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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:22:09 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:22:09 -0700 |
| commit | 34b6e2f3141ea490c052cad82b33dc3f5cfdba36 (patch) | |
| tree | dd84f0b63ea6515bd81e92485628de62aa2170e2 /3704-h | |
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diff --git a/3704-h/3704-h.htm b/3704-h/3704-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f3828b4 --- /dev/null +++ b/3704-h/3704-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,24033 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Journal of Researches, by Charles Darwin</title> +<link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> +<style type="text/css"> + +body { margin-left: 20%; + margin-right: 20%; + text-align: justify; } + +h1, h2, h3, h4, h5 {text-align: center; font-style: normal; font-weight: +normal; line-height: 1.5; margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: .5em;} + +h1 {font-size: 300%; + margin-top: 0.6em; + margin-bottom: 0.6em; + letter-spacing: 0.12em; + word-spacing: 0.2em; + text-indent: 0em;} +h2 {font-size: 150%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;} +h3 {font-size: 130%; margin-top: 1em;} +h4 {font-size: 120%;} +h5 {font-size: 110%;} + +.no-break {page-break-before: avoid;} /* for epubs */ + +div.chapter {page-break-before: always; margin-top: 4em;} + +hr {width: 80%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;} + +p {text-indent: 1em; + margin-top: 0.25em; + margin-bottom: 0.25em; } + +.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} + +p.letter {text-indent: 0%; + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; } + +p.noindent {text-indent: 0% } + +p.center {text-align: center; + text-indent: 0em; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; } + +p.right {text-align: right; + margin-right: 10%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; } + +p.footnote {font-size: 90%; + text-indent: 0%; + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; } + +sup { vertical-align: top; font-size: 0.6em; } + +div.fig { display:block; + margin:0 auto; + text-align:center; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em;} + +p.caption {font-weight: bold; + text-align: center; } + +a:link {color:blue; text-decoration:none} +a:visited {color:blue; text-decoration:none} +a:hover {color:red} + +</style> + +</head> +<body> + +<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Journal of Researches, by Charles Darwin</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online +at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you +are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the +country where you are located before using this eBook. +</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Journal of Researches<br /> + The Voyage Of The Beagle</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Charles Darwin</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Illustrator: R.T. Pritchett</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: July 29, 2001 [eBook #3704]<br /> +[Most recently updated: August 19, 2022]</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Sue Asscher and David Widger</div> +<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VOYAGE OF THE BEAGLE ***</div> + +<div class="fig" style="width:60%;"> +<img src="images/cover.jpg" style="width:100%;" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<h2>A NATURALIST’S VOYAGE<br/> +ROUND THE WORLD</h2> + +<p class="letter"> + First Edition May 1860<br/> + Second Edition May 1870<br/> + Third Edition February 1872<br/> + Fourth Edition July 1874<br/> + Fifth Edition March 1876<br/> + Sixth Edition January 1879<br/> + Seventh Edition May 1882<br/> + Eighth Edition February 1884<br/> + Ninth Edition August 1886<br/> + Tenth Edition January 1888<br/> + Eleventh Edition January 1890<br/> + Reprinted June 1913 +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="frontis.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/frontis.jpg" width="600" height="391" alt="[Illustration]" /> +<p class="caption"><small>H.M.S. BEAGLE IN STRAITS OF MAGELLAN. MT SARMIENTO IN THE DISTANCE.</small></p> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<h1>Journal of Researches<br/> +<small><small><small>into the</small></small></small><br/> +Natural History & Geology<br/> +<small><small>of the<br/> +countries visited during the voyage<br/> +round the world of H.M.S. <i>Beagle</i></small></small></h1> + +<h3>under the command of Captain Fitz Roy, <small>R.N.</small></h3> + +<h2 class="no-break">By Charles Darwin, <small>M.A., F.R.S.</small></h2> + +<p class="center"> +<small>AUTHOR OF ‘ORIGIN OF SPECIES,’ ETC.</small> +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="fullsail.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/fullsail.jpg" width="132" height="174" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p class="center"> +A new edition with illustrations by R. T. +Pritchett<br/> +of places visited and objects described.<br/> +<br/> +<small>LONDON<br/> +JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET<br/> +1913.</small> +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +TO<br/> +CHARLES LYELL, ESQ., <small>F.R.S.</small> +</p> + +<p>This second edition is dedicated with grateful +pleasure, as an acknowledgment that the chief part of whatever +scientific merit this journal and the other works of the author may +possess, has been derived from studying the well-known and +admirable</p> + +<p class="center"> +PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>PREFATORY NOTICE TO THE ILLUSTRATED EDITION.</b> +</p> + +<p> +This work was described, on its first appearance, by a writer in the +<i>Quarterly Review</i> as “One of the most interesting narratives of +voyaging that it has fallen to our lot to take up, and one which must always +occupy a distinguished place in the history of scientific navigation.” +</p> + +<p> +This prophecy has been amply verified by experience; the extraordinary +minuteness and accuracy of Mr. Darwin’s observations, combined with the +charm and simplicity of his descriptions, have ensured the popularity of this +book with all classes of readers—and that popularity has even increased +in recent years. No attempt, however, has hitherto been made to produce an +illustrated edition of this valuable work: numberless places and objects are +mentioned and described, but the difficulty of obtaining authentic and original +representations of them drawn for the purpose has never been overcome until +now. +</p> + +<p> +Most of the views given in this work are from sketches made on the spot by Mr. +Pritchett, with Mr. Darwin’s book by his side. Some few of the others are +taken from engravings which Mr. Darwin had himself selected for their interest +as illustrating his voyage, and which have been kindly lent by his son. +</p> + +<p> +Mr. Pritchett’s name is well known in connection with the voyages of the +<i>Sunbeam</i> and <i>Wanderer</i>, and it is believed that the illustrations, +which have been chosen and verified with the utmost care and pains, will +greatly add to the value and interest of the “V<small>OYAGE OF A</small> +N<small>ATURALIST</small>.” +</p> + +<p class="right"> +JOHN MURRAY. +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +<i>December</i> 1889. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2>AUTHOR’S PREFACE.</h2> + +<p> +I have stated in the preface to the first Edition of this work, and in the +<i>Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle</i>, that it was in consequence of a +wish expressed by Captain Fitz Roy, of having some scientific person on board, +accompanied by an offer from him of giving up part of his own accommodations, +that I volunteered my services, which received, through the kindness of the +hydrographer, Captain Beaufort, the sanction of the Lords of the Admiralty. As +I feel that the opportunities which I enjoyed of studying the Natural History +of the different countries we visited have been wholly due to Captain Fitz Roy, +I hope I may here be permitted to repeat my expression of gratitude to him; and +to add that, during the five years we were together, I received from him the +most cordial friendship and steady assistance. Both to Captain Fitz Roy and to +all the Officers of the <i>Beagle</i><a href="#fn-1" +name="fnref-1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> I shall ever feel most thankful for the +undeviating kindness with which I was treated during our long voyage. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-1"></a> <a href="#fnref-1">[1]</a> +I must take this opportunity of returning my sincere thanks to Mr. Bynoe, the +surgeon of the <i>Beagle</i>, for his very kind attention to me when I was ill +at Valparaiso. +</p> + +<p>This volume contains, in the form of a Journal, +a history of our voyage, and a sketch of those observations in +Natural History and Geology, which I think will possess some +interest for the general reader. I have in this edition largely +condensed and corrected some parts, and have added a little to +others, in order to render the volume more fitted for popular +reading; but I trust that naturalists will remember that they must +refer for details to the larger publications which comprise the +scientific results of the Expedition. The <i>Zoology of the Voyage +of the Beagle</i> includes an account of the Fossil Mammalia, by +Professor Owen; of the Living Mammalia, by Mr. Waterhouse; of the +Birds, by Mr. Gould; of the Fish, by the Reverend L. Jenyns; and of +the Reptiles, by Mr. Bell. I have appended to the descriptions of +each species an account of its habits and range. These works, which +I owe to the high talents and disinterested zeal of the above +distinguished authors, could not have been undertaken had it not +been for the liberality of the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s +Treasury, who, through the representation of the Right Honourable +the Chancellor of the Exchequer, have been pleased to grant a sum +of one thousand pounds towards defraying part of the expenses of +publication.</p> + +<p> +I have myself published separate volumes on the <i>Structure and Distribution +of Coral Reefs</i>; on the <i>Volcanic Islands visited during the Voyage of the +Beagle</i>; and on the <i>Geology of South America.</i> The sixth volume of the +<i>Geological Transactions</i> contains two papers of mine on the Erratic +Boulders and Volcanic Phenomena of South America. Messrs. Waterhouse, Walker, +Newman, and White, have published several able papers on the Insects which were +collected, and I trust that many others will hereafter follow. The plants from +the southern parts of America will be given by Dr. J. Hooker, in his great work +on the Botany of the Southern Hemisphere. The Flora of the Galapagos +Archipelago is the subject of a separate memoir by him, in the <i>Linnean +Transactions.</i> The Reverend Professor Henslow has published a list of the +plants collected by me at the Keeling Islands; and the Reverend J. M. Berkeley +has described my cryptogamic plants. +</p> + +<p>I shall have the pleasure of acknowledging the +great assistance which I have received from several other +naturalists in the course of this and my other works; but I must be +here allowed to return my most sincere thanks to the Reverend +Professor Henslow, who, when I was an undergraduate at Cambridge, +was one chief means of giving me a taste for Natural +History,—who, during my absence, took charge of the +collections I sent home, and by his correspondence directed my +endeavours,—and who, since my return, has constantly rendered +me every assistance which the kindest friend could offer.</p> + +<p class="letter"> +D<small>OWN</small>, B<small>ROMLEY</small>, +K<small>ENT</small>,<br/> +<i>June</i> 1845. +</p> + +<hr /> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#chi">CHAPTER I</a> +</p> + +<p> +Porto Praya — Ribeira Grande — Atmospheric Dust with Infusoria — Habits of a Sea-slug and Cuttle-fish — St. Paul’s Rocks, non-volcanic — Singular Incrustations — Insects the first Colonists of Islands — Fernando Noronha — Bahia — Burnished Rocks — Habits of a Diodon — Pelagic Confervæ and Infusoria — Causes of discoloured Sea.<br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#chii">CHAPTER II</a> +</p> + +<p> +Rio de Janeiro — Excursion north of Cape Frio — Great Evaporation — Slavery — Botofogo Bay — Terrestrial Planariæ — Clouds on the Corcovado — Heavy Rain — Musical Frogs — Phosphorescent insects — Elater, springing powers of — Blue Haze — Noise made by a Butterfly — Entomology — Ants — Wasp killing a Spider — Parasitical Spider — Artifices of an Epeira — Gregarious Spider — Spider with an unsymmetrical web.<br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#chiii">CHAPTER III</a> +</p> + +<p> +Monte Video — Maldonado — Excursion to R. Polanco — Lazo and Bolas — Partridges — Absence of trees — Deer — Capybara, or River Hog — Tucutuco — Molothrus, cuckoo-like habits — Tyrant-flycatcher — Mocking-bird — Carrion Hawks — Tubes formed by lightning — House struck.<br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#chiv">CHAPTER IV</a> +</p> + +<p> +Rio Negro — Estancias attacked by the Indians — Salt-Lakes — Flamingoes — R. Negro to R. Colorado — Sacred Tree — Patagonian Hare — Indian Families — General Rosas — Proceed to Bahia Blanca — Sand Dunes — Negro Lieutenant — Bahia Blanca — Saline incrustations — Punta Alta — Zorillo.<br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#chv">CHAPTER V</a> +</p> + +<p> +Bahia Blanca — Geology — Numerous gigantic extinct Quadrupeds — Recent Extinction — Longevity of Species — Large Animals do not require a luxuriant vegetation — Southern Africa — Siberian Fossils — Two Species of Ostrich — Habits of Oven-bird — Armadilloes — Venomous Snake, Toad, Lizard — Hybernation of Animals — Habits of Sea-Pen — Indian Wars and Massacres — Arrowhead — Antiquarian Relic.<br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#chvi">CHAPTER VI</a> +</p> + +<p> +Set out for Buenos Ayres — Rio Sauce — Sierra Ventana — Third Posta — Driving Horses — Bolas — Partridges and Foxes — Features of the country — Long-legged Plover — Teru-tero — Hail-storm — Natural enclosures in the Sierra Tapalguen — Flesh of Puma — Meat Diet — Guardia del Monte — Effects of cattle on the Vegetation — Cardoon — Buenos Ayres — Corral where cattle are slaughtered.<br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#chvii">CHAPTER VII</a> +</p> + +<p> +Excursion to St. Fé — Thistle Beds — Habits of the Bizcacha — Little Owl — Saline streams — Level plains — Mastodon — St. Fé — Change in landscape — Geology — Tooth of extinct Horse — Relation of the Fossil and recent Quadrupeds of North and South America — Effects of a great drought — Parana — Habits of the Jaguar — Scissor-beak — Kingfisher, Parrot, and Scissor-tail — Revolution — Buenos Ayres — State of Government.<br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#chviii">CHAPTER VIII</a> +</p> + +<p> +Excursion to Colonia del Sacramiento — Value of an Estancia — Cattle, how counted — Singular breed of Oxen — Perforated pebbles — Shepherd-dogs — Horses broken-in, Gauchos riding — Character of Inhabitants — Rio Plata — Flocks of Butterflies — Aëronaut Spiders — Phosphorescence of the Sea — Port Desire — Guanaco — Port St. Julian — Geology of Patagonia — Fossil gigantic Animal — Types of Organisation constant — Change in the Zoology of America — Causes of Extinction.<br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#chix">CHAPTER IX</a> +</p> + +<p> +Santa Cruz — Expedition up the River — Indians — Immense streams of basaltic lava — Fragments not transported by the river — Excavation of the valley — Condor, habits of — Cordillera — Erratic boulders of great size — Indian relics — Return to the ship — Falkland Islands — Wild horses, cattle, rabbits — Wolf-like fox — Fire made of bones — Manner of hunting wild cattle — Geology — Streams of stones — Scenes of violence — Penguin — Geese — Eggs of Doris — Compound animals.<br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#chx">CHAPTER X</a> +</p> + +<p> +Tierra del Fuego, first arrival — Good Success Bay — An account of the Fuegians on board — Interview with the savages — Scenery of the forests — Cape Horn — Wigwam Cove — Miserable condition of the savages — Famines — Cannibals — Matricide — Religious feelings — Great Gale — Beagle Channel — Ponsonby Sound — Build wigwams and settle the Fuegians — Bifurcation of the Beagle Channel — Glaciers — Return to the Ship — Second visit in the Ship to the Settlement — Equality of condition amongst the natives.<br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#chxi">CHAPTER XI</a> +</p> + +<p> +Strait of Magellan — Port Famine — Ascent of Mount Tarn — Forests — Edible fungus — Zoology — Great Seaweed — Leave Tierra del Fuego — Climate — Fruit-trees and productions of the southern coasts — Height of snow-line on the Cordillera — Descent of glaciers to the sea — Icebergs formed — Transportal of boulders — Climate and productions of the Antarctic Islands — Preservation of frozen carcasses — Recapitulation.<br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#chxii">CHAPTER XII</a> +</p> + +<p> +Valparaiso — Excursion to the foot of the Andes — Structure of the land — Ascend the Bell of Quillota — Shattered masses of greenstone — Immense valleys — Mines — State of miners — Santiago — Hot-baths of Cauquenes — Gold-mines — Grinding-mills — Perforated stones — Habits of the Puma — El Turco and Tapacolo — Humming-birds.<br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#chxiii">CHAPTER XIII</a> +</p> + +<p> +Chiloe — General aspect — Boat excursion — Native Indians — Castro — Tame fox — Ascend San Pedro — Chonos Archipelago — Peninsula of Tres Montes — Granitic range — Boat-wrecked sailors — Low’s Harbour — Wild potato — Formation of peat — Myopotamus, otter and mice — Cheucau and Barking-bird — Opetiorhynchus — Singular character of ornithology — Petrels.<br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#chxiv">CHAPTER XIV</a> +</p> + +<p> +San Carlos, Chiloe — Osorno in eruption, contemporaneously with Aconcagua and Coseguina — Ride to Cucao — Impenetrable forests — Valdivia — Indians — Earthquake — Concepcion — Great earthquake — Rocks fissured — Appearance of the former towns — The sea black and boiling — Direction of the vibrations — Stones twisted round — Great Wave — Permanent Elevation of the land — Area of volcanic phenomena — The connection between the elevatory and eruptive forces — Cause of earthquakes — Slow elevation of mountain-chains.<br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#chxv">CHAPTER XV</a> +</p> + +<p> +Valparaiso — Portillo Pass — Sagacity of mules — Mountain-torrents — Mines, how discovered — Proofs of the gradual elevation of the Cordillera — Effect of snow on rocks — Geological structure of the two main ranges, their distinct origin and upheaval — Great subsidence — Red snow — Winds — Pinnacles of snow — Dry and clear atmosphere — Electricity — Pampas — Zoology of the opposite sides of the Andes — Locusts — Great Bugs — Mendoza — Uspallata Pass — Silicified trees buried as they grew — Incas Bridge — Badness of the passes exaggerated — Cumbre — Casuchas — Valparaiso.<br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#chxvi">CHAPTER XVI</a> +</p> + +<p> +Coast-road to Coquimbo — Great loads carried by the miners — Coquimbo — Earthquake — Step-formed terraces — Absence of recent deposits — Contemporaneousness of the Tertiary formations — Excursion up the valley — Road to Guasco — Deserts — Valley of Copiapó — Rain and Earthquakes — Hydrophobia — The Despoblado — Indian ruins — Probable change of climate — River-bed arched by an earthquake — Cold gales of wind — Noises from a hill — Iquique — Salt alluvium — Nitrate of soda — Lima — Unhealthy country — Ruins of Callao, overthrown by an earthquake — Recent subsidence — Elevated shells on San Lorenzo, their decomposition — Plain with embedded shells and fragments of pottery — Antiquity of the Indian Race.<br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#chxvii">CHAPTER XVII</a> +</p> + +<p> +Galapagos Archipelago — The whole group volcanic — Number of craters — Leafless bushes — Colony at Charles Island — James Island — Salt-lake in crater — Natural history of the group — Ornithology, curious finches — Reptiles — Great tortoises, habits of — Marine lizard, feeds on seaweed — Terrestrial lizard, burrowing habits, herbivorous — Importance of reptiles in the Archipelago — Fish, shells, insects — Botany — American type of organisation — Differences in the species or races on different islands — Tameness of the birds — Fear of man an acquired instinct.<br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#chxviii">CHAPTER XVIII</a> +</p> + +<p> +Pass through the Low Archipelago — Tahiti — Aspect — Vegetation on the mountains — View of Eimeo — Excursion into the interior — Profound ravines — Succession of waterfalls — Number of wild useful plants — Temperance of the inhabitants — Their moral state — Parliament convened — New Zealand — Bay of Islands — Hippahs — Excursion to Waimate — Missionary establishment — English weeds now run wild — Waiomio — Funeral of a New Zealand woman — Sail for Australia.<br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#chxix">CHAPTER XIX</a> +</p> + +<p> +Sydney — Excursion to Bathurst — Aspect of the woods — Party of natives — Gradual extinction of the aborigines — Infection generated by associated men in health — Blue Mountains — View of the grand gulf-like valleys — Their origin and formation — Bathurst, general civility of the lower orders — State of Society — Van Diemen’s Land — Hobart Town — Aborigines all banished — Mount Wellington — King George’s Sound — Cheerless aspect of the country — Bald Head, calcareous casts of branches of trees — Party of natives — Leave Australia.<br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#chxx">CHAPTER XX</a> +</p> + +<p> +Keeling Island — Singular appearance — Scanty Flora — Transport of seeds — Birds and insects — Ebbing and flowing springs — Fields of dead coral — Stones transported in the roots of trees — Great crab — Stinging corals — Coral-eating fish — Coral formations — Lagoon islands or atolls — Depth at which reef-building corals can live — Vast areas interspersed with low coral islands — Subsidence of their foundations — Barrier-reefs — Fringing-reefs — Conversion of fringing-reefs into barrier-reefs, and into atolls — Evidence of changes in level — Breaches in barrier-reefs — Maldiva atolls, their peculiar structure — Dead and submerged reefs — Areas of subsidence and elevation — Distribution of volcanoes — Subsidence slow and vast in amount.<br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#chxxi">CHAPTER XXI</a> +</p> + +<p> +Mauritius, beautiful appearance of — Great crateriform ring of mountains — Hindoos — St. Helena — History of the changes in the vegetation — Cause of the extinction of land-shells — Ascension — Variation in the imported rats — Volcanic bombs — Beds of infusoria — Bahia, Brazil — Splendour of tropical scenery — Pernambuco — Singular reefs — Slavery — Return to England — Retrospect on our voyage.<br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#plates">List of Illustrations</a><br /><br /> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#beagind">Index</a> +</p> + +<hr /> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="section.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/section.jpg" width="600" height="436" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl1.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl1.jpg" width="350" height="216" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2>JOURNAL</h2> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="page1"></a><a name="chi"></a>Chapter I</h2> + +<p class="letter">Porto Praya—Ribeira Grande—Atmospheric +Dust with Infusoria—Habits of a Sea-slug and +Cuttle-fish—St. Paul’s Rocks, non-volcanic—Singular +Incrustations—Insects the first Colonists of +Islands—Fernando Noronha—Bahia—Burnished +Rocks—Habits of a Diodon—Pelagic Confervæ and +Infusoria—Causes of discoloured Sea.</p> + +<h3>ST. JAGO—CAPE DE VERD ISLANDS</h3> + +<p>After having been twice driven back by heavy south-western +gales, Her Majesty’s ship <i>Beagle</i>, a ten-gun brig, under the +command of Captain Fitz Roy, <small>R.N.</small>, sailed from +Devonport on the 27th of December, 1831. The object of the +expedition was to complete the survey of Patagonia and Tierra del +Fuego, commenced under Captain King in 1826 to 1830—to survey the +shores of Chile, Peru, and of some islands in the Pacific—and to +carry a chain of chronometrical measurements round the World. On +the 6th of January we reached Teneriffe, but were prevented +landing, by fears of our bringing the cholera: the next morning we +saw the sun rise behind the rugged outline of the Grand Canary +Island, and suddenly illumine the Peak of +<a name="page2"></a> +Teneriffe, whilst the lower parts were veiled in fleecy clouds. +This was the first of many delightful days never to be forgotten. +On the 16th of January 1832 we anchored at Porto Praya, in St. +Jago, the chief island of the Cape de Verd archipelago.</p> + +<p>The neighbourhood of Porto Praya, viewed from the sea, wears a +desolate aspect. The volcanic fires of a past age, and the +scorching heat of a tropical sun, have in most places rendered the +soil unfit for vegetation. The country rises in successive steps of +table-land, interspersed with some truncate conical hills, and the +horizon is bounded by an irregular chain of more lofty mountains. +The scene, as beheld through the hazy atmosphere of this climate, +is one of great interest; if, indeed, a person, fresh from sea, and +who has just walked, for the first time, in a grove of cocoa-nut +trees, can be a judge of anything but his own happiness. The island +would generally be considered as very uninteresting, but to any one +accustomed only to an English landscape, the novel aspect of an +utterly sterile land possesses a grandeur which more vegetation +might spoil. A single green leaf can scarcely be discovered over +wide tracts of the lava plains; yet flocks of goats, together with +a few cows, contrive to exist. It rains very seldom, but during a +short portion of the year heavy torrents fall, and immediately +afterwards a light vegetation springs out of every crevice. This +soon withers; and upon such naturally formed hay the animals live. +It had not now rained for an entire year. When the island was +discovered, the immediate neighbourhood of Porto Praya was clothed +with trees,<a href="#fn-1.1" name="fnref-1.1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> +the reckless destruction of which has caused here, as at St. Helena, and at +some of the Canary islands, almost entire sterility. The broad, flat-bottomed +valleys, many of which serve during a few days only in the season as +watercourses, are clothed with thickets of leafless bushes. Few living +creatures inhabit these valleys. The commonest bird is a kingfisher (Dacelo +Iagoensis), which tamely sits on the branches of the castor-oil plant, and +thence darts on grasshoppers and lizards. It is brightly coloured, but not so +beautiful as the European species: in its flight, manners, and place of +habitation, which is generally in the driest valley, there is also a wide +difference.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-1.1"></a> <a href="#fnref-1.1">[1]</a> +I state this on the authority of Dr. E. Dieffenbach, in his German translation +of the first edition of this Journal.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page3"></a> +One day, two of the officers and myself rode to Ribeira Grande, +a village a few miles eastward of Porto Praya. Until we reached the +valley of St. Martin, the country presented its usual dull brown +appearance; but here, a very small rill of water produces a most +refreshing margin of luxuriant vegetation. In the course of an hour +we arrived at Ribeira Grande, and were surprised at the sight of a +large ruined fort and cathedral. This little town, before its +harbour was filled up, was the principal place in the island: it +now presents a melancholy, but very picturesque appearance. Having +procured a black Padre for a guide, and a Spaniard who had served +in the Peninsular war as an interpreter, we visited a collection of +buildings, of which an ancient church formed the principal part. It +is here the governors and captain-generals of the islands have been +buried. Some of the tombstones recorded dates of the sixteenth +century.<a href="#fn-1.2" name="fnref-1.2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> +The heraldic ornaments were the only things in this retired place that reminded +us of Europe. The church or chapel formed one side of a quadrangle, in the +middle of which a large clump of bananas were growing. On another side was a +hospital, containing about a dozen miserable-looking inmates. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-1.2"></a> <a href="#fnref-1.2">[2]</a> +The Cape de Verd Islands were discovered in 1449. There was a tombstone of a +bishop with the date of 1571; and a crest of a hand and dagger, dated 1497. +</p> + +<p>We returned to the Vênda to eat our dinners. A +considerable number of men, women, and children, all as black as +jet, collected to watch us. Our companions were extremely merry; +and everything we said or did was followed by their hearty +laughter. Before leaving the town we visited the cathedral. It does +not appear so rich as the smaller church, but boasts of a little +organ, which sent forth singularly inharmonious cries. We presented +the black priest with a few shillings, and the Spaniard, patting +him on the head, said, with much candour, he thought his colour +made no great difference. We then returned, as fast as the ponies +would go, to Porto Praya.</p> + +<p>Another day we rode to the village of St. Domingo, situated near +the centre of the island. On a small plain which we crossed, a few +stunted acacias were growing; their tops had been bent by the +steady trade-wind, in a singular manner—some of them even at right +angles to their trunks. The direction +<a name="page4"></a> +of the branches was exactly north-east by north, and south-west +by south, and these natural vanes must indicate the prevailing +direction of the force of the trade-wind. The travelling had made +so little impression on the barren soil, that we here missed our +track, and took that to Fuentes. This we did not find out till we +arrived there; and we were afterwards glad of our mistake. Fuentes +is a pretty village, with a small stream; and everything appeared +to prosper well, excepting, indeed, that which ought to do so +most—its inhabitants. The black children, completely naked, and +looking very wretched, were carrying bundles of firewood half as +big as their own bodies.</p> + +<p>Near Fuentes we saw a large flock of guinea-fowl—probably fifty +or sixty in number. They were extremely wary, and could not be +approached. They avoided us, like partridges on a rainy day in +September, running with their heads cocked up; and if pursued, they +readily took to the wing.</p> + +<p>The scenery of St. Domingo possesses a beauty totally +unexpected, from the prevalent gloomy character of the rest of the +island. The village is situated at the bottom of a valley, bounded +by lofty and jagged walls of stratified lava. The black rocks +afford a most striking contrast with the bright green vegetation, +which follows the banks of a little stream of clear water. It +happened to be a grand feast-day, and the village was full of +people. On our return we overtook a party of about twenty young +black girls, dressed in excellent taste; their black skins and +snow-white linen being set off by coloured turbans and large +shawls. As soon as we approached near, they suddenly all turned +round, and covering the path with their shawls, sung with great +energy a wild song, beating time with their hands upon their legs. +We threw them some vintéms, which were received with screams +of laughter, and we left them redoubling the noise of their +song.</p> + +<p>One morning the view was singularly clear; the distant mountains +being projected with the sharpest outline, on a heavy bank of dark +blue clouds. Judging from the appearance, and from similar cases in +England, I supposed that the air was saturated with moisture. The +fact, however, turned out quite the contrary. The hygrometer gave a +difference of 29.6 degrees, between the temperature of the air, and +the point at which dew was precipitated. This difference was nearly +double +<a name="page5"></a> +that which I had observed on the previous mornings. This unusual +degree of atmospheric dryness was accompanied by continual flashes +of lightning. Is it not an uncommon case, thus to find a remarkable +degree of aerial transparency with such a state of weather?</p> + +<p>Generally the atmosphere is hazy; and this is caused by the +falling of impalpably fine dust, which was found to have slightly +injured the astronomical instruments. The morning before we +anchored at Porto Praya, I collected a little packet of this +brown-coloured fine dust, which appeared to have been filtered from +the wind by the gauze of the vane at the masthead. Mr. Lyell has +also given me four packets of dust which fell on a vessel a few +hundred miles northward of these islands. Professor +Ehrenberg<a href="#fn-1.3" name="fnref-1.3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> +finds that this dust consists in great part of infusoria with siliceous +shields, and of the siliceous tissue of plants. In five little packets which I +sent him, he has ascertained no less than sixty-seven different organic forms! +The infusoria, with the exception of two marine species, are all inhabitants of +fresh-water. I have found no less than fifteen different accounts of dust +having fallen on vessels when far out in the Atlantic. From the direction of +the wind whenever it has fallen, and from its having always fallen during those +months when the harmattan is known to raise clouds of dust high into the +atmosphere, we may feel sure that it all comes from Africa. It is, however, a +very singular fact, that, although Professor Ehrenberg knows many species of +infusoria peculiar to Africa, he finds none of these in the dust which I sent +him. On the other hand, he finds in it two species which hitherto he knows as +living only in South America. The dust falls in such quantities as to dirty +everything on board, and to hurt people’s eyes; vessels even have run on +shore owing to the obscurity of the atmosphere. It has often fallen on ships +when several hundred, and even more than a thousand miles from the coast of +Africa, and at points sixteen hundred miles distant in a north and south +direction. In some dust which was collected on a vessel three hundred miles +from the land, I was much surprised to find particles of stone above the +thousandth of an inch square, +<a name="page6"></a> +mixed with finer matter. After this fact one need not be +surprised at the diffusion of the far lighter and smaller sporules +of cryptogamic plants.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-1.3"></a> <a href="#fnref-1.3">[3]</a> +I must take this opportunity of acknowledging the great kindness with which +this illustrious naturalist has examined many of my specimens. I have sent +(June 1845) a full account of the falling of this dust to the Geological +Society.</p> + +<p>The geology of this island is the most interesting part of its +natural history. On entering the harbour, a perfectly horizontal +white band in the face of the sea cliff, may be seen running for +some miles along the coast, and at the height of about forty-five +feet above the water. Upon examination, this white stratum is found +to consist of calcareous matter, with numerous shells embedded, +most or all of which now exist on the neighbouring coast. It rests +on ancient volcanic rocks, and has been covered by a stream of +basalt, which must have entered the sea when the white shelly bed +was lying at the bottom. It is interesting to trace the changes, +produced by the heat of the overlying lava, on the friable mass, +which in parts has been converted into a crystalline limestone, and +in other parts into a compact spotted stone. Where the lime has +been caught up by the scoriaceous fragments of the lower surface of +the stream, it is converted into groups of beautifully radiated +fibres resembling arragonite. The beds of lava rise in successive +gently-sloping plains, towards the interior, whence the deluges of +melted stone have originally proceeded. Within historical times no +signs of volcanic activity have, I believe, been manifested in any +part of St. Jago. Even the form of a crater can but rarely be +discovered on the summits of the many red cindery hills; yet the +more recent streams can be distinguished on the coast, forming +lines of cliffs of less height, but stretching out in advance of +those belonging to an older series: the height of the cliffs thus +affording a rude measure of the age of the streams.</p> + +<p>During our stay, I observed the habits of some marine animals. A +large Aplysia is very common. This sea-slug is about five inches +long; and is of a dirty yellowish colour, veined with purple. On +each side of the lower surface, or foot, there is a broad membrane, +which appears sometimes to act as a ventilator, in causing a +current of water to flow over the dorsal branchiæ or lungs. +It feeds on the delicate seaweeds which grow among the stones in +muddy and shallow water; and I found in its stomach several small +pebbles, as in the gizzard of a bird. This slug, when disturbed, +emits a very fine +<a name="page7"></a> +purplish-red fluid, which stains the water for the space of a foot +around. Besides this means of defence, an acrid secretion, which is +spread over its body, causes a sharp, stinging sensation, similar +to that produced by the Physalia, or Portuguese man-of-war.</p> + +<p>I was much interested, on several occasions, by watching the +habits of an Octopus, or cuttle-fish. Although common in the pools +of water left by the retiring tide, these animals were not easily +caught. By means of their long arms and suckers, they could drag +their bodies into very narrow crevices; and when thus fixed, it +required great force to remove them. At other times they darted +tail first, with the rapidity of an arrow, from one side of the +pool to the other, at the same instant discolouring the water with +a dark chestnut-brown ink. These animals also escape detection by a +very extraordinary, chameleon-like power of changing their colour. +They appear to vary their tints according to the nature of the +ground over which they pass: when in deep water, their general +shade was brownish purple, but when placed on the land, or in +shallow water, this dark tint changed into one of a yellowish +green. The colour, examined more carefully, was a French grey, with +numerous minute spots of bright yellow: the former of these varied +in intensity; the latter entirely disappeared and appeared again by +turns. These changes were effected in such a manner that clouds, +varying in tint between a hyacinth red and a +chestnut-brown,<a href="#fn-1.4" name="fnref-1.4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> were continually passing over the body. +Any part, being subjected to a slight shock of galvanism, became +almost black: a similar effect, but in a less degree, was produced +by scratching the skin with a needle. These clouds, or blushes as +they may be called, are said to be produced by the alternate +expansion and contraction of minute vesicles containing variously +coloured fluids.<a href="#fn-1.5" name="fnref-1.5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-1.4"></a> <a href="#fnref-1.4">[4]</a> +So named according to Patrick Symes’s nomenclature. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-1.5"></a> <a href="#fnref-1.5">[5]</a> +See <i>Encyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology</i> article +“Cephalopoda.” +</p> + +<p>This cuttle-fish displayed its chameleon-like power both during +the act of swimming and whilst remaining stationary at the bottom. +I was much amused by the various arts to escape detection used by +one individual, which seemed fully aware that I was watching it. +Remaining for a time motionless, it would then stealthily advance +an inch or two, like a cat after a mouse; sometimes changing its +colour: it thus proceeded, till having +<a name="page8"></a> +gained a deeper part, it darted away, leaving a dusky train of +ink to hide the hole into which it had crawled.</p> + +<p>While looking for marine animals, with my head about two feet +above the rocky shore, I was more than once saluted by a jet of +water, accompanied by a slight grating noise. At first I could not +think what it was, but afterwards I found out that it was this +cuttle-fish, which, though concealed in a hole, thus often led me +to its discovery. That it possesses the power of ejecting water +there is no doubt, and it appeared to me that it could certainly +take good aim by directing the tube or siphon on the under side of +its body. From the difficulty which these animals have in carrying +their heads, they cannot crawl with ease when placed on the ground. +I observed that one which I kept in the cabin was slightly +phosphorescent in the dark.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +S<small>T</small>. P<small>AUL’S</small> R<small>OCKS</small>.—In +crossing the Atlantic we hove-to, during the morning of February 16th, 1832, +close to the island of St. Paul’s. This cluster of rocks is situated in +0° 58′ north latitude, and 29° 15′ west longitude. It is +540 miles distant from the coast of America, and 350 from the island of +Fernando Noronha. The highest point is only fifty feet above the level of the +sea, and the entire circumference is under three-quarters of a mile. This small +point rises abruptly out of the depths of the ocean. Its mineralogical +constitution is not simple; in some parts the rock is of a cherty, in others of +a feldspathic nature, including thin veins of serpentine. It is a remarkable +fact that all the many small islands, lying far from any continent, in the +Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans, with the exception of the Seychelles and +this little point of rock, are, I believe, composed either of coral or of +erupted matter. The volcanic nature of these oceanic islands is evidently an +extension of that law, and the effect of those same causes, whether chemical or +mechanical, from which it results that a vast majority of the volcanoes now in +action stand either near sea-coasts or as islands in the midst of the sea. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl2.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl2.jpg" width="206" height="142" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p>The rocks of St. Paul appear from a distance of a brilliantly +white colour. This is partly owing to the dung of a vast multitude +of seafowl, and partly to a coating of a hard glossy substance with +a pearly lustre, which is intimately united to the surface of the +rocks. This, when examined with a lens, is +<a name="page9"></a> +found to consist of numerous exceedingly thin layers, its total +thickness being about the tenth of an inch. It contains much animal +matter, and its origin, no doubt, is due to the action of the rain +or spray on the birds’ dung. Below some small masses of guano at +Ascension, and on the Abrolhos Islets, I found certain stalactitic +branching bodies, formed apparently in the same manner as the thin +white coating on these rocks. The branching bodies so closely +resembled in general appearance certain nulliporæ (a family +of hard calcareous sea-plants), that in lately looking hastily over +my collection I did not perceive the difference. The globular +extremities of the branches are of a pearly texture, like the +enamel of teeth, but so hard as just to scratch plate-glass. I may +here mention, that on a part of the coast of Ascension, where there +is a vast accumulation of shelly sand, an incrustation is deposited +on the tidal rocks, by the water of the sea, resembling, as +represented in the picture above, certain cryptogamic plants +(Marchantiæ) often seen on damp walls. The surface of the +fronds is beautifully glossy; and those parts formed where fully +exposed to the light, are of a jet black colour, but those shaded +under ledges are only grey. I have shown specimens of this +incrustation to several geologists, and they all thought that they +were of volcanic or igneous origin! In its hardness and +translucency—in its polish, equal to that of the finest +oliva-shell—in the bad smell given out, and loss of colour under +the blowpipe—it shows a close similarity with living sea-shells. +Moreover in sea-shells, it is known that the parts habitually +covered and shaded by the mantle of the animal, are of a paler +colour than those fully exposed to the light, just as is the case +with this incrustation. When we remember that lime, either as a +phosphate or carbonate, enters into the composition of the hard +parts, such as bones and shells, of all living animals, it is an +interesting physiological +<a name="page10"></a> +fact<a href="#fn-1.6" name="fnref-1.6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> +to find substances harder than the enamel of teeth, and coloured surfaces as +well polished as those of a fresh shell, re-formed through inorganic means from +dead organic matter—mocking, also, in shape, some of the lower vegetable +productions.