + +The island of Juan Fernandez, 360 miles to the N.E., was, at the time +of the great shock of the 20th, violently shaken, so +that the trees beat against each other, and a volcano burst forth under +water close to the shore: these facts are remarkable because this +island, during the earthquake of 1751, was then also affected more +violently than other places at an equal distance from Concepcion, and +this seems to show some subterranean connexion between these two +points. Chiloe, about 340 miles southward of Concepcion, appears to +have been shaken more strongly than the intermediate district of +Valdivia, where the volcano of Villarica was noways affected, whilst in +the Cordillera in front of Chiloe two of the volcanos burst forth at +the same instant in violent action. These two volcanos, and some +neighbouring ones, continued for a long time in eruption, and ten +months afterwards were again influenced by an earthquake at Concepcion. +Some men cutting wood near the base of one of these volcanos, did not +perceive the shock of the 20th, although the whole surrounding Province +was then trembling; here we have an eruption relieving and taking the +place of an earthquake, as would have happened at Concepcion, according +to the belief of the lower orders, if the volcano at Antuco had not +been closed by witchcraft. Two years and three-quarters afterwards +Valdivia and Chiloe were again shaken, more violently than on the 20th, +and an island in the Chonos Archipelago was permanently elevated more +than eight feet. It will give a better idea of the scale of these +phenomena, if (as in the case of the glaciers) we suppose them to have +taken place at corresponding distances in Europe:—then would the land +from the North Sea to the Mediterranean have been violently shaken, and +at the same instant of time a large tract of the eastern coast of +England would have been permanently elevated, together with some +outlying islands,—a train of volcanos on the coast of Holland would +have burst forth in action, and an eruption taken place at the bottom +of the sea, near the northern extremity of Ireland—and lastly, the +ancient vents of Auvergne, Cantal, and Mont d’Or would each have sent +up to the sky a dark column of smoke, and have long remained in fierce +action. Two years and three-quarters afterwards, France, from its +centre to the English Channel, would have been again desolated by an +earthquake, and an island permanently upraised in the Mediterranean. + + +The space, from under which volcanic matter on the 20th was actually +erupted, is 720 miles in one line, and 400 miles in another line at +right angles to the first: hence, in all probability, a subterranean +lake of lava is here stretched out, of nearly double the area of the +Black Sea. From the intimate and complicated manner in which the +elevatory and eruptive forces were shown to be connected during this +train of phenomena, we may confidently come to the conclusion that the +forces which slowly and by little starts uplift continents, and those +which at successive periods pour forth volcanic matter from open +orifices, are identical. From many reasons, I believe that the frequent +quakings of the earth on this line of coast are caused by the rending +of the strata, necessarily consequent on the tension of the land when +upraised, and their injection by fluidified rock. This rending and +injection would, if repeated often enough (and we know that earthquakes +repeatedly affect the same areas in the same manner), form a chain of +hills;—and the linear island of St. Mary, which was upraised thrice the +height of the neighbouring country, seems to be undergoing this +process. I believe that the solid axis of a mountain differs in its +manner of formation from a volcanic hill, only in the molten stone +having been repeatedly injected, instead of having been repeatedly +ejected. Moreover, I believe that it is impossible to explain the +structure of great mountain-chains, such as that of the Cordillera, +where the strata, capping the injected axis of plutonic rock, have been +thrown on their edges along several parallel and neighbouring lines of +elevation, except on this view of the rock of the axis having been +repeatedly injected, after intervals sufficiently long to allow the +upper parts or wedges to cool and become solid;—for if the strata had +been thrown into their present highly-inclined, vertical, and even +inverted positions, by a single blow, the very bowels of the earth +would have gushed out; and instead of beholding abrupt mountain-axes of +rock solidified under great pressure, deluges of lava would have flowed +out at innumerable points on every line of elevation.[2] + + [2] For a full account of the volcanic phenomena which accompanied the + earthquake of the 20th, and for the conclusions deducible from them, I + must refer to Volume V of the _Geological Transactions._ + +[Illustration: Hide Bridge, Santiago de Chile] + + + + +Chapter XV + + +Valparaiso—Portillo Pass—Sagacity of mules—Mountain-torrents—Mines, how +discovered—Proofs of the gradual elevation of the Cordillera—Effect of +snow on rocks—Geological structure of the two main ranges, their +distinct origin and upheaval—Great subsidence—Red snow—Winds—Pinnacles +of snow—Dry and clear atmosphere—Electricity—Pampas—Zoology of the +opposite sides of the Andes—Locusts—Great Bugs—Mendoza—Uspallata +Pass—Silicified trees buried as they grew—Incas Bridge—Badness of the +passes exaggerated—Cumbre—Casuchas—Valparaiso. + +PASSAGE OF THE CORDILLERA + +_March_ 7_th_, 1835.—We stayed three days at Concepcion, and then +sailed for Valparaiso. The wind being northerly, we only reached the +mouth of the harbour of Concepcion before it was dark. Being very near +the land, and a fog coming on, the anchor was dropped. Presently a +large American whaler appeared close alongside of us; and we heard the +Yankee swearing at his men to keep quiet, whilst he listened for the +breakers. Captain Fitz Roy hailed him, in a loud clear voice, to anchor +where he then was. The poor man must have thought the voice came from +the shore: such a Babel of cries issued at once from the ship—every one +hallooing out, “Let go the anchor! veer cable! shorten sail!” It was +the most laughable thing I ever heard. If the ship’s crew had been all +captains, and no men, there could not have been a greater uproar of +orders. We afterwards found that the mate stuttered: I suppose all +hands were assisting him in giving his orders. + +On the 11th we anchored at Valparaiso, and two days afterwards I set +out to cross the Cordillera. I proceeded to Santiago, where Mr. +Caldcleugh most kindly assisted me in every possible way in making the +little preparations which were necessary. In this part of Chile there +are two passes across the Andes to Mendoza: the one most commonly used, +namely, that of Aconcagua or Uspallata—is situated some way to the +north; the other, called the Portillo, is to the south, and nearer, but +more lofty and dangerous. + + +_March_ 18_th._—We set out for the Portillo pass. Leaving Santiago we +crossed the wide burnt-up plain on which that city stands, and in the +afternoon arrived at the Maypu, one of the principal rivers in Chile. +The valley, at the point where it enters the first Cordillera, is +bounded on each side by lofty barren mountains; and although not broad, +it is very fertile. Numerous cottages were surrounded by vines, and by +orchards of apple, nectarine, and peach-trees—their boughs breaking +with the weight of the beautiful ripe fruit. In the evening we passed +the custom-house, where our luggage was examined. The frontier of Chile +is better guarded by the Cordillera than by the waters of the sea. +There are very few valleys which lead to the central ranges, and the +mountains are quite impassable in other parts by beasts of burden. The +custom-house officers were very civil, which was perhaps partly owing +to the passport which the President of the Republic had given me; but I +must express my admiration at the natural politeness of almost every +Chileno. In this instance, the contrast with the same class of men in +most other countries was strongly marked. I may mention an anecdote +with which I was at the time much pleased: we met near Mendoza a little +and very fat negress, +riding astride on a mule. She had a _goître_ so enormous that it was +scarcely possible to avoid gazing at her for a moment; but my two +companions almost instantly, by way of apology, made the common salute +of the country by taking off their hats. Where would one of the lower +or higher classes in Europe have shown such feeling politeness to a +poor and miserable object of a degraded race? + +At night we slept at a cottage. Our manner of travelling was +delightfully independent. In the inhabited parts we bought a little +firewood, hired pasture for the animals, and bivouacked in the corner +of the same field with them. Carrying an iron pot, we cooked and ate +our supper under a cloudless sky, and knew no trouble. My companions +were Mariano Gonzales, who had formerly accompanied me in Chile, and an +“arriero,” with his ten mules and a “madrina.” The madrina (or +godmother) is a most important personage: she is an old steady mare, +with a little bell round her neck; and wherever she goes, the mules, +like good children, follow her. The affection of these animals for +their madrinas saves infinite trouble. If several large troops are +turned into one field to graze, in the morning the muleteers have only +to lead the madrinas a little apart, and tinkle their bells; and +although there may be two or three hundred together, each mule +immediately knows the bell of its own madrina, and comes to her. It is +nearly impossible to lose an old mule; for if detained for several +hours by force, she will, by the power of smell, like a dog, track out +her companions, or rather the madrina, for, according to the muleteer, +she is the chief object of affection. The feeling, however, is not of +an individual nature; for I believe I am right in saying that any +animal with a bell will serve as a madrina. In a troop each animal +carries on a level road, a cargo weighing 416 pounds (more than 29 +stone), but in a mountainous country 100 pounds less; yet with what +delicate slim limbs, without any proportional bulk of muscle, these +animals support so great a burden! The mule always appears to me a most +surprising animal. That a hybrid should possess more reason, memory, +obstinacy, social affection, powers of muscular endurance, and length +of life, than either of its parents, seems to indicate that art has +here outdone nature. Of our ten animals, six were intended for riding, +and four for carrying cargoes, each taking turn about. We carried a +good +deal of food in case we should be snowed up, as the season was rather +late for passing the Portillo. + +[Illustration] + +_March_ 19_th._—We rode during this day to the last, and therefore most +elevated, house in the valley. The number of inhabitants became scanty; +but wherever water could be brought on the land, it was very fertile. +All the main valleys in the Cordillera are characterised by having, on +both sides, a fringe or terrace of shingle and sand, rudely stratified, +and generally of considerable thickness. These fringes evidently once +extended across the valleys and were united; and the bottoms of the +valleys in northern Chile, where there are no streams, are thus +smoothly filled up. On these fringes the roads are generally carried, +for their surfaces are even, and they rise with a very gentle slope up +the valleys: hence, also, they are easily cultivated by irrigation. +They may be traced up to a height of between 7000 and 9000 feet, where +they become hidden by the irregular piles of debris. At the lower end +or mouths of the valleys they are continuously united to those +land-locked plains (also formed of shingle) at the foot of the main +Cordillera, which I have described in a former chapter as +characteristic of the scenery of Chile, and which were undoubtedly +deposited when the sea penetrated Chile, as it now does the more +southern coasts. No one fact in the geology of South America interested +me more than these terraces of rudely-stratified shingle. They +precisely resemble in composition the matter which the torrents in each +valley would deposit if they were checked in +their course by any cause, such as entering a lake or arm of the sea; +but the torrents, instead of depositing matter, are now steadily at +work wearing away both the solid rock and these alluvial deposits, +along the whole line of every main valley and side valley. It is +impossible here to give the reasons, but I am convinced that the +shingle terraces were accumulated, during the gradual elevation of the +Cordillera, by the torrents delivering, at successive levels, their +detritus on the beach-heads of long narrow arms of the sea, first high +up the valleys, then lower and lower down as the land slowly rose. If +this be so, and I cannot doubt it, the grand and broken chain of the +Cordillera, instead of having been suddenly thrown up, as was till +lately the universal, and still is the common opinion of geologists, +has been slowly upheaved in mass, in the same gradual manner as the +coasts of the Atlantic and Pacific have risen within the recent period. +A multitude of facts in the structure of the Cordillera, on this view +receive a simple explanation. + +South American bit + +The rivers which flow in these valleys ought rather to be called +mountain-torrents. Their inclination is very great, and their water the +colour of mud. The roar which the Maypu made, as it rushed over the +great rounded fragments, was like that of the sea. Amidst the din of +rushing waters, the noise from the +stones, as they rattled one over another, was most distinctly audible +even from a distance. This rattling noise, night and day, may be heard +along the whole course of the torrent. The sound spoke eloquently to +the geologist; the thousands and thousands of stones which, striking +against each other, made the one dull uniform sound, were all hurrying +in one direction. It was like thinking on time, where the minute that +now glides past is irrevocable. So was it with these stones; the ocean +is their eternity, and each note of that wild music told of one more +step towards their destiny. + +It is not possible for the mind to comprehend, except by a slow +process, any effect which is produced by a cause repeated so often that +the multiplier itself conveys an idea not more definite than the savage +implies when he points to the hairs of his head. As often as I have +seen beds of mud, sand, and shingle, accumulated to the thickness of +many thousand feet, I have felt inclined to exclaim that causes, such +as the present rivers and the present beaches, could never have ground +down and produced such masses. But, on the other hand, when listening +to the rattling noise of these torrents, and calling to mind that whole +races of animals have passed away from the face of the earth, and that +during this whole period, night and day, these stones have gone +rattling onwards in their course, I have thought to myself, can any +mountains, any continent, withstand such waste? + +In this part of the valley, the mountains on each side were from 3000 +to 6000 or 8000 feet high, with rounded outlines and steep bare flanks. +The general colour of the rock was dullish purple, and the +stratification very distinct. If the scenery was not beautiful, it was +remarkable and grand. We met during the day several herds of cattle, +which men were driving down from the higher valleys in the Cordillera. +This sign of the approaching winter hurried our steps, more than was +convenient for geologising. The house where we slept was situated at +the foot of a mountain, on the summit of which are the mines of S. +Pedro de Nolasko. Sir F. Head marvels how mines have been discovered in +such extraordinary situations, as the bleak summit of the mountain of +S. Pedro de Nolasko. In the first place, metallic veins in this country +are generally harder than the surrounding strata: hence, during the +gradual +wear of the hills, they project above the surface of the ground. +Secondly, almost every labourer, especially in the northern parts of +Chile, understands something about the appearance of ores. In the great +mining provinces of Coquimbo and Copiapó, firewood is very scarce, and +men search for it over every hill and dale; and by this means nearly +all the richest mines have there been discovered. Chanuncillo, from +which silver to the value of many hundred thousand pounds has been +raised in the course of a few years, was discovered by a man who threw +a stone at his loaded donkey, and thinking that it was very heavy, he +picked it up, and found it full of pure silver: the vein occurred at no +great distance, standing up like a wedge of metal. The miners, also, +taking a crowbar with them, often wander on Sundays over the mountains. +In this south part of Chile the men who drive cattle into the +Cordillera, and who frequent every ravine where there is a little +pasture, are the usual discoverers. + +20_th._—As we ascended the valley, the vegetation, with the exception +of a few pretty alpine flowers, became exceedingly scanty; and of +quadrupeds, birds, or insects, scarcely one could be seen. The lofty +mountains, their summits marked with a few patches of snow, stood well +separated from each other; the valleys being filled up with an immense +thickness of stratified alluvium. The features in the scenery of the +Andes which struck me most, as contrasted with the other mountain +chains with which I am acquainted, were,—the flat fringes sometimes +expanding into narrow plains on each side of the valleys,—the bright +colours, chiefly red and purple, of the utterly bare and precipitous +hills of porphyry, the grand and continuous wall-like dikes,—the +plainly-divided strata which, where nearly vertical, formed the +picturesque and wild central pinnacles, but where less inclined, +composed the great massive mountains on the outskirts of the range,—and +lastly, the smooth conical piles of fine and brightly coloured +detritus, which sloped up at a high angle from the base of the +mountains, sometimes to a height of more than 2000 feet. + +I frequently observed, both in Tierra del Fuego and within the Andes, +that where the rock was covered during the greater part of the year +with snow, it was shivered in a very extraordinary manner into small +angular fragments. Scoresby[1] has +observed the same fact in Spitzbergen. The case appears to me rather +obscure: for that part of the mountain which is protected by a mantle +of snow must be less subject to repeated and great changes of +temperature than any other part. I have sometimes thought that the +earth and fragments of stone on the surface were perhaps less +effectually removed by slowly percolating snow-water[2] than by rain, +and therefore that the appearance of a quicker disintegration of the +solid rock under the snow was deceptive. Whatever the cause may be, the +quantity of crumbling stone on the Cordillera is very great. +Occasionally in the spring great masses of this detritus slide down the +mountains, and cover the snow-drifts in the valleys, thus forming +natural ice-houses. We rode over one, the height of which was far below +the limit of perpetual snow. + + [1] Scoresby’s _Arctic Regions_, vol. i, p. 122. + + + [2] I have heard it remarked in Shropshire that the water, when the + Severn is flooded from long-continued rain, is much more turbid than + when it proceeds from the snow melting on the Welsh mountains. + D’Orbigny (tome i, 1 p. 184), in explaining the cause of the various + colours of the rivers in South America, remarks that those with blue + or clear water have their source in the Cordillera, where the snow + melts. + +As the evening drew to a close, we reached a singular basin-like plain, +called the Valle del Yeso. It was covered by a little dry pasture, and +we had the pleasant sight of a herd of cattle amidst the surrounding +rocky deserts. The valley takes its name of Yeso from a great bed, I +should think at least 2000 feet thick, of white, and in some parts +quite pure, gypsum. We slept with a party of men, who were employed in +loading mules with this substance, which is used in the manufacture of +wine. We set out early in the morning (21st), and continued to follow +the course of the river, which had become very small, till we arrived +at the foot of the ridge that separates the waters flowing into the +Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. The road, which as yet had been good with +a steady but very gradual ascent, now changed into a steep zigzag track +up the great range dividing the republics of Chile and Mendoza. + +I will here give a very brief sketch of the geology of the several +parallel lines forming the Cordillera. Of these lines, there are two +considerably higher than the others; namely, on the Chilian side, the +Peuquenes ridge, which, where the road crosses it, is 13,210 feet above +the sea; and the Portillo ridge, on the Mendoza side, which is 14,305 +feet. The lower beds +of the Peuquenes ridge, and of the several great lines to the westward +of it, are composed of a vast pile, many thousand feet in thickness, of +porphyries which have flowed as submarine lavas, alternating with +angular and rounded fragments of the same rocks, thrown out of the +submarine craters. These alternating masses are covered in the central +parts by a great thickness of red sandstone, conglomerate, and +calcareous clay-slate, associated with, and passing into, prodigious +beds of gypsum. In these upper beds shells are tolerably frequent; and +they belong to about the period of the lower chalk of Europe. It is an +old story, but not the less wonderful, to hear of shells which were +once crawling on the bottom of the sea, now standing nearly 14,000 feet +above its level. The lower beds in this great pile of strata have been +dislocated, baked, crystallised and almost blended together, through +the agency of mountain masses of a peculiar white soda-granitic rock. + +The other main line, namely, that of the Portillo, is of a totally +different formation: it consists chiefly of grand bare pinnacles of a +red potash-granite, which low down on the western flank are covered by +a sandstone, converted by the former heat into a quartz-rock. On the +quartz there rest beds of a conglomerate several thousand feet in +thickness, which have been upheaved by the red granite, and dip at an +angle of 45° towards the Peuquenes line. I was astonished to find that +this conglomerate was partly composed of pebbles, derived from the +rocks, with their fossil shells, of the Peuquenes range; and partly of +red potash-granite, like that of the Portillo. Hence we must conclude +that both the Peuquenes and Portillo ranges were partially upheaved and +exposed to wear and tear when the conglomerate was forming; but as the +beds of the conglomerate have been thrown off at an angle of 45° by the +red Portillo granite (with the underlying sandstone baked by it), we +may feel sure that the greater part of the injection and upheaval of +the already partially formed Portillo line took place after the +accumulation of the conglomerate, and long after the elevation of the +Peuquenes ridge. So that the Portillo, the loftiest line in this part +of the Cordillera, is not so old as the less lofty line of the +Peuquenes. Evidence derived from an inclined stream of lava at the +eastern base of the Portillo might be adduced to show that it owes part +of +its great height to elevations of a still later date. Looking to its +earliest origin, the red granite seems to have been injected on an +ancient pre-existing line of white granite and mica-slate. In most +parts, perhaps in all parts, of the Cordillera, it may be concluded +that each line has been formed by repeated upheavals and injections; +and that the several parallel lines are of different ages. Only thus +can we gain time at all sufficient to explain the truly astonishing +amount of denudation which these great, though comparatively with most +other ranges recent, mountains have suffered. + +Finally, the shells in the Peuquenes or oldest ridge prove, as before +remarked, that it has been upraised 14,000 feet since a Secondary +period, which in Europe we are accustomed to consider as far from +ancient; but since these shells lived in a moderately deep sea, it can +be shown that the area now occupied by the Cordillera must have +subsided several thousand feet—in northern Chile as much as 6000 +feet—so as to have allowed that amount of submarine strata to have been +heaped on the bed on which the shells lived. The proof is the same with +that by which it was shown that, at a much later period since the +tertiary shells of Patagonia lived, there must have been there a +subsidence of several hundred feet, as well as an ensuing elevation. +Daily it is forced home on the mind of the geologist that nothing, not +even the wind that blows, is so unstable as the level of the crust of +this earth. + +I will make only one other geological remark: although the Portillo +chain is here higher than the Peuquenes, the waters, draining the +intermediate valleys, have burst through it. The same fact, on a +grander scale, has been remarked in the eastern and loftiest line of +the Bolivian Cordillera, through which the rivers pass: analogous facts +have also been observed in other quarters of the world. On the +supposition of the subsequent and gradual elevation of the Portillo +line, this can be understood; for a chain of islets would at first +appear, and, as these were lifted up, the tides would be always wearing +deeper and broader channels between them. At the present day, even in +the most retired Sounds on the coast of Tierra del Fuego, the currents +in the transverse breaks which connect the longitudinal channels are +very strong, so that in one transverse channel even a small vessel +under sail was whirled round and round. + + +About noon we began the tedious ascent of the Peuquenes ridge, and then +for the first time experienced some little difficulty in our +respiration. The mules would halt every fifty yards, and after resting +for a few seconds the poor willing animals started of their own accord +again. The short breathing from the rarefied atmosphere is called by +the Chilenos “puna;” and they have most ridiculous notions concerning +its origin. Some say “All the waters here have puna;” others that +“where there is snow there is puna;”—and this no doubt is true. The +only sensation I experienced was a slight tightness across the head and +chest, like that felt on leaving a warm room and running quickly in +frosty weather. There was some imagination even in this; for upon +finding fossil shells on the highest ridge, I entirely forgot the puna +in my delight. Certainly the exertion of walking was extremely great, +and the respiration became deep and laborious: I am told that in Potosi +(about 13,000 feet above the sea) strangers do not become thoroughly +accustomed to the atmosphere for an entire year. The inhabitants all +recommend onions for the puna; as this vegetable has sometimes been +given in Europe for pectoral complaints, it may possibly be of real +service:—for my part I found nothing so good as the fossil shells! + +When about half-way up we met a large party with seventy loaded mules. +It was interesting to hear the wild cries of the muleteers, and to +watch the long descending string of the animals; they appeared so +diminutive, there being nothing but the black mountains with which they +could be compared. When near the summit, the wind, as generally +happens, was impetuous and extremely cold. On each side of the ridge we +had to pass over broad bands of perpetual snow, which were now soon to +be covered by a fresh layer. When we reached the crest and looked +backwards, a glorious view was presented. The atmosphere resplendently +clear; the sky an intense blue; the profound valleys; the wild broken +forms: the heaps of ruins, piled up during the lapse of ages; the +bright-coloured rocks, contrasted with the quiet mountains of snow, all +these together produced a scene no one could have imagined. Neither +plant nor bird, excepting a few condors wheeling around the higher +pinnacles, distracted my attention from the inanimate mass. I felt glad +that I was alone: it was like +watching a thunderstorm, or hearing in full orchestra a chorus of the +_Messiah._ + +On several patches of the snow I found the Protococcus nivalis, or red +snow, so well known from the accounts of Arctic navigators. My +attention was called to it by observing the footsteps of the mules +stained a pale red, as if their hoofs had been slightly bloody. I at +first thought that it was owing to dust blown from the surrounding +mountains of red porphyry; for from the magnifying power of the +crystals of snow, the groups of these microscopical plants appeared +like coarse particles. The snow was coloured only where it had thawed +very rapidly, or had been accidentally crushed. A little rubbed on +paper gave it a faint rose tinge mingled with a little brick-red. I +afterwards scraped some off the paper, and found that it consisted of +groups of little spheres in colourless cases, each the thousandth part +of an inch in diameter. + +The wind on the crest of the Peuquenes, as just remarked, is generally +impetuous and very cold: it is said[3] to blow steadily from the +westward or Pacific side. As the observations have been chiefly made in +summer, this wind must be an upper and return current. The Peak of +Teneriffe, with a less elevation, and situated in lat. 28°, in like +manner falls within an upper return stream. At first it appears rather +surprising that the trade-wind along the northern parts of Chile and on +the coast of Peru should blow in so very southerly a direction as it +does; but when we reflect that the Cordillera, running in a north and +south line, intercepts, like a great wall, the entire depth of the +lower atmospheric current, we can easily see that the trade-wind must +be drawn northward, following the line of mountains, towards the +equatorial regions, and thus lose part of that easterly movement which +it otherwise would have gained from the earth’s rotation. At Mendoza, +on the eastern foot of the Andes, the climate is said to be subject to +long calms, and to frequent though false appearances of gathering +rain-storms: we may imagine that the wind, which coming from the +eastward is thus banked up by the line of mountains, would become +stagnant and irregular in its movements. + + [3] Dr. Gillies in _Journ. of Nat. and Geograph. Science_, Aug. 1830. + This author gives the heights of the Passes. + +Having crossed the Peuquenes, we descended into a +mountainous country, intermediate between the two main ranges, and then +took up our quarters for the night. We were now in the republic of +Mendoza. The elevation was probably not under 11,000 feet, and the +vegetation in consequence exceedingly scanty. The root of a small +scrubby plant served as fuel, but it made a miserable fire, and the +wind was piercingly cold. Being quite tired with my days work, I made +up my bed as quickly as I could, and went to sleep. About midnight I +observed the sky became suddenly clouded: I awakened the arriero to +know if there was any danger of bad weather; but he said that without +thunder and lightning there was no risk of a heavy snow-storm. The +peril is imminent, and the difficulty of subsequent escape great, to +any one overtaken by bad weather between the two ranges. A certain cave +offers the only place of refuge: Mr. Caldcleugh, who crossed on this +same day of the month, was detained there for some time by a heavy fall +of snow. Casuchas, or houses of refuge, have not been built in this +pass as in that of Uspallata, and therefore, during the autumn, the +Portillo is little frequented. I may here remark that within the main +Cordillera rain never falls, for during the summer the sky is +cloudless, and in winter snow-storms alone occur. + +At the place where we slept water necessarily boiled, from the +diminished pressure of the atmosphere, at a lower temperature than it +does in a less lofty country; the case being the converse of that of a +Papin’s digester. Hence the potatoes, after remaining for some hours in +the boiling water, were nearly as hard as ever. The pot was left on the +fire all night, and next morning it was boiled again, but yet the +potatoes were not cooked. I found out this by overhearing my two +companions discussing the cause, they had come to the simple conclusion +“that the cursed pot (which was a new one) did not choose to boil +potatoes.” + +_March_ 22_nd._—After eating our potato-less breakfast, we travelled +across the intermediate tract to the foot of the Portillo range. In the +middle of summer cattle are brought up here to graze; but they had now +all been removed: even the greater number of the guanacos had decamped, +knowing well that if overtaken here by a snow-storm, they would be +caught in a trap. We had a fine view of a mass of mountains called +Tupungato, the whole clothed with unbroken snow, in the midst of which +there was a blue patch, no doubt a glacier;—a circumstance of rare +occurrence in these mountains. Now commenced a heavy and long climb, +similar to that of the Peuquenes. Bold conical hills of red granite +rose on each hand; in the valleys there were several broad fields of +perpetual snow. These frozen masses, during the process of thawing, had +in some parts been converted into pinnacles or columns,[4] which, as +they were high and close together, made it difficult for the cargo +mules to pass. On one of these columns of ice a frozen horse was +sticking as on a pedestal, but with its hind legs straight up in the +air. The animal, I suppose, must have fallen with its head downward +into a hole, when the snow was continuous, and afterwards the +surrounding parts must have been removed by the thaw. + + [4] This structure in frozen snow was long since observed by Scoresby + in the icebergs near Spitzbergen, and, lately, with more care, by + Colonel Jackson (_Journ. of Geograph. Soc._ vol. v, p. 12) on the + Neva. Mr. Lyell (_Principles_, vol. iv, p. 360 has compared the + fissures, by which the columnar structure seems to be determined, to + the joints that traverse nearly all rocks, but which are best seen in + the non-stratified masses. I may observe that in the case of the + frozen snow the columnar structure must be owing to a “metamorphic” + action, and not to a process during _deposition._ + +When nearly on the crest of the Portillo, we were enveloped in a +falling cloud of minute frozen spicula. This was very unfortunate, as +it continued the whole day, and quite intercepted our view. The pass +takes its name of Portillo from a narrow cleft or doorway on the +highest ridge, through which the road passes. From this point, on a +clear day, those vast plains which uninterruptedly extend to the +Atlantic Ocean can be seen. We descended to the upper limit of +vegetation, and found good quarters for the night under the shelter of +some large fragments of rock. We met here some passengers, who made +anxious inquiries about the state of the road. Shortly after it was +dark the clouds suddenly cleared away, and the effect was quite +magical. The great mountains, bright with the full moon, seemed +impending over us on all sides, as over a deep crevice: one morning, +very early, I witnessed the same striking effect. As soon as the clouds +were dispersed it froze severely; but as there was no wind, we slept +very comfortably. + +The increased brilliancy of the moon and stars at this elevation, owing +to the perfect transparency of the atmosphere, was +very remarkable. Travellers having observed the difficulty of judging +heights and distances amidst lofty mountains, have generally attributed +it to the absence of objects of comparison. It appears to me, that it +is fully as much owing to the transparency of the air confounding +objects at different distances, and likewise partly to the novelty of +an unusual degree of fatigue arising from a little exertion,—habit +being thus opposed to the evidence of the senses. I am sure that this +extreme clearness of the air gives a peculiar character to the +landscape, all objects appearing to be brought nearly into one plane, +as in a drawing or panorama. The transparency is, I presume, owing to +the equable and high state of atmospheric dryness. This dryness was +shown by the manner in which woodwork shrank (as I soon found by the +trouble my geological hammer gave me); by articles of food, such as +bread and sugar, becoming extremely hard; and by the preservation of +the skin and parts of the flesh of the beasts which had perished on the +road. To the same cause we must attribute the singular facility with +which electricity is excited. My flannel-waistcoat, when rubbed in the +dark, appeared as if it had been washed with phosphorus,—every hair on +a dog’s back crackled;—even the linen sheets, and leathern straps of +the saddle, when handled, emitted sparks. + +_March_ 23_rd._—The descent on the eastern side of the Cordillera is +much shorter or steeper than on the Pacific side; in other words, the +mountains rise more abruptly from the plains than from the alpine +country of Chile. A level and brilliantly white sea of clouds was +stretched out beneath our feet, shutting out the view of the equally +level Pampas. We soon entered the band of clouds, and did not again +emerge from it that day. About noon, finding pasture for the animals +and bushes for firewood at Los Arenales, we stopped for the night. This +was near the uppermost limit of bushes, and the elevation, I suppose, +was between seven and eight thousand feet. + +I was much struck with the marked difference between the vegetation of +these eastern valleys and those on the Chilian side: yet the climate, +as well as the kind of soil, is nearly the same, and the difference of +longitude very trifling. The same remark holds good with the +quadrupeds, and in a lesser degree with the birds and insects. I may +instance the mice, of which +I obtained thirteen species on the shores of the Atlantic, and five on +the Pacific, and not one of them is identical. We must except all those +species which habitually or occasionally frequent elevated mountains; +and certain birds, which range as far south as the Strait of Magellan. +This fact is in perfect accordance with the geological history of the +Andes; for these mountains have existed as a great barrier since the +present races of animals have appeared; and therefore, unless we +suppose the same species to have been created in two different places, +we ought not to expect any closer similarity between the organic beings +on the opposite sides of the Andes than on the opposite shores of the +ocean. In both cases, we must leave out of the question those kinds +which have been able to cross the barrier, whether of solid rock or +salt water.[5] + + [5] This is merely an illustration of the admirable laws, first laid + down by Mr. Lyell, on the geographical distribution of animals, as + influenced by geological changes. The whole reasoning, of course, is + founded on the assumption of the immutability of species; otherwise + the difference in the species in the two regions might be considered + as superinduced during a length of time. + +A great number of the plants and animals were absolutely the same as, +or most closely allied to, those of Patagonia. We here have the agouti, +bizcacha, three species of armadillo, the ostrich, certain kinds of +partridges and other birds, none of which are ever seen in Chile, but +are the characteristic animals of the desert plains of Patagonia. We +have likewise many of the same (to the eyes of a person who is not a +botanist) thorny stunted bushes, withered grass, and dwarf plants. Even +the black slowly crawling beetles are closely similar, and some, I +believe, on rigorous examination, absolutely identical. It had always +been to me a subject of regret that we were unavoidably compelled to +give up the ascent of the S. Cruz river before reaching the mountains: +I always had a latent hope of meeting with some great change in the +features of the country; but I now feel sure that it would only have +been following the plains of Patagonia up a mountainous ascent. + +_March_ 24_th._—Early in the morning I climbed up a mountain on one +side of the valley, and enjoyed a far extended view over the Pampas. +This was a spectacle to which I had always looked forward with +interest, but I was disappointed: at the first glance it much resembled +a distant view of the ocean, but in the northern parts many +irregularities were soon +distinguishable. The most striking feature consisted in the rivers, +which, facing the rising sun, glittered like silver threads, till lost +in the immensity of the distance. At mid-day we descended the valley, +and reached a hovel, where an officer and three soldiers were posted to +examine passports. One of these men was a thoroughbred Pampas Indian: +he was kept much for the same purpose as a bloodhound, to track out any +person who might pass by secretly, either on foot or horseback. Some +years ago a passenger endeavoured to escape detection by making a long +circuit over a neighbouring mountain; but this Indian, having by chance +crossed his track, followed it for the whole day over dry and very +stony hills, till at last he came on his prey hidden in a gully. We +here heard that the silvery clouds, which we had admired from the +bright region above, had poured down torrents of rain. The valley from +this point gradually opened, and the hills became mere water-worn +hillocks compared to the giants behind; it then expanded into a gently +sloping plain of shingle, covered with low trees and bushes. This +talus, although appearing narrow, must be nearly ten miles wide before +it blends into the apparently dead level Pampas. We passed the only +house in this neighbourhood, the Estancia of Chaquaio: and at sunset we +pulled up in the first snug corner, and there bivouacked. + +_March_ 25_th._—I was reminded of the Pampas of Buenos Ayres, by seeing +the disk of the rising sun intersected by an horizon level as that of +the ocean. During the night a heavy dew fell, a circumstance which we +did not experience within the Cordillera. The road proceeded for some +distance due east across a low swamp; then meeting the dry plain, it +turned to the north towards Mendoza. The distance is two very long +days’ journey. Our first day’s journey was called fourteen leagues to +Estacado, and the second seventeen to Luxan, near Mendoza. The whole +distance is over a level desert plain, with not more than two or three +houses. The sun was exceedingly powerful, and the ride devoid of all +interest. There is very little water in this “traversia,” and in our +second day’s journey we found only one little pool. Little water flows +from the mountains, and it soon becomes absorbed by the dry and porous +soil; so that, although we travelled at the distance of only ten or +fifteen miles from the +outer range of the Cordillera, we did not cross a single stream. In +many parts the ground was incrusted with a saline efflorescence; hence +we had the same salt-loving plants which are common near Bahia Blanca. +The landscape has a uniform character from the Strait of Magellan, +along the whole eastern coast of Patagonia, to the Rio Colorado; and it +appears that the same kind of country extends inland from this river, +in a sweeping line as far as San Luis, and perhaps even farther north. +To the eastward of this curved line lies the basin of the comparatively +damp and green plains of Buenos Ayres. The sterile plains of Mendoza +and Patagonia consist of a bed of shingle, worn smooth and accumulated +by the waves of the sea; while the Pampas, covered by thistles, clover, +and grass, have been formed by the ancient estuary mud of the Plata. + +After our two days’ tedious journey, it was refreshing to see in the +distance the rows of poplars and willows growing round the village and +river of Luxan. Shortly before we arrived at this place we observed to +the south a ragged cloud of a dark reddish-brown colour. At first we +thought that it was smoke from some great fire on the plains; but we +soon found that it was a swarm of locusts. They were flying northward; +and with the aid of a light breeze, they overtook us at a rate of ten +or fifteen miles an hour. The main body filled the air from a height of +twenty feet to that, as it appeared, of two or three thousand above the +ground; “and the sound of their wings was as the sound of chariots of +many horses running to battle:” or rather, I should say, like a strong +breeze passing through the rigging of a ship. The sky, seen through the +advanced guard, appeared like a mezzotinto engraving, but the main body +was impervious to sight; they were not, however, so thick together, but +that they could escape a stick waved backwards and forwards. When they +alighted, they were more numerous than the leaves in the field, and the +surface became reddish instead of being green: the swarm having once +alighted, the individuals flew from side to side in all directions. +Locusts are not an uncommon pest in this country: already during this +season several smaller swarms had come up from the south, where, as +apparently in all other parts of the world, they are bred in the +deserts. The poor cottagers in vain attempted by lighting fires, by +shouts, and by waving branches, to avert the attack. This +species of locust closely resembles, and perhaps is identical with, the +famous Gryllus migratorius of the East. + +We crossed the Luxan, which is a river of considerable size, though its +course towards the sea-coast is very imperfectly known: it is even +doubtful whether, in passing over the plains, it is not evaporated and +lost. We slept in the village of Luxan, which is a small place +surrounded by gardens, and forms the most southern cultivated district +in the Province of Mendoza; it is five leagues south of the capital. At +night I experienced an attack (for it deserves no less a name) of the +_Benchuca_, a species of Reduvius, the great black bug of the Pampas. +It is most disgusting to feel soft wingless insects, about an inch +long, crawling over one’s body. Before sucking they are quite thin, but +afterwards they become round and bloated with blood, and in this state +are easily crushed. One which I caught at Iquique (for they are found +in Chile and Peru) was very empty. When placed on a table, and though +surrounded by people, if a finger was presented, the bold insect would +immediately protrude its sucker, make a charge, and if allowed, draw +blood. No pain was caused by the wound. It was curious to watch its +body during the act of sucking, as in less than ten minutes it changed +from being as flat as a wafer to a globular form. This one feast, for +which the benchuca was indebted to one of the officers, kept it fat +during four whole months; but, after the first fortnight, it was quite +ready to have another suck. + +_March_ 27_th._—We rode on to Mendoza. The country was beautifully +cultivated, and resembled Chile. This neighbourhood is celebrated for +its fruit; and certainly nothing could appear more flourishing than the +vineyards and the orchards of figs, peaches, and olives. We bought +water-melons nearly twice as large as a man’s head, most deliciously +cool and well-flavoured, for a halfpenny apiece; and for the value of +threepence, half a wheelbarrowful of peaches. The cultivated and +enclosed part of this province is very small; there is little more than +that which we passed through between Luxan and the Capital. The land, +as in Chile, owes its fertility entirely to artificial irrigation; and +it is really wonderful to observe how extraordinarily productive a +barren traversia is thus rendered. + +We stayed the ensuing day in Mendoza. The prosperity of the place has +much declined of late years. The inhabitants +say “it is good to live in, but very bad to grow rich in.” The lower +orders have the lounging, reckless manners of the Gauchos of the +Pampas; and their dress, riding-gear, and habits of life, are nearly +the same. To my mind the town had a stupid, forlorn aspect. Neither the +boasted alameda, nor the scenery, is at all comparable with that of +Santiago; but to those who, coming from Buenos Ayres, have just crossed +the unvaried Pampas, the gardens and orchards must appear delightful. +Sir F. Head, speaking of the inhabitants, says, “They eat their +dinners, and it is so very hot, they go to sleep—and could they do +better?” I quite agree with Sir F. Head: the happy doom of the +Mendozinos is to eat, sleep and be idle. + + +_March_ 29_th._—We set out on our return to Chile by the Uspallata pass +situated north of Mendoza. We had to cross a long and most sterile +traversia of fifteen leagues. The soil in parts was absolutely bare, in +others covered by numberless dwarf cacti, armed with formidable spines, +and called by the inhabitants “little lions.” There were, also, a few +low bushes. Although the plain is nearly three thousand feet above the +sea, the sun was very powerful; and the heat, as well as the clouds of +impalpable dust, rendered the travelling extremely irksome. Our course +during the day lay nearly parallel to the Cordillera, but gradually +approaching them. Before sunset we entered one of the wide valleys, or +rather bays, which open on the plain: this soon narrowed into a ravine, +where a little higher up the house of Villa Vicencio is situated. As we +had ridden all day without a drop of water, both our mules and selves +were very thirsty, and we looked out anxiously for the stream which +flows down this valley. It was curious to observe how gradually the +water made its appearance: on the plain the course was quite dry; by +degrees it became a little damper; then puddles of water appeared; +these soon became connected; and at Villa Vicencio there was a nice +little rivulet. + +30_th._—The solitary hovel which bears the imposing name of Villa +Vicencio has been mentioned by every traveller who has crossed the +Andes. I stayed here and at some neighbouring mines during the two +succeeding days. The geology of the surrounding country is very +curious. The Uspallata range is separated from the main Cordillera by a +long narrow plain or +basin, like those so often mentioned in Chile, but higher, being six +thousand feet above the sea. This range has nearly the same +geographical position with respect to the Cordillera, which the +gigantic Portillo line has, but it is of a totally different origin: it +consists of various kinds of submarine lava, alternating with volcanic +sandstones and other remarkable sedimentary deposits; the whole having +a very close resemblance to some of the tertiary beds on the shores of +the Pacific. From this resemblance I expected to find silicified wood, +which is generally characteristic of those formations. I was gratified +in a very extraordinary manner. In the central part of the range, at an +elevation of about seven thousand feet, I observed on a bare slope some +snow-white projecting columns. These were petrified trees, eleven being +silicified, and from thirty to forty converted into +coarsely-crystallised white calcareous spar. They were abruptly broken +off, the upright stumps projecting a few feet above the ground. The +trunks measured from three to five feet each in circumference. They +stood a little way apart from each other, but the whole formed one +group. Mr. Robert Brown has been kind enough to examine the wood: he +says it belongs to the fir tribe, partaking of the character of the +Araucarian family, but with some curious points of affinity with the +yew. The volcanic sandstone in which the trees were embedded, and from +the lower part of which they must have sprung, had accumulated in +successive thin layers around their trunks; and the stone yet retained +the impression of the bark. + +It required little geological practice to interpret the marvellous +story which this scene at once unfolded; though I confess I was at +first so much astonished that I could scarcely believe the plainest +evidence. I saw the spot where a cluster of fine trees once waved their +branches on the shores of the Atlantic, when that ocean (now driven +back 700 miles) came to the foot of the Andes. I saw that they had +sprung from a volcanic soil which had been raised above the level of +the sea, and that subsequently this dry land, with its upright trees, +had been let down into the depths of the ocean. In these depths, the +formerly dry land was covered by sedimentary beds, and these again by +enormous streams of submarine lava—one such mass attaining the +thickness of a thousand feet; and these deluges of molten stone and +aqueous deposits five times alternately had +been spread out. The ocean which received such thick masses must have +been profoundly deep; but again the subterranean forces exerted +themselves, and I now beheld the bed of that ocean, forming a chain of +mountains more than seven thousand feet in height. Nor had those +antagonistic forces been dormant, which are always at work wearing down +the surface of the land; the great piles of strata had been intersected +by many wide valleys, and the trees, now changed into silex, were +exposed projecting from the volcanic soil, now changed into rock, +whence formerly, in a green and budding state, they had raised their +lofty heads. Now, all is utterly irreclaimable and desert; even the +lichen cannot adhere to the stony casts of former trees. Vast, and +scarcely comprehensible as such changes must ever appear, yet they have +all occurred within a period, recent when compared with the history of +the Cordillera; and the Cordillera itself is absolutely modern as +compared with many of the fossiliferous strata of Europe and America. + +_April_ 1_st._—We crossed the Uspallata range, and at night slept at +the custom-house—the only inhabited spot on the plain. Shortly before +leaving the mountains, there was a very extraordinary view; red, +purple, green, and quite white sedimentary rocks, alternating with +black lavas, were broken up and thrown into all kinds of disorder by +masses of porphyry of every shade of colour, from dark brown to the +brightest lilac. It was the first view I ever saw, which really +resembled those pretty sections which geologists make of the inside of +the earth. + +The next day we crossed the plain, and followed the course of the same +great mountain stream which flows by Luxan. Here it was a furious +torrent, quite impassable, and appeared larger than in the low country, +as was the case with the rivulet of Villa Vicencio. On the evening of +the succeeding day we reached the Rio de las Vacas, which is considered +the worst stream in the Cordillera to cross. As all these rivers have a +rapid and short course, and are formed by the melting of the snow, the +hour of the day makes a considerable difference in their volume. In the +evening the stream is muddy and full, but about daybreak it becomes +clearer and much less impetuous. This we found to be the case with the +Rio Vacas, and in the morning we crossed it with little difficulty. + + +The scenery thus far was very uninteresting, compared with that of the +Portillo pass. Little can be seen beyond the bare walls of the one +grand, flat-bottomed valley, which the road follows up to the highest +crest. The valley and the huge rocky mountains are extremely barren: +during the two previous nights the poor mules had absolutely nothing to +eat, for excepting a few low resinous bushes, scarcely a plant can be +seen. In the course of this day we crossed some of the worst passes in +the Cordillera, but their danger has been much exaggerated. I was told +that if I attempted to pass on foot, my head would turn giddy, and that +there was no room to dismount; but I did not see a place where any one +might not have walked over backwards, or got off his mule on either +side. One of the bad passes, called _las Animas_ (the Souls), I had +crossed, and did not find out till a day afterwards that it was one of +the awful dangers. No doubt there are many parts in which, if the mule +should stumble, the rider would be hurled down a great precipice; but +of this there is little chance. I daresay, in the spring, the +“laderas,” or roads, which each year are formed anew across the piles +of fallen detritus, are very bad; but from what I saw, I suspect the +real danger is nothing. With cargo-mules the case is rather different, +for the loads project so far, that the animals, occasionally running +against each other, or against a point of rock, lose their balance, and +are thrown down the precipices. In crossing the rivers I can well +believe that the difficulty may be very great: at this season there was +little trouble, but in the summer they must be very hazardous. I can +quite imagine, as Sir F. Head describes, the different expressions of +those who _have_ passed the gulf, and those who _are_ passing. I never +heard of any man being drowned, but with loaded mules it frequently +happens. The arriero tells you to show your mule the best line, and +then allow her to cross as she likes: the cargo-mule takes a bad line, +and is often lost. + +_April_ 4_th._—From the Rio de las Vacas to the Puente del Incas, half +a day’s journey. As there was pasture for the mules, and geology for +me, we bivouacked here for the night. When one hears of a natural +Bridge, one pictures to oneself some deep and narrow ravine, across +which a bold mass of rock has fallen; or a great arch hollowed out like +the vault of a cavern. Instead of this, the Incas Bridge consists of a +crust of stratified shingle +cemented together by the deposits of the neighbouring hot springs. It +appears as if the stream had scooped out a channel on one side, leaving +an overhanging ledge, which was met by earth and stones falling down +from the opposite cliff. Certainly an oblique junction, as would happen +in such a case, was very distinct on one side. The Bridge of the Incas +is by no means worthy of the great monarchs whose name it bears. + +Bridge of the Incas—Uspallata Pass + +5_th._—We had a long day’s ride across the central ridge, from the +Incas Bridge to the Ojos del Agua, which are situated near the lowest +_casucha_ on the Chilian side. These casuchas +are round little towers, with steps outside to reach the floor, which +is raised some feet above the ground on account of the snow-drifts. +They are eight in number, and under the Spanish government were kept +during the winter well stored with food and charcoal, and each courier +had a master-key. Now they only answer the purpose of caves, or rather +dungeons. Seated on some little eminence, they are not, however, ill +suited to the surrounding scene of desolation. The zigzag ascent of the +Cumbre, or the partition of the waters, was very steep and tedious; its +height, according to Mr. Pentland, is 12,454 feet. The road did not +pass over any perpetual snow, although there were patches of it on both +hands. The wind on the summit was exceedingly cold, but it was +impossible not to stop for a few minutes to admire, again and again, +the colour of the heavens, and the brilliant transparency of the +atmosphere. The scenery was grand: to the westward there was a fine +chaos of mountains, divided by profound ravines. Some snow generally +falls before this period of the season, and it has even happened that +the Cordillera have been finally closed by this time. But we were most +fortunate. The sky, by night and by day, was cloudless, excepting a few +round little masses of vapour, that floated over the highest pinnacles. +I have often seen these islets in the sky, marking the position of the +Cordillera, when the far-distant mountains have been hidden beneath the +horizon. + +_April_ 6_th._—In the morning we found some thief had stolen one of our +mules, and the bell of the madrina. We therefore rode only two or three +miles down the valley, and stayed there the ensuing day in hopes of +recovering the mule, which the arriero thought had been hidden in some +ravine. The scenery in this part had assumed a Chilian character: the +lower sides of the mountains, dotted over with the pale evergreen +Quillay tree, and with the great chandelier-like cactus, are certainly +more to be admired than the bare eastern valleys; but I cannot quite +agree with the admiration expressed by some travellers. The extreme +pleasure, I suspect, is chiefly owing to the prospect of a good fire +and of a good supper, after escaping from the cold regions above: and I +am sure I most heartily participated in these feelings. + +8_th._—We left the valley of the Aconcagua, by which we +had descended, and reached in the evening a cottage near the Villa de +St. Rosa. The fertility of the plain was delightful: the autumn being +advanced, the leaves of many of the fruit-trees were falling; and of +the labourers,—some were busy in drying figs and peaches on the roofs +of their cottages, while others were gathering the grapes from the +vineyards. It was a pretty scene; but I missed that pensive stillness +which makes the autumn in England indeed the evening of the year. On +the 10th we reached Santiago, where I received a very kind and +hospitable reception from Mr. Caldcleugh. My excursion only cost me +twenty-four days, and never did I more deeply enjoy an equal space of +time. A few days afterwards I returned to Mr. Corfield’s house at +Valparaiso. + +[Illustration: Lima and San Lorenzo] + + + + +Chapter XVI + + +Coast-road to Coquimbo—Great loads carried by the +miners—Coquimbo—Earthquake—Step-formed terraces—Absence of recent +deposits—Contemporaneousness of the Tertiary formations—Excursion up +the valley—Road to Guasco—Deserts—Valley of Copiapó—Rain and +Earthquakes—Hydrophobia—The Despoblado—Indian ruins—Probable change of +climate—River-bed arched by an earthquake—Cold gales of wind—Noises +from a hill—Iquique—Salt alluvium—Nitrate of soda—Lima—Unhealthy +country—Ruins of Callao, overthrown by an earthquake—Recent +subsidence—Elevated shells on San Lorenzo, their decomposition—Plain +with embedded shells and fragments of pottery—Antiquity of the Indian +Race. + +NORTHERN CHILE AND PERU. + +_April_ 27_th._—I set out on a journey to Coquimbo, and thence through +Guasco to Copiapó, where Captain Fitz Roy kindly offered to pick me up +in the _Beagle._ The distance in a straight line along the shore +northward is only 420 miles; but my mode of travelling made it a very +long journey. I bought +four horses and two mules, the latter carrying the luggage on alternate +days. The six animals together only cost the value of twenty-five +pounds sterling, and at Copiapó I sold them again for twenty-three. We +travelled in the same independent manner as before, cooking our own +meals, and sleeping in the open air. As we rode towards the Viño del +Mar, I took a farewell view of Valparaiso, and admired its picturesque +appearance. For geological purposes I made a detour from the high road +to the foot of the Bell of Quillota. We passed through an alluvial +district rich in gold, to the neighbourhood of Limache, where we slept. +Washing for gold supports the inhabitants of numerous hovels, scattered +along the sides of each little rivulet; but, like all those whose gains +are uncertain, they are unthrifty in their habits, and consequently +poor. + +28_th._—In the afternoon we arrived at a cottage at the foot of the +Bell mountain. The inhabitants were freeholders, which is not very +usual in Chile. They supported themselves on the produce of a garden +and a little field, but were very poor. Capital is here so deficient +that the people are obliged to sell their green corn while standing in +the field, in order to buy necessaries for the ensuing year. Wheat in +consequence was dearer in the very district of its production than at +Valparaiso, where the contractors live. The next day we joined the main +road to Coquimbo. At night there was a very light shower of rain: this +was the first drop that had fallen since the heavy rain of September +11th and 12th, which detained me a prisoner at the Baths of Cauquenes. +The interval was seven and a half months; but the rain this year in +Chile was rather later than usual. The distant Andes were now covered +by a thick mass of snow, and were a glorious sight. + +_May_ 2_nd._—The road continued to follow the coast at no great +distance from the sea. The few trees and bushes which are common in +central Chile decreased rapidly in numbers, and were replaced by a tall +plant, something like a yucca in appearance. The surface of the +country, on a small scale, was singularly broken and irregular; abrupt +little peaks of rock rising out of small plains or basins. The indented +coast and the bottom of the neighbouring sea, studded with breakers, +would, if converted into dry land, present similar forms; and +such a conversion without doubt has taken place in the part over which +we rode. + +3_rd._—Quilimari to Conchalee. The country became more and more barren. +In the valleys there was scarcely sufficient water for any irrigation; +and the intermediate land was quite bare, not supporting even goats. In +the spring, after the winter showers, a thin pasture rapidly springs +up, and cattle are then driven down from the Cordillera to graze for a +short time. It is curious to observe how the seeds of the grass and +other plants seem to accommodate themselves, as if by an acquired +habit, to the quantity of rain which falls upon different parts of this +coast. One shower far northward at Copiapó produces as great an effect +on the vegetation, as two at Guasco, and three or four in this +district. At Valparaiso a winter so dry as greatly to injure the +pasture, would at Guasco produce the most unusual abundance. Proceeding +northward, the quantity of rain does not appear to decrease in strict +proportion to the latitude. At Conchalee, which is only 67 miles north +of Valparaiso, rain is not expected till the end of May; whereas at +Valparaiso some generally falls early in April: the annual quantity is +likewise small in proportion to the lateness of the season at which it +commences. + +4_th._—Finding the coast-road devoid of interest of any kind, we turned +inland towards the mining district and valley of Illapel. This valley, +like every other in Chile, is level, broad, and very fertile: it is +bordered on each side, either by cliffs of stratified shingle, or by +bare rocky mountains. Above the straight line of the uppermost +irrigating ditch, all is brown as on a high-road; while all below is of +as bright a green as verdigris, from the beds of alfarfa, a kind of +clover. We proceeded to Los Hornos, another mining district, where the +principal hill was drilled with holes, like a great ants’-nest. The +Chilian miners are a peculiar race of men in their habits. Living for +weeks together in the most desolate spots, when they descend to the +villages on feast-days there is no excess of extravagance into which +they do not run. They sometimes gain a considerable sum, and then, like +sailors with prize-money, they try how soon they can contrive to +squander it. They drink excessively, buy quantities of clothes, and in +a few days return penniless to their miserable abodes, there to work +harder +than beasts of burden. This thoughtlessness, as with sailors, is +evidently the result of a similar manner of life. Their daily food is +found them, and they acquire no habits of carefulness; moreover, +temptation and the means of yielding to it are placed in their power at +the same time. On the other hand, in Cornwall, and some other parts of +England, where the system of selling part of the vein is followed, the +miners, from being obliged to act and think for themselves, are a +singularly intelligent and well-conducted set of men. + +The dress of the Chilian miner is peculiar and rather picturesque. He +wears a very long shirt of some dark-coloured baize, with a leathern +apron; the whole being fastened round his waist by a bright-coloured +sash. His trousers are very broad, and his small cap of scarlet cloth +is made to fit the head closely. We met a party of these miners in full +costume, carrying the body of one of their companions to be buried. +They marched at a very quick trot, four men supporting the corpse. One +set having run as hard as they could for about two hundred yards, were +relieved by four others, who had previously dashed on ahead on +horseback. Thus they proceeded, encouraging each other by wild cries: +altogether the scene formed a most strange funeral. + +We continued travelling northward in a zigzag line; sometimes stopping +a day to geologise. The country was so thinly inhabited, and the track +so obscure, that we often had difficulty in finding our way. On the +12th I stayed at some mines. The ore in this case was not considered +particularly good, but from being abundant it was supposed the mine +would sell for about thirty or forty thousand dollars (that is, 6000 or +8000 pounds sterling); yet it had been bought by one of the English +Associations for an ounce of gold (£3 : 8s). The ore is yellow pyrites, +which, as I have already remarked, before the arrival of the English +was not supposed to contain a particle of copper. On a scale of profits +nearly as great as in the above instance, piles of cinders, abounding +with minute globules of metallic copper, were purchased; yet with these +advantages, the mining associations, as is well known, contrived to +lose immense sums of money. The folly of the greater number of the +commissioners and shareholders amounted to infatuation;—a thousand +pounds per annum given in some +cases to entertain the Chilian authorities; libraries of well-bound +geological books; miners brought out for particular metals, as tin, +which are not found in Chile; contracts to supply the miners with milk, +in parts where there are no cows; machinery, where it could not +possibly be used; and a hundred similar arrangements, bore witness to +our absurdity, and to this day afford amusement to the natives. Yet +there can be no doubt, that the same capital well employed in these +mines would have yielded an immense return: a confidential man of +business, a practical miner and assayer, would have been all that was +required. + +Captain Head has described the wonderful load which the “Apires,” truly +beasts of burden, carry up from the deepest mines. I confess I thought +the account exaggerated; so that I was glad to take an opportunity of +weighing one of the loads, which I picked out by hazard. It required +considerable exertion on my part, when standing directly over it, to +lift it from the ground. The load was considered under weight when +found to be 197 pounds. The apire had carried this up eighty +perpendicular yards,—part of the way by a steep passage, but the +greater part up notched poles, placed in a zigzag line up the shaft. +According to the general regulation, the apire is not allowed to halt +for breath, except the mine is six hundred feet deep. The average load +is considered as rather more than 200 pounds, and I have been assured +that one of 300 pounds (twenty-two stone and a half) by way of a trial +has been brought up from the deepest mine! At this time the apires were +bringing up the usual load twelve times in the day; that is 2400 pounds +from eighty yards deep; and they were employed in the intervals in +breaking and picking ore. + +These men, excepting from accidents, are healthy, and appear cheerful. +Their bodies are not very muscular. They rarely eat meat once a week, +and never oftener, and then only the hard dry charqui. Although with a +knowledge that the labour was voluntary, it was nevertheless quite +revolting to see the state in which they reached the mouth of the mine; +their bodies bent forward, leaning with their arms on the steps, their +legs bowed, their muscles quivering, the perspiration streaming from +their faces over their breasts, their nostrils distended, the corners +of their mouth forcibly drawn back, and the expulsion of their +breath most laborious. Each time they draw their breath they utter an +articulate cry of “ay-ay,” which ends in a sound rising from deep in +the chest, but shrill like the note of a fife. After staggering to the +pile of ore, they emptied the “carpacho;” in two or three seconds +recovering their breath, they wiped the sweat from their brows, and +apparently quite fresh descended the mine again at a quick pace. This +appears to me a wonderful instance of the amount of labour which habit, +for it can be nothing else, will enable a man to endure. + +In the evening, talking with the _mayor-domo_ of these mines about the +number of foreigners now scattered over the whole country, he told me +that, though quite a young man, he remembers when he was a boy at +school at Coquimbo, a holiday being given to see the captain of an +English ship, who was brought to the city to speak to the governor. He +believes that nothing would have induced any boy in the school, himself +included, to have gone close to the Englishman; so deeply had they been +impressed with an idea of the heresy, contamination, and evil to be +derived from contact with such a person. To this day they relate the +atrocious actions of the bucaniers; and especially of one man, who took +away the figure of the Virgin Mary, and returned the year after for +that of St. Joseph, saying it was a pity the lady should not have a +husband. I heard also of an old lady who, at a dinner at Coquimbo, +remarked how wonderfully strange it was that she should have lived to +dine in the same room with an Englishman; for she remembered as a girl, +that twice, at the mere cry of “Los Ingleses,” every soul, carrying +what valuables they could, had taken to the mountains. + +14_th._—We reached Coquimbo, where we stayed a few days. The town is +remarkable for nothing but its extreme quietness. It is said to contain +from 6000 to 8000 inhabitants. On the morning of the 17th it rained +lightly, the first time this year, for about five hours. The farmers, +who plant corn near the sea-coast where the atmosphere is more humid, +taking advantage of this shower, would break up the ground; after a +second they would put the seed in; and if a third shower should fall, +they would reap a good harvest in the spring. It was interesting to +watch the effect of this trifling amount of moisture. Twelve hours +afterwards the ground appeared as dry as ever; yet after an interval of +ten days all the hills were faintly tinged with green +patches; the grass being sparingly scattered in hair-like fibres a full +inch in length. Before this shower every part of the surface was bare +as on a high-road. + +Coquimbo, Chile + +In the evening, Captain Fitz Roy and myself were dining with Mr. +Edwards, an English resident well known for his hospitality by all who +have visited Coquimbo, when a sharp earthquake happened. I heard the +forecoming rumble, but from the screams of the ladies, the running of +the servants, and the rush of several of the gentlemen to the doorway, +I could not distinguish the motion. Some of the women afterwards were +crying with terror, and one gentleman said he should not be able to +sleep all night, or if he did, it would only be to dream of falling +houses. The father of this person had lately lost all his property at +Talcahuano, and he himself had only just escaped a falling roof at +Valparaiso in 1822. He mentioned a curious coincidence which then +happened: he was playing at cards, when a German, one of the party, got +up, and said he would never sit in a room in these countries with the +door shut, as, owing to his having done so, he had nearly lost his life +at Copiapó. +Accordingly he opened the door; and no sooner had he done this, than he +cried out, “Here it comes again!” and the famous shock commenced. The +whole party escaped. The danger in an earthquake is not from the time +lost in opening the door, but from the chance of its becoming jammed by +the movement of the walls. + +It is impossible to be much surprised at the fear which natives and old +residents, though some of them known to be men of great command of +mind, so generally experience during earthquakes. I think, however, +this excess of panic may be partly attributed to a want of habit in +governing their fear, as it is not a feeling they are ashamed of. +Indeed, the natives do not like to see a person indifferent. I heard of +two Englishmen who, sleeping in the open air during a smart shock, +knowing that there was no danger, did not rise. The natives cried out +indignantly, “Look at those heretics, they do not even get out of their +beds!” + + +I spent some days in examining the step-formed terraces of shingle, +first noticed by Captain B. Hall, and believed by Mr. Lyell to have +been formed by the sea during the gradual rising of the land. This +certainly is the true explanation, for I found numerous shells of +existing species on these terraces. Five narrow, gently sloping, +fringe-like terraces rise one behind the other, and where best +developed are formed of shingle: they front the bay, and sweep up both +sides of the valley. At Guasco, north of Coquimbo, the phenomenon is +displayed on a much grander scale, so as to strike with surprise even +some of the inhabitants. The terraces are there much broader, and may +be called plains, in some parts there are six of them, but generally +only five; they run up the valley for thirty-seven miles from the +coast. These step-formed terraces or fringes closely resemble those in +the valley of S. Cruz, and, except in being on a smaller scale, those +great ones along the whole coast-line of Patagonia. They have +undoubtedly been formed by the denuding power of the sea, during long +periods of rest in the gradual elevation of the continent. + +Shells of many existing species not only lie on the surface of the +terraces at Coquimbo (to a height of 250 feet), but are embedded in a +friable calcareous rock, which in some places is +as much as between twenty and thirty feet in thickness, but is of +little extent. These modern beds rest on an ancient tertiary formation +containing shells, apparently all extinct. Although I examined so many +hundred miles of coast on the Pacific, as well as Atlantic side of the +continent, I found no regular strata containing sea-shells of recent +species, excepting at this place, and at a few points northward on the +road to Guasco. This fact appears to me highly remarkable; for the +explanation generally given by geologists, of the absence in any +district of stratified fossiliferous deposits of a given period, +namely, that the surface then existed as dry land, is not here +applicable; for we know from the shells strewed on the surface and +embedded in loose sand or mould, that the land for thousands of miles +along both coasts has lately been submerged. The explanation, no doubt, +must be sought in the fact, that the whole southern part of the +continent has been for a long time slowly rising; and therefore that +all matter deposited along shore in shallow water must have been soon +brought up and slowly exposed to the wearing action of the sea-beach; +and it is only in comparatively shallow water that the greater number +of marine organic beings can flourish, and in such water it is +obviously impossible that strata of any great thickness can accumulate. +To show the vast power of the wearing action of sea-beaches, we need +only appeal to the great cliffs along the present coast of Patagonia, +and to the escarpments or ancient sea-cliffs at different levels, one +above another, on that same line of coast. + +The old underlying tertiary formation at Coquimbo appears to be of +about the same age with several deposits on the coast of Chile (of +which that of Navedad is the principal one), and with the great +formation of Patagonia. Both at Navedad and in Patagonia there is +evidence, that since the shells (a list of which has been seen by +Professor E. Forbes) there intombed were living, there has been a +subsidence of several hundred feet, as well as an ensuing elevation. It +may naturally be asked how it comes that although no extensive +fossiliferous deposits of the recent period, nor of any period +intermediate between it and the ancient tertiary epoch, have been +preserved on either side of the continent, yet that at this ancient +tertiary epoch, sedimentary matter containing fossil remains should +have been deposited and preserved at different points in north and +south +lines, over a space of 1100 miles on the shores of the Pacific, and of +at least 1350 miles on the shores of the Atlantic, and in an east and +west line of 700 miles across the widest part of the continent? I +believe the explanation is not difficult, and that it is perhaps +applicable to nearly analogous facts observed in other quarters of the +world. Considering the enormous power of denudation which the sea +possesses, as shown by numberless facts, it is not probable that a +sedimentary deposit, when being upraised, could pass through the ordeal +of the beach, so as to be preserved in sufficient masses to last to a +distant period, without it were originally of wide extent and of +considerable thickness: now it is impossible on a moderately shallow +bottom, which alone is favourable to most living creatures, that a +thick and widely extended covering of sediment could be spread out, +without the bottom sank down to receive the successive layers. This +seems to have actually taken place at about the same period in southern +Patagonia and Chile, though these places are a thousand miles apart. +Hence, if prolonged movements of approximately contemporaneous +subsidence are generally widely extensive, as I am strongly inclined to +believe from my examination of the Coral Reefs of the great oceans—or +if, confining our view to South America, the subsiding movements have +been coextensive with those of elevation, by which, within the same +period of existing shells, the shores of Peru, Chile, Tierra del Fuego, +Patagonia, and La Plata have been upraised—then we can see that at the +same time, at far distant points, circumstances would have been +favourable to the formation of fossiliferous deposits, of wide extent +and of considerable thickness; and such deposits, consequently, would +have a good chance of resisting the wear and tear of successive +beach-lines, and of lasting to a future epoch. + + +_May_ 21_st._—I set out in company with Don Jose Edwards to the +silver-mine of Arqueros, and thence up the valley of Coquimbo. Passing +through a mountainous country, we reached by nightfall the mines +belonging to Mr. Edwards. I enjoyed my night’s rest here from a reason +which will not be fully appreciated in England, namely, the absence of +fleas! The rooms in Coquimbo swarm with them; but they will not +live here at the height of only three or four thousand feet: it can +scarcely be the trifling diminution of temperature, but some other +cause which destroys these troublesome insects at this place. The mines +are now in a bad state, though they formerly yielded about 2000 pounds +in weight of silver a year. It has been said that “a person with a +copper-mine will gain; with silver he may gain; but with gold he is +sure to lose.” This is not true: all the large Chilian fortunes have +been made by mines of the more precious metals. A short time since an +English physician returned to England from Copiapó, taking with him the +profits of one share in a silver-mine, which amounted to about 24,000 +pounds sterling. No doubt a copper-mine with care is a sure game, +whereas the other is gambling, or rather taking a ticket in a lottery. +The owners lose great quantities of rich ores; for no precautions can +prevent robberies. I heard of a gentleman laying a bet with another, +that one of his men should rob him before his face. The ore when +brought out of the mine is broken into pieces, and the useless stone +thrown on one side. A couple of the miners who were thus employed, +pitched, as if by accident, two fragments away at the same moment, and +then cried out for a joke “Let us see which rolls furthest.” The owner, +who was standing by, bet a cigar with his friend on the race. The miner +by this means watched the very point amongst the rubbish where the +stone lay. In the evening he picked it up and carried it to his master, +showing him a rich mass of silver-ore, and saying, “This was the stone +on which you won a cigar by its rolling so far.” + +_May_ 23_rd._—We descended into the fertile valley of Coquimbo, and +followed it till we reached an Hacienda belonging to a relation of Don +Jose, where we stayed the next day. I then rode one day’s journey +farther, to see what were declared to be some petrified shells and +beans, which latter turned out to be small quartz pebbles. We passed +through several small villages; and the valley was beautifully +cultivated, and the whole scenery very grand. We were here near the +main Cordillera, and the surrounding hills were lofty. In all parts of +Northern Chile fruit trees produce much more abundantly at a +considerable height near the Andes than in the lower country. The figs +and grapes of this district are +famous for their excellence, and are cultivated to a great extent. This +valley is, perhaps, the most productive one north of Quillota. I +believe it contains, including Coquimbo, 25,000 inhabitants. The next +day I returned to the Hacienda, and thence, together with Don Jose, to +Coquimbo. + +_June_ 2_nd._—We set out for the valley of Guasco, following the +coast-road, which was considered rather less desert than the other. Our +first day’s ride was to a solitary house, called Yerba Buena, where +there was pasture for our horses. The shower mentioned as having fallen +a fortnight ago, only reached about half-way to Guasco; we had, +therefore, in the first part of our journey a most faint tinge of +green, which soon faded quite away. Even where brightest, it was +scarcely sufficient to remind one of the fresh turf and budding flowers +of the spring of other countries. While travelling through these +deserts one feels like a prisoner shut up in a gloomy court, who longs +to see something green and to smell a moist atmosphere. + +_June_ 3_rd._—Yerba Buena to Carizal. During the first part of the day +we crossed a mountainous rocky desert, and afterwards a long deep sandy +plain, strewed with broken sea-shells. There was very little water, and +that little saline: the whole country, from the coast to the +Cordillera, is an uninhabited desert. I saw traces only of one living +animal in abundance, namely, the shells of a Bulimus, which were +collected together in extraordinary numbers on the driest spots. In the +spring one humble little plant sends out a few leaves, and on these the +snails feed. As they are seen only very early in the morning, when the +ground is slightly damp with dew, the Guasos believe that they are bred +from it. I have observed in other places that extremely dry and sterile +districts, where the soil is calcareous, are extraordinarily favourable +to land-shells. At Carizal there were a few cottages, some brackish +water, and a trace of cultivation: but it was with difficulty that we +purchased a little corn and straw for our horses. + +4_th._—Carizal to Sauce. We continued to ride over desert plains, +tenanted by large herds of guanaco. We crossed also the valley of +Chañeral; which, although the most fertile one between Guasco and +Coquimbo, is very narrow, and produces so little pasture that we could +not purchase any for our horses. At Sauce we found a very civil old +gentleman, superintending +a copper-smelting furnace. As an especial favour, he allowed me to +purchase at a high price an armful of dirty straw, which was all the +poor horses had for supper after their long day’s journey. Few +smelting-furnaces are now at work in any part of Chile; it is found +more profitable, on account of the extreme scarcity of firewood, and +from the Chilian method of reduction being so unskilful, to ship the +ore for Swansea. The next day we crossed some mountains to Freyrina, in +the valley of Guasco. During each day’s ride farther northward, the +vegetation became more and more scanty; even the great chandelier-like +cactus was here replaced by a different and much smaller species. +During the winter months, both in Northern Chile and in Peru, a uniform +bank of clouds hangs, at no great height, over the Pacific. From the +mountains we had a very striking view of this white and brilliant +aërial field, which sent arms up the valleys, leaving islands and +promontories in the same manner as the sea does in the Chonos +archipelago and in Tierra del Fuego. + +We stayed two days at Freyrina. In the valley of Guasco there are four +small towns. At the mouth there is the port, a spot entirely desert, +and without any water in the immediate neighbourhood. Five leagues +higher up stands Freyrina, a long straggling village, with decent +whitewashed houses. Again, ten leagues further up Ballenar is situated, +and above this Guasco Alto, a horticultural village, famous for its +dried fruit. On a clear day the view up the valley is very fine; the +straight opening terminates in the far-distant snowy Cordillera; on +each side an infinity of crossing lines are blended together in a +beautiful haze. The foreground is singular from the number of parallel +and step-formed terraces; and the included strip of green valley, with +its willow-bushes, is contrasted on both hands with the naked hills. +That the surrounding country was most barren will be readily believed, +when it is known that a shower of rain had not fallen during the last +thirteen months. The inhabitants heard with the greatest envy of the +rain at Coquimbo; from the appearance of the sky they had hopes of +equally good fortune, which, a fortnight afterwards, were realised. I +was at Copiapó at the time; and there the people, with equal envy, +talked of the abundant rain at Guasco. After two or three very dry +years, perhaps with not more than one shower during the +whole time, a rainy year generally follows; and this does more harm +than even the drought. The rivers swell, and cover with gravel and sand +the narrow strips of ground which alone are fit for cultivation. The +floods also injure the irrigating ditches. Great devastation had thus +been caused three years ago. + +_June_ 8_th._—We rode on to Ballenar, which takes its name from +Ballenagh in Ireland, the birthplace of the family of O’Higgins, who, +under the Spanish government, were presidents and generals in Chile. As +the rocky mountains on each hand were concealed by clouds, the +terrace-like plains gave to the valley an appearance like that of Santa +Cruz in Patagonia. After spending one day at Ballenar I set out, on the +10th, for the upper part of the valley of Copiapó. We rode all day over +an uninteresting country. I am tired of repeating the epithets barren +and sterile. These words, however, as commonly used, are comparative; I +have always applied them to the plains of Patagonia, which can boast of +spiny bushes and some tufts of grass; and this is absolute fertility, +as compared with Northern Chile. Here again, there are not many spaces +of two hundred yards square, where some little bush, cactus or lichen, +may not be discovered by careful examination; and in the soil seeds lie +dormant ready to spring up during the first rainy winter. In Peru real +deserts occur over wide tracts of country. In the evening we arrived at +a valley in which the bed of the streamlet was damp: following it up, +we came to tolerably good water. During the night the stream, from not +being evaporated and absorbed so quickly, flows a league lower down +than during the day. Sticks were plentiful for firewood, so that it was +a good place of bivouac for us; but for the poor animals there was not +a mouthful to eat. + +_June_ 11_th._—We rode without stopping for twelve hours till we +reached an old smelting-furnace, where there was water and firewood; +but our horses again had nothing to eat, being shut up in an old +courtyard. The line of road was hilly, and the distant views +interesting from the varied colours of the bare mountains. It was +almost a pity to see the sun shining constantly over so useless a +country; such splendid weather ought to have brightened fields and +pretty gardens. The next day we reached the valley of Copiapó. I was +heartily glad of it; for the whole journey was a continued source of +anxiety; +it was most disagreeable to hear, whilst eating our own suppers, our +horses gnawing the posts to which they were tied, and to have no means +of relieving their hunger. To all appearance, however, the animals were +quite fresh; and no one could have told that they had eaten nothing for +the last fifty-five hours. + +I had a letter of introduction to Mr. Bingley, who received me very +kindly at the Hacienda of Potrero Seco. This estate is between twenty +and thirty miles long, but very narrow, being generally only two fields +wide, one on each side the river. In some parts the estate is of no +width, that is to say, the land cannot be irrigated, and therefore is +valueless, like the surrounding rocky desert. The small quantity of +cultivated land in the whole line of valley does not so much depend on +inequalities of level, and consequent unfitness for irrigation, as on +the small supply of water. The river this year was remarkably full: +here, high up the valley, it reached to the horse’s belly, and was +about fifteen yards wide, and rapid; lower down it becomes smaller and +smaller, and is generally quite lost, as happened during one period of +thirty years, so that not a drop entered the sea. The inhabitants watch +a storm over the Cordillera with great interest; as one good fall of +snow provides them with water for the ensuing year. This is of +infinitely more consequence than rain in the lower country. Rain, as +often as it falls, which is about once in every two or three years, is +a great advantage, because the cattle and mules can for some time +afterwards find a little pasture in the mountains. But without snow on +the Andes, desolation extends throughout the valley. It is on record +that three times nearly all the inhabitants have been obliged to +emigrate to the south. This year there was plenty of water, and every +man irrigated his ground as much as he chose; but it has frequently +been necessary to post soldiers at the sluices, to see that each estate +took only its proper allowance during so many hours in the week. The +valley is said to contain 12,000 souls, but its produce is sufficient +only for three months in the year; the rest of the supply being drawn +from Valparaiso and the south. Before the discovery of the famous +silver-mines of Chanuncillo, Copiapó was in a rapid state of decay; but +now it is in a very thriving condition; and the town, which was +completely overthrown by an earthquake, has been rebuilt. + + +The valley of Copiapó, forming a mere ribbon of green in a desert, runs +in a very southerly direction; so that it is of considerable length to +its source in the Cordillera. The valleys of Guasco and Copiapó may +both be considered as long narrow islands, separated from the rest of +Chile by deserts of rock instead of by salt water. Northward of these, +there is one other very miserable valley, called Paposo, which contains +about two hundred souls; and then there extends the real desert of +Atacama—a barrier far worse than the most turbulent ocean. After +staying a few days at Potrero Seco, I proceeded up the valley to the +house of Don Benito Cruz, to whom I had a letter of introduction. I +found him most hospitable; indeed it is impossible to bear too strong +testimony to the kindness with which travellers are received in almost +every part of South America. The next day I hired some mules to take me +by the ravine of Jolquera into the central Cordillera. On the second +night the weather seemed to foretell a storm of snow or rain, and +whilst lying in our beds we felt a trifling shock of an earthquake. + +The connexion between earthquakes and the weather has been often +disputed: it appears to me to be a point of great interest, which is +little understood. Humboldt has remarked in one part of the _ Personal +Narrative,_[1] that it would be difficult for any person who had long +resided in New Andalusia, or in Lower Peru, to deny that there exists +some connection between these phenomena: in another part, however, he +seems to think the connexion fanciful. At Guayaquil it is said that a +heavy shower in the dry season is invariably followed by an earthquake. +In Northern Chile, from the extreme infrequency of rain, or even of +weather foreboding rain, the probability of accidental coincidences +becomes very small; yet the inhabitants are here most firmly convinced +of some connexion between the state of the atmosphere and of the +trembling of the ground: I was much struck by this when mentioning to +some people at Copiapó that there had been a sharp shock at Coquimbo: +they +immediately cried out, “How fortunate! there will be plenty of pasture +there this year.” To their minds an earthquake foretold rain as surely +as rain foretold abundant pasture. Certainly it did so happen that on +the very day of the earthquake that shower of rain fell which I have +described as in ten days’ time producing a thin sprinkling of grass. At +other times rain has followed earthquakes at a period of the year when +it is a far greater prodigy than the earthquake itself: this happened +after the shock of November 1822, and again in 1829 at Valparaiso; also +after that of September 1833, at Tacna. A person must be somewhat +habituated to the climate of these countries to perceive the extreme +improbability of rain falling at such seasons, except as a consequence +of some law quite unconnected with the ordinary course of the weather. +In the cases of great volcanic eruptions, as that of Coseguina, where +torrents of rain fell at a time of the year most unusual for it, and +“almost unprecedented in Central America,” it is not difficult to +understand that the volumes of vapour and clouds of ashes might have +disturbed the atmospheric equilibrium. Humboldt extends this view to +the case of earthquakes unaccompanied by eruptions; but I can hardly +conceive it possible that the small quantity of aëriform fluids which +then escape from the fissured ground can produce such remarkable +effects. There appears much probability in the view first proposed by +Mr. P. Scrope, that when the barometer is low, and when rain might +naturally be expected to fall, the diminished pressure of the +atmosphere over a wide extent of country might well determine the +precise day on which the earth, already stretched to the utmost by the +subterranean forces, should yield, crack, and consequently tremble. It +is, however, doubtful how far this idea will explain the circumstance +of torrents of rain falling in the dry season during several days, +after an earthquake unaccompanied by an eruption; such cases seem to +bespeak some more intimate connexion between the atmospheric and +subterranean regions. + + [1] Vol. iv, p. 11 and vol. ii, p. 217. For the remarks on Guayaquil + see Silliman’s _Journ._ vol. xxiv, p. 384. For those on Tacna by Mr. + Hamilton see _Trans. of British Association,_ 1840. For those on + Coseguina see Mr. Caldcleugh in _Phil. Trans._ 1835. In the former + edition I collected several references on the coincidences between + sudden falls in the barometer and earthquakes; and between earthquakes + and meteors. + +Finding little of interest in this part of the ravine, we retraced our +steps to the house of Don Benito, where I stayed two days collecting +fossil shells and wood. Great prostrate silicified trunks of trees, +embedded in a conglomerate, were +extraordinarily numerous. I measured one which was fifteen feet in +circumference: how surprising it is that every atom of the woody matter +in this great cylinder should have been removed and replaced by silex +so perfectly that each vessel and pore is preserved! These trees +flourished at about the period of our lower chalk; they all belonged to +the fir-tribe. It was amusing to hear the inhabitants discussing the +nature of the fossil shells which I collected, almost in the same terms +as were used a century ago in Europe,—namely, whether or not they had +been thus “born by nature.” My geological examination of the country +generally created a good deal of surprise amongst the Chilenos: it was +long before they could be convinced that I was not hunting for mines. +This was sometimes troublesome: I found the most ready way of +explaining my employment was to ask them how it was that they +themselves were not curious concerning earthquakes and volcanos?—why +some springs were hot and others cold?—why there were mountains in +Chile, and not a hill in La Plata? These bare questions at once +satisfied and silenced the greater number; some, however (like a few in +England who are a century behindhand), thought that all such inquiries +were useless and impious; and that it was quite sufficient that God had +thus made the mountains. + +An order had recently been issued that all stray dogs should be killed, +and we saw many lying dead on the road. A great number had lately gone +mad, and several men had been bitten and had died in consequence. On +several occasions hydrophobia has prevailed in this valley. It is +remarkable thus to find so strange and dreadful a disease appearing +time after time in the same isolated spot. It has been remarked that +certain villages in England are in like manner much more subject to +this visitation than others. Dr. Unanùe states that hydrophobia was +first known in South America in 1803: this statement is corroborated by +Azara and Ulloa having never heard of it in their time. Dr. Unanùe says +that it broke out in Central America, and slowly travelled southward. +It reached Arequipa in 1807; and it is said that some men there, who +had not been bitten, were affected, as were some negroes, who had eaten +a bullock which had died of hydrophobia. At Ica forty-two people thus +miserably perished. +The disease came on between twelve and ninety days after the bite; and +in those cases where it did come on, death ensued invariably within +five days. After 1808 a long interval ensued without any cases. On +inquiry, I did not hear of hydrophobia in Van Diemen’s Land, or in +Australia; and Burchell says that during the five years he was at the +Cape of Good Hope, he never heard of an instance of it. Webster asserts +that at the Azores hydrophobia has never occurred; and the same +assertion has been made with respect to Mauritius and St. Helena.[2] In +so strange a disease some information might possibly be gained by +considering the circumstances under which it originates in distant +climates; for it is improbable that a dog already bitten should have +been brought to these distant countries. + + [2] _Observa. sobre el clima de Lima,_ p. 67.—Azara’s _Travels,_ vol. + i, p. 381.—Ulloa’s _ Voyage,_ vol. ii, p. 28.—Burchell’s _Travels,_ + vol. ii, p. 524.—Webster’s _Description of the Azores,_ p. + 124.—_Voyage à l’Isle de France par un Officier du Roi,_ tome i, p. + 248.—_Description of St. Helena,_ p. 123. + +At night a stranger arrived at the house of Don Benito and asked +permission to sleep there. He said he had been wandering about the +mountains for seventeen days, having lost his way. He started from +Guasco, and being accustomed to travelling in the Cordillera, did not +expect any difficulty in following the track to Copiapó; but he soon +became involved in a labyrinth of mountains whence he could not escape. +Some of his mules had fallen over precipices and he had been in great +distress. His chief difficulty arose from not knowing where to find +water in the lower country, so that he was obliged to keep bordering +the central ranges. + +We returned down the valley, and on the 22nd reached the town of +Copiapó. The lower part of the valley is broad, forming a fine plain +like that of Quillota. The town covers a considerable space of ground, +each house possessing a garden: but it is an uncomfortable place, and +the dwellings are poorly furnished. Every one seems bent on the one +object of making money, and then migrating as quickly as possible. All +the inhabitants are more or less directly concerned with mines; and +mines and ores are the sole subjects of conversation. Necessaries of +all sorts are extremely dear; as the distance from the town to the port +is eighteen leagues, and the land +carriage very expensive. A fowl costs five or six shillings; meat is +nearly as dear as in England; firewood, or rather sticks, are brought +on donkeys from a distance of two and three days’ journey within the +Cordillera; and pasturage for animals is a shilling a day: all this for +South America is wonderfully exorbitant. + + +_June_ 26_th._—I hired a guide and eight mules to take me into the +Cordillera by a different line from my last excursion. As the country +was utterly desert, we took a cargo and a half of barley mixed with +chopped straw. About two leagues above the town a broad valley called +the “Despoblado,” or uninhabited, branches off from that one by which +we had arrived. Although a valley of the grandest dimensions, and +leading to a pass across the Cordillera, yet it is completely dry, +excepting perhaps for a few days during some very rainy winter. The +sides of the crumbling mountains were furrowed by scarcely any ravines; +and the bottom of the main valley, filled with shingle, was smooth and +nearly level. No considerable torrent could ever have flowed down this +bed of shingle; for if it had, a great cliff-bounded channel, as in all +the southern valleys, would assuredly have been formed. I feel little +doubt that this valley, as well as those mentioned by travellers in +Peru, were left in the state we now see them by the waves of the sea, +as the land slowly rose. I observed in one place where the Despoblado +was joined by a ravine (which in almost any other chain would have been +called a grand valley), that its bed, though composed merely of sand +and gravel, was higher than that of its tributary. A mere rivulet of +water, in the course of an hour, would have cut a channel for itself; +but it was evident that ages had passed away, and no such rivulet had +drained this great tributary. It was curious to behold the machinery, +if such a term may be used, for the drainage, all, with the last +trifling exception, perfect, yet without any signs of action. Every one +must have remarked how mud-banks, left by the retiring tide, imitate in +miniature a country with hill and dale; and here we have the original +model in rock, formed as the continent rose during the secular +retirement of the ocean, instead of during the ebbing and flowing of +the tides. If a shower of rain falls on the +mud-bank, when left dry, it deepens the already-formed shallow lines of +excavation; and so it is with the rain of successive centuries on the +bank of rock and soil, which we call a continent. + +We rode on after it was dark, till we reached a side ravine with a +small well, called “Agua amarga.” The water deserved its name, for +besides being saline it was most offensively putrid and bitter; so that +we could not force ourselves to drink either tea or maté. I suppose the +distance from the river of Copiapó to this spot was at least +twenty-five or thirty English miles; in the whole space there was not a +single drop of water, the country deserving the name of desert in the +strictest sense. Yet about half-way we passed some old Indian ruins +near Punta Gorda: I noticed also in front of some of the valleys which +branch off from the Despoblado, two piles of stones placed a little way +apart, and directed so as to point up the mouths of these small +valleys. My companions knew nothing about them, and only answered my +queries by their imperturbable “quien sabe?” + +I observed Indian ruins in several parts of the Cordillera: the most +perfect which I saw were the Ruinas de Tambillos in the Uspallata Pass. +Small square rooms were there huddled together in separate groups: some +of the doorways were yet standing; they were formed by a cross slab of +stone only about three feet high. Ulloa has remarked on the lowness of +the doors in the ancient Peruvian dwellings. These houses, when +perfect, must have been capable of containing a considerable number of +persons. Tradition says that they were used as halting-places for the +Incas, when they crossed the mountains. Traces of Indian habitations +have been discovered in many other parts, where it does not appear +probable that they were used as mere resting-places, but yet where the +land is as utterly unfit for any kind of cultivation as it is near the +Tambillos or at the Incas Bridge, or in the Portillo Pass, at all which +places I saw ruins. In the ravine of Jajuel, near Aconcagua, where +there is no pass, I heard of remains of houses situated at a great +height, where it is extremely cold and sterile. At first I imagined +that these buildings had been places of refuge, built by the Indians on +the first arrival of the Spaniards; but I have since been inclined to +speculate on the probability of a small change of climate. + + +In this northern part of Chile, within the Cordillera, old Indian +houses are said to be especially numerous: by digging amongst the +ruins, bits of woollen articles, instruments of precious metals, and +heads of Indian corn, are not unfrequently discovered: an arrow-head +made of agate, and of precisely the same form with those now used in +Tierra del Fuego, was given me. I am aware that the Peruvian Indians +now frequently inhabit most lofty and bleak situations; but at Copiapó +I was assured by men who had spent their lives in travelling through +the Andes, that there were very many (_muchisimas_) buildings at +heights so great as almost to border on the perpetual snow, and in +parts where there exist no passes, and where the land produces +absolutely nothing, and what is still more extraordinary, where there +is no water. Nevertheless it is the opinion of the people of the +country (although they are much puzzled by the circumstance), that, +from the appearance of the houses, the Indians must have used them as +places of residence. In this valley, at Punta Gorda, the remains +consisted of seven or eight square little rooms, which were of a +similar form with those at Tambillos, but built chiefly of mud, which +the present inhabitants cannot, either here or, according to Ulloa, in +Peru, imitate in durability. They were situated in the most conspicuous +and defenceless position, at the bottom of the flat broad valley. There +was no water nearer than three or four leagues, and that only in very +small quantity, and bad: the soil was absolutely sterile; I looked in +vain even for a lichen adhering to the rocks. At the present day, with +the advantage of beasts of burden, a mine, unless it were very rich, +could scarcely be worked here with profit. Yet the Indians formerly +chose it as a place of residence! If at the present time two or three +showers of rain were to fall annually, instead of one, as now is the +case, during as many years, a small rill of water would probably be +formed in this great valley; and then, by irrigation (which was +formerly so well understood by the Indians), the soil would easily be +rendered sufficiently productive to support a few families. + +I have convincing proofs that this part of the continent of South +America has been elevated near the coast at least from 400 to 500, and +in some parts from 1000 to 1300 feet, since the epoch of existing +shells; and farther inland the rise possibly +may have been greater. As the peculiarly arid character of the climate +is evidently a consequence of the height of the Cordillera, we may feel +almost sure that before the later elevations, the atmosphere could not +have been so completely drained of its moisture as it now is; and as +the rise has been gradual, so would have been the change in climate. On +this notion of a change of climate since the buildings were inhabited, +the ruins must be of extreme antiquity, but I do not think their +preservation under the Chilian climate any great difficulty. We must +also admit on this notion (and this perhaps is a greater difficulty) +that man has inhabited South America for an immensely long period, +inasmuch as any change of climate effected by the elevation of the land +must have been extremely gradual. At Valparaiso, within the last 220 +years, the rise has been somewhat less than 19 feet: at Lima a +sea-beach has certainly been upheaved from 80 to 90 feet, within the +Indio-human period: but such small elevations could have had little +power in deflecting the moisture-bringing atmospheric currents. Dr. +Lund, however, found human skeletons in the caves of Brazil, the +appearance of which induced him to believe that the Indian race has +existed during a vast lapse of time in South America. + +When at Lima, I conversed on these subjects[3] with Mr. Gill, a civil +engineer, who had seen much of the interior country. He told me that a +conjecture of a change of climate had sometimes crossed his mind; but +that he thought that the greater portion of land, now incapable of +cultivation, but covered with Indian ruins, had been reduced to this +state by the water-conduits, which the Indians formerly constructed on +so wonderful a scale, having been injured by neglect and by +subterranean movements. I may here mention that the Peruvians actually +carried their irrigating streams in tunnels through hills of solid +rock. Mr. Gill told me he had been employed professionally to examine +one: he found the passage low, narrow, crooked, and not of uniform +breadth, but of very considerable length. Is it not most wonderful that +men should +have attempted such operations, without the use of iron or gunpowder? +Mr. Gill also mentioned to me a most interesting, and, as far as I am +aware, quite unparalleled case, of a subterranean disturbance having +changed the drainage of a country. Travelling from Casma to Huaraz (not +very far distant from Lima), he found a plain covered with ruins and +marks of ancient cultivation but now quite barren. Near it was the dry +course of a considerable river, whence the water for irrigation had +formerly been conducted. There was nothing in the appearance of the +watercourse to indicate that the river had not flowed there a few years +previously; in some parts, beds of sand and gravel were spread out; in +others, the solid rock had been worn into a broad channel, which in one +spot was about 40 yards in breadth and 8 feet deep. It is self-evident +that a person following up the course of a stream will always ascend at +a greater or less inclination: Mr. Gill, therefore, was much +astonished, when walking up the bed of this ancient river, to find +himself suddenly going down hill. He imagined that the downward slope +had a fall of about 40 or 50 feet perpendicular. We here have +unequivocal evidence that a ridge had been uplifted right across the +old bed of a stream. From the moment the river-course was thus arched, +the water must necessarily have been thrown back, and a new channel +formed. From that moment, also, the neighbouring plain must have lost +its fertilising stream, and become a desert. + + [3] Temple, in his travels through Upper Peru, or Bolivia, in going + from Potosi to Oruro, says “I saw many Indian villages or dwellings in + ruins, up even to the very tops of the mountains, attesting a former + population where now all is desolate.” He makes similar remarks in + another place; but I cannot tell whether this desolation has been + caused by a want of population, or by an altered condition of the + land. + + +_June_ 27_th._—We set out early in the morning, and by mid-day reached +the ravine of Paypote, where there is a tiny rill of water, with a +little vegetation, and even a few algarroba trees, a kind of mimosa. +From having firewood, a smelting-furnace had formerly been built here: +we found a solitary man in charge of it, whose sole employment was +hunting guanacos. At night it froze sharply; but having plenty of wood +for our fire, we kept ourselves warm. + +_June_ 28_th._—We continued gradually ascending, and the valley now +changed into a ravine. During the day we saw several guanacos, and the +track of the closely-allied species, the Vicuña: this latter animal is +pre-eminently alpine in its habits; it seldom descends much below the +limit of perpetual snow, and therefore haunts even a more lofty and +sterile situation than the guanaco. +The only other animal which we saw in any number was a small fox: I +suppose this animal preys on the mice and other small rodents which, as +long as there is the least vegetation, subsist in considerable numbers +in very desert places. In Patagonia, even on the borders of the +salinas, where a drop of fresh water can never be found, excepting dew, +these little animals swarm. Next to lizards, mice appear to be able to +support existence on the smallest and driest portions of the earth—even +on islets in the midst of great oceans. + +The scene on all sides showed desolation, brightened and made palpable +by a clear, unclouded sky. For a time such scenery is sublime, but this +feeling cannot last, and then it becomes uninteresting. We bivouacked +at the foot of the “primera linea,” or the first line of the partition +of the waters. The streams, however, on the east side do not flow to +the Atlantic, but into an elevated district, in the middle of which +there is a large salina, or salt lake;—thus forming a little Caspian +Sea at the height, perhaps, of ten thousand feet. Where we slept, there +were some considerable patches of snow, but they do not remain +throughout the year. The winds in these lofty regions obey very regular +laws; every day a fresh breeze blows up the valley, and at night, an +hour or two after sunset, the air from the cold regions above descends +as through a funnel. This night it blew a gale of wind, and the +temperature must have been considerably below the freezing-point, for +water in a vessel soon became a block of ice. No clothes seemed to +oppose any obstacle to the air; I suffered very much from the cold, so +that I could not sleep, and in the morning rose with my body quite dull +and benumbed. + +In the Cordillera farther southward people lose their lives from +snow-storms; here, it sometimes happens from another cause. My guide, +when a boy of fourteen years old, was passing the Cordillera with a +party in the month of May; and while in the central parts, a furious +gale of wind arose, so that the men could hardly cling on their mules, +and stones were flying along the ground. The day was cloudless, and not +a speck of snow fell, but the temperature was low. It is probable that +the thermometer would not have stood very many degrees below the +freezing-point, but the effect on their bodies, ill protected by +clothing, must have been in proportion to the rapidity of the current +of cold air. The gale lasted for more than a day; the +men began to lose their strength, and the mules would not move onwards. +My guide’s brother tried to return, but he perished, and his body was +found two years afterwards, lying by the side of his mule near the +road, with the bridle still in his hand. Two other men in the party +lost their fingers and toes; and out of two hundred mules and thirty +cows, only fourteen mules escaped alive. Many years ago the whole of a +large party are supposed to have perished from a similar cause, but +their bodies to this day have never been discovered. The union of a +cloudless sky, low temperature, and a furious gale of wind, must be, I +should think, in all parts of the world an unusual occurrence. + + +_June_ 29_th._—We gladly travelled down the valley to our former +night’s lodging, and thence to near the Agua amarga. On July 1st we +reached the valley of Copiapó. The smell of the fresh clover was quite +delightful, after the scentless air of the dry sterile Despoblado. +Whilst staying in the town I heard an account from several of the +inhabitants, of a hill in the neighbourhood which they called “El +Bramador,”—the roarer or bellower. I did not at the time pay sufficient +attention to the account; but, as far as I understood, the hill was +covered by sand, and the noise was produced only when people, by +ascending it, put the sand in motion. The same circumstances are +described in detail on the authority of Seetzen and Ehrenberg,[4] as +the cause of the sounds which have been heard by many travellers on +Mount Sinai near the Red Sea. One person with whom I conversed had +himself heard the noise: he described it as very surprising; and he +distinctly stated that, although he could not understand how it was +caused, yet it was necessary to set the sand rolling down the +acclivity. A horse walking over dry and coarse sand causes a peculiar +chirping noise from the friction of the particles; a circumstance which +I several times noticed on the coast of Brazil. + + [4] _Edinburgh Phil. Journ._ Jan. 1830, p. 74; and April 1830, p 258. + Also Daubeny on Volcanoes, p. 438; and _ Bengal Journ._ vol. vii, p. + 324. + +Three days afterwards I heard of the _Beagle’s_ arrival at the Port, +distant eighteen leagues from the town. There is very little land +cultivated down the valley; its wide expanse supports a wretched wiry +grass, which even the donkeys can hardly eat. +This poorness of the vegetation is owing to the quantity of saline +matter with which the soil is impregnated. The Port consists of an +assemblage of miserable little hovels, situated at the foot of a +sterile plain. At present, as the river contains water enough to reach +the sea, the inhabitants enjoy the advantage of having fresh water +within a mile and a half. On the beach there were large piles of +merchandise, and the little place had an air of activity. In the +evening I gave my adios, with a hearty good-will, to my companion +Mariano Gonzales, with whom I had ridden so many leagues in Chile. The +next morning the _Beagle_ sailed for Iquique. + + +_July_ 12_th._—We anchored in the port of Iquique, in latitude 20° 12′, +on the coast of Peru. The town contains about a thousand inhabitants, +and stands on a little plain of sand at the foot of a great wall of +rock, 2000 feet in height, here forming the coast. The whole is utterly +desert. A light shower of rain falls only once in very many years; and +the ravines consequently are filled with detritus, and the +mountainsides covered by piles of fine white sand, even to a height of +a thousand feet. During this season of the year a heavy bank of clouds, +stretched over the ocean, seldom rises above the wall of rocks on the +coast. The aspect of the place was most gloomy; the little port, with +its few vessels, and small group of wretched houses, seemed overwhelmed +and out of all proportion with the rest of the scene. + +The inhabitants live like persons on board a ship: every necessary +comes from a distance: water is brought in boats from Pisagua, about +forty miles northward, and is sold at the rate of nine reals (4s. 6d.) +an eighteen-gallon cask: I bought a wine-bottle full for threepence. In +like manner firewood, and of course every article of food, is imported. +Very few animals can be maintained in such a place: on the ensuing +morning I hired with difficulty, at the price of four pounds sterling, +two mules and a guide to take me to the nitrate of soda works. These +are at present the support of Iquique. This salt was first exported in +1830: in one year an amount in value of one hundred thousand pounds +sterling was sent to France and England. It is principally used as a +manure and in the manufacture of nitric acid: owing to its deliquescent +property +it will not serve for gunpowder. Formerly there were two exceedingly +rich silver-mines in this neighbourhood, but their produce is now very +small. + +Our arrival in the offing caused some little apprehension. Peru was in +a state of anarchy; and each party having demanded a contribution, the +poor town of Iquique was in tribulation, thinking the evil hour was +come. The people had also their domestic troubles; a short time before, +three French carpenters had broken open, during the same night, the two +churches, and stolen all the plate: one of the robbers, however, +subsequently confessed, and the plate was recovered. The convicts were +sent to Arequipa, which, though the capital of this province, is two +hundred leagues distant; the government there thought it a pity to +punish such useful workmen who could make all sorts of furniture; and +accordingly liberated them. Things being in this state, the churches +were again broken open, but this time the plate was not recovered. The +inhabitants became dreadfully enraged, and declaring that none but +heretics would thus “eat God Almighty,” proceeded to torture some +Englishmen, with the intention of afterwards shooting them. At last the +authorities interfered, and peace was established. + +13_th._—In the morning I started for the saltpetre-works, a distance of +fourteen leagues. Having ascended the steep coast-mountains by a zigzag +sandy track, we soon came in view of the mines of Guantajaya and St. +Rosa. These two small villages are placed at the very mouths of the +mines; and being perched up on hills, they had a still more unnatural +and desolate appearance than the town of Iquique. We did not reach the +saltpetre works till after sunset, having ridden all day across an +undulating country, a complete and utter desert. The road was strewed +with the bones and dried skins of many beasts of burden which had +perished on it from fatigue. Excepting the Vultur aura, which preys on +the carcasses, I saw neither bird, quadruped, reptile, nor insect. On +the coast-mountains, at the height of about 2000 feet, where during +this season the clouds generally hang, a very few cacti were growing in +the clefts of rock; and the loose sand was strewed over with a lichen, +which lies on the surface quite unattached. This plant belongs to the +genus Cladonia, and somewhat resembles the +reindeer lichen. In some parts it was in sufficient quantity to tinge +the sand, as seen from a distance, of a pale yellowish colour. Farther +inland, during the whole ride of fourteen leagues, I saw only one other +vegetable production, and that was a most minute yellow lichen, growing +on the bones of the dead mules. This was the first true desert which I +had seen: the effect on me was not impressive; but I believe this was +owing to my having become gradually accustomed to such scenes, as I +rode northward from Valparaiso, through Coquimbo, to Copiapó. The +appearance of the country was remarkable, from being covered by a thick +crust of common salt, and of a stratified saliferous alluvium, which +seems to have been deposited as the land slowly rose above the level of +the sea. The salt is white, very hard, and compact: it occurs in +water-worn nodules projecting from the agglutinated sand, and is +associated with much gypsum. The appearance of this superficial mass +very closely resembled that of a country after snow, before the last +dirty patches are thawed. The existence of this crust of a soluble +substance over the whole face of the country shows how extraordinarily +dry the climate must have been for a long period. + +At night I slept at the house of the owner of one of the saltpetre +mines. The country is here as unproductive as near the coast; but +water, having rather a bitter and brackish taste, can be procured by +digging wells. The well at this house was thirty-six yards deep: as +scarcely any rain falls, it is evident the water is not thus derived; +indeed if it were, it could not fail to be as salt as brine, for the +whole surrounding country is incrusted with various saline substances. +We must therefore conclude that it percolates under ground from the +Cordillera, though distant many leagues. In that direction there are a +few small villages, where the inhabitants, having more water, are +enabled to irrigate a little land, and raise hay, on which the mules +and asses, employed in carrying the saltpetre, are fed. The nitrate of +soda was now selling at the ship’s side at fourteen shillings per +hundred pounds: the chief expense is its transport to the sea-coast. +The mine consists of a hard stratum, between two and three feet thick, +of the nitrate mingled with a little of the sulphate of soda and a good +deal of common salt. It lies close beneath the surface, and follows for +a length of +one hundred and fifty miles the margin of a grand basin or plain; this, +from its outline, manifestly must once have been a lake, or more +probably an inland arm of the sea, as may be inferred from the presence +of iodic salts in the saline stratum. The surface of the plain is 3300 +feet above the Pacific. + + +19_th._—We anchored in the Bay of Callao, the seaport of Lima, the +capital of Peru. We stayed here six weeks, but from the troubled state +of public affairs I saw very little of the country. During our whole +visit the climate was far from being so delightful as it is generally +represented. A dull heavy bank of clouds constantly hung over the land, +so that during the first sixteen days I had only one view of the +Cordillera behind Lima. These mountains, seen in stages, one above the +other, through openings in the clouds, had a very grand appearance. It +is almost become a proverb, that rain never falls in the lower part of +Peru. Yet this can hardly be considered correct; for during almost +every day of our visit there was a thick drizzling mist, which was +sufficient to make the streets muddy and one’s clothes damp: this the +people are pleased to call Peruvian dew. That much rain does not fall +is very certain, for the houses are covered only with flat roofs made +of hardened mud; and on the mole ship-loads of wheat were piled up, +being thus left for weeks together without any shelter. + +I cannot say I liked the very little I saw of Peru: in summer, however, +it is said that the climate is much pleasanter. In all seasons, both +inhabitants and foreigners suffer from severe attacks of ague. This +disease is common on the whole coast of Peru, but is unknown in the +interior. The attacks of illness which arise from miasma never fail to +appear most mysterious. So difficult is it to judge from the aspect of +a country, whether or not it is healthy, that if a person had been told +to choose within the tropics a situation appearing favourable for +health, very probably he would have named this coast. The plain round +the outskirts of Callao is sparingly covered with a coarse grass, and +in some parts there are a few stagnant, though very small, pools of +water. The miasma, in all probability, arises from these: for the town +of Arica was similarly circumstanced, and its healthiness was much +improved +by the drainage of some little pools. Miasma is not always produced by +a luxuriant vegetation with an ardent climate; for many parts of +Brazil, even where there are marshes and a rank vegetation, are much +more healthy than this sterile coast of Peru. The densest forests in a +temperate climate, as in Chiloe, do not seem in the slightest degree to +affect the healthy condition of the atmosphere. + +The island of St. Jago, at the Cape de Verds, offers another +strongly-marked instance of a country, which any one would have +expected to find most healthy, being very much the contrary. I have +described the bare and open plains as supporting, during a few weeks +after the rainy season, a thin vegetation, which directly withers away +and dries up: at this period the air appears to become quite poisonous; +both natives and foreigners often being affected with violent fevers. +On the other hand, the Galapagos Archipelago, in the Pacific, with a +similar soil, and periodically subject to the same process of +vegetation, is perfectly healthy. Humboldt has observed that “under the +torrid zone, the smallest marshes are the most dangerous, being +surrounded, as at Vera Cruz and Carthagena, with an arid and sandy +soil, which raises the temperature of the ambient air.”