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-1.6"></a> <a href="#fnref-1.6">[6]</a> +Mr. Horner and Sir David Brewster have described (<i>Philosophical +Transactions</i>, 1836, p. 65) a singular “artificial substance +resembling shell.” It is deposited in fine, transparent, highly polished, +brown-coloured laminæ, possessing peculiar optical properties, on the inside +of a vessel, in which cloth, first prepared with glue and then with lime, is +made to revolve rapidly in water. It is much softer, more transparent, and +contains more animal matter, than the natural incrustation at Ascension; but we +here again see the strong tendency which carbonate of lime and animal matter +evince to form a solid substance allied to shell. +</p> + +<p>We found on St. Paul’s only two kinds of birds—the booby and +the noddy. The former is a species of gannet, and the latter a +tern. Both are of a tame and stupid disposition, and are so +unaccustomed to visitors, that I could have killed any number of +them with my geological hammer. The booby lays her eggs on the bare +rock; but the tern makes a very simple nest with seaweed. By the +side of many of these nests a small flying-fish was placed; which I +suppose, had been brought by the male bird for its partner. It was +amusing to watch how quickly a large and active crab (Graspus), +which inhabits the crevices of the rock, stole the fish from the +side of the nest, as soon as we had disturbed the parent birds. Sir +W. Symonds, one of the few persons who have landed here, informs me +that he saw the crabs dragging even the young birds out of their +nests, and devouring them. Not a single plant, not even a lichen, +grows on this islet; yet it is inhabited by several insects and +spiders. The following list completes, I believe, the terrestrial +fauna: a fly (Olfersia) living on the booby, and a tick which must +have come here as a parasite on the birds; a small brown moth, +belonging to a genus that feeds on feathers; a beetle (Quedius) and +a woodlouse from beneath the dung; and lastly, numerous spiders, +which I suppose prey on these small attendants and scavengers of +the waterfowl. The often-repeated description of the stately palm +and other noble tropical plants, then birds, and lastly man, taking +possession of the coral islets as soon as formed, in the Pacific, +is probably not quite correct; I fear it destroys the poetry of +this story, that feather and dirt-feeding and parasitic insects and +spiders should be the first inhabitants of newly formed oceanic +land.</p> + +<p>The smallest rock in the tropical seas, by giving a +foundation +<a name="page11"></a> +for the growth of innumerable kinds of seaweed and compound +animals, supports likewise a large number of fish. The sharks and +the seamen in the boats maintained a constant struggle which should +secure the greater share of the prey caught by the fishing-lines. I +have heard that a rock near the Bermudas, lying many miles out at +sea, and at a considerable depth, was first discovered by the +circumstance of fish having been observed in the neighbourhood.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +F<small>ERNANDO</small> N<small>ORONHA</small>, <i>Feb</i>. +20<i>th.</i>—As far as I was enabled to observe, during the few hours we +stayed at this place, the constitution of the island is volcanic, but probably +not of a recent date. The most remarkable feature is a conical hill, about one +thousand feet high, the upper part of which is exceedingly steep, and on one +side overhangs its base. The rock is phonolite, and is divided into irregular +columns. On viewing one of these isolated masses, at first one is inclined to +believe that it has been suddenly pushed up in a semi-fluid state. At St. +Helena, however, I ascertained that some pinnacles, of a nearly similar figure +and constitution, had been formed by the injection of melted rock into yielding +strata, which thus had formed the moulds for these gigantic obelisks. The whole +island is covered with wood; but from the dryness of the climate there is no +appearance of luxuriance. Half-way up the mountain some great masses of the +columnar rock, shaded by laurel-like trees, and ornamented by others covered +with fine pink flowers but without a single leaf, gave a pleasing effect to the +nearer parts of the scenery. +</p> + +<p>B<small>AHIA</small>, <small>OR</small> S<small>AN</small> +S<small>ALVADOR</small>. B<small>RAZIL</small>, <i>Feb</i>. +29<i>th.</i>—The day has past delightfully. Delight itself, +however, is a weak term to express the feelings of a naturalist +who, for the first time, has wandered by himself in a Brazilian +forest. The elegance of the grasses, the novelty of the parasitical +plants, the beauty of the flowers, the glossy green of the foliage, +but above all the general luxuriance of the vegetation, filled me +with admiration. A most paradoxical mixture of sound and silence +pervades the shady parts of the wood. The noise from the insects is +so loud, that it may be heard even in a vessel anchored several +hundred yards from the shore; yet within the recesses of the forest +a universal silence appears to reign. To a person fond of +natural +<a name="page12"></a> +history, such a day as this brings with it a deeper pleasure +than he can ever hope to experience again. After wandering about +for some hours, I returned to the landing-place; but, before +reaching it, I was overtaken by a tropical storm. I tried to find +shelter under a tree, which was so thick that it would never have +been penetrated by common English rain; but here, in a couple of +minutes, a little torrent flowed down the trunk. It is to this +violence of the rain that we must attribute the verdure at the +bottom of the thickest woods: if the showers were like those of a +colder clime, the greater part would be absorbed or evaporated +before it reached the ground. I will not at present attempt to +describe the gaudy scenery of this noble bay, because, in our +homeward voyage, we called here a second time, and I shall then +have occasion to remark on it.</p> + +<p>Along the whole coast of Brazil, for a length of at least 2000 +miles, and certainly for a considerable space inland, wherever +solid rock occurs, it belongs to a granitic formation. The +circumstance of this enormous area being constituted of materials +which most geologists believe to have been crystallised when heated +under pressure, gives rise to many curious reflections. Was this +effect produced beneath the depths of a profound ocean? or did a +covering of strata formerly extend over it, which has since been +removed? Can we believe that any power, acting for a time short of +infinity, could have denuded the granite over so many thousand +square leagues?</p> + +<p>On a point not far from the city, where a rivulet entered the +sea, I observed a fact connected with a subject discussed by +Humboldt.<a href="#fn-1.7" name="fnref-1.7"><sup>[7]</sup></a> +At the cataracts of the great rivers Orinoco, Nile, and Congo, the syenitic +rocks are coated by a black substance, appearing as if they had been polished +with plumbago. The layer is of extreme thinness; and on analysis by Berzelius +it was found to consist of the oxides of manganese and iron. In the Orinoco it +occurs on the rocks periodically washed by the floods, and in those parts alone +where the stream is rapid; or, as the Indians say, “the rocks are black +where the waters are white.” Here the coating is of a rich brown instead +of a black colour, and seems to be composed of ferruginous matter alone. Hand +specimens fail to give a just idea of these brown burnished stones which +glitter in the sun’s rays. They occur only within +<a name="page13"></a> +the limits of the tidal waves; and as the rivulet slowly +trickles down, the surf must supply the polishing power of the +cataracts in the great rivers. In like manner, the rise and fall of +the tide probably answer to the periodical inundations; and thus +the same effects are produced under apparently different but really +similar circumstances. The origin, however, of these coatings of +metallic oxides, which seem as if cemented to the rocks, is not +understood; and no reason, I believe, can be assigned for their +thickness remaining the same.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-1.7"></a> <a href="#fnref-1.7">[7]</a> +<i>Personal Narrative,</i> vol. v, pt. i, p. 18. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl3.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl3.jpg" width="231" height="267" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p>One day I was amused by watching the habits of the Diodon +antennatus, which was caught swimming near the shore. This fish, +with its flabby skin, is well known to possess the singular power +of distending itself into a nearly spherical form. After having +been taken out of water for a short time, and then again immersed +in it, a considerable quantity both of water and air is absorbed by +the mouth, and perhaps likewise by the branchial orifices. This +process is effected by two methods: the air is swallowed, and is +then forced into the cavity of the body, its +<a name="page14"></a> +return being prevented by a muscular contraction which is +externally visible: but the water enters in a gentle stream through +the mouth, which is kept wide open and motionless; this latter +action must, therefore, depend on suction. The skin about the +abdomen is much looser than that on the back; hence, during the +inflation, the lower surface becomes far more distended than the +upper; and the fish, in consequence, floats with its back +downwards. Cuvier doubts whether the Diodon in this position is +able to swim; but not only can it thus move forward in a straight +line, but it can turn round to either side. This latter movement is +effected solely by the aid of the pectoral fins; the tail being +collapsed and not used. From the body being buoyed up with so much +air, the branchial openings are out of water, but a stream drawn in +by the mouth constantly flows through them.</p> + +<p>The fish, having remained in this distended state for a short +time, generally expelled the air and water with considerable force +from the branchial apertures and mouth. It could emit, at will, a +certain portion of the water, and it appears, therefore probable +that this fluid is taken in partly for the sake of regulating its +specific gravity. This Diodon possessed several means of defence. +It could give a severe bite, and could eject water from its mouth +to some distance, at the same time making a curious noise by the +movement of its jaws. By the inflation of its body, the papillæ, +with which the skin is covered, become erect and pointed. But the +most curious circumstance is, that it secretes from the skin of its +belly, when handled, a most beautiful carmine-red fibrous matter, +which stains ivory and paper in so permanent a manner, that the +tint is retained with all its brightness to the present day: I am +quite ignorant of the nature and use of this secretion. I have +heard from Dr. Allan of Forres, that he has frequently found a +Diodon, floating alive and distended, in the stomach of the shark; +and that on several occasions he has known it eat its way, not only +through the coats of the stomach, but through the sides of the +monster, which has thus been killed. Who would ever have imagined +that a little soft fish could have destroyed the great and savage +shark?</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>March</i> 18<i>th.</i>—We sailed from Bahia. A few days afterwards, +when not far distant from the Abrolhos Islets, my attention +<a name="page15"></a> +was called to a reddish-brown appearance in the sea. The whole +surface of the water, as it appeared under a weak lens, seemed as +if covered by chopped bits of hay, with their ends jagged. These +are minute cylindrical confervæ, in bundles or rafts of from +twenty to sixty in each. Mr. Berkeley informs me that they are the +same species (Trichodesmium erythræum) with that found over large +spaces in the Red Sea, and whence its name of Red Sea is +derived.<a href="#fn-1.8" name="fnref-1.8"><sup>[8]</sup></a> +Their numbers must be infinite: the ship passed through several bands of them, +one of which was about ten yards wide, and, judging from the mud-like colour of +the water, at least two and a half miles long. In almost every long voyage some +account is given of these confervæ. They appear especially common in the sea +near Australia; and off Cape Leeuwin I found an allied, but smaller and +apparently different species. Captain Cook, in his third voyage, remarks that +the sailors gave to this appearance the name of sea-sawdust.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-1.8"></a> <a href="#fnref-1.8">[8]</a> +M. Montagne in <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, etc. Juillet 1844; and <i>Annales des +Sciences Naturelles</i>, December 1844. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl4.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl4.jpg" width="103" height="24" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p>Near Keeling Atoll, in the Indian Ocean, I observed many little +masses of confervæ a few inches square, consisting of long +cylindrical threads of excessive thinness, so as to be barely +visible to the naked eye, mingled with other rather larger bodies, +finely conical at both ends. Two of these are shown above united +together. They vary in length from .04 to .06, and even to .08 of +an inch in length; and in diameter from .006 to .008 of an inch. +Near one extremity of the cylindrical part, a green septum, formed +of granular matter, and thickest in the middle, may generally be +seen. This, I believe, is the bottom of a most delicate, colourless +sac, composed of a pulpy substance, which lines the exterior case, +but does not extend within the extreme conical points. In some +specimens, small but perfect spheres of brownish granular matter +supplied the places of the septa; and I observed the curious +process by which they were produced. The pulpy matter of the +internal coating suddenly grouped itself into lines, some of which +assumed a form radiating from a common centre; it then continued, +with an irregular and rapid movement, to contract itself, so that +in the course of a second +<a name="page16"></a> +the whole was united into a perfect little sphere, which +occupied the position of the septum at one end of the now quite +hollow case. The formation of the granular sphere was hastened by +any accidental injury. I may add, that frequently a pair of these +bodies were attached to each other, as represented above, cone +beside cone, at that end where the septum occurs.</p> + +<p>I will here add a few other observations connected with the +discoloration of the sea from organic causes. On the coast of +Chile, a few leagues north of Concepcion, the <i>Beagle</i> one day +passed through great bands of muddy water, exactly like that of a +swollen river; and again, a degree south of Valparaiso, when fifty +miles from the land, the same appearance was still more extensive. +Some of the water placed in a glass was of a pale reddish tint; +and, examined under a microscope, was seen to swarm with minute +animalcula darting about, and often exploding. Their shape is oval, +and contracted in the middle by a ring of vibrating curved +ciliæ. It was, however, very difficult to examine them with +care, for almost the instant motion ceased, even while crossing the +field of vision, their bodies burst. Sometimes both ends burst at +once, sometimes only one, and a quantity of coarse, brownish, +granular matter was ejected. The animal an instant before bursting +expanded to half again its natural size; and the explosion took +place about fifteen seconds after the rapid progressive motion had +ceased: in a few cases it was preceded for a short interval by a +rotatory movement on the longer axis. About two minutes after any +number were isolated in a drop of water, they thus perished. The +animals move with the narrow apex forwards, by the aid of their +vibratory ciliæ, and generally by rapid starts. They are +exceedingly minute, and quite invisible to the naked eye, only +covering a space equal to the square of the thousandth of an inch. +Their numbers were infinite; for the smallest drop of water which I +could remove contained very many. In one day we passed through two +spaces of water thus stained, one of which alone must have extended +over several square miles. What incalculable numbers of these +microscopical animals! The colour of the water, as seen at some +distance, was like that of a river which has flowed through a red +clay district; but under the shade of the vessel’s side it was +quite as dark as chocolate. The line where the red and blue water +joined was distinctly +<a name="page17"></a> +defined. The weather for some days previously had been calm, and +the ocean abounded, to an unusual degree, with living +creatures.<a href="#fn-1.9" name="fnref-1.9"><sup>[9]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-1.9"></a> <a href="#fnref-1.9">[9]</a> +M. Lesson (<i>Voyage de la Coquille</i>, tome i, p. 255) mentions red water off +Lima, apparently produced by the same cause. Peron, the distinguished +naturalist, in the <i>Voyage aux Terres Australes</i>, gives no less than +twelve references to voyagers who have alluded to the discoloured waters of the +sea (vol. ii, p. 239). To the references given by Peron may be added, +Humboldt’s <i>Personal Narrative</i>, vol. vi, p. 804; Flinder’s +<i>Voyage</i>, vol. i, p. 92; Labillardière, vol. i, p. 287; Ulloa’s +<i>Voyage</i>; <i>Voyage of the Astrolabe and of the Coquille</i>; Captain +King’s <i>Survey of Australia</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p>In the sea around Tierra del Fuego, and at no great distance +from the land, I have seen narrow lines of water of a bright red +colour, from the number of crustacea, which somewhat resemble in +form large prawns. The sealers call them whale-food. Whether whales +feed on them I do not know; but terns, cormorants, and immense +herds of great unwieldy seals derive, on some parts of the coast, +their chief sustenance from these swimming crabs. Seamen invariably +attribute the discoloration of the water to spawn; but I found this +to be the case only on one occasion. At the distance of several +leagues from the Archipelago of the Galapagos, the ship sailed +through three strips of a dark yellowish, or mud-like water; these +strips were some miles long, but only a few yards wide, and they +were separated from the surrounding water by a sinuous yet distinct +margin. The colour was caused by little gelatinous balls, about the +fifth of an inch in diameter, in which numerous minute spherical +ovules were embedded: they were of two distinct kinds, one being of +a reddish colour and of a different shape from the other. I cannot +form a conjecture as to what two kinds of animals these belonged. +Captain Colnett remarks that this appearance is very common among +the Galapagos Islands, and that the direction of the bands +indicates that of the currents; in the described case, however, the +line was caused by the wind. The only other appearance which I have +to notice, is a thin oily coat on the water which displays +iridescent colours. I saw a considerable tract of the ocean thus +covered on the coast of Brazil; the seamen attributed it to the +putrefying carcass of some whale, which probably was floating at no +great distance. I do not here mention the minute gelatinous +particles, hereafter to be referred to, which are frequently +dispersed throughout the water, for they are not sufficiently +abundant to create any change of colour.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page18"></a> +There are two circumstances in the above accounts which appear +remarkable: first, how do the various bodies which form the bands +with defined edges keep together? In the case of the prawn-like +crabs, their movements were as coinstantaneous as in a regiment of +soldiers; but this cannot happen from anything like voluntary +action with the ovules, or the confervæ, nor is it probable among +the infusoria. Secondly, what causes the length and narrowness of +the bands? The appearance so much resembles that which may be seen +in every torrent, where the stream uncoils into long streaks the +froth collected in the eddies, that I must attribute the effect to +a similar action either of the currents of the air or sea. Under +this supposition we must believe that the various organised bodies +are produced in certain favourable places, and are thence removed +by the set of either wind or water. I confess, however, there is a +very great difficulty in imagining any one spot to be the +birthplace of the millions of millions of animalcula and confervæ: +for whence come the germs at such points?—the parent bodies having +been distributed by the winds and waves over the immense ocean. But +on no other hypothesis can I understand their linear grouping. I +may add that Scoresby remarks that green water abounding with +pelagic animals is invariably found in a certain part of the Arctic +Sea.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl5.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl5.jpg" width="287" height="163" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="page19"></a><a name="chii"></a>Chapter II</h2> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl6.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl6.jpg" width="347" height="321" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p class="letter"> +Rio de Janeiro—Excursion north of Cape Frio—Great +Evaporation—Slavery—Botofogo Bay—Terrestrial +Planariæ—Clouds on the Corcovado—Heavy Rain—Musical +Frogs—Phosphorescent Insects—Elater, springing powers of—Blue +Haze—Noise made by a Butterfly—Entomology—Ants—Wasp +killing a Spider—Parasitical Spider—Artifices of an +Epeira—Gregarious Spider—Spider with an unsymmetrical Web. +</p> + +<h3>RIO DE JANEIRO.</h3> + +<p> +<i>April</i> 4<i>th to July</i> 5<i>th</i>, 1832.—A few days after our +arrival I became acquainted with an Englishman who was going to visit his +estate, situated rather more than a hundred miles from the capital, to the +northward of Cape Frio. I gladly accepted his kind offer of allowing me to +accompany him. +</p> + +<p> +<i>April</i> 8<i>th</i>, 1832.—Our party amounted to seven. The first +stage was very interesting. The day was powerfully hot, and as we passed +through the woods, everything was motionless, excepting the large and brilliant +butterflies, which lazily fluttered about. The view seen when crossing the +hills behind Praia Grande was most beautiful; the colours were intense, and the +prevailing tint a dark blue; the sky and the calm waters of the bay vied with +each other in splendour. After passing through some cultivated country, we +entered a forest which in the grandeur of all its parts could not be exceeded. +We arrived by midday at +<a name="page20"></a> +Ithacaia; this small village is situated on a plain, and round the central +house are the huts of the negroes. These, from their regular form and position, +reminded me of the drawings of the Hottentot habitations in Southern Africa. As +the moon rose early, we determined to start the same evening for our +sleeping-place at the Lagoa Marica. As it was growing dark we passed under one +of the massive, bare, and steep hills of granite which are so common in this +country. This spot is notorious from having been, for a long time, the +residence of some runaway slaves, who, by cultivating a little ground near the +top, contrived to eke out a subsistence. At length they were discovered, and a +party of soldiers being sent, the whole were seized with the exception of one +old woman, who, sooner than again be led into slavery, dashed herself to pieces +from the summit of the mountain. In a Roman matron this would have been called +the noble love of freedom: in a poor negress it is mere brutal obstinacy. We +continued riding for some hours. For the few last miles the road was intricate, +and it passed through a desert waste of marshes and lagoons. The scene by the +dimmed light of the moon was most desolate. A few fireflies flitted by us; and +the solitary snipe, as it rose, uttered its plaintive cry. The distant and +sullen roar of the sea scarcely broke the stillness of the night. +</p> + +<p> +<i>April</i> 9<i>th</i>, 1832.—We left our miserable sleeping-place +before sunrise. The road passed through a narrow sandy plain, lying between the +sea and the interior salt lagoons. The number of beautiful fishing birds, such +as egrets and cranes, and the succulent plants assuming most fantastical forms, +gave to the scene an interest which it would not otherwise have possessed. The +few stunted trees were loaded with parasitical plants, among which the beauty +and delicious fragrance of some of the orchideæ were most to be admired. As the +sun rose, the day became extremely hot, and the reflection of the light and +heat from the white sand was very distressing. We dined at Mandetiba; the +thermometer in the shade being 84°. The beautiful view of the distant +wooded hills, reflected in the perfectly calm water of an extensive lagoon, +quite refreshed us. As the +vênda<a href="#fn-2.1" name="fnref-2.1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> +here was a very good one, and I have the pleasant, but rare remembrance, of an +excellent dinner, I will be grateful and +<a name="page21"></a> +presently describe it, as the type of its class. These houses +are often large, and are built of thick upright posts, with boughs +interwoven, and afterwards plastered. They seldom have floors, and +never glazed windows; but are generally pretty well roofed. +Universally the front part is open, forming a kind of verandah, in +which tables and benches are placed. The bedrooms join on each +side, and here the passenger may sleep as comfortably as he can, on +a wooden platform covered by a thin straw mat. The vênda +stands in a courtyard, where the horses are fed. On first arriving, +it was our custom to unsaddle the horses and give them their Indian +corn; then, with a low bow, to ask the senhôr to do us the +favour to give us something to eat. “Anything you choose, sir,” was +his usual answer. For the few first times, vainly I thanked +Providence for having guided us to so good a man. The conversation +proceeding, the case universally became deplorable. “Any fish can +you do us the favour of giving ?”—“Oh no, sir.”—“Any +soup?”—“No, sir.”—“Any bread?”—“Oh no, +sir.”—“Any dried meat?”—“Oh no, sir.” If we were lucky, +by waiting a couple of hours, we obtained fowls, rice, and farinha. +It not unfrequently happened that we were obliged to kill, with +stones, the poultry for our own supper. When, thoroughly exhausted +by fatigue and hunger, we timorously hinted that we should be glad +of our meal, the pompous, and (though true) most unsatisfactory +answer was, “It will be ready when it is ready.” If we had dared to +remonstrate any further, we should have been told to proceed on our +journey, as being too impertinent. The hosts are most ungracious +and disagreeable in their manners; their houses and their persons +are often filthily dirty; the want of the accommodation of forks, +knives, and spoons is common; and I am sure no cottage or hovel in +England could be found in a state so utterly destitute of every +comfort. At Campos Novos, however, we fared sumptuously; having +rice and fowls, biscuit, wine, and spirits, for dinner; coffee in +the evening, and fish with coffee for breakfast. All this, with +good food for the horses, only cost 2 shillings 6 pence per head. +Yet the host of this vênda, being asked if he knew anything +of a whip which one of the party had lost, gruffly answered, “How +should I know? why did you not take care of it?—I suppose the +dogs have eaten it.”</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-2.1"></a> <a href="#fnref-2.1">[1]</a> +Vênda, the Portuguese name for an inn. +</p> + +<p>Leaving Mandetiba, we continued to pass through an +<a name="page22"></a> +intricate wilderness of lakes; in some of which were fresh, in +others salt water shells. Of the former kind, I found a +Limnæa in great numbers in a lake, into which the inhabitants +assured me that the sea enters once a year, and sometimes oftener, +and makes the water quite salt. I have no doubt many interesting +facts in relation to marine and fresh-water animals might be +observed in this chain of lagoons which skirt the coast of Brazil. +M. Gay<a href="#fn-2.2" name="fnref-2.2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> +has stated that he found in the neighbourhood of Rio shells of the marine +genera solen and mytilus, and fresh-water ampullariæ, living together in +brackish water. I also frequently observed in the lagoon near the Botanic +Garden, where the water is only a little less salt than in the sea, a species +of hydrophilus, very similar to a water-beetle common in the ditches of +England: in the same lake the only shell belonged to a genus generally found in +estuaries.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-2.2"></a> <a href="#fnref-2.2">[2]</a> +<i>Annales des Sciences Naturelles</i> for 1833.</p> + +<p>Leaving the coast for a time, we again entered the forest. The +trees were very lofty, and remarkable, compared with those of +Europe, from the whiteness of their trunks. I see by my notebook, +“wonderful and beautiful flowering parasites,” invariably struck me +as the most novel object in these grand scenes. Travelling onwards +we passed through tracts of pasturage, much injured by the enormous +conical ants’ nests, which were nearly twelve feet high. They gave +to the plain exactly the appearance of the mud volcanoes at +Jorullo, as figured by Humboldt. We arrived at Engenhodo after it +was dark, having been ten hours on horseback. I never ceased, +during the whole journey, to be surprised at the amount of labour +which the horses were capable of enduring; they appeared also to +recover from any injury much sooner than those of our English +breed. The Vampire bat is often the cause of much trouble, by +biting the horses on their withers. The injury is generally not so +much owing to the loss of blood, as to the inflammation which the +pressure of the saddle afterwards produces. The whole circumstance +has lately been doubted in England; I was therefore fortunate in +being present when one (Desmodus d’orbignyi, Wat.) was actually +caught on a horse’s back. We were bivouacking late one evening near +Coquimbo, in Chile, when my servant, noticing that one of the +horses was very restive, went to see what was the matter, and +fancying he could distinguish something, +<a name="page23"></a> +suddenly put his hand on the beast’s withers, and secured the +vampire. In the morning the spot where the bite had been inflicted +was easily distinguished from being slightly swollen and bloody. +The third day afterwards we rode the horse, without any ill +effects.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl7.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl7.jpg" width="293" height="257" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p> +<i>April</i> 13<i>th</i>, 1832.—After three days’ travelling we +arrived at Socêgo, the estate of Senhôr Manuel Figuireda, a relation of one of +our party. The house was simple, and, though like a barn in form, was well +suited to the climate. In the sitting-room gilded chairs and sofas were oddly +contrasted with the whitewashed walls, thatched roof, and windows without +glass. The house, together with the granaries, the stables, and workshops for +the blacks, who had been taught various trades, formed a rude kind of +quadrangle; in the centre of which a large pile of coffee was drying. These +buildings stand on a little hill, overlooking the cultivated ground, and +surrounded on every side by a wall of dark green luxuriant forest. The chief +produce of this part of the country is coffee. Each tree is supposed to yield +annually, on an average, two pounds; but some give as much as eight. Mandioca +or cassava is likewise cultivated in +<a name="page24"></a> +great quantity. Every part of this plant is useful: the leaves and stalks are +eaten by the horses, and the roots are ground into a pulp, which, when pressed +dry and baked, forms the farinha, the principal article of sustenance in the +Brazils. It is a curious, though well-known fact, that the juice of this most +nutritious plant is highly poisonous. A few years ago a cow died at this +Fazênda, in consequence of having drunk some of it. Senhôr Figuireda told me +that he had planted, the year before, one bag of feijaô or beans, and three of +rice; the former of which produced eighty, and the latter three hundred and +twenty fold. The pasturage supports a fine stock of cattle, and the woods are +so full of game that a deer had been killed on each of the three previous days. +This profusion of food showed itself at dinner, where, if the tables did not +groan, the guests surely did; for each person is expected to eat of every dish. +One day, having, as I thought, nicely calculated so that nothing should go away +untasted, to my utter dismay a roast turkey and a pig appeared in all their +substantial reality. During the meals, it was the employment of a man to drive +out of the room sundry old hounds, and dozens of little black children, which +crawled in together, at every opportunity. As long as the idea of slavery could +be banished, there was something exceedingly fascinating in this simple and +patriarchal style of living: it was such a perfect retirement and independence +from the rest of the world. As soon as any stranger is seen arriving, a large +bell is set tolling, and generally some small cannon are fired. The event is +thus announced to the rocks and woods, but to nothing else. One morning I +walked out an hour before daylight to admire the solemn stillness of the scene; +at last, the silence was broken by the morning hymn, raised on high by the +whole body of the blacks; and in this manner their daily work is generally +begun. On such fazêndas as these, I have no doubt the slaves pass happy and +contented lives. On Saturday and Sunday they work for themselves, and in this +fertile climate the labour of two days is sufficient to support a man and his +family for the whole week. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl8.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl8.jpg" width="300" height="488" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p> +<i>April</i> 14<i>th</i>, 1832.—Leaving Socêgo, we rode to another estate +on the Rio Macâe, which was the last patch of cultivated ground in that +direction. The estate was two and a half miles long, and the owner had +forgotten how many broad. Only a very small +<a name="page25"></a> +piece had been cleared, yet almost every acre was capable of yielding all the +various rich productions of a tropical land. Considering the enormous area of +Brazil, the proportion of cultivated ground can scarcely be considered as +anything compared to that which is left in the state of nature: at some future +age, how vast a population it will support! During the second day’s +journey we found the road so shut up that it was necessary that a man should go +ahead with a sword to cut away the creepers. The forest abounded with beautiful +objects; among which the tree ferns, though not large, were, from their bright +green foliage, and the elegant curvature of their fronds, most worthy of +admiration. In the evening it rained very heavily, and although the thermometer +stood at 65°, I felt very cold. As soon as the rain ceased, it was curious +to observe the extraordinary evaporation which commenced over the whole extent +of the forest. At the height of a hundred feet the hills were buried in a dense +white vapour, which rose like columns of smoke from the most thickly-wooded +parts, and especially from the valleys. I observed this phenomenon on several +occasions: I suppose it is owing to the large surface of foliage, previously +heated by the sun’s rays. +</p> + +<p>While staying at this estate, I was very nearly being an +eye-witness to one of those atrocious acts which can only take +place in a slave country. Owing to a quarrel and a lawsuit, the +owner was on the point of taking all the women and children from +the male slaves, and selling them separately at the public auction +at Rio. Interest, and not any feeling of compassion, prevented this +act. Indeed, I do not believe the inhumanity of separating thirty +families, who had lived together for many years, even occurred to +the owner. Yet I will pledge myself, that in humanity and good +feeling he was superior to the common run of men. It may be said +there exists no limit to the blindness of interest and selfish +habit. I may mention one very trifling anecdote, which at the time +struck me more forcibly than any story of cruelty. I was crossing a +ferry with a negro who was uncommonly stupid. In endeavouring to +make him understand, I talked loud, and made signs, in doing which +I passed my hand near his face. He, I suppose, thought I was in a +passion, and was going to strike him; for instantly, with a +frightened look and half-shut eyes, he dropped his hands. I shall +never +<a name="page26"></a> +forget my feelings of surprise, disgust, and shame, at seeing a +great powerful man afraid even to ward off a blow, directed, as he +thought, at his face. This man had been trained to a degradation +lower than the slavery of the most helpless animal.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl9.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl9.jpg" width="114" height="463" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p> +<i>April</i> 18<i>th</i>, 1832.—In returning we spent two days at Socêgo, +and I employed them in collecting insects in the forest. The greater number of +trees, although so lofty, are not more than three or four feet in +circumference. There are, of course, a few of much greater dimension. Senhôr +Manuel was then making a canoe 70 feet in length from a solid trunk, which had +originally been 110 feet long, and of great thickness. The contrast of palm +trees, growing amidst the common branching kinds, never fails to give the scene +an intertropical character. Here the woods were ornamented by the Cabbage +Palm—one of the most beautiful of its family. With a stem so narrow that +it might be clasped with the two hands, it waves its elegant head at the height +of forty or fifty feet above the ground. The woody creepers, themselves covered +by other creepers, were of great thickness: some which I measured were two feet +in circumference. Many of the older trees presented a very curious appearance +from the tresses of a liana hanging from their boughs, and resembling bundles +of hay. If the eye was turned from the world of foliage above, to the ground +beneath, it was attracted by the extreme elegance of the leaves of the ferns +and mimosæ. The latter, in some parts, covered the surface with a brushwood +only a few inches high. In walking across these thick beds of mimosæ, a broad +track was marked by the change of shade, produced by the drooping +<a name="page27"></a> +of their sensitive petioles. It is easy to specify the individual objects of +admiration in these grand scenes; but it is not possible to give an adequate +idea of the higher feelings of wonder, astonishment, and devotion, which fill +and elevate the mind. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl10.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl10.jpg" width="228" height="467" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p> +<i>April</i> 19<i>th</i>, 1832.—Leaving Socêgo, during the two first days +we retraced our steps. It was very wearisome work, as the road generally ran +across a glaring hot sandy plain, not far from the coast. I noticed that each +time the horse put its foot on the fine siliceous sand, a gentle chirping noise +was produced. On the third day we took a different line, and passed through the +gay little village of Madre de Deôs. This is one of the principal lines of road +in Brazil; yet it was in so bad a state that no wheel vehicle, excepting the +clumsy bullock-wagon, could pass along. In our whole journey we did not cross a +single bridge built of stone; and those made of logs of wood were frequently so +much out of repair that it was necessary to go on one side to avoid them. All +distances are inaccurately known. The road is often marked by crosses, in the +place of milestones, to signify where human blood has been spilled. On the +evening of the 23rd we arrived at Rio, having finished our pleasant little +excursion. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +During the remainder of my stay at Rio, I resided in a cottage at Botofogo Bay. +It was impossible to wish for anything more delightful than thus to +<a name="page28"></a> +spend some weeks in so magnificent a country. In England any person fond of +natural history enjoys in his walks a great advantage, by always having +something to attract his attention; but in these fertile climates, teeming with +life, the attractions are so numerous, that he is scarcely able to walk at all. +</p> + +<p>The few observations which I was enabled to make were almost +exclusively confined to the invertebrate animals. The existence of +a division of the genus Planaria, which inhabits the dry land, +interested me much. These animals are of so simple a structure, +that Cuvier has arranged them with the intestinal worms, though +never found within the bodies of other animals. Numerous species +inhabit both salt and fresh water; but those to which I allude were +found, even in the drier parts of the forest, beneath logs of +rotten wood, on which I believe they feed. In general form they +resemble little slugs, but are very much narrower in proportion, +and several of the species are beautifully coloured with +longitudinal stripes. Their structure is very simple: near the +middle of the under or crawling surface there are two small +transverse slits, from the anterior one of which a funnel-shaped +and highly irritable mouth can be protruded. For some time after +the rest of the animal was completely dead from the effects of salt +water or any other cause, this organ still retained its +vitality.</p> + +<p> +I found no less than twelve different species of terrestrial +Planariæ in different parts of the southern +hemisphere.<a href="#fn-2.3" name="fnref-2.3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> +Some specimens which I obtained at Van Diemen’s Land, I kept alive for +nearly two months, feeding them on rotten wood. Having cut one of them +transversely into two nearly equal parts, in the course of a fortnight both had +the shape of perfect animals. I had, however, so divided the body, that one of +the halves contained both the inferior orifices, and the other, in consequence, +none. In the course of twenty-five days from the operation, the more perfect +half could not have been distinguished from any other specimen. The other had +increased much in size; and towards its posterior end, a clear space was formed +in the parenchymatous mass, in which a rudimentary cup-shaped mouth could +clearly be distinguished; on the under surface, however, no corresponding slit +was yet open. If the increased heat of the +<a name="page29"></a> +weather, as we approached the equator, had not destroyed all the +individuals, there can be no doubt that this last step would have +completed its structure. Although so well known an experiment, it +was interesting to watch the gradual production of every essential +organ, out of the simple extremity of another animal. It is +extremely difficult to preserve these Planariæ; as soon as the +cessation of life allows the ordinary laws of change to act, their +entire bodies become soft and fluid, with a rapidity which I have +never seen equalled.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-2.3"></a> <a href="#fnref-2.3">[3]</a> +I have described and named these species in the <i>Annals of Natural +History</i>, vol. xiv, p. 241.</p> + +<p>I first visited the forest in which these Planariæ were found, +in company with an old Portuguese priest who took me out to hunt +with him. The sport consisted in turning into the cover a few dogs, +and then patiently waiting to fire at any animal which might +appear. We were accompanied by the son of a neighbouring +farmer—a good specimen of a wild Brazilian youth. He was +dressed in a tattered old shirt and trousers, and had his head +uncovered: he carried an old-fashioned gun and a large knife. The +habit of carrying the knife is universal; and in traversing a thick +wood it is almost necessary, on account of the creeping plants. The +frequent occurrence of murder may be partly attributed to this +habit. The Brazilians are so dexterous with the knife that they can +throw it to some distance with precision, and with sufficient force +to cause a fatal wound. I have seen a number of little boys +practising this art as a game of play, and from their skill in +hitting an upright stick, they promised well for more earnest +attempts. My companion, the day before, had shot two large bearded +monkeys. These animals have prehensile tails, the extremity of +which, even after death, can support the whole weight of the body. +One of them thus remained fast to a branch, and it was necessary to +cut down a large tree to procure it. This was soon effected, and +down came tree and monkey with an awful crash. Our day’s sport, +besides the monkey, was confined to sundry small green parrots and +a few toucans. I profited, however, by my acquaintance with the +Portuguese padre, for on another occasion he gave me a fine +specimen of the Yagouaroundi cat.</p> + +<p>Every one has heard of the beauty of the scenery near Botofogo. +The house in which I lived was seated close beneath the well-known +mountain of the Corcovado. It has been remarked, with much truth, +that abruptly conical hills are characteristic of +<a name="page30"></a> +the formation which Humboldt designates as gneiss-granite. +Nothing can be more striking than the effect of these huge rounded +masses of naked rock rising out of the most luxuriant +vegetation.</p> + +<p>I was often interested by watching the clouds, which, rolling in +from seaward, formed a bank just beneath the highest point of the +Corcovado. This mountain, like most others, when thus partly +veiled, appeared to rise to a far prouder elevation than its real +height of 2300 feet. Mr. Daniell has observed, in his +meteorological essays, that a cloud sometimes appears fixed on a +mountain summit, while the wind continues to blow over it. The same +phenomenon here presented a slightly different appearance. In this +case the cloud was clearly seen to curl over, and rapidly pass by +the summit, and yet was neither diminished nor increased in size. +The sun was setting, and a gentle southerly breeze, striking +against the southern side of the rock, mingled its current with the +colder air above; and the vapour was thus condensed: but as the +light wreaths of cloud passed over the ridge, and came within the +influence of the warmer atmosphere of the northern sloping bank, +they were immediately redissolved.</p> + +<p>The climate, during the months of May and June, or the beginning +of winter, was delightful. The mean temperature, from observations +taken at nine o’clock, both morning and evening, was only 72°. +It often rained heavily, but the drying southerly winds soon again +rendered the walks pleasant. One morning, in the course of six +hours, 1.6 inches of rain fell. As this storm passed over the +forests which surround the Corcovado, the sound produced by the +drops pattering on the countless multitude of leaves was very +remarkable, it could be heard at the distance of a quarter of a +mile, and was like the rushing of a great body of water. After the +hotter days, it was delicious to sit quietly in the garden and +watch the evening pass into night. Nature, in these climes, chooses +her vocalists from more humble performers than in Europe. A small +frog, of the genus Hyla, sits on a blade of grass about an inch +above the surface of the water, and sends forth a pleasing chirp: +when several are together they sing in harmony on different notes. +I had some difficulty in catching a specimen of this frog. The +genus Hyla has its toes terminated by small suckers; and I found +this animal could crawl up a pane of glass, when placed +<a name="page31"></a> +absolutely perpendicular. Various cicadæ and crickets, at the +same time, keep up a ceaseless shrill cry, but which, softened by +the distance, is not unpleasant. Every evening after dark this +great concert commenced; and often have I sat listening to it, +until my attention has been drawn away by some curious passing +insect.</p> + +<p>At these times the fireflies are seen flitting about from hedge +to hedge. On a dark night the light can be seen at about two +hundred paces distant. It is remarkable that in all the different +kinds of glowworms, shining elaters, and various marine animals +(such as the crustacea, medusæ, nereidæ, a coralline of the genus +Clytia, and Pyrosoma), which I have observed, the light has been of +a well-marked green colour. All the fireflies, which I caught here, +belonged to the Lampyridæ (in which family the English glowworm is +included), and the greater number of specimens were of Lampyris +occidentalis.<a href="#fn-2.4" name="fnref-2.4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> +I found that this insect emitted the most brilliant flashes when irritated: in +the intervals, the abdominal rings were obscured. The flash was almost +coinstantaneous in the two rings, but it was just perceptible first in the +anterior one. The shining matter was fluid and very adhesive: little spots, +where the skin had been torn, continued bright with a slight scintillation, +whilst the uninjured parts were obscured. When the insect was decapitated the +rings remained uninterruptedly bright, but not so brilliant as before: local +irritation with a needle always increased the vividness of the light. The rings +in one instance retained their luminous property nearly twenty-four hours after +the death of the insect. From these facts it would appear probable, that the +animal has only the power of concealing or extinguishing the light for short +intervals, and that at other times the display is involuntary. On the muddy and +wet gravel-walks I found the larvæ of this lampyris in great numbers: they +resembled in general form the female of the English glowworm. These larvæ +possessed but feeble luminous powers; very differently from their parents, on +the slightest touch they feigned death, and ceased to shine; nor did irritation +excite any fresh display. I kept several of them alive for some time: their +tails are very singular organs, for they act, by a well-fitted contrivance, as +suckers or organs of attachment, +<a name="page32"></a> +and likewise as reservoirs for saliva, or some such fluid. I +repeatedly fed them on raw meat; and I invariably observed, that +every now and then the extremity of the tail was applied to the +mouth, and a drop of fluid exuded on the meat, which was then in +the act of being consumed. The tail, notwithstanding so much +practice, does not seem to be able to find its way to the mouth; at +least the neck was always touched first, and apparently as a +guide.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-2.4"></a> <a href="#fnref-2.4">[4]</a> +I am greatly indebted to Mr. Waterhouse for his kindness in naming for me this +and many other insects, and giving me much valuable assistance.</p> + +<p>When we were at Bahia, an elater or beetle (Pyrophorus +luminosus, Illig.) seemed the most common luminous insect. The +light in this case was also rendered more brilliant by irritation. +I amused myself one day by observing the springing powers of this +insect, which have not, as it appears to me, been properly +described.<a href="#fn-2.5" name="fnref-2.5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> +The elater, when placed on its back and preparing to spring, moved its head and +thorax backwards, so that the pectoral spine was drawn out, and rested on the +edge of its sheath. The same backward movement being continued, the spine, by +the full action of the muscles, was bent like a spring; and the insect at this +moment rested on the extremity of its head and wing-cases. The effort being +suddenly relaxed, the head and thorax flew up, and in consequence, the base of +the wing-cases struck the supporting surface with such force, that the insect +by the reaction was jerked upwards to the height of one or two inches. The +projecting points of the thorax, and the sheath of the spine, served to steady +the whole body during the spring. In the descriptions which I have read, +sufficient stress does not appear to have been laid on the elasticity of the +spine: so sudden a spring could not be the result of simple muscular +contraction, without the aid of some mechanical contrivance.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-2.5"></a> <a href="#fnref-2.5">[5]</a> +Kirby’s <i>Entomology</i>, vol. ii, p. 317.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +On several occasions I enjoyed some short but most pleasant excursions in the +neighbouring country. One day I went to the Botanic Garden, where many plants, +well known for their great utility, might be seen growing. The leaves of the +camphor, pepper, cinnamon, and clove trees were delightfully aromatic; and the +bread-fruit, the jaca, and the mango, vied with each other in the magnificence +of their foliage. The landscape in the neighbourhood of Bahia almost takes its +character +<a name="page33"></a> +from the two latter trees. Before seeing them, I had no idea that any trees +could cast so black a shade on the ground. Both of them bear to the evergreen +vegetation of these climates the same kind of relation which laurels and +hollies in England do to the lighter green of the deciduous trees. It may be +observed that the houses within the tropics are surrounded by the most +beautiful forms of vegetation, because many of them are at the same time most +useful to man. Who can doubt that these qualities are united in the banana, the +cocoa-nut, the many kinds of palm, the orange, and the bread-fruit tree? +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl11.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl11.jpg" width="470" height="307" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p>During this day I was particularly struck with a remark of +Humboldt’s, who often alludes to “the thin vapour which, without +changing the transparency of the air, renders its tints more +harmonious, and softens its effects.” This is an appearance which I +have never observed in the temperate zones. The atmosphere, seen +through a short space of half or three-quarters of a mile, was +perfectly lucid, but at a greater distance all colours were blended +into a most beautiful haze, of a pale French grey, mingled with a +little blue. The condition of the atmosphere between the morning +and about noon, when the effect was most evident, had undergone +little change, excepting in its dryness. In the interval, the +difference between the dew point and temperature had increased from +7.5° to 17°.</p> + +<p>On another occasion I started early and walked to the Gavia, or +topsail mountain. The air was delightfully cool and fragrant; and +the drops of dew still glittered on the leaves of the large +liliaceous plants, which shaded the streamlets of clear water. +Sitting down on a block of granite, it was delightful to watch the +various insects and birds as they flew past. The humming-bird seems +particularly fond of such shady retired spots. Whenever I saw these +little creatures buzzing round a flower, with their wings vibrating +so rapidly as to be scarcely visible, I was reminded of the sphinx +moths: their movements and habits are indeed in many respects very +similar.</p> + +<p>Following a pathway I entered a noble forest, and from a height +of five or six hundred feet, one of those splendid views was +presented, which are so common on every side of Rio. At this +elevation the landscape attains its most brilliant tint; and every +form, every shade, so completely surpasses in magnificence all that +the European has ever beheld in his own country, that +<a name="page34"></a> +he knows not how to express his feelings. The general effect +frequently recalled to my mind the gayest scenery of the +Opera-house or the great theatres. I never returned from these +excursions empty-handed. This day I found a specimen of a curious +fungus, called Hymenophallus. Most people know the English Phallus, +which in autumn taints the air with its odious smell: this, +however, as the entomologist is aware, is to some of our beetles a +delightful fragrance. So was it here; for a Strongylus, attracted +by the odour, alighted on the fungus as I carried it in my hand. We +here see in two distant countries a similar relation between plants +and insects of the same families, though the species of both are +different. When man is the agent in introducing into a country a +new species this relation is often broken: as one instance of this +I may mention that the leaves of the cabbages and lettuces, which +in England afford food to such a multitude of slugs and +caterpillars, in the gardens near Rio are untouched.</p> + +<p> +During our stay at Brazil I made a large collection of insects. A few general +observations on the comparative importance of the different orders may be +interesting to the English entomologist. The large and brilliantly-coloured +Lepidoptera bespeak the zone they inhabit, far more plainly than any other race +of animals. I allude only to the butterflies; for the moths, contrary to what +might have been expected from the rankness of the vegetation, certainly +appeared in much fewer numbers than in our own temperate regions. I was much +surprised at the habits of <a href="#pl12.jpg">Papilio feronia.</a> This +butterfly is not uncommon, and generally frequents the orange-groves. Although +a high flier, yet it very frequently alights on the trunks of trees. On these +occasions its head is invariably placed downwards; and its wings are expanded +in a horizontal plane, instead of being folded vertically, as is commonly the +case. This is the only butterfly which I have ever seen that uses its legs for +running. Not being aware of this fact, the insect, more than once, as I +cautiously approached with my forceps, shuffled on one side just as the +instrument was on the point of closing, and thus escaped. But a far more +singular fact is the power which this species possesses of making a +noise.<a href="#fn-2.6" name="fnref-2.6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> +Several times when a pair, +<a name="page35"></a> +probably male and female, were chasing each other in an irregular course, they +passed within a few yards of me; and I distinctly heard a clicking noise, +similar to that produced by a toothed wheel passing under a spring catch. The +noise was continued at short intervals, and could be distinguished at about +twenty yards’ distance: I am certain there is no error in the +observation. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-2.6"></a> <a href="#fnref-2.6">[6]</a> +Mr. Doubleday has lately described (before the Entomological Society, March +3rd, 1845) a peculiar structure in the wings of this butterfly, which seems to +be the means of its making its noise. He says, “It is remarkable for +having a sort of drum at the base of the fore wings, between the costal nervure +and the subcostal. These two nervures, moreover, have a peculiar screw-like +diaphragm or vessel in the interior.” I find in Langsdorff’s +travels (in the years 1803-7, p. 74) it is said, that in the island of St. +Catherine’s on the coast of Brazil, a butterfly called Februa +Hoffmanseggi, makes a noise, when flying away, like a rattle.</p> + +<p>I was disappointed in the general aspect of the Coleoptera. The +number of minute and obscurely coloured beetles is exceedingly +great.<a href="#fn-2.7" name="fnref-2.7"><sup>[7]</sup></a> +The cabinets of Europe can, as yet, boast only of the larger species from +tropical climates. It is sufficient to disturb the composure of an +entomologist’s mind, to look forward to the future dimensions of a +complete catalogue. The carnivorous beetles, or Carabidæ, appear in extremely +few numbers within the tropics: this is the more remarkable when compared to +the case of the carnivorous quadrupeds, which are so abundant in hot countries. +I was struck with this observation both on entering Brazil, and when I saw the +many elegant and active forms of the Harpalidæ reappearing on the temperate +plains of La Plata. Do the very numerous spiders and rapacious Hymenoptera +supply the place of the carnivorous beetles? The carrion-feeders and +Brachelytra are very uncommon; on the other hand, the Rhyncophora and +Chrysomelidæ, all of which depend on the vegetable world for subsistence, are +present in astonishing numbers. I do not here refer to the number of different +species, but to that of the individual insects; for on this it is that the most +striking character in the entomology of different countries depends. The orders +Orthoptera and Hemiptera are particularly numerous; as likewise is the stinging +division of the Hymenoptera; the bees, perhaps, being excepted. A person, on +first entering a tropical +<a name="page36"></a> +forest, is astonished at the labours of the ants: well-beaten +paths branch off in every direction, on which an army of +never-failing foragers may be seen, some going forth, and others +returning, burdened with pieces of green leaf, often larger than +their own bodies.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-2.7"></a> <a href="#fnref-2.7">[7]</a> +I may mention, as a common instance of one day’s (June 23rd) collecting, +when I was not attending particularly to the Coleoptera, that I caught +sixty-eight species of that order. Among these, there were only two of the +Carabidæ, four Brachelytra, fifteen Rhyncophora, and fourteen of the +Chrysomelidæ. Thirty-seven species of Arachnidæ, which I brought home, will be +sufficient to prove that I was not paying overmuch attention to the generally +favoured order of Coleoptera.</p> + +<p>A small dark-coloured ant sometimes migrates in countless +numbers. One day, at Bahia, my attention was drawn by observing +many spiders, cockroaches, and other insects, and some lizards, +rushing in the greatest agitation across a bare piece of ground. A +little way behind, every stalk and leaf was blackened by a small +ant. The swarm having crossed the bare space, divided itself, and +descended an old wall. By this means many insects were fairly +enclosed; and the efforts which the poor little creatures made to +extricate themselves from such a death were wonderful. When the +ants came to the road they changed their course, and in narrow +files reascended the wall. Having placed a small stone so as to +intercept one of the lines, the whole body attacked it, and then +immediately retired. Shortly afterwards another body came to the +charge, and again having failed to make any impression, this line +of march was entirely given up. By going an inch round, the file +might have avoided the stone, and this doubtless would have +happened, if it had been originally there: but having been +attacked, the lion-hearted little warriors scorned the idea of +yielding.</p> + +<p>Certain wasp-like insects, which construct in the corners of the +verandahs clay cells for their larvæ, are very numerous in +the neighbourhood of Rio. These cells they stuff full of half-dead +spiders and caterpillars, which they seem wonderfully to know how +to sting to that degree as to leave them paralysed but alive, until +their eggs are hatched; and the larvae feed on the horrid mass of +powerless, half-killed victims—a sight which has been +described by an enthusiastic naturalist<a href="#fn-2.8" name="fnref-2.8"><sup>[8]</sup></a> +as curious and pleasing! I was much interested one day by watching a deadly +contest between a Pepsis and a large spider of the genus Lycosa. The wasp made +a sudden dash at its prey, and then flew away: the spider was evidently +wounded, for, trying to escape, it rolled down a little slope, but had still +strength +<a name="page37"></a> +sufficient to crawl into a thick tuft of grass. The wasp soon +returned, and seemed surprised at not immediately finding its +victim. It then commenced as regular a hunt as ever hound did after +fox; making short semicircular casts, and all the time rapidly +vibrating its wings and antennæ. The spider, though well +concealed, was soon discovered, and the wasp, evidently still +afraid of its adversary’s jaws, after much manœuvring, +inflicted two stings on the under side of its thorax. At last, +carefully examining with its antennæ the now motionless +spider, it proceeded to drag away the body. But I stopped both +tyrant and prey.<a href="#fn-2.9" name="fnref-2.9"><sup>[9]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-2.8"></a> <a href="#fnref-2.8">[8]</a> +In a Manuscript in the British Museum by Mr. Abbott, who made his observations +in Georgia; see Mr. A. White’s paper in the <i>Annals of Natural +History</i>, vol. vii, p. 472. Lieutenant Hutton has described a sphex with +similar habits in India, in the <i>Journal of the Asiatic Society</i>, vol. i, +p. 555.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-2.9"></a> <a href="#fnref-2.9">[9]</a> +Don Felix Azara (vol. i, p. 175), mentioning a hymenopterous insect, probably +of the same genus, says he saw it dragging a dead spider through tall grass, in +a straight line to its nest, which was one hundred and sixty-three paces +distant. He adds that the wasp, in order to find the road, every now and then +made “demi-tours d’environ trois palmes.”</p> + +<p>The number of spiders, in proportion to other insects, is here +compared with England very much larger; perhaps more so than with +any other division of the articulate animals. The variety of +species among the jumping spiders appears almost infinite. The +genus, or rather family of Epeira, is here characterized by many +singular forms; some species have pointed coriaceous shells, others +enlarged and spiny tibiæ. Every path in the forest is +barricaded with the strong yellow web of a species, belonging to +the same division with the Epeira clavipes of Fabricius, which was +formerly said by Sloane to make, in the West Indies, webs so strong +as to catch birds. A small and pretty kind of spider, with very +long fore-legs, and which appears to belong to an undescribed +genus, lives as a parasite on almost every one of these webs. I +suppose it is too insignificant to be noticed by the great Epeira, +and is therefore allowed to prey on the minute insects, which, +adhering to the lines, would otherwise be wasted. When frightened, +this little spider either feigns death by extending its front legs, +or suddenly drops from the web. A large Epeira of the same division +with Epeira tuberculata and conica is extremely common, especially +in dry situations. Its web, which is generally placed among the +great leaves of the common agave, is sometimes strengthened near +the centre by a pair or even four zigzag ribbons, which connect two +adjoining rays. When any large insect, as a grasshopper or wasp, is +caught, the spider, by a dexterous movement, makes it revolve +<a name="page38"></a> +very rapidly, and at the same time emitting a band of threads +from its spinners, soon envelops its prey in a case like the cocoon +of a silkworm. The spider now examines the powerless victim, and +gives the fatal bite on the hinder part of its thorax; then +retreating, patiently waits till the poison has taken effect. The +virulence of this poison may be judged of from the fact that in +half a minute I opened the mesh, and found a large wasp quite +lifeless. This Epeira always stands with its head downwards near +the centre of the web. When disturbed, it acts differently +according to circumstances: if there is a thicket below, it +suddenly falls down; and I have distinctly seen the thread from the +spinners lengthened by the animal while yet stationary, as +preparatory to its fall. If the ground is clear beneath, the Epeira +seldom falls, but moves quickly through a central passage from one +to the other side. When still further disturbed, it practises a +most curious manœuvre: standing in the middle, it violently +jerks the web, which is attached to elastic twigs, till at last the +whole acquires such a rapid vibratory movement, that even the +outline of the spider’s body becomes indistinct.</p> + +<p>It is well known that most of the British spiders, when a large +insect is caught in their webs, endeavour to cut the lines and +liberate their prey, to save their nets from being entirely +spoiled. I once, however, saw in a hot-house in Shropshire a large +female wasp caught in the irregular web of a quite small spider; +and this spider, instead of cutting the web, most perseveringly +continued to entangle the body, and especially the wings, of its +prey. The wasp at first aimed in vain repeated thrusts with its +sting at its little antagonist. Pitying the wasp, after allowing it +to struggle for more than an hour, I killed it and put it back into +the web. The spider soon returned; and an hour afterwards I was +much surprised to find it with its jaws buried in the orifice +through which the sting is protruded by the living wasp. I drove +the spider away two or three times, but for the next twenty-four +hours I always found it again sucking at the same place. The spider +became much distended by the juices of its prey, which was many +times larger than itself.</p> + +<p>I may here just mention, that I found, near St. Fé +Bajada, many large black spiders, with ruby-coloured marks on their +backs, having gregarious habits. The webs were placed +<a name="page39"></a> +vertically, as is invariably the case with the genus Epeira: +they were separated from each other by a space of about two feet, +but were all attached to certain common lines, which were of great +length, and extended to all parts of the community. In this manner +the tops of some large bushes were encompassed by the united nets. +Azara<a href="#fn-2.10" name="fnref-2.10"><sup>[10]</sup></a> +has described a gregarious spider in Paraguay, which Walckanaer thinks must be +a Theridion, but probably it is an Epeira, and perhaps even the same species +with mine. I cannot, however, recollect seeing a central nest as large as a +hat, in which, during autumn, when the spiders die, Azara says the eggs are +deposited. As all the spiders which I saw were of the same size, they must have +been nearly of the same age. This gregarious habit, in so typical a genus as +Epeira, among insects, which are so bloodthirsty and solitary that even the two +sexes attack each other, is a very singular fact.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-2.10"></a> <a href="#fnref-2.10">[10]</a> +Azara’s <i>Voyage</i>, vol. 1, p. 213. +</p> + +<p>In a lofty valley of the Cordillera, near Mendoza, I found +another spider with a singularly-formed web. Strong lines radiated +in a vertical plane from a common centre, where the insect had its +station; but only two of the rays were connected by a symmetrical +mesh-work; so that the net, instead of being, as is generally the +case, circular, consisted of a wedge-shaped segment. All the webs +were similarly constructed.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl12.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl12.jpg" width="237" height="218" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl13.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl13.jpg" width="291" height="263" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="page40"></a><a name="chiii"></a>Chapter III</h2> + +<p class="letter"> +Monte Video—Maldonado—Excursion to R. Polanco—Lazo and +Bolas—Partridges—Absence of Trees—Deer—Capybara, or +River Hog—Tucutuco—Molothrus, cuckoo-like +habits—Tyrant-flycatcher—Mocking-bird—Carrion +Hawks—Tubes formed by Lightning—House struck. +</p> + +<h3>MALDONADO</h3> + +<p> +<i>July</i> 5<i>th</i>, 1832.—In the morning we got under way, and stood +out of the splendid harbour of Rio de Janeiro. In our passage to the Plata, we +saw nothing particular, excepting on one day a great shoal of porpoises, many +hundreds in number. The whole sea was in places furrowed by them; and a most +extraordinary spectacle was presented, as hundreds, proceeding together by +jumps, in which their whole bodies were exposed, thus cut the water. When the +ship was running nine knots an hour, these animals could cross and recross the +bows with the +<a name="page41"></a> +greatest ease, and then dash away right ahead. As soon as we entered the +estuary of the Plata, the weather was very unsettled. One dark night we were +surrounded by numerous seals and penguins, which made such strange noises, that +the officer on watch reported he could hear the cattle bellowing on shore. On a +second night we witnessed a splendid scene of natural fireworks; the mast-head +and yard-arm ends shone with St. Elmo’s light; and the form of the vane +could almost be traced, as if it had been rubbed with phosphorus. The sea was +so highly luminous, that the tracks of the penguins were marked by a fiery +wake, and the darkness of the sky was momentarily illuminated by the most vivid +lightning. +</p> + +<p>When within the mouth of the river, I was interested by +observing how slowly the waters of the sea and river mixed. The +latter, muddy and discoloured, from its less specific gravity, +floated on the surface of the salt water. This was curiously +exhibited in the wake of the vessel, where a line of blue water was +seen mingling in little eddies with the adjoining fluid.</p> + +<p> +<i>July</i> 26<i>th</i>, 1832.—We anchored at Monte Video. The +<i>Beagle</i> was employed in surveying the extreme southern and eastern coasts +of America, south of the Plata, during the two succeeding years. To prevent +useless repetitions, I will extract those parts of my journal which refer to +the same districts, without always attending to the order in which we visited +them. +</p> + +<p>M<small>ALDONADO</small> is situated on the northern bank of the +Plata, and not very far from the mouth of the estuary. It is a most +quiet, forlorn, little town; built, as is universally the case in +these countries, with the streets running at right angles to each +other, and having in the middle a large plaza or square, which, +from its size, renders the scantiness of the population more +evident. It possesses scarcely any trade; the exports being +confined to a few hides and living cattle. The inhabitants are +chiefly landowners, together with a few shopkeepers and the +necessary tradesmen, such as blacksmiths and carpenters, who do +nearly all the business for a circuit of fifty miles round. The +town is separated from the river by a band of sand-hillocks, about +a mile broad: it is surrounded on all other sides by an +<a name="page42"></a> +open slightly-undulating country, covered by one uniform layer +of fine green turf, on which countless herds of cattle, sheep, and +horses graze. There is very little land cultivated even close to +the town. A few hedges made of cacti and agave mark out where some +wheat or Indian corn has been planted. The features of the country +are very similar along the whole northern bank of the Plata. The +only difference is, that here the granitic hills are a little +bolder. The scenery is very uninteresting; there is scarcely a +house, an enclosed piece of ground, or even a tree, to give it an +air of cheerfulness. Yet, after being imprisoned for some time in a +ship, there is a charm in the unconfined feeling of walking over +boundless plains of turf. Moreover, if your view is limited to a +small space, many objects possess beauty. Some of the smaller birds +are brilliantly coloured; and the bright green sward, browsed short +by the cattle, is ornamented by dwarf flowers, among which a plant, +looking like the daisy, claimed the place of an old friend. What +would a florist say to whole tracts, so thickly covered by the +Verbena melindres, as, even at a distance, to appear of the most +gaudy scarlet?</p> + +<p>I stayed ten weeks at Maldonado, in which time a nearly perfect +collection of the animals, birds, and reptiles, was procured. +Before making any observations respecting them, I will give an +account of a little excursion I made as far as the river Polanco, +which is about seventy miles distant, in a northerly direction. I +may mention, as a proof how cheap everything is in this country, +that I paid only two dollars a day or eight shillings, for two men, +together with a troop of about a dozen riding-horses. My companions +were well armed with pistols and sabres; a precaution which I +thought rather unnecessary; but the first piece of news we heard +was, that, the day before, a traveller from Monte Video had been +found dead on the road, with his throat cut. This happened close to +a cross, the record of a former murder.</p> + +<p>On the first night we slept at a retired little country-house; +and there I soon found out that I possessed two or three articles, +especially a pocket compass, which created unbounded astonishment. +In every house I was asked to show the compass, and by its aid, +together with a map, to point out the direction +<a name="page43"></a> +of various places. It excited the liveliest admiration that I, a +perfect stranger, should know the road (for direction and road are +synonymous in this open country) to places where I had never been. +At one house a young woman who was ill in bed, sent to entreat me +to come and show her the compass. If their surprise was great, mine +was greater, to find such ignorance among people who possessed +their thousands of cattle, and “estancias” of great extent. It can +only be accounted for by the circumstance that this retired part of +the country is seldom visited by foreigners. I was asked whether +the earth or sun moved; whether it was hotter or colder to the +north; where Spain was, and many other such questions. The greater +number of the inhabitants had an indistinct idea that England, +London, and North America, were different names for the same place; +but the better informed well knew that London and North America +were separate countries close together, and that England was a +large town in London! I carried with me some promethean matches, +which I ignited by biting; it was thought so wonderful that a man +should strike fire with his teeth, that it was usual to collect the +whole family to see it: I was once offered a dollar for a single +one. Washing my face in the morning caused much speculation at the +village of Las Minas; a superior tradesman closely cross-questioned +me about so singular a practice; and likewise why on board we wore +our beards; for he had heard from my guide that we did so. He eyed +me with much suspicion; perhaps he had heard of ablutions in the +Mahomedan religion, and knowing me to be a heretic, probably he +came to the conclusion that all heretics were Turks. It is the +general custom in this country to ask for a night’s lodging at the +first convenient house. The astonishment at the compass, and my +other feats of jugglery, was to a certain degree advantageous, as +with that, and the long stories my guides told of my breaking +stones, knowing venomous from harmless snakes, collecting insects, +etc., I repaid them for their hospitality. I am writing as if I had +been among the inhabitants of Central Africa: Banda Oriental would +not be flattered by the comparison; but such were my feelings at +the time.</p> + +<p>The next day we rode to the village of Las Minas. The country +was rather more hilly, but otherwise continued the +<a name="page44"></a> +same; an inhabitant of the Pampas no doubt would have considered +it as truly alpine. The country is so thinly inhabited, that during +the whole day we scarcely met a single person. Las Minas is much +smaller even than Maldonado. It is seated on a little plain, and is +surrounded by low rocky mountains. It is of the usual symmetrical +form, and with its whitewashed church standing in the centre, had +rather a pretty appearance. The outskirting houses rose out of the +plain like isolated beings, without the accompaniment of gardens or +courtyards. This is generally the case in the country, and all the +houses have, in consequence, an uncomfortable aspect. At night we +stopped at a pulperia, or drinking-shop. During the evening a great +number of Gauchos came in to drink spirits and smoke cigars: their +appearance is very striking; they are generally tall and handsome, +but with a proud and dissolute expression of countenance. They +frequently wear their moustaches, and long black hair curling down +their backs. With their brightly coloured garments, great spurs +clanking about their heels, and knives stuck as daggers (and often +so used) at their waists, they look a very different race of men +from what might be expected from their name of Gauchos, or simple +countrymen. Their politeness is excessive; they never drink their +spirits without expecting you to taste it; but whilst making their +exceedingly graceful bow, they seem quite as ready, if occasion +offered, to cut your throat.</p> + +<p>On the third day we pursued rather an irregular course, as I was +employed in examining some beds of marble. On the fine plains of +turf we saw many ostriches (Struthio rhea). Some of the flocks +contained as many as twenty or thirty birds. These, when standing +on any little eminence, and seen against the clear sky, presented a +very noble appearance. I never met with such tame ostriches in any +other part of the country: it was easy to gallop up within a short +distance of them; but then, expanding their wings, they made all +sail right before the wind, and soon left the horse astern.</p> + +<p>At night we came to the house of Don Juan Fuentes, a rich landed +proprietor, but not personally known to either of my companions. On +approaching the house of a stranger, it is usual to follow several +little points of etiquette: riding up slowly to the door, the +salutation of Ave Maria is given, and +<a name="page45"></a> +until somebody comes out and asks you to alight, it is not +customary even to get off your horse: the formal answer of the +owner is, “sin pecado concebida”—that is, conceived without sin. +Having entered the house, some general conversation is kept up for +a few minutes, till permission is asked to pass the night there. +This is granted as a matter of course. The stranger then takes his +meals with the family, and a room is assigned him, where with the +horsecloths belonging to his recado (or saddle of the Pampas) he +makes his bed. It is curious how similar circumstances produce such +similar results in manners. At the Cape of Good Hope the same +hospitality, and very nearly the same points of etiquette, are +universally observed. The difference, however, between the +character of the Spaniard and that of the Dutch boor is shown, by +the former never asking his guest a single question beyond the +strictest rule of politeness, whilst the honest Dutchman demands +where he has been, where he is going, what is his business, and +even how many brothers, sisters, or children he may happen to +have.</p> + +<p>Shortly after our arrival at Don Juan’s one of the largest herds +of cattle was driven in towards the house, and three beasts were +picked out to be slaughtered for the supply of the establishment. +These half-wild cattle are very active; and knowing full well the +fatal lazo, they led the horses a long and laborious chase. After +witnessing the rude wealth displayed in the number of cattle, men, +and horses, Don Juan’s miserable house was quite curious. The floor +consisted of hardened mud, and the windows were without glass; the +sitting-room boasted only of a few of the roughest chairs and +stools, with a couple of tables. The supper, although several +strangers were present, consisted of two huge piles, one of roast +beef, the other of boiled, with some pieces of pumpkin: besides +this latter there was no other vegetable, and not even a morsel of +bread. For drinking, a large earthenware jug of water served the +whole party. Yet this man was the owner of several square miles of +land, of which nearly every acre would produce corn, and, with a +little trouble, all the common vegetables. The evening was spent in +smoking, with a little impromptu singing, accompanied by the +guitar. The signoritas all sat together in one corner of the room, +and did not sup with the men.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl14.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl14.jpg" width="198" height="108" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p> +So many works have been written about these countries, +<a name="page46"></a> +that it is almost superfluous to describe either the lazo or the bolas. The +lazo consists of a very strong, but thin, well-plaited rope, made of raw hide. +One end is attached to the broad surcingle, which fastens together the +complicated gear of the recado, or saddle used in the Pampas; the other is +terminated by a small ring of iron or brass, by which a noose can be formed. +The Gaucho, when he is going to use the lazo, keeps a small coil in his +bridle-hand, and in the other holds the running noose, which is made very +large, generally having a diameter of about eight feet. This he whirls round +his head, and by the dexterous movement of his wrist keeps the noose open; +then, throwing it, he causes it to fall on any particular spot he chooses. The +lazo, when not used, is tied up in a small coil to the after part of the +recado. The <a href="#pl51.jpg">bolas,</a> or balls, are of two kinds: +the simplest, which is chiefly used for catching ostriches, consists of two +round stones, covered with leather, and united by a thin plaited thong, about +eight feet long. The other kind differs only in having three balls united by +the thongs to a common centre. The Gaucho holds the smallest of the three in +his hand, and whirls the other two round and round his head; then, taking aim, +sends them like chain shot revolving through the air. The balls no sooner +strike any object, than, winding round it, they cross each other, and become +firmly hitched. The size and weight of the balls varies, according to the +purpose for which they are made: when of stone, although not larger than an +apple, they are sent with such force as sometimes to break the leg even of a +horse. I have seen the balls made of wood, and as large as a turnip, for the +sake of catching these animals without injuring them. The balls are sometimes +made of iron, and these can be hurled to +<a name="page47"></a> +the greatest distance. The main difficulty in using either lazo or bolas is to +ride so well as to be able at full speed, and while suddenly turning about, to +whirl them so steadily round the head, as to take aim: on foot any person would +soon learn the art. One day, as I was amusing myself by galloping and whirling +the balls round my head, by accident the free one struck a bush, and its +revolving motion being thus destroyed, it immediately fell to the ground, and, +like magic caught one hind leg of my horse; the other ball was then jerked out +of my hand, and the horse fairly secured. Luckily he was an old practised +animal, and knew what it meant; otherwise he would probably have kicked till he +had thrown himself down. The Gauchos roared with laughter; they cried out that +they had seen every sort of animal caught, but had never before seen a man +caught by himself. +</p> + +<p>During the two succeeding days, I reached the farthest point +which I was anxious to examine. The country wore the same aspect, +till at last the fine green turf became more wearisome than a dusty +turnpike road. We everywhere saw great numbers of partridges +(Nothura major). These birds do not go in coveys, nor do they +conceal themselves like the English kind. It appears a very silly +bird. A man on horseback by riding round and round in a circle, or +rather in a spire, so as to approach closer each time, may knock on +the head as many as he pleases. The more common method is to catch +them with a running noose, or little lazo, made of the stem of an +ostrich’s feather, fastened to the end of a long stick. A boy on a +quiet old horse will frequently thus catch thirty or forty in a +day. In Arctic North America<a href="#fn-3.1" name="fnref-3.1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> +the Indians catch the Varying Hare by walking spirally round and round it, when +on its form: the middle of the day is reckoned the best time, when the sun is +high, and the shadow of the hunter not very long.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-3.1"></a> <a href="#fnref-3.1">[1]</a> +Hearne’s <i>Journey</i>, p. 383.</p> + +<p>On our return to Maldonado, we followed rather a different line +of road. Near Pan de Azucar, a landmark well known to all those who +have sailed up the Plata, I stayed a day at the house of a most +hospitable old Spaniard. Early in the morning we ascended the +Sierra de las Animas. By the aid of the rising sun the scenery was +almost picturesque. To the westward +<a name="page48"></a> +the view extended over an immense level plain as far as the +Mount, at Monte Video, and to the eastward, over the mammillated +country of Maldonado. On the summit of the mountain there were +several small heaps of stones, which evidently had lain there for +many years. My companion assured me that they were the work of the +Indians in the old time. The heaps were similar, but on a much +smaller scale, to those so commonly found on the mountains of +Wales. The desire to signalise any event, on the highest point of +the neighbouring land, seems a universal passion with mankind. At +the present day, not a single Indian, either civilised or wild, +exists in this part of the province; nor am I aware that the former +inhabitants have left behind them any more permanent records than +these insignificant piles on the summit of the Sierra de las +Animas.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +The general, and almost entire absence of trees in Banda Oriental is +remarkable. Some of the rocky hills are partly covered by thickets, and on the +banks of the larger streams, especially to the north of Las Minas, willow-trees +are not uncommon. Near the Arroyo Tapes I heard of a wood of palms; and one of +these trees, of considerable size, I saw near the Pan de Azucar, in lat. +35°. These, and the trees planted by the Spaniards, offer the only +exceptions to the general scarcity of wood. Among the introduced kinds may be +enumerated poplars, olives, peach, and other fruit trees: the peaches succeed +so well, that they afford the main supply of firewood to the city of Buenos +Ayres. Extremely level countries, such as the Pampas, seldom appear favourable +to the growth of trees. This may possibly be attributed either to the force of +the winds, or the kind of drainage. In the nature of the land, however, around +Maldonado, no such reason is apparent; the rocky mountains afford protected +situations; enjoying various kinds of soil; streamlets of water are common at +the bottoms of nearly every valley; and the clayey nature of the earth seems +adapted to retain moisture. It has been inferred, with much probability, that +the presence of woodland is generally determined<a href="#fn-3.2" +name="fnref-3.2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> by the annual amount of moisture; yet in +this province abundant and heavy rain falls during the winter; and the summer, +though +<a name="page49"></a> +dry, is not so in any excessive degree.<a href="#fn-3.3" name="fnref-3.3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> +We see nearly the whole of Australia covered by lofty trees, yet that country +possesses a far more arid climate. Hence we must look to some other and unknown +cause.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-3.2"></a> <a href="#fnref-3.2">[2]</a> +Maclaren, article “America,” <i>Encyclopedia Britannica.</i> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-3.3"></a> <a href="#fnref-3.3">[3]</a> +Azara says “Je crois que la quantité annuelle des pluies est, dans toutes +ces contrées, plus considérable qu’en Espagne.”—Vol. i, p. +36.