[5] On the coast +of Peru, however, the temperature is not hot to any excessive degree; +and perhaps in consequence the intermittent fevers are not of the most +malignant order. In all unhealthy countries the greatest risk is run by +sleeping on shore. Is this owing to the state of the body during sleep, +or to a greater abundance of miasma at such times? It appears certain +that those who stay on board a vessel, though anchored at only a short +distance from the coast, generally suffer less than those actually on +shore. On the other hand, I have heard of one remarkable case where a +fever broke out among the crew of a man-of-war some hundred miles off +the coast of Africa, and at the same time one of those fearful +periods[6] of death commenced at Sierra Leone. + + [5] _Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain,_ vol. iv, p. 199. + + + [6] A similar interesting case is recorded in the _Madras Medical + Quart. Journ._ 1839, p. 340. Dr. Ferguson in his admirable Paper (see + 9th vol. of _Edinburgh Royal Trans._), shows clearly that the poison + is generated in the drying process; and hence that dry hot countries + are often the most unhealthy. + +No state in South America, since the declaration of +independence, has suffered more from anarchy than Peru. At the time of +our visit there were four chiefs in arms contending for supremacy in +the government: if one succeeded in becoming for a time very powerful, +the others coalesced against him; but no sooner were they victorious +than they were again hostile to each other. The other day, at the +Anniversary of the Independence, high mass was performed, the President +partaking of the sacrament: during the _Te Deum laudamus,_ instead of +each regiment displaying the Peruvian flag, a black one with death’s +head was unfurled. Imagine a government under which such a scene could +be ordered, on such an occasion, to be typical of their determination +of fighting to death! This state of affairs happened at a time very +unfortunately for me, as I was precluded from taking any excursions +much beyond the limits of the town. The barren island of San Lorenzo, +which forms the harbour, was nearly the only place where one could walk +securely. The upper part, which is upwards of 1000 feet in height, +during this season of the year (winter), comes within the lower limit +of the clouds; and in consequence an abundant cryptogamic vegetation +and a few flowers cover the summit. On the hills near Lima, at a height +but little greater, the ground is carpeted with moss, and beds of +beautiful yellow lilies, called Amancaes. This indicates a very much +greater degree of humidity than at a corresponding height at Iquique. +Proceeding northward of Lima, the climate becomes damper, till on the +banks of the Guayaquil, nearly under the equator, we find the most +luxuriant forests. The change, however, from the sterile coast of Peru +to that fertile land is described as taking place rather abruptly in +the latitude of Cape Blanco, two degrees south of Guayaquil. + +Callao is a filthy, ill-built, small seaport. The inhabitants, both +here and at Lima, present every imaginable shade of mixture, between +European, Negro, and Indian blood. They appear a depraved, drunken set +of people. The atmosphere is loaded with foul smells, and that peculiar +one, which may be perceived in almost every town within the tropics, +was here very strong. The fortress, which withstood Lord Cochrane’s +long siege, has an imposing appearance. But the President, during our +stay, sold the brass guns, and proceeded to dismantle parts of it. The +reason assigned was, that he had not an +officer to whom he could trust so important a charge. He himself had +good reason for thinking so, as he had obtained the presidentship by +rebelling while in charge of this same fortress. After we left South +America, he paid the penalty in the usual manner, by being conquered, +taken prisoner, and shot. + +Lima stands on a plain in a valley, formed during the gradual retreat +of the sea. It is seven miles from Callao, and is elevated 500 feet +above it; but from the slope being very gradual, the road appears +absolutely level; so that when at Lima it is difficult to believe one +has ascended even one hundred feet: Humboldt has remarked on this +singularly deceptive case. Steep barren hills rise like islands from +the plain, which is divided, by straight mud-walls, into large green +fields. In these scarcely a tree grows excepting a few willows, and an +occasional clump of bananas and of oranges. The city of Lima is now in +a wretched state of decay: the streets are nearly unpaved; and heaps of +filth are piled up in all directions, where the black gallinazos, tame +as poultry, pick up bits of carrion. The houses have generally an upper +story, built, on account of the earthquakes, of plastered woodwork; but +some of the old ones, which are now used by several families, are +immensely large, and would rival in suites of apartments the most +magnificent in any place. Lima, the City of the Kings, must formerly +have been a splendid town. The extraordinary number of churches gives +it, even at the present day, a peculiar and striking character, +especially when viewed from a short distance. + +One day I went out with some merchants to hunt in the immediate +vicinity of the city. Our sport was very poor; but I had an opportunity +of seeing the ruins of one of the ancient Indian villages, with its +mound like a natural hill in the centre. The remains of houses, +enclosures, irrigating streams, and burial mounds, scattered over this +plain, cannot fail to give one a high idea of the condition and number +of the ancient population. When their earthenware, woollen clothes, +utensils of elegant forms cut out of the hardest rocks, tools of +copper, ornaments of precious stones, palaces, and hydraulic works, are +considered, it is impossible not to respect the considerable advance +made by them in the arts of civilisation. The burial +mounds, called Huacas, are really stupendous; although in some places +they appear to be natural hills encased and modelled. + +There is also another and very different class of ruins which possesses +some interest, namely, those of old Callao, overwhelmed by the great +earthquake of 1746, and its accompanying wave. The destruction must +have been more complete even than at Talcahuano. Quantities of shingle +almost conceal the foundations of the walls, and vast masses of +brickwork appear to have been whirled about like pebbles by the +retiring waves. It has been stated that the land subsided during this +memorable shock: I could not discover any proof of this; yet it seems +far from improbable, for the form of the coast must certainly have +undergone some change since the foundation of the old town; as no +people in their senses would willingly have chosen for their building +place the narrow spit of shingle on which the ruins now stand. Since +our voyage, M. Tschudi has come to the conclusion, by the comparison of +old and modern maps, that the coast both north and south of Lima has +certainly subsided. + +On the island of San Lorenzo there are very satisfactory proofs of +elevation within the recent period; this of course is not opposed to +the belief of a small sinking of the ground having subsequently taken +place. The side of this island fronting the Bay of Callao is worn into +three obscure terraces, the lower one of which is covered by a bed a +mile in length, almost wholly composed of shells of eighteen species, +now living in the adjoining sea. The height of this bed is eighty-five +feet. Many of the shells are deeply corroded, and have a much older and +more decayed appearance than those at the height of 500 or 600 feet on +the coast of Chile. These shells are associated with much common salt, +a little sulphate of lime (both probably left by the evaporation of the +spray, as the land slowly rose), together with sulphate of soda and +muriate of lime. They rest on fragments of the underlying sandstone, +and are covered by a few inches thick of detritus. The shells higher up +on this terrace could be traced scaling off in flakes, and falling into +an impalpable powder; and on an upper terrace, at the height of 170 +feet, and likewise at some considerably higher points, I found a layer +of saline powder of +exactly similar appearance, and lying in the same relative position. I +have no doubt that this upper layer originally existed as a bed of +shells, like that on the eighty-five-feet ledge; but it does not now +contain even a trace of organic structure. The powder has been analysed +for me by Mr. T. Reeks; it consists of sulphates and muriates both of +lime and soda, with very little carbonate of lime. It is known that +common salt and carbonate of lime left in a mass for some time together +partly decompose each other; though this does not happen with small +quantities in solution. As the half-decomposed shells in the lower +parts are associated with much common salt, together with some of the +saline substances composing the upper saline layer, and as these shells +are corroded and decayed in a remarkable manner, I strongly suspect +that this double decomposition has here taken place. The resultant +salts, however, ought to be carbonate of soda and muriate of lime, the +latter is present, but not the carbonate of soda. Hence I am led to +imagine that by some unexplained means the carbonate of soda becomes +changed into the sulphate. It is obvious that the saline layer could +not have been preserved in any country in which abundant rain +occasionally fell: on the other hand this very circumstance, which at +first sight appears so highly favourable to the long preservation of +exposed shells, has probably been the indirect means, through the +common salt not having been washed away, of their decomposition and +early decay. + +I was much interested by finding on the terrace, at the height of +eighty-five feet, _embedded_ amidst the shells and much sea-drifted +rubbish, some bits of cotton thread, plaited rush, and the head of a +stalk of Indian corn: I compared these relics with similar ones taken +out of the Huacas, or old Peruvian tombs, and found them identical in +appearance. On the mainland in front of San Lorenzo, near Bellavista, +there is an extensive and level plain about a hundred feet high, of +which the lower part is formed of alternating layers of sand and impure +clay, together with some gravel, and the surface, to the depth of from +three to six feet, of a reddish loam, containing a few scattered +sea-shells and numerous small fragments of coarse red earthenware, more +abundant at certain spots than at others. At first I was inclined to +believe that this superficial +bed, from its wide extent and smoothness, must have been deposited +beneath the sea; but I afterwards found in one spot that it lay on an +artificial floor of round stones. It seems, therefore, most probable +that at a period when the land stood at a lower level there was a plain +very similar to that now surrounding Callao, which, being protected by +a shingle beach, is raised but very little above the level of the sea. +On this plain, with its underlying red-clay beds, I imagine that the +Indians manufactured their earthen vessels; and that, during some +violent earthquake, the sea broke over the beach, and converted the +plain into a temporary lake, as happened round Callao in 1713 and 1746. +The water would then have deposited mud containing fragments of pottery +from the kilns, more abundant at some spots than at others, and shells +from the sea. This bed with fossil earthenware stands at about the same +height with the shells on the lower terrace of San Lorenzo, in which +the cotton-thread and other relics were embedded. Hence we may safely +conclude that within the Indo-human period there has been an elevation, +as before alluded to, of more than eighty-five feet; for some little +elevation must have been lost by the coast having subsided since the +old maps were engraved. At Valparaiso, although in the 220 years before +our visit the elevation cannot have exceeded nineteen feet, yet +subsequently to 1817 there has been a rise, partly insensible and +partly by a start during the shock of 1822, of ten or eleven feet. The +antiquity of the Indo-human race here, judging by the eighty-five feet +rise of the land since the relics were embedded, is the more +remarkable, as on the coast of Patagonia, when the land stood about the +same number of feet lower, the Macrauchenia was a living beast; but as +the Patagonian coast is some way distant from the Cordillera, the +rising there may have been slower than here. At Bahia Blanca the +elevation has been only a few feet since the numerous gigantic +quadrupeds were there entombed; and, according to the generally +received opinion, when these extinct animals were living man did not +exist. But the rising of that part of the coast of Patagonia is perhaps +no way connected with the Cordillera, but rather with a line of old +volcanic rocks in Banda Oriental, so that it may have been infinitely +slower than on the shores of Peru. All these +speculations, however, must be vague; for who will pretend to say that +there may not have been several periods of subsidence, intercalated +between the movements of elevation? for we know that along the whole +coast of Patagonia there have certainly been many and long pauses in +the upward action of the elevatory forces. + +[Illustration: Huacas, Peruvian pottery] + +[Illustration: Testudo Abingdonii, Galapagos Islands] + + + + +Chapter XVII + + +GALAPAGOS ARCHIPELAGO + +The whole group volcanic—Number of craters—Leafless bushes—Colony at +Charles Island—James Island—Salt-lake in crater—Natural history of the +group—Ornithology, curious finches—Reptiles—Great tortoises, habits +of—Marine Lizard, feeds on Sea-weed—Terrestrial Lizard, burrowing +habits, herbivorous—Importance of reptiles in the Archipelago—Fish, +shells, insects—Botany—American type of organisation—Differences in the +species or races on different islands—Tameness of the birds—Fear of man +an acquired instinct. + +_September_ 15_th._—This archipelago consists of ten principal islands, +of which five exceed the others in size. They are situated under the +Equator, and between five and six hundred miles westward of the coast +of America. They are all formed of volcanic rocks; a few fragments of +granite curiously glazed and altered by the heat can hardly be +considered as an +exception. Some of the craters surmounting the larger islands are of +immense size, and they rise to a height of between three and four +thousand feet. Their flanks are studded by innumerable smaller +orifices. I scarcely hesitate to affirm that there must be in the whole +archipelago at least two thousand craters. These consist either of lava +and scoriæ, or of finely-stratified, sandstone-like tuff. Most of the +latter are beautifully symmetrical; they owe their origin to eruptions +of volcanic mud without any lava: it is a remarkable circumstance that +every one of the twenty-eight tuff-craters which were examined had +their southern sides either much lower than the other sides, or quite +broken down and removed. As all these craters apparently have been +formed when standing in the sea, and as the waves from the trade wind +and the swell from the open Pacific here unite their forces on the +southern coasts of all the islands, this singular uniformity in the +broken state of the craters, composed of the soft and yielding tuff, is +easily explained. + +Galapagos Archipelago + +Considering that these islands are placed directly under the equator, +the climate is far from being excessively hot; this seems chiefly +caused by the singularly low temperature of the +surrounding water, brought here by the great southern Polar current. +Excepting during one short season very little rain falls, and even then +it is irregular; but the clouds generally hang low. Hence, whilst the +lower parts of the islands are very sterile, the upper parts, at a +height of a thousand feet and upwards, possess a damp climate and a +tolerably luxuriant vegetation. This is especially the case on the +windward sides of the islands, which first receive and condense the +moisture from the atmosphere. + +In the morning (17th) we landed on Chatham Island, which, like the +others, rises with a tame and rounded outline, broken here and there by +scattered hillocks, the remains of former craters. Nothing could be +less inviting than the first appearance. A broken field of black +basaltic lava, thrown into the most rugged waves, and crossed by great +fissures, is everywhere covered by stunted, sunburnt brushwood, which +shows little signs of life. The dry and parched surface, being heated +by the noonday sun, gave to the air a close and sultry feeling, like +that from a stove: we fancied even that the bushes smelt unpleasantly. +Although I diligently tried to collect as many plants as possible, I +succeeded in getting very few; and such wretched-looking little weeds +would have better become an arctic than an equatorial Flora. The +brushwood appears, from a short distance, as leafless as our trees +during winter; and it was some time before I discovered that not only +almost every plant was now in full leaf, but that the greater number +were in flower. The commonest bush is one of the Euphorbiaceæ: an +acacia and a great odd-looking cactus are the only trees which afford +any shade. After the season of heavy rains, the islands are said to +appear for a short time partially green. The volcanic island of +Fernando Noronha, placed in many respects under nearly similar +conditions, is the only other country where I have seen a vegetation at +all like this of the Galapagos Islands. + +The _Beagle_ sailed round Chatham Island, and anchored in several bays. +One night I slept on shore on a part of the island where black +truncated cones were extraordinarily numerous: from one small eminence +I counted sixty of them, all surmounted by craters more or less +perfect. The greater number consisted merely of a ring of red scoriæ or +slags cemented together: and their height above the plain of lava +was not more than from fifty to a hundred feet: none had been very +lately active. The entire surface of this part of the island seems to +have been permeated, like a sieve, by the subterranean vapours: here +and there the lava, whilst soft, has been blown into great bubbles; and +in other parts, the tops of caverns similarly formed have fallen in, +leaving circular pits with steep sides. From the regular form of the +many craters, they gave to the country an artificial appearance, which +vividly reminded me of those parts of Staffordshire where the great +iron-foundries are most numerous. The day was glowing hot, and the +scrambling over the rough surface and through the intricate thickets +was very fatiguing; but I was well repaid by the strange Cyclopean +scene. As I was walking along I met two large tortoises, each of which +must have weighed at least two hundred pounds: one was eating a piece +of cactus, and as I approached, it stared at me and slowly walked away; +the other gave a deep hiss, and drew in its head. These huge reptiles, +surrounded by the black lava, the leafless shrubs, and large cacti, +seemed to my fancy like some antediluvian animals. The few +dull-coloured birds cared no more for me than they did for the great +tortoises. + +23_rd._—The _Beagle_ proceeded to Charles Island. This archipelago has +long been frequented, first by the Bucaniers, and latterly by whalers, +but it is only within the last six years that a small colony has been +established here. The inhabitants are between two and three hundred in +number; they are nearly all people of colour, who have been banished +for political crimes from the Republic of the Equator, of which Quito +is the capital. The settlement is placed about four and a half miles +inland, and at a height probably of a thousand feet. In the first part +of the road we passed through leafless thickets, as in Chatham Island. +Higher up the woods gradually became greener; and as soon as we crossed +the ridge of the island we were cooled by a fine southerly breeze, and +our sight refreshed by a green and thriving vegetation. In this upper +region coarse grasses and ferns abound; but there are no tree-ferns: I +saw nowhere any member of the Palm family, which is the more singular, +as 360 miles northward, Cocos Island takes its name from the number of +cocoa-nuts. The houses are irregularly scattered over a flat space of +ground, +which is cultivated with sweet potatoes and bananas. It will not easily +be imagined how pleasant the sight of black mud was to us, after having +been so long accustomed to the parched soil of Peru and Northern Chile. +The inhabitants, although complaining of poverty, obtain, without much +trouble, the means of subsistence. In the woods there are many wild +pigs and goats; but the staple article of animal food is supplied by +the tortoises. Their numbers have of course been greatly reduced in +this island, but the people yet count on two days’ hunting giving them +food for the rest of the week. It is said that formerly single vessels +have taken away as many as seven hundred, and that the ship’s company +of a frigate some years since brought down in one day two hundred +tortoises to the beach. + +_September_ 29_th._—We doubled the south-west extremity of Albemarle +Island, and the next day were nearly becalmed between it and Narborough +Island. Both are covered with immense deluges of black naked lava, +which have flowed either over the rims of the great caldrons, like +pitch over the rim of a pot in which it has been boiled, or have burst +forth from smaller orifices on the flanks; in their descent they have +spread over miles of the sea-coast. On both of these islands eruptions +are known to have taken place; and in Albemarle we saw a small jet of +smoke curling from the summit of one of the great craters. In the +evening we anchored in Bank’s Cove, in Albemarle Island. The next +morning I went out walking. To the south of the broken tuff-crater, in +which the _Beagle_ was anchored, there was another beautifully +symmetrical one of an elliptic form; its longer axis was a little less +than a mile, and its depth about 500 feet. At its bottom there was a +shallow lake, in the middle of which a tiny crater formed an islet. The +day was overpoweringly hot, and the lake looked clear and blue: I +hurried down the cindery slope, and, choked with dust, eagerly tasted +the water—but, to my sorrow, I found it salt as brine. + +The rocks on the coast abounded with great black lizards, between three +and four feet long; and on the hills, an ugly yellowish-brown species +was equally common. We saw many of this latter kind, some clumsily +running out of the way, and others shuffling into their burrows. I +shall presently describe +in more detail the habits of both these reptiles. The whole of this +northern part of Albemarle Island is miserably sterile. + +_October_ 8_th._—We arrived at James Island: this island, as well as +Charles Island, were long since thus named after our kings of the +Stuart line. Mr. Bynoe, myself, and our servants were left here for a +week, with provisions and a tent, whilst the _Beagle_ went for water. +We found here a party of Spaniards who had been sent from Charles +Island to dry fish and to salt tortoise-meat. About six miles inland +and at the height of nearly 2000 feet, a hovel had been built in which +two men lived, who were employed in catching tortoises, whilst the +others were fishing on the coast. I paid this party two visits, and +slept there one night. As in the other islands, the lower region was +covered by nearly leafless bushes, but the trees were here of a larger +growth than elsewhere, several being two feet and some even two feet +nine inches in diameter. The upper region, being kept damp by the +clouds, supports a green and flourishing vegetation. So damp was the +ground, that there were large beds of a coarse cyperus, in which great +numbers of a very small water-rail lived and bred. While staying in +this upper region, we lived entirely upon tortoise-meat: the +breast-plate roasted (as the Gauchos do carne con cuero), with the +flesh on it, is very good; and the young tortoises make excellent soup; +but otherwise the meat to my taste is indifferent. + +One day we accompanied a party of the Spaniards in their whale-boat to +a salina, or lake from which salt is procured. After landing we had a +very rough walk over a rugged field of recent lava, which has almost +surrounded a tuff-crater at the bottom of which the salt-lake lies. The +water is only three or four inches deep and rests on a layer of +beautifully crystallised, white salt. The lake is quite circular, and +is fringed with a border of bright green succulent plants; the almost +precipitous walls of the crater are clothed with wood, so that the +scene was altogether both picturesque and curious. A few years since +the sailors belonging to a sealing-vessel murdered their captain in +this quiet spot; and we saw his skull lying among the bushes. + +During the greater part of our stay of a week the sky was cloudless, +and if the trade-wind failed for an hour the heat +became very oppressive. On two days the thermometer within the tent +stood for some hours at 93°; but in the open air, in the wind and sun, +at only 85°. The sand was extremely hot; the thermometer placed in some +of a brown colour immediately rose to 137°, and how much above that it +would have risen I do not know for it was not graduated any higher. The +black sand felt much hotter, so that even in thick boots it was quite +disagreeable to walk over it. + + +The natural history of these islands is eminently curious, and well +deserves attention. Most of the organic productions are aboriginal +creations found nowhere else; there is even a difference between the +inhabitants of the different islands; yet all show a marked +relationship with those of America, though separated from that +continent by an open space of ocean, between 500 and 600 miles in +width. The archipelago is a little world within itself, or rather a +satellite attached to America, whence it has derived a few stray +colonists, and has received the general character of its indigenous +productions. Considering the small size of these islands, we feel the +more astonished at the number of their aboriginal beings, and at their +confined range. Seeing every height crowned with its crater, and the +boundaries of most of the lava-streams still distinct, we are led to +believe that within a period geologically recent the unbroken ocean was +here spread out. Hence, both in space and time, we seem to be brought +somewhat near to that great fact—that mystery of mysteries—the first +appearance of new beings on this earth. + +Of terrestrial mammals there is only one which must be considered as +indigenous, namely a mouse (Mus Galapagoensis) and this is confined, as +far as I could ascertain, to Chatham Island, the most easterly island +of the group. It belongs, as I am informed by Mr. Waterhouse, to a +division of the family of mice characteristic of America. At James +Island there is a rat sufficiently distinct from the common kind to +have been named and described by Mr. Waterhouse; but as it belongs to +the old-world division of the family, and as this island has been +frequented by ships for the last hundred and fifty years, I can hardly +doubt that this rat is merely a variety produced by the new and +peculiar climate, food, and soil, to which it has +been subjected. Although no one has a right to speculate without +distinct facts, yet even with respect to the Chatham Island mouse, it +should be borne in mind that it may possibly be an American species +imported here; for I have seen, in a most unfrequented part of the +Pampas, a native mouse living in the roof of a newly built hovel, and +therefore its transportation in a vessel is not improbable: analogous +facts have been observed by Dr. Richardson in North America. + +Of land-birds I obtained twenty-six kinds, all peculiar to the group +and found nowhere else, with the exception of one lark-like finch from +North America (Dolichonyx oryzivorus) which ranges on that continent as +far north as 54°, and generally frequents marshes. The other +twenty-five birds consist, firstly, of a hawk, curiously intermediate +in structure between a Buzzard and the American group of +carrion-feeding Polybori; and with these latter birds it agrees most +closely in every habit and even tone of voice. Secondly there are two +owls, representing the short-eared and white barn-owls of Europe. +Thirdly a wren, three tyrant-flycatchers (two of them species of +Pyrocephalus, one or both of which would be ranked by some +ornithologists as only varieties), and a dove—all analogous to, but +distinct from, American species. Fourthly a swallow, which though +differing from the Progne purpurea of both Americas, only in being +rather duller coloured, smaller, and slenderer, is considered by Mr. +Gould as specifically distinct. Fifthly there are three species of +mocking-thrush—a form highly characteristic of America. The remaining +land-birds form a most singular group of finches, related to each other +in the structure of their beaks, short tails, form of body and plumage: +there are thirteen species which Mr. Gould has divided into four +sub-groups. All these species are peculiar to this archipelago; and so +is the whole group, with the exception of one species of the sub-group +Cactornis, lately brought from Bow Island, in the Low Archipelago. Of +Cactornis the two species may be often seen climbing about the flowers +of the great cactus-trees; but all the other species of this group of +finches, mingled together in flocks, feed on the dry and sterile ground +of the lower districts. The males of all, or certainly of the greater +number, are jet black; and the females (with perhaps one or two +exceptions) are brown. The +most curious fact is the perfect gradation in the size of the beaks in +the different species of Geospiza, from one as large as that of a +hawfinch to that of a chaffinch, and (if Mr. Gould is right in +including his sub-group, Certhidea, in the main group) even to that of +a warbler. The largest beak in the genus Geospiza is shown above in +Fig. 1, and the smallest in Fig. 3; but instead of there being only one +intermediate species, with a beak of the size shown in Fig. 2, there +are no less than six species with insensibly graduated beaks. The beak +of the sub-group Certhidea, is shown in Fig. 4. The beak of Cactornis +is somewhat like that of a starling, and that of the fourth sub-group, +Camarhynchus, is slightly parrot-shaped. Seeing this gradation and +diversity of structure in one small, intimately related group of birds, +one might really fancy that from an original paucity of birds in this +archipelago, one species had been taken and modified for different +ends. In a like manner it might be fancied that a bird, originally a +buzzard, had been induced here to undertake the office of the +carrion-feeding Polybori of the American continent. + +Finches from Galapagos Archipelago + +Of waders and water-birds I was able to get only eleven kinds, and of +these only three (including a rail confined to the damp summits of the +islands) are new species. Considering +the wandering habits of the gulls, I was surprised to find that the +species inhabiting these islands is peculiar, but allied to one from +the southern parts of South America. The far greater peculiarity of the +land-birds, namely, twenty-five out of twenty-six being new species, or +at least new races, compared with the waders and web-footed birds, is +in accordance with the greater range which these latter orders have in +all parts of the world. We shall hereafter see this law of aquatic +forms, whether marine or fresh water, being less peculiar at any given +point of the earth’s surface than the terrestrial forms of the same +classes, strikingly illustrated in the shells, and in a lesser degree +in the insects of this archipelago. + +Two of the waders are rather smaller than the same species brought from +other places: the swallow is also smaller, though it is doubtful +whether or not it is distinct from its analogue. The two owls, the two +tyrant-flycatchers (Pyrocephalus) and the dove, are also smaller than +the analogous but distinct species, to which they are most nearly +related; on the other hand, the gull is rather larger. The two owls, +the swallow, all three species of mocking-thrush, the dove in its +separate colours though not in its whole plumage, the Totanus, and the +gull, are likewise duskier coloured than their analogous species; and +in the case of the mocking-thrush and Totanus, than any other species +of the two genera. With the exception of a wren with a fine yellow +breast, and of a tyrant-flycatcher with a scarlet tuft and breast, none +of the birds are brilliantly coloured, as might have been expected in +an equatorial district. Hence it would appear probable that the same +causes which here make the immigrants of some species smaller, make +most of the peculiar Galapageian species also smaller, as well as very +generally more dusky coloured. All the plants have a wretched, weedy +appearance, and I did not see one beautiful flower. The insects, again, +are small-sized and dull coloured, and, as Mr. Waterhouse informs me, +there is nothing in their general appearance which would have led him +to imagine that they had come from under the equator.[1] The birds, +plants, +and insects have a desert character, and are not more brilliantly +coloured than those from southern Patagonia; we may, therefore, +conclude that the usual gaudy colouring of the intertropical +productions is not related either to the heat or light of those zones, +but to some other cause, perhaps to the conditions of existence being +generally favourable to life. + + [1] The progress of research has shown that some of these birds, which + were then thought to be confined to the islands, occur on the American + continent. The eminent ornithologist, Mr. Sclater, informs me that + this is the case with the Strix punctatissima and Pyrocephalus nanus; + and probably with the Otus galapagoensis and Zenaida galapagoensis: so + that the number of endemic birds is reduced to twenty-three, or + probably to twenty-one. Mr. Sclater thinks that one or two of these + endemic forms should be ranked rather as varieties than species, which + always seemed to me probable. + + +We will now turn to the order of reptiles, which gives the most +striking character to the zoology of these islands. The species are not +numerous, but the numbers of individuals of each species are +extraordinarily great. There is one small lizard belonging to a South +American genus, and two species (and probably more) of the +Amblyrhynchus—a genus confined to the Galapagos Islands. There is one +snake which is numerous; it is identical, as I am informed by M. +Bibron, with the Psammophis Temminckii from Chile.[2] Of sea-turtle I +believe there are more than one species, and of tortoises there are, as +we shall presently show, two or three species or races. Of toads and +frogs there are none: I was surprised at this, considering how well +suited for them the temperate and damp upper woods appeared to be. It +recalled to my mind the remark made by Bory St. Vincent,[3] namely, +that none of this family are found on any of the volcanic islands in +the great oceans. As far as I can ascertain from various works, this +seems to hold good throughout the Pacific, and even in the large +islands of the Sandwich archipelago. Mauritius offers an apparent +exception, where I saw the Rana Mascariensis in abundance: this frog is +said now to inhabit the Seychelles, Madagascar, and Bourbon; but on the +other hand, Du Bois, in his voyage in 1669, states that there were no +reptiles in Bourbon except tortoises; and the Officier du Roi asserts +that before 1768 it had been attempted, without success, to +introduce frogs into Mauritius—I presume for the purpose of eating: +hence it may be well doubted whether this frog is an aboriginal of +these islands. The absence of the frog family in the oceanic islands is +the more remarkable, when contrasted with the case of lizards, which +swarm on most of the smallest islands. May this difference not be +caused by the greater facility with which the eggs of lizards, +protected by calcareous shells, might be transported through +salt-water, than could the slimy spawn of frogs? + + [2] This is stated by Dr. Günther (_Zoolog. Soc._ Jan. 24th, 1859) to + be a peculiar species, not known to inhabit any other country. + + + [3] _Voyage aux Quatres Iles d’Afrique._ With respect to the Sandwich + Islands see Tyerman and Bennett’s _Journal_, vol. i, p. 434. For + Mauritius see _Voyage par un Officier,_ etc., Part i, p. 170. There + are no frogs in the Canary Islands (Webb et Berthelot _Hist. Nat. des + Iles Canaries._ I saw none at St. Jago in the Cape de Verds. There are + none at St. Helena. + +I will first describe the habits of the tortoise (Testudo nigra, +formerly called Indica), which has been so frequently alluded to. These +animals are found, I believe, on all the islands of the Archipelago; +certainly on the greater number. They frequent in preference the high +damp parts, but they likewise live in the lower and arid districts. I +have already shown, from the numbers which have been caught in a single +day, how very numerous they must be. Some grow to an immense size: Mr. +Lawson, an Englishman, and vice-governor of the colony, told us that he +had seen several so large that it required six or eight men to lift +them from the ground; and that some had afforded as much as two hundred +pounds of meat. The old males are the largest, the females rarely +growing to so great a size: the male can readily be distinguished from +the female by the greater length of its tail. The tortoises which live +on those islands where there is no water, or in the lower and arid +parts of the others, feed chiefly on the succulent cactus. Those which +frequent the higher and damp regions eat the leaves of various trees, a +kind of berry (called guayavita) which is acid and austere, and +likewise a pale green filamentous lichen (Usnera plicata), that hangs +from the boughs of the trees. + +The tortoise is very fond of water, drinking large quantities, and +wallowing in the mud. The larger islands alone possess springs, and +these are always situated towards the central parts, and at a +considerable height. The tortoises, therefore, which frequent the lower +districts, when thirsty, are obliged to travel from a long distance. +Hence broad and well-beaten paths branch off in every direction from +the wells down to the sea-coast; and the Spaniards, by following them +up, first discovered the watering-places. When I landed at Chatham +Island, I could not imagine what animal travelled so methodically along +well-chosen tracks. Near the springs it was a curious spectacle to +behold many of these huge creatures, one set eagerly travelling onwards +with outstretched necks, and another set returning, after having drunk +their fill. When the tortoise arrives at the spring, quite regardless +of any spectator, he buries his head in the water above his eyes, and +greedily swallows great mouthfuls, at the rate of about ten in a +minute. The inhabitants say each animal stays three or four days in the +neighbourhood of the water, and then returns to the lower country; but +they differed respecting the frequency of these visits. The animal +probably regulates them according to the nature of the food on which it +has lived. It is, however, certain that tortoises can subsist even on +those islands where there is no other water than what falls during a +few rainy days in the year. + +I believe it is well ascertained that the bladder of the frog acts as a +reservoir for the moisture necessary to its existence: such seems to be +the case with the tortoise. For some time after a visit to the springs, +their urinary bladders are distended with fluid, which is said +gradually to decrease in volume, and to become less pure. The +inhabitants, when walking in the lower district, and overcome with +thirst, often take advantage of this circumstance, and drink the +contents of the bladder if full: in one I saw killed, the fluid was +quite limpid, and had only a very slightly bitter taste. The +inhabitants, however, always first drink the water in the pericardium, +which is described as being best. + +The tortoises, when purposely moving towards any point, travel by night +and day and arrive at their journey’s end much sooner than would be +expected. The inhabitants, from observing marked individuals, consider +that they travel a distance of about eight miles in two or three days. +One large tortoise, which I watched, walked at the rate of sixty yards +in ten minutes, that is 360 yards in the hour, or four miles a +day,—allowing a little time for it to eat on the road. During the +breeding season, when the male and female are together, the male utters +a hoarse roar or bellowing, which, it is said, can be heard at the +distance of more than a hundred yards. The female never uses her voice, +and the male only at these times; so that when the people hear this +noise, they know that the two are +together. They were at this time (October) laying their eggs. The +female, where the soil is sandy, deposits them together, and covers +them up with sand; but where the ground is rocky she drops them +indiscriminately in any hole: Mr. Bynoe found seven placed in a +fissure. The egg is white and spherical; one which I measured was seven +inches and three-eighths in circumference, and therefore larger than a +hen’s egg. The young tortoises, as soon as they are hatched, fall a +prey in great numbers to the carrion-feeding buzzard. The old ones seem +generally to die from accidents, as from falling down precipices: at +least, several of the inhabitants told me that they never found one +dead without some evident cause. + +The inhabitants believe that these animals are absolutely deaf; +certainly they do not overhear a person walking close behind them. I +was always amused when overtaking one of these great monsters, as it +was quietly pacing along, to see how suddenly, the instant I passed, it +would draw in its head and legs, and uttering a deep hiss fall to the +ground with a heavy sound, as if struck dead. I frequently got on their +backs, and then giving a few raps on the hinder part of their shells, +they would rise up and walk away;—but I found it very difficult to keep +my balance. The flesh of this animal is largely employed, both fresh +and salted; and a beautifully clear oil is prepared from the fat. When +a tortoise is caught, the man makes a slit in the skin near its tail, +so as to see inside its body, whether the fat under the dorsal plate is +thick. If it is not, the animal is liberated; and it is said to recover +soon from this strange operation. In order to secure the tortoises, it +is not sufficient to turn them like turtle, for they are often able to +get on their legs again. + +There can be little doubt that this tortoise is an aboriginal +inhabitant of the Galapagos; for it is found on all, or nearly all, the +islands, even on some of the smaller ones where there is no water; had +it been an imported species this would hardly have been the case in a +group which has been so little frequented. Moreover, the old Bucaniers +found this tortoise in greater numbers even than at present: Wood and +Rogers also, in 1708, say that it is the opinion of the Spaniards that +it is found nowhere else in this quarter of the world. It is now widely +distributed; but it may be questioned whether it is in +any other place an aboriginal. The bones of a tortoise at Mauritius, +associated with those of the extinct Dodo, have generally been +considered as belonging to this tortoise; if this had been so, +undoubtedly it must have been there indigenous; but M. Bibron informs +me that he believes that it was distinct, as the species now living +there certainly is. + +Amblyrhynchus Cristatus + +The Amblyrhynchus, a remarkable genus of lizards, is confined to this +archipelago; there are two species, resembling each other in general +form, one being terrestrial and the other aquatic. This latter species +(A. cristatus) was first characterised by Mr. Bell, who well foresaw, +from its short, broad head, and strong claws of equal length, that its +habits of life would turn out very peculiar, and different from those +of its nearest ally, the Iguana. It is extremely common on all the +islands throughout the group, and lives exclusively on the rocky +sea-beaches, being never found, at least I never saw one, even ten +yards in-shore. It is a hideous-looking creature, of a dirty black +colour, stupid, and sluggish in its movements. The usual length of a +full-grown one is about a yard, but there are some even four feet long; +a large one weighed twenty pounds: on the island of Albemarle they seem +to grow to a greater size than elsewhere. Their tails are flattened +sideways, and all four feet partially webbed. They are occasionally +seen some hundred yards from the shore, swimming about; and Captain +Collnett, in his Voyage says, “They go to sea in herds a-fishing, and +sun themselves on the rocks; and may be called alligators in +miniature.” It must not, however, be supposed that they live on fish. +When in the water this lizard swims with perfect ease and quickness, by +a serpentine movement of +its body and flattened tail—the legs being motionless and closely +collapsed on its sides. A seaman on board sank one, with a heavy weight +attached to it, thinking thus to kill it directly; but when, an hour +afterwards, he drew up the line, it was quite active. Their limbs and +strong claws are admirably adapted for crawling over the rugged and +fissured masses of lava which everywhere form the coast. In such +situations a group of six or seven of these hideous reptiles may +oftentimes be seen on the black rocks, a few feet above the surf, +basking in the sun with outstretched legs. + +I opened the stomachs of several, and found them largely distended with +minced sea-weed (Ulvæ), which grows in thin foliaceous expansions of a +bright green or a dull red colour. I do not recollect having observed +this sea-weed in any quantity on the tidal rocks; and I have reason to +believe it grows at the bottom of the sea, at some little distance from +the coast. If such be the case, the object of these animals +occasionally going out to sea is explained. The stomach contained +nothing but the sea-weed. Mr. Bynoe, however, found a piece of a crab +in one; but this might have got in accidentally, in the same manner as +I have seen a caterpillar, in the midst of some lichen, in the paunch +of a tortoise. The intestines were large, as in other herbivorous +animals. The nature of this lizard’s food, as well as the structure of +its tail and feet, and the fact of its having been seen voluntarily +swimming out at sea, absolutely prove its aquatic habits; yet there is +in this respect one strange anomaly, namely, that when frightened it +will not enter the water. Hence it is easy to drive these lizards down +to any little point overhanging the sea, where they will sooner allow a +person to catch hold of their tails than jump into the water. They do +not seem to have any notion of biting; but when much frightened they +squirt a drop of fluid from each nostril. I threw one several times as +far as I could, into a deep pool left by the retiring tide; but it +invariably returned in a direct line to the spot where I stood. It swam +near the bottom, with a very graceful and rapid movement, and +occasionally aided itself over the uneven ground with its feet. As soon +as it arrived near the edge, but still being under water, it tried to +conceal itself in the tufts of sea-weed, or it entered some crevice. As +soon as it thought +the danger was past, it crawled out on the dry rocks, and shuffled away +as quickly as it could. I several times caught this same lizard, by +driving it down to a point, and though possessed of such perfect powers +of diving and swimming, nothing would induce it to enter the water; and +as often as I threw it in, it returned in the manner above described. +Perhaps this singular piece of apparent stupidity may be accounted for +by the circumstance that this reptile has no enemy whatever on shore, +whereas at sea it must often fall a prey to the numerous sharks. Hence, +probably, urged by a fixed and hereditary instinct that the shore is +its place of safety, whatever the emergency may be, it there takes +refuge. + +During our visit (in October) I saw extremely few small individuals of +this species, and none I should think under a year old. From this +circumstance it seems probable that the breeding season had not then +commenced. I asked several of the inhabitants if they knew where it +laid its eggs: they said that they knew nothing of its propagation, +although well acquainted with the eggs of the land kind—a fact, +considering how very common this lizard is, not a little extraordinary. + +We will now turn to the terrestrial species (A. Demarlii), with a round +tail, and toes without webs. This lizard, instead of being found like +the other on all the islands, is confined to the central part of the +archipelago, namely to Albemarle, James, Barrington, and Indefatigable +islands. To the southward, in Charles, Hood, and Chatham Islands, and +to the northward, in Towers, Bindloes, and Abingdon, I neither saw nor +heard of any. It would appear as if it had been created in the centre +of the archipelago, and thence had been dispersed only to a certain +distance. Some of these lizards inhabit the high and damp parts of the +islands, but they are much more numerous in the lower and sterile +districts near the coast. I cannot give a more forcible proof of their +numbers, than by stating that when we were left at James Island, we +could not for some time find a spot free from their burrows on which to +pitch our single tent. Like their brothers the sea-kind, they are ugly +animals, of a yellowish orange beneath, and of a brownish-red colour +above: from their low facial angle they have a singularly stupid +appearance. They are, perhaps, of a rather less size than the marine +species; but several of them +weighed between ten and fifteen pounds. In their movements they are +lazy and half torpid. When not frightened, they slowly crawl along with +their tails and bellies dragging on the ground. They often stop, and +doze for a minute or two, with closed eyes and hind legs spread out on +the parched soil. + +They inhabit burrows which they sometimes make between fragments of +lava, but more generally on level patches of the soft sandstone-like +tuff. The holes do not appear to be very deep, and they enter the +ground at a small angle; so that when walking over these +lizard-warrens, the soil is constantly giving way, much to the +annoyance of the tired walker. This animal, when making its burrow, +works alternately the opposite sides of its body. One front leg for a +short time scratches up the soil, and throws it towards the hind foot, +which is well placed so as to heave it beyond the mouth of the hole. +That side of the body being tired, the other takes up the task, and so +on alternately. I watched one for a long time, till half its body was +buried; I then walked up and pulled it by the tail; at this it was +greatly astonished, and soon shuffled up to see what was the matter; +and then stared me in the face, as much as to say, “What made you pull +my tail?” + +They feed by day, and do not wander far from their burrows; if +frightened, they rush to them with a most awkward gait. Except when +running down hill, they cannot move very fast, apparently from the +lateral position of their legs. They are not at all timorous: when +attentively watching any one, they curl their tails, and, raising +themselves on their front legs, nod their heads vertically, with a +quick movement, and try to look very fierce; but in reality they are +not at all so: if one just stamps on the ground, down go their tails, +and off they shuffle as quickly as they can. I have frequently observed +small fly-eating lizards, when watching anything, nod their heads in +precisely the same manner; but I do not at all know for what purpose. +If this Amblyrhynchus is held and plagued with a stick, it will bite it +very severely; but I caught many by the tail, and they never tried to +bite me. If two are placed on the ground and held together, they will +fight, and bite each other till blood is drawn. + +The individuals, and they are the greater number, which inhabit the +lower country, can scarcely taste a drop of water +throughout the year; but they consume much of the succulent cactus, the +branches of which are occasionally broken off by the wind. I several +times threw a piece to two or three of them when together; and it was +amusing enough to see them trying to seize and carry it away in their +mouths, like so many hungry dogs with a bone. They eat very +deliberately, but do not chew their food. The little birds are aware +how harmless these creatures are: I have seen one of the thick-billed +finches picking at one end of a piece of cactus (which is much relished +by all the animals of the lower region), whilst a lizard was eating at +the other end; and afterwards the little bird with the utmost +indifference hopped on the back of the reptile. + +I opened the stomachs of several, and found them full of vegetable +fibres and leaves of different trees, especially of an acacia. In the +upper region they live chiefly on the acid and astringent berries of +the guayavita, under which trees I have seen these lizards and the huge +tortoises feeding together. To obtain the acacia-leaves they crawl up +the low stunted trees; and it is not uncommon to see a pair quietly +browsing, whilst seated on a branch several feet above the ground. +These lizards, when cooked, yield a white meat, which is liked by those +whose stomachs soar above all prejudices. Humboldt has remarked that in +intertropical South America all lizards which inhabit dry regions are +esteemed delicacies for the table. The inhabitants state that those +which inhabit the upper damp parts drink water, but that the others do +not, like the tortoises, travel up for it from the lower sterile +country. At the time of our visit, the females had within their bodies +numerous, large, elongated eggs, which they lay in their burrows: the +inhabitants seek them for food. + +These two species of Amblyrhynchus agree, as I have already stated, in +their general structure, and in many of their habits. Neither have that +rapid movement, so characteristic of the genera Lacerta and Iguana. +They are both herbivorous, although the kind of vegetation on which +they feed is so very different. Mr. Bell has given the name to the +genus from the shortness of the snout: indeed, the form of the mouth +may almost be compared to that of the tortoise: one is led to suppose +that this is an adaptation to their herbivorous appetites. It is very +interesting thus to find a well-characterised genus, +having its marine and terrestrial species, belonging to so confined a +portion of the world. The aquatic species is by far the most +remarkable, because it is the only existing lizard which lives on +marine vegetable productions. As I at first observed, these islands are +not so remarkable for the number of the species of reptiles, as for +that of the individuals, when we remember the well-beaten paths made by +the thousands of huge tortoises—the many turtles—the great warrens of +the terrestrial Amblyrhynchus—and the groups of the marine species +basking on the coast-rocks of every island—we must admit that there is +no other quarter of the world where this Order replaces the herbivorous +mammalia in so extraordinary a manner. The geologist on hearing this +will probably refer back in his mind to the Secondary epochs, when +lizards, some herbivorous, some carnivorous, and of dimensions +comparable only with our existing whales, swarmed on the land and in +the sea. It is, therefore, worthy of his observation that this +archipelago, instead of possessing a humid climate and rank vegetation, +cannot be considered otherwise than extremely arid, and, for an +equatorial region, remarkably temperate. + +To finish with the zoology: the fifteen kinds of sea-fish which I +procured here are all new species; they belong to twelve genera, all +widely distributed, with the exception of Prionotus, of which the four +previously known species live on the eastern side of America. Of +land-shells I collected sixteen kinds (and two marked varieties) of +which, with the exception of one Helix found at Tahiti, all are +peculiar to this archipelago: a single fresh-water shell (Paludina) is +common to Tahiti and Van Diemen’s Land. Mr. Cuming, before our voyage, +procured here ninety species of sea-shells, and this does not include +several species not yet specifically examined, of Trochus, Turbo, +Monodonta, and Nassa. He has been kind enough to give me the following +interesting results: of the ninety shells, no less than forty-seven are +unknown elsewhere—a wonderful fact, considering how widely distributed +sea-shells generally are. Of the forty-three shells found in other +parts of the world, twenty-five inhabit the western coast of America, +and of these eight are distinguishable as varieties; the remaining +eighteen (including one variety) were found by Mr. Cuming in the Low +Archipelago, and some of them also at the Philippines. This fact of +shells +from islands in the central parts of the Pacific occurring here, +deserves notice, for not one single sea-shell is known to be common to +the islands of that ocean and to the west coast of America. The space +of open sea running north and south off the west coast separates two +quite distinct conchological provinces; but at the Galapagos +Archipelago we have a halting-place, where many new forms have been +created, and whither these two great conchological provinces have each +sent several colonists. The American province has also sent here +representative species; for there is a Galapageian species of +Monoceros, a genus only found on the west coast of America; and there +are Galapageian species of Fissurella and Cancellaria, genera common on +the west coast, but not found (as I am informed by Mr. Cuming) in the +central islands of the Pacific. On the other hand, there are +Galapageian species of Oniscia and Stylifer, genera common to the West +Indies and to the Chinese and Indian seas, but not found either on the +west coast of America or in the central Pacific. I may here add, that +after the comparison by Messrs. Cuming and Hinds of about 2000 shells +from the eastern and western coasts of America, only one single shell +was found in common, namely, the Purpura patula, which inhabits the +West Indies, the coast of Panama, and the Galapagos. We have, +therefore, in this quarter of the world, three great conchological +sea-provinces, quite distinct, though surprisingly near each other, +being separated by long north and south spaces either of land or of +open sea. + +I took great pains in collecting the insects, but excepting Tierra del +Fuego, I never saw in this respect so poor a country. Even in the upper +and damp region I procured very few, excepting some minute Diptera and +Hymenoptera, mostly of common mundane forms. As before remarked, the +insects, for a tropical region, are of very small size and dull +colours. Of beetles I collected twenty-five species (excluding a +Dermestes and Corynetes imported wherever a ship touches); of these, +two belong to the Harpalidæ, two to the Hydrophilidæ, nine to three +families of the Heteromera, and the remaining twelve to as many +different families. This circumstance of insects (and I may add +plants), where few in number, belonging to many different families, is, +I believe, very general. Mr. Waterhouse, who has published[4] +an account of the insects of this archipelago, and to whom I am +indebted for the above details, informs me that there are several new +genera; and that of the genera not new, one or two are American, and +the rest of mundane distribution. With the exception of a wood-feeding +Apate, and of one or probably two water-beetles from the American +continent, all the species appear to be new. + + [4] _Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,_ vol. xvi, p. 19. + +The botany of this group is fully as interesting as the zoology. Dr. J. +Hooker will soon publish in the “Linnean Transactions” a full account +of the Flora, and I am much indebted to him for the following details. +Of flowering plants there are, as far as at present is known, 185 +species, and 40 cryptogamic species, making together 225; of this +number I was fortunate enough to bring home 193. Of the flowering +plants, 100 are new species, and are probably confined to this +archipelago. Dr. Hooker conceives that, of the plants not so confined, +at least 10 species found near the cultivated ground at Charles Island +have been imported. It is, I think, surprising that more American +species have not been introduced naturally, considering that the +distance is only between 500 and 600 miles from the continent, and that +(according to Collnet, page 58) drift-wood, bamboos, canes, and the +nuts of a palm, are often washed on the south-eastern shores. The +proportion of 100 flowering plants out of 185 (or 175 excluding the +imported weeds) being new, is sufficient, I conceive, to make the +Galapagos Archipelago a distinct botanical province; but this Flora is +not nearly so peculiar as that of St. Helena, nor, as I am informed by +Dr. Hooker, of Juan Fernandez. The peculiarity of the Galapageian Flora +is best shown in certain families;—thus there are 21 species of +Compositæ, of which 20 are peculiar to this archipelago; these belong +to twelve genera, and of these genera no less than ten are confined to +the archipelago! Dr. Hooker informs me that the Flora has an undoubted +Western American character; nor can he detect in it any affinity with +that of the Pacific. If, therefore, we except the eighteen marine, the +one fresh-water, and one land-shell, which have apparently come here as +colonists from the central islands of the Pacific, and likewise the one +distinct Pacific species of the Galapageian group of finches, we see +that this archipelago, though standing in the Pacific Ocean, is +zoologically part of America. + + +If this character were owing merely to immigrants from America, there +would be little remarkable in it; but we see that a vast majority of +all the land animals, and that more than half of the flowering plants, +are aboriginal productions. It was most striking to be surrounded by +new birds, new reptiles, new shells, new insects, new plants, and yet +by innumerable trifling details of structure, and even by the tones of +voice and plumage of the birds, to have the temperate plains of +Patagonia, or the hot dry deserts of Northern Chile, vividly brought +before my eyes. Why, on these small points of land, which within a late +geological period must have been covered by the ocean, which are formed +of basaltic lava, and therefore differ in geological character from the +American continent, and which are placed under a peculiar climate,—why +were their aboriginal inhabitants, associated, I may add, in different +proportions both in kind and number from those on the continent, and +therefore acting on each other in a different manner—why were they +created on American types of organisation? It is probable that the +islands of the Cape de Verd group resemble, in all their physical +conditions, far more closely the Galapagos Islands than these latter +physically resemble the coast of America, yet the aboriginal +inhabitants of the two groups are totally unlike; those of the Cape de +Verd Islands bearing the impress of Africa, as the inhabitants of the +Galapagos Archipelago are stamped with that of America. + + +I have not as yet noticed by far the most remarkable feature in the +natural history of this archipelago; it is, that the different islands +to a considerable extent are inhabited by a different set of beings. My +attention was first called to this fact by the Vice-Governor, Mr. +Lawson, declaring that the tortoises differed from the different +islands, and that he could with certainty tell from which island any +one was brought. I did not for some time pay sufficient attention to +this statement, and I had already partially mingled together the +collections from two of the islands. I never dreamed that islands, +about 50 or 60 miles apart, and most of them in sight of each other, +formed of precisely the same rocks, placed under a quite similar +climate, rising to a nearly equal height, would have been differently +tenanted; but we shall soon see that this is +the case. It is the fate of most voyagers, no sooner to discover what +is most interesting in any locality, than they are hurried from it; but +I ought, perhaps, to be thankful that I obtained sufficient materials +to establish this most remarkable fact in the distribution of organic +beings. + +The inhabitants, as I have said, state that they can distinguish the +tortoises from the different islands; and that they differ not only in +size, but in other characters. Captain Porter has described[5] those +from Charles and from the nearest island to it, namely, Hood Island, as +having their shells in front thick and turned up like a Spanish saddle, +whilst the tortoises from James Island are rounder, blacker, and have a +better taste when cooked. M. Bibron, moreover, informs me that he has +seen what he considers two distinct species of tortoise from the +Galapagos, but he does not know from which islands. The specimens that +I brought from three islands were young ones: and probably owing to +this cause neither Mr. Gray nor myself could find in them any specific +differences. I have remarked that the marine Amblyrhynchus was larger +at Albemarle Island than elsewhere; and M. Bibron informs me that he +has seen two distinct aquatic species of this genus; so that the +different islands probably have their representative species or races +of the Amblyrhynchus, as well as of the tortoise. My attention was +first thoroughly aroused by comparing together the numerous specimens, +shot by myself and several other parties on board, of the +mocking-thrushes, when, to my astonishment, I discovered that all those +from Charles Island belonged to one species (Mimus trifasciatus) all +from Albemarle Island to M. parvulus; and all from James and Chatham +Islands (between which two other islands are situated, as connecting +links) belonged to M. melanotis. These two latter species are closely +allied, and would by some ornithologists be considered as only +well-marked races or varieties; but the Mimus trifasciatus is very +distinct. Unfortunately most of the specimens of the finch tribe were +mingled together; but I have strong reasons to suspect that some of the +species of the sub-group Geospiza are confined to separate islands. If +the different islands have their representatives of Geospiza, it may +help to explain the singularly +large number of the species of this sub-group in this one small +archipelago, and as a probable consequence of their numbers, the +perfectly graduated series in the size of their beaks. Two species of +the sub-group Cactornis, and two of the Camarhynchus, were procured in +the archipelago; and of the numerous specimens of these two sub-groups +shot by four collectors at James Island, all were found to belong to +one species of each; whereas the numerous specimens shot either on +Chatham or Charles Island (for the two sets were mingled together) all +belonged to the two other species: hence we may feel almost sure that +these islands possess their representative species of these two +sub-groups. In land-shells this law of distribution does not appear to +hold good. In my very small collection of insects, Mr. Waterhouse +remarks that of those which were ticketed with their locality, not one +was common to any two of the islands. + + [5] _Voyage in the U.S. ship Essex,_ vol. i, p. 215. + +If we now turn to the Flora, we shall find the aboriginal plants of the +different islands wonderfully different. I give all the following +results on the high authority of my friend Dr. J. Hooker. I may premise +that I indiscriminately collected everything in flower on the different +islands, and fortunately kept my collections separate. Too much +confidence, however, must not be placed in the proportional results, as +the small collections brought home by some other naturalists though in +some respects confirming the results, plainly show that much remains to +be done in the botany of this group: the Leguminosæ, moreover, have as +yet been only approximately worked out:— + + +Name Total No. of No. of No. No. of Species +of No. of Species found Species confined confined to the +Island Species in other confined to the one Galapagos + parts of to the Island Archipelago, + the world Galapagos but found on + Archipelago more than the + one Island + +James Island 71 33 38 30 8 +Albermarle Island 46 18 26 22 4 +Chatham Island 32 16 16 12 4 +Charles Island 68 39 29 21 8 + (or 29, if the + probably + imported plants + be subtracted) + +Hence we have the truly wonderful fact, that in James Island, of the +thirty-eight Galapageian plants, or those found in no other part of the +world, thirty are exclusively confined to this one island; and in +Albemarle Island, of the twenty-six aboriginal Galapageian plants, +twenty-two are confined to this one island, that is, only four are at +present known to grow in the other islands of the archipelago; and so +on, as shown in the above table, with the plants from Chatham and +Charles Islands. This fact will, perhaps, be rendered even more +striking, by giving a few illustrations:—thus, Scalesia, a remarkable +arborescent genus of the Compositæ, is confined to the archipelago: it +has six species: one from Chatham, one from Albemarle, one from Charles +Island, two from James Island, and the sixth from one of the three +latter islands, but it is not known from which: not one of these six +species grows on any two islands. Again, Euphorbia, a mundane or widely +distributed genus, has here eight species, of which seven are confined +to the archipelago, and not one found on any two islands: Acalypha and +Borreria, both mundane genera, have respectively six and seven species, +none of which have the same species on two islands, with the exception +of one Borreria, which does occur on two islands. The species of the +Compositæ are particularly local; and Dr. Hooker has furnished me with +several other most striking illustrations of the difference of the +species on the different islands. He remarks that this law of +distribution holds good both with those genera confined to the +archipelago, and those distributed in other quarters of the world: in +like manner we have seen that the different islands have their proper +species of the mundane genus of tortoise, and of the widely distributed +American genus of the mocking-thrush, as well as of two of the +Galapageian sub-groups of finches, and almost certainly of the +Galapageian genus Amblyrhynchus. + +The distribution of the tenants of this archipelago would not be nearly +so wonderful, if, for instance, one island had a mocking-thrush, and a +second island some other quite distinct genus;—if one island had its +genus of lizard, and a second island another distinct genus, or none +whatever;—or if the different islands were inhabited, not by +representative species of the same genera of plants, but by totally +different +genera, as does to a certain extent hold good; for, to give one +instance, a large berry-bearing tree at James Island has no +representative species in Charles Island. But it is the circumstance +that several of the islands possess their own species of the tortoise, +mocking-thrush, finches, and numerous plants, these species having the +same general habits, occupying analogous situations, and obviously +filling the same place in the natural economy of this archipelago, that +strikes me with wonder. It may be suspected that some of these +representative species, at least in the case of the tortoise and of +some of the birds, may hereafter prove to be only well-marked races; +but this would be of equally great interest to the philosophical +naturalist. I have said that most of the islands are in sight of each +other: I may specify that Charles Island is fifty miles from the +nearest part of Chatham Island, and thirty-three miles from the nearest +part of Albemarle Island. Chatham Island is sixty miles from the +nearest part of James Island, but there are two intermediate islands +between them which were not visited by me. James Island is only ten +miles from the nearest part of Albemarle Island, but the two points +where the collections were made are thirty-two miles apart. I must +repeat, that neither the nature of the soil, nor height of the land, +nor the climate, nor the general character of the associated beings, +and therefore their action one on another, can differ much in the +different islands. If there be any sensible difference in their +climates, it must be between the windward group (namely, Charles and +Chatham Islands), and that to leeward; but there seems to be no +corresponding difference in the productions of these two halves of the +archipelago. + +The only light which I can throw on this remarkable difference in the +inhabitants of the different islands is that very strong currents of +the sea running in a westerly and W.N.W. direction must separate, as +far as transportal by the sea is concerned, the southern islands from +the northern ones; and between these northern islands a strong N.W. +current was observed, which must effectually separate James and +Albemarle Islands. As the archipelago is free to a most remarkable +degree from gales of wind, neither the birds, insects, nor lighter +seeds, would be blown from island to island. And lastly, the profound +depth of the ocean between the islands, and their +apparently recent (in a geological sense) volcanic origin, render it +highly unlikely that they were ever united; and this, probably, is a +far more important consideration than any other with respect to the +geographical distribution of their inhabitants. Reviewing the facts +here given, one is astonished at the amount of creative force, if such +an expression may be used, displayed on these small, barren, and rocky +islands; and still more so, at its diverse yet analogous action on +points so near each other. I have said that the Galapagos Archipelago +might be called a satellite attached to America, but it should rather +be called a group of satellites, physically similar, organically +distinct, yet intimately related to each other, and all related in a +marked though much lesser degree, to the great American continent. + + +I will conclude my description of the natural history of these islands +by giving an account of the extreme tameness of the birds. + +This disposition is common to all the terrestrial species; namely, to +the mocking-thrushes, the finches, wrens, tyrant-flycatchers, the dove, +and carrion-buzzard. All of them often approached sufficiently near to +be killed with a switch, and sometimes, as I myself tried, with a cap +or hat. A gun is here almost superfluous; for with the muzzle I pushed +a hawk off the branch of a tree. One day, whilst lying down, a +mocking-thrush alighted on the edge of a pitcher, made of the shell of +a tortoise, which I held in my hand, and began very quietly to sip the +water; it allowed me to lift it from the ground whilst seated on the +vessel: I often tried, and very nearly succeeded, in catching these +birds by their legs. Formerly the birds appear to have been even tamer +than at present. Cowley (in the year 1684) says that the “Turtledoves +were so tame, that they would often alight on our hats and arms, so as +that we could take them alive: they not fearing man, until such time as +some of our company did fire at them, whereby they were rendered more +shy.” Dampier also, in the same year, says that a man in a morning’s +walk might kill six or seven dozen of these doves. At present, although +certainly very tame, they do not alight on people’s arms, nor do they +suffer themselves to be killed in such large +numbers. It is surprising that they have not become wilder; for these +islands during the last hundred and fifty years have been frequently +visited by bucaniers and whalers; and the sailors, wandering through +the wood in search of tortoises, always take cruel delight in knocking +down the little birds. + +These birds, although now still more persecuted, do not readily become +wild: in Charles Island, which had then been colonised about six years, +I saw a boy sitting by a well with a switch in his hand, with which he +killed the doves and finches as they came to drink. He had already +procured a little heap of them for his dinner, and he said that he had +constantly been in the habit of waiting by this well for the same +purpose. It would appear that the birds of this archipelago, not having +as yet learnt that man is a more dangerous animal than the tortoise or +the Amblyrhynchus, disregard him, in the same manner as in England shy +birds, such as magpies, disregard the cows and horses grazing in our +fields. + +The Falkland Islands offer a second instance of birds with a similar +disposition. The extraordinary tameness of the little Opetiorhynchus +has been remarked by Pernety, Lesson, and other voyagers. It is not, +however, peculiar to that bird: the Polyborus, snipe, upland and +lowland goose, thrush, bunting, and even some true hawks, are all more +or less tame. As the birds are so tame there, where foxes, hawks, and +owls occur, we may infer that the absence of all rapacious animals at +the Galapagos is not the cause of their tameness here. The upland geese +at the Falklands show, by the precaution they take in building on the +islets, that they are aware of their danger from the foxes; but they +are not by this rendered wild towards man. This tameness of the birds, +especially of the waterfowl, is strongly contrasted with the habits of +the same species in Tierra del Fuego, where for ages past they have +been persecuted by the wild inhabitants. In the Falklands, the +sportsman may sometimes kill more of the upland geese in one day than +he can carry home; whereas in Tierra del Fuego it is nearly as +difficult to kill one as it is in England to shoot the common wild +goose. + +In the time of Pernety (1763) all the birds there appear to have been +much tamer than at present; he states that the Opetiorhynchus would +almost perch on his finger; and that +with a wand he killed ten in half an hour. At that period the birds +must have been about as tame as they now are at the Galapagos. They +appear to have learnt caution more slowly at these latter islands than +at the Falklands, where they have had proportionate means of +experience; for besides frequent visits from vessels, those islands +have been at intervals colonised during the entire period. Even +formerly, when all the birds were so tame, it was impossible by +Pernety’s account to kill the black-necked swan—a bird of passage, +which probably brought with it the wisdom learnt in foreign countries. + +I may add that, according to Du Bois, all the birds at Bourbon in +1571-72, with the exception of the flamingoes and geese, were so +extremely tame, that they could be caught by the hand, or killed in any +number with a stick. Again, at Tristan d’Acunha in the Atlantic, +Carmichael[6] states that the only two land-birds, a thrush and a +bunting, were “so tame as to suffer themselves to be caught with a +hand-net.” From these several facts we may, I think, conclude, first, +that the wildness of birds with regard to man is a particular instinct +directed against _him_, and not dependent upon any general degree of +caution arising from other sources of danger; secondly, that it is not +acquired by individual birds in a short time, even when much +persecuted; but that in the course of successive generations it becomes +hereditary. With domesticated animals we are accustomed to see new +mental habits or instincts acquired and rendered hereditary; but with +animals in a state of nature it must always be most difficult to +discover instances of acquired hereditary knowledge. In regard to the +wildness of birds towards man, there is no way of accounting for it, +except as an inherited habit: comparatively few young birds, in any one +year, have been injured by man in England, yet almost all, even +nestlings, are afraid of him; many individuals, on the other hand, both +at the Galapagos and at the Falklands, have +been pursued and injured by man, but yet have not learned a salutary +dread of him. We may infer from these facts, what havoc the +introduction of any new beast of prey must cause in a country, before +the instincts of the indigenous inhabitants have become adapted to the +stranger’s craft or power. + + [6] _Linn. Trans._ vol. xii, p. 496. The most anomalous fact on this + subject which I have met with is the wildness of the small birds in + the Arctic parts of North America (as described by Richardson _Fauna + Bor._ vol. ii, p. 332), where they are said never to be persecuted. + This case is the more strange, because it is asserted that some of the + same species in their winter-quarters in the United States are tame. + There is much, as Dr. Richardson well remarks, utterly inexplicable + connected with the different degrees of shyness and care with which + birds conceal their nests. How strange it is that the English + wood-pigeon, generally so wild a bird, should very frequently rear its + young in shrubberies close to houses! + +[Illustration: Opuntia Galapageia] + +[Illustration: Ava or kava (Macropiper Methysticum), Tahiti] + + + + +Chapter XVIII + + +TAHITI AND NEW ZEALAND + +Pass through the Low Archipelago—Tahiti—Aspect—Vegetation on the +mountains—View of Eimeo—Excursion into the interior—Profound +ravines—Succession of waterfalls—Number of wild useful +plants—Temperance of the inhabitants—Their moral state—Parliament +convened—New Zealand—Bay of islands—Hippahs—Excursion to +Waimate—Missionary establishment—English weeds now run +wild—Waiomio—Funeral of a New Zealand woman—Sail for Australia. + +_October_ 20_th._—The survey of the Galapagos Archipelago being +concluded, we steered towards Tahiti and commenced our long passage of +3200 miles. In the course of a few days we sailed out of the gloomy and +clouded ocean-district which extends during the winter far from the +coast of South America. We then enjoyed bright and clear weather, while +running pleasantly along at the rate of 150 or 160 miles a day before +the steady trade-wind. The temperature in this more central part of the +Pacific is higher than near the American shore. The +thermometer in the poop cabin, by night and day, ranged between 80° and +83°, which feels very pleasant; but with one degree or two higher, the +heat becomes oppressive. We passed through the Low or Dangerous +Archipelago, and saw several of those most curious rings of coral land, +just rising above the water’s edge, which have been called Lagoon +Islands. A long and brilliantly-white beach is capped by a margin of +green vegetation; and the strip, looking either way, rapidly narrows +away in the distance, and sinks beneath the horizon. From the mast-head +a wide expanse of smooth water can be seen within the ring. These low +hollow coral islands bear no proportion to the vast ocean out of which +they abruptly rise; and it seems wonderful that such weak invaders are +not overwhelmed by the all-powerful and never-tiring waves of that +great sea, miscalled the Pacific. + +_November_ 15_th._—At daylight, Tahiti, an island which must for ever +remain classical to the voyager in the South Sea, was in view. At a +distance the appearance was not attractive. The luxuriant vegetation of +the lower part could not yet be seen, and as the clouds rolled past, +the wildest and most precipitous peaks showed themselves towards the +centre of the island. As soon as we anchored in Matavai Bay, we were +surrounded by canoes. This was our Sunday, but the Monday of Tahiti: if +the case had been reversed, we should not have received a single visit; +for the injunction not to launch a canoe on the Sabbath is rigidly +obeyed. After dinner we landed to enjoy all the delights produced by +the first impressions of a new country, and that country the charming +Tahiti. A crowd of men, women, and children, was collected on the +memorable Point Venus, ready to receive us with laughing, merry faces. +They marshalled us towards the house of Mr. Wilson, the missionary of +the district, who met us on the road, and gave us a very friendly +reception. After sitting a short time in his house, we separated to +walk about, but returned there in the evening. + +The land capable of cultivation is scarcely in any part more than a +fringe of low alluvial soil, accumulated round the base of the +mountains, and protected from the waves of the sea by a coral reef, +which encircles the entire line of coast. Within the reef there is an +expanse of smooth water, like that of a lake, where +the canoes of the natives can ply with safety and where ships anchor. +The low land which comes down to the beach of coral-sand is covered by +the most beautiful productions of the intertropical regions. In the +midst of bananas, orange, cocoa-nut, and bread-fruit trees, spots are +cleared where yams, sweet potatoes, the sugar-cane, and pine-apples are +cultivated. Even the brushwood is an imported fruit-tree, namely, the +guava, which from its abundance has become as noxious as a weed. In +Brazil I have often admired the varied beauty of the bananas, palms, +and orange-trees contrasted together; and here we also have the +bread-fruit, conspicuous from its large, glossy, and deeply digitated +leaf. It is admirable to behold groves of a tree, sending forth its +branches with the vigour of an English oak, loaded with large and most +nutritious fruit. However seldom the usefulness of an object can +account for the pleasure of beholding it, in the case of these +beautiful woods, the knowledge of their high productiveness no doubt +enters largely into the feeling of admiration. The little winding +paths, cool from the surrounding shade, led to the scattered houses; +the owners of which everywhere gave us a cheerful and most hospitable +reception. + +I was pleased with nothing so much as with the inhabitants. There is a +mildness in the expression of their countenances which at once banishes +the idea of a savage; and an intelligence which shows that they are +advancing in civilisation. The common people, when working, keep the +upper part of their bodies quite naked; and it is then that the +Tahitians are seen to advantage. They are very tall, broad-shouldered, +athletic, and well-proportioned. It has been remarked that it requires +little habit to make a dark skin more pleasing and natural to the eye +of a European than his own colour. A white man bathing by the side of a +Tahitian was like a plant bleached by the gardener’s art compared with +a fine dark green one growing vigorously in the open fields. Most of +the men are tattooed, and the ornaments follow the curvature of the +body so gracefully that they have a very elegant effect. One common +pattern, varying in its details, is somewhat like the crown of a +palm-tree. It springs from the central line of the back, and gracefully +curls round both sides. The simile may be a fanciful one, but I thought +the body of a man thus ornamented +was like the trunk of a noble tree embraced by a delicate creeper. + +Many of the elder people had their feet covered with small figures, so +placed as to resemble a sock. This fashion, however, is partly gone by, +and has been succeeded by others. Here, although fashion is far from +immutable, every one must abide by that prevailing in his youth. An old +man has thus his age for ever stamped on his body, and he cannot assume +the airs of a young dandy. The women are tattooed in the same manner as +the men, and very commonly on their fingers. One unbecoming fashion is +now almost universal: namely, shaving the hair from the upper part of +the head, in a circular form, so as to leave only an outer ring. The +missionaries have tried to persuade the people to change this habit; +but it is the fashion, and that is a sufficient answer at Tahiti, as +well as at Paris. I was much disappointed in the personal appearance of +the women: they are far inferior in every respect to the men. The +custom of wearing a white or scarlet flower in the back of the head, or +through a small hole in each ear, is pretty. A crown of woven cocoa-nut +leaves is also worn as a shade for the eyes. The women appear to be in +greater want of some becoming costume even than the men. + +Nearly all the natives understand a little English—that is, they know +the names of common things; and by the aid of this, together with +signs, a lame sort of conversation could be carried on. In returning in +the evening to the boat, we stopped to witness a very pretty scene. +Numbers of children were playing on the beach, and had lighted bonfires +which illumined the placid sea and surrounding trees; others, in +circles, were singing Tahitian verses. We seated ourselves on the sand, +and joined their party. The songs were impromptu, and I believe related +to our arrival: one little girl sang a line, which the rest took up in +parts, forming a very pretty chorus. The whole scene made us +unequivocally aware that we were seated on the shores of an island in +the far-famed South Sea. + +17_th._—This day is reckoned in the log-book as Tuesday the 17th, +instead of Monday the 16th, owing to our, so far, successful chase of +the sun. Before breakfast the ship was hemmed in by a flotilla of +canoes; and when the natives were allowed to come on board, I suppose +there could not have +been less than two hundred. It was the opinion of every one that it +would have been difficult to have picked out an equal number from any +other nation, who would have given so little trouble. Everybody brought +something for sale: shells were the main article of trade. The +Tahitians now fully understand the value of money, and prefer it to old +clothes or other articles. The various coins, however, of English and +Spanish denomination puzzle them, and they never seemed to think the +small silver quite secure until changed into dollars. Some of the +chiefs have accumulated considerable sums of money. One chief, not long +since, offered 800 dollars (about £160 sterling) for a small vessel; +and frequently they purchase whale-boats and horses at the rate of from +50 to 100 dollars. + +After breakfast I went on shore, and ascended the nearest slope to a +height of between two and three thousand feet. The outer mountains are +smooth and conical, but steep; and the old volcanic rocks, of which +they are formed, have been cut through by many profound ravines, +diverging from the central broken parts of the island to the coast. +Having crossed the narrow low girt of inhabited and fertile land, I +followed a smooth steep ridge between two of the deep ravines. The +vegetation was singular, consisting almost exclusively of small dwarf +ferns, mingled, higher up, with coarse grass; it was not very +dissimilar from that on some of the Welsh hills, and this so close +above the orchard of tropical plants on the coast was very surprising. +At the highest point which I reached trees again appeared. Of the three +zones of comparative luxuriance, the lower one owes its moisture, and +therefore fertility, to its flatness; for, being scarcely raised above +the level of the sea, the water from the higher land drains away +slowly. The intermediate zone does not, like the upper one, reach into +a damp and cloudy atmosphere, and therefore remains sterile. The woods +in the upper zone are very pretty, tree-ferns replacing the cocoa-nuts +on the coast. It must not, however, be supposed that these woods at all +equal in splendour the forests of Brazil. The vast number of +productions, which characterise a continent, cannot be expected to +occur in an island. + +Eimeo and Barrier-Reef + +From the highest point which I attained there was a good view of the +distant island of Eimeo, dependent on the same +sovereign with Tahiti. On the lofty and broken pinnacles white massive +clouds were piled up, which formed an island in the blue sky, as Eimeo +itself did in the blue ocean. The island, with the exception of one +small gateway, is completely encircled by a reef. At this distance, a +narrow but well-defined brilliantly white line was alone visible, where +the waves first encountered the wall of coral. The mountains rose +abruptly out of the glassy expanse of the lagoon, included within this +narrow white line, outside which the heaving waters of the ocean were +dark-coloured. The view was striking: it may aptly be compared to a +framed engraving, where the frame represents the breakers, the marginal +paper the smooth lagoon, and the drawing the island itself. When in the +evening I descended from the mountain, a man, whom I had pleased with a +trifling gift, met me, bringing with him hot roasted bananas, a +pine-apple, and cocoa-nuts. After walking under a burning sun, I do not +know anything more delicious than the milk of a young cocoa-nut. +Pine-apples are here so abundant that the people eat them in the same +wasteful manner as we might turnips. They are of an excellent +flavour—perhaps even better than those cultivated in England; and this +I believe is the highest compliment which can be paid to any fruit. +Before going on board, Mr. Wilson interpreted for me to the Tahitian +who had paid me so adroit an attention, that I wanted him and another +man to accompany me on a short excursion into the mountains. + + +18_th._—In the morning I came on shore early, bringing with me some +provisions in a bag, and two blankets for myself and servant. These +were lashed to each end of a long pole, which was alternately carried +by my Tahitian companions on their shoulders. These men are accustomed +thus to carry, for a whole day, as much as fifty pounds at each end of +their poles. I told my guides to provide themselves with food and +clothing; but they said that there was plenty of food in the mountains, +and for clothing, that their skins were sufficient. Our line of march +was the valley of Tia-auru, down which a river flows into the sea by +Point Venus. This is one of the principal streams in the island, and +its source lies at the base of the loftiest central pinnacles, which +rise to a height of about +7000 feet. The whole island is so mountainous that the only way to +penetrate into the interior is to follow up the valleys. Our road, at +first, lay through woods which bordered each side of the river; and the +glimpses of the lofty central peaks, seen as through an avenue, with +here and there a waving cocoa-nut tree on one side, were extremely +picturesque. The valley soon began to narrow, and the sides to grow +lofty and more precipitous. After having walked between three and four +hours, we found the width of the ravine scarcely exceeded that of the +bed of the stream. On each hand the walls were nearly vertical; yet +from the soft nature of the volcanic strata, trees and a rank +vegetation sprung from every projecting ledge. These precipices must +have been some thousand feet high; and the whole formed a mountain +gorge far more magnificent than anything which I had ever before +beheld. Until the mid-day sun stood vertically over the ravine, the air +felt cool and damp, but now it became very sultry. Shaded by a ledge of +rock, beneath a façade of columnar lava, we ate our dinner. My guides +had already procured a dish of small fish and fresh-water prawns. They +carried with them a small net stretched on a hoop; and where the water +was deep and in eddies, they dived, and like otters, with their eyes +open followed the fish into holes and corners, and thus caught them. + +The Tahitians have the dexterity of amphibious animals in the water. An +anecdote mentioned by Ellis shows how much they feel at home in this +element. When a horse was landing for Pomarre in 1817, the slings +broke, and it fell into the water; immediately the natives jumped +overboard, and by their cries and vain efforts at assistance almost +drowned it. As soon, however, as it reached the shore, the whole +population took to flight, and tried to hide themselves from the +man-carrying pig, as they christened the horse. + +A little higher up, the river divided itself into three little streams. +The two northern ones were impracticable, owing to a succession of +waterfalls which descended from the jagged summit of the highest +mountain; the other to all appearance was equally inaccessible, but we +managed to ascend it by a most extraordinary road. The sides of the +valley were here nearly precipitous; but, as frequently happens with +stratified rocks, small ledges projected, which were thickly covered by +wild bananas, liliaceous plants, and other luxuriant productions of the +tropics. The Tahitians, by climbing amongst these ledges, searching for +fruit, had discovered a track by which the whole precipice could be +scaled. The first ascent from the valley was very dangerous; for it was +necessary to pass a steeply inclined face of naked rock by the aid of +ropes which we brought with us. How any person discovered that this +formidable spot was the only point where the side of the mountain was +practicable, I cannot imagine. We then cautiously walked along one of +the ledges till we came to one of the three streams. This ledge formed +a flat spot above which a beautiful cascade, some hundred feet in +height, poured down its waters, and beneath, another high cascade fell +into the main stream in the valley below. From this cool and shady +recess we made a circuit to avoid the overhanging waterfall. As before, +we followed little projecting ledges, the danger being partly concealed +by the thickness of the vegetation. In passing from one of the ledges +to another there was a vertical wall of rock. One of the Tahitians, a +fine active man, placed the trunk of a tree against this, climbed up +it, and then by the aid of crevices reached the summit. He fixed the +ropes to a projecting point, and lowered them for our dog and luggage, +and then we clambered up ourselves. Beneath the ledge on which the dead +tree was placed, the precipice must have been five or six hundred feet +deep; and if the abyss had not been partly concealed by the overhanging +ferns and lilies my head would have turned giddy, and nothing should +have induced me to have attempted it. We continued to ascend, sometimes +along ledges, and sometimes along knife-edged ridges, having on each +hand profound ravines. In the Cordillera I have seen mountains on a far +grander scale, but for abruptness nothing at all comparable with this. +In the evening we reached a flat little spot on the banks of the same +stream which we had continued to follow, and which descends in a chain +of waterfalls: here we bivouacked for the night. On each side of the +ravine there were great beds of the mountain-banana, covered with ripe +fruit. Many of these plants were from twenty to twenty-five feet high, +and from three to four in circumference. By the aid of strips of bark +for rope, the stems of bamboos for rafters, and the large leaf of +the banana for a thatch, the Tahitians in a few minutes built us an +excellent house; and with withered leaves made a soft bed. + +Fatahua Fall, Tahiti + +They then proceeded to make a fire, and cook our evening meal. A light +was procured by rubbing a blunt pointed stick in a groove made in +another, as if with intention of deepening it, until by the friction +the dust became ignited. A peculiarly white and very light wood (the +Hibiscus tiliaceus) is alone used for this purpose: it is the same +which serves for poles to carry any burden, and for the floating +out-riggers to their canoes. The fire was produced in a few seconds: +but to a person who does not understand the art, it requires, as I +found, the greatest exertion; but at last, to my great pride, I +succeeded in igniting the dust. The Gaucho in the Pampas uses a +different method: taking an elastic stick about eighteen inches long, +he presses one end on his breast, and the other pointed end into a hole +in a piece of wood, and then rapidly turns the curved part like a +carpenter’s centre-bit. The Tahitians having made a small fire of +sticks, placed a score of stones of about the size of cricket-balls, on +the burning wood. In about ten minutes the sticks were consumed, and +the stones hot. They had previously folded up in small parcels of +leaves, pieces of beef, fish, ripe and unripe bananas, and the tops of +the wild arum. These green parcels were laid in a layer between two +layers of the hot stones, and the whole then covered up with earth, so +that no smoke or steam could escape. In about a quarter of an hour the +whole was most deliciously cooked. The choice green parcels were now +laid on a cloth of banana leaves, and with a cocoa-nut shell we drank +the cool water of the running stream; and thus we enjoyed our rustic +meal. + +I could not look on the surrounding plants without admiration. On every +side were forests of bananas; the fruit of which, though serving for +food in various ways, lay in heaps decaying on the ground. In front of +us there was an extensive brake of wild sugar-cane; and the stream was +shaded by the dark green knotted stem of the Ava,—so famous in former +days for its powerful intoxicating effects. I chewed a piece, and found +that it had an acrid and unpleasant taste, which would have induced any +one at once to have pronounced it poisonous. Thanks to the +missionaries, this plant now thrives +only in these deep ravines, innocuous to every one. Close by I saw the +wild arum, the roots of which, when well baked, are good to eat, and +the young leaves better than spinach. There was the wild yam, and a +liliaceous plant called Ti, which grows in abundance, and has a soft +brown root, in shape and size like a huge log of wood: this served us +for dessert, for it is as sweet as treacle, and with a pleasant taste. +There were, moreover, several other wild fruits, and useful vegetables. +The little stream, besides its cool water, produced eels and crayfish. +I did indeed admire this scene, when I compared it with an uncultivated +one in the temperate zones. I felt the force of the remark that man, at +least savage man, with his reasoning powers only partly developed, is +the child of the tropics. + +As the evening drew to a close, I strolled beneath the gloomy shade of +the bananas up the course of the stream. My walk was soon brought to a +close by coming to a waterfall between two and three hundred feet high; +and again above this there was another. I mention all these waterfalls +in this one brook to give a general idea of the inclination of the +land. In the little recess where the water fell, it did not appear that +a breath of wind had ever blown. The thin edges of the great leaves of +the banana, damp with spray, were unbroken, instead of being, as is so +generally the case, split into a thousand shreds. From our position, +almost suspended on the mountain-side, there were glimpses into the +depths of the neighbouring valleys; and the lofty points of the central +mountains, towering up within sixty degrees of the zenith, hid half the +evening sky. Thus seated, it was a sublime spectacle to watch the +shades of night gradually obscuring the last and highest pinnacles. + +Before we laid ourselves down to sleep, the elder Tahitian fell on his +knees, and with closed eyes repeated a long prayer in his native +tongue. He prayed as a Christian should do, with fitting reverence, and +without the fear of ridicule or any ostentation of piety. At our meals +neither of the men would taste food, without saying beforehand a short +grace. Those travellers who think that a Tahitian prays only when the +eyes of the missionary are fixed on him, should have slept with us that +night on the mountain-side. Before morning it rained +very heavily; but the good thatch of banana-leaves kept us dry. + +[Illustration] + + +_November_ 19_th._—At daylight my friends, after their morning prayer, +prepared an excellent breakfast in the same manner as in the evening. +They themselves certainly partook of it largely; indeed I never saw any +men eat near so much. I suppose such enormously capacious stomachs must +be the effect of a large part of their diet consisting of fruit and +vegetables which contain, in a given bulk, a comparatively small +portion of nutriment. Unwittingly, I was the means of my companions +breaking, as I afterwards learned, one of their own laws and +resolutions: I took with me a flask of spirits, which they could not +refuse to partake of; but as often as they drank a little, they put +their fingers before their mouths, and uttered the word “Missionary.” +About two years ago, although the use of the ava was prevented, +drunkenness from the introduction of spirits became very prevalent. The +missionaries prevailed on a few good men who saw that their country was +rapidly going to ruin, to join with them in a Temperance Society. From +good sense or shame, all the chiefs and the queen were at last +persuaded to join. Immediately a law was passed that no spirits should +be allowed to be introduced into the island, and that he who sold and +he who bought the forbidden article should be punished by a fine. With +remarkable justice, a +certain period was allowed for stock in hand to be sold, before the law +came into effect. But when it did, a general search was made, in which +even the houses of the missionaries were not exempted, and all the ava +(as the natives call all ardent spirits) was poured on the ground. When +one reflects on the effect of intemperance on the aborigines of the two +Americas, I think it will be acknowledged that every well-wisher of +Tahiti owes no common debt of gratitude to the missionaries. As long as +the little island of St. Helena remained under the government of the +East India Company, spirits, owing to the great injury they had +produced, were not allowed to be imported; but wine was supplied from +the Cape of Good Hope. It is rather a striking, and not very gratifying +fact, that in the same year that spirits were allowed to be sold in St. +Helena, their use was banished from Tahiti by the free will of the +people. + +After breakfast we proceeded on our journey. As my object was merely to +see a little of the interior scenery, we returned by another track, +which descended into the main valley lower down. For some distance we +wound, by a most intricate path, along the side of the mountain which +formed the valley. In the less precipitous parts we passed through +extensive groves of the wild banana. The Tahitians, with their naked, +tattooed bodies, their heads ornamented with flowers, and seen in the +dark shade of these groves, would have formed a fine picture of man +inhabiting some primeval land. In our descent we followed the line of +ridges; these were exceedingly narrow, and for considerable lengths +steep as a ladder; but all clothed with vegetation. The extreme care +necessary in poising each step rendered the walk fatiguing. I did not +cease to wonder at these ravines and precipices: when viewing the +country from one of the knife-edged ridges, the point of support was so +small that the effect was nearly the same as it must be from a balloon. +In this descent we had occasion to use the ropes only once, at the +point where we entered the main valley. We slept under the same ledge +of rock where we had dined the day before: the night was fine, but from +the depth and narrowness of the gorge, profoundly dark. + +Before actually seeing this country, I found it difficult to understand +two facts mentioned by Ellis; namely, that after +the murderous battles of former times, the survivors on the conquered +side retired into the mountains, where a handful of men could resist a +multitude. Certainly half a dozen men, at the spot where the Tahitian +reared the old tree, could easily have repulsed thousands. Secondly, +that after the introduction of Christianity, there were wild men who +lived in the mountains, and whose retreats were unknown to the more +civilised inhabitants. + + +_November_ 20_th._—In the morning we started early, and reached Matavai +at noon. On the road we met a large party of noble athletic men, going +for wild bananas. I found that the ship, on account of the difficulty +in watering, had moved to the harbour of Papawa, to which place I +immediately walked. This is a very pretty spot. The cove is surrounded +by reefs, and the water as smooth as in a lake. The cultivated ground, +with its beautiful productions, interspersed with cottages, comes close +down to the water’s edge. + +From the varying accounts which I had read before reaching these +islands, I was very anxious to form, from my own observation, a +judgment of their moral state,—although such judgment would necessarily +be very imperfect. First impressions at all times very much depend on +one’s previously acquired ideas. My notions were drawn from Ellis’s +_Polynesian Researches_—an admirable and most interesting work, but +naturally looking at everything under a favourable point of view, from +Beechey’s _Voyage;_ and from that of Kotzebue, which is strongly +adverse to the whole missionary system. He who compares these three +accounts will, I think, form a tolerably accurate conception of the +present state of Tahiti. One of my impressions, which I took from the +two last authorities, was decidedly incorrect; namely, that the +Tahitians had become a gloomy race, and lived in fear of the +missionaries. Of the latter feeling I saw no trace, unless, indeed, +fear and respect be confounded under one name. Instead of discontent +being a common feeling, it would be difficult in Europe to pick out of +a crowd half so many merry and happy faces. The prohibition of the +flute and dancing is inveighed against as wrong and foolish;—the more +than presbyterian manner of keeping the Sabbath is looked at in a +similar light. On +these points I will not pretend to offer any opinion, in opposition to +men who have resided as many years as I was days on the island. + +On the whole, it appears to me that the morality and religion of the +inhabitants are highly creditable. There are many who attack, even more +acrimoniously than Kotzebue, both the missionaries, their system, and +the effects produced by it. Such reasoners never compare the present +state with that of the island only twenty years ago; nor even with that +of Europe at this day; but they compare it with the high standard of +Gospel perfection. They expect the missionaries to effect that which +the Apostles themselves failed to do. Inasmuch as the condition of the +people falls short of this high standard, blame is attached to the +missionary, instead of credit for that which he has effected. They +forget, or will not remember, that human sacrifices, and the power of +an idolatrous priesthood—a system of profligacy unparalleled in any +other part of the world—infanticide a consequence of that system—bloody +wars, where the conquerors spared neither women nor children—that all +these have been abolished; and that dishonesty, intemperance, and +licentiousness have been greatly reduced by the introduction of +Christianity. In a voyager to forget these things is base ingratitude; +for should he chance to be at the point of shipwreck on some unknown +coast, he will most devoutly pray that the lesson of the missionary may +have extended thus far. + +In point of morality, the virtue of the women, it has been often said, +is most open to exception. But before they are blamed too severely, it +will be well distinctly to call to mind the scenes described by Captain +Cook and Mr. Banks, in which the grandmothers and mothers of the +present race played a part. Those who are most severe, should consider +how much of the morality of the women in Europe is owing to the system +early impressed by mothers on their daughters, and how much in each +individual case to the precepts of religion. But it is useless to argue +against such reasoners;—I believe that, disappointed in not finding the +field of licentiousness quite so open as formerly, they will not give +credit to a morality which they do not wish to practise, or to a +religion which they undervalue, if not despise. + + +_Sunday_ 22_nd._—The harbour of Papiéte, where the queen resides, may +be considered as the capital of the island: it is also the seat of +government, and the chief resort of shipping. Captain Fitz Roy took a +party there this day to hear divine service, first in the Tahitian +language, and afterwards in our own. Mr. Pritchard, the leading +missionary in the island, performed the service. The chapel consisted +of a large airy framework of wood; and it was filled to excess by tidy, +clean people, of all ages and both sexes. I was rather disappointed in +the apparent degree of attention; but I believe my expectations were +raised too high. At all events the appearance was quite equal to that +in a country church in England. The singing of the hymns was decidedly +very pleasing, but the language from the pulpit, although fluently +delivered, did not sound well: a constant repetition of words, like +“_tata ta, mata mai,_” rendered it monotonous. After English service, a +party returned on foot to Matavai. It was a pleasant walk, sometimes +along the sea-beach and sometimes under the shade of the many beautiful +trees. + +About two years ago, a small vessel under English colours was plundered +by some of the inhabitants of the Low Islands, which were then under +the dominion of the Queen of Tahiti. It was believed that the +perpetrators were instigated to this act by some indiscreet laws issued +by her majesty. The British government demanded compensation; which was +acceded to, and a sum of nearly three thousand dollars was agreed to be +paid on the first of last September. The Commodore at Lima ordered +Captain Fitz Roy to inquire concerning this debt, and to demand +satisfaction if it were not paid. Captain Fitz Roy accordingly +requested an interview with the Queen Pomarre, since famous from the +ill-treatment she has received from the French; and a parliament was +held to consider the question, at which all the principal chiefs of the +island and the queen were assembled. I will not attempt to describe +what took place, after the interesting account given by Captain Fitz +Roy. The money, it appeared, had not been paid; perhaps the alleged +reasons were rather equivocal; but otherwise I cannot sufficiently +express our general surprise at the extreme good sense, the reasoning +powers, moderation, candour, and prompt resolution, which were +displayed on all sides. I believe we all left the +meeting with a very different opinion of the Tahitians from what we +entertained when we entered. The chiefs and people resolved to +subscribe and complete the sum which was wanting; Captain Fitz Roy +urged that it was hard that their private property should be sacrificed +for the crimes of distant islanders. They replied that they were +grateful for his consideration, but that Pomarre was their Queen, and +that they were determined to help her in this her difficulty. This +resolution and its prompt execution, for a book was opened early the +next morning, made a perfect conclusion to this very remarkable scene +of loyalty and good feeling. + +After the main discussion was ended, several of the chiefs took the +opportunity of asking Captain Fitz Roy many intelligent questions on +international customs and laws, relating to the treatment of ships and +foreigners. On some points, as soon as the decision was made, the law +was issued verbally on the spot. This Tahitian parliament lasted for +several hours; and when it was over Captain Fitz Roy invited Queen +Pomarre to pay the _Beagle_ a visit. + + +_November_ 25_th._—In the evening four boats were sent for her majesty; +the ship was dressed with flags, and the yards manned on her coming on +board. She was accompanied by most of the chiefs. The behaviour of all +was very proper: they begged for nothing, and seemed much pleased with +Captain Fitz Roy’s presents. The Queen is a large awkward woman, +without any beauty, grace or dignity. She has only one royal attribute: +a perfect immovability of expression under all circumstances, and that +rather a sullen one. The rockets were most admired, and a deep “Oh!” +could be heard from the shore, all round the dark bay, after each +explosion. The sailors’ songs were also much admired; and the queen +said she thought that one of the most boisterous ones certainly could +not be a hymn! The royal party did not return on shore till past +midnight. + + +26_th._—In the evening, with a gentle land-breeze, a course was steered +for New Zealand; and as the sun set, we had a farewell view of the +mountains of Tahiti—the island to which every voyager has offered up +his tribute of admiration. + + +_December_ 19_th._—In the evening we saw in the distance New Zealand. +We may now consider that we have nearly crossed the Pacific. It is +necessary to sail over this great ocean to comprehend its immensity. +Moving quickly onwards for weeks together, we meet with nothing but the +same blue, profoundly deep, ocean. Even within the archipelagoes, the +islands are mere specks, and far distant one from the other. Accustomed +to look at maps drawn on a small scale, where dots, shading, and names +are crowded together, we do not rightly judge how infinitely small the +proportion of dry land is to the water of this vast expanse. The +meridian of the Antipodes has likewise been passed; and now every +league, it made us happy to think, was one league nearer to England. +These Antipodes call to one’s mind old recollections of childish doubt +and wonder. Only the other day I looked forward to this airy barrier as +a definite point in our voyage homewards; but now I find it, and all +such resting-places for the imagination, are like shadows, which a man +moving onwards cannot catch. A gale of wind lasting for some days has +lately given us full leisure to measure the future stages in our +homeward voyage, and to wish most earnestly for its termination. + + +_December_ 21_st._—Early in the morning we entered the Bay of Islands, +and being becalmed for some hours near the mouth, we did not reach the +anchorage till the middle of the day. The country is hilly, with a +smooth outline, and is deeply intersected by numerous arms of the sea +extending from the bay. The surface appears from a distance as if +clothed with coarse pasture, but this in truth is nothing but fern. On +the more distant hills, as well as in parts of the valleys, there is a +good deal of woodland. The general tint of the landscape is not a +bright green; and it resembles the country a short distance to the +south of Concepcion in Chile. In several parts of the bay little +villages of square tidy-looking houses are scattered close down to the +water’s edge. Three whaling-ships were lying at anchor, and a canoe +every now and then crossed from shore to shore; with these exceptions, +an air of extreme quietness reigned over the whole district. Only a +single canoe came alongside. This, and the aspect of the whole scene, +afforded a remarkable, and not very pleasing contrast, with our joyful +and boisterous welcome at Tahiti. + +In the afternoon we went on shore to one of the larger groups of +houses, which yet hardly deserves the title of a village. Its name is +Pahia: it is the residence of the missionaries; and there are no native +residents except servants and labourers. In the vicinity of the Bay of +Islands the number of Englishmen, including their families, amounts to +between two and three hundred. All the cottages, many of which are +whitewashed and look very neat, are the property of the English. The +hovels of the natives are so diminutive and paltry that they can +scarcely be perceived from a distance. At Pahia it was quite pleasing +to behold the English flowers in the gardens before the houses; there +were roses of several kinds, honeysuckle, jasmine, stocks, and whole +hedges of sweetbriar. + + +_December_ 22_nd._—In the morning I went out walking; but I soon found +that the country was very impracticable. All the hills are thickly +covered with tall fern, together with a low bush which grows like a +cypress; and very little ground has been cleared or cultivated. I then +tried the sea-beach; but proceeding towards either hand, my walk was +soon stopped by salt-water creeks and deep brooks. The communication +between the inhabitants of the different parts of the bay is (as in +Chiloe) almost entirely kept up by boats. I was surprised to find that +almost every hill which I ascended had been at some former time more or +less fortified. The summits were cut into steps or successive terraces, +and frequently they had been protected by deep trenches. I afterwards +observed that the principal hills inland in like manner showed an +artificial outline. These are the Pas, so frequently mentioned by +Captain Cook under the name of “hippah;” the difference of sound being +owing to the prefixed article. + +That the Pas had formerly been much used was evident from the piles of +shells, and the pits in which, as I was informed, sweet potatoes used +to be kept as a reserve. As there was no water on these hills, the +defenders could never have anticipated a long siege, but only a hurried +attack for plunder, against which the successive terraces would have +afforded good protection. The general introduction of firearms has +changed the whole system of warfare; and an exposed situation on the +top of a hill is now worse than useless. The Pas in consequence are, at +the present day, always built on a level piece of ground. They consist +of a double stockade of thick and tall posts, placed in a zigzag line, +so that every part can be flanked. Within the stockade a mound of earth +is thrown up, behind which the defenders can rest in safety, or use +their firearms over it. On the level of the ground little archways +sometimes pass through this breastwork, by which means the defenders +can crawl out to the stockade and reconnoitre their enemies. The +Reverend W. Williams, who gave me this account, added that in one Pas +he had noticed spurs or buttresses projecting on the inner and +protected side of the mound of earth. On asking the chief the use of +them, he replied, that if two or three of his men were shot their +neighbours would not see the bodies, and so be discouraged. + +These Pas are considered by the New Zealanders as very perfect means of +defence: for the attacking force is never so well disciplined as to +rush in a body to the stockade, cut it down, and effect their entry. +When a tribe goes to war, the chief cannot order one party to go here +and another there; but every man fights in the manner which best +pleases himself; and to each separate individual to approach a stockade +defended by firearms must appear certain death. I should think a more +warlike race of inhabitants could not be found in any part of the world +than the New Zealanders. Their conduct on first seeing a ship, as +described by Captain Cook, strongly illustrates this: the act of +throwing volleys of stones at so great and novel an object, and their +defiance of “Come on shore and we will kill and eat you all,” shows +uncommon boldness. This warlike spirit is evident in many of their +customs, and even in their smallest actions. If a New Zealander is +struck, although but in joke, the blow must be returned; and of this I +saw an instance with one of our officers. + +At the present day, from the progress of civilisation, there is much +less warfare, except among some of the southern tribes. I heard a +characteristic anecdote of what took place some time ago in the south. +A missionary found a chief and his tribe in +preparation for war;—their muskets clean and bright, and their +ammunition ready. He reasoned long on the inutility of the war, and the +little provocation which had been given for it. The chief was much +shaken in his resolution, and seemed in doubt: but at length it +occurred to him that a barrel of his gunpowder was in a bad state, and +that it would not keep much longer. This was brought forward as an +unanswerable argument for the necessity of immediately declaring war: +the idea of allowing so much good gunpowder to spoil was not to be +thought of; and this settled the point. I was told by the missionaries +that in the life of Shongi, the chief who visited England, the love of +war was the one and lasting spring of every action. The tribe in which +he was a principal chief had at one time been much oppressed by another +tribe from the Thames River. A solemn oath was taken by the men that +when their boys should grow up, and they should be powerful enough, +they would never forget or forgive these injuries. To fulfil this oath +appears to have been Shongi’s chief motive for going to England; and +when there it was his sole object. Presents were valued only as they +could be converted into arms; of the arts, those alone interested him +which were connected with the manufacture of arms. When at Sydney, +Shongi, by a strange coincidence, met the hostile chief of the Thames +River at the house of Mr. Marsden: their conduct was civil to each +other; but Shongi told him that when again in New Zealand he would +never cease to carry war into his country. The challenge was accepted; +and Shongi on his return fulfilled the threat to the utmost letter. The +tribe on the Thames River was utterly overthrown, and the chief to whom +the challenge had been given was himself killed. Shongi, although +harbouring such deep feelings of hatred and revenge, is described as +having been a good-natured person. + +In the evening I went with Captain Fitz Roy and Mr. Baker, one of the +missionaries, to pay a visit to Kororadika: we wandered about the +village, and saw and conversed with many of the people, both men, +women, and children. Looking at the New Zealander, one naturally +compares him with the Tahitian; both belonging to the same family of +mankind. The comparison, however, tells heavily against the New +Zealander. He may, perhaps be superior in energy, but in +every other respect his character is of a much lower order. One glance +at their respective expressions brings conviction to the mind that one +is a savage, the other a civilised man. It would be vain to seek in the +whole of New Zealand a person with the face and mien of the old +Tahitian chief Utamme. No doubt the extraordinary manner in which +tattooing is here practised gives a disagreeable expression to their +countenances. The complicated but symmetrical figures covering the +whole face puzzle and mislead an unaccustomed eye: it is moreover +probable that the deep incisions, by destroying the play of the +superficial muscles, give an air of rigid inflexibility. But, besides +this, there is a twinkling in the eye which cannot indicate anything +but cunning and ferocity. Their figures are tall and bulky; but not +comparable in elegance with those of the working-classes in Tahiti. + +Both their persons and houses are filthily dirty and offensive: the +idea of washing either their bodies or their clothes never seems to +enter their heads. I saw a chief, who was wearing a shirt black and +matted with filth, and when asked how it came to be so dirty, he +replied, with surprise, “Do not you see it is an old one?” Some of the +men have shirts; but the common dress is one or two large blankets, +generally black with dirt, which are thrown over their shoulders in a +very inconvenient and awkward fashion. A few of the principal chiefs +have decent suits of English clothes; but these are only worn on great +occasions. + + +_December_ 23_rd._—At a place called Waimate, about fifteen miles from +the Bay of Islands, and midway between the eastern and western coasts, +the missionaries have purchased some land for agricultural purposes. I +had been introduced to the Reverend W. Williams, who, upon my +expressing a wish, invited me to pay him a visit there. Mr. Bushby, the +British resident, offered to take me in his boat by a creek, where I +should see a pretty waterfall, and by which means my walk would be +shortened. He likewise procured for me a guide. Upon asking a +neighbouring chief to recommend a man, the chief himself offered to go; +but his ignorance of the value of money was so complete, that at first +he asked how many pounds I would give him, but afterwards was well +contented +with two dollars. When I showed the chief a very small bundle which I +wanted carried, it became absolutely necessary for him to take a slave. +These feelings of pride are beginning to wear away; but formerly a +leading man would sooner have died than undergone the indignity of +carrying the smallest burden. My companion was a light active man, +dressed in a dirty blanket, and with his face completely tattooed. He +had formerly been a great warrior. He appeared to be on very cordial +terms with Mr. Bushby; but at various times they had quarrelled +violently. Mr. Bushby remarked that a little quiet irony would +frequently silence any one of these natives in their most blustering +moments. This chief has come and harangued Mr. Bushby in a hectoring +manner, saying, “A great chief, a great man, a friend of mine, has come +to pay me a visit—you must give him something good to eat, some fine +presents, etc.” Mr. Bushby has allowed him to finish his discourse, and +then has quietly replied by some answer such as, “What else shall your +slave do for you?” The man would then instantly, with a very comical +expression, cease his braggadocio. + +Some time ago Mr. Bushby suffered a far more serious attack. A chief +and a party of men tried to break into his house in the middle of the +night, and not finding this so easy, commenced a brisk firing with +their muskets. Mr. Bushby was slightly wounded, but the party was at +length driven away. Shortly afterwards it was discovered who was the +aggressor; and a general meeting of the chiefs was convened to consider +the case. It was considered by the New Zealanders as very atrocious, +inasmuch as it was a night attack, and that Mrs. Bushby was lying ill +in the house: this latter circumstance, much to their honour, being +considered in all cases as a protection. The chiefs agreed to +confiscate the land of the aggressor to the King of England. The whole +proceeding, however, in thus trying and punishing a chief was entirely +without precedent. The aggressor, moreover, lost caste in the +estimation of his equals; and this was considered by the British as of +more consequence than the confiscation of his land. + +As the boat was shoving off, a second chief stepped into her, who only +wanted the amusement of the passage up and down the creek. I never saw +a more horrid and ferocious +expression than this man had. It immediately struck me I had somewhere +seen his likeness: it will be found in Retzch’s outlines to Schiller’s +ballad of Fridolin, where two men are pushing Robert into the burning +iron furnace. It is the man who has his arm on Robert’s breast. +Physiognomy here spoke the truth; this chief had been a notorious +murderer, and was an arrant coward to boot. At the point where the boat +landed, Mr. Bushby accompanied me a few hundred yards on the road: I +could not help admiring the cool impudence of the hoary old villain, +whom we left lying in the boat, when he shouted to Mr. Bushby, “Do not +you stay long, I shall be tired of waiting here.” + +We now commenced our walk. The road lay along a well-beaten path, +bordered on each side by the tall fern which covers the whole country. +After travelling some miles we came to a little country village, where +a few hovels were collected together, and some patches of ground +cultivated with potatoes. The introduction of the potato has been the +most essential benefit to the island; it is now much more used than any +native vegetable. New Zealand is favoured by one great natural +advantage; namely, that the inhabitants can never perish from famine. +The whole country abounds with fern: and the roots of this plant, if +not very palatable, yet contain much nutriment. A native can always +subsist on these, and on the shell-fish which are abundant on all parts +of the sea-coast. The villages are chiefly conspicuous by the platforms +which are raised on four posts ten or twelve feet above the ground, and +on which the produce of the fields is kept secure from all accidents. + +On coming near one of the huts I was much amused by seeing in due form +the ceremony of rubbing, or, as it ought to be called, pressing noses. +The women, on our first approach, began uttering something in a most +dolorous voice; they then squatted themselves down and held up their +faces; my companion standing over them, one after another, placed the +bridge of his nose at right angles to theirs, and commenced pressing. +This lasted rather longer than a cordial shake of the hand with us, and +as we vary the force of the grasp of the hand in shaking, so do they in +pressing. During the process they uttered comfortable little grunts, +very much in the same manner as two pigs do, when rubbing against each +other. I noticed that the +slave would press noses with any one he met, indifferently either +before or after his master the chief. Although among these savages the +chief has absolute power of life and death over his slave, yet there is +an entire absence of ceremony between them. Mr. Burchell has remarked +the same thing in Southern Africa with the rude Bachapins. Where +civilisation has arrived at a certain point, complex formalities soon +arise between the different grades of society: thus at Tahiti all were +formerly obliged to uncover themselves as low as the waist in presence +of the king. + +The ceremony of pressing noses having been duly completed with all +present, we seated ourselves in a circle in the front of one of +the hovels, and rested there half an hour. All the hovels have nearly +the same form and dimensions, and all agree in being filthily dirty. +They resemble a cow-shed with one end open, but having a partition a +little way within, with a square hole in it, making a small gloomy +chamber. In this the inhabitants keep all their property, and when the +weather is cold they sleep there. They eat, however, and pass their +time in the open part in front. My guides having finished their pipes, +we continued our walk. The path led through the same undulating +country, the whole uniformly clothed as before with fern. On our right +hand we had a serpentine river, the banks of which were fringed with +trees, and here and there on the hill-sides there was a clump of wood. +The whole scene, in spite of its green colour, had rather a desolate +aspect. The sight of so much fern impresses the mind with an idea of +sterility: this, however, is not correct; for wherever the fern grows +thick and breast-high, the land by tillage becomes productive. Some of +the residents think that all this extensive open country originally was +covered with forests, and that it has been cleared by fire. It is said, +that by digging in the barest spots, lumps of the kind of resin which +flows from the kauri pine are frequently found. The natives had an +evident motive in clearing the country; for the fern, formerly a staple +article of food, flourishes only in the open cleared tracks. The almost +entire absence of associated grasses, which forms so remarkable a +feature in the vegetation of this island, may perhaps be accounted for +by the land having been aboriginally covered with forest-trees. + + +The soil is volcanic; in several parts we passed over slaggy lavas, and +craters could clearly be distinguished on several of the neighbouring +hills. Although the scenery is nowhere beautiful, and only occasionally +pretty, I enjoyed my walk. I should have enjoyed it more, if my +companion, the chief, had not possessed extraordinary conversational +powers. I knew only three words: “good,” “bad,” and “yes:” and with +these I answered all his remarks, without of course having understood +one word he said. This, however, was quite sufficient: I was a good +listener, an agreeable person, and he never ceased talking to me. + +At length we reached Waimate. After having passed over so many miles of +an uninhabited useless country, the sudden appearance of an English +farm-house, and its well-dressed fields, placed there as if by an +enchanter’s wand, was exceedingly pleasant. Mr. Williams not being at +home, I received in Mr. Davies’s house a cordial welcome. After +drinking tea with his family party, we took a stroll about the farm. At +Waimate there are three large houses, where the missionary gentlemen, +Messrs. Williams, Davies, and Clarke, reside; and near them are the +huts of the native labourers. On an adjoining slope fine crops of +barley and wheat were standing in full ear; and in another part fields +of potatoes and clover. But I cannot attempt to describe all I saw; +there were large gardens, with every fruit and vegetable which England +produces; and many belonging to a warmer clime. I may instance +asparagus, kidney beans, cucumbers, rhubarb, apples, pears, figs, +peaches, apricots, grapes, olives, gooseberries, currants, hops, gorse +for fences, and English oaks; also many kinds of flowers. Around the +farmyard there were stables, a thrashing-barn with its winnowing +machine, a blacksmith’s forge, and on the ground ploughshares and other +tools: in the middle was that happy mixture of pigs and poultry, lying +comfortably together, as in every English farmyard. At the distance of +a few hundred yards, where the water of a little rill had been dammed +up into a pool, there was a large and substantial water-mill. + +All this is very surprising when it is considered that five years ago +nothing but the fern flourished here. Moreover, native workmanship, +taught by the missionaries, has effected +this change;—the lesson of the missionary is the enchanter’s wand. The +house had been built, the windows framed, the fields ploughed, and even +the trees grafted, by the New Zealander. At the mill a New Zealander +was seen powdered white with flower, like his brother miller in +England. When I looked at this whole scene I thought it admirable. It +was not merely that England was brought vividly before my mind; yet, as +the evening drew to a close, the domestic sounds, the fields of corn, +the distant undulating country with its trees, might well have been +mistaken for our fatherland: nor was it the triumphant feeling at +seeing what Englishmen could effect, but rather the high hopes thus +inspired for the future progress of this fine island. + +Several young men, redeemed by the missionaries from slavery, were +employed on the farm. They were dressed in a shirt, jacket, and +trousers, and had a respectable appearance. Judging from one trifling +anecdote, I should think they must be honest. When walking in the +fields, a young labourer came up to Mr. Davies and gave him a knife and +gimlet, saying that he had found them on the road, and did not know to +whom they belonged! These young men and boys appeared very merry and +good-humoured. In the evening I saw a party of them at cricket: when I +thought of the austerity of which the missionaries have been accused, I +was amused by observing one of their own sons taking an active part in +the game. A more decided and pleasing change was manifested in the +young women, who acted as servants within the houses. Their clean, +tidy, and healthy appearance, like that of the dairy-maids in England, +formed a wonderful contrast with the women of the filthy hovels in +Kororadika. The wives of the missionaries tried to persuade them not to +be tattooed; but a famous operator having arrived from the south, they +said, “We really must just have a few lines on our lips; else when we +grow old, our lips will shrivel, and we shall be so very ugly.” There +is not nearly so much tattooing as formerly; but as it is a badge of +distinction between the chief and the slave, it will probably long be +practised. So soon does any train of ideas become habitual, that the +missionaries told me that even in their eyes a plain face looked mean, +and not like that of a New Zealand gentleman. + + +Late in the evening I went to Mr. Williams’s house, where I passed the +night. I found there a large party of children, collected together for +Christmas Day, and all sitting round a table at tea. I never saw a +nicer or more merry group; and to think that this was in the centre of +the land of cannibalism, murder, and all atrocious crimes! The +cordiality and happiness so plainly pictured in the faces of the little +circle appeared equally felt by the older persons of the mission. + + +_December_ 24_th._—In the morning prayers were read in the native +tongue to the whole family. After breakfast I rambled about the gardens +and farm. This was a market-day, when the natives of the surrounding +hamlets bring their potatoes, Indian corn, or pigs, to exchange for +blankets, tobacco, and sometimes, through the persuasions of the +missionaries, for soap. Mr. Davies’s eldest son, who manages a farm of +his own, is the man of business in the market. The children of the +missionaries, who came while young to the island, understand the +language better than their parents, and can get anything more readily +done by the natives. + +A little before noon Messrs. Williams and Davies walked with me to part +of a neighbouring forest, to show me the famous kauri pine. I measured +one of these noble trees, and found it thirty-one feet in circumference +above the roots. There was another close by, which I did not see, +thirty-three feet; and I heard of one no less than forty feet. These +trees are remarkable for their smooth cylindrical boles, which run up +to a height of sixty, and even ninety feet, with a nearly equal +diameter, and without a single branch. The crown of branches at the +summit is out of all proportion small to the trunk; and the leaves are +likewise small compared with the branches. The forest was here almost +composed of the kauri; and the largest trees, from the parallelism of +their sides, stood up like gigantic columns of wood. The timber of the +kauri is the most valuable production of the island; moreover, a +quantity of resin oozes from the bark, which is sold at a penny a pound +to the Americans, but its use was then unknown. Some of the New Zealand +forests must be impenetrable to an extraordinary degree. Mr. Matthews +informed me that one forest only thirty-four miles in width, and +separating two inhabited +districts, had only lately, for the first time, been crossed. He and +another missionary, each with a party of about fifty men, undertook to +open a road, but it cost them more than a fortnight’s labour! In the +woods I saw very few birds. With regard to animals, it is a most +remarkable fact, that so large an island, extending over more than 700 +miles in latitude, and in many parts ninety broad, with varied +stations, a fine climate, and land of all heights, from 14,000 feet +downwards, with the exception of a small rat, did not possess one +indigenous animal. The several species of that gigantic genus of birds, +the Deinornis, seem here to have replaced mammiferous quadrupeds, in +the same manner as the reptiles still do at the Galapagos Archipelago. +It is said that the common Norway rat, in the short space of two years, +annihilated in this northern end of the island the New Zealand species. +In many places I noticed several sorts of weeds, which, like the rats, +I was forced to own as countrymen. A leek has overrun whole districts, +and will prove very troublesome, but it was imported as a favour by a +French vessel. The common dock is also widely disseminated, and will, I +fear, for ever remain a proof of the rascality of an Englishman who +sold the seeds for those of the tobacco plant. + +On returning from our pleasant walk to the house, I dined with Mr. +Williams; and then, a horse being lent me, I returned to the Bay of +Islands. I took leave of the missionaries with thankfulness for their +kind welcome, and with feelings of high respect for their +gentlemanlike, useful, and upright characters. I think it would be +difficult to find a body of men better adapted for the high office +which they fulfil. + +_Christmas Day._—In a few more days the fourth year of our absence from +England will be completed. Our first Christmas Day was spent at +Plymouth, the second at St. Martin’s Cove near Cape Horn; the third at +Port Desire in Patagonia; the fourth at anchor in a wild harbour in the +peninsula of Tres Montes, this fifth here, and the next, I trust in +Providence, will be in England. We attended divine service in the +chapel of Pahia; part of the service being read in English, and part in +the native language. Whilst at New Zealand we did not hear of any +recent acts of cannibalism; but +Mr. Stokes found burnt human bones strewed round a fireplace on a small +island near the anchorage; but these remains of a comfortable banquet +might have been lying there for several years. It is probable that the +moral state of the people will rapidly improve. Mr. Bushby mentioned +one pleasing anecdote as a proof of the sincerity of some, at least, of +those who profess Christianity. One of his young men left him, who had +been accustomed to read prayers to the rest of the servants. Some weeks +afterwards, happening to pass late in the evening by an outhouse, he +saw and heard one of his men reading the Bible with difficulty by the +light of the fire, to the others. After this the party knelt and +prayed: in their prayers they mentioned Mr. Bushby and his family, and +the missionaries, each separately in his respective district. + + +_December_ 26_th._—Mr. Bushby offered to take Mr. Sulivan and myself in +his boat some miles up the river to Cawa-Cawa, and proposed afterwards +to walk on to the village of Waiomio, where there are some curious +rocks. Following one of the arms of the bay we enjoyed a pleasant row, +and passed through pretty scenery, until we came to a village, beyond +which the boat could not pass. From this place a chief and a party of +men volunteered to walk with us to Waiomio, a distance of four miles. +The chief was at this time rather notorious from having lately hung one +of his wives and a slave for adultery. When one of the missionaries +remonstrated with him he seemed surprised, and said he thought he was +exactly following the English method. Old Shongi, who happened to be in +England during the Queen’s trial, expressed great disapprobation at the +whole proceeding: he said he had five wives, and he would rather cut +off all their heads than be so much troubled about one. Leaving this +village, we crossed over to another, seated on a hill-side at a little +distance. The daughter of a chief, who was still a heathen, had died +there five days before. The hovel in which she had expired had been +burnt to the ground: her body, being enclosed between two small canoes, +was placed upright on the ground, and protected by an enclosure bearing +wooden images of their gods, and the whole was painted bright red, so +as to be conspicuous from afar. Her gown was fastened to the coffin, +and her hair being cut off was cast at +its foot. The relatives of the family had torn the flesh of their arms, +bodies, and faces, so that they were covered with clotted blood; and +the old women looked most filthy, disgusting objects. On the following +day some of the officers visited this place, and found the women still +howling and cutting themselves. + +We continued our walk, and soon reached Waiomio. Here there are some +singular masses of limestone resembling ruined castles. These rocks +have long served for burial places, and in consequence are held too +sacred to be approached. One of the young men, however, cried out, “Let +us all be brave,” and ran on ahead; but when within a hundred yards, +the whole party thought better of it, and stopped short. With perfect +indifference, however, they allowed us to examine the whole place. At +this village we rested some hours, during which time there was a long +discussion with Mr. Bushby, concerning the right of sale of certain +lands. One old man, who appeared a perfect genealogist, illustrated the +successive possessors by bits of stick driven into the ground. Before +leaving the houses a little basketful of roasted sweet potatoes was +given to each of our party; and we all, according to the custom, +carried them away to eat on the road. I noticed that among the women +employed in cooking, there was a man-slave: it must be a humiliating +thing for a man in this warlike country to be employed in doing that +which is considered as the lowest woman’s work. Slaves are not allowed +to go to war; but this perhaps can hardly be considered as a hardship. +I heard of one poor wretch who, during hostilities, ran away to the +opposite party; being met by two men, he was immediately seized; but as +they could not agree to whom he should belong, each stood over him with +a stone hatchet, and seemed determined that the other at least should +not take him away alive. The poor man, almost dead with fright, was +only saved by the address of a chief’s wife. We afterwards enjoyed a +pleasant walk back to the boat, but did not reach the ship till late in +the evening. + + +_December_ 30_th._—In the afternoon we stood out of the Bay of Islands, +on our course to Sydney. I believe we were all glad to leave New +Zealand. It is not a pleasant place. +Amongst the natives there is absent that charming simplicity which is +found in Tahiti; and the greater part of the English are the very +refuse of society. Neither is the country itself attractive. I look +back but to one bright spot, and that is Waimate, with its Christian +inhabitants. + +[Illustration: Hippah, New Zealand] + +[Illustration: Sydney, 1835] + + + + +Chapter XIX + + +AUSTRALIA + +Sydney—Excursion to Bathurst—Aspect of the woods—Party of +natives—Gradual extinction of the aborigines—Infection generated by +associated men in health—Blue Mountains—View of the grand gulf-like +valleys—Their origin and formation—Bathurst, general civility of the +lower orders—State of society—Van Diemen’s Land—Hobart Town—Aborigines +all banished—Mount Wellington—King George’s Sound—Cheerless aspect of +the country—Bald Head, calcareous casts of branches of trees—Party of +natives—Leave Australia. + +_January_ 12_th_, 1836.—Early in the morning a light air carried us +towards the entrance of Port Jackson. Instead of beholding a verdant +country, interspersed with fine houses, a straight line of yellowish +cliff brought to our minds the coast of Patagonia. A solitary +lighthouse, built of white stone, alone told us that we were near a +great and populous city. Having entered the harbour, it appears fine +and spacious, with cliff-formed shores of horizontally stratified +sandstone. The nearly level country is covered with thin scrubby trees, +bespeaking the curse of sterility. Proceeding farther inland, the +country improves: beautiful villas and nice cottages are here and there +scattered +along the beach. In the distance stone houses, two and three stories +high, and windmills standing on the edge of a bank, pointed out to us +the neighbourhood of the capital of Australia. + +At last we anchored within Sydney Cove. We found the little basin +occupied by many large ships, and surrounded by warehouses. In the +evening I walked through the town, and returned full of admiration at +the whole scene. It is a most magnificent testimony to the power of the +British nation. Here, in a less promising country, scores of years have +done many more times more than an equal number of centuries have +effected in South America. My first feeling was to congratulate myself +that I was born an Englishman. Upon seeing more of the town afterwards, +perhaps my admiration fell a little; but yet it is a fine town. The +streets are regular, broad, clean, and kept in excellent order; the +houses are of a good size, and the shops well furnished. It may be +faithfully compared to the large suburbs which stretch out from London +and a few other great towns in England; but not even near London or +Birmingham is there an appearance of such rapid growth. The number of +large houses and other buildings just finished was truly surprising; +nevertheless, every one complained of the high rents and difficulty in +procuring a house. Coming from South America, where in the towns every +man of property is known, no one thing surprised me more than not being +able to ascertain at once to whom this or that carriage belonged. + +I hired a man and two horses to take me to Bathurst, a village about +one hundred and twenty miles in the interior, and the centre of a great +pastoral district. By this means I hoped to gain a general idea of the +appearance of the country. On the morning of the 16th (January) I set +out on my excursion. The first stage took us to Paramatta, a small +country town, next to Sydney in importance. The roads were excellent, +and made upon the MacAdam principle, whinstone having been brought for +the purpose from the distance of several miles. In all respects there +was a close resemblance to England: perhaps the alehouses here were +more numerous. The iron gangs, or parties of convicts who have +committed here some offence, appeared the least like England: they were +working in chains, under the charge of sentries with loaded +arms. The power which the government possesses, by means of forced +labour, of at once opening good roads throughout the country, has been, +I believe, one main cause of the early prosperity of this colony. I +slept at night at a very comfortable inn at Emu ferry, thirty-five +miles from Sydney, and near the ascent of the Blue Mountains. This line +of road is the most frequented, and has been the longest inhabited of +any in the colony. The whole land is enclosed with high railings, for +the farmers have not succeeded in rearing hedges. There are many +substantial houses and good cottages scattered about; but although +considerable pieces of land are under cultivation, the greater part yet +remains as when first discovered. + +The extreme uniformity of the vegetation is the most remarkable feature +in the landscape of the greater part of New South Wales. Everywhere we +have an open woodland, the ground being partially covered with a very +thin pasture, with little appearance of verdure. The trees nearly all +belong to one family, and mostly have their leaves placed in a +vertical, instead of as in Europe, in a nearly horizontal position: the +foliage is scanty, and of a peculiar pale green tint, without any +gloss. Hence the woods appear light and shadowless: this, although a +loss of comfort to the traveller under the scorching rays of summer, is +of importance to the farmer, as it allows grass to grow where it +otherwise would not. The leaves are not shed periodically: this +character appears common to the entire southern hemisphere, namely, +South America, Australia, and the Cape of Good Hope. The inhabitants of +this hemisphere, and of the intertropical regions, thus lose perhaps +one of the most glorious, though to our eyes common, spectacles in the +world—the first bursting into full foliage of the leafless tree. They +may, however, say that we pay dearly for this by having the land +covered with mere naked skeletons for so many months. This is too true; +but our senses thus acquire a keen relish for the exquisite green of +the spring, which the eyes of those living within the tropics, sated +during the long year with the gorgeous productions of those glowing +climates, can never experience. The greater number of the trees, with +the exception of some of the Blue-gums, do not attain a large size; but +they grow tall and tolerably straight, and stand well apart. The bark +of some of the Eucalypti falls annually, or +hangs dead in long shreds which swing about with the wind, and give to +the woods a desolate and untidy appearance. I cannot imagine a more +complete contrast, in every respect, than between the forests of +Valdivia or Chiloe, and the woods of Australia. + +At sunset, a party of a score of the black aborigines passed by, each +carrying, in their accustomed manner, a bundle of spears and other +weapons. By giving a leading young man a shilling, they were easily +detained, and threw their spears for my amusement. They were all partly +clothed, and several could speak a little English: their countenances +were good-humoured and pleasant, and they appeared far from being such +utterly degraded beings as they have usually been represented. In their +own arts they are admirable. A cap being fixed at thirty yards +distance, they transfixed it with a spear, delivered by the +throwing-stick with the rapidity of an arrow from the bow of a +practised archer. In tracking animals or men they show most wonderful +sagacity; and I heard of several of their remarks which manifested +considerable acuteness. They will not, however, cultivate the ground, +or build houses and remain stationary, or even take the trouble of +tending a flock of sheep when given to them. On the whole they appear +to me to stand some few degrees higher in the scale of civilisation +than the Fuegians. + +It is very curious thus to see in the midst of a civilised people, a +set of harmless savages wandering about without knowing where they +shall sleep at night, and gaining their livelihood by hunting in the +woods. As the white man has travelled onwards, he has spread over the +country belonging to several tribes. These, although thus enclosed by +one common people, keep up their ancient distinctions, and sometimes go +to war with each other. In an engagement which took place lately, the +two parties most singularly chose the centre of the village of Bathurst +for the field of battle. This was of service to the defeated side, for +the runaway warriors took refuge in the barracks. + +The number of aborigines is rapidly decreasing. In my whole ride, with +the exception of some boys brought up by Englishmen, I saw only one +other party. This decrease, no doubt, must be partly owing to the +introduction of spirits, to +European diseases (even the milder ones of which, such as the +measles,[1] prove very destructive), and to the gradual extinction of +the wild animals. It is said that numbers of their children invariably +perish in very early infancy from the effects of their wandering life; +and as the difficulty of procuring food increases, so must their +wandering habits increase; and hence the population, without any +apparent deaths from famine, is repressed in a manner extremely sudden +compared to what happens in civilised countries, where the father, +though in adding to his labour he may injure himself, does not destroy +his offspring. + + [1] It is remarkable how the same disease is modified in different + climates. At the little island of St. Helena the introduction of + scarlet-fever is dreaded as a plague. In some countries foreigners and + natives are as differently affected by certain contagious disorders as + if they had been different animals; of which fact some instances have + occurred in Chile; and, according to Humboldt, in Mexico (_Polit. + Essay, New Spain,_ vol. iv.) + +Besides these several evident causes of destruction, there appears to +be some more mysterious agency generally at work. Wherever the European +has trod, death seems to pursue the aboriginal. We may look to the wide +extent of the Americas, Polynesia, the Cape of Good Hope, and +Australia, and we find the same result. Nor is it the white man alone +that thus acts the destroyer; the Polynesian of Malay extraction has in +parts of the East Indian archipelago thus driven before him the +dark-coloured native. The varieties of man seem to act on each other in +the same way as different species of animals—the stronger always +extirpating the weaker. It was melancholy at New Zealand to hear the +fine energetic natives saying that they knew the land was doomed to +pass from their children. Every one has heard of the inexplicable +reduction of the population in the beautiful and healthy island of +Tahiti since the date of Captain Cook’s voyages: although in that case +we might have expected that it would have been increased; for +infanticide, which formerly prevailed to so extraordinary a degree, has +ceased, profligacy has greatly diminished, and the murderous wars +become less frequent. + +The Reverend J. Williams, in his interesting work,[2] says that the +first intercourse between natives and Europeans “is invariably attended +with the introduction of fever, dysentery, +or some other disease which carries off numbers of the people.” Again +he affirms “It is certainly a fact, which cannot be controverted, that +most of the diseases which have raged in the islands during my +residence there have been introduced by ships;[3] and what renders this +fact remarkable is that there might be no appearance of disease among +the crew of the ship which conveyed this destructive importation.” This +statement is not quite so extraordinary as it at first appears; for +several cases are on record of the most malignant fevers having broken +out, although the parties themselves, who were the cause, were not +affected. In the early part of the reign of George III, a prisoner who +had been confined in a dungeon was taken in a coach with four +constables before a magistrate; and although the man himself was not +ill, the four constables died from a short putrid fever; but the +contagion extended to no others. From these facts it would almost +appear as if the effluvium of one set of men shut up for some time +together was poisonous when inhaled by others; and possibly more so, if +the men be of different races. Mysterious as this circumstance appears +to be, it is not more surprising than that the body of one’s +fellow-creature, directly after death, and before putrefaction has +commenced, should often be of so deleterious a quality that the mere +puncture from an instrument used in its dissection should prove fatal. + + [2] _Narrative of Missionary Enterprise,_ p. 282. + + + [3] Captain Beechey (chap. iv, vol. i.) states that the inhabitants of + Pitcairn Island are firmly convinced that after the arrival of every + ship they suffer cutaneous and other disorders. Captain Beechey + attributes this to the change of diet during the time of the visit. + Dr. Macculloch (_Western Isles,_ vol. ii, p. 32) says, “It is + asserted, that on the arrival of a stranger (at St. Kilda) all the + inhabitants, in the common phraseology, catch a cold.” Dr. Macculloch + considers the whole case, although often previously affirmed, as + ludicrous. He adds, however, that “the question was put by us to the + inhabitants who unanimously agreed in the story.” In Vancouver’s + _Voyage_ there is a somewhat similar statement with respect to + Otaheite. Dr. Dieffenbach, in a note to his translation of this + Journal, states that the same fact is universally believed by the + inhabitants of the Chatham Islands and in parts of New Zealand. It is + impossible that such a belief should have become universal in the + northern hemisphere, at the Antipodes, and in the Pacific, without + some good foundation. Humboldt (_Polit. Essay on King. of New Spain,_ + vol. iv.) says that the great epidemics at Panama and Callao are + “marked” by the arrival of ships from Chile, because the people from + that temperate region first experience the fatal effects of the torrid + zones. I may add that I have heard it stated in Shropshire that sheep + which have been imported from vessels, although themselves in a + healthy condition, if placed in the same fold with others, frequently + produce sickness in the flock. + +17_th._—Early in the morning we passed the Nepean in a +ferry-boat. The river, although at this spot both broad and deep, had a +very small body of running water. Having crossed a low piece of land on +the opposite side, we reached the slope of the Blue Mountains. The +ascent is not steep, the road having been cut with much care on the +side of a sandstone cliff. On the summit an almost level plain extends, +which, rising imperceptibly to the westward, at last attains a height +of more than 3000 feet. From so grand a title as Blue Mountains, and +from their absolute altitude, I expected to have seen a bold chain of +mountains crossing the country; but instead of this, a sloping plain +presents merely an inconsiderable front to the low land near the coast. +From this first slope the view of the extensive woodland to the east +was striking, and the surrounding trees grew bold and lofty. But when +once on the sandstone platform, the scenery becomes exceedingly +monotonous; each side of the road is bordered by scrubby trees of the +never-failing Eucalyptus family; and with the exception of two or three +small inns, there are no houses or cultivated land; the road, moreover, +is solitary; the most frequent object being a bullock-waggon, piled up +with bales of wool. + +In the middle of the day we baited our horses at a little inn, called +the Weatherboard. The country here is elevated 2800 feet above the sea. +About a mile and a half from this place there is a view exceedingly +well worth visiting. Following down a little valley and its tiny rill +of water, an immense gulf unexpectedly opens through the trees which +border the pathway, at the depth of perhaps 1500 feet. Walking on a few +yards, one stands on the brink of a vast precipice, and below one sees +a grand bay or gulf, for I know not what other name to give it, thickly +covered with forest. The point of view is situated as if at the head of +a bay, the line of cliff diverging on each side, and showing headland +behind headland, as on a bold sea-coast. These cliffs are composed of +horizontal strata of whitish sandstone; and are so absolutely vertical, +that in many places a person standing on the edge and throwing down a +stone, can see it strike the trees in the abyss below. So unbroken is +the line of cliff that in order to reach the foot of the waterfall +formed by this little stream, it is said to be necessary to go sixteen +miles round. About five miles distant in front another line of cliff +extends, which thus appears completely to encircle +the valley; and hence the name of bay is justified, as applied to this +grand amphitheatrical depression. If we imagine a winding harbour, with +its deep water surrounded by bold cliff-like shores, to be laid dry, +and a forest to spring up on its sandy bottom, we should then have the +appearance and structure here exhibited. This kind of view was to me +quite novel, and extremely magnificent. + +In the evening we reached the Blackheath. The sandstone plateau has +here attained the height of 3400 feet; and is covered, as before, with +the same scrubby woods. From the road there were occasional glimpses +into a profound valley of the same character as the one described; but +from the steepness and depth of its sides, the bottom was scarcely ever +to be seen. The Blackheath is a very comfortable inn, kept by an old +soldier; and it reminded me of the small inns in North Wales. + +18_th._—Very early in the morning I walked about three miles to see +Govett’s Leap: a view of a similar character with that near the +Weatherboard, but perhaps even more stupendous. So early in the day the +gulf was filled with a thin blue haze, which, although destroying the +general effect of the view, added to the apparent depth at which the +forest was stretched out beneath our feet. These valleys, which so long +presented an insuperable barrier to the attempts of the most +enterprising of the colonists to reach the interior, are most +remarkable. Great armlike bays, expanding at their upper ends, often +branch from the main valleys and penetrate the sandstone platform; on +the other hand, the platform often sends promontories into the valleys, +and even leaves in them great, almost insulated, masses. To descend +into some of these valleys, it is necessary to go round twenty miles; +and into others, the surveyors have only lately penetrated, and the +colonists have not yet been able to drive in their cattle. But the most +remarkable feature in their structure is, that although several miles +wide at their heads, they generally contract towards their mouths to +such a degree as to become impassable. The Surveyor-General, Sir T. +Mitchell,[4] endeavoured in vain, first walking and then by crawling +between the great fallen fragments of sandstone, to +ascend through the gorge by which the river Grose joins the Nepean; yet +the valley of the Grose in its upper part, as I saw, forms a +magnificent level basin some miles in width, and is on all sides +surrounded by cliffs, the summits of which are believed to be nowhere +less than 3000 feet above the level of the sea. When cattle are driven +into the valley of the Wolgan by a path (which I descended), partly +natural and partly made by the owner of the land, they cannot escape; +for this valley is in every other part surrounded by perpendicular +cliffs, and eight miles lower down it contracts from an average width +of half a mile, to a mere chasm, impassable to man or beast. Sir T. +Mitchell states that the great valley of the Cox river with all its +branches, contracts, where it unites with the Nepean, into a gorge 2200 +yards in width, and about 1000 feet in depth. Other similar cases might +have been added. + + [4] _Travels in Australia,_ vol. i, p. 154. I must express my + obligation to Sir T. Mitchell for several interesting personal + communications on the subject of these great valleys of New South + Wales. + +The first impression on seeing the correspondence of the horizontal +strata on each side of these valleys and great amphitheatrical +depressions, is that they have been hollowed out, like other valleys, +by the action of water; but when one reflects on the enormous amount of +stone which on this view must have been removed through mere gorges or +chasms, one is led to ask whether these spaces may not have subsided. +But considering the form of the irregularly branching valleys, and of +the narrow promontories projecting into them from the platforms, we are +compelled to abandon this notion. To attribute these hollows to the +present alluvial action would be preposterous; nor does the drainage +from the summit-level always fall, as I remarked near the Weatherboard, +into the head of these valleys, but into one side of their baylike +recesses. Some of the inhabitants remarked to me that they never viewed +one of those baylike recesses, with the headlands receding on both +hands, without being struck with their resemblance to a bold sea-coast. +This is certainly the case; moreover, on the present coast of New South +Wales, the numerous fine, widely-branching harbours, which are +generally connected with the sea by a narrow mouth worn through the +sandstone coast-cliffs, varying from one mile in width to a quarter of +a mile, present a likeness, though on a miniature scale, to the great +valleys of the interior. But then immediately occurs the startling +difficulty, why has the sea worn out these +great though circumscribed depressions on a wide platform, and left +mere gorges at the openings, through which the whole vast amount of +triturated matter must have been carried away? The only light I can +throw upon this enigma is by remarking that banks of the most irregular +forms appear to be now forming in some seas, as in parts of the West +Indies and in the Red Sea, and that their sides are exceedingly steep. +Such banks, I have been led to suppose, have been formed by sediment +heaped by strong currents on an irregular bottom. That in some cases +the sea, instead of spreading out sediment in a uniform sheet, heaps it +round submarine rocks and islands, it is hardly possible to doubt, +after examining the charts of the West Indies; and that the waves have +power to form high and precipitous cliffs, even in land-locked +harbours, I have noticed in many parts of South America. To apply these +ideas to the sandstone platforms of New South Wales, I imagine that the +strata were heaped by the action of strong currents, and of the +undulations of an open sea, on an irregular bottom; and that the +valley-like spaces thus left unfilled had their steeply sloping flanks +worn into cliffs during a slow elevation of the land; the worn-down +sandstone being removed, either at the time when the narrow gorges were +cut by the retreating sea, or subsequently by alluvial action. + + +Soon after leaving the Blackheath we descended from the sandstone +platform by the pass of Mount Victoria. To effect this pass an enormous +quantity of stone has been cut through; the design and its manner of +execution being worthy of any line of road in England. We now entered +upon a country less elevated by nearly a thousand feet, and consisting +of granite. With the change of rock the vegetation improved; the trees +were both finer and stood farther apart; and the pasture between them +was a little greener and more plentiful. At Hassan’s Walls I left the +high-road, and made a short detour to a farm called Walerawang; to the +superintendent of which I had a letter of introduction from the owner +in Sydney. Mr. Browne had the kindness to ask me to stay the ensuing +day, which I had much pleasure in doing. This place offers an example +of one of the large farming, or rather sheep-grazing, establishments of +the colony. Cattle and horses are, however, +in this case rather more numerous than usual, owing to some of the +valleys being swampy and producing a coarser pasture. Two or three flat +pieces of ground near the house were cleared and cultivated with corn, +which the harvest-men were now reaping: but no more wheat is sown than +sufficient for the annual support of the labourers employed on the +establishment. The usual number of assigned convict-servants here is +about forty, but at the present time there were rather more. Although +the farm was well stocked with every necessary, there was an apparent +absence of comfort; and not one single woman resided here. The sunset +of a fine day will generally cast an air of happy contentment on any +scene; but here, at this retired farmhouse, the brightest tints on the +surrounding woods could not make me forget that forty hardened, +profligate men were ceasing from their daily labours, like the slaves +from Africa, yet without their holy claim for compassion. + +Early on the next morning Mr. Archer, the joint superintendent, had the +kindness to take me out kangaroo-hunting. We continued riding the +greater part of the day, but had very bad sport, not seeing a kangaroo, +or even a wild dog. The greyhounds pursued a kangaroo rat into a hollow +tree, out of which we dragged it: it is an animal as large as a rabbit, +but with the figure of a kangaroo. A few years since this country +abounded with wild animals; but now the emu is banished to a long +distance, and the kangaroo is become scarce; to both the English +greyhound has been highly destructive. It may be long before these +animals are altogether exterminated, but their doom is fixed. The +aborigines are always anxious to borrow the dogs from the farmhouses: +the use of them, the offal when an animal is killed, and some milk from +the cows, are the peace-offerings of the settlers, who push farther and +farther towards the interior. The thoughtless aboriginal, blinded by +these trifling advantages, is delighted at the approach of the white +man, who seems predestined to inherit the country of his children. + +Although having poor sport, we enjoyed a pleasant ride. The woodland is +generally so open that a person on horseback can gallop through it. It +is traversed by a few flat-bottomed valleys, which are green and free +from trees: in such spots the scenery was pretty like that of a park. +In the whole +country I scarcely saw a place without the marks of a fire; whether +these had been more or less recent—whether the stumps were more or less +black, was the greatest change which varied the uniformity so wearisome +to the traveller’s eye. In these woods there are not many birds; I saw, +however, some large flocks of the white cockatoo feeding in a +corn-field, and a few most beautiful parrots; crows like our jackdaws +were not uncommon, and another bird something like the magpie. In the +dusk of the evening I took a stroll along a chain of ponds, which in +this dry country represented the course of a river, and had the good +fortune to see several of the famous Ornithorhynchus paradoxus. They +were diving and playing about the surface of the water, but showed so +little of their bodies that they might easily have been mistaken for +water-rats. Mr. Browne shot one: certainly it is a most extraordinary +animal; a stuffed specimen does not at all give a good idea of the +appearance of the head and beak when fresh; the latter becoming hard +and contracted.