</p> + +<p>Confining our view to South America, we should certainly be +tempted to believe that trees flourished only under a very humid +climate; for the limit of the forest-land follows, in a most +remarkable manner, that of the damp winds. In the southern part of +the continent, where the western gales, charged with moisture from +the Pacific, prevail, every island on the broken west coast, from +lat. 38° to the extreme point of Tierra del Fuego, is densely +covered by impenetrable forests. On the eastern side of the +Cordillera, over the same extent of latitude, where a blue sky and +a fine climate prove that the atmosphere has been deprived of its +moisture by passing over the mountains, the arid plains of +Patagonia support a most scanty vegetation. In the more northern +parts of the continent, within the limits of the constant +south-eastern trade-wind, the eastern side is ornamented by +magnificent forests; whilst the western coast, from lat. 4° S. +to lat. 32° S., may be described as a desert; on this western +coast, northward of lat. 4° S., where the trade-wind loses its +regularity, and heavy torrents of rain fall periodically, the +shores of the Pacific, so utterly desert in Peru, assume near Cape +Blanco the character of luxuriance so celebrated at Guayaquil and +Panama. Hence in the southern and northern parts of the continent, +the forest and desert lands occupy reversed positions with respect +to the Cordillera, and these positions are apparently determined by +the direction of the prevalent winds. In the middle of the +continent there is a broad intermediate band, including central +Chile and the provinces of La Plata, where the rain-bringing winds +have not to pass over lofty mountains, and where the land is +neither a desert nor covered by forests. But even the rule, if +confined to South America, of trees flourishing only in a climate +rendered humid by rain-bearing winds, has a strongly marked +exception in the case of the Falkland Islands. These islands, +situated in the same latitude with Tierra del Fuego and only +between two and three hundred miles distant from it, having a +nearly similar +<a name="page50"></a> +climate, with a geological formation almost identical, with +favourable situations and the same kind of peaty soil, yet can +boast of few plants deserving even the title of bushes; whilst in +Tierra del Fuego it is impossible to find an acre of land not +covered by the densest forest. In this case, both the direction of +the heavy gales of wind and of the currents of the sea are +favourable to the transport of seeds from Tierra del Fuego, as is +shown by the canoes and trunks of trees drifted from that country, +and frequently thrown on the shores of the Western Falkland. Hence +perhaps it is, that there are many plants in common to the two +countries: but with respect to the trees of Tierra del Fuego, even +attempts made to transplant them have failed.</p> + +<p>During our stay at Maldonado I collected several quadrupeds, +eighty kinds of birds, and many reptiles, including nine species of +snakes. Of the indigenous mammalia, the only one now left of any +size, which is common, is the Cervus campestris. This deer is +exceedingly abundant, often in small herds, throughout the +countries bordering the Plata and in Northern Patagonia. If a +person crawling close along the ground, slowly advances towards a +herd, the deer frequently, out of curiosity, approach to +reconnoitre him. I have by this means, killed from one spot, three +out of the same herd. Although so tame and inquisitive, yet when +approached on horseback, they are exceedingly wary. In this country +nobody goes on foot, and the deer knows man as its enemy only when +he is mounted and armed with the bolas. At Bahia Blanca, a recent +establishment in Northern Patagonia, I was surprised to find how +little the deer cared for the noise of a gun: one day I fired ten +times from within eighty yards at one animal; and it was much more +startled at the ball cutting up the ground than at the report of +the rifle. My powder being exhausted, I was obliged to get up (to +my shame as a sportsman be it spoken, though well able to kill +birds on the wing) and halloo till the deer ran away.</p> + +<p>The most curious fact with respect to this animal, is the +overpoweringly strong and offensive odour which proceeds from the +buck. It is quite indescribable: several times whilst skinning the +specimen which is now mounted at the Zoological Museum, I was +almost overcome by nausea. I tied up the +<a name="page51"></a> +skin in a silk pocket-handkerchief, and so carried it home: this +handkerchief, after being well washed, I continually used, and it +was of course as repeatedly washed; yet every time, for a space of +one year and seven months, when first unfolded, I distinctly +perceived the odour. This appears an astonishing instance of the +permanence of some matter, which nevertheless in its nature must be +most subtile and volatile. Frequently, when passing at the distance +of half a mile to leeward of a herd, I have perceived the whole air +tainted with the effluvium. I believe the smell from the buck is +most powerful at the period when its horns are perfect, or free +from the hairy skin. When in this state the meat is, of course, +quite uneatable; but the Gauchos assert, that if buried for some +time in fresh earth, the taint is removed. I have somewhere read +that the islanders in the north of Scotland treat the rank +carcasses of the fish-eating birds in the same manner.</p> + +<p>The order Rodentia is here very numerous in species: of mice +alone I obtained no less than eight kinds.<a href="#fn-3.4" name="fnref-3.4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> +The largest gnawing animal in the world, the Hydrochærus capybara (the +water-hog), is here also common. One which I shot at Monte Video weighed +ninety-eight pounds: its length, from the end of the snout to the stump-like +tail, was three feet two inches; and its girth three feet eight. These great +Rodents occasionally frequent the islands in the mouth of the Plata, where the +water is quite salt, but are far more abundant on the borders of fresh-water +lakes and rivers. Near Maldonado three or four generally live together. In the +daytime they either lie among the aquatic plants, or openly feed on the turf +plain.<a href="#fn-3.5" name="fnref-3.5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> +When viewed at a distance, from their manner of walking and colour they +resemble pigs: but when seated on their haunches, and attentively watching any +object with one eye, +<a name="page52"></a> +they reassume the appearance of their congeners, cavies and +rabbits. Both the front and side view of their head has quite a +ludicrous aspect, from the great depth of their jaw. These animals, +at Maldonado, were very tame; by cautiously walking, I approached +within three yards of four old ones. This tameness may probably be +accounted for, by the Jaguar having been banished for some years, +and by the Gaucho not thinking it worth his while to hunt them. As +I approached nearer and nearer they frequently made their peculiar +noise, which is a low abrupt grunt, not having much actual sound, +but rather arising from the sudden expulsion of air: the only noise +I know at all like it, is the first hoarse bark of a large dog. +Having watched the four from almost within arm’s length (and they +me) for several minutes, they rushed into the water at full gallop +with the greatest impetuosity, and emitted at the same time their +bark. After diving a short distance they came again to the surface, +but only just showed the upper part of their heads. When the female +is swimming in the water, and has young ones, they are said to sit +on her back. These animals are easily killed in numbers; but their +skins are of trifling value, and the meat is very indifferent. On +the islands in the Rio Parana they are exceedingly abundant, and +afford the ordinary prey to the Jaguar.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-3.4"></a> <a href="#fnref-3.4">[4]</a> +In South America I collected altogether twenty-seven species of mice, and +thirteen more are known from the works of Azara and other authors. Those +collected by myself have been named and described by Mr. Waterhouse at the +meetings of the Zoological Society. I must be allowed to take this opportunity +of returning my cordial thanks to Mr. Waterhouse, and to the other gentleman +attached to that Society, for their kind and most liberal assistance on all +occasions. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-3.5"></a> <a href="#fnref-3.5">[5]</a> +In the stomach and duodenum of a capybara which I opened, I found a very large +quantity of a thin yellowish fluid, in which scarcely a fibre could be +distinguished. Mr. Owen informs me that a part of the œsophagus is so +constructed that nothing much larger than a crowquill can be passed down. +Certainly the broad teeth and strong jaws of this animal are well fitted to +grind into pulp the aquatic plants on which it feeds.</p> + +<p>The Tucutuco (Ctenomys Brasiliensis) is a curious small animal, +which may be briefly described as a Gnawer, with the habits of a +mole. It is extremely numerous in some parts of the country, but it +is difficult to be procured, and never, I believe, comes out of the +ground. It throws up at the mouth of its burrows hillocks of earth +like those of the mole, but smaller. Considerable tracts of country +are so completely undermined by these animals that horses, in +passing over, sink above their fetlocks. The tucutucos appear, to a +certain degree, to be gregarious: the man who procured the +specimens for me had caught six together, and he said this was a +common occurrence. They are nocturnal in their habits; and their +principal food is the roots of plants, which are the object of +their extensive and superficial burrows. This animal is universally +known by a very peculiar noise which it makes when beneath the +ground. A person, the first time he hears it, is much surprised; +for it is not easy to tell whence it comes, nor is it possible to +guess what +<a name="page53"></a> +kind of creature utters it. The noise consists in a short, but +not rough, nasal grunt, which is monotonously repeated about four +times in quick succession:<a href="#fn-3.6" name="fnref-3.6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> +the name Tucutuco is given in imitation of the sound. Where this animal is +abundant, it may be heard at all times of the day, and sometimes directly +beneath one’s feet. When kept in a room, the tucutucos move both slowly +and clumsily, which appears owing to the outward action of their hind legs; and +they are quite incapable, from the socket of the thigh-bone not having a +certain ligament, of jumping even the smallest vertical height. They are very +stupid in making any attempt to escape; when angry or frightened they utter the +tucu-tuco. Of those I kept alive, several, even the first day, became quite +tame, not attempting to bite or to run away; others were a little wilder.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-3.6"></a> <a href="#fnref-3.6">[6]</a> +At the R. Negro, in Northern Patagonia, there is an animal of the same habits, +and probably a closely allied species, but which I never saw. Its noise is +different from that of the Maldonado kind; it is repeated only twice instead of +three or four times, and is more distinct and sonorous: when heard from a +distance it so closely resembles the sound made in cutting down a small tree +with an axe, that I have sometimes remained in doubt concerning it. +</p> + +<p>The man who caught them asserted that very many are invariably +found blind. A specimen which I preserved in spirits was in this +state; Mr. Reid considers it to be the effect of inflammation in +the nictitating membrane. When the animal was alive I placed my +finger within half an inch of its head, and not the slightest +notice was taken: it made its way, however, about the room nearly +as well as the others. Considering the strictly subterranean habits +of the tucu-tuco, the blindness, though so common, cannot be a very +serious evil; yet it appears strange that any animal should possess +an organ frequently subject to be injured. Lamarck would have been +delighted with this fact, had he known it, when +speculating<a href="#fn-3.7" name="fnref-3.7"><sup>[7]</sup></a> +(probably with more truth than usual with him) on the gradually-<i>acquired</i> +blindness of the Aspalax, a Gnawer living under ground, and of the Proteus, a +reptile living in dark caverns filled with water; in both of which animals the +eye is in an almost rudimentary state, and is covered by a tendinous membrane +and skin. In the common mole the eye is extraordinarily small but perfect, +though many anatomists doubt whether it is connected with the true optic nerve; +its vision must certainly be imperfect, though +<a name="page54"></a> +probably useful to the animal when it leaves its burrow. In the +tucu-tuco, which I believe never comes to the surface of the +ground, the eye is rather larger, but often rendered blind and +useless, though without apparently causing any inconvenience to the +animal; no doubt Lamarck would have said that the tucu-tuco is now +passing into the state of the Aspalax and Proteus.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-3.7"></a> <a href="#fnref-3.7">[7]</a> +<i>Philosoph. Zoolog.</i> tome i, p. 242.</p> + +<p>Birds of many kinds are extremely abundant on the undulating +grassy plains around Maldonado. There are several species of a +family allied in structure and manners to our Starling: one of +these (Molothrus niger) is remarkable from its habits. Several may +often be seen standing together on the back of a cow or horse; and +while perched on a hedge, pluming themselves in the sun, they +sometimes attempt to sing, or rather to hiss; the noise being very +peculiar, resembling that of bubbles of air passing rapidly from a +small orifice under water, so as to produce an acute sound. +According to Azara, this bird, like the cuckoo, deposits its eggs +in other birds’ nests. I was several times told by the country +people that there certainly is some bird having this habit; and my +assistant in collecting, who is a very accurate person, found a +nest of the sparrow of this country (Zonotrichia matutina), with +one egg in it larger than the others, and of a different colour and +shape. In North America there is another species of Molothrus (M. +pecoris), which has a similar cuckoo-like habit, and which is most +closely allied in every respect to the species from the Plata, even +in such trifling peculiarities as standing on the backs of cattle; +it differs only in being a little smaller, and in its plumage and +eggs being of a slightly different shade of colour. This close +agreement in structure and habits, in representative species coming +from opposite quarters of a great continent, always strikes one as +interesting, though of common occurrence.</p> + +<p>Mr. Swainson has well remarked,<a href="#fn-3.8" name="fnref-3.8"><sup>[8]</sup></a> +that with the exception of the Molothrus pecoris, to which must be added the M. +niger, the cuckoos are the only birds which can be called truly parasitical; +namely, such as “fasten themselves, as it were, on another living animal, +whose animal heat brings their young into life, whose food they live upon, and +whose death would +<a name="page55"></a> +cause theirs during the period of infancy.” It is remarkable +that some of the species, but not all, both of the Cuckoo and +Molothrus should agree in this one strange habit of their +parasitical propagation, whilst opposed to each other in almost +every other habit: the molothrus, like our starling, is eminently +sociable, and lives on the open plains without art or disguise: the +cuckoo, as every one knows, is a singularly shy bird; it frequents +the most retired thickets, and feeds on fruit and caterpillars. In +structure also these two genera are widely removed from each other. +Many theories, even phrenological theories, have been advanced to +explain the origin of the cuckoo laying its eggs in other birds’ +nests. M. Prévost alone, I think, has thrown light by his +observations<a href="#fn-3.9" name="fnref-3.9"><sup>[9]</sup></a> +on this puzzle: he finds that the female cuckoo, which, according to most +observers, lays at least from four to six eggs, must pair with the male each +time after laying only one or two eggs. Now, if the cuckoo was obliged to sit +on her own eggs, she would either have to sit on all together, and therefore +leave those first laid so long, that they probably would become addled; or she +would have to hatch separately each egg or two eggs, as soon as laid: but as +the cuckoo stays a shorter time in this country than any other migratory bird, +she certainly would not have time enough for the successive hatchings. Hence we +can perceive in the fact of the cuckoo pairing several times, and laying her +eggs at intervals, the cause of her depositing her eggs in other birds’ +nests, and leaving them to the care of foster-parents. I am strongly inclined +to believe that this view is correct, from having been independently led (as we +shall hereafter see) to an analogous conclusion with regard to the South +American ostrich, the females of which are parasitical, if I may so express it, +on each other; each female laying several eggs in the nests of several other +females, and the male ostrich undertaking all the cares of incubation, like the +strange foster-parents with the cuckoo.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-3.8"></a> <a href="#fnref-3.8">[8]</a> +<i>Magazine of Zoology and Botany</i>, vol. i, p. 217.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-3.9"></a> <a href="#fnref-3.9">[9]</a> +Read before the Academy of Sciences in Paris. L’Institut, 1834, p. 418. +</p> + +<p>I will mention only two other birds, which are very common, and +render themselves prominent from their habits. The Saurophagus +sulphuratus is typical of the great American tribe of +tyrant-flycatchers. In its structure it closely approaches the true +shrikes, but in its habits may be compared to many birds. I have +frequently observed it, hunting a field, hovering over +<a name="page56"></a> +one spot like a hawk, and then proceeding on to another. When +seen thus suspended in the air, it might very readily at a short +distance be mistaken for one of the Rapacious order; its stoop, +however, is very inferior in force and rapidity to that of a hawk. +At other times the Saurophagus haunts the neighbourhood of water, +and there, like a kingfisher, remaining stationary, it catches any +small fish which may come near the margin. These birds are not +unfrequently kept either in cages or in courtyards, with their +wings cut. They soon become tame, and are very amusing from their +cunning odd manners, which were described to me as being similar to +those of the common magpie. Their flight is undulatory, for the +weight of the head and bill appears too great for the body. In the +evening the Saurophagus takes its stand on a bush, often by the +roadside, and continually repeats without change a shrill and +rather agreeable cry, which somewhat resembles articulate words: +the Spaniards say it is like the words “Bien te veo” (I see you +well), and accordingly have given it this name.</p> + +<p>A mocking-bird (Mimus orpheus), called by the inhabitants +Calandria, is remarkable, from possessing a song far superior to +that of any other bird in the country: indeed, it is nearly the +only bird in South America which I have observed to take its stand +for the purpose of singing. The song may be compared to that of the +Sedge warbler, but is more powerful; some harsh notes and some very +high ones, being mingled with a pleasant warbling. It is heard only +during the spring. At other times its cry is harsh and far from +harmonious. Near Maldonado these birds were tame and bold; they +constantly attended the country houses in numbers, to pick the meat +which was hung up on the posts or walls: if any other small bird +joined the feast, the Calandria soon chased it away. On the wide +uninhabited plains of Patagonia another closely allied species, O. +Patagonica of d’Orbigny, which frequents the valleys clothed with +spiny bushes, is a wilder bird, and has a slightly different tone +of voice. It appears to me a curious circumstance, as showing the +fine shades of difference in habits, that judging from this latter +respect alone, when I first saw this second species, I thought it +was different from the Maldonado kind. Having afterwards procured a +specimen, and comparing the two without particular care, they +appeared so very similar, +<a name="page57"></a> +that I changed my opinion; but now Mr. Gould says that they are +certainly distinct; a conclusion in conformity with the trifling +difference of habit, of which, however, he was not aware.</p> + +<p>The number, tameness, and disgusting habits of the +carrion-feeding hawks of South America make them pre-eminently +striking to any one accustomed only to the birds of Northern +Europe. In this list may be included four species of the Caracara +or Polyborus, the Turkey buzzard, the Gallinazo, and the Condor. +The Caracaras are, from their structure, placed among the eagles: +we shall soon see how ill they become so high a rank. In their +habits they well supply the place of our carrion-crows, magpies, +and ravens; a tribe of birds widely distributed over the rest of +the world, but entirely absent in South America. To begin with the +Polyborus Brasiliensis: this is a common bird, and has a wide +geographical range; it is most numerous on the grassy savannahs of +La Plata (where it goes by the name of Carrancha), and is far from +unfrequent throughout the sterile plains of Patagonia. In the +desert between the rivers Negro and Colorado, numbers constantly +attend the line of road to devour the carcasses of the exhausted +animals which chance to perish from fatigue and thirst. Although +thus common in these dry and open countries, and likewise on the +arid shores of the Pacific, it is nevertheless found inhabiting the +damp impervious forests of West Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. The +Carranchas, together with the Chimango, constantly attend in +numbers the estancias and slaughtering-houses. If an animal dies on +the plain the Gallinazo commences the feast, and then the two +species of Polyborus pick the bones clean. These birds, although +thus commonly feeding together, are far from being friends. When +the Carrancha is quietly seated on the branch of a tree or on the +ground, the Chimango often continues for a long time flying +backwards and forwards, up and down, in a semicircle, trying each +time at the bottom of the curve to strike its larger relative. The +Carrancha takes little notice, except by bobbing its head. Although +the Carranchas frequently assemble in numbers, they are not +gregarious; for in desert places they may be seen solitary, or more +commonly by pairs.</p> + +<p>The Carranchas are said to be very crafty, and to steal +great +<a name="page58"></a> +numbers of eggs. They attempt, also, together with the Chimango, +to pick off the scabs from the sore backs of horses and mules. The +poor animal, on the one hand, with its ears down and its back +arched; and, on the other, the hovering bird, eyeing at the +distance of a yard the disgusting morsel, form a picture, which has +been described by Captain Head with his own peculiar spirit and +accuracy. These false eagles most rarely kill any living bird or +animal; and their vulture-like, necrophagous habits are very +evident to any one who has fallen asleep on the desolate plains of +Patagonia, for when he wakes, he will see, on each surrounding +hillock, one of these birds patiently watching him with an evil +eye: it is a feature in the landscape of these countries, which +will be recognised by every one who has wandered over them. If a +party of men go out hunting with dogs and horses, they will be +accompanied, during the day, by several of these attendants. After +feeding, the uncovered craw protrudes; at such times, and indeed +generally, the Carrancha is an inactive, tame, and cowardly bird. +Its flight is heavy and slow, like that of an English rook. It +seldom soars; but I have twice seen one at a great height gliding +through the air with much ease. It runs (in contradistinction to +hopping), but not quite so quickly as some of its congeners. At +times the Carrancha is noisy, but is not generally so: its cry is +loud, very harsh and peculiar, and may be likened to the sound of +the Spanish guttural <i>g</i>, followed by a rough double <i>r +r</i>; when uttering this cry it elevates its head higher and +higher, till at last, with its beak wide open, the crown almost +touches the lower part of the back. This fact, which has been +doubted, is quite true; I have seen them several times with their +heads backwards in a completely inverted position. To these +observations I may add, on the high authority of Azara, that the +Carrancha feeds on worms, shells, slugs, grasshoppers, and frogs; +that it destroys young lambs by tearing the umbilical cord; and +that it pursues the Gallinazo, till that bird is compelled to vomit +up the carrion it may have recently gorged. Lastly, Azara states +that several Carranchas, five or six together, will unite in chase +of large birds, even such as herons. All these facts show that it +is a bird of very versatile habits and considerable ingenuity.</p> + +<p> +The Polyborus Chimango is considerably smaller than the +<a name="page59"></a> +last species. It is truly omnivorous, and will eat even bread; and I was +assured that it materially injures the potato-crops in Chiloe, by stocking up +the roots when first planted. Of all the carrion-feeders it is generally the +last which leaves the skeleton of a dead animal, and may often be seen within +the ribs of a cow or horse, like a bird in a cage. Another species is the +Polyborus Novæ Zelandiæ, which is exceedingly common in the Falkland Islands. +These birds in many respects resemble in their habits the Carranchas. They live +on the flesh of dead animals and on marine productions; and on the Ramirez +rocks their whole sustenance must depend on the sea. They are extraordinarily +tame and fearless, and haunt the neighbourhood of houses for offal. If a +hunting party kills an animal, a number soon collect and patiently await, +standing on the ground on all sides. After eating, their uncovered craws are +largely protruded, giving them a disgusting appearance. They readily attack +wounded birds: a cormorant in this state having taken to the shore, was +immediately seized on by several, and its death hastened by their blows. The +<i>Beagle</i> was at the Falklands only during the summer, but the officers of +the <i>Adventure</i>, who were there in the winter, mention many extraordinary +instances of the boldness and rapacity of these birds. They actually pounced on +a dog that was lying fast asleep close by one of the party; and the sportsmen +had difficulty in preventing the wounded geese from being seized before their +eyes. It is said that several together (in this respect resembling the +Carranchas) wait at the mouth of a rabbit-hole, and together seize on the +animal when it comes out. They were constantly flying on board the vessel when +in the harbour; and it was necessary to keep a good look-out to prevent the +leather being torn from the rigging, and the meat or game from the stern. These +birds are very mischievous and inquisitive; they will pick up almost anything +from the ground; a large black glazed hat was carried nearly a mile, as was a +pair of the heavy balls used in catching cattle. Mr. Usborne experienced during +the survey a more severe loss, in their stealing a small Kater’s compass +in a red morocco leather case, which was never recovered. These birds are, +moreover, quarrelsome and very passionate; tearing up the grass with their +bills from rage. They are not truly gregarious; they do not soar, and their +<a name="page60"></a> +flight is heavy and clumsy; on the ground they run extremely fast, very much +like pheasants. They are noisy, uttering several harsh cries, one of which is +like that of the English rook, hence the sealers always call them rooks. It is +a curious circumstance that, when crying out, they throw their heads upwards +and backwards, after the same manner as the Carrancha. They build in the rocky +cliffs of the sea-coast, but only on the small adjoining islets, and not on the +two main islands: this is a singular precaution in so tame and fearless a bird. +The sealers say that the flesh of these birds, when cooked, is quite white, and +very good eating; but bold must the man be who attempts such a meal. +</p> + +<p>We have now only to mention the turkey-buzzard (Vultur aura), +and the Gallinazo. The former is found wherever the country is +moderately damp, from Cape Horn to North America. Differently from +the Polyborus Brasiliensis and Chimango, it has found its way to +the Falkland Islands. The turkey-buzzard is a solitary bird, or at +most goes in pairs. It may at once be recognised from a long +distance, by its lofty, soaring, and most elegant flight. It is +well known to be a true carrion-feeder. On the west coast of +Patagonia, among the thickly-wooded islets and broken land, it +lives exclusively on what the sea throws up, and on the carcasses +of dead seals. Wherever these animals are congregated on the rocks, +there the vultures may be seen. The Gallinazo (Cathartes atratus) +has a different range from the last species, as it never occurs +southward of lat. 41°. Azara states that there exists a +tradition that these birds, at the time of the conquest, were not +found near Monte Video, but that they subsequently followed the +inhabitants from more northern districts. At the present day they +are numerous in the valley of the Colorado, which is three hundred +miles due south of Monte Video. It seems probable that this +additional migration has happened since the time of Azara. The +Gallinazo generally prefers a humid climate, or rather the +neighbourhood of fresh water; hence it is extremely abundant in +Brazil and La Plata, while it is never found on the desert and arid +plains of Northern Patagonia, excepting near some stream. These +birds frequent the whole Pampas to the foot of the Cordillera, but +I never saw or heard of one in Chile: in Peru they are preserved as +scavengers. These vultures certainly may be called gregarious, +for +<a name="page61"></a> +they seem to have pleasure in society, and are not solely +brought together by the attraction of a common prey. On a fine day +a flock may often be observed at a great height, each bird wheeling +round and round without closing its wings, in the most graceful +evolutions. This is clearly performed for the mere pleasure of the +exercise, or perhaps is connected with their matrimonial +alliances.</p> + +<p>I have now mentioned all the carrion-feeders, excepting the +condor, an account of which will be more appropriately introduced +when we visit a country more congenial to its habits than the +plains of La Plata.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +In a broad band of sand-hillocks which separate the Laguna del Potrero from the +shores of the Plata, at the distance of a few miles from Maldonado, I found a +group of those vitrified, siliceous tubes, which are formed by lightning +entering loose sand. These tubes resemble in every particular those from Drigg +in Cumberland, described in the <i>Geological Transactions.</i><a +href="#fn-3.10" name="fnref-3.10"><sup>[10]</sup></a> The sand-hillocks of +Maldonado, not being protected by vegetation, are constantly changing their +position. From this cause the tubes projected above the surface; and numerous +fragments lying near, showed that they had formerly been buried to a greater +depth. Four sets entered the sand perpendicularly: by working with my hands I +traced one of them two feet deep; and some fragments which evidently had +belonged to the same tube, when added to the other part, measured five feet +three inches. The diameter of the whole tube was nearly equal, and therefore we +must suppose that originally it extended to a much greater depth. These +dimensions are however small, compared to those of the tubes from Drigg, one of +which was traced to a depth of not less than thirty feet. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-3.10"></a> <a href="#fnref-3.10">[10]</a> +<i>Geological Transactions</i>, vol. ii, p. 528. In the <i>Philosophical +Transactions</i>, 1790, p. 294, Dr. Priestley has described some imperfect +siliceous tubes and a melted pebble of quartz, found in digging into the +ground, under a tree, where a man had been killed by lightning.</p> + +<p> +The internal surface is completely vitrified, glossy, and smooth. A small +fragment examined under the microscope appeared, from the number of minute +entangled air or perhaps steam bubbles, like an assay fused before the +blowpipe. The sand is entirely, or in greater part, siliceous; but some points +<a name="page62"></a> +are of a black colour, and from their glossy surface possess a metallic lustre. +The thickness of the wall of the tube varies from a thirtieth to a twentieth of +an inch, and occasionally even equals a tenth. On the outside the grains of +sand are rounded, and have a slightly glazed appearance: I could not +distinguish any signs of crystallisation. In a similar manner to that described +in the <i>Geological Transactions</i>, the tubes are generally compressed, and +have deep longitudinal furrows, so as closely to resemble a shrivelled +vegetable stalk, or the bark of the elm or cork tree. Their circumference is +about two inches, but in some fragments, which are cylindrical and without any +furrows, it is as much as four inches. The compression from the surrounding +loose sand, acting while the tube was still softened from the effects of the +intense heat, has evidently caused the creases or furrows. Judging from the +uncompressed fragments, the measure or bore of the lightning (if such a term +may be used) must have been about one inch and a quarter. At Paris, M. Hachette +and M. Beudant<a href="#fn-3.11" name="fnref-3.11"><sup>[11]</sup></a> +succeeded in making tubes, in most respects similar to these fulgurites, by +passing very strong shocks of galvanism through finely-powdered glass: when +salt was added, so as to increase its fusibility, the tubes were larger in +every dimension. They failed both with powdered feldspar and quartz. One tube, +formed with pounded glass, was very nearly an inch long, namely .982, and had +an internal diameter of .019 of an inch. When we hear that the strongest +battery in Paris was used, and that its power on a substance of such easy +fusibility as glass was to form tubes so diminutive, we must feel greatly +astonished at the force of a shock of lightning, which, striking the sand in +several places, has formed cylinders, in one instance of at least thirty feet +long, and having an internal bore, where not compressed, of full an inch and a +half; and this in a material so extraordinarily refractory as quartz! +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-3.11"></a> <a href="#fnref-3.11">[11]</a> +<i>Annales de Chimie et de Physique</i>, tome xxxvii, p. 319.</p> + +<p>The tubes, as I have already remarked, enter the sand nearly in +a vertical direction. One, however, which was less regular than the +others, deviated from a right line, at the most considerable bend, +to the amount of thirty-three degrees. From this same tube, two +small branches, about a foot apart, were sent off; one pointed +downwards, and the other upwards. This +<a name="page63"></a> +latter case is remarkable, as the electric fluid must have +turned back at the acute angle of 26°, to the line of its main +course. Besides the four tubes which I found vertical, and traced +beneath the surface, there were several other groups of fragments, +the original sites of which without doubt were near. All occurred +in a level area of shifting sand, sixty yards by twenty, situated +among some high sand-hillocks, and at the distance of about half a +mile from a chain of hills four or five hundred feet in height. The +most remarkable circumstance, as it appears to me, in this case as +well as in that of Drigg, and in one described by M. Ribbentrop in +Germany, is the number of tubes found within such limited spaces. +At Drigg, within an area of fifteen yards, three were observed, and +the same number occurred in Germany. In the case which I have +described, certainly more than four existed within the space of the +sixty by twenty yards. As it does not appear probable that the +tubes are produced by successive distinct shocks, we must believe +that the lightning, shortly before entering the ground, divides +itself into separate branches.</p> + +<p>The neighbourhood of the Rio Plata seems peculiarly subject to +electric phenomena. In the year 1793,<a href="#fn-3.12" name="fnref-3.12"><sup>[12]</sup></a> +one of the most destructive thunderstorms perhaps on record happened at Buenos +Ayres: thirty-seven places within the city were struck by lightning, and +nineteen people killed. From facts stated in several books of travels, I am +inclined to suspect that thunderstorms are very common near the mouths of great +rivers. Is it not possible that the mixture of large bodies of fresh and salt +water may disturb the electrical equilibrium? Even during our occasional visits +to this part of South America, we heard of a ship, two churches, and a house +having been struck. Both the church and the house I saw shortly afterwards: the +house belonged to Mr. Hood, the consul-general at Monte Video. Some of the +effects were curious: the paper, for nearly a foot on each side of the line +where the bell-wires had run, was blackened. The metal had been fused, and +although the room was about fifteen feet high, the globules, dropping on the +chairs and furniture, had drilled in them a chain of minute holes. A part of +the wall was shattered as if by gunpowder, and the fragments had been blown off +with force sufficient to dent the wall on the +<a name="page64"></a> +opposite side of the room. The frame of a looking-glass was +blackened, and the gilding must have been volatilised, for a +smelling-bottle, which stood on the chimney-piece, was coated with +bright metallic particles, which adhered as firmly as if they had +been enamelled.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-3.12"></a> <a href="#fnref-3.12">[12]</a> +Azara’s <i>Voyage</i>, vol. i, p. 36.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl15.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl15.jpg" width="304" height="214" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl16.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl16.jpg" width="284" height="240" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="page65"></a><a name="chiv"></a>Chapter IV</h2> + +<p class="letter">Rio Negro—Estancias attacked by the +Indians—Salt Lakes—Flamingoes—R. Negro to R. +Colorado—Sacred Tree—Patagonian Hare—Indian +Families—General Rosas—Proceed to Bahia +Blanca—Sand Dunes—Negro Lieutenant—Bahia +Blanca—Saline Incrustations—Punta +Alta—Zorillo.</p> + +<h3>RIO NEGRO TO BAHIA BLANCA.</h3> + +<p> +<i>July</i> 24<i>th</i>, 1833.—The <i>Beagle</i> sailed from Maldonado, +and on August the 3rd she arrived off the mouth of the Rio Negro. This is the +principal river on the whole line of coast between the Strait of Magellan and +the Plata. It enters the sea about three hundred miles south of the estuary of +the Plata. About fifty years ago, under the old Spanish government, a small +colony was established here; and it is still the most southern position (lat. +41°) on this eastern coast of America inhabited by civilised man. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="page66"></a> +The country near the mouth of the river is wretched in the +extreme: on the south side a long line of perpendicular cliffs +commences, which exposes a section of the geological nature of the +country. The strata are of sandstone, and one layer was remarkable +from being composed of a firmly-cemented conglomerate of pumice +pebbles, which must have travelled more than four hundred miles, +from the Andes. The surface is everywhere covered up by a thick bed +of gravel, which extends far and wide over the open plain. Water is +extremely scarce, and, where found, is almost invariably brackish. +The vegetation is scanty; and although there are bushes of many +kinds, all are armed with formidable thorns, which seem to warn the +stranger not to enter on these inhospitable regions.</p> + +<p>The settlement is situated eighteen miles up the river. The road +follows the foot of the sloping cliff, which forms the northern +boundary of the great valley in which the Rio Negro flows. On the +way we passed the ruins of some fine estancias, which a few years +since had been destroyed by the Indians. They withstood several +attacks. A man present at one gave me a very lively description of +what took place. The inhabitants had sufficient notice to drive all +the cattle and horses into the “corral”<a href="#fn-4.1" name="fnref-4.1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> +which surrounded the house, and likewise to mount some small cannon.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-4.1"></a> <a href="#fnref-4.1">[1]</a> +The corral is an enclosure made of tall and strong stakes. Every estancia, or +farming estate, has one attached to it.</p> + +<p>The Indians were Araucanians from the south of Chile; several +hundreds in number, and highly disciplined. They first appeared in +two bodies on a neighbouring hill; having there dismounted, and +taken off their fur mantles, they advanced naked to the charge. The +only weapon of an Indian is a very long bamboo or chuzo, ornamented +with ostrich feathers, and pointed by a sharp spear-head. My +informer seemed to remember with the greatest horror the quivering +of these chuzos as they approached near. When close, the cacique +Pincheira hailed the besieged to give up their arms, or he would +cut all their throats. As this would probably have been the result +of their entrance under any circumstances, the answer was given by +a volley of musketry. The Indians, with great steadiness, came to +the very fence of the corral: but to their surprise they found the +posts fastened +<a name="page67"></a> +together by iron nails instead of leather thongs, and, of +course, in vain attempted to cut them with their knives. This saved +the lives of the Christians: many of the wounded Indians were +carried away by their companions, and at last, one of the under +caciques being wounded, the bugle sounded a retreat. They retired +to their horses, and seemed to hold a council of war. This was an +awful pause for the Spaniards, as all their ammunition, with the +exception of a few cartridges, was expended. In an instant the +Indians mounted their horses, and galloped out of sight. Another +attack was still more quickly repulsed. A cool Frenchman managed +the gun; he stopped till the Indians approached close, and then +raked their line with grape-shot: he thus laid thirty-nine of them +on the ground; and, of course, such a blow immediately routed the +whole party.</p> + +<p>The town is indifferently called El Carmen or Patagones. It is +built on the face of a cliff which fronts the river, and many of +the houses are excavated even in the sandstone. The river is about +two or three hundred yards wide, and is deep and rapid. The many +islands, with their willow-trees, and the flat headlands, seen one +behind the other on the northern boundary of the broad green +valley, form, by the aid of a bright sun, a view almost +picturesque. The number of inhabitants does not exceed a few +hundreds. These Spanish colonies do not, like our British ones, +carry within themselves the elements of growth. Many Indians of +pure blood reside here: the tribe of the Cacique Lucanee constantly +have their Toldos<a href="#fn-4.2" name="fnref-4.2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> on the outskirts of the town. The +local government partly supplies them with provisions, by giving +them all the old worn-out horses, and they earn a little by making +horse-rugs and other articles of riding-gear. These Indians are +considered civilised; but what their character may have gained by a +lesser degree of ferocity, is almost counterbalanced by their +entire immorality. Some of the younger men are, however, improving; +they are willing to labour, and a short time since a party went on +a sealing-voyage, and behaved very well. They were now enjoying the +fruits of their labour, by being dressed in very gay, clean +clothes, and by being very idle. The taste they showed in their +dress was admirable; if you could have turned one of these +young +<a name="page68"></a> +Indians into a statue of bronze, his drapery would have been +perfectly graceful.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-4.2"></a> <a href="#fnref-4.2">[2]</a> +The hovels of the Indians are thus called.</p> + +<p>One day I rode to a large salt-lake, or Salina, which is distant +fifteen miles from the town. During the winter it consists of a +shallow lake of brine, which in summer is converted into a field of +snow-white salt. The layer near the margin is from four to five +inches thick, but towards the centre its thickness increases. This +lake was two and a half miles long, and one broad. Others occur in +the neighbourhood many times larger, and with a floor of salt, two +and three feet in thickness, even when under water during the +winter. One of these brilliantly white and level expanses, in the +midst of the brown and desolate plain, offers an extraordinary +spectacle. A large quantity of salt is annually drawn from the +salina: and great piles, some hundred tons in weight, were lying +ready for exportation.</p> + +<p>The season for working the salinas forms the harvest of +Patagones; for on it the prosperity of the place depends. Nearly +the whole population encamps on the bank of the river, and the +people are employed in drawing out the salt in bullock-waggons. +This salt is crystallised in great cubes, and is remarkably pure: +Mr. Trenham Reeks has kindly analysed some for me, and he finds in +it only 0.26 of gypsum and 0.22 of earthy matter. It is a singular +fact that it does not serve so well for preserving meat as sea-salt +from the Cape de Verd islands; and a merchant at Buenos Ayres told +me that he considered it as fifty per cent less valuable. Hence the +Cape de Verd salt is constantly imported, and is mixed with that +from these salinas. The purity of the Patagonian salt, or absence +from it of those other saline bodies found in all sea-water, is the +only assignable cause for this inferiority: a conclusion which no +one, I think, would have suspected, but which is supported by the +fact lately ascertained,<a href="#fn-4.3" name="fnref-4.3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> +that those salts answer best for preserving cheese which contain most of the +deliquescent chlorides.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-4.3"></a> <a href="#fnref-4.3">[3]</a> +Report of the Agricultural Chemistry Association in the <i>Agricultural +Gazette</i>, 1845, p. 93.</p> + +<p>The border of the lake is formed of mud: and in this numerous +large crystals of gypsum, some of which are three inches long, lie +embedded; whilst on the surface others of sulphate of soda lie +scattered about. The Gauchos call the former +<a name="page69"></a> +the “Padre del sal,” and the latter the “Madre;” they state that +these progenitive salts always occur on the borders of the salinas, +when the water begins to evaporate. The mud is black, and has a +fetid odour. I could not at first imagine the cause of this, but I +afterwards perceived that the froth which the wind drifted on shore +was coloured green, as if by confervæ; I attempted to carry +home some of this green matter, but from an accident failed. Parts +of the lake seen from a short distance appeared of a reddish +colour, and this perhaps was owing to some infusorial animalcula. +The mud in many places was thrown up by numbers of some kind of +worm, or annelidous animal. How surprising it is that any creatures +should be able to exist in brine, and that they should be crawling +among crystals of sulphate of soda and lime! And what becomes of +these worms when, during the long summer, the surface is hardened +into a solid layer of salt?</p> + +<p>Flamingoes in considerable numbers inhabit this lake, and breed +here, throughout Patagonia, in Northern Chile, and at the Galapagos +Islands, I met with these birds wherever there were lakes of brine. +I saw them here wading about in search of food—probably for +the worms which burrow in the mud; and these latter probably feed +on infusoria or confervæ. Thus we have a little living world +within itself, adapted to these inland lakes of brine. A minute +crustaceous animal (Cancer salinus) is said<a href="#fn-4.4" name="fnref-4.4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> +to live in countless numbers in the brine-pans at Lymington: but only in those +in which the fluid has attained, from evaporation, considerable +strength—namely, about a quarter of a pound of salt to a pint of water. +Well may we affirm that every part of the world is habitable! Whether lakes of +brine, or those subterranean ones hidden beneath volcanic mountains—warm +mineral springs—the wide expanse and depths of the ocean—the +<a name="page70"></a> +upper regions of the atmosphere, and even the surface of +perpetual snow—all support organic beings.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-4.4"></a> <a href="#fnref-4.4">[4]</a> +<i>Linnæan Transactions</i>, vol. xi, p. 205. It is remarkable how all the +circumstances connected with the salt-lakes in Siberia and Patagonia are +similar. Siberia, like Patagonia, appears to have been recently elevated above +the waters of the sea. In both countries the salt-lakes occupy shallow +depressions in the plains; in both the mud on the borders is black and fetid; +beneath the crust of common salt, sulphate of soda or of magnesia occurs, +imperfectly crystallised; and in both, the muddy sand is mixed with lentils of +gypsum. The Siberian salt-lakes are inhabited by small crustaceous animals; and +flamingoes (<i>Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal</i>, Jan. 1830) likewise +frequent them. As these circumstances, apparently so trifling, occur in two +distant continents, we may feel sure that they are the necessary results of +common causes.—See <i>Pallas’s Travels</i>, 1793 to 1794, pp. 129 +to 134.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +To the northward of the Rio Negro, between it and the inhabited country near +Buenos Ayres, the Spaniards have only one small settlement, recently +established at Bahia Blanca. The distance in a straight line to Buenos Ayres is +very nearly five hundred British miles. The wandering tribes of horse Indians, +which have always occupied the greater part of this country, having of late +much harassed the outlying estancias, the government at Buenos Ayres equipped +some time since an army under the command of General Rosas for the purpose of +exterminating them. The troops were now encamped on the banks of the Colorado; +a river lying about eighty miles northward of the Rio Negro. When General Rosas +left Buenos Ayres he struck in a direct line across the unexplored plains: and +as the country was thus pretty well cleared of Indians, he left behind him, at +wide intervals, a small party of soldiers with a troop of horses (<i>a +posta</i>), so as to be enabled to keep up a communication with the capital. As +the <i>Beagle</i> intended to call at Bahia Blanca, I determined to proceed +there by land; and ultimately I extended my plan to travel the whole way by the +postas to Buenos Ayres. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>August</i> 11<i>th</i>, 1833.—Mr. Harris, an Englishman residing at +Patagones, a guide, and five Gauchos who were proceeding to the army on +business, were my companions on the journey. The Colorado, as I have already +said, is nearly eighty miles distant: and as we travelled slowly, we were two +days and a half on the road. The whole line of country deserves scarcely a +better name than that of a desert. Water is found only in two small wells; it +is called fresh; but even at this time of the year, during the rainy season, it +was quite brackish. In the summer this must be a distressing passage; for now +it was sufficiently desolate. +</p> + +<p>The valley of the Rio Negro, broad as it is, has merely been +excavated out of the sandstone plain; for immediately above the +bank on which the town stands, a level country commences, which is +interrupted only by a few trifling valleys and depressions. +Everywhere the landscape wears the same sterile aspect; a dry +gravelly soil supports tufts of +<a name="page71"></a> +brown withered grass, and low scattered bushes, armed with +thorns.</p> + +<p>Shortly after passing the first spring we came in sight of a +famous tree, which the Indians reverence as the altar of Walleechu. +It is situated on a high part of the plain; and hence is a landmark +visible at a great distance. As soon as a tribe of Indians come in +sight of it, they offer their adorations by loud shouts. The tree +itself is low, much branched, and thorny: just above the root it +has a diameter of about three feet. It stands by itself without any +neighbour, and was indeed the first tree we saw; afterwards we met +with a few others of the same kind, but they were far from common. +Being winter the tree had no leaves, but in their place numberless +threads, by which the various offerings, such as cigars, bread, +meat, pieces of cloth, etc., had been suspended. Poor Indians, not +having anything better, only pull a thread out of their ponchos, +and fasten it to the tree. Richer Indians are accustomed to pour +spirits and maté into a certain hole, and likewise to smoke +upwards, thinking thus to afford all possible gratification to +Walleechu. To complete the scene, the tree was surrounded by the +bleached bones of horses which had been slaughtered as sacrifices. +All Indians of every age and sex make their offerings; they then +think that their horses will not tire, and that they themselves +shall be prosperous. The Gaucho who told me this, said that in the +time of peace he had witnessed this scene, and that he and others +used to wait till the Indians had passed by, for the sake of +stealing from Walleechu the offerings.</p> + +<p>The Gauchos think that the Indians consider the tree as the god +itself; but it seems far more probable that they regard it as the +altar. The only cause which I can imagine for this choice, is its +being a landmark in a dangerous passage. The Sierra de la Ventana +is visible at an immense distance; and a Gaucho told me that he was +once riding with an Indian a few miles to the north of the Rio +Colorado, when the Indian commenced making the same loud noise, +which is usual at the first sight of the distant tree, putting his +hand to his head, and then pointing in the direction of the Sierra. +Upon being asked the reason of this, the Indian said in broken +Spanish, “First see the Sierra.”</p> + +<p> +<a name="page72"></a> +About two leagues beyond this curious tree we halted for the +night: at this instant an unfortunate cow was spied by the +lynx-eyed Gauchos, who set off in full chase, and in a few minutes +dragged her in with their lazos, and slaughtered her. We here had +the four necessaries of life “en el campo,”—pasture for the +horses, water (only a muddy puddle), meat and firewood. The Gauchos +were in high spirits at finding all these luxuries; and we soon set +to work at the poor cow. This was the first night which I passed +under the open sky, with the gear of the recado for my bed. There +is high enjoyment in the independence of the Gaucho life—to +be able at any moment to pull up your horse, and say, “Here we will +pass the night.” The deathlike stillness of the plain, the dogs +keeping watch, the gipsy-group of Gauchos making their beds round +the fire, have left in my mind a strongly-marked picture of this +first night, which will never be forgotten.</p> + +<p>The next day the country continued similar to that above +described. It is inhabited by few birds or animals of any kind. +Occasionally a deer, or a Guanaco (wild Llama) may be seen; but the +Agouti (Cavia Patagonica) is the commonest quadruped. This animal +here represents our hares. It differs, however, from that genus in +many essential respects; for instance, it has only three toes +behind. It is also nearly twice the size, weighing from twenty to +twenty-five pounds. The Agouti is a true friend of the desert; it +is a common feature of the landscape to see two or three hopping +quickly one after the other in a straight line across these wild +plains. They are found as far north as the Sierra Tapalguen (lat. +37° 30′), where the plain rather suddenly becomes greener and +more humid; and their southern limit is between Port Desire and St. +Julian, where there is no change in the nature of the country.</p> + +<p>It is a singular fact, that although the Agouti is not now found +as far south as Port St. Julian, yet that Captain Wood, in his +voyage in 1670, talks of them as being numerous there. What cause +can have altered, in a wide, uninhabited, and rarely-visited +country, the range of an animal like this? It appears also, from +the number shot by Captain Wood in one day at Port Desire, that +they must have been considerably more abundant there formerly than +at present. Where the Bizcacha lives and makes its burrows, the +Agouti uses them; +<a name="page73"></a> +but where, as at Bahia Blanca, the Bizcacha is not found, the +Agouti burrows for itself. The same thing occurs with the little +owl of the Pampas (Athene cunicularia), which has so often been +described as standing like a sentinel at the mouth of the burrows; +for in Banda Oriental, owing to the absence of the Bizcacha, it is +obliged to hollow out its own habitation.</p> + +<p>The next morning, as we approached the Rio Colorado, the +appearance of the country changed; we soon came on a plain covered +with turf, which, from its flowers, tall clover, and little owls, +resembled the Pampas. We passed also a muddy swamp of considerable +extent, which in summer dries, and becomes incrusted with various +salts; and hence is called a salitral. It was covered by low +succulent plants, of the same kind with those growing on the +sea-shore. The Colorado, at the pass where we crossed it, is only +about sixty yards wide; generally it must be nearly double that +width. Its course is very tortuous, being marked by willow-trees +and beds of reeds: in a direct line the distance to the mouth of +the river is said to be nine leagues, but by water twenty-five. We +were delayed crossing in the canoe by some immense troops of mares, +which were swimming the river in order to follow a division of +troops into the interior. A more ludicrous spectacle I never beheld +than the hundreds and hundreds of heads, all directed one way, with +pointed ears and distended snorting nostrils, appearing just above +the water like a great shoal of some amphibious animal. Mare’s +flesh is the only food which the soldiers have when on an +expedition. This gives them a great facility of movement; for the +distance to which horses can be driven over these plains is quite +surprising: I have been assured that an unloaded horse can travel a +hundred miles a day for many days successively.</p> + +<p>The encampment of General Rosas was close to the river. It +consisted of a square formed by waggons, artillery, straw huts, +etc. The soldiers were nearly all cavalry; and I should think such +a villainous, banditti-like army was never before collected +together. The greater number of men were of a mixed breed, between +Negro, Indian, and Spaniard. I know not the reason, but men of such +origin seldom have a good expression of countenance. I called on +the Secretary +<a name="page74"></a> +to show my passport. He began to cross-question me in the most +dignified and mysterious manner. By good luck I had a letter of +recommendation from the government of Buenos Ayres<a href="#fn-4.5" name="fnref-4.5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> +to the commandant of Patagones. This was taken to General Rosas, who sent me a +very obliging message; and the Secretary returned all smiles and graciousness. +We took up our residence in the <i>rancho</i>, or hovel, of a curious old +Spaniard, who had served with Napoleon in the expedition against Russia.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-4.5"></a> <a href="#fnref-4.5">[5]</a> +I am bound to express, in the strongest terms, my obligation to the government +of Buenos Ayres for the obliging manner in which passports to all parts of the +country were given me, as naturalist of the <i>Beagle.</i></p> + +<p>We stayed two days at the Colorado; I had little to do, for the +surrounding country was a swamp, which in summer (December), when +the snow melts on the Cordillera, is overflowed by the river. My +chief amusement was watching the Indian families as they came to +buy little articles at the rancho where we stayed. It was supposed +that General Rosas had about six hundred Indian allies. The men +were a tall, fine race, yet it was afterwards easy to see in the +Fuegian savage the same countenance rendered hideous by cold, want +of food, and less civilisation.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl17.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl17.jpg" width="90" height="469" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p>Some authors, in defining the primary races of mankind, have +separated these Indians into two classes; but this is certainly +incorrect. Among the young women or chinas, some deserve to be +called even beautiful. Their hair was coarse, but bright and black; +and they wore it in two plaits hanging down to the waist. They had +a high colour, and eyes that glistened with brilliancy; their legs, +feet, and arms were small and elegantly formed; their ankles, and +sometimes their waists, were ornamented by broad bracelets of blue +beads. Nothing could be more interesting than some of the family +groups. A mother with one or two daughters would often come to our +rancho, mounted on the same horse. They ride like men, but with +their knees tucked up much higher. This habit, perhaps, arises from +their being accustomed, when travelling, to ride the loaded horses. +The duty of the women is to load and unload the horses; to make the +tents for the night; in short to be, like the wives of all savages, +useful slaves. The men fight, hunt, take care of the horses, +and +<a name="page75"></a> +make the riding gear. One of their chief indoor occupations is to knock two +stones together till they become round, in order to make the bolas. With this +important weapon the Indian catches his game, and also his horse, which roams +free over the plain. In fighting, his first attempt is to throw down the horse +of his adversary with the bolas, and when entangled by the fall to kill him +with the chuzo. If the balls only catch the neck or body of an animal, they are +often carried away and lost. As the making the stones round is the labour of +two days, the manufacture of the balls is a very common employment. Several of +the men and women had their faces painted red, but I never saw the horizontal +bands which are so common among the Fuegians. Their chief pride consists in +having everything made of silver; I have seen a cacique with his spurs, +stirrups, handle of his knife, and bridle made of this metal: the head-stall +and reins being of wire, were not thicker than whipcord; and to see a fiery +steed wheeling about under the command of so light a chain, gave to the +horsemanship a remarkable character of elegance.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl17a.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl17a.jpg" width="337" height="82" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p>General Rosas intimated a wish to see me; a circumstance which I +was afterwards very glad of. He is a man of an extraordinary +character, and has a most predominant influence in the country, +which it seems probable he will use +<a name="page76"></a> +to its prosperity and advancement.<a href="#fn-4.6" name="fnref-4.6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> +He is said to be the owner of seventy-four square leagues of land, and to have +about three hundred thousand head of cattle. His estates are admirably managed, +and are far more productive of corn than those of others. He first gained his +celebrity by his laws for his own estancias, and by disciplining several +hundred men, so as to resist with success the attacks of the Indians. There are +many stories current about the rigid manner in which his laws were enforced. +One of these was, that no man, on penalty of being put into the stocks, should +carry his knife on a Sunday: this being the principal day for gambling and +drinking, many quarrels arose, which from the general manner of fighting with +the knife often proved fatal.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-4.6"></a> <a href="#fnref-4.6">[6]</a> +This prophecy has turned out entirely and miserably wrong. 1845.</p> + +<p>One Sunday the Governor came in great form to pay the estancia a +visit, and General Rosas, in his hurry, walked out to receive him +with his knife, as usual, stuck in his belt. The steward touched +his arm, and reminded him of the law; upon which turning to the +Governor, he said he was extremely sorry, but that he must go into +the stocks, and that till let out, he possessed no power even in +his own house. After a little time the steward was persuaded to +open the stocks, and to let him out, but no sooner was this done, +than he turned to the steward and said, “You now have broken the +laws, so you must take my place in the stocks.” Such actions as +these delighted the Gauchos, who all possess high notions of their +own equality and dignity. +</p> + +<p>General Rosas is also a perfect horseman—an accomplishment +of no small consequence in a country where an assembled army +elected its general by the following trial: A troop of unbroken +horses being driven into a corral, were let out through a gateway, +above which was a cross-bar: it was agreed whoever should drop from +the bar on one of these wild animals, as it rushed out, and should +be able, without saddle or bridle, not only to ride it, but also to +bring it back to the door of the corral, should be their general. +The person who succeeded was accordingly elected; and doubtless +made a fit general for such an army. This extraordinary feat has +also been performed by Rosas.</p> + +<p>By these means, and by conforming to the dress and habits +<a name="page77"></a> +of the Gauchos, he has obtained an unbounded popularity in the +country, and in consequence a despotic power. I was assured by an +English merchant, that a man who had murdered another, when +arrested and questioned concerning his motive, answered, “He spoke +disrespectfully of General Rosas, so I killed him.” At the end of a +week the murderer was at liberty. This doubtless was the act of the +general’s party, and not of the general himself.</p> + +<p>In conversation he is enthusiastic, sensible, and very grave. +His gravity is carried to a high pitch: I heard one of his mad +buffoons (for he keeps two, like the barons of old) relate the +following anecdote. “I wanted very much to hear a certain piece of +music, so I went to the general two or three times to ask him; he +said to me, ‘Go about your business, for I am engaged.’ I went a +second time; he said, ‘If you come again I will punish you.’ A +third time I asked, and he laughed. I rushed out of the tent, but +it was too late—he ordered two soldiers to catch and stake +me. I begged by all the saints in heaven he would let me off; but +it would not do,—when the general laughs he spares neither +mad man nor sound.” The poor flighty gentleman looked quite +dolorous, at the very recollection of the staking. This is a very +severe punishment; four posts are driven into the ground, and the +man is extended by his arms and legs horizontally, and there left +to stretch for several hours. The idea is evidently taken from the +usual method of drying hides. My interview passed away without a +smile, and I obtained a passport and order for the government +post-horses, and this he gave me in the most obliging and ready +manner.</p> + +<p>In the morning we started for Bahia Blanca, which we reached in +two days. Leaving the regular encampment, we passed by the toldos +of the Indians. These are round like ovens, and covered with hides; +by the mouth of each, a tapering chuzo was stuck in the ground. The +toldos were divided into separate groups, which belonged to the +different caciques’ tribes, and the groups were again divided into +smaller ones, according to the relationship of the owners. For +several miles we travelled along the valley of the Colorado. The +alluvial plains on the side appeared fertile, and it is supposed +that they are well adapted to the growth of corn.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page78"></a> +Turning northward from the river, we soon entered on a country, +differing from the plains south of the river. The land still +continued dry and sterile: but it supported many different kinds of +plants, and the grass, though brown and withered, was more +abundant, as the thorny bushes were less so. These latter in a +short space entirely disappeared, and the plains were left without +a thicket to cover their nakedness. This change in the vegetation +marks the commencement of the grand calcareo-argillaceous deposit, +which forms the wide extent of the Pampas, and covers the granitic +rocks of Banda Oriental. From the Strait of Magellan to the +Colorado, a distance of about eight hundred miles, the face of the +country is everywhere composed of shingle: the pebbles are chiefly +of porphyry, and probably owe their origin to the rocks of the +Cordillera. North of the Colorado this bed thins out, and the +pebbles become exceedingly small, and here the characteristic +vegetation of Patagonia ceases.</p> + +<p>Having ridden about twenty-five miles, we came to a broad belt +of sand-dunes, which stretches, as far as the eye can reach, to the +east and west. The sand-hillocks resting on the clay, allow small +pools of water to collect, and thus afford in this dry country an +invaluable supply of fresh water. The great advantage arising from +depressions and elevations of the soil, is not often brought home +to the mind. The two miserable springs in the long passage between +the Rio Negro and Colorado were caused by trifling inequalities in +the plain, without them not a drop of water would have been found. +The belt of sand-dunes is about eight miles wide; at some former +period, it probably formed the margin of a grand estuary, where the +Colorado now flows. In this district, where absolute proofs of the +recent elevation of the land occur, such speculations can hardly be +neglected by any one, although merely considering the physical +geography of the country. Having crossed the sandy tract, we +arrived in the evening at one of the post-houses; and, as the fresh +horses were grazing at a distance we determined to pass the night +there.</p> + +<p>The house was situated at the base of a ridge between one and +two hundred feet high—a most remarkable feature in this +country. This posta was commanded by a negro lieutenant, +<a name="page79"></a> +born in Africa: to his credit be it said, there was not a ranche +between the Colorado and Buenos Ayres in nearly such neat order as +his. He had a little room for strangers, and a small corral for the +horses, all made of sticks and reeds; he had also dug a ditch round +his house as a defence in case of being attacked. This would, +however, have been of little avail, if the Indians had come; but +his chief comfort seemed to rest in the thought of selling his life +dearly. A short time before, a body of Indians had travelled past +in the night; if they had been aware of the posta, our black friend +and his four soldiers would assuredly have been slaughtered. I did +not anywhere meet a more civil and obliging man than this negro; it +was therefore the more painful to see that he would not sit down +and eat with us.</p> + +<p>In the morning we sent for the horses very early, and started +for another exhilarating gallop. We passed the Cabeza del Buey, an +old name given to the head of a large marsh, which extends from +Bahia Blanca. Here we changed horses, and passed through some +leagues of swamps and saline marshes. Changing horses for the last +time, we again began wading through the mud. My animal fell, and I +was well soused in black mire—a very disagreeable accident, +when one does not possess a change of clothes. Some miles from the +fort we met a man, who told us that a great gun had been fired, +which is a signal that Indians are near. We immediately left the +road, and followed the edge of a marsh, which when chased offers +the best mode of escape. We were glad to arrive within the walls, +when we found all the alarm was about nothing, for the Indians +turned out to be friendly ones, who wished to join General +Rosas.</p> + +<p>Bahia Blanca scarcely deserves the name of a village. A few +houses and the barracks for the troops are enclosed by a deep ditch +and fortified wall. The settlement is only of recent standing +(since 1828); and its growth has been one of trouble. The +government of Buenos Ayres unjustly occupied it by force, instead +of following the wise example of the Spanish Viceroys, who +purchased the land near the older settlement of the Rio Negro, from +the Indians. Hence the need of the fortifications; hence the few +houses and little cultivated land without the limits of the walls; +even the cattle are not safe from the +<a name="page80"></a> +attacks of the Indians beyond the boundaries of the plain on +which the fortress stands.</p> + +<p>The part of the harbour where the <i>Beagle</i> intended to +anchor being distant twenty-five miles, I obtained from the +Commandant a guide and horses, to take me to see whether she had +arrived. Leaving the plain of green turf, which extended along the +course of a little brook, we soon entered on a wide level waste +consisting either of sand, saline marshes, or bare mud. Some parts +were clothed by low thickets, and others with those succulent +plants which luxuriate only where salt abounds. Bad as the country +was, ostriches, deers, agoutis, and armadilloes, were abundant. My +guide told me, that two months before he had a most narrow escape +of his life: he was out hunting with two other men, at no great +distance from this part of the country, when they were suddenly met +by a party of Indians, who giving chase, soon overtook and killed +his two friends. His own horse’s legs were also caught by the +bolas, but he jumped off, and with his knife cut them free: while +doing this he was obliged to dodge round his horse, and received +two severe wounds from their chuzos. Springing on the saddle, he +managed, by a most wonderful exertion, just to keep ahead of the +long spears of his pursuers, who followed him to within sight of +the fort. From that time there was an order that no one should +stray far from the settlement. I did not know of this when I +started, and was surprised to observe how earnestly my guide +watched a deer, which appeared to have been frightened from a +distant quarter. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +We found the <i>Beagle</i> had not arrived, and consequently set out on our +return, but the horses soon tiring, we were obliged to bivouac on the plain. In +the morning we had caught an armadillo, which, although a most excellent dish +when roasted in its shell, did not make a very substantial breakfast and dinner +for two hungry men. The ground at the place where we stopped for the night was +incrusted with a layer of sulphate of soda, and hence, of course, was without +water. Yet many of the smaller rodents managed to exist even here, and the +tucutuco was making its odd little grunt beneath my head, during half the +night. Our horses were very poor ones, and in +<a name="page81"></a> +the morning they were soon exhausted from not having had anything to drink, so +that we were obliged to walk. About noon the dogs killed a kid, which we +roasted. I ate some of it, but it made me intolerably thirsty. This was the +more distressing as the road, from some recent rain, was full of little puddles +of clear water, yet not a drop was drinkable. I had scarcely been twenty hours +without water, and only part of the time under a hot sun, yet the thirst +rendered me very weak. How people survive two or three days under such +circumstances, I cannot imagine: at the same time, I must confess that my guide +did not suffer at all, and was astonished that one day’s deprivation +should be so troublesome to me. +</p> + +<p>I have several times alluded to the surface of the ground being +incrusted with salt. This phenomenon is quite different from that +of the salinas, and more extraordinary. In many parts of South +America, wherever the climate is moderately dry, these +incrustations occur; but I have nowhere seen them so abundant as +near Bahia Blanca. The salt here, and in other parts of Patagonia, +consists chiefly of sulphate of soda with some common salt. As long +as the ground remains moist in the salitrales (as the Spaniards +improperly call them, mistaking this substance for saltpetre), +nothing is to be seen but an extensive plain composed of a black, +muddy soil, supporting scattered tufts of succulent plants. On +returning through one of these tracts, after a week’s hot weather, +one is surprised to see square miles of the plain white, as if from +a slight fall of snow, here and there heaped up by the wind into +little drifts. This latter appearance is chiefly caused by the +salts being drawn up, during the slow evaporation of the moisture, +round blades of dead grass, stumps of wood, and pieces of broken +earth, instead of being crystallised at the bottoms of the puddles +of water.</p> + +<p>The salitrales occur either on level tracts elevated only a few +feet above the level of the sea, or on alluvial land bordering +rivers. M. Parchappe<a href="#fn-4.7" name="fnref-4.7"><sup>[7]</sup></a> +found that the saline incrustation on the plain, at the distance of some miles +from the sea, consisted chiefly of sulphate of soda, with only seven per cent +of common salt; whilst nearer to the coast, the +<a name="page82"></a> +common salt increased to 37 parts in a hundred. This +circumstance would tempt one to believe that the sulphate of soda +is generated in the soil, from the muriate left on the surface +during the slow and recent elevation of this dry country. The whole +phenomenon is well worthy the attention of naturalists. Have the +succulent, salt-loving plants, which are well known to contain much +soda, the power of decomposing the muriate? Does the black fetid +mud, abounding with organic matter, yield the sulphur and +ultimately the sulphuric acid? +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-4.7"></a> <a href="#fnref-4.7">[7]</a> +<i>Voyage dans l’Amérique Mérid.</i> par M. A. d’Orbigny. Part. +Hist., tome i, p. 664.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +Two days afterwards I again rode to the harbour: when not far from our +destination, my companion, the same man as before, spied three people hunting +on horseback. He immediately dismounted, and watching them intently, said, +“They don’t ride like Christians, and nobody can leave the +fort.” The three hunters joined company, and likewise dismounted from +their horses. At last one mounted again and rode over the hill out of sight. My +companion said, “We must now get on our horses: load your pistol;” +and he looked to his own sword. I asked, “Are they +Indians?”—“Quien sabe? (who knows?) if there are no more than +three, it does not signify.” It then struck me, that the one man had gone +over the hill to fetch the rest of his tribe. I suggested this; but all the +answer I could extort was, “Quien sabe?” His head and eye never for +a minute ceased scanning slowly the distant horizon. I thought his uncommon +coolness too good a joke, and asked him why he did not return home. I was +startled when he answered, “We are returning, but in a line so as to pass +near a swamp, into which we can gallop the horses as far as they can go, and +then trust to our own legs; so that there is no danger.” I did not feel +quite so confident of this, and wanted to increase our pace. He said, +“No, not until they do.” When any little inequality concealed us, +we galloped; but when in sight, continued walking. At last we reached a valley, +and turning to the left, galloped quickly to the foot of a hill; he gave me his +horse to hold, made the dogs lie down, and then crawled on his hands and knees +to reconnoitre. He remained in this position for some time, and at last, +bursting out in laughter, exclaimed, “Mugeres!” (women!) He knew +<a name="page83"></a> +them to be the wife and sister-in-law of the major’s son, hunting for +ostrich’s eggs. +</p> + +<p>I have described this man’s conduct, because he acted under the +full impression that they were Indians. As soon, however, as the +absurd mistake was found out, he gave me a hundred reasons why they +could not have been Indians; but all these were forgotten at the +time. We then rode on in peace and quietness to a low point called +Punta Alta, whence we could see nearly the whole of the great +harbour of Bahia Blanca.</p> + +<p> +The wide expanse of water is choked up by numerous great mudbanks, which the +inhabitants call Cangrejales, or <i>crabberies</i>, from the number of small +crabs. The mud is so soft that it is impossible to walk over them, even for the +shortest distance. Many of the banks have their surfaces covered with long +rushes, the tops of which alone are visible at high water. On one occasion, +when in a boat, we were so entangled by these shallows that we could hardly +find our way. Nothing was visible but the flat beds of mud; the day was not +very clear, and there was much refraction, or, as the sailors expressed it, +“things loomed high.” The only object within our view which was not +level was the horizon; rushes looked like bushes unsupported in the air, and +water like mudbanks, and mudbanks like water. +</p> + +<p>We passed the night in Punta Alta, and I employed myself in +searching for fossil bones; this point being a perfect catacomb for +monsters of extinct races. The evening was perfectly calm and +clear; the extreme monotony of the view gave it an interest even in +the midst of mudbanks and gulls, sand-hillocks and solitary +vultures. In riding back in the morning we came across a very fresh +track of a Puma, but did not succeed in finding it. We saw also a +couple of Zorillos, or skunks,—odious animals, which are far +from uncommon. In general appearance the Zorillo resembles a +polecat, but it is rather larger, and much thicker in proportion. +Conscious of its power, it roams by day about the open plain, and +fears neither dog nor man. If a dog is urged to the attack, its +courage is instantly checked by a few drops of the fetid oil, which +brings on violent sickness and running at the nose. Whatever is +once polluted by it, is for ever useless. Azara +<a name="page84"></a> +says the smell can be perceived at a league distant; more than +once, when entering the harbour of Monte Video, the wind being off +shore, we have perceived the odour on board the <i>Beagle.</i> +Certain it is, that every animal most willingly makes room for the +Zorillo. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl18.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl18.jpg" width="289" height="293" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl19.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl19.jpg" width="275" height="279" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="page85"></a><a name="chv"></a>Chapter V</h2> + +<p class="letter">Bahia Blanca—Geology—Numerous gigantic +extinct Quadrupeds—Recent Extinction—Longevity of +Species—Large Animals do not require a luxuriant +Vegetation—Southern Africa—Siberian Fossils—Two +Species of Ostrich—Habits of +Oven-bird—Armadilloes—Venomous Snake, Toad, +Lizard—Hybernation of Animals—Habits of +Sea-Pen—Indian Wars and Massacres—Arrowhead, +antiquarian Relic.</p> + +<h3>BAHIA BLANCA.</h3> + +<p>The <i>Beagle</i> arrived here on the 24th of August, and a week +afterwards sailed for the Plata. With Captain Fitz Roy’s consent I +was left behind, to travel by land to Buenos Ayres. I will here add +some observations, which were made during this visit and on a +previous occasion, when the <i>Beagle</i> was employed in surveying +the harbour.</p> + +<p>The plain, at the distance of a few miles from the coast, +<a name="page86"></a> +belongs to the great Pampean formation, which consists in part +of a reddish clay, and in part of a highly calcareous marly rock. +Nearer the coast there are some plains formed from the wreck of the +upper plain, and from mud, gravel, and sand thrown up by the sea +during the slow elevation of the land, of which elevation we have +evidence in upraised beds of recent shells, and in rounded pebbles +of pumice scattered over the country. At Punta Alta we have a +section of one of these later-formed little plains, which is highly +interesting from the number and extraordinary character of the +remains of gigantic land-animals embedded in it. These have been +fully described by Professor Owen, in the <i>Zoology of the Voyage +of the Beagle</i>, and are deposited in the College of Surgeons. I +will here give only a brief outline of their nature.</p> + +<p>First, parts of three heads and other bones of the Megatherium, +the huge dimensions of which are expressed by its name. Secondly, +the Megalonyx, a great allied animal. Thirdly, the Scelidotherium, +also an allied animal, of which I obtained a nearly perfect +skeleton. It must have been as large as a rhinoceros: in the +structure of its head it comes, according to Mr. Owen, nearest to +the Cape Ant-eater, but in some other respects it approaches to the +armadilloes. Fourthly, the Mylodon Darwinii, a closely related +genus of little inferior size. Fifthly, another gigantic edental +quadruped. Sixthly, a large animal, with an osseous coat in +compartments, very like that of an armadillo. Seventhly, an extinct +kind of horse, to which I shall have again to refer. Eighthly, a +tooth of a Pachydermatous animal, probably the same with the +Macrauchenia, a huge beast with a long neck like a camel, which I +shall also refer to again. Lastly, the Toxodon, perhaps one of the +strangest animals ever discovered: in size it equalled an elephant +or megatherium, but the structure of its teeth, as Mr. Owen states, +proves indisputably that it was intimately related to the Gnawers, +the order which, at the present day, includes most of the smallest +quadrupeds: in many details it is allied to the Pachydermata: +judging from the position of its eyes, ears, and nostrils, it was +probably aquatic, like the Dugong and Manatee, to which it is also +allied. How wonderfully are the different Orders, at the present +time so well separated, blended together in different points of the +structure of the Toxodon!</p> + +<p> +<a name="page87"></a> +The remains of these nine great quadrupeds and many detached +bones were found embedded on the beach, within the space of about +200 yards square. It is a remarkable circumstance that so many +different species should be found together; and it proves how +numerous in kind the ancient inhabitants of this country must have +been. At the distance of about thirty miles from Punta Alta, in a +cliff of red earth, I found several fragments of bones, some of +large size. Among them were the teeth of a gnawer, equalling in +size and closely resembling those of the Capybara, whose habits +have been described; and therefore, probably, an aquatic animal. +There was also part of the head of a Ctenomys; the species being +different from the Tucutuco, but with a close general resemblance. +The red earth, like that of the Pampas, in which these remains were +embedded, contains, according to Professor Ehrenberg, eight +fresh-water and one salt-water infusorial animalcule; therefore, +probably, it was an estuary deposit.</p> + +<p>The remains at Punta Alta were embedded in stratified gravel and +reddish mud, just such as the sea might now wash up on a shallow +bank. They were associated with twenty-three species of shells, of +which thirteen are recent and four others very closely related to +recent forms.<a href="#fn-5.1" name="fnref-5.1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> +From the bones of the Scelidotherium, including even the kneecap, being +entombed in their proper relative positions,<a href="#fn-5.2" name="fnref-5.2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> +and from the osseous armour of the great armadillo-like animal being so well +preserved, together with the bones of one of its legs, we may feel assured that +these remains were fresh and united by their ligaments, when deposited in the +gravel together with the shells. Hence we have good evidence that the above +enumerated gigantic quadrupeds, more different from those of the present day +than the oldest of the tertiary quadrupeds of Europe, lived whilst the sea was +peopled with most of its present inhabitants; and we have confirmed that +remarkable law so often insisted on by Mr. Lyell, namely, that the +“longevity of the species in +<a name="page88"></a> +the mammalia is upon the whole inferior to that of the +testacea.”<a href="#fn-5.3" name="fnref-5.3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-5.1"></a> <a href="#fnref-5.1">[1]</a> +Since this was written, M. Alcide d’Orbigny has examined these shells, +and pronounces them all to be recent. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-5.2"></a> <a href="#fnref-5.2">[2]</a> +M. Aug. Bravard has described, in a Spanish work (<i>Observaciones +Geologicas</i>, 1857), this district, and he believes that the bones of the +extinct mammals were washed out of the underlying Pampean deposit, and +subsequently became embedded with the still existing shells; but I am not +convinced by his remarks. M. Bravard believes that the whole enormous Pampean +deposit is a sub-aerial formation, like sand-dunes: this seems to me to be an +untenable doctrine.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-5.3"></a> <a href="#fnref-5.3">[3]</a> +<i>Principles of Geology</i>, vol. iv, p. 40. +</p> + +<p>The great size of the bones of the Megatheroid animals, +including the Megatherium, Megalonyx, Scelidotherium, and Mylodon, +is truly wonderful. The habits of life of these animals were a +complete puzzle to naturalists, until Professor +Owen<a href="#fn-5.4" name="fnref-5.4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> +solved the problem with remarkable ingenuity. The teeth indicate, +by their simple structure, that these Megatheroid animals lived on +vegetable food, and probably on the leaves and small twigs of +trees; their ponderous forms and great strong curved claws seem so +little adapted for locomotion, that some eminent naturalists have +actually believed that, like the sloths, to which they are +intimately related, they subsisted by climbing back downwards on +trees, and feeding on the leaves. It was a bold, not to say +preposterous, idea to conceive even antediluvian trees, with +branches strong enough to bear animals as large as elephants. +Professor Owen, with far more probability, believes that, instead +of climbing on the trees, they pulled the branches down to them, +and tore up the smaller ones by the roots, and so fed on the +leaves. The colossal breadth and weight of their hinder quarters, +which can hardly be imagined without having been seen, become, on +this view, of obvious service, instead of being an encumbrance: +their apparent clumsiness disappears. With their great tails and +their huge heels firmly fixed like a tripod on the ground, they +could freely exert the full force of their most powerful arms and +great claws. Strongly rooted, indeed, must that tree have been, +which could have resisted such force! The Mylodon, moreover, was +furnished with a long extensile tongue like that of the giraffe, +which, by one of those beautiful provisions of nature, thus reaches +with the aid of its long neck its leafy food. I may remark, that in +Abyssinia the elephant, according to Bruce, when it cannot reach +with its proboscis the branches, deeply scores with its tusks the +trunk of the tree, up and down and all round, till it is +sufficiently weakened to be broken down.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-5.4"></a> <a href="#fnref-5.4">[4]</a> +This theory was first developed in the <i>Zoology of the Voyage of the +Beagle</i>, and subsequently in Professor Owen’s <i>Memoir on Mylodon +robustus.