[5] + + [5] I was interested by finding here the hollow conical pitfall of the + lion-ant, or some other insect: first a fly fell down the treacherous + slope and immediately disappeared; then came a large but unwary ant; + its struggles to escape being very violent, those curious little jets + of sand, described by Kirby and Spence (_Entomol._ vol. i, p. 425) as + being flirted by the insect’s tail, were promptly directed against the + expected victim. But the ant enjoyed a better fate than the fly and + escaped the fatal jaws which lay concealed at the base of the conical + hollow. This Australian pitfall was only about half the size of that + made by the European lion-ant. + +20_th._—A long day’s ride to Bathurst. Before joining the high road we +followed a mere path through the forest; and the country, with the +exception of a few squatters’ huts, was very solitary. We experienced +this day the sirocco-like wind of Australia, which comes from the +parched deserts of the interior. Clouds of dust were travelling in +every direction; and the wind felt as if it had passed over a fire. I +afterwards heard that the thermometer out of doors had stood at 119°, +and in a closed room at 96°. In the afternoon we came in view of the +downs of Bathurst. These undulating but nearly smooth plains are very +remarkable in this country, from being absolutely destitute of trees. +They support only a thin brown pasture. We rode some miles over this +country, and then reached the township of Bathurst, seated in the +middle of what may be called either a very broad valley, or narrow +plain. I was told at Sydney not to form too bad an opinion of Australia +by judging of the country from the roadside, nor too good a one from +Bathurst; in this latter respect I did not feel myself in the least +danger of being prejudiced. The season, it must be owned, had been one +of great drought, and the country did not wear a favourable aspect; +although I understand it was incomparably worse two or three months +before. The secret of the rapidly growing prosperity of Bathurst is +that the brown pasture which appears to the stranger’s eye so wretched +is excellent for sheep-grazing. The town stands at the height of 2200 +feet above the sea, on the banks of the Macquarie: this is one of the +rivers flowing into the vast and scarcely known interior. The line of +watershed which divides the inland streams from those on the coast, has +a height of about 3000 feet, and runs in a north and south direction at +the distance of from eighty to a hundred miles from the seaside. The +Macquarie figures in the map as a respectable river, and it is the +largest of those draining this part of the watershed; yet to my +surprise I found it a mere chain of ponds, separated from each other by +spaces almost dry. Generally a small stream is running; and sometimes +there are high and impetuous floods. Scanty as the supply of the water +is throughout this district, it becomes still scantier further inland. + +22_nd._—I commenced my return and followed a new road called Lockyer’s +Line along which the country is rather more hilly and picturesque. This +was a long day’s ride; and the house where I wished to sleep was some +way off the road, and not easily found. I met on this occasion, and +indeed on all others, a very general and ready civility among the lower +orders, which, when one considers what they are, and what they have +been, would scarcely have been expected. The farm where I passed the +night was owned by two young men who had only lately come out, and were +beginning a settler’s life. The total want of almost every comfort was +not very attractive; but future and certain prosperity was before their +eyes, and that not far distant. + +The next day we passed through large tracts of country in flames, +volumes of smoke sweeping across the road. Before noon we joined our +former road and ascended Mount Victoria. I slept at the Weatherboard, +and before dark took another +walk to the amphitheatre. On the road to Sydney I spent a very pleasant +evening with Captain King at Dunheved; and thus ended my little +excursion in the colony of New South Wales. + +Before arriving here the three things which interested me most were—the +state of society amongst the higher classes, the condition of the +convicts, and the degree of attraction sufficient to induce persons to +emigrate. Of course, after so very short a visit, one’s opinion is +worth scarcely anything; but it is as difficult not to form some +opinion, as it is to form a correct judgment. On the whole, from what I +heard, more than from what I saw, I was disappointed in the state of +society. The whole community is rancorously divided into parties on +almost every subject. Among those who, from their station in life, +ought to be the best, many live in such open profligacy that +respectable people cannot associate with them. There is much jealousy +between the children of the rich emancipist and the free settlers, the +former being pleased to consider honest men as interlopers. The whole +population, poor and rich, are bent on acquiring wealth: amongst the +higher orders, wool and sheep-grazing form the constant subject of +conversation. There are many serious drawbacks to the comforts of a +family, the chief of which, perhaps, is being surrounded by convict +servants. How thoroughly odious to every feeling, to be waited on by a +man who the day before, perhaps, was flogged, from your representation, +for some trifling misdemeanour. The female servants are of course much +worse: hence children learn the vilest expressions, and it is fortunate +if not equally vile ideas. + +On the other hand, the capital of a person, without any trouble on his +part, produces him treble interest to what it will in England; and with +care he is sure to grow rich. The luxuries of life are in abundance, +and very little dearer than in England, and most articles of food are +cheaper. The climate is splendid, and perfectly healthy; but to my mind +its charms are lost by the uninviting aspect of the country. Settlers +possess a great advantage in finding their sons of service when very +young. At the age of from sixteen to twenty they frequently take charge +of distant farming stations. This, however, must happen at the expense +of their boys associating entirely with +convict servants. I am not aware that the tone of society has assumed +any peculiar character; but with such habits, and without intellectual +pursuits, it can hardly fail to deteriorate. My opinion is such that +nothing but rather sharp necessity should compel me to emigrate. + +The rapid prosperity and future prospects of this colony are to me, not +understanding these subjects, very puzzling. The two main exports are +wool and whale-oil, and to both of these productions there is a limit. +The country is totally unfit for canals, therefore there is a not very +distant point beyond which the land-carriage of wool will not repay the +expense of shearing and tending sheep. Pasture everywhere is so thin +that settlers have already pushed far into the interior; moreover, the +country farther inland becomes extremely poor. Agriculture, on account +of the droughts, can never succeed on an extended scale: therefore, so +far as I can see, Australia must ultimately depend upon being the +centre of commerce for the southern hemisphere and perhaps on her +future manufactories. Possessing coal, she always has the moving power +at hand. From the habitable country extending along the coast, and from +her English extraction, she is sure to be a maritime nation. I formerly +imagined that Australia would rise to be as grand and powerful a +country as North America, but now it appears to me that such future +grandeur is rather problematical. + +With respect to the state of the convicts, I had still fewer +opportunities of judging than on other points. The first question is, +whether their condition is at all one of punishment: no one will +maintain that it is a very severe one. This, however, I suppose, is of +little consequence as long as it continues to be an object of dread to +criminals at home. The corporeal wants of the convicts are tolerably +well supplied: their prospect of future liberty and comfort is not +distant, and, after good conduct, certain. A “ticket of leave,” which, +as long as a man keeps clear of suspicion as well as of crime, makes +him free within a certain district, is given upon good conduct, after +years proportional to the length of the sentence; yet with all this, +and overlooking the previous imprisonment and wretched passage out, I +believe the years of assignment are passed away with discontent and +unhappiness. As an intelligent man remarked to me, the convicts know no +pleasure +beyond sensuality, and in this they are not gratified. The enormous +bribe which Government possesses in offering free pardons, together +with the deep horror of the secluded penal settlements, destroys +confidence between the convicts, and so prevents crime. As to a sense +of shame, such a feeling does not appear to be known, and of this I +witnessed some very singular proofs. Though it is a curious fact, I was +universally told that the character of the convict population is one of +arrant cowardice; not unfrequently some become desperate, and quite +indifferent as to life, yet a plan requiring cool or continued courage +is seldom put into execution. The worst feature in the whole case is +that although there exists what may be called a legal reform, and +comparatively little is committed which the law can touch, yet that any +moral reform should take place appears to be quite out of the question. +I was assured by well-informed people that a man who should try to +improve, could not while living with other assigned servants;—his life +would be one of intolerable misery and persecution. Nor must the +contamination of the convict-ships and prisons, both here and in +England, be forgotten. On the whole, as a place of punishment, the +object is scarcely gained; as a real system of reform it has failed, as +perhaps would every other plan; but as a means of making men outwardly +honest,—of converting vagabonds, most useless in one hemisphere, into +active citizens of another, and thus giving birth to a new and splendid +country—a grand centre of civilisation—it has succeeded to a degree +perhaps unparalleled in history. + + +30_th._—The _Beagle_ sailed for Hobart Town in Van Diemen’s Land. On +the 5th of February, after a six days’ passage, of which the first part +was fine, and the latter very cold and squally, we entered the mouth of +Storm Bay; the weather justified this awful name. The bay should rather +be called an estuary, for it receives at its head the waters of the +Derwent. Near the mouth there are some extensive basaltic platforms; +but higher up the land becomes mountainous, and is covered by a light +wood. The lower parts of the hills which skirt the bay are cleared; and +the bright yellow fields of corn, and dark green ones of potatoes, +appear very luxuriant. Late in the evening we anchored in the snug cove +on the shores of which stands the capital of Tasmania. The first aspect +of the place was very inferior to that of Sydney; the latter might be +called a city, this is only a town. It stands at the base of Mount +Wellington, a mountain 3100 feet high, but of little picturesque +beauty; from this source, however, it receives a good supply of water. +Round the cove there are some fine warehouses and on one side a small +fort. Coming from the Spanish settlements, where such magnificent care +has generally been paid to the fortifications, the means of defence in +these colonies appeared very contemptible. Comparing the town with +Sydney, I was chiefly struck with the comparative fewness of the large +houses, either built or building. Hobart Town, from the census of 1835, +contained 13,826 inhabitants, and the whole of Tasmania 36,505. + +Hobart Town and Mount Wellington + +All the aborigines have been removed to an island in Bass’s Straits, so +that Van Diemen’s Land enjoys the great advantage of being free from a +native population. This most cruel step seems to have been quite +unavoidable, as the only means of stopping a fearful succession of +robberies, burnings, and murders, committed by the blacks; and which +sooner or later would have ended in their utter destruction. I fear +there is no doubt that this train of evil and its consequences +originated in the infamous conduct of some of our countrymen. Thirty +years +is a short period in which to have banished the last aboriginal from +his native island,—and that island nearly as large as Ireland. The +correspondence on this subject which took place between the government +at home and that of Van Diemen’s Land, is very interesting. Although +numbers of natives were shot and taken prisoners in the skirmishing, +which was going on at intervals for several years, nothing seems fully +to have impressed them with the idea of our overwhelming power, until +the whole island, in 1830, was put under martial law, and by +proclamation the whole population commanded to assist in one great +attempt to secure the entire race. The plan adopted was nearly similar +to that of the great hunting-matches in India: a line was formed +reaching across the island, with the intention of driving the natives +into a _ cul-de-sac_ on Tasman’s peninsula. The attempt failed; the +natives, having tied up their dogs, stole during one night through the +lines. This is far from surprising, when their practised senses and +usual manner of crawling after wild animals is considered. I have been +assured that they can conceal themselves on almost bare ground, in a +manner which until witnessed is scarcely credible; their dusky bodies +being easily mistaken for the blackened stumps which are scattered all +over the country. I was told of a trial between a party of Englishmen +and a native, who was to stand in full view on the side of a bare hill; +if the Englishmen closed their eyes for less than a minute, he would +squat down, and then they were never able to distinguish him from the +surrounding stumps. But to return to the hunting-match; the natives +understanding this kind of warfare, were terribly alarmed, for they at +once perceived the power and numbers of the whites. Shortly afterwards +a party of thirteen belonging to two tribes came in; and, conscious of +their unprotected condition, delivered themselves up in despair. +Subsequently by the intrepid exertions of Mr. Robinson, an active and +benevolent man, who fearlessly visited by himself the most hostile of +the natives, the whole were induced to act in a similar manner. They +were then removed to an island, where food and clothes were provided +them. Count Strzelecki states,[6] that “at the epoch of their +deportation in 1835, the number of natives amounted to 210. In 1842, +that is after +the interval of seven years, they mustered only fifty-four individuals; +and, while each family of the interior of New South Wales, +uncontaminated by contact with the whites, swarms with children, those +of Flinders’ Island had during eight years an accession of only +fourteen in number!” + + [6] _Physical Description of New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land,_ + p. 354. + +The _Beagle_ stayed here ten days, and in this time I made several +pleasant little excursions, chiefly with the object of examining the +geological structure of the immediate neighbourhood. The main points of +interest consist, first in some highly fossiliferous strata belonging +to the Devonian or Carboniferous period; secondly, in proofs of a late +small rise of the land; and lastly, in a solitary and superficial patch +of yellowish limestone or travertin, which contains numerous +impressions of leaves of trees, together with land-shells, not now +existing. It is not improbable that this one small quarry includes the +only remaining record of the vegetation of Van Diemen’s Land during one +former epoch. + +The climate here is damper than in New South Wales, and hence the land +is more fertile. Agriculture flourishes; the cultivated fields look +well, and the gardens abound with thriving vegetables and fruit-trees. +Some of the farmhouses, situated in retired spots, had a very +attractive appearance. The general aspect of the vegetation is similar +to that of Australia; perhaps it is a little more green and cheerful; +and the pasture between the trees rather more abundant. One day I took +a long walk on the side of the bay opposite to the town: I crossed in a +steamboat, two of which are constantly plying backwards and forwards. +The machinery of one of these vessels was entirely manufactured in this +colony, which, from its very foundation, then numbered only three and +thirty years! Another day I ascended Mount Wellington; I took with me a +guide, for I failed in a first attempt, from the thickness of the wood. +Our guide, however, was a stupid fellow, and conducted us to the +southern and damp side of the mountain, where the vegetation was very +luxuriant; and where the labour of the ascent, from the number of +rotten trunks, was almost as great as on a mountain in Tierra del Fuego +or in Chiloe. It cost us five and a half hours of hard climbing before +we reached the summit. In many parts the Eucalypti grew to a great size +and composed a noble forest. In some of the dampest ravines tree-ferns +flourished in an extraordinary manner; I saw one which must have been +at least twenty feet high to the base of the fronds, and was in girth +exactly six feet. The fronds, forming the most elegant parasols, +produced a gloomy shade, like that of the first hour of night. The +summit of the mountain is broad and flat and is composed of huge +angular masses of naked greenstone. Its elevation is 3100 feet above +the level of the sea. The day was splendidly clear, and we enjoyed a +most extensive view; to the north, the country appeared a mass of +wooded mountains, of about the same height with that on which we were +standing, and with an equally tame outline: to the south the broken +land and water, forming many intricate bays, was mapped with clearness +before us. After staying some hours on the summit we found a better way +to descend, but did not reach the _Beagle_ till eight o’clock, after a +severe day’s work. + +_February_ 7_th._—The _Beagle_ sailed from Tasmania, and, on the 6th of +the ensuing month, reached King George’s Sound, situated close to the +south-west corner of Australia. We stayed there eight days; and we did +not during our voyage pass a more dull and uninteresting time. The +country, viewed from an eminence, appears a woody plain, with here and +there rounded and partly bare hills of granite protruding. One day I +went out with a party, in hopes of seeing a kangaroo-hunt, and walked +over a good many miles of country. Everywhere we found the soil sandy, +and very poor; it supported either a coarse vegetation of thin, low +brushwood and wiry grass, or a forest of stunted trees. The scenery +resembled that of the high sandstone platform of the Blue Mountains; +the Casuarina (a tree somewhat resembling a Scotch fir) is, however, +here in greater number, and the Eucalyptus in rather less. In the open +parts there were many grass-trees,—a plant which, in appearance, has +some affinity with the palm; but, instead of being surmounted by a +crown of noble fronds, it can boast merely of a tuft of very coarse +grass-like leaves. The general bright green colour of the brushwood and +other plants, viewed from a distance, seemed to promise fertility. A +single walk, however, was enough to dispel such an illusion; and he who +thinks with me will never wish to walk again in so uninviting a +country. + + +One day I accompanied Captain Fitz Roy to Bald Head, the place +mentioned by so many navigators, where some imagined that they saw +corals, and others that they saw petrified trees, standing in the +position in which they had grown. According to our view, the beds have +been formed by the wind having heaped up fine sand, composed of minute +rounded particles of shells and corals, during which process branches +and roots of trees, together with many land-shells, became enclosed. +The whole then became consolidated by the percolation of calcareous +matter; and the cylindrical cavities left by the decaying of the wood +were thus also filled up with a hard pseudo-stalactitical stone. The +weather is now wearing away the softer parts, and in consequence the +hard casts of the roots and branches of the trees project above the +surface, and, in a singularly deceptive manner, resemble the stumps of +a dead thicket. + +A large tribe of natives, called the White Cockatoo men happened to pay +the settlement a visit while we were there. These men, as well as those +of the tribe belonging to King George’s Sound, being tempted by the +offer of some tubs of rice and sugar, were persuaded to hold a +“corrobery,” or great dancing-party. As soon as it grew dark, small +fires were lighted, and the men commenced their toilet, which consisted +in painting themselves white in spots and lines. As soon as all was +ready, large fires were kept blazing, round which the women and +children were collected as spectators; the Cockatoo and King George’s +men formed two distinct parties, and generally danced in answer to each +other. The dancing consisted in their running either sideways or in +Indian file into an open space, and stamping the ground with great +force as they marched together. Their heavy footsteps were accompanied +by a kind of grunt, by beating their clubs and spears together, and by +various other gesticulations, such as extending their arms and +wriggling their bodies. It was a most rude, barbarous scene, and, to +our ideas, without any sort of meaning; but we observed that the black +women and children watched it with the greatest pleasure. Perhaps these +dances originally represented actions, such as wars and victories; +there was one called the Emu dance, in which each man extended his arm +in a bent manner, like the neck of that bird. In another dance, +one man imitated the movements of a kangaroo grazing in the woods, +whilst a second crawled up and pretended to spear him. When both tribes +mingled in the dance, the ground trembled with the heaviness of their +steps, and the air resounded with their wild cries. Every one appeared +in high spirits, and the group of nearly naked figures, viewed by the +light of the blazing fires, all moving in hideous harmony, formed a +perfect display of a festival amongst the lowest barbarians. In Tierra +del Fuego we have beheld many curious scenes in savage life, but never, +I think, one where the natives were in such high spirits, and so +perfectly at their ease. After the dancing was over the whole party +formed a great circle on the ground, and the boiled rice and sugar was +distributed, to the delight of all. + +After several tedious delays from clouded weather, on the 14th of March +we gladly stood out of King George’s Sound on our course to Keeling +Island. Farewell, Australia! you are a rising child, and doubtless some +day will reign a great princess in the South; but you are too great and +ambitious for affection, yet not great enough for respect. I leave your +shores without sorrow or regret. + +[Illustration: Australian group of weapons and throwing sticks] + +[Illustration: Inside an atoll, Keeling Island] + + + + +Chapter XX + + +KEELING ISLAND:—CORAL FORMATIONS + +Keeling Island—Singular appearance—Scanty Flora—Transport of +seeds—Birds and insects—Ebbing and flowing springs—Fields of dead +coral—Stones transported in the roots of trees—Great crab—Stinging +corals—Coral-eating fish—Coral formations—Lagoon islands or +atolls—Depth at which reef-building corals can live—Vast areas +interspersed with low coral islands—Subsidence of their +foundations—Barrier reefs—Fringing reefs—Conversion of fringing-reefs +into barrier-reefs, and into atolls—Evidence of changes in +level—Breaches in barrier-reefs—Maldiva atolls; their peculiar +structure—Dead and submerged reefs—Areas of subsidence and +elevation—Distribution of volcanoes—Subsidence slow and vast in amount. + +_April_ 1_st._—We arrived in view of the Keeling or Cocos Islands, +situated in the Indian Ocean, and about six hundred miles distant from +the coast of Sumatra. This is one of the lagoon-islands (or atolls) of +coral formation similar to those in the Low Archipelago which we passed +near. When the ship was in the channel at the entrance, Mr. Liesk, an +English resident, came off in his boat. The history of the inhabitants +of this place, in as few words as possible, is as follows. About nine +years ago, Mr. Hare, a worthless character, brought from the East +Indian archipelago a number of Malay slaves, which now, including +children, amount to more than a hundred. Shortly afterwards Captain +Ross, who had before visited these islands in his merchant-ship, +arrived from England, bringing with him his family and goods for +settlement: along with him came Mr. Liesk, who had been a mate in his +vessel. The Malay slaves soon ran away from the islet on which Mr. Hare +was settled, and joined Captain Ross’s party. Mr. Hare upon this was +ultimately obliged to leave the place. + +The Malays are now nominally in a state of freedom, and certainly are +so as far as regards their personal treatment; but in most other points +they are considered as slaves. From their discontented state, from the +repeated removals from islet to islet, and perhaps also from a little +mismanagement, things are not very prosperous. The island has no +domestic quadruped excepting the pig, and the main vegetable production +is the cocoa-nut. The whole prosperity of the place depends on this +tree; the only exports being oil from the nut, and the nuts themselves, +which are taken to Singapore and Mauritius, where they are chiefly +used, when grated, in making curries. On the cocoa-nut, also, the pigs, +which are loaded with fat, almost entirely subsist, as do the ducks and +poultry. Even a huge land-crab is furnished by nature with the means to +open and feed on this most useful production. + +The ring-formed reef of the lagoon-island is surmounted in the greater +part of its length by linear islets. On the northern or leeward side +there is an opening through which vessels can pass to the anchorage +within. On entering, the scene was very curious and rather pretty; its +beauty, however, entirely depended on the brilliancy of the surrounding +colours. The shallow, clear, and still water of the lagoon, resting in +its greater part on white sand, is, when illumined by a vertical sun, +of the most vivid green. This brilliant expanse, several miles in +width, is on all sides divided, either by a line of snow-white breakers +from the dark heaving waters of the ocean, or from the blue vault of +heaven by the strips of land, crowned by the level tops of the +cocoa-nut trees. As a white cloud here and there affords a pleasing +contrast with the azure sky, so in the lagoon bands of living coral +darken the emerald green water. + + +The next morning after anchoring I went on shore on Direction Island. +The strip of dry land is only a few hundred yards in width; on the +lagoon side there is a white calcareous beach, the radiation from which +under this sultry climate was very oppressive; and on the outer coast a +solid broad flat of coral-rock served to break the violence of the open +sea. Excepting near the lagoon, where there is some sand, the land is +entirely composed of rounded fragments of coral. In such a loose, dry, +stony soil, the climate of the intertropical regions alone could +produce a vigorous vegetation. On some of the smaller islets nothing +could be more elegant than the manner in which the young and full-grown +cocoa-nut trees, without destroying each other’s symmetry, were mingled +into one wood. A beach of glittering white sand formed a border to +these fairy spots. + +I will now give a sketch of the natural history of these islands, +which, from its very paucity, possesses a peculiar interest. The +cocoa-nut tree, at first glance, seems to compose the whole wood; there +are however, five or six other trees. One of these grows to a very +large size, but, from the extreme softness of its wood, is useless; +another sort affords excellent timber for ship-building. Besides the +trees the number of plants is exceedingly limited and consists of +insignificant weeds. In my collection, which includes, I believe, +nearly the perfect Flora, there are twenty species without reckoning a +moss, lichen, and fungus. To this number two trees must be added; one +of which was not in flower, and the other I only heard of. The latter +is a solitary tree of its kind, and grows near the beach, where, +without doubt, the one seed was thrown up by the waves. A Guilandina +also grows on only one of the islets. I do not include in the above +list the sugar-cane, banana, some other vegetables, fruit-trees, and +imported grasses. As the islands consist entirely of coral, and at one +time must have existed as mere water-washed reefs, all their +terrestrial productions must have been transported here by the waves of +the sea. In accordance with this, the Florula has quite the character +of a refuge for the destitute: Professor Henslow informs me that of the +twenty species nineteen belong to different genera, and these again to +no less than sixteen families![1] + + [1] These plants are described in the _Annals of Nat. Hist._ vol. i. + 1838, p. 337. + + +In Holman’s[2] _Travels_ an account is given, on the authority of Mr. +A. S. Keating, who resided twelve months on these islands, of the +various seeds and other bodies which have been known to have been +washed on shore. “Seeds and plants from Sumatra and Java have been +driven up by the surf on the windward side of the islands. Among them +have been found the Kimiri, native of Sumatra and the peninsula of +Malacca; the cocoa-nut of Balci, known by its shape and size; the +Dadass, which is planted by the Malays with the pepper-vine, the latter +entwining round its trunk, and supporting itself by the prickles on its +stem; the soap-tree; the castor-oil plant; trunks of the sago palm; and +various kinds of seeds unknown to the Malays settled on the islands. +These are all supposed to have been driven by the N.W. monsoon to the +coast of New Holland, and thence to these islands by the S.E. +trade-wind. Large masses of Java teak and Yellow wood have also been +found, besides immense trees of red and white cedar, and the blue +gum-wood of New Holland, in a perfectly sound condition. All the hardy +seeds, such as creepers, retain their germinating power, but the softer +kinds, among which is the mangostin, are destroyed in the passage. +Fishing-canoes, apparently from Java, have at times been washed on +shore.” It is interesting thus to discover how numerous the seeds are, +which, coming from several countries, are drifted over the wide ocean. +Professor Henslow tells me he believes that nearly all the plants which +I brought from these islands are common littoral species in the East +Indian archipelago. From the direction, however, of the winds and +currents, it seems scarcely possible that they could have come here in +a direct line. If, as suggested with much probability by Mr. Keating, +they were first carried towards the coast of New Holland, and thence +drifted back together with the productions of that country, the seeds, +before germinating, must have travelled between 1800 and 2400 miles. + + [2] Holman’s _Travels_, vol. iv, p. 378. + +Chamisso,[3] when describing the Radack Archipelago, situated in the +western part of the Pacific, states that “the sea brings to these +islands the seeds and fruits of many trees, most of which have yet not +grown here. The greater part of these seeds +appear to have not yet lost the capability of growing.” It is also said +that palms and bamboos from somewhere in the torrid zone, and trunks of +northern firs, are washed on shore; these firs must have come from an +immense distance. These facts are highly interesting. It cannot be +doubted that, if there were land-birds to pick up the seeds when first +cast on shore, and a soil better adapted for their growth than the +loose blocks of coral, the most isolated of the lagoon islands would in +time possess a far more abundant Flora than they now have. + + [3] Kotzebue’s _First Voyage_, vol. iii, p. 155. + +The list of land animals is even poorer than that of the plants. Some +of the islets are inhabited by rats, which were brought in a ship from +the Mauritius, wrecked here. These rats are considered by Mr. +Waterhouse as identical with the English kind, but they are smaller, +and more brightly coloured. There are no true land-birds, for a snipe +and a rail (Rallus Phillippensis), though living entirely in the dry +herbage, belong to the order of Waders. Birds of this order are said to +occur on several of the small low islands in the Pacific. At Ascension, +where there is no land-bird, a rail (Porphyrio simplex) was shot near +the summit of the mountain, and it was evidently a solitary straggler. +At Tristan d’Acunha, where, according to Carmichael, there are only two +land-birds, there is a coot. From these facts I believe that the +waders, after the innumerable web-footed species, are generally the +first colonists of small isolated islands. I may add that whenever I +noticed birds, not of oceanic species, very far out at sea, they always +belonged to this order; and hence they would naturally become the +earliest colonists of any remote point of land. + +Of reptiles I saw only one small lizard. Of insects I took pains to +collect every kind. Exclusive of spiders, which were numerous, there +were thirteen species.[4] Of these one only was a beetle. A small ant +swarmed by thousands under the loose dry blocks of coral, and was the +only true insect which was abundant. Although the productions of the +land are thus scanty, if we look to the waters of the surrounding sea +the number of organic beings is indeed infinite. Chamisso has +described[5] the natural history of a lagoon-island in the Radack +Archipelago; and it is remarkable how closely its inhabitants, in +number and kind, resemble those of Keeling Island. There is one lizard +and two waders, namely, a snipe and curlew. Of plants there are +nineteen species, including a fern; and some of these are the same with +those growing here, though on a spot so immensely remote, and in a +different ocean. + + [4] The thirteen species belong to the following orders:—In the + _Coleoptera_, a minute Elater; _ Orthoptera_, a Gryllus and a Blatta; + _Hemiptera_, one species; _Homoptera_, two; _Neuroptera_, a Chrysopa; + _ Hymenoptera_, two ants; _Lepidoptera nocturna_, a Diopæa, and a + Pterophorus (?); _Diptera_, two species. + + + [5] Kotzebue’s _First Voyage_, vol. iii, p. 222. + +The long strips of land, forming the linear islets, have been raised +only to that height to which the surf can throw fragments of coral, and +the wind heap up calcareous sand. The solid flat of coral rock on the +outside, by its breadth, breaks the first violence of the waves, which +otherwise, in a day, would sweep away these islets and all their +productions. The ocean and the land seem here struggling for mastery: +although terra firma has obtained a footing, the denizens of the water +think their claim at least equally good. In every part one meets hermit +crabs of more than one species,[6] carrying on their backs the shells +which they have stolen from the neighbouring beach. Overhead numerous +gannets, frigate-birds, and terns, rest on the trees; and the wood, +from the many nests and from the smell of the atmosphere, might be +called a sea-rookery. The gannets, sitting on their rude nests, gaze at +one with a stupid yet angry air. The noddies, as their name expresses, +are silly little creatures. But there is one charming bird: it is a +small, snow-white tern, which smoothly hovers at the distance of a few +feet above one’s head, its large black eye scanning, with quiet +curiosity, your expression. Little imagination is required to fancy +that so light and delicate a body must be tenanted by some wandering +fairy spirit. + + [6] The large claws or pincers of some of these crabs are most + beautifully adapted, when drawn back, to form an operculum to the + shell, nearly as perfect as the proper one originally belonging to the + molluscous animal. I was assured, and as far as my observations went I + found it so, that certain species of the hermit-crab always use + certain species of shells. + +_Sunday, April_ 3_rd._—After service I accompanied Captain Fitz Roy to +the settlement, situated at the distance of some miles, on the point of +an islet thickly covered with tall cocoa-nut trees. Captain Ross and +Mr. Liesk live in a large barn-like house open at both ends, and lined +with mats made of woven bark. The houses of the Malays are arranged +along +the shore of the lagoon. The whole place had rather a desolate aspect, +for there were no gardens to show the signs of care and cultivation. +The natives belong to different islands in the East Indian archipelago, +but all speak the same language: we saw the inhabitants of Borneo, +Celebes, Java, and Sumatra. In colour they resemble the Tahitians, from +whom they do not widely differ in features. Some of the women, however, +show a good deal of the Chinese character. I liked both their general +expressions and the sound of their voices. They appeared poor, and +their houses were destitute of furniture; but it was evident from the +plumpness of the little children, that cocoa-nuts and turtle afford no +bad sustenance. + +On this island the wells are situated from which ships obtain water. At +first sight it appears not a little remarkable that the fresh water +should regularly ebb and flow with the tides; and it has even been +imagined that sand has the power of filtering the salt from the +sea-water. These ebbing wells are common on some of the low islands in +the West Indies. The compressed sand, or porous coral rock, is +permeated like a sponge with the salt water, but the rain which falls +on the surface must sink to the level of the surrounding sea, and must +accumulate there, displacing an equal bulk of the salt water. As the +water in the lower part of the great sponge-like coral mass rises and +falls with the tides, so will the water near the surface; and this will +keep fresh, if the mass be sufficiently compact to prevent much +mechanical admixture; but where the land consists of great loose blocks +of coral with open interstices, if a well be dug, the water, as I have +seen, is brackish. + +After dinner we stayed to see a curious half superstitious scene acted +by the Malay women. A large wooden spoon dressed in garments, and which +had been carried to the grave of a dead man, they pretend becomes +inspired at the full of the moon, and will dance and jump about. After +the proper preparations, the spoon, held by two women, became +convulsed, and danced in good time to the song of the surrounding +children and women. It was a most foolish spectacle; but Mr. Liesk +maintained that many of the Malays believed in its spiritual movements. +The dance did not commence till the +moon had risen, and it was well worth remaining to behold her bright +orb so quietly shining through the long arms of the cocoa-nut trees as +they waved in the evening breeze. These scenes of the tropics are in +themselves so delicious that they almost equal those dearer ones at +home, to which we are bound by each best feeling of the mind. + +The next day I employed myself in examining the very interesting, yet +simple structure and origin of these islands. The water being unusually +smooth, I waded over the outer flat of dead rock as far as the living +mounds of coral, on which the swell of the open sea breaks. In some of +the gullies and hollows there were beautiful green and other coloured +fishes, and the form and tints of many of the zoophytes were admirable. +It is excusable to grow enthusiastic over the infinite numbers of +organic beings with which the sea of the tropics, so prodigal of life, +teems; yet I must confess I think those naturalists who have described, +in well-known words, the submarine grottoes decked with a thousand +beauties, have indulged in rather exuberant language. + + +_April_ 6_th._—I accompanied Captain Fitz Roy to an island at the head +of the lagoon: the channel was exceedingly intricate, winding through +fields of delicately branched corals. We saw several turtle and two +boats were then employed in catching them. The water was so clear and +shallow, that although at first a turtle quickly dives out of sight, +yet in a canoe or boat under sail the pursuers after no very long chase +come up to it. A man standing ready in the bow at this moment dashes +through the water upon the turtle’s back; then clinging with both hands +by the shell of its neck, he is carried away till the animal becomes +exhausted and is secured. It was quite an interesting chase to see the +two boats thus doubling about, and the men dashing head foremost into +the water trying to seize their prey. Captain Moresby informs me that +in the Chagos archipelago in this same ocean, the natives, by a +horrible process, take the shell from the back of the living turtle. +“It is covered with burning charcoal, which causes the outer shell to +curl upwards, it is then forced off with a knife, and before it becomes +cold flattened between boards. After this barbarous process the animal +is suffered to regain its native +element, where, after a certain time, a new shell is formed; it is, +however, too thin to be of any service, and the animal always appears +languishing and sickly.” + +When we arrived at the head of the lagoon we crossed a narrow islet and +found a great surf breaking on the windward coast. I can hardly explain +the reason, but there is to my mind much grandeur in the view of the +outer shores of these lagoon-islands. There is a simplicity in the +barrier-like beach, the margin of green bushes and tall cocoa-nuts, the +solid flat of dead coral-rock, strewed here and there with great loose +fragments, and the line of furious breakers, all rounding away towards +either hand. The ocean throwing its waters over the broad reef appears +an invincible, all-powerful enemy; yet we see it resisted, and even +conquered, by means which at first seem most weak and inefficient. It +is not that the ocean spares the rock of coral; the great fragments +scattered over the reef, and heaped on the beach, whence the tall +cocoa-nut springs, plainly bespeak the unrelenting power of the waves. +Nor are any periods of repose granted. The long swell caused by the +gentle but steady action of the trade-wind, always blowing in one +direction over a wide area, causes breakers, almost equalling in force +those during a gale of wind in the temperate regions, and which never +cease to rage. It is impossible to behold these waves without feeling a +conviction that an island, though built of the hardest rock, let it be +porphyry, granite, or quartz, would ultimately yield and be demolished +by such an irresistible power. Yet these low, insignificant +coral-islets stand and are victorious: for here another power, as an +antagonist, takes part in the contest. The organic forces separate the +atoms of carbonate of lime, one by one, from the foaming breakers, and +unite them into a symmetrical structure. Let the hurricane tear up its +thousand huge fragments; yet what will that tell against the +accumulated labour of myriads of architects at work night and day, +month after month? Thus do we see the soft and gelatinous body of a +polypus, through the agency of the vital laws, conquering the great +mechanical power of the waves of an ocean which neither the art of man +nor the inanimate works of nature could successfully resist. + +We did not return on board till late in the evening, for we +stayed a long time in the lagoon, examining the fields of coral and the +gigantic shells of the chama, into which, if a man were to put his +hand, he would not, as long as the animal lived, be able to withdraw +it. Near the head of the lagoon I was much surprised to find a wide +area, considerably more than a mile square, covered with a forest of +delicately branching corals, which, though standing upright, were all +dead and rotten. At first I was quite at a loss to understand the +cause; afterwards it occurred to me that it was owing to the following +rather curious combination of circumstances. It should, however, first +be stated, that corals are not able to survive even a short exposure in +the air to the sun’s rays, so that their upward limit of growth is +determined by that of lowest water at spring tides. It appears, from +some old charts, that the long island to windward was formerly +separated by wide channels into several islets; this fact is likewise +indicated by the trees being younger on these portions. Under the +former condition of the reef, a strong breeze, by throwing more water +over the barrier, would tend to raise the level of the lagoon. Now it +acts in a directly contrary manner; for the water within the lagoon not +only is not increased by currents from the outside, but is itself blown +outwards by the force of the wind. Hence it is observed that the tide +near the head of the lagoon does not rise so high during a strong +breeze as it does when it is calm. This difference of level, although +no doubt very small, has, I believe, caused the death of those +coral-groves, which under the former and more open condition of the +outer reef had attained the utmost possible limit of upward growth. + +A few miles north of Keeling there is another small atoll, the lagoon +of which is nearly filled up with coral-mud. Captain Ross found +embedded in the conglomerate on the outer coast a well-rounded fragment +of greenstone, rather larger than a man’s head: he and the men with him +were so much surprised at this, that they brought it away and preserved +it as a curiosity. The occurrence of this one stone, where every other +particle of matter is calcareous, certainly is very puzzling. The +island has scarcely ever been visited, nor is it probable that a ship +had been wrecked there. From the absence of any better explanation, I +came to the conclusion that it must have come entangled in the roots of +some large tree: when, +however, I considered the great distance from the nearest land, the +combination of chances against a stone thus being entangled, the tree +washed into the sea, floated so far, then landed safely, and the stone +finally so embedded as to allow of its discovery, I was almost afraid +of imagining a means of transport apparently so improbable. It was +therefore with great interest that I found Chamisso, the justly +distinguished naturalist who accompanied Kotzebue, stating that the +inhabitants of the Radack Archipelago, a group of lagoon islands in the +midst of the Pacific, obtained stones for sharpening their instruments +by searching the roots of trees which are cast upon the beach. It will +be evident that this must have happened several times, since laws have +been established that such stones belong to the chief, and a punishment +is inflicted on any one who attempts to steal them. When the isolated +position of these small islands in the midst of a vast ocean—their +great distance from any land excepting that of coral formation, +attested by the value which the inhabitants, who are such bold +navigators, attach to a stone of any kind,[7]—and the slowness of the +currents of the open sea, are all considered, the occurrence of pebbles +thus transported does appear wonderful. Stones may often be thus +carried; and if the island on which they are stranded is constructed of +any other substance besides coral, they would scarcely attract +attention, and their origin at least would never be guessed. Moreover, +this agency may long escape discovery from the probability of trees, +especially those loaded with stones, floating beneath the surface. In +the channels of Tierra del Fuego large quantities of drift timber are +cast upon the beach, yet it is extremely rare to meet a tree swimming +on the water. These facts may possibly throw light on single stones, +whether angular or rounded, occasionally found embedded in fine +sedimentary masses. + + [7] Some natives carried by Kotzebue to Kamtschatka collected stones + to take back to their country. + +During another day I visited West Islet, on which the vegetation was +perhaps more luxuriant than on any other. The cocoa-nut trees generally +grow separate, but here the young ones flourished beneath their tall +parents, and formed with their long and curved fronds the most shady +arbours. Those alone who have tried it know how delicious it is to be +seated in such shade, and drink the cool pleasant fluid of the +cocoa-nut. In this island there is a large bay-like space, composed of +the finest white sand: it is quite level and is only covered by the +tide at high water; from this large bay smaller creeks penetrate the +surrounding woods. To see a field of glittering white sand representing +water, with the cocoa-nut trees extending their tall and waving trunks +round the margin, formed a singular and very pretty view. + +I have before alluded to a crab which lives on the cocoa-nuts; it is +very common on all parts of the dry land, and grows to a monstrous +size: it is closely allied or identical with the Birgos latro. The +front pair of legs terminate in very strong and heavy pincers, and the +last pair are fitted with others weaker and much narrower. It would at +first be thought quite impossible for a crab to open a strong cocoa-nut +covered with the husk; but Mr. Liesk assures me that he has repeatedly +seen this effected. The crab begins by tearing the husk, fibre by +fibre, and always from that end under which the three eye-holes are +situated; when this is completed, the crab commences hammering with its +heavy claws on one of the eye-holes till an opening is made. Then +turning round its body, by the aid of its posterior and narrow pair of +pincers it extracts the white albuminous substance. I think this is as +curious a case of instinct as ever I heard of, and likewise of +adaptation in structure between two objects apparently so remote from +each other in the scheme of nature as a crab and a cocoa-nut tree. The +Birgos is diurnal in its habits; but every night it is said to pay a +visit to the sea, no doubt for the purpose of moistening its branchiæ. +The young are likewise hatched, and live for some time, on the coast. +These crabs inhabit deep burrows, which they hollow out beneath the +roots of trees; and where they accumulate surprising quantities of the +picked fibres of the cocoa-nut husk, on which they rest as on a bed. +The Malays sometimes take advantage of this, and collect the fibrous +mass to use as junk. These crabs are very good to eat; moreover, under +the tail of the larger ones there is a mass of fat, which, when melted, +sometimes yields as much as a quart-bottleful of limpid oil. It has +been stated by some authors that the Birgos crawls up the cocoa-nut +trees for the purpose of stealing the nuts: I very much doubt the +possibility of this; but with the Pandanus[8] the task would be very +much easier. I was told by Mr. Liesk that on these islands the Birgos +lives only on the nuts which have fallen to the ground. + + [8] See _Proceedings of the Zoological Society,_ 1832, p. 17. + +Captain Moresby informs me that this crab inhabits the Chagos and +Seychelle groups, but not the neighbouring Maldiva archipelago. It +formerly abounded at Mauritius, but only a few small ones are now found +there. In the Pacific this species, or one with closely allied habits, +is said[9] to inhabit a single coral island north of the Society group. +To show the wonderful strength of the front pair of pincers, I may +mention that Captain Moresby confined one in a strong tin box, which +had held biscuits, the lid being secured with wire; but the crab turned +down the edges and escaped. In turning down the edges it actually +punched many small holes quite through the tin! + + [9] Tyerman and Bennett, _Voyage,_ etc., vol. ii, p. 33. + +I was a good deal surprised by finding two species of coral of the +genus Millepora (M. complanata and alcicornis), possessed of the power +of stinging. The stony branches or plates, when taken fresh from the +water, have a harsh feel and are not slimy, although possessing a +strong and disagreeable smell. The stinging property seems to vary in +different specimens: when a piece was pressed or rubbed on the tender +skin of the face or arm, a pricking sensation was usually caused, which +came on after the interval of a second, and lasted only for a few +minutes. One day, however, by merely touching my face with one of the +branches, pain was instantaneously caused; it increased as usual after +a few seconds, and remaining sharp for some minutes, was perceptible +for half an hour afterwards. The sensation was as bad as that from a +nettle, but more like that caused by the Physalia or Portuguese +man-of-war. Little red spots were produced on the tender skin of the +arm, which appeared as if they would have formed watery pustules, but +did not. M. Quoy mentions this case of the Millepora; and I have heard +of stinging corals in the West Indies. Many marine animals seem to have +this power of stinging: besides the Portuguese man-of-war, many +jelly-fish, and the Aplysia or sea-slug of the Cape de Verd Islands, it +is stated in the _Voyage_ +_of the Astrolabe_ that an Actinia or sea-anemone, as well as a +flexible coralline allied to Sertularia, both possess this means of +offence or defence. In the East Indian sea a stinging sea-weed is said +to be found. + +Two species of fish, of the genus Scarus, which are common here, +exclusively feed on coral: both are coloured of a splendid +bluish-green, one living invariably in the lagoon, and the other +amongst the outer breakers. Mr. Liesk assured us that he had repeatedly +seen whole shoals grazing with their strong bony jaws on the tops of +the coral branches: I opened the intestines of several and found them +distended with yellowish calcareous sandy mud. The slimy disgusting +Holuthuriæ (allied to our star-fish), which the Chinese gourmands are +so fond of, also feed largely, as I am informed by Dr. Allan, on +corals; and the bony apparatus within their bodies seems well adapted +for this end. These holuthuriæ, the fish, the numerous burrowing +shells, and nereidous worms, which perforate every block of dead coral, +must be very efficient agents in producing the fine white mud which +lies at the bottom and on the shores of the lagoon. A portion, however, +of this mud, which when wet resembled pounded chalk, was found by +Professor Ehrenberg to be partly composed of siliceous-shielded +infusoria. + +_April_ 12_th._—In the morning we stood out of the lagoon on our +passage to the Isle of France. I am glad we have visited these islands: +such formations surely rank high amongst the wonderful objects of this +world. Captain Fitz Roy found no bottom with a line 7200 feet in +length, at the distance of only 2200 yards from the shore; hence this +island forms a lofty submarine mountain, with sides steeper even than +those of the most abrupt volcanic cone. The saucer-shaped summit is +nearly ten miles across; and every single atom,[10] from the least +particle to the largest fragment of rock, in this great pile, which +however is small compared with very many other lagoon islands, bears +the stamp of having been subjected to organic arrangement. We feel +surprise when travellers tell us of the vast dimensions of the Pyramids +and other great ruins, but how utterly insignificant are the greatest +of these, when compared +to these mountains of stone accumulated by the agency of various minute +and tender animals! This is a wonder which does not at first strike the +eye of the body, but, after reflection, the eye of reason. + + [10] I exclude, of course, some soil which has been imported here in + vessels from Malacca and Java, and likewise some small fragments of + pumice, drifted here by the waves. The one block of greenstone, + moreover, on the northern island must be excepted. + + +Whitsunday Island + + +I will now give a very brief account of the three great classes of +coral-reefs; namely, Atolls, Barrier, and Fringing Reefs, and will +explain my views[11] on their formation. Almost every voyager who has +crossed the Pacific has expressed his unbounded astonishment at the +lagoon islands, or as I shall for the future call them by their Indian +name of atolls, and has attempted some explanation. Even as long ago as +the year 1605, Pyrard de Laval well exclaimed, “C’est une merveille de +voir chacun de ces atollons, environné d’un grand banc de pierre tout +autour, n’y ayant point d’artifice humain.” The accompanying sketch of +Whitsunday Island in the Pacific, copied from Captain Beechey’s +admirable _Voyage_, gives but a faint idea of the singular aspect of an +atoll: it is one of the smallest size, and has its narrow islets united +together in a ring. The immensity of the ocean, the fury of the +breakers, contrasted with the lowness of the land and the smoothness of +the bright green water within the lagoon, can hardly be imagined +without having been seen. + + [11] These were first read before the Geological Society in May 1837 + and have since been developed in a separate volume on the _Structure + and Distribution of Coral Reefs._ + +The earlier voyagers fancied that the coral-building animals +instinctively built up their great circles to afford themselves +protection in the inner parts; but so far is this from the truth +that those massive kinds, to whose growth on the exposed outer shores +the very existence of the reef depends, cannot live within the lagoon, +where other delicately-branching kinds flourish. Moreover, on this +view, many species of distinct genera and families are supposed to +combine for one end; and of such a combination, not a single instance +can be found in the whole of nature. The theory that has been most +generally received is that atolls are based on submarine craters; but +when we consider the form and size of some, the number, proximity, and +relative positions of others, this idea loses its plausible character: +thus Suadiva atoll is 44 geographical miles in diameter in one line, by +34 miles in another line; Rimsky is 54 by 20 miles across, and it has a +strangely sinuous margin; Bow atoll is 30 miles long, and on an average +only 6 in width; Menchicoff atoll consists of three atolls united or +tied together. This theory, moreover, is totally inapplicable to the +northern Maldiva atolls in the Indian Ocean (one of which is 88 miles +in length, and between 10 and 20 in breadth), for they are not bounded +like ordinary atolls by narrow reefs, but by a vast number of separate +little atolls; other little atolls rising out of the great central +lagoon-like spaces. A third and better theory was advanced by Chamisso, +who thought that from the corals growing more vigorously where exposed +to the open sea, as undoubtedly is the case, the outer edges would grow +up from the general foundation before any other part, and that this +would account for the ring or cup-shaped structure. But we shall +immediately see, that in this, as well as in the crater-theory, a most +important consideration has been overlooked, namely, on what have the +reef-building corals, which cannot live at a great depth, based their +massive structures? + +Numerous soundings were carefully taken by Captain Fitz Roy on the +steep outside of Keeling atoll, and it was found that within ten +fathoms the prepared tallow at the bottom of the lead invariably came +up marked with the impressions of living corals, but as perfectly clean +as if it had been dropped on a carpet of turf; as the depth increased, +the impressions became less numerous, but the adhering particles of +sand more and more numerous, until at last it was evident that the +bottom consisted of a smooth sandy layer; to carry on the analogy of +the turf, the blades of grass grew thinner and thinner, till at +last the soil was so sterile that nothing sprang from it. From these +observations, confirmed by many others, it may be safely inferred that +the utmost depth at which corals can construct reefs is between 20 and +30 fathoms. Now there are enormous areas in the Pacific and Indian +Oceans in which every single island is of coral formation, and is +raised only to that height to which the waves can throw up fragments, +and the winds pile up sand. Thus the Radack group of atolls is an +irregular square, 520 miles long and 240 broad; the Low Archipelago is +elliptic-formed, 840 miles in its longer, and 420 in its shorter axis: +there are other small groups and single low islands between these two +archipelagoes, making a linear space of ocean actually more than 4000 +miles in length, in which not one single island rises above the +specified height. Again, in the Indian Ocean there is a space of ocean +1500 miles in length, including three archipelagoes, in which every +island is low and of coral formation. From the fact of the +reef-building corals not living at great depths, it is absolutely +certain that throughout these vast areas, wherever there is now an +atoll, a foundation must have originally existed within a depth of from +20 to 30 fathoms from the surface. It is improbable in the highest +degree that broad, lofty, isolated, steep-sided banks of sediment, +arranged in groups and lines hundreds of leagues in length, could have +been deposited in the central and profoundest parts of the Pacific and +Indian Oceans, at an immense distance from any continent, and where the +water is perfectly limpid. It is equally improbable that the elevatory +forces should have uplifted throughout the above vast areas, +innumerable great rocky banks within 20 to 30 fathoms, or 120 to 180 +feet, of the surface of the sea, and not one single point above that +level; for where on the whole face of the globe can we find a single +chain of mountains, even a few hundred miles in length, with their many +summits rising within a few feet of a given level, and not one pinnacle +above it? If then the foundations, whence the atoll-building corals +sprang, were not formed of sediment, and if they were not lifted up to +the required level, they must of necessity have subsided into it; and +this at once solves the difficulty. For as mountain after mountain, and +island after island, slowly sank beneath the water, fresh bases would +be successively afforded for the growth +of the corals. It is impossible here to enter into all the necessary +details, but I venture to defy[12] any one to explain in any other +manner how it is possible that numerous islands should be distributed +throughout vast areas—all the islands being low—all being built of +corals, absolutely requiring a foundation within a limited depth from +the surface. + + [12] It is remarkable that Mr. Lyell, even in the first edition of his + _Principles of Geology,_ inferred that the amount of subsidence in the + Pacific must have exceeded that of elevation, from the area of land + being very small relatively to the agents there tending to form it, + namely, the growth of coral and volcanic action. + + +Barrier-reef, Bolabola + +Before explaining how atoll-formed reefs acquire their peculiar +structure, we must turn to the second great class, namely, +Barrier-reefs. These either extend in straight lines in front of the +shores of a continent or of a large island, or they encircle smaller +islands; in both cases, being separated from the land by a broad and +rather deep channel of water, analogous to the lagoon within an atoll. +It is remarkable how little attention has been paid to encircling +barrier-reefs; yet they are truly wonderful structures. The +accompanying sketch represents part of the barrier encircling the +island of Bolabola in the Pacific, as seen from one of the central +peaks. In this instance the whole line of reef has been converted into +land; but usually a snow-white line of great breakers, with only here +and there a single low islet crowned with cocoa-nut trees, divides the +dark heaving waters of the ocean from the light green expanse of the +lagoon-channel. And the quiet waters of this channel generally bathe a +fringe of low alluvial soil, loaded with the most beautiful productions +of the tropics, and lying at the foot of the wild, abrupt, central +mountains. + + +Encircling barrier-reefs are of all sizes, from three miles to no less +than forty-four miles in diameter; and that which fronts one side, and +encircles both ends, of New Caledonia, is 400 miles long. Each reef +includes one, two, or several rocky islands of various heights; and in +one instance, even as many as twelve separate islands. The reef runs at +a greater or less distance from the included land; in the Society +Archipelago generally from one to three or four miles; but at Hogoleu +the reef is 20 miles on the southern side, and 14 miles on the opposite +or northern side, from the included islands. The depth within the +lagoon-channel also varies much; from 10 to 30 fathoms may be taken as +an average; but at Vanikoro there are spaces no less than 56 fathoms or +336 feet deep. Internally the reef either slopes gently into the +lagoon-channel, or ends in a perpendicular wall sometimes between two +and three hundred feet under water in height: externally the reef +rises, like an atoll, with extreme abruptness out of the profound +depths of the ocean. What can be more singular than these structures? +We see an island, which may be compared to a castle situated on the +summit of a lofty submarine mountain, protected by a great wall of +coral-rock, always steep externally and sometimes internally, with a +broad level summit, here and there breached by narrow gateways, through +which the largest ships can enter the wide and deep encircling moat. + +As far as the actual reef of coral is concerned, there is not the +smallest difference in general size, outline, grouping, and even in +quite trifling details of structure, between a barrier and an atoll. +The geographer Balbi has well remarked that an encircled island is an +atoll with high land rising out of its lagoon; remove the land from +within, and a perfect atoll is left. + +But what has caused these reefs to spring up at such great distances +from the shores of the included islands? It cannot be that the corals +will not grow close to the land; for the shores within the +lagoon-channel, when not surrounded by alluvial soil, are often fringed +by living reefs; and we shall presently see that there is a whole +class, which I have called Fringing-reefs from their close attachment +to the shores both of continents and of islands. Again, on what have +the +reef-building corals, which cannot live at great depths, based their +encircling structures? This is a great apparent difficulty, analogous +to that in the case of atolls, which has generally been overlooked. It +will be perceived more clearly by inspecting the following sections +which are real ones, taken in north and south lines, through the +islands with their barrier-reefs, of Vanikoro, Gambier, and Maurua; and +they are laid down, both vertically and horizontally, on the same scale +of a quarter of an inch to a mile. + +Sections of barrier-reefs + +It should be observed that the sections might have been taken in any +direction through these islands, or through many other encircled +islands, and the general features would have been the same. Now bearing +in mind that reef-building coral cannot live at a greater depth than +from 20 to 30 fathoms, and that the scale is so small that the plummets +on the right hand show a depth of 200 fathoms, on what are these +barrier-reefs based? Are we to suppose that each island is surrounded +by a collar-like submarine ledge of rock, or by a great bank of +sediment, ending abruptly where the reef ends? If the sea had formerly +eaten deeply into the islands, before they were protected by the reefs, +thus having left a shallow ledge round them under water, the present +shores would have been invariably bounded by great precipices; but this +is most rarely the case. Moreover, on this notion, it is not possible +to explain +why the corals should have sprung up, like a wall, from the extreme +outer margin of the ledge, often leaving a broad space of water within, +too deep for the growth of corals. The accumulation of a wide bank of +sediment all round these islands, and generally widest where the +included islands are smallest, is highly improbable, considering their +exposed positions in the central and deepest parts of the ocean. In the +case of the barrier-reef of New Caledonia, which extends for 150 miles +beyond the northern point of the island, in the same straight line with +which it fronts the west coast, it is hardly possible to believe that a +bank of sediment could thus have been straightly deposited in front of +a lofty island, and so far beyond its termination in the open sea. +Finally, if we look to other oceanic islands of about the same height +and of similar geological constitution, but not encircled by +coral-reefs, we may in vain search for so trifling a circumambient +depth as 30 fathoms, except quite near to their shores; for usually +land that rises abruptly out of water, as do most of the encircled and +non-encircled oceanic islands, plunges abruptly under it. On what then, +I repeat, are these barrier reefs based? Why, with their wide and deep +moat-like channels, do they stand so far from the included land? We +shall soon see how easily these difficulties disappear. + +We come now to our third class of Fringing-reefs, which will require a +very short notice. Where the land slopes abruptly under water, these +reefs are only a few yards in width, forming a mere ribbon or fringe +round the shores: where the land slopes gently under the water the reef +extends farther, sometimes even as much as a mile from the land; but in +such cases the soundings outside the reef always show that the +submarine prolongation of the land is gently inclined. In fact the +reefs extend only to that distance from the shore at which a foundation +within the requisite depth from 20 to 30 fathoms is found. As far as +the actual reef is concerned, there is no essential difference between +it and that forming a barrier or an atoll: it is, however, generally of +less width, and consequently few islets have been formed on it. From +the corals growing more vigorously on the outside, and from the noxious +effect of the sediment washed inwards, the outer edge of the reef is +the highest part, and between it and the land +there is generally a shallow sandy channel a few feet in depth. Where +banks of sediment have accumulated near to the surface, as in parts of +the West Indies, they sometimes become fringed with corals, and hence +in some degree resemble lagoon-islands or atolls, in the same manner as +fringing-reefs, surrounding gently sloping islands, in some degree +resemble barrier-reefs. + +Section of coral-reef + +No theory on the formation of coral-reefs can be considered +satisfactory which does not include the three great classes. We have +seen that we are driven to believe in the subsidence of those vast +areas, interspersed with low islands, of which not one rises above the +height to which the wind and waves can throw up matter, and yet are +constructed by animals requiring a foundation, and that foundation to +lie at no great depth. Let us then take an island surrounded by +fringing-reefs, which offer no difficulty in their structure; and let +this island with its reef, represented by the unbroken lines in Plate +96, slowly subside. Now as the island sinks down, either a few feet at +a time or quite insensibly, we may safely infer, from what is known of +the conditions favourable to the growth of coral, that the living +masses, bathed by the surf on the margin of the reef, will soon regain +the surface. The water, however, will encroach little by little on the +shore, the island becoming lower and smaller, and the space between the +inner edge of the reef and the beach proportionally broader. A section +of the reef and island in this state, after a subsidence of several +hundred feet, is given by the dotted lines. Coral islets are supposed +to have been formed on the reef; and a ship is anchored in the +lagoon-channel. This channel will be more or less deep, according to +the rate of subsidence, to the amount of sediment accumulated in it, +and to the growth of the delicately branched corals which can live +there. The section in this state resembles in every respect one drawn +through an encircled island: in fact, it is a real section (on the +scale of .517 of an inch to a mile) through Bolabola in the Pacific. We +can now at once see why encircling barrier-reefs stand so far from the +shores which they front. We can also perceive that a line drawn +perpendicularly down from the outer edge of the new reef, to the +foundation of solid rock beneath the old fringing-reef, will exceed by +as many feet as there have been feet of subsidence, that small limit of +depth at which the effective corals can live:—the little architects +having built up their great wall-like mass, as the whole sank down, +upon a basis formed of other corals and their consolidated fragments. +Thus the difficulty on this head, which appeared so great, disappears. + +Section of coral-reef + +If, instead of an island, we had taken the shore of a continent fringed +with reefs, and had imagined it to have subsided, a great straight +barrier, like that of Australia or New Caledonia, separated from the +land by a wide and deep channel, would evidently have been the result. + +Let us take our new encircling barrier-reef, of which the section is +now represented by unbroken lines, and which, as I have said, is a real +section through Bolabola, and let it go on subsiding. As the +barrier-reef slowly sinks down, the corals +will go on vigorously growing upwards; but as the island sinks, the +water will gain inch by inch on the shore—the separate mountains first +forming separate islands within one great reef—and finally, the last +and highest pinnacle disappearing. The instant this takes place, a +perfect atoll is formed: I have said, remove the high land from within +an encircling barrier-reef, and an atoll is left, and the land has been +removed. We can now perceive how it comes that atolls, having sprung +from encircling barrier-reefs, resemble them in general size, form, in +the manner in which they are grouped together, and in their arrangement +in single or double lines; for they may be called rude outline charts +of the sunken islands over which they stand. We can further see how it +arises that the atolls in the Pacific and Indian Oceans extend in lines +parallel to the generally prevailing strike of the high islands and +great coast-lines of those oceans. I venture, therefore, to affirm that +on the theory of the upward growth of the corals during the sinking of +the land,[13] all the leading features in those wonderful structures, +the lagoon-islands or atolls, which have so long excited the attention +of voyagers, as well as in the no less wonderful barrier-reefs, whether +encircling small islands or stretching for hundreds of miles along the +shores of a continent, are simply explained. + + [13] It has been highly satisfactory to me to find the following + passage in a pamphlet by Mr. Couthouy, one of the naturalists in the + great Antarctic Expedition of the United States:—“Having personally + examined a large number of coral-islands, and resided eight months + among the volcanic class having shore and partially encircling reefs, + I may be permitted to state that my own observations have impressed a + conviction of the correctness of the theory of Mr. Darwin.” The + naturalists, however, of this expedition differ with me on some points + respecting coral formations. + + +Bolabola Island + +It may be asked whether I can offer any direct evidence of the +subsidence of barrier-reefs or atolls; but it must be borne in mind how +difficult it must ever be to detect a movement, the tendency of which +is to hide under water the part affected. Nevertheless, at Keeling +atoll I observed on all sides of the lagoon old cocoa-nut trees +undermined and falling; and in one place the foundation-posts of a +shed, which the inhabitants asserted had stood seven years before just +above high-water mark, but now was daily washed by every tide; on +inquiry I found that three earthquakes, one of them severe, had been +felt here during the last ten years. At Vanikoro +the lagoon-channel is remarkably deep, scarcely any alluvial soil has +accumulated at the foot of the lofty included mountains, and remarkably +few islets have been formed by the heaping of fragments and sand on the +wall-like barrier reef; these facts, and some analogous ones, led me to +believe that this island must lately have subsided and the reef grown +upwards: here again earthquakes are frequent and very severe. In the +Society Archipelago, on the other hand, where the lagoon-channels are +almost choked up, where much low alluvial land has accumulated, and +where in some cases long islets have been formed on the +barrier-reefs—facts all showing that the islands have not very lately +subsided—only feeble shocks are most rarely felt. In these coral +formations, where the land and water seem struggling for mastery, it +must be ever difficult to decide between the effects of a change in the +set of the tides and of a slight subsidence: that many of these reefs +and atolls are subject to changes of some kind is certain; on some +atolls the islets appear to have increased greatly within a late +period; on others they have been partially or wholly washed away. The +inhabitants of parts of the Maldiva Archipelago know the date of the +first formation of some islets; in other parts the corals are now +flourishing on water-washed reefs, where holes made for graves attest +the former existence of inhabited land. It is difficult to believe in +frequent changes in the tidal currents of an open ocean; whereas we +have in the earthquakes recorded by the natives on some atolls, and in +the great fissures observed on other atolls, plain evidence of changes +and disturbances in progress in the subterranean regions. + +It is evident, on our theory, that coasts merely fringed by reefs +cannot have subsided to any perceptible amount; and therefore they +must, since the growth of their corals, either have remained stationary +or have been upheaved. Now it is remarkable how generally it can be +shown, by the presence of upraised organic remains, that the fringed +islands have been elevated: and so far, this is indirect evidence in +favour of our theory. I was particularly struck with this fact, when I +found, to my surprise, +that the descriptions given by MM. Quoy and Gaimard were applicable, +not to reefs in general as implied by them, but only to those of the +fringing class; my surprise, however, ceased when I afterwards found +that, by a strange chance, all the several islands visited by these +eminent naturalists could be shown by their own statements to have been +elevated within a recent geological era. + +Not only the grand features in the structure of barrier-reefs and of +atolls, and of their likeness to each other in form, size, and other +characters, are explained on the theory of subsidence—which theory we +are independently forced to admit in the very areas in question, from +the necessity of finding bases for the corals within the requisite +depth—but many details in structure and exceptional cases can thus also +be simply explained. I will give only a few instances. In barrier-reefs +it has long been remarked with surprise that the passages through the +reef exactly face valleys in the included land, even in cases where the +reef is separated from the land by a lagoon-channel so wide and so much +deeper than the actual passage itself, that it seems hardly possible +that the very small quantity of water or sediment brought down could +injure the corals on the reef. Now, every reef of the fringing class is +breached by a narrow gateway in front of the smallest rivulet, even if +dry during the greater part of the year, for the mud, sand, or gravel +occasionally washed down kills the corals on which it is deposited. +Consequently, when an island thus fringed subsides, though most of the +narrow gateways will probably become closed by the outward and upward +growth of the corals, yet any that are not closed (and some must always +be kept open by the sediment and impure water flowing out of the +lagoon-channel) will still continue to front exactly the upper parts of +those valleys at the mouths of which the original basal fringing-reef +was breached. + +Corals + +We can easily see how an island fronted only on one side, or on one +side with one end or both ends encircled by barrier-reefs, might after +long-continued subsidence be converted either into a single wall-like +reef, or into an atoll with a great straight spur projecting from it, +or into two or three atolls tied together by straight reefs—all of +which exceptional cases actually occur. As the reef-building corals +require food, are preyed upon by other animals, are killed by sediment, +cannot adhere to a loose bottom, and may be easily carried down to a +depth whence they cannot spring up again, we need feel no +surprise at the reefs both of atolls and barriers becoming in parts +imperfect. The great barrier of New Caledonia is thus imperfect and +broken in many parts; hence, after long subsidence, this great reef +would not produce one great atoll 400 miles in length, but a chain or +archipelago of atolls, of very nearly the same dimensions with those in +the Maldiva Archipelago. Moreover, in an atoll once breached on +opposite sides, from the likelihood of the oceanic and tidal currents +passing straight through the breaches, it is extremely improbable that +the corals, especially during continued subsidence, would ever be able +again to unite the rim; if they did not, as the whole sank downwards, +one atoll would be divided into two or more. In the Maldiva Archipelago +there are distinct atolls so related to each other in position, and +separated by channels either unfathomable or very deep (the channel +between Ross and Ari atolls is 150 fathoms, and that between the north +and south Nillandoo atolls is 200 fathoms in depth), that it is +impossible to look at a map of them without believing that they were +once more intimately related. And in this same archipelago, +Mahlos-Mahdoo atoll is divided by a bifurcating channel from 100 to 132 +fathoms in depth, in such a manner that it is scarcely possible to say +whether it ought strictly to be +called three separate atolls, or one great atoll not yet finally +divided. + +I will not enter on many more details; but I must remark that the +curious structure of the northern Maldiva atolls receives (taking into +consideration the free entrance of the sea through their broken +margins) a simple explanation in the upward and outward growth of the +corals, originally based both on small detached reefs in their lagoons, +such as occur in common atolls, and on broken portions of the linear +marginal reef, such as bounds every atoll of the ordinary form. I +cannot refrain from once again remarking on the singularity of these +complex structures—a great sandy and generally concave disk rises +abruptly from the unfathomable ocean, with its central expanse studded +and its edge symmetrically bordered with oval basins of coral-rock just +lipping the surface of the sea, sometimes clothed with vegetation, and +each containing a lake of clear water! + +One more point in detail: as in the two neighbouring archipelagoes +corals flourish in one and not in the other, and as so many conditions +before enumerated must affect their existence, it would be an +inexplicable fact if, during the changes to which earth, air, and water +are subjected, the reef-building corals were to keep alive for +perpetuity on any one spot or area. And as by our theory the areas +including atolls and barrier-reefs are subsiding, we ought occasionally +to find reefs both dead and submerged. In all reefs, owing to the +sediment being washed out of the lagoon or lagoon-channel to leeward, +that side is least favourable to the long-continued vigorous growth of +the corals; hence dead portions of reef not unfrequently occur on the +leeward side; and these, though still retaining their proper wall-like +form, are now in several instances sunk several fathoms beneath the +surface. The Chagos group appears from some cause, possibly from the +subsidence having been too rapid, at present to be much less favourably +circumstanced for the growth of reefs than formerly: one atoll has a +portion of its marginal reef, nine miles in length, dead and submerged; +a second has only a few quite small living points which rise to the +surface, a third and fourth are entirely dead and submerged; a fifth is +a mere wreck, with its structure almost obliterated. It is remarkable +that in all these cases the dead reefs and portions of reef +lie at nearly the same depth, namely, from six to eight fathoms beneath +the surface, as if they had been carried down by one uniform movement. +One of these “half-drowned atolls,” so called by Captain Moresby (to +whom I am indebted for much invaluable information), is of vast size, +namely, ninety nautical miles across in one direction, and seventy +miles in another line; and is in many respects eminently curious. As by +our theory it follows that new atolls will generally be formed in each +new area of subsidence, two weighty objections might have been raised, +namely, that atolls must be increasing indefinitely in number; and +secondly, that in old areas of subsidence each separate atoll must be +increasing indefinitely in thickness, if proofs of their occasional +destruction could not have been adduced. Thus have we traced the +history of these great rings of coral-rock, from their first origin +through their normal changes, and through the occasional accidents of +their existence, to their death and final obliteration. + + +In my volume on _Coral Formations_ I have published a map, in which I +have coloured all the atolls dark-blue, the barrier-reefs pale-blue, +and the fringing reefs red. These latter reefs have been formed whilst +the land has been stationary, or, as appears from the frequent presence +of upraised organic remains, whilst it has been slowly rising: atolls +and barrier-reefs, on the other hand, have grown up during the directly +opposite movement of subsidence, which movement must have been very +gradual, and in the case of atolls so vast in amount as to have buried +every mountain-summit over wide ocean-spaces. Now in this map we see +that the reefs tinted pale and dark-blue, which have been produced by +the same order of movement, as a general rule manifestly stand near +each other. Again we see that the areas with the two blue tints are of +wide extent; and that they lie separate from extensive lines of coast +coloured red, both of which circumstances might naturally have been +inferred, on the theory of the nature of the reefs having been governed +by the nature of the earth’s movement. It deserves notice that in more +than one instance where single red and blue circles approach near each +other, I can show that there have been oscillations of level; for in +such cases the red or fringed +circles consist of atolls, originally by our theory formed during +subsidence, but subsequently upheaved; and on the other hand, some of +the pale-blue or encircled islands are composed of coral-rock, which +must have been uplifted to its present height before that subsidence +took place, during which the existing barrier-reefs grew upwards. + +Authors have noticed with surprise that although atolls are the +commonest coral-structures throughout some enormous oceanic tracts, +they are entirely absent in other seas, as in the West Indies: we can +now at once perceive the cause, for where there has not been +subsidence, atolls cannot have been formed; and in the case of the West +Indies and parts of the East Indies, these tracts are known to have +been rising within the recent period. The larger areas, coloured red +and blue, are all elongated; and between the two colours there is a +degree of rude alternation, as if the rising of one had balanced the +sinking of the other. Taking into consideration the proofs of recent +elevation both on the fringed coasts and on some others (for instance, +in South America) where there are no reefs, we are led to conclude that +the great continents are for the most part rising areas: and from the +nature of the coral-reefs, that the central parts of the great oceans +are sinking areas. The East Indian Archipelago, the most broken land in +the world, is in most parts an area of elevation, but surrounded and +penetrated, probably in more lines than one, by narrow areas of +subsidence. + +I have marked with vermilion spots all the many known active volcanos +within the limits of this same map. Their entire absence from every one +of the great subsiding areas, coloured either pale or dark blue, is +most striking; and not less so is the coincidence of the chief volcanic +chains with the parts coloured red, which we are led to conclude have +either long remained stationary, or more generally have been recently +upraised. Although a few of the vermilion spots occur within no great +distance of single circles tinted blue, yet not one single active +volcano is situated within several hundred miles of an archipelago, or +even small group of atolls. It is, therefore, a striking fact that in +the Friendly Archipelago, which consists of a group of atolls upheaved +and since partially worn down, two volcanos, and perhaps more, are +historically +known to have been in action. On the other hand, although most of the +islands in the Pacific which are encircled by barrier-reefs are of +volcanic origin, often with the remnants of craters still +distinguishable, not one of them is known to have ever been in +eruption. Hence in these cases it would appear that volcanos burst +forth into action and become extinguished on the same spots, +accordingly as elevatory or subsiding movements prevail there. +Numberless facts could be adduced to prove that upraised organic +remains are common wherever there are active volcanos; but until it +could be shown that in areas of subsidence volcanos were either absent +or inactive, the inference, however probable in itself, that their +distribution depended on the rising or falling of the earth’s surface, +would have been hazardous. But now, I think, we may freely admit this +important deduction. + +Taking a final view of the map, and bearing in mind the statements made +with respect to the upraised organic remains, we must feel astonished +at the vastness of the areas which have suffered changes in level +either downwards or upwards, within a period not geologically remote. +It would appear also that the elevatory and subsiding movements follow +nearly the same laws. Throughout the spaces interspersed with atolls, +where not a single peak of high land has been left above the level of +the sea, the sinking must have been immense in amount. The sinking, +moreover, whether continuous, or recurrent with intervals sufficiently +long for the corals again to bring up their living edifices to the +surface, must necessarily have been extremely slow. This conclusion is +probably the most important one which can be deduced from the study of +coral formations;—and it is one which it is difficult to imagine how +otherwise could ever have been arrived at. Nor can I quite pass over +the probability of the former existence of large archipelagoes of lofty +islands, where now only rings of coral-rock scarcely break the open +expanse of the sea, throwing some light on the distribution of the +inhabitants of the other high islands, now left standing so immensely +remote from each other in the midst of the great oceans. The +reef-constructing corals have indeed reared and preserved wonderful +memorials of the subterranean oscillations of level; we see in each +barrier-reef a proof that the land has +there subsided, and in each atoll a monument over an island now lost. +We may thus, like unto a geologist who had lived his ten thousand years +and kept a record of the passing changes, gain some insight into the +great system by which the surface of this globe has been broken up, and +land and water interchanged. + +[Illustration: Birgos Latro, Keeling Island] + +[Illustration: St. Louis, Mauritius] + + + + +Chapter XXI + + +MAURITIUS TO ENGLAND + +Mauritius, beautiful appearance of—Great crateriform ring of +mountains—Hindoos—St. Helena—History of the changes in the +vegetation—Cause of the extinction of land-shells—Ascension—Variation +in the imported rats—Volcanic bombs—Beds of infusoria—Bahia, +Brazil—Splendour of tropical scenery—Pernambuco—Singular +reef—Slavery—Return to England—Retrospect on our voyage. + +_April_ 29_th._—In the morning we passed round the northern end of +Mauritius, or the Isle of France. From this point of view the aspect of +the island equalled the expectations raised by the many well-known +descriptions of its beautiful scenery. The sloping plain of the +Pamplemousses, interspersed with houses, and coloured by the large +fields of sugar-cane of a bright green, composed the foreground. The +brilliancy of the green was the more remarkable because it is a colour +which generally is conspicuous only from a very short distance. Towards +the centre of the island groups of wooded mountains rose out of this +highly cultivated plain; their summits, as so commonly happens with +ancient volcanic rocks, being jagged +into the sharpest points. Masses of white clouds were collected around +these pinnacles, as if for the sake of pleasing the stranger’s eye. The +whole island, with its sloping border and central mountains, was +adorned with an air of perfect elegance: the scenery, if I may use such +an expression, appeared to the sight harmonious. + +I spent the greater part of the next day in walking about the town and +visiting different people. The town is of considerable size, and is +said to contain 20,000 inhabitants; the streets are very clean and +regular. Although the island has been so many years under the English +government, the general character of the place is quite French: +Englishmen speak to their servants in French, and the shops are all +French; indeed I should think that Calais or Boulogne was much more +Anglified. There is a very pretty little theatre in which operas are +excellently performed. We were also surprised at seeing large +booksellers’ shops, with well-stored shelves;—music and reading bespeak +our approach to the old world of civilisation; for in truth both +Australia and America are new worlds. + +The various races of men walking in the streets afford the most +interesting spectacle in Port Louis. Convicts from India are banished +here for life; at present there are about 800, and they are employed in +various public works. Before seeing these people, I had no idea that +the inhabitants of India were such noble-looking figures. Their skin is +extremely dark, and many of the older men had large mustaches and +beards of a snow-white colour; this, together with the fire of their +expression, gave them quite an imposing aspect. The greater number had +been banished for murder and the worst crimes; others for causes which +can scarcely be considered as moral faults, such as for not obeying, +from superstitious motives, the English laws. These men are generally +quiet and well-conducted; from their outward conduct, their cleanliness +and faithful observance of their strange religious rites, it was +impossible to look at them with the same eyes as on our wretched +convicts in New South Wales. + +_May_ 1_st._—Sunday. I took a quiet walk along the sea-coast to the +north of the town. The plain in this part is quite uncultivated; it +consists of a field of black lava, smoothed over with coarse grass and +bushes, the latter being chiefly Mimosas. +The scenery may be described as intermediate in character between that +of the Galapagos and of Tahiti; but this will convey a definite idea to +very few persons. It is a very pleasant country, but it has not the +charms of Tahiti, or the grandeur of Brazil. The next day I ascended La +Pouce, a mountain so called from a thumb-like projection, which rises +close behind the town to a height of 2,600 feet. The centre of the +island consists of a great platform, surrounded by old broken basaltic +mountains, with their strata dipping seawards. The central platform, +formed of comparatively recent streams of lava, is of an oval shape, +thirteen geographical miles across in the line of its shorter axis. The +exterior bounding mountains come into that class of structures called +Craters of Elevation, which are supposed to have been formed not like +ordinary craters, but by a great and sudden upheaval. There appear to +me to be insuperable objections to this view: on the other hand, I can +hardly believe, in this and in some other cases, that these marginal +crateriform mountains are merely the basal remnants of immense +volcanos, of which the summits either have been blown off or swallowed +up in subterranean abysses. + +From our elevated position we enjoyed an excellent view over the +island. The country on this side appears pretty well cultivated, being +divided into fields and studded with farm-houses. I was however assured +that of the whole land not more than half is yet in a productive state; +if such be the case, considering the present large export of sugar, +this island, at some future period when thickly peopled, will be of +great value. Since England has taken possession of it, a period of only +twenty-five years, the export of sugar is said to have increased +seventy-five fold. One great cause of its prosperity is the excellent +state of the roads. In the neighbouring Isle of Bourbon, which remains +under the French government, the roads are still in the same miserable +state as they were here only a few years ago. Although the French +residents must have largely profited by the increased prosperity of +their island, yet the English government is far from popular. + +3_rd._—In the evening Captain Lloyd, the Surveyor-general, so well +known from his examination of the Isthmus of Panama, invited Mr. Stokes +and myself to his country-house, which is situated on the edge of +Wilheim Plains, and about six miles +from the Port. We stayed at this delightful place two days; standing +nearly 800 feet above the sea, the air was cool and fresh, and on every +side there were delightful walks. Close by a grand ravine has been worn +to a depth of about 500 feet through the slightly inclined streams of +lava, which have flowed from the central platform. + +5_th._—Captain Lloyd took us to the Rivière Noire, which is several +miles to the southward, that I might examine some rocks of elevated +coral. We passed through pleasant gardens, and fine fields of +sugar-cane growing amidst huge blocks of lava. The roads were bordered +by hedges of Mimosa, and near many of the houses there were avenues of +the mango. Some of the views where the peaked hills and the cultivated +farms were seen together, were exceedingly picturesque; and we were +constantly tempted to exclaim “How pleasant it would be to pass one’s +life in such quiet abodes!” Captain Lloyd possessed an elephant, and he +sent it half-way with us, that we might enjoy a ride in true Indian +fashion. The circumstance which surprised me most was its quite +noiseless step. This elephant is the only one at present on the island; +but it is said others will be sent for. + + +_May_ 9_th._—We sailed from Port Louis, and, calling at the Cape of +Good Hope, on the 8th of July we arrived off St. Helena. This island, +the forbidding aspect of which has been so often described, rises +abruptly like a huge black castle from the ocean. Near the town, as if +to complete nature’s defence, small forts and guns fill up every gap in +the rugged rocks. The town runs up a flat and narrow valley; the houses +look respectable, and are interspersed with a very few green trees. +When approaching the anchorage there was one striking view: an +irregular castle perched on the summit of a lofty hill, and surrounded +by a few scattered fir-trees, boldly projected against the sky. + +The next day I obtained lodgings within a stone’s throw of Napoleon’s +tomb;[1] it was a capital central situation, whence I +could make excursions in every direction. During the four days I stayed +here I wandered over the island from morning to night and examined its +geological history. My lodgings were situated at a height of about 2000 +feet; here the weather was cold and boisterous, with constant showers +of rain; and every now and then the whole scene was veiled in thick +clouds. + + [1] After the volumes of eloquence which have poured forth on this + subject, it is dangerous even to mention the tomb. A modern traveller, + in twelve lines, burdens the poor little island with the following + titles,—it is a grave, tomb, pyramid, cemetery, sepulchre, catacomb, + sarcophagus, minaret, and mausoleum! + + +St. Helena + +Near the coast the rough lava is quite bare: in the central and higher +parts feldspathic rocks by their decomposition have produced a clayey +soil, which, where not covered by vegetation, is stained in broad bands +of many bright colours. At this season the land, moistened by constant +showers, produces a singularly bright green pasture, which lower and +lower down gradually fades away and at last disappears. In latitude +16°, and at the trifling elevation of 1500 feet, it is surprising to +behold a vegetation possessing a character decidedly British. The hills +are crowned with irregular plantations of Scotch firs; and the sloping +banks are thickly scattered over with thickets of gorse, covered with +its bright yellow flowers. Weeping-willows are common on the banks of +the rivulets, and the hedges are made of the blackberry, producing its +well-known fruit. When we consider that the number of plants now found +on the island is 746, and that out of these fifty-two alone are +indigenous species, the rest having been imported, and most of them +from England, we see the reason of the British character of the +vegetation. Many of these English plants appear to flourish better than +in their native country; some also from the opposite quarter of +Australia succeed remarkably well. The many imported species must have +destroyed some of the native kinds; and it is only on the highest and +steepest ridges that the indigenous Flora is now predominant. + +The English, or rather Welsh character of the scenery, is kept up by +the numerous cottages and small white houses; some buried at the bottom +of the deepest valleys, and others mounted on the crests of the lofty +hills. Some of the views are striking, for instance that from near Sir +W. Doveton’s house, where the bold peak called Lot is seen over a dark +wood of firs, the whole being backed by the red water-worn mountains of +the southern coast. On viewing the island from an eminence, the first +circumstance which strikes one is the number of the roads and forts: +the labour bestowed on the public works, if one forgets its character +as a prison, seems out of all proportion to its extent or value. There +is so little level or useful land that it seems surprising how so many +people, about 5000, can subsist here. The lower orders, or the +emancipated slaves, are, I believe, extremely poor: they complain of +the want of work. From the reduction in the number of public servants, +owing to the island having been given up by the East India Company, and +the consequent emigration of many of the richer people, the poverty +probably will increase. The chief food of the working class is rice +with a little salt meat; as neither of these articles are the products +of the island, but must be purchased with money, the low wages tell +heavily on the poor people. Now that the people are blessed with +freedom, a right which I believe they value fully, it seems probable +that their numbers will quickly increase: if so, what is to become of +the little state of St. Helena? + +My guide was an elderly man who had been a goatherd when a boy, and +knew every step amongst the rocks. He was of a race many times crossed, +and although with a dusky skin, he had not the disagreeable expression +of a mulatto. He was a very civil, quiet old man, and such appears the +character of the greater number of the lower classes. It was strange to +my ears to hear a man, nearly white and respectably dressed, talking +with indifference of the times when he was a slave. With my companion, +who carried our dinners and a horn of water, which is quite necessary, +as all the water in the lower valleys is saline, I every day took long +walks. + +Beneath the upper and central green circle, the wild valleys are quite +desolate and untenanted. Here, to the geologist, there were scenes of +high interest, showing successive changes and complicated disturbances. +According to my views, St. Helena has existed as an island from a very +remote epoch: some obscure proofs, however, of the elevation of the +land are still extant. I believe that the central and highest peaks +form parts of the rim of a great crater, the southern half of which has +been entirely removed by the waves of the sea: there is, moreover, an +external wall of black basaltic rocks, like the coast-mountains of +Mauritius, which are older than the central volcanic streams. On the +higher parts of the island considerable numbers of a shell, long +thought to be a marine species, occur imbedded in the soil. It proves +to be a Cochlogena, or land-shell of a very peculiar form;[2] with it I +found six other kinds; and in another spot an eighth species. It is +remarkable that none of them are now found living. Their extinction has +probably been caused by the entire destruction of the woods, and the +consequent loss of food and shelter, which occurred during the early +part of the last century. + + [2] It deserves notice that all the many specimens of this shell found + by me in one spot differ as a marked variety from another set of + specimens procured from a different spot. + +The history of the changes which the elevated plains of Longwood and +Deadwood have undergone, as given in General Beatson’s account of the +island, is extremely curious. Both plains, it is said, in former times +were covered with wood, and were therefore called the Great Wood. So +late as the year 1716 there were many trees, but in 1724 the old trees +had mostly fallen; and as goats and hogs had been suffered to range +about, all the young trees had been killed. It appears also from the +official records that the trees were unexpectedly, some years +afterwards, succeeded by a wire grass which spread over the whole +surface.[3] General Beatson adds that now this +plain “is covered with fine sward, and is become the finest piece of +pasture on the island.” The extent of surface, probably covered by wood +at a former period, is estimated at no less than two thousand acres; at +the present day scarcely a single tree can be found there. It is also +said that in 1709 there were quantities of dead trees in Sandy Bay; +this place is now so utterly desert that nothing but so well attested +an account could have made me believe that they could ever have grown +there. The fact that the goats and hogs destroyed all the young trees +as they sprang up, and that in the course of time the old ones, which +were safe from their attacks, perished from age, seems clearly made +out. Goats were introduced in the year 1502; eighty-six years +afterwards, in the time of Cavendish, it is known that they were +exceedingly numerous. More than a century afterwards, in 1731, when the +evil was complete and irretrievable, an order was issued that all stray +animals should be destroyed. It is very interesting thus to find that +the arrival of animals at St. Helena in 1501 did not change the whole +aspect of the island, until a period of two hundred and twenty years +had elapsed: for the goats were introduced in 1502, and in 1724 it is +said “the old trees had mostly fallen.” There can be little doubt that +this great change in the vegetation affected not only the land-shells, +causing eight species to become extinct, but likewise a multitude of +insects. + + [3] Beatson’s _St. Helena_. Introductory chapter, p. 4. + +St. Helena, situated so remote from any continent, in the midst of a +great ocean, and possessing a unique Flora, excites our curiosity. The +eight land-shells, though now extinct, and one living Succinea, are +peculiar species found nowhere else. Mr. Cuming, however, informs me +that an English Helix is common here, its eggs no doubt having been +imported in some of the many introduced plants. Mr. Cuming collected on +the coast sixteen species of sea-shells, of which seven, as far as he +knows, are confined to this island. Birds and insects,[4] as +might have been expected, are very few in number; indeed I believe all +the birds have been introduced within late years. Partridges and +pheasants are tolerably abundant; the island is much too English not to +be subject to strict game-laws. I was told of a more unjust sacrifice +to such ordinances than I ever heard of even in England. The poor +people formerly used to burn a plant which grows on the coast-rocks, +and export the soda from its ashes; but a peremptory order came out +prohibiting this practice, and giving as a reason that the partridges +would have nowhere to build! + + [4] Among these few insects I was surprised to find a small Aphodius + (nov. spec.) and an Oryctes, both extremely numerous under dung. When + the island was discovered it certainly possessed no quadruped + excepting _perhaps_ a mouse: it becomes, therefore, a difficult point + to ascertain, whether these stercovorous insects have since been + imported by accident, or if aborigines, on what food they formerly + subsisted. On the banks of the Plata, where, from the vast number of + cattle and horses, the fine plains of turf are richly manured, it is + vain to seek the many kinds of dung-feeding beetles which occur so + abundantly in Europe. I observed only an Oryctes (the insects of this + genus in Europe generally feed on decayed vegetable matter) and two + species of Phanæus, common in such situations. On the opposite side of + the Cordillera in Chiloe another species of Phanæus is exceedingly + abundant, and it buries the dung of the cattle in large earthen balls + beneath the ground. There is reason to believe that the genus Phanæus, + before the introduction of cattle, acted as scavengers to man. In + Europe beetles which find support in the matter which has already + contributed towards the life of other and larger animals, are so + numerous that there must be considerably more than one hundred + different species. Considering this, and observing what a quantity of + food of this kind is lost on the plains of La Plata, I imagined I saw + an instance where man had disturbed that chain by which so many + animals are linked together in their native country. In Van Diemen’s + Land, however, I found four species of Onthophagus, two of Aphodius, + and one of a third genus, very abundant under the dung of cows; yet + these latter animals had been then introduced only thirty-three years. + Previous to that time the kangaroo and some other small animals were + the only quadrupeds; and their dung is of a very different quality + from that of their successors introduced by man. In England the + greater number of stercovorous beetles are confined in their + appetites; that is, they do not depend indifferently on any quadruped + for the means of subsistence. The change, therefore, in habits which + must have taken place in Van Diemen’s Land is highly remarkable. I am + indebted to the Reverend F. W. Hope, who, I hope, will permit me to + call him my master in Entomology, for giving me the names of the + foregoing insects. + +In my walks I passed more than once over the grassy plain, bounded by +deep valleys, on which Longwood stands. Viewed from a short distance, +it appears like a respectable gentleman’s country-seat. In front there +are a few cultivated fields, and beyond them the smooth hill of +coloured rocks called the Flagstaff, and the rugged square black mass +of the Barn. On the whole the view was rather bleak and uninteresting. +The only inconvenience I suffered during my walks was from the +impetuous winds. One day I noticed a curious circumstance: standing on +the edge of a plain, terminated by a great cliff of about a thousand +feet in depth, I saw at the distance of a few yards right to windward, +some tern, struggling against a very strong breeze, whilst, where I +stood, the air was quite calm. +Approaching close to the brink, where the current seemed to be +deflected upwards from the face of the cliff, I stretched out my arm, +and immediately felt the full force of the wind: an invisible barrier, +two yards in width, separated perfectly calm air from a strong blast. + +I so much enjoyed my rambles among the rocks and mountains of St. +Helena that I felt almost sorry on the morning of the 14th to descend +to the town. Before noon I was on board, and the _ Beagle_ made sail. + + +On the 19th of July we reached Ascension. Those who have beheld a +volcanic island situated under an arid climate will at once be able to +picture to themselves the appearance of Ascension. They will imagine +smooth conical hills of a bright red colour, with their summits +generally truncated, rising separately out of a level surface of black +rugged lava. A principal mound in the centre of the island seems the +father of the lesser cones. It is called Green Hill: its name being +taken from the faintest tinge of that colour, which at this time of the +year is barely perceptible from the anchorage. To complete the desolate +scene, the black rocks on the coast are lashed by a wild and turbulent +sea. + +The settlement is near the beach; it consists of several houses and +barracks placed irregularly, but well built of white freestone. The +only inhabitants are marines, and some negroes liberated from +slave-ships, who are paid and victualled by government. There is not a +private person on the island. Many of the marines appeared well +contented with their situation; they think it better to serve their +one-and-twenty years on shore, let it be what it may, than in a ship; +in this choice, if I were a marine, I should most heartily agree. + +The next morning I ascended Green Hill, 2840 feet high, and thence +walked across the island to the windward point. A good cart-road leads +from the coast-settlement to the houses, gardens, and fields, placed +near the summit of the central mountain. On the roadside there are +milestones, and likewise cisterns, where each thirsty passer-by can +drink some good water. Similar care is displayed in each part of the +establishment, and especially in the management of the springs, so that +a single drop of water may not be lost: indeed the whole island +may be compared to a huge ship kept in first-rate order. I could not +help, when admiring the active industry which had created such effects +out of such means, at the same time regretting that it had been wasted +on so poor and trifling an end. M. Lesson has remarked with justice +that the English nation would have thought of making the island of +Ascension a productive spot, any other people would have held it as a +mere fortress in the ocean. + +Near this coast nothing grows; farther inland an occasional green +castor-oil plant, and a few grasshoppers, true friends of the desert, +may be met with. Some grass is scattered over the surface of the +central elevated region, and the whole much resembles the worse parts +of the Welsh mountains. But, scanty as the pasture appears, about six +hundred sheep, many goats, a few cows and horses, all thrive well on +it. Of native animals, land-crabs and rats swarm in numbers. Whether +the rat is really indigenous may well be doubted; there are two +varieties as described by Mr. Waterhouse; one is of a black colour, +with fine glossy fur, and lives on the grassy summit, the other is +brown-coloured and less glossy, with longer hairs, and lives near the +settlement on the coast. Both these varieties are one-third smaller +than the common black rat (M. rattus); and they differ from it both in +the colour and character of their fur, but in no other essential +respect. I can hardly doubt that these rats (like the common mouse, +which has also run wild) have been imported, and, as at the Galapagos, +have varied from the effect of the new conditions to which they have +been exposed: hence the variety on the summit of the island differs +from that on the coast. Of native birds there are none; but the +guinea-fowl, imported from the Cape de Verd Islands, is abundant, and +the common fowl has likewise run wild. Some cats which were originally +turned out to destroy the rats and mice, have increased, so as to +become a great plague. The island is entirely without trees, in which, +and in every other respect, it is very far inferior to St. Helena. + +One of my excursions took me towards the south-west extremity of the +island. The day was clear and hot, and I saw the island, not smiling +with beauty, but staring with naked hideousness. The lava streams are +covered with hummocks, and are rugged to a degree which, geologically +speaking, is not of easy +explanation. The intervening spaces are concealed with layers of +pumice, ashes and volcanic tuff. Whilst passing this end of the island +at sea, I could not imagine what the white patches were with which the +whole plain was mottled; I now found that they were sea-fowl, sleeping +in such full confidence, that even in mid-day a man could walk up and +seize hold of them. These birds were the only living creatures I saw +during the whole day. On the beach a great surf, although the breeze +was light, came tumbling over the broken lava rocks. + +Cellular formation of volcanic bomb + +The geology of this island is in many respects interesting. In several +places I noticed volcanic bombs, that is, masses of lava which have +been shot through the air whilst fluid, and have consequently assumed a +spherical or pear-shape. Not only their external form, but, in several +cases, their internal structure shows in a very curious manner that +they have revolved in their aërial course. The internal structure of +one of these bombs, when broken, is represented very accurately in +Plate 103. The central part is coarsely cellular, the cells decreasing +in size towards the exterior; where there is a shell-like case about +the third of an inch in thickness, of compact stone, which again is +overlaid by the outside crust of finely cellular lava. I think there +can be little doubt, first, that the external crust cooled rapidly in +the state in which we now see it; +secondly, that the still fluid lava within was packed by the +centrifugal force generated by the revolving of the bomb, against the +external cooled crust, and so produced the solid shell of stone; and +lastly, that the centrifugal force, by relieving the pressure in the +more central parts of the bomb, allowed the heated vapours to expand +their cells, thus forming the coarse cellular mass of the centre. + +A hill formed of the older series of volcanic rocks, and which has been +incorrectly considered as the crater of a volcano, is remarkable from +its broad, slightly hollowed, and circular summit having been filled up +with many successive layers of ashes and fine scoriæ. These +saucer-shaped layers crop out on the margin, forming perfect rings of +many different colours, giving to the summit a most fantastic +appearance; one of these rings is white and broad, and resembles a +course round which horses have been exercised; hence the hill has been +called the Devil’s Riding School. I brought away specimens of one of +the tufaceous layers of a pinkish colour and it is a most extraordinary +fact that Professor Ehrenberg[5] finds it almost wholly composed of +matter which has been organised; he detects in it some +siliceous-shielded, fresh-water infusoria, and no less than twenty-five +different kinds of the siliceous tissue of plants, chiefly of grasses. +From the absence of all carbonaceous matter, Professor Ehrenberg +believes that these organic bodies have passed through the volcanic +fire, and have been erupted in the state in which we now see them. The +appearance of the layers induced me to believe that they had been +deposited under water, though from the extreme dryness of the climate I +was forced to imagine that torrents of rain had probably fallen during +some great eruption, and that thus a temporary lake had been formed +into which the ashes fell. But it may now be suspected that the lake +was not a temporary one. Anyhow we may feel sure that at some former +epoch the climate and productions of Ascension were very different from +what they now are. Where on the face of the earth can we find a spot on +which close investigation will not discover signs of that endless cycle +of change, to which this earth has been, is, and will be subjected? + + [5] _Monats. der König. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin,_ Vom April 1845. + +On leaving Ascension, we sailed for Bahia, on the coast of +Brazil, in order to complete the chronometrical measurement of the +world. We arrived there on August 1st, and stayed four days, during +which I took several long walks. I was glad to find my enjoyment in +tropical scenery had not decreased from the want of novelty, even in +the slightest degree. The elements of the scenery are so simple that +they are worth mentioning, as a proof on what trifling circumstances +exquisite natural beauty depends. + +The country may be described as a level plain of about three hundred +feet in elevation, which in all parts has been worn into flat-bottomed +valleys. This structure is remarkable in a granitic land, but is nearly +universal in all those softer formations of which plains are usually +composed. The whole surface is covered by various kinds of stately +trees, interspersed with patches of cultivated ground, out of which +houses, convents, and chapels arise. It must be remembered that within +the tropics the wild luxuriance of nature is not lost even in the +vicinity of large cities: for the natural vegetation of the hedges and +hill-sides overpowers in picturesque effect the artificial labour of +man. Hence, there are only a few spots where the bright red soil +affords a strong contrast with the universal clothing of green. From +the edges of the plain there are distant views either of the ocean, or +of the great Bay with its low-wooded shores, and on which numerous +boats and canoes show their white sails. Excepting from these points, +the scene is extremely limited; following the level pathways, on each +hand, only glimpses into the wooded valleys below can be obtained. The +houses I may add, and especially the sacred edifices, are built in a +peculiar and rather fantastic style of architecture. They are all +whitewashed; so that when illumined by the brilliant sun of mid-day, +and as seen against the pale blue sky of the horizon, they stand out +more like shadows than real buildings. + +Such are the elements of the scenery, but it is a hopeless attempt to +paint the general effect. Learned naturalists describe these scenes of +the tropics by naming a multitude of objects, and mentioning some +characteristic feature of each. To a learned traveller this possibly +may communicate some definite ideas: but who else from seeing a plant +in an herbarium can imagine its appearance when growing in its native +soil? Who from seeing choice plants in a hothouse can +magnify some into the dimensions of forest trees, and crowd others into +an entangled jungle? Who when examining in the cabinet of the +entomologist the gay exotic butterflies, and singular cicadas, will +associate with these lifeless objects the ceaseless harsh music of the +latter and the lazy flight of the former,—the sure accompaniments of +the still, glowing noonday of the tropics? It is when the sun has +attained its greatest height that such scenes should be viewed: then +the dense splendid foliage of the mango hides the ground with its +darkest shade, whilst the upper branches are rendered from the +profusion of light of the most brilliant green. In the temperate zones +the case is different—the vegetation there is not so dark or so rich, +and hence the rays of the declining sun, tinged of a red, purple, or +bright yellow colour, add most to the beauties of those climes. + +When quietly walking along the shady pathways, and admiring each +successive view, I wished to find language to express my ideas. Epithet +after epithet was found too weak to convey to those who have not +visited the intertropical regions the sensation of delight which the +mind experiences. I have said that the plants in a hothouse fail to +communicate a just idea of the vegetation, yet I must recur to it. The +land is one great wild, untidy, luxuriant hothouse, made by Nature for +herself, but taken possession of by man, who has studded it with gay +houses and formal gardens. How great would be the desire in every +admirer of nature to behold, if such were possible, the scenery of +another planet! yet to every person in Europe, it may be truly said, +that at the distance of only a few degrees from his native soil the +glories of another world are opened to him. In my last walk I stopped +again and again to gaze on these beauties, and endeavoured to fix in my +mind for ever an impression which at the time I knew sooner or later +must fail. The form of the orange-tree, the cocoa-nut, the palm, the +mango, the tree-fern, the banana, will remain clear and separate; but +the thousand beauties which unite these into one perfect scene must +fade away: yet they will leave, like a tale heard in childhood, a +picture full of indistinct, but most beautiful figures. + +_August_ 6_th._—In the afternoon we stood out to sea, with the +intention of making a direct course to the Cape de Verd +Islands. Unfavourable winds, however, delayed us, and on the 12th we +ran into Pernambuco,—a large city on the coast of Brazil, in latitude +8° south. We anchored outside the reef; but in a short time a pilot +came on board and took us into the inner harbour, where we lay close to +the town. + +Pernambuco is built on some narrow and low sand-banks which are +separated from each other by shoal channels of salt water. The three +parts of the town are connected together by two long bridges built on +wooden piles. The town is in all parts disgusting, the streets being +narrow, ill-paved, and filthy; the houses tall and gloomy. The season +of heavy rains had hardly come to an end, and hence the surrounding +country, which is scarcely raised above the level of the sea, was +flooded with water; and I failed in all my attempts to take long walks. + +The flat swampy land on which Pernambuco stands is surrounded, at the +distance of a few miles, by a semicircle of low hills, or rather by the +edge of a country elevated perhaps two hundred feet above the sea. The +old city of Olinda stands on one extremity of this range. One day I +took a canoe, and proceeded up one of the channels to visit it; I found +the old town from its situation both sweeter and cleaner than that of +Pernambuco. I must here commemorate what happened for the first time +during our nearly five years’ wandering, namely, having met with a want +of politeness; I was refused in a sullen manner at two different +houses, and obtained with difficulty from a third, permission to pass +through their gardens to an uncultivated hill, for the purpose of +viewing the country. I feel glad that this happened in the land of the +Brazilians, for I bear them no good will—a land also of slavery, and +therefore of moral debasement. A Spaniard would have felt ashamed at +the very thought of refusing such a request, or of behaving to a +stranger with rudeness. The channel by which we went to and returned +from Olinda was bordered on each side by mangroves, which sprang like a +miniature forest out of the greasy mud-banks. The bright green colour +of these bushes always reminded me of the rank grass in a churchyard: +both are nourished by putrid exhalations; the one speaks of death past, +and the other too often of death to come. + +Cicada Homoptera + + +The most curious object which I saw in this neighbourhood was the reef +that forms the harbour. I doubt whether in the whole world any other +natural structure has so artificial an appearance.[6] It runs for a +length of several miles in an absolutely straight line, parallel to and +not far distant from the shore. It varies in width from thirty to sixty +yards, and its surface is level and smooth; it is composed of +obscurely-stratified hard sandstone. At high water the waves break over +it; at low water its summit is left dry, and it might then be mistaken +for a breakwater erected by Cyclopean workmen. On this coast the +currents of the sea tend to throw up in front of the land long spits +and bars of loose sand, and on one of these part of the town of +Pernambuco stands. In former times a long spit of this nature seems to +have become consolidated by the percolation of calcareous matter, and +afterwards to have been gradually upheaved; the outer and loose parts +during this process having been worn away by the action of the sea, and +the solid nucleus left as we now see it. Although night and day the +waves of the open Atlantic, turbid with sediment, are driven against +the steep outside edges of this wall of stone, yet the oldest pilots +know of no tradition of any change in its appearance. This durability +is much the most curious fact in its history: it is due to a tough +layer, a few inches thick, of calcareous matter, wholly formed by the +successive growth and death of the small shells of Serpulæ, together +with some few barnacles and nulliporæ. These nulliporæ, which are hard, +very simply-organised sea-plants, play an analogous and important part +in protecting the upper surfaces of coral-reefs, behind and within the +breakers, where +the true corals, during the outward growth of the mass, become killed +by exposure to the sun and air. These insignificant organic beings, +especially the Serpulæ, have done good service to the people of +Pernambuco; for without their protective aid the bar of sandstone would +inevitably have been long ago worn away and without the bar, there +would have been no harbour. + + [6] I have described this Bar in detail in the _ Lond. and Edin. Phil. + Mag._ vol. xix, (1841) p. 257. + +On the 19th of August we finally left the shores of Brazil. I thank +God, I shall never again visit a slave-country. To this day, if I hear +a distant scream, it recalls with painful vividness my feelings, when +passing a house near Pernambuco, I heard the most pitiable moans, and +could not but suspect that some poor slave was being tortured, yet knew +that I was as powerless as a child even to remonstrate. I suspected +that these moans were from a tortured slave, for I was told that this +was the case in another instance. Near Rio de Janeiro I lived opposite +to an old lady, who kept screws to crush the fingers of her female +slaves. I have stayed in a house where a young household mulatto, daily +and hourly, was reviled, beaten, and persecuted enough to break the +spirit of the lowest animal. I have seen a little boy, six or seven +years old, struck thrice with a horse-whip (before I could interfere) +on his naked head, for having handed me a glass of water not quite +clean; I saw his father tremble at a mere glance from his master’s eye. +These latter cruelties were witnessed by me in a Spanish colony, in +which it has always been said that slaves are better treated than by +the Portuguese, English, or other European nations. I have seen at Rio +de Janeiro a powerful negro afraid to ward off a blow directed, as he +thought, at his face. I was present when a kind-hearted man was on the +point of separating forever the men, women, and little children of a +large number of families who had long lived together. I will not even +allude to the many heart-sickening atrocities which I authentically +heard of;—nor would I have mentioned the above revolting details, had I +not met with several people, so blinded by the constitutional gaiety of +the negro as to speak of slavery as a tolerable evil. Such people have +generally visited at the houses of the upper classes, where the +domestic slaves are usually well treated, and they have not, like +myself, lived amongst the lower classes. Such inquirers will ask +slaves about their condition; they forget that the slave must indeed be +dull who does not calculate on the chance of his answer reaching his +master’s ears. + +Homeward bound + +It is argued that self-interest will prevent excessive cruelty; as if +self-interest protected our domestic animals, which are far less likely +than degraded slaves to stir up the rage of their savage masters. It is +an argument long since protested against with noble feeling, and +strikingly exemplified, by the ever-illustrious Humboldt. It is often +attempted to palliate slavery by comparing the state of slaves with our +poorer countrymen: if the misery of our poor be caused not by the laws +of nature, but by our institutions, great is our sin; but how this +bears on slavery, I cannot see; as well might the use of the +thumb-screw be defended in one land, by showing that men in another +land suffered from some dreadful disease. Those who look tenderly at +the slave owner, and with a cold heart at the slave, never seem to put +themselves into the position of the latter;—what a cheerless prospect, +with not even a hope of change! picture to yourself the chance, ever +hanging over you, of your wife and your little children—those objects +which nature urges even the slave to call his own—being torn from you +and sold like beasts to the first bidder! +And these deeds are done and palliated by men who profess to love their +neighbours as themselves, who believe in God, and pray that His Will be +done on earth! It makes one’s blood boil, yet heart tremble, to think +that we Englishmen and our American descendants, with their boastful +cry of liberty, have been and are so guilty; but it is a consolation to +reflect, that we at least have made a greater sacrifice than ever made +by any nation, to expiate our sin. + + +On the last day of August we anchored for the second time at Porto +Praya in the Cape de Verd archipelago; thence we proceeded to the +Azores, where we stayed six days. On the 2nd of October we made the +shores of England; and at Falmouth I left the _Beagle_, having lived on +board the good little vessel nearly five years. + + +Our Voyage having come to an end, I will take a short retrospect of the +advantages and disadvantages, the pains and pleasures, of our +circumnavigation of the world. If a person asked my advice, before +undertaking a long voyage, my answer would depend upon his possessing a +decided taste for some branch of knowledge, which could by this means +be advanced. No doubt it is a high satisfaction to behold various +countries and the many races of mankind, but the pleasures gained at +the time do not counterbalance the evils. It is necessary to look +forward to a harvest, however distant that may be, when some fruit will +be reaped, some good effected. + +Many of the losses which must be experienced are obvious; such as that +of the society of every old friend, and of the sight of those places +with which every dearest remembrance is so intimately connected. These +losses, however, are at the time partly relieved by the exhaustless +delight of anticipating the long-wished-for day of return. If, as poets +say, life is a dream, I am sure in a voyage these are the visions which +best serve to pass away the long night. Other losses, although not at +first felt, tell heavily after a period: these are the want of room, of +seclusion, of rest; the jading feeling of constant hurry; the privation +of small luxuries, the loss of domestic society and even of music and +the other pleasures of imagination. When such trifles are mentioned, it +is evident that the real grievances, +excepting from accidents, of a sea-life are at an end. The short space +of sixty years has made an astonishing difference in the facility of +distant navigation. Even in the time of Cook, a man who left his +fireside for such expeditions underwent severe privations. A yacht now, +with every luxury of life, can circumnavigate the globe. Besides the +vast improvements in ships and naval resources, the whole western +shores of America are thrown open, and Australia has become the capital +of a rising continent. How different are the circumstances to a man +shipwrecked at the present day in the Pacific, to what they were in the +time of Cook! Since his voyage a hemisphere has been added to the +civilised world. + +If a person suffer much from sea-sickness, let him weigh it heavily in +the balance. I speak from experience: it is no trifling evil, cured in +a week. If, on the other hand, he take pleasure in naval tactics, he +will assuredly have full scope for his taste. But it must be borne in +mind how large a proportion of the time, during a long voyage, is spent +on the water, as compared with the days in harbour. And what are the +boasted glories of the illimitable ocean? A tedious waste, a desert of +water, as the Arabian calls it. No doubt there are some delightful +scenes. A moonlight night, with the clear heavens and the dark +glittering sea, and the white sails filled by the soft air of a +gently-blowing trade-wind, a dead calm, with the heaving surface +polished like a mirror, and all still except the occasional flapping of +the canvas. It is well once to behold a squall with its rising arch and +coming fury, or the heavy gale of wind and mountainous waves. I +confess, however, my imagination had painted something more grand, more +terrific, in the full-grown storm. It is an incomparably finer +spectacle when beheld on shore, where the waving trees, the wild flight +of the birds, the dark shadows and bright lights, the rushing of the +torrents, all proclaim the strife of the unloosed elements. At sea the +albatross and little petrel fly as if the storm were their proper +sphere, the water rises and sinks as if fulfilling its usual task, the +ship alone and its inhabitants seem the objects of wrath. On a forlorn +and weather-beaten coast the scene is indeed different, but the +feelings partake more of horror than of wild delight. + +Let us now look at the brighter side of the past time. The +pleasure derived from beholding the scenery and the general aspect of +the various countries we have visited has decidedly been the most +constant and highest source of enjoyment. It is probable that the +picturesque beauty of many parts of Europe exceeds anything which we +beheld. But there is a growing pleasure in comparing the character of +the scenery in different countries, which to a certain degree is +distinct from merely admiring its beauty. It depends chiefly on an +acquaintance with the individual parts of each view; I am strongly +induced to believe that as in music, the person who understands every +note will, if he also possesses a proper taste, more thoroughly enjoy +the whole, so he who examines each part of a fine view may also +thoroughly comprehend the full and combined effect. Hence, a traveller +should be a botanist, for in all views plants form the chief +embellishment. Group masses of naked rock even in the wildest forms, +and they may for a time afford a sublime spectacle, but they will soon +grow monotonous. Paint them with bright and varied colours, as in +Northern Chile, they will become fantastic; clothe them with +vegetation, they must form a decent, if not a beautiful picture. + +When I say that the scenery of parts of Europe is probably superior to +anything which we beheld, I except, as a class by itself, that of the +intertropical zones. The two classes cannot be compared together; but I +have already often enlarged on the grandeur of those regions. As the +force of impressions generally depends on preconceived ideas, I may add +that mine were taken from the vivid descriptions in the _Personal +Narrative_ of Humboldt, which far exceed in merit anything else which I +have read. Yet with these high-wrought ideas, my feelings were far from +partaking of a tinge of disappointment on my first and final landing on +the shores of Brazil. + +Among the scenes which are deeply impressed on my mind, none exceed in +sublimity the primeval forests undefaced by the hand of man; whether +those of Brazil, where the powers of Life are predominant, or those of +Tierra del Fuego, where Death and Decay prevail. Both are temples +filled with the varied productions of the God of Nature:—no one can +stand in these solitudes unmoved, and not feel that there is more in +man than the mere breath of his body. In calling up images of the past, +I find that the plains of Patagonia +frequently cross before my eyes; yet these plains are pronounced by all +wretched and useless. They can be described only by negative +characters; without habitations, without water, without trees, without +mountains, they support merely a few dwarf plants. Why, then, and the +case is not peculiar to myself, have these arid wastes taken so firm a +hold on my memory? Why have not the still more level, the greener and +more fertile Pampas, which are serviceable to mankind, produced an +equal impression? I can scarcely analyse these feelings: but it must be +partly owing to the free scope given to the imagination. The plains of +Patagonia are boundless, for they are scarcely passable, and hence +unknown: they bear the stamp of having lasted, as they are now, for +ages, and there appears no limit to their duration through future time. +If, as the ancients supposed, the flat earth was surrounded by an +impassable breadth of water, or by deserts heated to an intolerable +excess, who would not look at these last boundaries to man’s knowledge +with deep but ill-defined sensations? + +Lastly, of natural scenery, the views from lofty mountains, though +certainly in one sense not beautiful, are very memorable. When looking +down from the highest crest of the Cordillera, the mind, undisturbed by +minute details, was filled with the stupendous dimensions of the +surrounding masses. + +Of individual objects, perhaps nothing is more certain to create +astonishment than the first sight in his native haunt of a +barbarian,—of man in his lowest and most savage state. One’s mind +hurries back over past centuries, and then asks, Could our progenitors +have been men like these?—men, whose very signs and expressions are +less intelligible to us than those of the domesticated animals; men, +who do not possess the instinct of those animals, nor yet appear to +boast of human reason, or at least of arts consequent on that reason. I +do not believe it is possible to describe or paint the difference +between savage and civilised man. It is the difference between a wild +and tame animal: and part of the interest in beholding a savage is the +same which would lead every one to desire to see the lion in his +desert, the tiger tearing his prey in the jungle, or the rhinoceros +wandering over the wild plains of Africa. + +Among the other most remarkable spectacles which we +have beheld, may be ranked the Southern Cross, the cloud of Magellan, +and the other constellations of the southern hemisphere—the +waterspout—the glacier leading its blue stream of ice, overhanging the +sea in a bold precipice—a lagoon-island raised by the reef-building +corals—an active volcano—and the overwhelming effects of a violent +earthquake. These latter phenomena, perhaps, possess for me a peculiar +interest, from their intimate connexion with the geological structure +of the world. The earthquake, however, must be to every one a most +impressive event: the earth, considered from our earliest childhood as +the type of solidity, has oscillated like a thin crust beneath our +feet; and in seeing the laboured works of man in a moment overthrown, +we feel the insignificance of his boasted power. + +It has been said that the love of the chase is an inherent delight in +man—a relic of an instinctive passion. If so, I am sure the pleasure of +living in the open air, with the sky for a roof and the ground for a +table, is part of the same feeling; it is the savage returning to his +wild and native habits. I always look back to our boat cruises, and my +land journeys, when through unfrequented countries, with an extreme +delight, which no scenes of civilisation could have created. I do not +doubt that every traveller must remember the glowing sense of happiness +which he experienced when he first breathed in a foreign clime where +the civilised man had seldom or never trod. + +There are several other sources of enjoyment in a long voyage which are +of a more reasonable nature. The map of the world ceases to be a blank; +it becomes a picture full of the most varied and animated figures. Each +part assumes its proper dimensions: continents are not looked at in the +light of islands, or islands considered as mere specks, which are, in +truth, larger than many kingdoms of Europe. Africa, or North and South +America, are well-sounding names, and easily pronounced; but it is not +until having sailed for weeks along small portions of their shores, +that one is thoroughly convinced what vast spaces on our immense world +these names imply. + +From seeing the present state, it is impossible not to look forward +with high expectations to the future progress of nearly an entire +hemisphere. The march of improvement, consequent +on the introduction of Christianity throughout the South Sea, probably +stands by itself in the records of history. It is the more striking +when we remember that only sixty years since, Cook, whose excellent +judgment none will dispute, could foresee no prospect of a change. Yet +these changes have now been effected by the philanthropic spirit of the +British nation. + +In the same quarter of the globe Australia is rising, or indeed may be +said to have risen, into a grand centre of civilisation, which, at some +not very remote period, will rule as empress over the southern +hemisphere. It is impossible for an Englishman to behold these distant +colonies without a high pride and satisfaction. To hoist the British +flag seems to draw with it as a certain consequence, wealth, +prosperity, and civilisation. + +In conclusion it appears to me that nothing can be more improving to a +young naturalist than a journey in distant countries. It both sharpens +and partly allays that want and craving, which, as Sir J. Herschel +remarks, a man experiences although every corporeal sense be fully +satisfied. The excitement from the novelty of objects, and the chance +of success, stimulate him to increased activity. Moreover, as a number +of isolated facts soon become uninteresting, the habit of comparison +leads to generalisation. On the other hand, as the traveller stays but +a short time in each place, his descriptions must generally consist of +mere sketches, instead of detailed observations. Hence arises, as I +have found to my cost, a constant tendency to fill up the wide gaps of +knowledge by inaccurate and superficial hypotheses. + +But I have too deeply enjoyed the voyage, not to recommend any +naturalist, although he must not expect to be so fortunate in his +companions as I have been, to take all chances, and to start, on +travels by land if possible, if otherwise, on a long voyage. He may +feel assured he will meet with no difficulties or dangers, excepting in +rare cases, nearly so bad as he beforehand anticipates. In a moral +point of view the effect ought to be to teach him good-humoured +patience, freedom from selfishness, the habit of acting for himself, +and of making the best of every occurrence. In short, he ought to +partake of the characteristic qualities of most sailors. Travelling +ought +also to teach him distrust; but at the same time he will discover how +many truly kind-hearted people there are, with whom he never before +had, or ever again will have any further communication, who yet are +ready to offer him the most disinterested assistance. + +Ascension. Terns and noddies + + + + +List of Illustrations + + +H.M.S. _Beagle_ in Straits of Magellan. Mt. Sarmiento in the distance. +H.M.S. _Beagle_ under full sail, view from astern. +H.M.S. _Beagle_: Middle section fore and aft, upper deck, 1832. +Fernando Noronha. +Incrustation of shelly sand. +Diodon Maculatus (Distended and Contracted). +Pelagic Confervæ. +Catamaran (Bahia). +Botofogo Bay, Rio Janeiro. +Vampire Bat (Desmodus D’Orbigny). +Virgin Forest. +Cabbage Palm. +Mandioca or Cassava. +Rio Janeiro. +Darwin’s Papilio Feronia, 1833, now called Ageronia feronia, 1889. +Hydrochærus capybara or Water-hog. +Recado or Surcingle of Gaucho. +Halt at a Pulperia on the Pampas. +El Carmen, or Patagones, Rio Negro. +Brazilian whips. +Brazilian hobbles and spurs. +Bringing in a prisoner. +Irregular troops. +Skinning uji or water serpents. +Rhea Darwinii (Avestruz Petise). +Landing at Buenos Ayres. +Maté pots and bambillio. +Giant thistle of pampas. +Cynara Cardunculus or Cardoon. +Evening camp, Buenos Ayres. +Rozario. +Parana River. +Toxodon Platensis. (Found at Saladillo.) +Fossil tooth of horse. (From Bahia Blanca.) +Mylodon. +Head of Scissor-beak. +Rhynchops Nigra, or Scissor-beak. +Buenos Ayres bullock-waggons. +Fuegians and wigwams. +Opuntia Darwinii. +Raised beaches, Patagonia. +Ladies’ combs, banda oriental. +Condor (Sarcorhamphus gryphus). +Basaltic Glen, Santa Cruz. +Berkeley Sound, Falkland Islands. +York Minster (Bearing S. 66° east.) +Cape Horn. +Cape Horn (another view). +Bad weather, Magellan Straits. +Fuegian basket and bone weapons. +False Horn, Cape Horn. +Wollaston Island, Tierra del Fuego. +Patagonians from Cape Gregory. +Port Famine, Magellan. +Patagonian Bolas. +Patagonian Spurs and Pipe. +Cyttaria Darwinii. +Eyre Sound. +Glacier in Gulf of Penas. +Flora of Magellan. +Macrocystis Pyrifera, or Magellan Kelp. +Trochilus Forficatus. +Hacienda, condor, cactus, etc. +Chilian miner. +Cactus (Cereus Peruviana). +Cordilleras from Santiago de Chile. +Chilian spurs, stirrup, etc. +Old Church, Castro, Chiloe. +Inside Chonos Archipelago. +Gunnera Scabra, Chiloe. +Antuco Volcano, near Talcahuano. +Panoramic view of coast, Chiloe. +Inside Island of Chiloe. San Carlos. +Hide Bridge, Santiago de Chile. +Chilenos. +South American bit. +Bridge of the Incas, Uspallata Pass. +Lima and San Lorenzo. +Coquimbo, Chile. +Huacas, Peruvian pottery. +Testudo Abingdonii, Galapagos Islands. +Galapagos Archipelago. +Finches from Galapagos Archipelago. +Amblyrhynchus Cristatus. +Opuntia Galapageia. +Ava or Kava (Macropiper methysticum), Tahiti. +Eimeo and Barrier-Reef. +Fatahua Fall, Tahiti. +Tahitian. +Hippah, New Zealand. +Sydney, 1835. +Hobart Town and Mount Wellington. +Australian group of weapons and throwing sticks. +Inside an atoll, Keeling Island. +Whitsunday Island. +Barrier-reef, Bolabola. +Sections of barrier-reefs. +Section of coral-reef. +Section of coral-reef. +Bolabola Island. +Corals. +Birgos Latro, Keeling Island. +St. Louis, Mauritius. +St. Helena. +Cellular formation of volcanic bomb. +Cicada Homoptera. +Homeward bound. +Ascension. Terns and noddies. + + + + +Index + + +ABBOTT, Mr., on spiders, 36 +Aborigines banished from Van Diemen’s Land, 475 + of Australia, 430 to 458 +Abrolhos Islands, 9, 14 +Absence of trees in Pampas, 48 +Aconcagua, volcano of, 269, 294, 312 +Actinia, stinging species, 494 +Africa, Southern part desert, yet supports large animals, 89 +Ageronia feronia, 39 +Agouti, habits of, 72 +Ague common in Peru, 389 +Albemarle Island, 401, 420 +Allan, Dr., on Diodon, 14 + on Holuthuriæ, 494 +Alluvium, saliferous, in Peru, 367 + stratified, in Andes, 333 +Amblyrhynchus, 401, 411 +Anas, species of, 210 +Animalculæ. _See_ Infusoria +Antarctic islands, 263 +Antipodes, 444 +Ants at Keeling Island, 485 + in Brazil, 36 +Antuco volcano, 311 +Apires, or miners 364 +Aplysia, 6, 493 +Apple-trees, 318 +Aptenodytes demersa, 209 +Araucanian Indians, 66 +Areas of alternate movements in the Pacific and Indian oceans, 480 +Armadilloes, habits of, 110 + fossil animals allied to, 137, 164 +Arqueros mines, 369 +Arrow-heads, ancient, 109, 381 +Ascension, 522, 538 +Aspalax, blindness of, 53 +Athene cunicularia, 73, 132 +Atolls, 490, 495 +Attagis, 98 +Atwater, Mr., on the prairies, 124 +Audubon, M., on smelling-power of carrion-hawks, 195 +Australia, 459 +Australian barrier, 499 + group of weapons, 480 +Ava (Macropiper methysticum), 428, 436 +Azara on spiders, 39 + on rain in La Plata, 49 + on habits of carrion-hawks, 58 + on range of carrion-hawks, 60 + on a thunder-storm, 65 + on ostrich-eggs, 95 + on bows and arrows, 110 + on new plants springing up, 125 + on great droughts, 142 + on hydrophobia, 378 +BACHMAN, Mr., on carrion-hawks, 195 +Bahia Blanca, 50, 70, 77 to 110 + fossil tooth of horse from, 138 +Bahia, Brazil, 11 + scenery of, 526 +Bajada, 136 +Balbi on coral reefs, 499 +Bald Head, Australia, 479 +Ballenar, Chile, 373 +Banda Oriental, 48, 152, 158, 186 +Banks’s Hill, 221 +Barking-bird, 307 +Barrier-reef, Bolabola, 498 + reefs, sections of, 500 +Basaltic platform of Santa Cruz, 182 +Bathurst, Australia, 470 +Batrachian reptiles, 101 +Bats, vampire, 22, 23 +Bay of Islands, New Zealand, 444 +Beads, hill of, 158 +Beagle Channel, Tierra del Fuego, 230 +Beech-trees, 251, 292 +Beetles in brackish water, 22 + on a fungus, 32 + alive in sea, 168 + at St. Julian, 180 + dung-feeders, 520, 521 +Behring’s Straits, fossils of, 140 +Bell of Quillota, 270 +Benchuca, 352 +Berkeley Sound, 199, 214 + Rev. J., on Confervæ, 15 + on Cyttaria, 250 +Berquelo river, 158 +Bibron, M., 407 +Bien te veo, 56 +Birds of the Galapagos Archipelago, 405 + tameness of, 424 +Birgos latro, 492, 512 +Bizcacha, habits of, 73, 130, 273 +Blackheath, Australia, 466 +Blackwall, Mr., on spiders, 171 +Blindness of tucutuco, 53 +Blue Mountains, 465 +Body, frozen, 93, 263 +Bolabola, barrier-reef, 498, 504 +Bolas, manner of using, 46, 117 +Bombs, volcanic, 524 +Bones of the guanaco collected in certain spots, 177 + fire made of, 205 + recent in Pampas, 142 + fossil, 86, 134, 137, 164, 182 +Bory St. Vincent on frogs, 407 +Boulders, 197, 262 +Bramador, El, 358 +Brazil, great area of granite, 12 +Brazilian whips, etc., 75 +Breaches in coral reefs, 502 +Breakwater of seaweed, 253 +Brewster, Sir D., on a calcareous deposit, 10 +Bridge of hide, 334 + of Incas, 357, 380, 394 +Buckland, Dr., on fossils, 140 +Buenos Ayres, 127 + trading at, 111 + evening camp, 128 + bullock-waggons, 150 +Buffon on American Animals, 183 +Bug of Pampas, 352 +Buildings, Indian, 381 to 383, 394 +Bulimus on desert places, 371 +Burchell, Mr., on food of quadrupeds, 91 + on ostrich-eggs, 95 + on perforated stones, 285 +Butterflies, flocks of, 167 +Butterfly producing clicking sound, 34 +Button, Jemmy, 218 +Byron’s account of fox of Falklands, 204 + on an Indian killing his child, 228 +CABBAGE PALM, 26 +Cacti, 174, 278, 399 +Cactornis, 405, 424 +Cactus, Cereus Peruviana, 278 +Calasoma on wing out at sea, 168 +Calcareous casts of branches and roots of trees at King George’s Sound, +479 + incrustations on rocks of Ascension, 9 +Callao, 389, 391 +Calodera, 132 +Calomys bizcacha, 130 +Camarhynchus, 405, 424 +Camelidæ, fossil animal allied to, 182 +Cancer salinus, 69 +Canis antarcticus, 204 + fulvipes, 287 +Cape Horn, 222, 223 + False Horn, 229, 243 + of Good Hope, 91 +Capybara, or carpincho, 40, 51, 182, 307 + fossil allied to, 87 +Caracara, or Carrancha, 57 +Cardoon, beds of, 125, 157 +Carizal, 371 +Carmichael, Capt., 426 +Carrion-hawks, 59, 126, 195 +Casarita, 99 +Cassava, 23 +Castro, Chiloe, 296, 315 + old church at, 291 +Casuchas, 358 +Catamaran, 18 +Cathartes, 60, 195 +Cats run wild, 123, 523 + good to eat, 123 + scratch trees, 144 + cruelty to mice, 209 +Cattle, effects of their grazing on the vegetation, 124 + killed by great droughts, 142, 156 + know each other, 155 + curious breed of, 155 + waste of, 158 + wild at the Falkland Islands, 200, 203 +Caucahue, 295 +Cauquenes, hot springs of, 281 +Causes of extinction of species among mammalia, 182 + of discoloured sea, 15 +Cavia Patagonica, 72 +Cawa-Cawa, New Zealand, 456 +Caylen, 298 +Cervus campestris, 50 +Ceryle Americana, 147 +Chacao, Chiloe, 293 +Chagos atolls, 508 +Chalk-like mud, 494 +Chamisso on drifted seeds and trees, 484, 491 + on coral reefs, 496 +Changes in vegetation of Pampas, 126 + in vegetation of St. Helena, 519 +Charles Island, 400, 420 +Chatham Island, 399, 420 +Cheese, salt required for, 68 +Cheucau, 297, 307 +Chile, 268, 271, 274 + features of country, 270 +Chilenos, 194, 337 +Chilian miner, 277 + spurs, stirrup, etc, 290 + vegetation, 359 +Chiloe, 291 + old church at castro, 291 + forests of, and climate, 292 + inhabitants of, 292, 294 + roads of, 293, 313, 314 + Gunnera scabra, 310 +Chionis alba, 98 +Cholechel, conflict at, 109 +Chonos Archipelago, 300, 304 + climate of, 292 + zoology of, 306 + ornithology of, 307 +Chupat, Rio, 110 +Chuzo, 66 +Cicada homoptera, 529 +Cladonia, 387 +Clearness of atmosphere within Andes, in Chile, 271 +Climate of Tierra del Fuego and Falkland Islands, 257 + Antarctic Islands, 263 + change of, in Chile, 382 + Galapagos, 397 +Clouds of vapour after rain, 25 + on Corcovado, 30 + hanging low, 389 + at sea, 429 +Coleoptera in Tropics, 35 + out at sea, 168 + of St. Julian, 180 +Colias edusa, flocks of, 168 +Colnett, Capt., on spawn in sea, 17 + on a marine lizard, 411 + on transport of seeds, 418 +Colonia del Sacramiento, 153 +Colorado, Rio, 73 +Compound animals, 211 +Concepcion, Chile, 325 +Conchalee, 362 +Condor, habits of, 193, 196, 287 + (Sarcorhamphus gryphus), 187 +Confervæ, pelagic, 15 +Conglomerate on the Ventana, 113 + in Cordillera, 342 +Conurus, 147 +Convicts of Mauritius, 514 + condition, in New South Wales, 473 +Cook, Capt., on kelp, 253 +Copiapó, river and valley of, 366, 370, 375, 385 + town of, 374, 378 +Coquimbo, 22, 365 +Coral formations, 429, 502 to 509 + stinging species of, 493 + reefs, sections of, 502, 508 + dead, 508 +Corallines, 207 +Corals, 507 +Corcovado, clouds on, 30 + volcano, 304 +Cordillera, appearance of, 269, 292, 337 + different productions on east and west side, 345 + passage of, 334 + structure of valleys, 335 + rivers of, 338 + geology of, 339, 354, 355 + valley of Copiapó, 385 + mountains, 435 +Cormorant catching fish, 209 +Corral, where animals are slaughtered at Buenos Ayres, 127 +Corrientes, Cape, 168 +Corrobery, or native Australian dance, 479 +Corunda, 135 +Coseguina, eruption of, 312, 376 +Countries, unhealthy, 389 +Couthouy, Mr., on coral-reefs, 504 +Crabberies, 83 +Crabs, hermit species of, 486 + at St. Paul’s, 10 + at Keeling Island, 492 +Craters, number of, at the Galapagos Archipelago, 398 + of Elevation, 515 +Crisia, 211 +Cruelty to animals, 162 +Crustacea, pelagic, 171 +Ctenomys Brasiliensis, 52 + fossil species of, 86 +Cucao, Chiloe, 315 +Cuckoo-like habits of Molothrus, 55 +Cudico, mission at, 320 +Cuentas, Sierra de, 158 +Cufre, 153 +Cumbre of Cordillera, 358 +Cuming, Mr., on shells, 416, 520 +Cuttlefish, habits of, 7 +Cuvier on Diodon, 14 +Cynara cardunculus, 125 +Cyttaria Darwinii, 250, 251 +DACELO IAGOENSIS, 2 +Dasypus, three species of, 100 +Deer, 50, 139 +Degradation of tertiary formations, 368 +Deinornis, 455 +Deserts, 371, 384 +Desmodus, 22 +Despoblado, valley of, 379 +Dieffenbach, Dr., E., 2 + on Auckland Island, 259, 464 +Diodon, habits of, 13 +Discoloured sea, 15 +Diseases from miasma, 389, 464 +Distribution of mammalia in America, 138 + of animals on opposite sides of Cordillera, 348 + of frogs, 407 + of Fauna of Galapagos, 419 +Dobrizhoffer on ostriches, 98 + on a hail-storm, 122 +Docks, imported, 455 +Dogs, shepherd, 159 +Dolichonyx oryzivorus, 404 +D’Orbigny, Travels in South America, 81, 97, 125, 137, 159, 177 +Doris, eggs of, 211 +Dormidor, or horse-tamer, 160 +Doubleday, Mr., on a noise made by a butterfly, 34 +Drigg, lightning tubes at, 61 +Droughts, great, in Pampas, 141 +Dryness of St. Jago, 4 + of winds in Tierra del Fuego, 245 + of air in Cordillera, 348 +Dubois, 407 +Dung-feeding beetles, 520, 521 +Dust, falling from atmosphere, 5 +EARTHENWARE, fossil, 394 +Earthquake, accompanied by an elevation of the coast, 331 + accompanied by rain, 375 + at Callao, 393 + at Concepcion, 325 + at Coquimbo, 366 + at Keeling and Vanikoro, and Society Islands, 504 + at Valdivia, 322 + causes of, 330 + effect of, on springs, 281 + on bottom of sea, 327 + effects of, on rocks, 274, 324 + effects of, on sea, 323, 324, 325 + effects of, on a river-bed, 381 + line of vibration of, 328 + on S.W. coast, 260 + tossing fragments from the ground, 208 + twisting movement of, 328 +Eggs of Doris, 211 +Ehrenberg, Prof., on Atlantic dust, 5 + on infusoria in Pampas, 87, 137 + in the open sea, 172 + in Patagonia, 180 + in Fuegian paint, 234 + in coral mud, 494 + in tuff at Ascension, 525 + on phosphorescence of the sea, 172 + on noises from a hill, 385 +Eimeo, island of, 432; barrier-reef, 433 +Elater, springing powers of, 32 +Electricity of atmosphere within Andes, 348 +Elephant, weight of, 91 +Elevated shells, 89, 136, 180, 266, 313, 331, 367, 393 +Elevation of coasts of Chile, 266, 313, 323, 331, 355, 367, 381 + Bahia Blanca, 87 + Pampas, 137 + Patagonia, 180, 395 + mountain-chains, 333 + Cordillera, 338, 343, 354 + Peru, 393 + within human period, 395 + fringing-reefs, 508 +Entomology of the Galapagos Archipelago, 407, 418, 420 + Brazil, 34 + Patagonia, 180, 349 + Tierra del Fuego, 253 + Keeling Island, 485 + St. Helena, 520 +Entre Rios, geology of, 132 +Epeira, habits of, 37 to 39 +Erratic blocks, how transported, 262 + absent in intertropical countries, 263 + on plains of Santa Cruz, 196 + of Tierra del Fuego, 262 +Estancia, value of, 154 +Extermination of species and races, 183, 462, 469, 476 +Extinction of shells at St. Helena, 520 + of species, causes of, 183 + of man in New South Wales, 462, 476 +Eyes of tucutuco and mole, 53 +Eyre Sound, 260 +FALCONER, Dr., on the Sivatherium, 155 + on the Indians, 109 + on rivers in Pampas, 112 + on natural enclosures, 122 +Falkland Islands, 199 + absence of trees at, 48 + carrion-hawks of, 57 + wild cattle and horses of, 200 + fox of, 204 + climate of, 257 + peat of, 305 + tame birds at, 424 +Fat, quantity eaten, 123 +Fatahua fall, 436 +Fear an acquired instinct, 426 +Februa Hoffmanseggi, butterfly, 35 +Fennel run wild, 125 +Ferguson, Dr., on miasma, 390 +Fernando Noronha, 2, 11, 173, 399 +Ferns, tree, 259, 477 +Fields of dead coral, 488 +Fire, art of making, 205, 436 +Fireflies, 31 +Fish emitting harsh sound, 144 + of Galapagos, 416 + eating coral, 494 +Flamingoes, 69 +Fleas, 369 +Floods after droughts, 142 + clear after snow, 341 +Flora of the Galapagos, 399, 418, 421 + of Keeling Island, 483 + of St. Helena, 523 +Flustraceæ, 211 +Forests, absence of, in La Plata, 47 + of Tierra del Fuego, 220, 250, 305 + of Chiloe, 250, 299, 305, 314 + of Valdivia, 319, 322 + of New Zealand, 436 + of Australia, 445 +Fossil Mammalia, 36, 134, 137, 164, 182 + earthenware, 394 +Fox of the Falkland Islands, 204 + of Chiloe, 299 +Freyrina, 372 +Friendly Archipelago, 505 +Fringing reefs, 501 +Frogs, noises of, 30 + bladders of, 409 + and toads, not found on oceanic islands, 407 +Frozen soil, 93, 257 +Fruit-trees, southern limit of, 250 +Fucus giganteus, 254 +Fuegians, 151, 218 to 243 + wigwams, 151, 224 + basket and bone weapons, 230 +Fulgurites, 62 +Fungus, edible, 250 +Furnarius, 99 +GALAPAGOS ARCHIPELAGO, 398 + natural history of, 403 + marked relationship with America, 403 + zoology of, 403, 419 + finches from, 405 +Gale of wind, 228, 300 +Gallegos river, fossil bones at, 182 +Gallinazo, 60 +Gauchos, 46, 160 + character of, 161 + live on meat, 123 + surcingle of, 46 +Gavia mountain, 33 +Gay, M., on floating islands, 283 + on shells in brackish water, 22 +Geese at the Falkland Islands, 210 +Geographical distribution of American animals, 138, 349 + of frogs, 407 + of fauna of Galapagos, 419 +Geology of Cordillera, 341, 355 + of St. Jago, 6 + of St. Paul, 8 + of Brazil, 12 + of Bahia Blanca, 86 + of Pampas, 136 + of Patagonia, 180, 190 +Georgia, climate of, 263 +Geospiza, 405, 420 +Gill, Mr., on an upheaved river-bed, 382 +Gillies, Dr., on the Cordillera, 345 +Glaciers in Tierra del Fuego, 237, 260, 261 + in lat. 46° 40′, 260 + in Cordillera, 346 +Glow-worms, 31 +Goats destructive to vegetation at St. Helena, 520 + bones of, 177 +Goeree Roads, 230 +Goître, 336 +Gold-washing, 284 +Good Success Bay, 214 +Gossamer spider, 169 +Gould, Mr., on the Calodera, 132 + on birds of Galapagos, 404 +Granite mountains, Tres Montes, 301 + of Cordillera, 342 +Graspus, 10 +Gravel, how far transported, 113 + of Patagonia, 78, 180 +Graves of Indians, 179 +Greenstone, fragments of, 274 +Gregory, Cape, 245 +Gryllus migratorius, 352 +Guanaco, habits of, 175, 197 + fossil allied genus, 182 +Guantajaya, mines of, 387 +Guardia del Monte, 124 +Guasco, 367, 371, 375 +Guasos of Chile, 275 +Guava imported into Tahiti, 430 +Guinea-fowl, 5, 523 +Guitron, 279 +Gunnera scabra, 298 +Gypsum, great beds of, 342 + in salt-lake, 68 + in Patagonian tertiary beds, 180 + at Iquique with salt, 388 + at Lima with shells, 392 +HACHETTE, M., on lightning-tubes, 62 +Hacienda, condor, and cactus, 271 +Hail-storm, 121 +Hall, Captain Basil, on terraces of Coquimbo, 367 +Hare, Varying, 47 +Head, Captain, on thistle-beds, 125, 130 +Height of snow-line on Cordillera, 259 +Henslow, Prof., on potatoes, 304 + on plants of Keeling Island, 483 +Hermit crabs, 486 +Hide bridge, 334 +Hill emitting a noise, 385 +Himantopus, 120 +Hippah, New Zealand, 458 +Hobart Town and Mount Wellington, 475 +Hogoleu barrier-reef, 499 +Holes made by a bird, 99 +Holman on drifted seeds, 484 +Holothuriæ feeding on coral, 494 +Homeward bound, 531 +Hooker, Sir J., on the Cardoon, 125 + Dr. J. D., on the kelp, 253 + on Galapageian plants, 418, 421 +Horn, Cape, 223 +Horner, Mr., on a calcareous deposit, 10 +Horse, swimming powers of, 152 +Horse, wild at the Falkland Islands, 202 + fossil of extinct species of, 86, 138 +Horse-fly, 180 +Horsemanship of the Gauchos, 162, 206 +Horses difficult to drive, 115 + drop excrement on paths, 125 + killed by great droughts, 141 + multiplication of, 247 + broken in, 160 +Hot springs of Cauquenes, 281 +Huacas, 394, 396 +Humboldt on burnished rocks, 12 + on the atmosphere in tropics, 33 + on frozen soil, 93 + on hybernation, 102 + on potatoes, 304 + on earthquakes and rain, 375 + on miasma, 390, 463 +Humming-birds of Rio de Janeiro, 33 + of Chiloe, 289 +Hurtado, 113 +Hybernation of animals, 102 +Hydrochærus capybara, 40, 51 +Hydrophobia, 377 +Hyla, 30 +Hymenophallus, 34 +IBIS MELANOPS, 175 +Ice, prismatic structure of, 347 +Icebergs, 197, 237, 260 to 267 +Incas’ bridge, 357, 380, 394 +Incrustations on coast rocks, 9, 12 +Indian fossil remains, 395 +Indians, attacks of, 66, 80, 136 + antiquarian relics of, 48, 109 + Araucanian, 66, 321 + of the Pampas, 105 + decrease in numbers of, 108 + grave of, 179, 198 + Patagonian, 245 + perforated stones used by, 285 + Valdivian, 321 + powers of tracking, 350 + ruins of houses of, 380, 384, 392 +Infection, 463 +Infusoria in dust in the Atlantic, 5 + in the sea, 16, 168 + in the Pampas, 87, 137 + in Patagonia, 180 + in white paint, 234 + in coral mud, 494 + at Ascension, 525 +Insects first colonists of St. Paul’s rocks, 10 + blown out to sea, 168 + of Patagonia, 180, 349 + of Tierra del Fuego, 253 + of Galapagos, 403, 417, 419 + of Keeling Island, 485 + of St. Helena, 520 +Instincts of birds, 96, 423 +Iodine with salt at Iquique, 388 +Iquique, 386 +Iron, oxide of, on rocks, 12 +Irregular troops, 85 +Islands, oceanic, volcanic, 8 + Antarctic, 263 + floating, 283 + Low, 429, 497 +JACKSON, Col., on frozen snow, 347 +Jaguar, habits of, 143 +Jajuel, mines of, 276 +James Island, 402, 420 +Jemmy Button, 218, 233 +Juan Fernandez, volcano of, 332 + flora of, 418 +KANGAROO-HUNTING, 469 +Kater’s Peak, 224 +Kauri pine, 454 +Keeling Island, 481 + inside an atoll, 481 + flora of, 483 + birds of, 485, 486 + entomology of, 486 + subsidence of, 504 + Birgos latro, 512 +Kelp, or seaweed, 253, 254 +Kendall, Lieut., on a frozen body, 263 +Kingfishers, 2, 147 +King George’s Sound, 478 +Kororadika, 447, 453 +LABOURERS, condition of, in Chile, 285 +Lagoon-islands, 429, 482, 489, 495 +Lagostomus, 130 +Lake, brackish, near Rio, 22 + with floating islands, 283 + formed during earthquake, 395 +Lamarck on acquired blindness, 53 +Lampyris, 31 +Lancaster, Capt., on a sea-tree, 105 +Land-shells, 371, 519, 520 +Las Minas, 43 +Lazo, 46, 160, 201 +Leaves, 250 + fossil, 477 +Leeks in New Zealand, imported, 455 +Lemuy Island, 295, 297 +Lepus Magellanicus, 203 +Lesson, M., on the scissor-beak, 147 + on rabbit of the Falklands, 203 +Lichen on loose sand, 387 +Lichtenstein on ostriches, 96 +Lightning storms, 63 + tubes, 61 +Lima, 389, 392 + and San Lorenzo, 360 + elevation of a river near, 383 +Lime, changed by lava into crystalline rock, 6 +Limnæa in brackish water, 2 +Lion-ant, 470 +Lizard, 102 + marine species of, 407 +Lizards, transport of, 404 +Llama or guanaco, habits of, 175 +Locusts, 351 +Longevity of species in Mollusca, 87 +Lorenzo, San, island of, 393 +Low Archipelago, 429, 497 +Luciano, story of, 117 +Lumb, Mr., 158, 164 +Lund, M., on antiquity of man, 382 +Lund and Clausen on fossils of Brazil, 138, 183 +Luxan, 130, 351 +Luxuriant vegetation not necessary to support large animals, 89 +Lycosa, 36 +Lyell, Mr., on terraces of Coquimbo, 367 + on longevity of Mollusca, 87 + on change in vegetation, 126 + on fossil horses’ teeth, 137 + on flocks of butterflies, 168 + on extinct mammals and ice-period, 184 + on stones twisted by earthquakes, 329 + on frozen snow, 347 + on distribution of animals, 349 + on subsidence in the Pacific, 498 +MACCULLOCH on infection, 464 +Macquarie river, 471 +Macrauchenia, 86, 182 +Macrocystis, 253 +Madrina, or godmother of a troop of mules, 336 +Magdalen channel, 255 +Magellan, flora of, 265 + H.M.S. _Beagle_ in Straits of, Beagle + Straits of, 229, 244 + Port Famine, 246 + kelp of, 267 +Malays, 482 +Malcolmson, Dr., on hail, 122 +Maldiva atolls, 496, 505, 507 +Maldonado, 41, 47, 61, 65, 145 +Mammalia, fossil, 86, 134, 137, 164, 182, 183, 395 +Man, antiquity of, 382 + body frozen, 264 + fossil remains of, 395 + fear of, an acquired instinct, 427 + extinction of races, 463, 476 +Mandetiba, 20 +Mandioca or cassava, 23, 27 +Mare’s flesh eaten by troops, 107 +Mares killed for their hides, 163 +Mastodon, 134, 137 +Maté pots and Bambillio, 118 +Matter, granular, movements in, 104 +Mauritius, 513 +Maypu river, 338 +Megalonyx, 86, 139 +Megatherium, 86, 88, 139 +Mendoza, 352 + climate of, 345 +Mercedes on the Rio Negro, 156 +Mexico, elevation of, 139 +Miasmata, 389, 463 +Mice inhabit sterile places, 384 + number of, in America, 51 + how transported, 307, 404 + different on opposite sides of Andes, 348 + of the Galapagos, 403 + of Ascension, 523 +Millepora, 493 +Mills for grinding ores, 284 +Mimosæ, 26 +Mimus, 56, 420, 424 +Miners, condition of, 277, 283, 362, 370 +Mines, 277, 365, 369 + how discovered, 340 +Miranda, Commandant, 105 +Missionaries at New Zealand, 446 +Mitchell, Sir T., on valleys of Australia, 466 +Mocking-bird, 56, 420, 424 +Molina omits description of certain birds, 289 +Molothrus, habits of, 54 +Monkeys with prehensile tails, 29 +Monte Video, 41, 151, 152 +Moresby, Capt., on a great crab, 493 + on coral-reefs, 509 +Mount Sarmiento, 247, 256 + Tarn, 249 + Victoria, 47 +Mountains, elevation of, 333 +Movements in granular matter, 104 +Mud, chalk-like, 494 + disturbed by earthquake, 328 +Mules, 336 +Muniz, Signor, on niata cattle, 155 +Murray, Mr., on spiders, 170 +Mylodon, 86, 140, 164 +Myopotamus Coypus, 306 +NARBOROUGH ISLAND, 401 +Negress with goître, 336 +Negro, Rio, 65, 192 + lieutenant, 78 +Nepean river, 444 +New Caledonia, reef of, 499, 501, 507 +New Zealand, 444 +Niata cattle, 155 +Noises from a hill, 385 +Noses, ceremony of pressing, 451 +Nothura, 47 +Notopod, crustacean, 171 +Nulliporæ, incrustations like, 9 + protecting reefs, 529 +OCTOPUS, habits of, 7 +Oily coating on sea, 17 +Olfersia, 10 +Opetiorhynchus, 425 +Opuntia, 278 + Darwinii, 175 + Galapageia, 427 +Orange-trees self-sown, 126 +Ores, gold, 284 +Ornithology of Galapagos, 404, 420 +Ornithorhynchus, 470 +Osorno, volcano of, 292, 294, 312 +Ostrich, habits of, 44, 94 +Ostrich’s eggs, 119 +Otaheite, 429 +Otter, 307 +Ova in sea, 17 +Oven-bird, 99 +Owen, Capt., on a drought in Africa, 141 + Professor, on the Capybara, 51 + fossil quadrupeds, 86-89, 137 + nostrils of the Gallinazo, 195 +Owl of Pampas, 73, 132 + of Galapagos Islands, 406 +Oxyurus, 252, 308 +Oysters, gigantic, 180 +PAINT, white, 234 +Pallas on Siberia, 69 +Palm-trees in La Plata, 48 + south limit of, 260 + in Chile, 272 +Palms absent at Galapagos, 400 +Pampas, halt at a pulperia on the, 64 + number of embedded remains in, 165 + southern limit of, 80 + changes in, 130 + giant thistle of, 125 + not quite level, 134, 137, 153 + geology of, 136, 165 + view of, from the Andes, 348 +Pan de Azucar, 47 +Papilio feronia, 34, 39 +Parana, Rio, 136, 148, 156 + River, 133 + islands in, 143 +Parish, Sir W., on the great drought, 142 +Park, Mungo, on eating salt, 116 +Parrots, 147, 259 +Partridges, 47 +Pas, fortresss of New Zealand, 445 +Passes in Cordillera, 356 +Pasture altered from grazing of cattle, 124 +Patagones, 65 +Patagonia, geology of, 190, 349 + birds of, 93 + zoology of, 174, 180, 189 + raised beaches, 182 +Patagonian bolas, etc, 248, 249 +Patagonians, Cape Gregory, 245 +Paypote ravine, 383 +Peach-trees self-sown, 126 +Peat, formation of, 305 +Pebbles perforated, 158, 285 + transported in roots of trees, 491 +Pelagic animals in southern ocean, 172 +Penas, glacier in Gulf of, 261 +Penguin, habits of, 209 +Pepsis, habits of, 36 +Pernambuco, reef of, 529 +Pernety on hill of ruins, 208 + on tame birds, 425 +Peru, 386, 396 + dry valleys of, 382, 386 +Peruvian pottery, 396 +Petrels, habits of, 309 +Peuquenes, pass of, 341 +Phonolite at Fernando Noronha, 11 +Phosphorescence of the sea, 172 + of land insects and sea animals, 31 + of a coralline, 213 +Phryniscus, 101 +Pine of New Zealand, 454 +Plains at foot of Andes in Chile, 282, 337 + almost horizontal near St. Fé, 135 +Planariæ, terrestrial species of, 28 +Plants of the Galapagos, 402, 418, 421 + of Keeling island, 483 + of St. Helena, 517 +Plants, fossil, in Australia, 477 +Plata, R., 40 + thunderstorms of, 65 +Plover, long-legged, 120 +Polished rocks, Brazil, 12 +Polyborus chimango, 58, 209 + Braziliensis, 57 + Novæ Zelandiæ, 59 +Ponsonby Sound, 229, 233, 239, 241 +Porpoises, 40 +Port Desire, 97, 174 + river of, 112, 178 + St. Julian, 180 + Famine, 246, 247 + Jackson, 459 +Portillo Pass, 335 to 352 +Porto Praya, 2 +Potato, wild, 304 +Potrero Seco, 375 +Prairies, vegetation of, 124 +Prévost, M., on cuckoos, 55 +Priestley, Dr., on lightning-tubes, 61 +Prisoner, bringing in a, 84 +Procellaria gigantea, habits of, 309 +Proctotretus, 102 +Proteus, blindness of, 53 +Protococcus nivalis, 345 +Pteroptochos, two species of, 288 + species of, 297, 307 +Puenta del Inca, 356, 380 +Puffinuria Berardii, 309 +Puffinus cinereus, 309 +Puma, habits of, 144, 193, 287 + flesh of, 122 +Puna, or short respiration, 344 +Punta Alta, Bahia Blanca, 83 + Gorda, 136, 380 + Huantamó, 317 +Pyrophorus luminosus, 32 +QUADRUPEDS, fossil, 83, 136, 141, 164, 182 + large, do not require luxuriant vegetation, 89 + weight of, 91 +Quartz of the Ventana, 122 + of Tapalguen, 122 + of Falkland Island, 207 +Quedius, 10 +Quellaypo volcano, 312 +Quilimari, 362 +Quillota, valley of, 270 +Quinchao Island, 296 +Quintero, 270 +Quiriquina Island, 324 +Quoy and Gaimard on stinging corals, 493 + on coral-reefs, 505 +RABBIT, wild, at the Falkland Islands, 203 +Rain at Coquimbo, 361, 371, 372 + at Rio, 30 + effects on vegetation, 361 + and earthquakes, 375 +in Chile, formerly more abundant, 381 + in Peru, 389, 390 +Rana Mascariensis, 407 +Rat, only aboriginal animal of New Zealand, 455 +Rats at Galapagos, 403 + at Keeling Island, 485 + at Ascension, 523 +Rattlesnake, species with allied habit, 100 +Red snow, 345 +Reduvius, 352 +Reef at Pernambuco of sandstone, 529 +Reefs of coral, 495 to 512 + barrier, 498, 504 + fringing, 501 +Reeks, Mr., analysis of salt, 68 + bones, 164 + salt and shells, 394 +Remains, human, elevated, 394 +Remedies of the Gauchos, 135 +Rengger on the horse, 247 +Reptiles absent in Tierra del Fuego, 252 + at Galapagos, 407 +Respiration difficult in Andes, 344 +Retrospect, 51 +Revolutions at Buenos Ayres, 149 +Rhea Darwinii (Avestruz Petise), 110 +Rhinoceroses live in desert countries, 92 + frozen, 93, 264 +Rhynchops nigra, 145, 146 +Richardson, Dr., on mice of North America, 404 + on frozen soil, 92, 263 + on eating fat, 123 + on geographical distribution, 139 + on polished rocks, 267 +Rimsky atoll, 496 +Rio de Janeiro, 19 to 39 + Botofogo Bay, 19 + Plata, 40 + Negro, 65, 192 + Colorado, 73 + Sauce, 112 + Salado, 124 + S. Cruz, 187 +River-bed, arched, 383 +River-courses dry in America, 113 +Rivers, power of, in wearing channels, 191, 339 +Rocks burnished with ferruginous matter, 12 +Rodents, number of, in America, 51, 189 + fossil species of, 87 +Rolor, General, 149 +Rosas, General, 73, 116, 149 +Rozario, 129, 133, 147, 153 +Ruins of Callao, 391 + of Indian buildings in Cordillera, 380, 382 +SALADO, RIO, 124 +Saladillo river, 134 +Salinas at the Galapagos Archipelago, 402 + in Patagonia, 66, 177 +Saline efflorescences, 81 +Salt with vegetable food, 116 + superficial crust of, 388 + with elevated shells, 393 +Salt-lakes, 68, 177, 402 +San Carlos, 313 + Nicolas, 133, 147 + Felipe, 276 + Pedro, 299 + Pedro, forests of, 299 + Lorenzo Island, 393 +Sand-dunes, 78 +Sand, hot from sun’s rays, at Galapagos Archipelago, 403 + noise from friction of, 385 +Sandstone of New South Wales, 465 + reef of, 529 +Sandwich Archipelago, no frogs at, 407 + Land, 263 +Santa Cruz, river of, 187 +Santiago, Chile, 282 +Sarmiento, Mount, 247, 256 +Sauce, Rio, 112, 371 +Saurophagus sulphureus, 55 +Scarus eating corals, 494 +Scelidotherium, 86 +Scenery of Andes, 335 to 341 +Scissor-beak, habits of, 145, 146 +Scissor-tail, 147 +Scoresby, Mr., on effects of snow on rocks, 340 +Scorpions, cannibals, 165 +Scrope, Mr., on earthquakes, 376 +Scytalopus, 252, 308 +Sea, open, inhabitants of, 172 + phosphorescence of, 172 + explosions in, 327 +Sea-pen, habits of, 104, 212 +Seals, number of, 303 +Seaweed, growth of, 253 +Seeds transported by sea, 418, 484 +Serpulæ, 529 +Sertularia, protecting reef, 494 +Shark killed by Diodon, 14 +Shaw, Dr., on lion’s flesh, 122 +Sheep, infected, 464 +Shelley, lines on Mont Blanc, 178 +Shells, land, in great numbers, 368 + elevated, 86, 137, 180, 343, 367, 395 + tropical forms of, far south, 258 + fossil, of Cordillera, 343 + decomposition of, with salt, 393 + of Galapagos, 416 + at St. Helena, 519 +Shepherd’s dogs, 159 +Shingle-bed of Patagonia, 78, 189 +Shongi, New Zealand chief, 447 +Siberia compared with Patagonia, 69 + zoology of, related to North America, 140 +Siberian animals, how preserved in ice, 264 + food necessary during their existence, 93, 96 +Sierra de la Ventana, 112 + Tapalguen, 119 +Silicified trees, 354, 376 +Silurian formations at Falkland Islands, 207 +Silurus, habits of, 144 +Sivatherium, 155 +Skunks, 83 +Slavery, 20, 25, 530 +Smelling power of carrion-hawks, 195 +Smith, Dr. Andrew, on the support of large quadrupeds, 88 + on perforated pebbles, 158 +Snake, venomous, 100 +Snow, effects of, on rocks, 340 + prismatic structure of, 347 + red, 345 +Snow-line on Cordillera, 259, 358, 347 +Socêgo, 23 +Society, state of, in La Plata, 42, 165 + state of, in Australia, 471, 474 + Archipelago, 440 + volcanic phenomena at, 505, 510 +Soda, nitrate of, 388 + sulphate of, 81 +Soil, frozen, 92, 263 +South American bit, 338 +Spawn on surface of sea, 17 +Species, distribution of, 136, 391 + extinction of, 182 +Spiders, habits of, 37 to 39 + gossamer, 169 + killed by and killing wasps, 37 to 39 + on Keeling Island, 485 + on St. Paul’s, 10 +Spurs of Guaso, 275 +Springs, hot, 281 +Stevenson, Mr., on growth of seaweed, 253 +St. Helena, 517 + Jago, C. Verds, 1 + unhealthiness of, 390 + Paul’s rocks, 8 + Fé, 135 +Maria, elevated, 333, 338 + introduction of spirits into, 439 + Louis, Mauritius, 513 +Stinging animals, 493 +Stones perforated, 158, 285 + transported in roots, 490 +Storm, 223, 300 + in Cordillera, 338, 374 +Streams of stones at Falkland Islands, 207 +Strongylus, 34 +Struthio rhea, 44, 94 + Darwinii, 97 +Strzelecki, Count, 476 +Suadiva atoll, 496 +Subsidence of coral-reefs, 495 to 512 + of Patagonia, 180 + of Cordillera, 343, 355 + of Coasts of Chile, 354 + cause of distinctness in Tertiary epochs, 367 + of coast of Peru, 379 + of Keeling Island, 496, 504 + of Vanikoro, 504 + of coral-reefs great in amount, 509 +Sulphate of lime, 69, 180, 386 + soda with common salt, 69, 81, 386 + soda incrusting the ground, 81 +Swainson, Mr., on cuckoos, 54 +Sydney, 459 +TABANUS, 180 +Tahiti (Otaheite), 429 + three zones of fertility, 432 + Fatahua fall, 436 + Christianity in, 437, 441 +Tahitian, 438 +Talcahuano, 311, 324 +Tambillos, Ruinas de, 380 +Tameness of birds, 425 +Tandeel, pumas at, 287 +Tapacolo and Turco, 288 +Tapalguen, Sierra, flat hills of quartz, 122 +Tarn, Mount, 249 +Tasmania, 474 +Tattooing, 430, 439 +Temperance of the Tahitians, 438 +Temperature of Tierra del Fuego and Falkland Islands, 244 + of Galapagos, 399, 403 +Tercero, Rio, fossils in banks of, 134 +Terraces in valleys of Cordillera, 337 + of Patagonia, 181, 190 + of Coquimbo, 367 +Tertiary formations of the Pampas, 86, 136, 165 + of Patagonia, 180, 349 + in Chile, epochs of, 368 +Teru-tero, habits of, 120 +Testudo, two species of, 420 + Abingdonii, 397 + nigra, habits of, 408 +Theory of lagoon-islands, 499 +Theristicus melanops, 175 +Thistle beds, 125, 130, 157 +Thunder-storms, 63 +Ti, liliaceous plant, 437 +Tierra del Fuego, 215 to 257 + climate and vegetation of, 250, 257 + zoology of, 251 + entomology of, 253 +Tinamus rufescens, 119 +Tinochorus rumicivorus, 98 +Toad, habits of, 101 + not found in oceanic islands, 407 +Torrents in Cordillera, 338, 343 +Tortoise, habits of, 408, 420 +Toxodon, 86, 134, 137, 164 +Transparency of air in Andes, 358 + in St. Jago, 4 +Transport of boulders, 190, 262 + of fragments of rock on banks of the St. Cruz river, 190 + of seeds, 418, 484 + of stones in roots of trees, 491 +Travertin with leaves of trees, Van Diemen’s Land, 479 +Tree-ferns, 478 + southern limits of, 258 +Trees, absence of, in Pampas, 48 + time required to rot, 322 + silicified, vertical, 376 + size of, 377 + floating, transport stones, 490 +Tres Montes, 301 +Trichodesmium, 15 +Trigonocephalus, 100 +Tristan d’Acunha, 426, 485 +Trochilus forficatus, 268 +Tropical scenery, 526 +Tschudi, M., on subsidence, 393 +Tubes, siliceous, formed by lightning, 61 +Tucutuco, habits of, 52 + fossil species of, 87 +Tuff, craters of, 398 + infusoria in, 525 +Tupungato, volcano of, 347 +Turco, El, 288 +Turkey buzzard, 60, 192, 303 +Turtle, manner of catching, 488 +Type of organisation in Galapagos Islands, American, 423 +Types of organisation in different countries, constant, 182 +Tyrannus savana, 147 +ULLOA on hydrophobia, 377 + on Indian buildings, 380 +Unanùe, Dr., on hydrophobia, 377 +Uruguay, Rio, 147, 152 + not crossed by the Bizcacha, 131 +Uspallata range and pass, 353 +VACAS, RIO, 355 +Valdivia, 318 + forests of, 319, 322 +Valley of St. Cruz, how excavated, 190 + dry, at Copiapó, 380 +Valleys, excavation of, in Chile, 343, 383 + of New South Wales, 46 + in Cordillera, 343 + of Tahiti, 437, 439 +Valparaiso, 268, 335 +Vampire bat, 22, 23 +Van Diemen’s Land, 474 +Vanellus cayanus, 120 +Vanessa, flocks of, 168 +Vanikoro, 500, 504 +Vapour from forests, 25 +Vegetation of St. Helena, changes of, 519 + luxuriant, not necessary to support large animals, 89 + on opposite sides of Cordillera, 349 +Ventana, Sierra, 71, 112 +Verbena melindres, 42 +Vilipilli, 315 +Villa Vicencio, 353 +Villarica volcano, 332 +Virgin forest, 25 +Virgularia Patagonica, 104 +Volcanic bombs, 524 + cellular formation of, 524 + islands, 8 + phenomena, 331 +Volcanoes near Chiloe, 294, 300, 312, 332 + their presence determined by elevation or subsidence, 496 +Vultur aura, 60, 192, 303 +WADERS, first colonists of distant islands, 405 +Waimate, New Zealand, 452 +Waiomio, 456 +Walckenaer on spiders, 39 +Walleechu tree, 71 +Wasps preying on spiders and killed by, 37 to 39 +Water-hog (Hydrochærus capybara), 51 +Water-serpents, 103 +Water sold at Iquique, 386 +Water, fresh, floating on salt, 41, 487 +Waterhouse, Mr., on Rodents, 51, 485 + on the niata ox, 156 + on the insects of Tierra del Fuego, 253 + of Galapagos, 406, 417 + on the terrestrial mammals of Galapagos, 403 +Waves caused by fall of ice, 237, 260 + from earthquakes, 326, 330 +Weather, connection with earthquakes, 375 +Weatherboard, N.S. Wales, 465 +Weeds in New Zealand, imported, 455 +Weight of large quadrupeds, 88 +Wellington, Mount, 477 +Wells, ebbing and flowing, 487 + at Iquique, 388 +West Indies, banks of sediment, 468 + zoology of, 143 + coral-reefs of, 502, 510 +Whales, oil from, 17 + leaping out of water, 236 +White, Mr., on spiders, 36 +Whitsunday Island, 495, 497 +Wigwam cove, 223, 228 +Wigwams of Fuegians, 151, 224 +Williams, Rev. Mr., on infectious disorders, 452, 463 +Winds, dry, in Tierra del Fuego, 245 + at the Cape Verds, 3 + on Cordillera, 345 +cold, on Cordillera, 384 +Winter’s Bark, 250, 299 +Wolf at the Falklands, 204 +Wollaston Island, 224, 244 +Wood, Captain, on the Agouti, 72 +Woollya, 239 +YAQUIL gold mines, 283 +Yeso, Valle del, 341 +York Minster, 215, 227, 241, 294 +ZONOTRICHIA, 54 +Zoological provinces of N. and S. America, 140 +Zoology of Galapagos, 403 + of Tierra del Fuego, 251 + of Chonos Islands, 306 + of Keeling Island, 485 + of St. Helena, 520 +Zoophytes, 104, 211 + at Falkland Islands, 210 +Zorillo, or skunk, 83 + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VOYAGE OF THE BEAGLE *** + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will +be renamed. + +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the +United States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part +of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm +concept and trademark. 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