</i> +</p> + +<p>The beds including the above fossil remains stand only from +fifteen to twenty feet above the level of high water; and hence +<a name="page89"></a> +the elevation of the land has been small (without there has been +an intercalated period of subsidence, of which we have no evidence) +since the great quadrupeds wandered over the surrounding plains; +and the external features of the country must then have been very +nearly the same as now. What, it may naturally be asked, was the +character of the vegetation at that period; was the country as +wretchedly sterile as it now is? As so many of the co-embedded +shells are the same with those now living in the bay, I was at +first inclined to think that the former vegetation was probably +similar to the existing one; but this would have been an erroneous +inference, for some of these same shells live on the luxuriant +coast of Brazil; and generally, the characters of the inhabitants +of the sea are useless as guides to judge of those on the land. +Nevertheless, from the following considerations, I do not believe +that the simple fact of many gigantic quadrupeds having lived on +the plains round Bahia Blanca, is any sure guide that they formerly +were clothed with a luxuriant vegetation: I have no doubt that the +sterile country a little southward, near the Rio Negro, with its +scattered thorny trees, would support many and large +quadrupeds. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +That large animals require a luxuriant vegetation, has been a general +assumption which has passed from one work to another; but I do not hesitate to +say that it is completely false, and that it has vitiated the reasoning of +geologists on some points of great interest in the ancient history of the +world. The prejudice has probably been derived from India, and the Indian +islands, where troops of elephants, noble forests, and impenetrable jungles, +are associated together in every one’s mind. If, however, we refer to any +work of travels through the southern parts of Africa, we shall find allusions +in almost every page either to the desert character of the country, or to the +numbers of large animals inhabiting it. The same thing is rendered evident by +the many engravings which have been published of various parts of the interior. +When the <i>Beagle</i> was at Cape Town, I made an excursion of some +days’ length into the country, which at least was sufficient to render +that which I had read more fully intelligible. +</p> + +<p>Dr. Andrew Smith, who, at the head of his adventurous party, has +lately succeeded in passing the Tropic of Capricorn, +<a name="page90"></a> +informs me that, taking into consideration the whole of the +southern part of Africa, there can be no doubt of its being a +sterile country. On the southern and south-eastern coasts there are +some fine forests, but with these exceptions, the traveller may +pass for days together through open plains, covered by a poor and +scanty vegetation. It is difficult to convey any accurate idea of +degrees of comparative fertility; but it may be safely said that +the amount of vegetation supported at any one time<a href="#fn-5.5" name="fnref-5.5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> +by Great Britain, exceeds, perhaps even tenfold, the quantity on an equal area +in the interior parts of Southern Africa. The fact that bullock-waggons can +travel in any direction, excepting near the coast, without more than +occasionally half an hour’s delay in cutting down bushes, gives, perhaps, +a more definite notion of the scantiness of the vegetation. Now, if we look to +the animals inhabiting these wide plains, we shall find their numbers +extraordinarily great, and their bulk immense. We must enumerate the elephant, +three species of rhinoceros, and probably, according to Dr. Smith, two others, +the hippopotamus, the giraffe, the bos caffer—as large as a full-grown +bull, and the elan—but little less, two zebras, and the quaccha, two +gnus, and several antelopes even larger than these latter animals. It may be +supposed that although the species are numerous, the individuals of each kind +are few. By the kindness of Dr. Smith, I am enabled to show that the case is +very different. He informs me, that in lat. 24°, in one day’s march +with the bullock-waggons, he saw, without wandering to any great distance on +either side, between one hundred and one hundred and fifty rhinoceroses, which +belonged to three species: the same day he saw several herds of giraffes, +amounting together to nearly a hundred; and that, although no elephant was +observed, yet they are found in this district. At the distance of a little more +than one hour’s march from their place of encampment on the previous +night, his party actually killed at one spot eight hippopotamuses, and saw many +more. In this same river there were likewise crocodiles. Of course it was a +case quite extraordinary, to see so many great animals crowded together, but it +evidently proves that they must exist in great numbers. Dr. Smith describes the +country passed through that day, as “being +<a name="page91"></a> +thinly covered with grass, and bushes about four feet high, and +still more thinly with mimosa-trees.” The waggons were not +prevented travelling in a nearly straight line.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-5.5"></a> <a href="#fnref-5.5">[5]</a> +I mean by this to exclude the total amount which may have been successively +produced and consumed during a given period.</p> + +<p>Besides these large animals, every one the least acquainted with +the natural history of the Cape has read of the herds of antelopes, +which can be compared only with the flocks of migratory birds. The +numbers indeed of the lion, panther, and hyæna, and the multitude +of birds of prey, plainly speak of the abundance of the smaller +quadrupeds: one evening seven lions were counted at the same time +prowling round Dr. Smith’s encampment. As this able naturalist +remarked to me, the carnage each day in Southern Africa must indeed +be terrific! I confess it is truly surprising how such a number of +animals can find support in a country producing so little food. The +larger quadrupeds no doubt roam over wide tracts in search of it; +and their food chiefly consists of underwood, which probably +contains much nutriment in a small bulk. Dr. Smith also informs me +that the vegetation has a rapid growth; no sooner is a part +consumed, than its place is supplied by a fresh stock. There can be +no doubt, however, that our ideas respecting the apparent amount of +food necessary for the support of large quadrupeds are much +exaggerated: it should have been remembered that the camel, an +animal of no mean bulk, has always been considered as the emblem of +the desert.</p> + +<p>The belief that where large quadrupeds exist, the vegetation +must necessarily be luxuriant, is the more remarkable, because the +converse is far from true. Mr. Burchell observed to me that when +entering Brazil, nothing struck him more forcibly than the +splendour of the South American vegetation contrasted with that of +South Africa, together with the absence of all large quadrupeds. In +his <i>Travels</i>,<a href="#fn-5.6" name="fnref-5.6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> +he has suggested that the comparison of the respective weights (if there were +sufficient data) of an equal number of the largest herbivorous quadrupeds of +each country would be extremely curious. If we take on the one side, the +elephant,<a href="#fn-5.7" name="fnref-5.7"><sup>[7]</sup></a> +hippopotamus, giraffe, bos caffer, +<a name="page92"></a> +elan, certainly three, and probably five species of rhinoceros; +and on the American side, two tapirs, the guanaco, three deer, the +vicuna, peccari, capybara (after which we must choose from the +monkeys to complete the number), and then place these two groups +alongside each other, it is not easy to conceive ranks more +disproportionate in size. After the above facts, we are compelled +to conclude, against anterior probability,<a href="#fn-5.8" name="fnref-5.8"><sup>[8]</sup></a> +that among the mammalia there exists no close relation between the <i>bulk</i> +of the species and the <i>quantity</i> of the vegetation in the countries which +they inhabit.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-5.6"></a> <a href="#fnref-5.6">[6]</a> +<i>Travels in the Interior of South Africa</i>, vol. ii, p. 207. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-5.7"></a> <a href="#fnref-5.7">[7]</a> +The elephant which was killed at Exeter Change was estimated (being partly +weighed) at five tons and a half. The elephant actress, as I was informed, +weighed one ton less; so that we may take five as the average of a full-grown +elephant. I was told at the Surry Gardens, that a hippopotamus which was sent +to England cut up into pieces was estimated at three tons and a half; we will +call it three. From these premises we may give three tons and a half to each of +the five rhinoceroses; perhaps a ton to the giraffe, and half to the bos caffer +as well as to the elan (a large ox weighs from 1200 to 1500 pounds). This will +give an average (from the above estimates) of 2.7 of a ton for the ten largest +herbivorous animals of Southern Africa. In South America, allowing 1200 pounds +for the two tapirs together, 550 for the guanaco and vicuna, 500 for three +deer, 300 for the capybara, peccari, and a monkey, we shall have an average of +250 pounds, which I believe is overstating the result. The ratio will therefore +be as 6048 to 250, or 24 to 1, for the ten largest animals from the two +continents.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-5.8"></a> <a href="#fnref-5.8">[8]</a> +If we suppose the case of the discovery of a skeleton of a Greenland whale in a +fossil state, not a single cetaceous animal being known to exist, what +naturalist would have ventured conjecture on the possibility of a carcass so +gigantic being supported on the minute crustacea and mollusca living in the +frozen seas of the extreme North? +</p> + +<p>With regard to the number of large quadrupeds, there certainly +exists no quarter of the globe which will bear comparison with +Southern Africa. After the different statements which have been +given, the extremely desert character of that region will not be +disputed. In the European division of the world, we must look back +to the tertiary epochs, to find a condition of things among the +mammalia, resembling that now existing at the Cape of Good Hope. +Those tertiary epochs, which we are apt to consider as abounding to +an astonishing degree with large animals, because we find the +remains of many ages accumulated at certain spots, could hardly +boast of more large quadrupeds than Southern Africa does at +present. If we speculate on the condition of the vegetation during +those epochs, we are at least bound so far to consider existing +analogies, as not to urge as absolutely necessary a luxuriant +vegetation, when we see a state of things so totally different at +the Cape of Good Hope.</p> + +<p>We know<a href="#fn-5.9" name="fnref-5.9"><sup>[9]</sup></a> +that the extreme regions of North America +<a name="page93"></a> +many degrees beyond the limit where the ground at the depth of a +few feet remains perpetually congealed, are covered by forests of +large and tall trees. In a like manner, in Siberia, we have woods +of birch, fir, aspen, and larch, growing in a +latitude<a href="#fn-5.10" name="fnref-5.10"><sup>[10]</sup></a> +(64°) where the mean temperature of the air falls below the +freezing point, and where the earth is so completely frozen, that +the carcass of an animal embedded in it is perfectly preserved. +With these facts we must grant, as far as <i>quantity alone</i> of +vegetation is concerned, that the great quadrupeds of the later +tertiary epochs might, in most parts of Northern Europe and Asia, +have lived on the spots where their remains are now found. I do not +here speak of the <i>kind</i> of vegetation necessary for their +support; because, as there is evidence of physical changes, and as +the animals have become extinct, so may we suppose that the species +of plants have likewise been changed.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-5.9"></a> <a href="#fnref-5.9">[9]</a> +See <i>Zoological Remarks to Captain Back’s Expedition</i>, by Dr. +Richardson. He says, “The subsoil north of latitude 56° is +perpetually frozen, the thaw on the coast not penetrating above three feet, and +at Bear Lake, in latitude 64°, not more than twenty inches. The frozen +substratum does not of itself destroy vegetation, for forests flourish on the +surface, at a distance from the coast.”</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-5.10"></a> <a href="#fnref-5.10">[10]</a> +See Humboldt <i>Fragmens Asiatiques</i>, p. 386: Barton’s <i>Geography of +Plants</i>; and Malte Brun. In the latter work it is said that the limit of the +growth of trees in Siberia may be drawn under the parallel of 70°. +</p> + +<p>These remarks, I may be permitted to add, directly bear on the +case of the Siberian animals preserved in ice. The firm conviction +of the necessity of a vegetation possessing a character of tropical +luxuriance, to support such large animals, and the impossibility of +reconciling this with the proximity of perpetual congelation, was +one chief cause of the several theories of sudden revolutions of +climate, and of overwhelming catastrophes, which were invented to +account for their entombment. I am far from supposing that the +climate has not changed since the period when those animals lived, +which now lie buried in the ice. At present I only wish to show, +that as far as <i>quantity</i> of food <i>alone</i> is concerned, +the ancient rhinoceroses might have roamed over the <i>steppes</i> +of central Siberia (the northern parts probably being under water) +even in their present condition, as well as the living rhinoceroses +and elephants over the <i>Karros</i> of Southern Africa. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +I will now give an account of the habits of some of the more interesting birds +which are common on the wild plains of Northern Patagonia: and first for the +largest, or South +<a name="page94"></a> +American ostrich. The ordinary habits of the ostrich are familiar to every one. +They live on vegetable matter, such as roots and grass; but at Bahia Blanca I +have repeatedly seen three or four come down at low water to the extensive +mudbanks which are then dry, for the sake, as the Gauchos say, of feeding on +small fish. Although the ostrich in its habits is so shy, wary, and solitary, +and although so fleet in its pace, it is caught without much difficulty by the +Indian or Gaucho armed with the bolas. When several horsemen appear in a +semicircle, it becomes confounded, and does not know which way to escape. They +generally prefer running against the wind; yet at the first start they expand +their wings, and like a vessel make all sail. On one fine hot day I saw several +ostriches enter a bed of tall rushes, where they squatted concealed, till quite +closely approached. It is not generally known that ostriches readily take to +the water. Mr. King informs me that at the Bay of San Blas, and at Port Valdes +in Patagonia, he saw these birds swimming several times from island to island. +They ran into the water both when driven down to a point, and likewise of their +own accord when not frightened: the distance crossed was about two hundred +yards. When swimming, very little of their bodies appear above water; their +necks are extended a little forward, and their progress is slow. On two +occasions I saw some ostriches swimming across the Santa Cruz river, where its +course was about four hundred yards wide, and the stream rapid. Captain +Sturt,<a href="#fn-5.11" name="fnref-5.11"><sup>[11]</sup></a> when descending +the Murrumbidgee, in Australia, saw two emus in the act of swimming. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-5.11"></a> <a href="#fnref-5.11">[11]</a> +Sturt’s <i>Travels</i>, vol. ii, p. 74. +</p> + +<p>The inhabitants of the country readily distinguish, even at a +distance, the cock bird from the hen. The former is larger and +darker-coloured,<a href="#fn-5.12" name="fnref-5.12"><sup>[12]</sup></a> +and has a bigger head. The ostrich, I believe the cock, emits a singular, +deep-toned, hissing note: when first I heard it, standing in the midst of some +sand-hillocks, I thought it was made by some wild beast, for it is a sound that +one cannot tell whence it comes, or from how far distant. When we were at Bahia +Blanca in the months of September and October, the eggs, in extraordinary +numbers, were found all +<a name="page95"></a> +over the country. They lie either scattered and single, in which +case they are never hatched, and are called by the Spaniards +huachos; or they are collected together into a shallow excavation, +which forms the nest. Out of the four nests which I saw, three +contained twenty-two eggs each, and the fourth twenty-seven. In one +day’s hunting on horseback sixty-four eggs were found; forty-four +of these were in two nests, and the remaining twenty, scattered +huachos. The Gauchos unanimously affirm, and there is no reason to +doubt their statement, that the male bird alone hatches the eggs, +and for some time afterwards accompanies the young. The cock when +on the nest lies very close; I have myself almost ridden over one. +It is asserted that at such times they are occasionally fierce, and +even dangerous, and that they have been known to attack a man on +horseback, trying to kick and leap on him. My informer pointed out +to me an old man, whom he had seen much terrified by one chasing +him. I observe in Burchell’s <i>Travels in South Africa</i> that he +remarks, “Having killed a male ostrich, and the feathers being +dirty, it was said by the Hottentots to be a nest bird.” I +understand that the male emu in the Zoological Gardens takes charge +of the nest: this habit, therefore, is common to the family.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-5.12"></a> <a href="#fnref-5.12">[12]</a> +A Gaucho assured me that he had once seen a snow-white or Albino variety, and +that it was a most beautiful bird.</p> + +<p>The Gauchos unanimously affirm that several females lay in one +nest. I have been positively told that four or five hen birds have +been watched to go in the middle of the day, one after the other, +to the same nest. I may add, also, that it is believed in Africa +that two or more females lay in one nest.<a href="#fn-5.13" name="fnref-5.13"><sup>[13]</sup></a> +Although this habit at first appears very strange, I think the cause may be +explained in a simple manner. The number of eggs in the nest varies from twenty +to forty, and even to fifty; and according to Azara, sometimes to seventy or +eighty. Now although it is most probable, from the number of eggs found in one +district being so extraordinarily great in proportion to the parent birds, and +likewise from the state of the ovarium of the hen, that she may in the course +of the season lay a large number, yet the time required must be very long. +Azara states,<a href="#fn-5.14" name="fnref-5.14"><sup>[14]</sup></a> +that a female in a state of domestication laid seventeen +<a name="page96"></a> +eggs, each at the interval of three days one from another. If +the hen was obliged to hatch her own eggs, before the last was laid +the first probably would be addled; but if each laid a few eggs at +successive periods, in different nests, and several hens, as is +stated to be the case, combined together, then the eggs in one +collection would be nearly of the same age. If the number of eggs +in one of these nests is, as I believe, not greater on an average +than the number laid by one female in the season, then there must +be as many nests as females, and each cock bird will have its fair +share of the labour of incubation; and that during a period when +the females probably could not sit, from not having finished +laying.<a href="#fn-5.15" name="fnref-5.15"><sup>[15]</sup></a> +I have before mentioned the great numbers of huachos, or deserted eggs; so that +in one day’s hunting twenty were found in this state. It appears odd that +so many should be wasted. Does it not arise from the difficulty of several +females associating together, and finding a male ready to undertake the office +of incubation? It is evident that there must at first be some degree of +association between at least two females; otherwise the eggs would remain +scattered over the wide plains, at distances far too great to allow of the male +collecting them into one nest: some authors have believed that the scattered +eggs were deposited for the young birds to feed on. This can hardly be the case +in America, because the huachos, although often found addled and putrid, are +generally whole.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-5.13"></a> <a href="#fnref-5.13">[13]</a> +Burchell’s <i>Travels</i>, vol. i, p. 280. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-5.14"></a> <a href="#fnref-5.14">[14]</a> +Azara, vol. iv, p. 173.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-5.15"></a> <a href="#fnref-5.15">[15]</a> +Lichtenstein, however, asserts (<i>Travels</i>, vol. ii, p. 25) that the hens +begin sitting when they have laid ten or twelve eggs; and that they continue +laying, I presume in another nest. This appears to me very improbable. He +asserts that four or five hens associate for incubation with one cock, who sits +only at night.</p> + +<p>When at the Rio Negro in Northern Patagonia, I repeatedly heard +the Gauchos talking of a very rare bird which they called Avestruz +Petise. They described it as being less than the common ostrich +(which is there abundant), but with a very close general +resemblance. They said its colour was dark and mottled, and that +its legs were shorter, and feathered lower down than those of the +common ostrich. It is more easily caught by the bolas than the +other species. The few inhabitants who had seen both kinds, +affirmed they could distinguish them apart from a long distance. +The eggs of the small species appeared, however, more generally +known; and it was remarked, with +<a name="page97"></a> +surprise, that they were very little less than those of the Rhea +but of a slightly different form, and with a tinge of pale blue. +This species occurs most rarely on the plains bordering the Rio +Negro; but about a degree and a half farther south they are +tolerably abundant. When at Port Desire, in Patagonia (lat. +48°), Mr. Martens shot an ostrich; and I looked at it, +forgetting at the moment, in the most unaccountable manner, the +whole subject of the Petises, and thought it was a not full-grown +bird of the common sort. It was cooked and eaten before my memory +returned. Fortunately the head, neck, legs, wings, many of the +larger feathers, and a large part of the skin, had been preserved; +and from these a very nearly perfect specimen has been put +together, and is now exhibited in the museum of the Zoological +Society. Mr. Gould, in describing this new species, has done me the +honour of calling it after my name.</p> + +<p>Among the Patagonian Indians in the Strait of Magellan, we found +a half Indian, who had lived some years with the tribe, but had +been born in the northern provinces. I asked him if he had ever +heard of the Avestruz Petise. He answered by saying, “Why, there +are none others in these southern countries.” He informed me that +the number of eggs in the nest of the petise is considerably less +than in that of the other kind, namely, not more than fifteen on an +average, but he asserted that more than one female deposited them. +At Santa Cruz we saw several of these birds. They were excessively +wary: I think they could see a person approaching when too far off +to be distinguished themselves. In ascending the river few were +seen; but in our quiet and rapid descent many, in pairs and by +fours or fives, were observed. It was remarked that this bird did +not expand its wings, when first starting at full speed, after the +manner of the northern kind. In conclusion I may observe that the +Struthio rhea inhabits the country of La Plata as far as a little +south of the Rio Negro in lat. 41°, and that the Struthio +Darwinii takes its place in Southern Patagonia; the part about the +Rio Negro being neutral territory. M. A. +d’Orbigny,<a href="#fn-5.16" name="fnref-5.16"><sup>[16]</sup></a> +when at the Rio Negro, made great exertions to +<a name="page98"></a> +procure this bird, but never had the good fortune to succeed. +Dobrizhoffer<a href="#fn-5.17" name="fnref-5.17"><sup>[17]</sup></a> +long ago was aware of there being two kinds of ostriches, he says, “You +must know, moreover, that Emus differ in size and habits in different tracts of +land; for those that inhabit the plains of Buenos Ayres and Tucuman are larger, +and have black, white and grey feathers; those near to the Strait of Magellan +are smaller and more beautiful, for their white feathers are tipped with black +at the extremity, and their black ones in like manner terminate in +white.” +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-5.16"></a> <a href="#fnref-5.16">[16]</a> +When at the Rio Negro, we heard much of the indefatigable labours of this +naturalist. M. Alcide d’Orbigny, during the years 1825 to 1833, traversed +several large portions of South America, and has made a collection, and is now +publishing the results on a scale of magnificence, which at once places himself +in the list of American travellers second only to Humboldt.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-5.17"></a> <a href="#fnref-5.17">[17]</a> +<i>Account of the Abipones</i>, <small> A.D.</small> 1749, vol. i, (English +translation) p. 314. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +A very singular little bird, Tinochorus rumicivorus, is here common: in its +habits and general appearance it nearly equally partakes of the characters, +different as they are, of the quail and snipe. The Tinochorus is found in the +whole of southern South America, wherever there are sterile plains, or open dry +pasture land. It frequents in pairs or small flocks the most desolate places, +where scarcely another living creature can exist. Upon being approached they +squat close, and then are very difficult to be distinguished from the ground. +When feeding they walk rather slowly, with their legs wide apart. They dust +themselves in roads and sandy places, and frequent particular spots, where they +may be found day after day: like partridges, they take wing in a flock. In all +these respects, in the muscular gizzard adapted for vegetable food, in the +arched beak and fleshy nostrils, short legs and form of foot, the Tinochorus +has a close affinity with quails. But as soon as the bird is seen flying, its +whole appearance changes; the long pointed wings, so different from those in +the gallinaceous order, the irregular manner of flight, and plaintive cry +uttered at the moment of rising, recall the idea of a snipe. The sportsmen of +the <i>Beagle</i> unanimously called it the short-billed snipe. To this genus, +or rather to the family of the Waders, its skeleton shows that it is really +related. +</p> + +<p>The Tinochorus is closely related to some other South American +birds. Two species of the genus Attagis are in almost every respect +ptarmigans in their habits; one lives in Tierra del Fuego, above +the limits of the forest land; and the other just beneath the +snow-line on the Cordillera of Central Chile. A bird of another +closely allied genus, Chionis alba, is +<a name="page99"></a> +an inhabitant of the antarctic regions; it feeds on seaweed and +shells on the tidal rocks. Although not web-footed, from some +unaccountable habit it is frequently met with far out at sea. This +small family of birds is one of those which, from its varied +relations to other families, although at present offering only +difficulties to the systematic naturalist, ultimately may assist in +revealing the grand scheme, common to the present and past ages, on +which organised beings have been created.</p> + +<p>The genus Furnarius contains several species, all small birds, +living on the ground, and inhabiting open dry countries. In +structure they cannot be compared to any European form. +Ornithologists have generally included them among the creepers, +although opposed to that family in every habit. The best known +species is the common oven-bird of La Plata, the Casara or +housemaker of the Spaniards. The nest, whence it takes its name, is +placed in the most exposed situations, as on the top of a post, a +bare rock, or on a cactus. It is composed of mud and bits of straw, +and has strong thick walls: in shape it precisely resembles an +oven, or depressed beehive. The opening is large and arched, and +directly in front, within the nest, there is a partition, which +reaches nearly to the roof, thus forming a passage or antechamber +to the true nest.</p> + +<p>Another and smaller species of Furnarius (F. cunicularius), +resembles the oven-bird in the general reddish tint of its plumage, +in a peculiar shrill reiterated cry, and in an odd manner of +running by starts. From its affinity, the Spaniards call it +Casarita (or little housebuilder), although its nidification is +quite different. The Casarita builds its nest at the bottom of a +narrow cylindrical hole, which is said to extend horizontally to +nearly six feet under ground. Several of the country people told +me, that when boys, they had attempted to dig out the nest, but had +scarcely ever succeeded in getting to the end of the passage. The +bird chooses any low bank of firm sandy soil by the side of a road +or stream. Here (at Bahia Blanca) the walls round the houses are +built of hardened mud, and I noticed that one, which enclosed a +courtyard where I lodged, was bored through by round holes in a +score of places. On asking the owner the cause of this, he bitterly +complained of the little casarita, several of which I afterwards +observed at work. It is rather curious to find how incapable these +birds +<a name="page100"></a> +must be of acquiring any notion of thickness, for although they +were constantly flitting over the low wall, they continued vainly +to bore through it, thinking it an excellent bank for their nests. +I do not doubt that each bird, as often as it came to daylight on +the opposite side, was greatly surprised at the marvellous +fact.</p> + +<p>I have already mentioned nearly all the mammalia common in this +country. Of armadilloes three species occur, namely, the Dasypus +minutus or <i>pichy</i>, the D. villosus or <i>peludo</i>, and the +<i>apar.</i> The first extends ten degrees farther south than any +other kind; a fourth species, the <i>Mulita</i>, does not come as +far south as Bahia Blanca. The four species have nearly similar +habits; the <i>peludo</i>, however, is nocturnal, while the others +wander by day over the open plains, feeding on beetles, +larvæ, roots, and even small snakes. The <i>apar</i>, +commonly called <i>mataco</i>, is remarkable by having only three +movable bands; the rest of its tesselated covering being nearly +inflexible. It has the power of rolling itself into a perfect +sphere, like one kind of English woodlouse. In this state it is +safe from the attack of dogs; for the dog not being able to take +the whole in its mouth, tries to bite one side, and the ball slips +away. The smooth hard covering of the <i>mataco</i> offers a better +defence than the sharp spines of the hedgehog. The <i>pichy</i> +prefers a very dry soil; and the sand-dunes near the coast, where +for many months it can never taste water, is its favourite resort: +it often tries to escape notice, by squatting close to the ground. +In the course of a day’s ride, near Bahia Blanca, several were +generally met with. The instant one was perceived, it was +necessary, in order to catch it, almost to tumble off one’s horse; +for in soft soil the animal burrowed so quickly, that its hinder +quarters would almost disappear before one could alight. It seems +almost a pity to kill such nice little animals, for as a Gaucho +said, while sharpening his knife on the back of one, “Son tan +mansos” (they are so quiet).</p> + +<p>Of reptiles there are many kinds: one snake (a Trigonocephalus, +or Cophias, subsequently called by M. Bibron T. crepitans), from +the size of the poison channel in its fangs, must be very deadly. +Cuvier, in opposition to some other naturalists, makes this a +sub-genus of the rattlesnake, and intermediate between it and the +viper. In confirmation of this opinion, I +<a name="page101"></a> +observed a fact, which appears to me very curious and +instructive, as showing how every character, even though it may be +in some degree independent of structure, has a tendency to vary by +slow degrees. The extremity of the tail of this snake is terminated +by a point, which is very slightly enlarged; and as the animal +glides along, it constantly vibrates the last inch; and this part +striking against the dry grass and brushwood, produces a rattling +noise, which can be distinctly heard at the distance of six feet. +As often as the animal was irritated or surprised, its tail was +shaken; and the vibrations were extremely rapid. Even as long as +the body retained its irritability, a tendency to this habitual +movement was evident. This Trigonocephalus has, therefore, in some +respects the structure of a viper, with the habits of a +rattlesnake: the noise, however, being produced by a simpler +device. The expression of this snake’s face was hideous and fierce; +the pupil consisted of a vertical slit in a mottled and coppery +iris; the jaws were broad at the base, and the nose terminated in a +triangular projection. I do not think I ever saw anything more +ugly, excepting, perhaps, some of the vampire bats. I imagine this +repulsive aspect originates from the features being placed in +positions, with respect to each other, somewhat proportional to +those of the human face; and thus we obtain a scale of +hideousness.</p> + +<p>Amongst the Batrachian reptiles, I found only one little toad +(Phryniscus nigricans), which was most singular from its colour. If +we imagine, first, that it had been steeped in the blackest ink, +and then, when dry, allowed to crawl over a board, freshly painted +with the brightest vermilion, so as to colour the soles of its feet +and parts of its stomach, a good idea of its appearance will be +gained. If it had been an unnamed species, surely it ought to have +been called <i>Diabolicus</i>, for it is a fit toad to preach in +the ear of Eve. Instead of being nocturnal in its habits, as other +toads are, and living in damp obscure recesses, it crawls during +the heat of the day about the dry sand-hillocks and arid plains, +where not a single drop of water can be found. It must necessarily +depend on the dew for its moisture; and this probably is absorbed +by the skin, for it is known that these reptiles possess great +powers of cutaneous absorption. At Maldonado, I found one in a +situation nearly as dry as at Bahia Blanca, and thinking to give it +a great treat, +<a name="page102"></a> +carried it to a pool of water; not only was the little animal +unable to swim, but I think without help it would soon have been +drowned.</p> + +<p>Of lizards there were many kinds, but only one (Proctotretus +multimaculatus) remarkable from its habits. It lives on the bare +sand near the sea-coast, and from its mottled colour, the brownish +scales being speckled with white, yellowish red, and dirty blue, +can hardly be distinguished from the surrounding surface. When +frightened, it attempts to avoid discovery by feigning death, with +outstretched legs, depressed body, and closed eyes: if further +molested, it buries itself with great quickness in the loose sand. +This lizard, from its flattened body and short legs, cannot run +quickly.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl20.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl20.jpg" width="151" height="237" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p>I will here add a few remarks on the hybernation of animals in +this part of South America. When we first arrived at Bahia Blanca, +September 7th, 1832, we thought nature had granted scarcely a +living creature to this sandy and dry country. By digging, however, +in the ground, several insects, large spiders, and lizards were +found in a half-torpid state. On the 15th, a few animals began to +appear, and by the 18th (three days from the equinox), everything +announced the commencement of spring. The plains were ornamented by +the flowers of a pink wood-sorrel, wild peas, œnotheræ, and +geraniums; and the birds began to lay their eggs. Numerous +Lamellicorn and Heteromerous insects, the latter remarkable for +their deeply sculptured bodies, were slowly crawling about; while +the lizard tribe, the constant inhabitants of a sandy soil, darted +about in every direction. During the first eleven days, whilst +nature was dormant, the mean temperature taken from observations +made every two hours on board the <i>Beagle</i>, was 51°; and +in the middle of the day the thermometer seldom ranged above +55°. On the eleven succeeding days, in which all living things +became so animated, the mean was 58°, and the range in the +middle of the day between sixty and seventy. Here then an increase +of seven degrees in mean temperature, but a greater one of extreme +heat, was sufficient to awake the functions of life. At Monte +Video, from which we had just before sailed, in the twenty-three +days included between the 26th of July and the 19th of August, the +mean temperature from 276 observations was 58.4°; the mean +hottest day being 65.5°, and +<a name="page103"></a> +the coldest 46°. The lowest point to which the thermometer +fell was 41.5°, and occasionally in the middle of the day it +rose to 69° or 70°. Yet with this high temperature, almost +every beetle, several genera of spiders, snails, and land-shells, +toads and lizards, were all lying torpid beneath stones. But we +have seen that at Bahia Blanca, which is four degrees southward, +and therefore with a climate only a very little colder, this same +temperature, with a rather less extreme heat, was sufficient to +awake all orders of animated beings. This shows how nicely the +stimulus required to arouse hybernating animals is governed by the +usual climate of the district, and not by the absolute heat. It is +well known that within the tropics the hybernation, or more +properly æstivation, of animals is determined not by the +temperature, but by the times of drought. Near Rio de Janeiro, I +was at first surprised to observe that, a few days after some +little depressions had been filled with water, they were peopled by +numerous full-grown shells and beetles, which must have been lying +dormant. Humboldt has related the strange accident of a hovel +having been erected over a spot where a young crocodile lay buried +in the hardened +<a name="page104"></a> +mud. He adds, “The Indians often find enormous boas, which they +call Uji, or water serpents, in the same lethargic state. To +reanimate them, they must be irritated or wetted with water.”</p> + +<p>I will only mention one other animal, a zoophyte (I believe +Virgularia Patagonica), a kind of sea-pen. It consists of a thin, +straight, fleshy stem, with alternate rows of polypi on each side, +and surrounding an elastic stony axis, varying in length from eight +inches to two feet. The stem at one extremity is truncate, but at +the other is terminated by a vermiform fleshy appendage. The stony +axis which gives strength to the stem may be traced at this +extremity into a mere vessel filled with granular matter. At low +water hundreds of these zoophytes might be seen, projecting like +stubble, with the truncate end upwards, a few inches above the +surface of the muddy sand. When touched or pulled they suddenly +drew themselves in with force, so as nearly or quite to disappear. +By this action, the highly elastic axis must be bent at the lower +extremity, where it is naturally slightly curved; and I imagine it +is by this elasticity alone that the zoophyte is enabled to rise +again through the mud. Each polypus, though closely united to its +brethren, has a distinct mouth, body, and tentacula. Of these +polypi, in a large specimen, there must be many thousands; yet we +see that they act by one movement: they have also one central axis +connected with a system of obscure circulation, and the ova are +produced in an organ distinct from the separate +individuals.<a href="#fn-5.18" name="fnref-5.18"><sup>[18]</sup></a> +Well may one be allowed to ask, What is an individual? It is always interesting +to discover the foundation of the strange tales of the old voyagers; and I have +no doubt but that the habits of +<a name="page105"></a> +this Virgularia explain one such case. Captain Lancaster, in his +Voyage<a href="#fn-5.19" name="fnref-5.19"><sup>[19]</sup></a> +in 1601, narrates that on the sea-sands of the Island of Sombrero, in the East +Indies, he “found a small twig growing up like a young tree, and on +offering to pluck it up it shrinks down to the ground, and sinks, unless held +very hard. On being plucked up, a great worm is found to be its root, and as +the tree groweth in greatness, so doth the worm diminish, and as soon as the +worm is entirely turned into a tree it rooteth in the earth, and so becomes +great. This transformation is one of the strangest wonders that I saw in all my +travels: for if this tree is plucked up, while young, and the leaves and bark +stripped off, it becomes a hard stone when dry, much like white coral: thus is +this worm twice transformed into different natures. Of these we gathered and +brought home many.”</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-5.18"></a> <a href="#fnref-5.18">[18]</a> +The cavities leading from the fleshy compartments of the extremity were filled +with a yellow pulpy matter, which, examined under a microscope, presented an +extraordinary appearance. The mass consisted of rounded, semi-transparent, +irregular grains, aggregated together into particles of various sizes. All such +particles, and the separate grains, possessed the power of rapid movement; +generally revolving around different axes, but sometimes progressive. The +movement was visible with a very weak power, but even with the highest its +cause could not be perceived. It was very different from the circulation of the +fluid in the elastic bag, containing the thin extremity of the axis. On other +occasions, when dissecting small marine animals beneath the microscope, I have +seen particles of pulpy matter, some of large size, as soon as they were +disengaged, commence revolving. I have imagined, I know not with how much +truth, that this granulo-pulpy matter was in process of being converted into +ova. Certainly in this zoophyte such appeared to be the case.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-5.19"></a> <a href="#fnref-5.19">[19]</a> +Kerr’s <i>Collection of Voyages</i>, vol. viii, p. 119. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +During my stay at Bahia Blanca, while waiting for the <i>Beagle</i>, the place +was in a constant state of excitement, from rumours of wars and victories, +between the troops of Rosas and the wild Indians. One day an account came that +a small party forming one of the postas on the line to Buenos Ayres had been +found all murdered. The next day three hundred men arrived from the Colorado, +under the command of Commandant Miranda. A large portion of these men were +Indians (<i>mansos</i>, or tame), belonging to the tribe of the Cacique +Bernantio. They passed the night here; and it was impossible to conceive +anything more wild and savage than the scene of their bivouac. Some drank till +they were intoxicated; others swallowed the steaming blood of the cattle +slaughtered for their suppers, and then, being sick from drunkenness, they cast +it up again, and were besmeared with filth and gore. +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +Nam simul expletus dapibus, vinoque sepultus<br/> +Cervicem inflexam posuit, jacuitque per antrum<br/> +Immensus, saniem eructans, ac frusta cruenta<br/> +Per somnum commixta mero. +</p> + +<p>In the morning they started for the scene of the murder, with +orders to follow the rastro, or track, even if it led them +<a name="page106"></a> +to Chile. We subsequently heard that the wild Indians had +escaped into the great Pampas, and from some cause the track had +been missed. One glance at the rastro tells these people a whole +history. Supposing they examine the track of a thousand horses, +they will soon guess the number of mounted ones by seeing how many +have cantered; by the depth of the other impressions, whether any +horses were loaded with cargoes; by the irregularity of the +footsteps, how far tired; by the manner in which the food has been +cooked, whether the pursued travelled in haste; by the general +appearance, how long it has been since they passed. They consider a +rastro of ten days or a fortnight quite recent enough to be hunted +out. We also heard that Miranda struck from the west end of the +Sierra Ventana, in a direct line to the island of Cholechel, +situated seventy leagues up the Rio Negro. This is a distance of +between two and three hundred miles, through a country completely +unknown. What other troops in the world are so independent? With +the sun for their guide, mare’s flesh for food, their saddle-cloths +for beds,—as long as there is a little water, these men would +penetrate to the end of the world.</p> + +<p>A few days afterwards I saw another troop of these banditti-like +soldiers start on an expedition against a tribe of Indians at the +small Salinas, who had been betrayed by a prisoner cacique. The +Spaniard who brought the orders for this expedition was a very +intelligent man. He gave me an account of the last engagement at +which he was present. Some Indians, who had been taken prisoners, +gave information of a tribe living north of the Colorado. Two +hundred soldiers were sent; and they first discovered the Indians +by a cloud of dust from their horses’ feet as they chanced to be +travelling. The country was mountainous and wild, and it must have +been far in the interior, for the Cordillera were in sight. The +Indians, men, women, and children, were about one hundred and ten +in number, and they were nearly all taken or killed, for the +soldiers sabre every man. The Indians are now so terrified that +they offer no resistance in a body, but each flies, neglecting even +his wife and children; but when overtaken, like wild animals, they +fight against any number to the last moment. One dying Indian +seized with his teeth the thumb of his adversary, +<a name="page107"></a> +and allowed his own eye to be forced out sooner than relinquish +his hold. Another, who was wounded, feigned death, keeping a knife +ready to strike one more fatal blow. My informer said, when he was +pursuing an Indian, the man cried out for mercy, at the same time +that he was covertly loosing the bolas from his waist, meaning to +whirl it round his head and so strike his pursuer. “I however +struck him with my sabre to the ground, and then got off my horse, +and cut his throat with my knife.” This is a dark picture; but how +much more shocking is the unquestionable fact, that all the women +who appear above twenty years old are massacred in cold blood? When +I exclaimed that this appeared rather inhuman, he answered, “Why, +what can be done? they breed so!”</p> + +<p>Every one here is fully convinced that this is the most just +war, because it is against barbarians. Who would believe in this +age that such atrocities could be committed in a Christian +civilised country? The children of the Indians are saved, to be +sold or given away as servants, or rather slaves for as long a time +as the owners can make them believe themselves slaves; but I +believe in their treatment there is little to complain of.</p> + +<p>In the battle four men ran away together. They were pursued, one +was killed, and the other three were taken alive. They turned out +to be messengers or ambassadors from a large body of Indians, +united in the common cause of defence, near the Cordillera. The +tribe to which they had been sent was on the point of holding a +grand council, the feast of mare’s flesh was ready, and the dance +prepared: in the morning the ambassadors were to have returned to +the Cordillera. They were remarkably fine men, very fair, above six +feet high, and all under thirty years of age. The three survivors +of course possessed very valuable information and to extort this +they were placed in a line. The two first being questioned, +answered, “No sé” (I do not know), and were one after the +other shot. The third also said “No sé;” adding, “Fire, I am +a man, and can die!” Not one syllable would they breathe to injure +the united cause of their country! The conduct of the +above-mentioned cacique was very different; he saved his life by +betraying the intended plan of warfare, and the point of union in +the Andes. It was believed that there were already six or +<a name="page108"></a> +seven hundred Indians together, and that in summer their numbers +would be doubled. Ambassadors were to have been sent to the Indians +at the small Salinas, near Bahia Blanca, whom I have mentioned that +this same cacique had betrayed. The communication, therefore, +between the Indians, extends from the Cordillera to the coast of +the Atlantic.</p> + +<p>General Rosas’s plan is to kill all stragglers, and having +driven the remainder to a common point, to attack them in a body, +in the summer, with the assistance of the Chilenos. This operation +is to be repeated for three successive years. I imagine the summer +is chosen as the time for the main attack, because the plains are +then without water, and the Indians can only travel in particular +directions. The escape of the Indians to the south of the Rio +Negro, where in such a vast unknown country they would be safe, is +prevented by a treaty with the Tehuelches to this +effect;—that Rosas pays them so much to slaughter every +Indian who passes to the south of the river, but if they fail in so +doing, they themselves are to be exterminated. The war is waged +chiefly against the Indians near the Cordillera; for many of the +tribes on this eastern side are fighting with Rosas. The general, +however, like Lord Chesterfield, thinking that his friends may in a +future day become his enemies, always places them in the front +ranks, so that their numbers may be thinned. Since leaving South +America we have heard that this war of extermination completely +failed.</p> + +<p>Among the captive girls taken in the same engagement, there were +two very pretty Spanish ones, who had been carried away by the +Indians when young, and could now only speak the Indian tongue. +From their account they must have come from Salta, a distance in a +straight line of nearly one thousand miles. This gives one a grand +idea of the immense territory over which the Indians roam: yet, +great as it is, I think there will not, in another half-century, be +a wild Indian northward of the Rio Negro. The warfare is too bloody +to last; the Christians killing every Indian, and the Indians doing +the same by the Christians. It is melancholy to trace how the +Indians have given way before the Spanish invaders. +Schirdel<a href="#fn-5.20" name="fnref-5.20"><sup>[20]</sup></a> +says that in 1535, when Buenos Ayres was founded, there were villages +<a name="page109"></a> +containing two and three thousand inhabitants. Even in +Falconer’s time (1750) the Indians made inroads as far as Luxan, +Areco, and Arrecife, but now they are driven beyond the Salado. Not +only have whole tribes been exterminated, but the remaining Indians +have become more barbarous: instead of living in large villages, +and being employed in the arts of fishing, as well as of the chase, +they now wander about the open plains, without home or fixed +occupation.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-5.20"></a> <a href="#fnref-5.20">[20]</a> +Purchas’s <i>Collection of Voyages.</i> I believe the date was really +1537.</p> + +<p>I heard also some account of an engagement which took place, a +few weeks previously to the one mentioned, at Cholechel. This is a +very important station on account of being a pass for horses; and +it was, in consequence, for some time the head-quarters of a +division of the army. When the troops first arrived there they +found a tribe of Indians, of whom they killed twenty or thirty. The +cacique escaped in a manner which astonished every one. The chief +Indians always have one or two picked horses, which they keep ready +for any urgent occasion. On one of these, an old white horse, the +cacique sprung, taking with him his little son. The horse had +neither saddle nor bridle. To avoid the shots, the Indian rode in +the peculiar method of his nation; namely, with an arm round the +horse’s neck, and one leg only on its back. Thus hanging on one +side, he was seen patting the horse’s head, and talking to him. The +pursuers urged every effort in the chase; the Commandant three +times changed his horse, but all in vain. The old Indian father and +his son escaped, and were free. What a fine picture one can form in +one’s mind,—the naked, bronze-like figure of the old man with +his little boy, riding like a Mazeppa on the white horse, thus +leaving far behind him the host of his pursuers!</p> + +<p>I saw one day a soldier striking fire with a piece of flint, +which I immediately recognised as having been a part of the head of +an arrow. He told me it was found near the island of Cholechel, and +that they are frequently picked up there. It was between two and +three inches long, and therefore twice as large as those now used +in Tierra del Fuego: it was made of opaque cream-coloured flint, +but the point and barbs had been intentionally broken off. It is +well known that no Pampas Indians now use bows and arrows. I +believe a small tribe in Banda Oriental must be excepted; but +<a name="page110"></a> +they are widely separated from the Pampas Indians, and border +close on those tribes that inhabit the forest, and live on foot. It +appears, therefore, that these arrow-heads are +antiquarian<a href="#fn-5.21" name="fnref-5.21"><sup>[21]</sup></a> +relics of the Indians, before the great change in habits consequent on the +introduction of the horse into South America.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-5.21"></a> <a href="#fnref-5.21">[21]</a> +Azara has even doubted whether the Pampas Indians ever used bows.<br/> +[Several similar agate arrow-heads have since been dug up at Chupat, and two +were given to me, on the occasion of my visit there, by the Governor.—R. +T. Pritchett, 1880.]</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl21.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl21.jpg" width="150" height="287" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl22.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl22.jpg" width="280" height="207" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="page111"></a><a name="chvi"></a>Chapter VI</h2> + +<p class="letter">Set out for Buenos Ayres—Rio +Sauce—Sierra Ventana—Third Posta—Driving +Horses—Bolas—Partridges and Foxes—Features of the +Country—Long-legged +Plover—Teru-tero—Hail-storm—Natural Enclosures in +the Sierra Tapalguen—Flesh of Puma—Meat +Diet—Guardia del Monte—Effects of Cattle on the +Vegetation—Cardoon—Buenos Ayres—Corral where +Cattle are slaughtered.</p> + +<h3>BAHIA BLANCA TO BUENOS AYRES.</h3> + +<p> +<i>September</i> 8<i>th.</i>—I hired a Gaucho to accompany me on my ride +to Buenos Ayres, though with some difficulty, as the father of one man was +afraid to let him go, and another who seemed willing, was described to me as so +fearful that I was afraid to take him, for I was told that even if he saw an +ostrich at a distance, he would mistake it for an Indian, and would fly like +the wind away. The distance to Buenos Ayres is about four hundred miles, and +nearly the whole way through an uninhabited country. We started early in the +morning; ascending a few hundred feet from the basin of green turf on which +Bahia Blanca stands, we entered on a wide desolate plain. It consists of a +<a name="page112"></a> +crumbling argillaceo-calcareous rock, which, from the dry nature of the +climate, supports only scattered tufts of withered grass, without a single bush +or tree to break the monotonous uniformity. The weather was fine, but the +atmosphere remarkably hazy; I thought the appearance foreboded a gale, but the +Gauchos said it was owing to the plain, at some great distance in the interior, +being on fire. After a long gallop, having changed horses twice, we reached the +Rio Sauce: it is a deep, rapid, little stream, not above twenty-five feet wide. +The second posta on the road to Buenos Ayres stands on its banks, a little +above there is a ford for horses, where the water does not reach to the +horses’ belly; but from that point, in its course to the sea, it is quite +impassable, and hence makes a most useful barrier against the Indians. +</p> + +<p>Insignificant as this stream is, the Jesuit Falconer, whose +information is generally so very correct, figures it as a +considerable river, rising at the foot of the Cordillera. With +respect to its source, I do not doubt that this is the case; for +the Gauchos assured me, that in the middle of the dry summer this +stream, at the same time with the Colorado, has periodical floods, +which can only originate in the snow melting on the Andes. It is +extremely improbable that a stream so small as the Sauce then was +should traverse the entire width of the continent; and indeed, if +it were the residue of a large river, its waters, as in other +ascertained cases, would be saline. During the winter we must look +to the springs round the Sierra Ventana as the source of its pure +and limpid stream. I suspect the plains of Patagonia, like those of +Australia, are traversed by many watercourses, which only perform +their proper parts at certain periods. Probably this is the case +with the water which flows into the head of Port Desire, and +likewise with the Rio Chupat, on the banks of which masses of +highly cellular scoriæ were found by the officers employed in the +survey.</p> + +<p>As it was early in the afternoon when we arrived, we took fresh +horses and a soldier for a guide, and started for the Sierra de la +Ventana. This mountain is visible from the anchorage at Bahia +Blanca; and Captain Fitz Roy calculates its height to be 3340 +feet—an altitude very remarkable on this eastern side of the +continent. I am not aware that any +<a name="page113"></a> +foreigner, previous to my visit, had ascended this mountain; and +indeed very few of the soldiers at Bahia Blanca knew anything about +it. Hence we heard of beds of coal, of gold and silver, of caves, +and of forests, all of which inflamed my curiosity, only to +disappoint it. The distance from the posta was about six leagues, +over a level plain of the same character as before. The ride was, +however, interesting, as the mountain began to show its true form. +When we reached the foot of the main ridge, we had much difficulty +in finding any water, and we thought we should have been obliged to +have passed the night without any. At last we discovered some by +looking close to the mountain, for at the distance even of a few +hundred yards, the streamlets were buried and entirely lost in the +friable calcareous stone and loose detritus. I do not think Nature +ever made a more solitary, desolate pile of rock;—it well +deserves its name of <i>Hurtado</i>, or separated. The mountain is +steep, extremely rugged, and broken, and so entirely destitute of +trees, and even bushes, that we actually could not make a skewer to +stretch out our meat over the fire of +thistle-stalks.<a href="#fn-6.1" name="fnref-6.1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> +The strange aspect of this mountain is contrasted by the sea-like +plain, which not only abuts against its steep sides, but likewise +separates the parallel ranges. The uniformity of the colouring +gives an extreme quietness to the view;—the whitish grey of +the quartz rock, and the light brown of the withered grass of the +plain, being unrelieved by any brighter tint. From custom one +expects to see in the neighbourhood of a lofty and bold mountain a +broken country strewed over with huge fragments. Here Nature shows +that the last movement before the bed of the sea is changed into +dry land may sometimes be one of tranquillity. Under these +circumstances I was curious to observe how far from the parent rock +any pebbles could be found. On the shores of Bahia Blanca, and near +the settlement, there were some of quartz, which certainly must +have come from this source: the distance is forty-five miles.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-6.1"></a> <a href="#fnref-6.1">[1]</a> +I call these thistle-stalks for the want of a more correct name. I believe it +is a species of Eryngium.</p> + +<p>The dew, which in the early part of the night wetted the +saddle-cloths under which we slept, was in the morning frozen. The +plain, though appearing horizontal, had insensibly sloped +<a name="page114"></a> +up to a height of between 800 and 900 feet above the sea. In the +morning (9th of September) the guide told me to ascend the nearest +ridge, which he thought would lead me to the four peaks that crown +the summit. The climbing up such rough rocks was very fatiguing; +the sides were so indented, that what was gained in one five +minutes was often lost in the next. At last, when I reached the +ridge, my disappointment was extreme in finding a precipitous +valley as deep as the plain, which cut the chain traversely in two, +and separated me from the four points. This valley is very narrow, +but flat-bottomed, and it forms a fine horse-pass for the Indians, +as it connects the plains on the northern and southern sides of the +range. Having descended, and while crossing it, I saw two horses +grazing: I immediately hid myself in the long grass, and began to +reconnoitre; but as I could see no signs of Indians I proceeded +cautiously on my second ascent. It was late in the day, and this +part of the mountain, like the other, was steep and rugged. I was +on the top of the second peak by two o’clock, but got there with +extreme difficulty; every twenty yards I had the cramp in the upper +part of both thighs, so that I was afraid I should not have been +able to have got down again. It was also necessary to return by +another road, as it was out of the question to pass over the +saddle-back. I was therefore obliged to give up the two higher +peaks. Their altitude was but little greater, and every purpose of +geology had been answered; so that the attempt was not worth the +hazard of any further exertion. I presume the cause of the cramp +was the great change in the kind of muscular action, from that of +hard riding to that of still harder climbing. It is a lesson worth +remembering, as in some cases it might cause much difficulty.</p> + +<p>I have already said the mountain is composed of white quartz +rock, and with it a little glossy clay-slate is associated. At the +height of a few hundred feet above the plain, patches of +conglomerate adhered in several places to the solid rock. They +resembled in hardness, and in the nature of the cement, the masses +which may be seen daily forming on some coasts. I do not doubt +these pebbles were in a similar manner aggregated, at a period when +the great calcareous formation was depositing beneath the +surrounding sea. We may believe +<a name="page115"></a> +that the jagged and battered forms of the hard quartz yet show +the effects of the waves of an open ocean.</p> + +<p>I was, on the whole, disappointed with this ascent. Even the +view was insignificant;—a plain like the sea, but without its +beautiful colour and defined outline. The scene, however, was +novel, and a little danger, like salt to meat, gave it a relish. +That the danger was very little was certain, for my two companions +made a good fire—a thing which is never done when it is +suspected that Indians are near. I reached the place of our bivouac +by sunset, and drinking much maté, and smoking several +cigaritos, soon made up my bed for the night. The wind was very +strong and cold, but I never slept more comfortably.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>September</i> 10<i>th.</i>—In the morning, having fairly scudded +before the gale, we arrived by the middle of the day at the Sauce posta. On the +road we saw great numbers of deer, and near the mountain a guanaco. The plain, +which abuts against the Sierra, is traversed by some curious gulleys, of which +one was about twenty feet wide, and at least thirty deep; we were obliged in +consequence to make a considerable circuit before we could find a pass. We +stayed the night at the posta, the conversation, as was generally the case, +being about the Indians. The Sierra Ventana was formerly a great place of +resort; and three or four years ago there was much fighting there. My guide had +been present when many Indians were killed: the women escaped to the top of the +ridge, and fought most desperately with great stones; many thus saving +themselves. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>September</i> 11<i>th.</i>—Proceeded to the third posta in company +with the lieutenant who commanded it. The distance is called fifteen leagues; +but it is only guess-work, and is generally overstated. The road was +uninteresting, over a dry grassy plain; and on our left hand at a greater or +less distance there were some low hills; a continuation of which we crossed +close to the posta. Before our arrival we met a large herd of cattle and +horses, guarded by fifteen soldiers; but we were told many had been lost. It is +very difficult to drive animals across the plains; for if in the night a puma, +or even a fox, approaches, +<a name="page116"></a> +nothing can prevent the horses dispersing in every direction; and a storm will +have the same effect. A short time since, an officer left Buenos Ayres with +five hundred horses, and when he arrived at the army he had under twenty. +</p> + +<p>Soon afterwards we perceived by the cloud of dust, that a party +of horsemen were coming towards us; when far distant my companions +knew them to be Indians, by their long hair streaming behind their +backs. The Indians generally have a fillet round their heads, but +never any covering; and their black hair blowing across their +swarthy faces, heightens to an uncommon degree the wildness of +their appearance. They turned out to be a party of Bernantio’s +friendly tribe, going to a salina for salt. The Indians eat much +salt, their children sucking it like sugar. This habit is very +different from that of the Spanish Gauchos, who, leading the same +kind of life, eat scarcely any: according to Mungo +Park,<a href="#fn-6.2" name="fnref-6.2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> +it is people who live on vegetable food who have an unconquerable desire for +salt. The Indians gave us good-humoured nods as they passed at full gallop, +driving before them a troop of horses, and followed by a train of lanky +dogs.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-6.2"></a> <a href="#fnref-6.2">[2]</a> +<i>Travels in Africa</i>, p. 233.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>September</i> 12<i>th</i> and 13<i>th.</i>—I stayed at this posta two +days, waiting for a troop of soldiers, which General Rosas had the kindness to +send to inform me would shortly travel to Buenos Ayres; and he advised me to +take the opportunity of the escort. In the morning we rode to some neighbouring +hills to view the country, and to examine the geology. After dinner the +soldiers divided themselves into two parties for a trial of skill with the +bolas. Two spears were stuck in the ground twenty-five yards apart, but they +were struck and entangled only once in four or five times. The balls can be +thrown fifty or sixty yards, but with little certainty. This, however, does not +apply to a man on horseback; for when the speed of the horse is added to the +force of the arm, it is said that they can be whirled with effect to the +distance of eighty yards. As a proof of their force, I may mention, that at the +Falkland Islands, when the Spaniards murdered some of their own countrymen and +all the Englishmen, a young friendly Spaniard was running away, when a great +tall man, by name Luciano, +<a name="page117"></a> +came at full gallop after him, shouting to him to stop, and saying that he only +wanted to speak to him. Just as the Spaniard was on the point of reaching the +boat, Luciano threw the balls: they struck him on the legs with such a jerk, as +to throw him down and to render him for some time insensible. The man, after +Luciano had had his talk, was allowed to escape. He told us that his legs were +marked by great weals, where the thong had wound round, as if he had been +flogged with a whip. In the middle of the day two men arrived, who brought a +parcel from the next posta to be forwarded to the general: so that besides +these two, our party consisted this evening of my guide and self, the +lieutenant, and his four soldiers. The latter were strange beings; the first a +fine young negro; the second half Indian and negro; and the two others +nondescripts; namely, an old Chilian miner, the colour of mahogany, and another +partly a mulatto; but two such mongrels, with such detestable expressions, I +never saw before. At night, when they were sitting round the fire, and playing +at cards, I retired to view such a Salvator Rosa scene. They were seated under +a low cliff, so that I could look down upon them; around the party were lying +dogs, arms, remnants of deer and ostriches; and their long spears were stuck in +the turf. Farther in the dark background their horses were tied up, ready for +any sudden danger. If the stillness of the desolate plain was broken by one of +the dogs barking, a soldier, leaving the fire, would place his head close to +the ground, and thus slowly scan the horizon. Even if the noisy teru-tero +uttered its scream, there would be a pause in the conversation, and every head, +for a moment, a little inclined. +</p> + +<p>What a life of misery these men appear to us to lead! They were +at least ten leagues from the Sauce posta, and since the murder +committed by the Indians, twenty from another. The Indians are +supposed to have made their attack in the middle of the night; for +very early in the morning after the murder, they were luckily seen +approaching this posta. The whole party here, however, escaped, +together with the troop of horses; each one taking a line for +himself, and driving with him as many animals as he was able to +manage.</p> + +<p>The little hovel, built of thistle-stalks, in which they +slept, +<a name="page118"></a> +neither kept out the wind nor rain; indeed in the latter case +the only effect the roof had, was to condense it into larger drops. +They had nothing to eat excepting what they could catch, such as +ostriches, deer, armadilloes, etc., and their only fuel was the dry +stalks of a small plant, somewhat resembling an aloe. The sole +luxury which these men enjoyed was smoking the little paper cigars, +and sucking maté. I used to think that the carrion vultures, +man’s constant attendants on these dreary plains, while seated on +the little neighbouring cliffs, seemed by their very patience to +say, “Ah! when the Indians come we shall have a feast.”</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl23.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl23.jpg" width="285" height="252" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p>In the morning we all sallied forth to hunt, and although we had +not much success, there were some animated chases. Soon after +starting the party separated, and so arranged their plans, that at +a certain time of the day (in guessing which they show much skill) +they should all meet from different points of the compass on a +plain piece of ground, and thus drive together the wild animals. +One day I went out hunting at Bahia Blanca, but the men there +merely rode in a crescent, each being about +<a name="page119"></a> +a quarter of a mile apart from the other. A fine male ostrich +being turned by the headmost riders, tried to escape on one side. +The Gauchos pursued at a reckless pace, twisting their horses about +with the most admirable command, and each man whirling the balls +round his head. At length the foremost threw them, revolving +through the air: in an instant the ostrich rolled over and over, +its legs fairly lashed together by the thong.</p> + +<p>The plains abound with three kinds of partridge,<a href="#fn-6.3" name="fnref-6.3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> +two of which are as large as hen pheasants. Their destroyer, a small and pretty +fox, was also singularly numerous; in the course of the day we could not have +seen less than forty or fifty. They were generally near their earths, but the +dogs killed one. When we returned to the posta, we found two of the party +returned who had been hunting by themselves. They had killed a puma, and had +found an ostrich’s nest with twenty-seven eggs in it. Each of these is +said to equal in weight eleven hens’ eggs; so that we obtained from this +one nest as much food as 297 hens’ eggs would have given.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-6.3"></a> <a href="#fnref-6.3">[3]</a> +Two species of Tinamus and <i>Eudromia elegans</i> of A. d’Orbigny, which +can only be called a partridge with regard to its habits.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>September</i> 14<i>th.</i>—As the soldiers belonging to the next posta +meant to return, and we should together make a party of five, and all armed, I +determined not to wait for the expected troops. My host, the lieutenant, +pressed me much to stop. As he had been very obliging—not only providing +me with food, but lending me his private horses—I wanted to make him some +remuneration. I asked my guide whether I might do so, but he told me certainly +not; that the only answer I should receive probably would be, “We have +meat for the dogs in our country, and therefore do not grudge it to a +Christian.” It must not be supposed that the rank of lieutenant in such +an army would at all prevent the acceptance of payment: it was only the high +sense of hospitality, which every traveller is bound to acknowledge as nearly +universal throughout these provinces. After galloping some leagues, we came to +a low swampy country, which extends for nearly eighty miles northward, as far +as the Sierra Tapalguen. In some parts there were fine damp plains, covered +with grass, while others had a soft, black, and peaty soil. There +<a name="page120"></a> +were also many extensive but shallow lakes, and large beds of reeds. The +country on the whole resembled the better parts of the Cambridgeshire fens. At +night we had some difficulty in finding, amidst the swamps, a dry place for our +bivouac. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>September</i> 15<i>th.</i>—Rose very early in the morning, and shortly +after passed the posta where the Indians had murdered the five soldiers. The +officer had eighteen chuzo wounds in his body. By the middle of the day, after +a hard gallop, we reached the fifth posta: on account of some difficulty in +procuring horses we stayed there the night. As this point was the most exposed +on the whole line, twenty-one soldiers were stationed here; at sunset they +returned from hunting, bringing with them seven deer, three ostriches, and many +armadilloes and partridges. When riding through the country, it is a common +practice to set fire to the plain; and hence at night, as on this occasion, the +horizon was illuminated in several places by brilliant conflagrations. This is +done partly for the sake of puzzling any stray Indians, but chiefly for +improving the pasture. In grassy plains unoccupied by the larger ruminating +quadrupeds, it seems necessary to remove the superfluous vegetation by fire, so +as to render the new year’s growth serviceable. +</p> + +<p>The rancho at this place did not boast even of a roof, but +merely consisted of a ring of thistle-stalks, to break the force of +the wind. It was situated on the borders of an extensive but +shallow lake, swarming with wild fowl, among which the black-necked +swan was conspicuous.</p> + +<p>The kind of plover which appears as if mounted on stilts +(Himantopus nigricollis), is here common in flocks of considerable +size. It has been wrongfully accused of inelegance; when wading +about in shallow water, which is its favourite resort, its gait is +far from awkward. These birds in a flock utter a noise, that +singularly resembles the cry of a pack of small dogs in full chase: +waking in the night, I have more than once been for a moment +startled at the distant sound. The teru-tero (Vanellus cayanus) is +another bird which often disturbs the stillness of the night. In +appearance and habits it resembles in many respects our peewits; +its wings, however, are armed with sharp spurs, like those on the +legs of the common cock. As our peewit takes its name from the +sound of its voice, +<a name="page121"></a> +so does the teru-tero. While riding over the grassy plains, one +is constantly pursued by these birds, which appear to hate mankind, +and I am sure deserve to be hated for their never-ceasing, +unvaried, harsh screams. To the sportsman they are most annoying, +by telling every other bird and animal of his approach: to the +traveller in the country they may possibly, as Molina says, do +good, by warning him of the midnight robber. During the breeding +season, they attempt, like our peewits, by feigning to be wounded, +to draw away from their nests dogs and other enemies. The eggs of +this bird are esteemed a great delicacy.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>September</i> 16<i>th.</i>—To the seventh posta at the foot of the +Sierra Tapalguen. The country was quite level, with a coarse herbage and a soft +peaty soil. The hovel was here remarkably neat, the posts and rafters being +made of about a dozen dry thistle-stalks bound together with thongs of hide; +and by the support of these Ionic-like columns, the roof and sides were +thatched with reeds. We were here told a fact, which I would not have credited, +if I had not had partly ocular proof of it; namely, that, during the previous +night, hail as large as small apples, and extremely hard, had fallen with such +violence as to kill the greater number of the wild animals. One of the men had +already found thirteen deer (Cervus campestris) lying dead, and I saw their +<i>fresh</i> hides; another of the party, a few minutes after my arrival, +brought in seven more. Now I well know, that one man without dogs could hardly +have killed seven deer in a week. The men believed they had seen about fifteen +dead ostriches (part of one of which we had for dinner); and they said that +several were running about evidently blind in one eye. Numbers of smaller +birds, as ducks, hawks, and partridges, were killed. I saw one of the latter +with a black mark on its back, as if it had been struck with a paving-stone. A +fence of thistle-stalks round the hovel was nearly broken down, and my +informer, putting his head out to see what was the matter, received a severe +cut, and now wore a bandage. The storm was said to have been of limited extent: +we certainly saw from our last night’s bivouac a dense cloud and +lightning in this direction. It is marvellous how such strong animals as deer +could thus have been killed; but I have no doubt, from the evidence I have +<a name="page122"></a> +given, that the story is not in the least exaggerated. I am glad, however, to +have its credibility supported by the Jesuit Dobrizhoffer,<a href="#fn-6.4" +name="fnref-6.4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> who, speaking of a country much to the +northward, says, hail fell of an enormous size and killed vast numbers of +cattle: the Indians hence called the place <i>Lalegraicavalca</i>, meaning +“the little white things.” Dr. Malcolmson, also, informs me that he +witnessed in 1831 in India a hail-storm, which killed numbers of large birds +and much injured the cattle. These hail-stones were flat, and one was ten +inches in circumference, and another weighed two ounces. They ploughed up a +gravel-walk like musket-balls, and passed through glass-windows, making round +holes, but not cracking them. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-6.4"></a> <a href="#fnref-6.4">[4]</a> +<i>History of the Abipones</i>, vol. ii, p. 6. +</p> + +<p>Having finished our dinner of hail-stricken meat, we crossed the +Sierra Tapalguen; a low range of hills, a few hundred feet in +height, which commences at Cape Corrientes. The rock in this part +is pure quartz; farther eastward I understand it is granitic. The +hills are of a remarkable form; they consist of flat patches of +table-land, surrounded by low perpendicular cliffs, like the +outliers of a sedimentary deposit. The hill which I ascended was +very small, not above a couple of hundred yards in diameter; but I +saw others larger. One which goes by the name of the “Corral,” is +said to be two or three miles in diameter, and encompassed by +perpendicular cliffs between thirty and forty feet high, excepting +at one spot, where the entrance lies. Falconer<a href="#fn-6.5" name="fnref-6.5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> +gives a curious account of the Indians driving troops of wild horses into it, +and then by guarding the entrance keeping them secure. I have never heard of +any other instance of table-land in a formation of quartz, and which, in the +hill I examined, had neither cleavage nor stratification. I was told that the +rock of the “Corral” was white, and would strike fire.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-6.5"></a> <a href="#fnref-6.5">[5]</a> +Falconer’s <i>Patagonia</i>, p. 70.</p> + +<p>We did not reach the posta on the Rio Tapalguen till after it +was dark. At supper, from something which was said, I was suddenly +struck with horror at thinking that I was eating one of the +favourite dishes of the country, namely, a half formed calf, long +before its proper time of birth. It turned out to be Puma; the meat +is very white, and remarkably like veal in taste. Dr. Shaw was +laughed at for stating that “the flesh of the lion is +<a name="page123"></a> +in great esteem, having no small affinity with veal, both in +colour, taste, and flavour.” Such certainly is the case with the +Puma. The Gauchos differ in their opinion whether the Jaguar is +good eating, but are unanimous in saying that cat is excellent.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>September</i> 17<i>th.</i>—We followed the course of the Rio +Tapalguen, through a very fertile country, to the ninth posta. Tapalguen +itself, or the town of Tapalguen, if it may be so called, consists of a +perfectly level plain, studded over, as far as the eye can reach, with the +toldos, or oven-shaped huts of the Indians. The families of the friendly +Indians, who were fighting on the side of Rosas, resided here. We met and +passed many young Indian women, riding by two or three together on the same +horse: they, as well as many of the young men, were strikingly +handsome,—their fine ruddy complexions being the picture of health. +Besides the toldos, there were three ranchos; one inhabited by the Commandant, +and the two others by Spaniards with small shops. +</p> + +<p>We were here able to buy some biscuit. I had now been several +days without tasting anything besides meat: I did not at all +dislike this new regimen; but I felt as if it would only have +agreed with me with hard exercise. I have heard that patients in +England, when desired to confine themselves exclusively to an +animal diet, even with the hope of life before their eyes, have +hardly been able to endure it. Yet the Gaucho in the Pampas, for +months together, touches nothing but beef. But they eat, I observe, +a very large proportion of fat, which is of a less animalised +nature; and they particularly dislike dry meat, such as that of the +Agouti. Dr. Richardson,<a href="#fn-6.6" name="fnref-6.6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> +also, has remarked, “that when people have fed for a long time solely +upon lean animal food, the desire for fat becomes so insatiable, that they can +consume a large quantity of unmixed and even oily fat without nausea:” +this appears to me a curious physiological fact. It is, perhaps, from their +meat regimen that the Gauchos, like other carnivorous animals, can abstain long +from food. I was told that at Tandeel some troops voluntarily pursued a party +of Indians for three days, without eating or drinking.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-6.6"></a> <a href="#fnref-6.6">[6]</a> +<i>Fauna Boreali-Americana</i>, vol. i, p. 35.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page124"></a> +We saw in the shops many articles, such as horsecloths, belts, +and garters, woven by the Indian women. The patterns were very +pretty, and the colours brilliant; the workmanship of the garters +was so good that an English merchant at Buenos Ayres maintained +they must have been manufactured in England, till he found the +tassels had been fastened by split sinew.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>September</i> 18<i>th.</i>—We had a very long ride this day. At the +twelfth posta, which is seven leagues south of the Rio Salado, we came to the +first estancia with cattle and white women. Afterwards we had to ride for many +miles through a country flooded with water above our horses’ knees. By +crossing the stirrups, and riding Arab-like with our legs bent up, we contrived +to keep tolerably dry. It was nearly dark when we arrived at the Salado; the +stream was deep, and about forty yards wide; in summer, however, its bed +becomes almost dry, and the little remaining water nearly as salt as that of +the sea. We slept at one of the great estancias of General Rosas. It was +fortified, and of such an extent, that arriving in the dark I thought it was a +town and fortress. In the morning we saw immense herds of cattle, the general +here having seventy-four square leagues of land. Formerly nearly three hundred +men were employed about this estate, and they defied all the attacks of the +Indians. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>September</i> 19<i>th.</i>—Passed the Guardia del Monte. This is a +nice scattered little town, with many gardens, full of peach and quince trees. +The plain here looked like that around Buenos Ayres; the turf being short and +bright green, with beds of clover and thistles, and with bizcacha holes. I was +very much struck with the marked change in the aspect of the country after +having crossed the Salado. From a coarse herbage we passed on to a carpet of +fine green verdure. I at first attributed this to some change in the nature of +the soil, but the inhabitants assured me that here, as well as in Banda +Oriental, where there is as great a difference between the country around Monte +Video and the thinly-inhabited savannahs of Colonia, the whole was to be +attributed to the manuring and grazing of the cattle. Exactly the same fact has +been observed in the prairies<a href="#fn-6.7" +name="fnref-6.7"><sup>[7]</sup></a> of +<a name="page125"></a> +North America, where coarse grass, between five and six feet high, when grazed +by cattle, changes into common pasture land. I am not botanist enough to say +whether the change here is owing to the introduction of new species, to the +altered growth of the same, or to a difference in their proportional numbers. +Azara has also observed with astonishment this change: he is likewise much +perplexed by the immediate appearance of plants not occurring in the +neighbourhood, on the borders of any track that leads to a newly-constructed +hovel. In another part he says,<a href="#fn-6.8" +name="fnref-6.8"><sup>[8]</sup></a> “Ces chevaux (sauvages) ont la manie +de préférer les chemins, et le bord des routes pour déposer leurs excrémens, +dont on trouve des monceaux dans ces endroits.” Does this not partly +explain the circumstance? We thus have lines of richly manured land serving as +channels of communication across wide districts. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-6.7"></a> <a href="#fnref-6.7">[7]</a> +See Mr. Atwater’s “Account of the Prairies,” in +<i>Silliman’s North American Journal</i>, vol. i, p. 117.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-6.8"></a> <a href="#fnref-6.8">[8]</a> +Azara’s <i>Voyage</i>, vol. i, p. 373. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl24.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl24.jpg" width="335" height="503" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p>Near the Guardia we find the southern limit of two European +plants, now become extraordinarily common. The fennel in great +profusion covers the ditch-banks in the neighbourhood of Buenos +Ayres, Monte Video, and other towns. But the cardoon (Cynara +cardunculus)<a href="#fn-6.9" name="fnref-6.9"><sup>[9]</sup></a> +has a far wider range: it occurs in these latitudes on both sides of the +Cordillera, across the continent. I saw it in unfrequented spots in Chile, +Entre Rios, and Banda Oriental. In the latter country alone, very many +(probably several hundred) square miles are covered by one mass of these +prickly plants, and are impenetrable by man or beast. Over the undulating +plains, where these great beds occur, nothing else can now live. Before their +introduction, however, the surface must have supported, as in other parts, a +rank herbage. I doubt whether any case is on record of an invasion on so grand +a scale of one plant over the aborigines. As I have already said, I nowhere saw +the cardoon south of the Salado; but it is +<a name="page126"></a> +probable that in proportion as that country becomes inhabited, +the cardoon will extend its limits. The case is different with the +giant thistle (with variegated leaves) of the Pampas, for I met +with it in the valley of the Sauce. According to the principles so +well laid down by Mr. Lyell, few countries have undergone more +remarkable changes, since the year 1535, when the first colonist of +La Plata landed with seventy-two horses. The countless herds of +horses, cattle, and sheep, not only have altered the whole aspect +of the vegetation, but they have almost banished the guanaco, deer, +and ostrich. Numberless other changes must likewise have taken +place; the wild pig in some parts probably replaces the peccari; +packs of wild dogs may be heard howling on the wooded banks of the +less-frequented streams; and the common cat, altered into a large +and fierce animal, inhabits rocky hills. As M. d’Orbigny has +remarked, the increase in numbers of the carrion-vulture, since the +introduction of the domestic animals, must have been infinitely +great; and we have given reasons for believing that they have +extended their southern range. No doubt many plants, besides the +cardoon and fennel, are naturalised; thus the islands near the +mouth of the Parana are thickly clothed with peach and orange +trees, springing from seeds carried there by the waters of the +river.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-6.9"></a> <a href="#fnref-6.9">[9]</a> +M. A. d’Orbigny (vol. i, p. 474) says that the cardoon and artichoke are +both found wild. Dr. Hooker (<i>Botanical Magazine</i>, vol. lv. p. 2862) has +described a variety of the Cynara from this part of South America under the +name of inermis. He states that botanists are now generally agreed that the +cardoon and the artichoke are varieties of one plant. I may add, that an +intelligent farmer assured me that he had observed in a deserted garden some +artichokes changing into the common cardoon. Dr. Hooker believes that +Head’s vivid description of the thistle of the Pampas applies to the +cardoon, but this is a mistake. Captain Head referred to the plant which I have +mentioned a few lines lower down under the title of giant thistle. Whether it +is a true thistle, I do not know; but it is quite different from the cardoon; +and more like a thistle properly so called.</p> + +<p>While changing horses at the Guardia several people questioned +us much about the army,—I never saw anything like the +enthusiasm for Rosas, and for the success of the “most just of all +wars, because against barbarians.” This expression, it must be +confessed, is very natural, for till lately, neither man, woman, +nor horse was safe from the attacks of the Indians. We had a long +day’s ride over the same rich green plain, abounding with various +flocks, and with here and there a solitary estancia, and its one +<i>ombu</i> tree. In the evening it rained heavily: on arriving at +a post-house we were told by the owner that if we had not a regular +passport we must pass on, for there were so many robbers he would +trust no one. When he read, however, my passport, which began with +“El Naturalista Don Carlos,” his respect and civility were as +unbounded as his suspicions had been before. What a naturalist +might be, neither he nor his countrymen, I suspect, had any idea; +but probably my title lost nothing of its value from that +cause.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page127"></a> +<i>September</i> 20<i>th.</i>—We arrived by the middle of the day at +Buenos Ayres. The outskirts of the city looked quite pretty, with the agave +hedges, and groves of olive, peach and willow trees, all just throwing out +their fresh green leaves. I rode to the house of Mr. Lumb, an English merchant, +to whose kindness and hospitality, during my stay in the country, I was greatly +indebted. +</p> + +<p>The city of Buenos Ayres is large;<a href="#fn-6.10" name="fnref-6.10"><sup>[10]</sup></a> +and I should think one of the most regular in the world. Every street is at +right angles to the one it crosses, and the parallel ones being equidistant, +the houses are collected into solid squares of equal dimensions, which are +called quadras. On the other hand, the houses themselves are hollow squares; +all the rooms opening into a neat little courtyard. They are generally only one +story high, with flat roofs, which are fitted with seats, and are much +frequented by the inhabitants in summer. In the centre of the town is the +Plaza, where the public offices, fortress, cathedral, etc., stand. Here also, +the old viceroys, before the revolution, had their palaces. The general +assemblage of buildings possesses considerable architectural beauty, although +none individually can boast of any.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-6.10"></a> <a href="#fnref-6.10">[10]</a> +It is said to contain 60,000 inhabitants. Monte Video, the second town of +importance on the banks of the Plata, has 15,000.</p> + +<p>The great <i>corral</i>, where the animals are kept for +slaughter to supply food to this beef-eating population, is one of +the spectacles best worth seeing. The strength of the horse as +compared to that of the bullock is quite astonishing: a man on +horseback having thrown his lazo round the horns of a beast, can +drag it anywhere he chooses. The animal ploughing up the ground +with outstretched legs, in vain efforts to resist the force, +generally dashes at full speed to one side; but the horse, +immediately turning to receive the shock, stands so firmly that the +bullock is almost thrown down, and it is surprising that their +necks are not broken. The struggle is not, however, one of fair +strength; the horse’s girth being matched against the bullock’s +extended neck. In a similar manner a man can hold the wildest +horse, if caught with the lazo, just behind the ears. When the +bullock has been dragged to the spot where it is to be slaughtered, +the <i>matador</i> with great caution cuts the hamstrings. Then is +given the death +<a name="page128"></a> +bellow; a noise more expressive of fierce agony than any I know. +I have often distinguished it from a long distance, and have always +known that the struggle was then drawing to a close. The whole +sight is horrible and revolting: the ground is almost made of +bones; and the horses and riders are drenched with gore.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl25.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl25.jpg" width="300" height="276" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl26.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl26.jpg" width="295" height="226" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="page129"></a><a name="chvii"></a>Chapter VII</h2> + +<p class="letter">Excursion to St. Fé—Thistle +Beds—Habits of the Bizcacha—Little Owl—Saline +Streams—Level Plains—Mastodon—St. +Fé—Change in Landscape—Geology—Tooth of +extinct Horse—Relation of the Fossil and recent Quadrupeds of +North and South America—Effects of a great +Drought—Parana—Habits of the +Jaguar—Scissor-beak—Kingfisher, Parrot, and +Scissor-tail—Revolution—Buenos Ayres—State of +Government.</p> + +<h3>BUENOS AYRES TO ST. FÉ.</h3> + +<p> +<i>September</i> 27<i>th.</i>—In the evening I set out on an excursion to +St. Fé, which is situated nearly three hundred English miles from Buenos Ayres, +on the banks of the Parana. The roads in the neighbourhood of the city, after +the rainy weather, were extraordinarily bad. I should never have thought it +possible for a bullock waggon to have crawled along: as it was, they scarcely +went at the rate of a mile an hour, and a man was kept ahead, to survey the +best line for making the attempt. The bullocks were terribly jaded: it is a +great mistake to suppose that with improved roads, and an accelerated rate of +travelling, the sufferings of the animals increase in the same +<a name="page130"></a> +proportion. We passed a train of waggons and a troop of beasts on their road to +Mendoza. The distance is about 580 geographical miles, and the journey is +generally performed in fifty days. These waggons are very long, narrow, and +thatched with reeds; they have only two wheels, the diameter of which in some +cases is as much as ten feet. Each is drawn by six bullocks, which are urged on +by a goad at least twenty feet long: this is suspended from within the roof; +for the wheel bullocks a smaller one is kept; and for the intermediate pair, a +point projects at right angles from the middle of the long one. The whole +apparatus looked like some implement of war. +</p> + +<p> +<i>September</i> 28<i>th.</i>—We passed the small town of Luxan, where +there is a wooden bridge over the river—a most unusual convenience in +this country. We passed also Areco. The plains appeared level, but were not so +in fact; for in various places the horizon was distant. The estancias are here +wide apart; for there is little good pasture, owing to the land being covered +by beds either of an acrid clover, or of the great thistle. The latter, well +known from the animated description given by Sir F. Head, were at this time of +the year two-thirds grown; in some parts they were as high as the horse’s +back, but in others they had not yet sprung up, and the ground was bare and +dusty as on a turnpike-road. The clumps were of the most brilliant green, and +they made a pleasing miniature-likeness of broken forest land. When the +thistles are full grown, the great beds are impenetrable, except by a few +tracks, as intricate as those in a labyrinth. These are only known to the +robbers, who at this season inhabit them, and sally forth at night to rob and +cut throats with impunity. Upon asking at a house whether robbers were +numerous, I was answered, “The thistles are not up yet;”—the +meaning of which reply was not at first very obvious. There is little interest +in passing over these tracts, for they are inhabited by few animals or birds, +excepting the bizcacha and its friend the little owl. +</p> + +<p>The bizcacha<a href="#fn-7.1" name="fnref-7.1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> +is well known to form a prominent feature in the zoology of the Pampas. It is +found as far south as the +<a name="page131"></a> +Rio Negro, in lat. 41°, but not beyond. It cannot, like the +agouti, subsist on the gravelly and desert plains of Patagonia, but +prefers a clayey or sandy soil, which produces a different and more +abundant vegetation. Near Mendoza, at the foot of the Cordillera, +it occurs in close neighbourhood with the allied alpine species. It +is a very curious circumstance in its geographical distribution, +that it has never been seen, fortunately for the inhabitants of +Banda Oriental, to the eastward of the river Uruguay: yet in this +province there are plains which appear admirably adapted to its +habits. The Uruguay has formed an insuperable obstacle to its +migration: although the broader barrier of the Parana has been +passed, and the bizcacha is common in Entre Rios, the province +between these two great rivers. Near Buenos Ayres these animals are +exceedingly common. Their most favourite resort appears to be those +parts of the plain which during one half of the year are covered +with giant thistles, to the exclusion of other plants. The Gauchos +affirm that it lives on roots; which, from the great strength of +its gnawing teeth, and the kind of places frequented by it, seems +probable. In the evening the bizcachas come out in numbers, and +quietly sit at the mouths of their burrows on their haunches. At +such times they are very tame, and a man on horseback passing by +seems only to present an object for their grave contemplation. They +run very awkwardly, and when running out of danger, from their +elevated tails and short front legs, much resemble great rats. +Their flesh, when cooked, is very white and good, but it is seldom +used.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-7.1"></a> <a href="#fnref-7.1">[1]</a> +The bizcacha (Lagostomus trichodactylus) somewhat resembles a large rabbit, but +with bigger gnawing teeth and a long tail; it has, however, only three toes +behind, like the agouti. During the last three or four years the skins of these +animals have been sent to England for the sake of the fur.</p> + +<p>The bizcacha has one very singular habit; namely, dragging every +hard object to the mouth of its burrow: around each group of holes +many bones of cattle, stones, thistle-stalks, hard lumps of earth, +dry dung, etc., are collected into an irregular heap, which +frequently amounts to as much as a wheelbarrow would contain. I was +credibly informed that a gentleman, when riding on a dark night, +dropped his watch; he returned in the morning, and by searching the +neighbourhood of every bizcacha hole on the line of road, as he +expected, he soon found it. This habit of picking up whatever may +be lying on the ground anywhere near its habitation must cost much +trouble. For what purpose it is done, I am quite unable to form +even the most remote conjecture: it cannot be for +<a name="page132"></a> +defence, because the rubbish is chiefly placed above the mouth +of the burrow, which enters the ground at a very small inclination. +No doubt there must exist some good reason; but the inhabitants of +the country are quite ignorant of it. The only fact which I know +analogous to it, is the habit of that extraordinary Australian +bird, the Calodera maculata, which makes an elegant vaulted passage +of twigs for playing in, and which collects near the spot land and +sea-shells, bones, and the feathers of birds, especially brightly +coloured ones. Mr. Gould, who has described these facts, informs +me, that the natives, when they lose any hard object, search the +playing passages, and he has known a tobacco-pipe thus +recovered.</p> + +<p>The little owl (Athene cunicularia), which has been so often +mentioned, on the plains of Buenos Ayres exclusively inhabits the +holes of the bizcacha; but in Banda Oriental it is its own workman. +During the open day, but more especially in the evening, these +birds may be seen in every direction standing frequently by pairs +on the hillock near their burrows. If disturbed they either enter +the hole, or, uttering a shrill harsh cry, move with a remarkably +undulatory flight to a short distance, and then turning round, +steadily gaze at their pursuer. Occasionally in the evening they +may be heard hooting. I found in the stomachs of two which I opened +the remains of mice, and I one day saw a small snake killed and +carried away. It is said that snakes are their common prey during +the daytime. I may here mention, as showing on what various kinds +of food owls subsist, that a species killed among the islets of the +Chonos Archipelago had its stomach full of good-sized crabs. In +India<a href="#fn-7.2" name="fnref-7.2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> +there is a fishing genus of owls, which likewise catches crabs.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-7.2"></a> <a href="#fnref-7.2">[2]</a> +<i>Journal of Asiatic Soc.</i>, vol. v, p. 363. +</p> + +<p>In the evening we crossed the Rio Arrecife on a simple raft made +of barrels lashed together, and slept at the post-house on the +other side. I this day paid horse-hire for thirty-one leagues; and +although the sun was glaring hot I was but little fatigued. When +Captain Head talks of riding fifty leagues a day, I do not imagine +the distance is equal to 150 English miles. At all events, the +thirty-one leagues was only 76 miles in a straight line, and in an +open country I should think four additional miles for turnings +would be a sufficient allowance.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page133"></a> +29<i>th and</i> 30<i>th.</i>—We continued to ride over plains of the same +character. At San Nicolas I first saw the noble river of the Parana. At the +foot of the cliff on which the town stands, some large vessels were at anchor. +Before arriving at Rozario, we crossed the Saladillo, a stream of fine clear +running water, but too saline to drink. Rozario is a large town built on a dead +level plain, which forms a cliff about sixty feet high over the Parana. The +river here is very broad, with many islands, which are low and wooded, as is +also the opposite shore. The view would resemble that of a great lake, if it +were not for the linear-shaped islets, which alone give the idea of running +water. The cliffs are the most picturesque part; sometimes they are absolutely +perpendicular, and of a red colour; at other times in large broken masses, +covered with cacti and mimosa-trees. The real grandeur, however, of an immense +river like this is derived from reflecting how important a means of +communication and commerce it forms between one nation and another; to what a +distance it travels, and from how vast a territory it drains the great body of +fresh water which flows past your feet. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl27.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl27.jpg" width="300" height="197" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p>For many leagues north and south of San Nicolas and Rozario, the +country is really level. Scarcely anything which travellers have +written about its extreme flatness can be +<a name="page134"></a> +considered as exaggeration. Yet I could never find a spot where, +by slowly turning round, objects were not seen at greater distances +in some directions than in others; and this manifestly proves +inequality in the plain. At sea, a person’s eye being six feet +above the surface of the water, his horizon is two miles and +four-fifths distant. In like manner, the more level the plain, the +more nearly does the horizon approach within these narrow limits; +and this, in my opinion, entirely destroys that grandeur which one +would have imagined that a vast level plain would have +possessed.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl28.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl28.jpg" width="250" height="201" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p> +<i>October</i> 1<i>st.</i>—We started by moonlight and arrived at the Rio +Tercero by sunrise. This river is also called the Saladillo, and it deserves +the name, for the water is brackish. I stayed here the greater part of the day, +searching for fossil bones. Besides a perfect tooth of the Toxodon, and many +scattered bones, I found two immense skeletons near each other, projecting in +bold relief from the perpendicular cliff of the Parana. They were, however, so +completely decayed, that I could only bring away small fragments of one of the +great molar teeth; but these are sufficient to show that the remains belonged +to a Mastodon, probably to the same species with that which formerly must have +inhabited the Cordillera in Upper Peru in such great numbers. The men who took +me in the canoe said +<a name="page135"></a> +they had long known of these skeletons, and had often wondered how they had got +there: the necessity of a theory being felt, they came to the conclusion that, +like the bizcacha, the mastodon was formerly a burrowing animal! In the evening +we rode another stage, and crossed the Monge, another brackish stream, bearing +the dregs of the washings of the Pampas. +</p> + +<p> +<i>October</i> 2<i>nd.</i>—We passed through Corunda, which, from the +luxuriance of its gardens, was one of the prettiest villages I saw. From this +point to St. Fé the road is not very safe. The western side of the Parana +northward ceases to be inhabited; and hence the Indians sometimes come down +thus far, and waylay travellers. The nature of the country also favours this, +for instead of a grassy plain, there is an open woodland, composed of low +prickly mimosas. We passed some houses that had been ransacked and since +deserted; we saw also a spectacle, which my guides viewed with high +satisfaction; it was the skeleton of an Indian with the dried skin hanging on +the bones, suspended to the branch of a tree. +</p> + +<p>In the morning we arrived at St. Fé. I was surprised to +observe how great a change of climate a difference of only three +degrees of latitude between this place and Buenos Ayres had caused. +This was evident from the dress and complexion of the +men—from the increased size of the ombu-trees—the +number of new cacti and other plants—and especially from the +birds. In the course of an hour I remarked half-a-dozen birds, +which I had never seen at Buenos Ayres. Considering that there is +no natural boundary between the two places, and that the character +of the country is nearly similar, the difference was much greater +than I should have expected.</p> + +<p> +<i>October</i> 3<i>rd and</i> 4<i>th.</i>—I was confined for these two +days to my bed by a headache. A good-natured old woman, who attended me, wished +me to try many odd remedies. A common practice is, to bind an orange-leaf or a +bit of black plaster to each temple: and a still more general plan is, to split +a bean into halves, moisten them, and place one on each temple, where they will +easily adhere. It is not thought proper ever to remove the beans or plaster, +but to allow them to drop off, and sometimes, if a man, with patches on his +head, is asked, what is the matter? he will answer, “I had a headache the +day before yesterday.” Many of the remedies used by the people +<a name="page136"></a> +of the country are ludicrously strange, but too disgusting to be mentioned. One +of the least nasty is to kill and cut open two puppies and bind them on each +side of a broken limb. Little hairless dogs are in great request to sleep at +the feet of invalids. +</p> + +<p>St. Fé is a quiet little town, and is kept clean and in +good order. The governor, Lopez, was a common soldier at the time +of the revolution; but has now been seventeen years in power. This +stability of government is owing to his tyrannical habits; for +tyranny seems as yet better adapted to these countries than +republicanism. The governor’s favourite occupation is hunting +Indians: a short time since he slaughtered forty-eight, and sold +the children at the rate of three or four pounds apiece.</p> + +<p> +<i>October</i> 5<i>th.</i>—We crossed the Parana to St. Fé Bajada, a town +on the opposite shore. The passage took some hours, as the river here consisted +of a labyrinth of small streams, separated by low wooded islands. I had a +letter of introduction to an old Catalonian Spaniard, who treated me with the +most uncommon hospitality. The Bajada is the capital of Entre Rios. In 1825 the +town contained 6000 inhabitants, and the province 30,000; yet, few as the +inhabitants are, no province has suffered more from bloody and desperate +revolutions. They boast here of representatives, ministers, a standing army, +and governors: so it is no wonder that they have their revolutions. At some +future day this must be one of the richest countries of La Plata. The soil is +varied and productive; and its almost insular form gives it two grand lines of +communication by the rivers Parana and Uruguay. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +I was delayed here five days, and employed myself in examining the geology of +the surrounding country, which was very interesting. We here see at the bottom +of the cliffs, beds containing sharks’ teeth and sea-shells of extinct +species, passing above into an indurated marl, and from that into the red +clayey earth of the Pampas, with its calcareous concretions and the bones of +terrestrial quadrupeds. This vertical section clearly tells us of a large bay +of pure salt-water, gradually encroached on, and at last converted into the bed +of a muddy estuary, into which floating carcasses were swept. At Punta Gorda, +in Banda +<a name="page137"></a> +Oriental, I found an alternation of the Pampæan estuary deposit, with a +limestone containing some of the same extinct sea-shells; and this shows either +a change in the former currents, or more probably an oscillation of level in +the bottom of the ancient estuary. Until lately, my reasons for considering the +Pampæan formation to be an estuary deposit were, its general appearance, its +position at the mouth of the existing great river the Plata, and the presence +of so many bones of terrestrial quadrupeds: but now Professor Ehrenberg has had +the kindness to examine for me a little of the red earth, taken from low down +in the deposit, close to the skeletons of the mastodon, and he finds in it many +infusoria, partly salt-water and partly fresh-water forms, with the latter +rather preponderating; and therefore, as he remarks, the water must have been +brackish. M. A. d’Orbigny found on the banks of the Parana, at the height +of a hundred feet, great beds of an estuary shell, now living a hundred miles +lower down nearer the sea; and I found similar shells at a less height on the +banks of the Uruguay; this shows that just before the Pampas was slowly +elevated into dry land, the water covering it was brackish. Below Buenos Ayres +there are upraised beds of sea-shells of existing species, which also proves +that the period of elevation of the Pampas was within the recent period. +</p> + +<p>In the Pampæan deposit at the Bajada I found the osseous +armour of a gigantic armadillo-like animal, the inside of which, +when the earth was removed, was like a great cauldron; I found also +teeth of the Toxodon and Mastodon, and one tooth of a Horse, in the +same stained and decayed state. This latter tooth greatly +interested me,<a href="#fn-7.3" name="fnref-7.3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> +and I took scrupulous care in ascertaining that it had been embedded +contemporaneously with the other remains; for I was not then aware that amongst +the fossils from Bahia Blanca there was a horse’s tooth hidden in the +matrix: nor was it then known with certainty that the remains of horses are +common in North America. Mr. Lyell has lately brought from the United States a +tooth of a horse; and it is an interesting fact, that Professor Owen could find +in no species, either fossil or recent, a slight but peculiar curvature +characterising it, until he thought of comparing it with my +<a name="page138"></a> +specimen found here: he has named this American horse Equus +curvidens. Certainly it is a marvellous fact in the history of the +Mammalia, that in South America a native horse should have lived +and disappeared, to be succeeded in after ages by the countless +herds descended from the few introduced with the Spanish +colonists!</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-7.3"></a> <a href="#fnref-7.3">[3]</a> +I need hardly state here that there is good evidence against any horse living +in America at the time of Columbus.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl29.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl29.jpg" width="251" height="185" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p>The existence in South America of a fossil horse, of the +mastodon, possibly of an elephant,<a href="#fn-7.4" name="fnref-7.4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> +and of a hollow-horned ruminant, discovered by MM. Lund and Clausen in the +caves of Brazil, are highly interesting facts with respect to the geographical +distribution of animals. At the present time, if we divide America, not by the +Isthmus of Panama, but by the southern part of Mexico<a href="#fn-7.5" name="fnref-7.5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> +in lat. 20°, where the great table-land presents an obstacle to the +migration of species, by affecting the climate, and by forming, with the +exception of some valleys and of a fringe of low land on the coast, a broad +barrier; we shall then have the two zoological provinces of North and South +<a name="page139"></a> +America strongly contrasted with each other. Some few species +alone have passed the barrier, and may be considered as wanderers +from the south, such as the puma, opossum, kinkajou, and peccari. +South America is characterised by possessing many peculiar gnawers, +a family of monkeys, the llama, peccari, tapir, opossums, and, +especially, several genera of Edentata, the order which includes +the sloths, ant-eaters, and armadilloes. North America, on the +other hand, is characterised (putting on one side a few wandering +species) by numerous peculiar gnawers, and by four genera (the ox, +sheep, goat, and antelope) of hollow-horned ruminants, of which +great division South America is not known to possess a single +species. Formerly, but within the period when most of the now +existing shells were living, North America possessed, besides +hollow-horned ruminants, the elephant, mastodon, horse, and three +genera of Edentata, namely, the Megatherium, Megalonyx, and +Mylodon. Within nearly this same period (as proved by the shells at +Bahia Blanca) South America possessed, as we have just seen, a +mastodon, horse, hollow-horned ruminant, and the same three genera +(as well as several others) of the Edentata. Hence it is evident +that North and South America, in having within a late geological +period these several genera in common, were much more closely +related in the character of their terrestrial inhabitants than they +now are. The more I reflect on this case, the more interesting it +appears: I know of no other instance where we can almost mark the +period and manner of the splitting up of one great region into two +well-characterised zoological provinces. The geologist, who is +fully impressed with the vast oscillations of level which have +affected the earth’s crust within late periods, will not fear to +speculate on the recent elevation of the Mexican platform, or, more +probably, on the recent submergence of land in the West Indian +Archipelago, as the cause of the present zoological separation of +North and South America. The South American character of the West +Indian mammals<a href="#fn-7.6" name="fnref-7.6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> +seems to indicate that this archipelago was formerly united to the southern +continent, and that it has subsequently been an area of subsidence.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-7.4"></a> <a href="#fnref-7.4">[4]</a> +Cuvier, <i>Ossemens Fossils</i>, tome i, p. 158. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-7.5"></a> <a href="#fnref-7.5">[5]</a> +This is the geographical division followed by Lichtenstein, Swainson, Erichson, +and Richardson. The section from Vera Cruz to Acapulco, given by Humboldt in +the <i>Polit. Essay on Kingdom of N. Spain</i> will show how immense a barrier +the Mexican table-land forms. Dr. Richardson, in his admirable <i>Report on the +Zoology of N. America</i> read before the British Assoc. 1836 (p. 157), talking +of the identification of a Mexican animal with the <i>Synetheres +prehensilis</i>, says, “We do not know with what propriety, but if +correct, it is, if not a solitary instance, at least very nearly so, of a +rodent animal being common to North and South America.”</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-7.6"></a> <a href="#fnref-7.6">[6]</a> +See Dr. Richardson’s <i>Report</i>, p. 157; also <i>L’Institut</i>, +1837, p. 253. Cuvier says the kinkajou is found in the larger Antilles, but +this is doubtful. M. Gervais states that the Didelphis crancrivora is found +there. It is certain that the West Indies possess some mammifers peculiar to +themselves. A tooth of a mastodon has been brought from Bahama; <i>Edinburgh +New Philosophical Journal</i>, 1826, p. 395.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl30.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl30.jpg" width="310" height="378" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p> +<a name="page140"></a> +When America, and especially North America, possessed its +elephants, mastodons, horse, and hollow-horned ruminants, it was +much more closely related in its zoological characters to the +temperate parts of Europe and Asia than it now is. As the remains +of these genera are found on both sides of Behring’s +Straits<a href="#fn-7.7" name="fnref-7.7"><sup>[7]</sup></a> +and on the plains of Siberia, we are led to look to the north-western side of +North America as the former point of communication between the Old and +so-called New World. And as so many species, both living and extinct, of these +same +<a name="page141"></a> +genera inhabit and have inhabited the Old World, it seems most +probable that the North American elephants, mastodons, horse, and +hollow-horned ruminants migrated, on land since submerged near +Behring’s Straits, from Siberia into North America, and thence, on +land since submerged in the West Indies, into South America, where +for a time they mingled with the forms characteristic of that +southern continent, and have since become extinct.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-7.7"></a> <a href="#fnref-7.7">[7]</a> +See the admirable Appendix by Dr. Buckland to Beechey’s <i>Voyage</i>; +also the writings of Chamisso in Kotzebue’s <i>Voyage.</i></p> + +<p class="p2"> +While travelling through the country, I received several vivid descriptions of +the effects of a late great drought; and the account of this may throw some +light on the cases where vast numbers of animals of all kinds have been +embedded together. The period included between the years 1827 and 1830 is +called the “gran seco,” or the great drought. During this time so +little rain fell, that the vegetation, even to the thistles, failed; the brooks +were dried up, and the whole country assumed the appearance of a dusty +high-road. This was especially the case in the northern part of the province of +Buenos Ayres and the southern part of St. Fé. Very great numbers of birds, wild +animals, cattle, and horses perished from the want of food and water. A man +told me that the deer<a href="#fn-7.8" name="fnref-7.8"><sup>[8]</sup></a> used +to come into his courtyard to the well, which he had been obliged to dig to +supply his own family with water; and that the partridges had hardly strength +to fly away when pursued. The lowest estimation of the loss of cattle in the +province of Buenos Ayres alone, was taken at one million head. A proprietor at +San Pedro had previously to these years 20,000 cattle; at the end not one +remained. San Pedro is situated in the middle of the finest country; and even +now abounds again with animals; yet during the latter part of the “gran +seco,” live cattle were brought in vessels for the consumption +<a name="page142"></a> +of the inhabitants. The animals roamed from their estancias, and, wandering far +southward, were mingled together in such multitudes, that a government +commission was sent from Buenos Ayres to settle the disputes of the owners. Sir +Woodbine Parish informed me of another and very curious source of dispute; the +ground being so long dry, such quantities of dust were blown about, that in +this open country the landmarks became obliterated, and people could not tell +the limits of their estates. I was informed by an eye-witness that the cattle +in herds of thousands rushed into the Parana, and being exhausted by hunger +they were unable to crawl up the muddy banks, and thus were drowned. The arm of +the river which runs by San Pedro was so full of putrid carcasses, that the +master of a vessel told me that the smell rendered it quite impassable. Without +doubt several hundred thousand animals thus perished in the river: their bodies +when putrid were seen floating down the stream; and many in all probability +were deposited in the estuary of the Plata. All the small rivers became highly +saline, and this caused the death of vast numbers in particular spots; for when +an animal drinks of such water it does not recover. Azara +describes<a href="#fn-7.9" name="fnref-7.9"><sup>[9]</sup></a> +the fury of the wild horses on a similar occasion, rushing into the marshes, +those which arrived first being overwhelmed and crushed by those which +followed. He adds that more than once he has seen the carcasses of upwards of a +thousand wild horses thus destroyed. I noticed that the smaller streams in the +Pampas were paved with a breccia of bones, but this probably is the effect of a +gradual increase, rather than of the destruction at any one period. +Subsequently to the drought of 1827 to 1832, a very rainy season followed which +caused great floods. Hence it is almost certain that some thousands of the +skeletons were buried by the deposits of the very next year. What would be the +opinion of a geologist, viewing such an enormous collection of bones, of all +kinds of animals and of all ages, thus embedded in one thick earthy mass? Would +he not attribute it to a flood having swept over the surface of the land, +rather than to the common order of +things?<a href="#fn-7.10" name="fnref-7.10"><sup>[10]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-7.8"></a> <a href="#fnref-7.8">[8]</a> +In Captain Owen’s <i>Surveying Voyage</i> (vol. ii, p. 274) there is a +curious account of the effects of a drought on the elephants, at Benguela (west +coast of Africa). “A number of these animals had some time since entered +the town, in a body, to possess themselves of the wells, not being able to +procure any water in the country. The inhabitants mustered, when a desperate +conflict ensued, which terminated in the ultimate discomfiture of the invaders, +but not until they had killed one man, and wounded several others.” The +town is said to have a population of nearly three thousand! Dr. Malcolmson +informs me, that during a great drought in India the wild animals entered the +tents of some troops at Ellore, and that a hare drank out of a vessel held by +the adjutant of the regiment.)</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-7.9"></a> <a href="#fnref-7.9">[9]</a> +<i>Travels</i>, vol. i, p. 374. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-7.10"></a> <a href="#fnref-7.10">[10]</a> +These droughts to a certain degree seem to be almost periodical; I was told the +dates of several others, and the intervals were about fifteen years.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page143"></a> +<i>October</i> 12<i>th.</i>—I had intended to push my excursion farther, +but not being quite well, I was compelled to return by a balandra, or +one-masted vessel of about a hundred tons’ burden, which was bound to +Buenos Ayres. As the weather was not fair, we moored early in the day to a +branch of a tree on one of the islands. The Parana is full of islands, which +undergo a constant round of decay and renovation. In the memory of the master +several large ones had disappeared, and others again had been formed and +protected by vegetation. They are composed of muddy sand, without even the +smallest pebble, and were then about four feet above the level of the river; +but during the periodical floods they are inundated. They all present one +character; numerous willows and a few other trees are bound together by a great +variety of creeping plants, thus forming a thick jungle. These thickets afford +a retreat for capybaras and jaguars. The fear of the latter animal quite +destroyed all pleasure in scrambling through the woods. This evening I had not +proceeded a hundred yards, before, finding indubitable signs of the recent +presence of the tiger, I was obliged to come back. On every island there were +tracks; and as on the former excursion “el rastro de los Indios” +had been the subject of conversation, so in this was “el rastro del +tigre.” +</p> + +<p>The wooded banks of the great rivers appear to be the favourite +haunts of the jaguar; but south of the Plata, I was told that they +frequented the reeds bordering lakes: wherever they are, they seem +to require water. Their common prey is the capybara, so that it is +generally said, where capybaras are numerous there is little danger +from the jaguar. Falconer states that near the southern side of the +mouth of the Plata there are many jaguars, and that they chiefly +live on fish; this account I have heard repeated. On the Parana +they have killed many wood-cutters, and have even entered vessels +at night. There is a man now living in the Bajada, who, coming up +from below when it was dark, was seized on the deck; he escaped, +however, with the loss of the use of one arm. When the floods drive +these animals from the islands, they are most dangerous. I was told +that a few years since a very large one found its way into a church +at St. Fé: two padres entering one after the other were +killed, and a third, who came to see what +<a name="page144"></a> +was the matter, escaped with difficulty. The beast was destroyed +by being shot from a corner of the building which was unroofed. +They commit also at these times great ravages among cattle and +horses. It is said that they kill their prey by breaking their +necks. If driven from the carcass, they seldom return to it. The +Gauchos say that the jaguar, when wandering about at night, is much +tormented by the foxes yelping as they follow him. This is a +curious coincidence with the fact which is generally affirmed of +the jackals accompanying, in a similarly officious manner, the East +Indian tiger. The jaguar is a noisy animal, roaring much by night, +and especially before bad weather.</p> + +<p>One day, when hunting on the banks of the Uruguay, I was shown +certain trees, to which these animals constantly recur for the +purpose, as it is said, of sharpening their claws. I saw three +well-known trees; in front, the bark was worn smooth, as if by the +breast of the animal, and on each side there were deep scratches, +or rather grooves, extending in an oblique line, nearly a yard in +length. The scars were of different ages. A common method of +ascertaining whether a jaguar is in the neighbourhood is to examine +these trees. I imagine this habit of the jaguar is exactly similar +to one which may any day be seen in the common cat, as with +outstretched legs and exserted claws it scrapes the leg of a chair; +and I have heard of young fruit-trees in an orchard in England +having been thus much injured. Some such habit must also be common +to the puma, for on the bare hard soil of Patagonia I have +frequently seen scores so deep that no other animal could have made +them. The object of this practice is, I believe, to tear off the +ragged points of their claws, and not, as the Gauchos think, to +sharpen them. The jaguar is killed, without much difficulty, by the +aid of dogs baying and driving him up a tree, where he is +despatched with bullets.</p> + +<p>Owing to bad weather we remained two days at our moorings. Our +only amusement was catching fish for our dinner: there were several +kinds, and all good eating. A fish called the “armado” (a Silurus) +is remarkable from a harsh grating noise which it makes when caught +by hook and line, and which can be distinctly heard when the fish +is beneath the water. This same fish has the power of firmly +catching hold +<a name="page145"></a> +of any object, such as the blade of an oar or the fishing-line, +with the strong spine both of its pectoral and dorsal fin. In the +evening the weather was quite tropical, the thermometer standing at +79°. Numbers of fireflies were hovering about, and the +musquitoes were very troublesome. I exposed my hand for five +minutes, and it was soon black with them; I do not suppose there +could have been less than fifty, all busy sucking.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl31.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl31.jpg" width="262" height="255" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p> +<i>October</i> 15<i>th.</i>—We got under way and passed Punta Gorda, +where there is a colony of tame Indians from the province of Missiones. We +sailed rapidly down the current, but before sunset, from a silly fear of bad +weather, we brought-to in a narrow arm of the river. I took the boat and rowed +some distance up this creek. It was very narrow, winding, and deep; on each +side a wall thirty or forty feet high, formed by trees intwined with creepers, +gave to the canal a singularly gloomy appearance. I here saw a very +extraordinary bird, called the Scissor-beak (Rhynchops nigra). It has short +legs, web feet, extremely long-pointed wings, and is of about the size of a +tern. +<a name="page146"></a> +The beak is flattened laterally, that is, in a plane at right angles to that of +a spoonbill or duck. It is as flat and elastic as an ivory paper-cutter, and +the lower mandible, differently from every other bird, is an inch and a half +longer than the upper. In a lake near Maldonado, from which the water had been +nearly drained, and which, in consequence, swarmed with small fry, I saw +several of these birds, generally in small flocks, flying rapidly backwards and +forwards close to the surface of the lake. They kept their bills wide open, and +the lower mandible half buried in the water. Thus skimming the surface, they +ploughed it in their course: the water was quite smooth, and it formed a most +curious spectacle to behold a flock, each bird leaving its narrow wake on the +mirror-like surface. In their flight they frequently twist about with extreme +quickness, and dexterously manage with their projecting lower mandible to +plough up small fish, which are secured by the upper and shorter half of their +scissor-like bills. This fact I repeatedly saw, as, like swallows, they +continued to fly backwards and forwards close before me. Occasionally when +leaving the surface of the water their flight was wild, irregular, and rapid; +they then uttered loud harsh cries. When these birds are fishing, the advantage +of the long primary feathers of their wings, in keeping them dry, is very +evident. When thus employed, their forms resemble the symbol by which many +artists represent marine birds. Their tails are much used in steering their +irregular course. +</p> + +<p>These birds are common far inland along the course of the Rio +Parana; it is said that they remain here during the whole year, and +breed in the marshes. During the day they rest in flocks on the +grassy plains, at some distance from the water. Being at anchor, as +I have said, in one of the deep creeks between the islands of the +Parana, as the evening drew to a close, one of these scissor-beaks +suddenly appeared. The water was quite still, and many little fish +were rising. The bird continued for a long time to skim the +surface, flying in its wild and irregular manner up and down the +narrow canal, now dark with the growing night and the shadows of +the overhanging trees. At Monte Video, I observed that some large +flocks during the day remained on the mud-banks at the head of the +harbour, in the same manner as on the grassy plains near the +Parana; and every evening they took flight seaward. From +<a name="page147"></a> +these facts I suspect that the Rhynchops generally fishes by +night, at which time many of the lower animals come most abundantly +to the surface. M. Lesson states that he has seen these birds +opening the shells of the mactræ buried in the sand-banks on +the coast of Chile: from their weak bills, with the lower mandible +so much projecting, their short legs and long wings, it is very +improbable that this can be a general habit.</p> + +<p> +In our course down the Parana, I observed only three other birds, whose habits +are worth mentioning. One is a small kingfisher (Ceryle Americana); it has a +longer tail than the European species, and hence does not sit in so stiff and +upright a position. Its flight also, instead of being direct and rapid, like +the course of an arrow, is weak and undulatory, as among the soft-billed birds. +It utters a low note, like the clicking together of two small stones. A small +green parrot (Conurus murinus), with a grey breast, appears to prefer the tall +trees on the islands to any other situation for its building-place. A number of +nests are placed so close together as to form one great mass of sticks. These +parrots always live in flocks, and commit great ravages on the corn-fields. I +was told that near Colonia 2500 were killed in the course of one year. A bird +with a forked tail, terminated by two long feathers (Tyrannus savana), and +named by the Spaniards scissor-tail, is very common near Buenos Ayres: it +commonly sits on a branch of the <i>ombu</i> tree, near a house, and thence +takes a short flight in pursuit of insects, and returns to the same spot. When +on the wing it presents in its manner of flight and general appearance a +caricature-likeness of the common swallow. It has the power of turning very +shortly in the air, and in so doing opens and shuts its tail, sometimes in a +horizontal or lateral and sometimes in a vertical direction, just like a pair +of scissors. +</p> + +<p> +<i>October</i> 16<i>th.</i>—Some leagues below Rozario, the western shore +of the Parana is bounded by perpendicular cliffs, which extend in a long line +to below San Nicolas; hence it more resembles a sea-coast than that of a +fresh-water river. It is a great drawback to the scenery of the Parana, that, +from the soft nature of its banks, the water is very muddy. The Uruguay, +flowing through a granitic country, is much clearer; and where the two channels +unite at the head of the Plata, the waters may for a long distance be +distinguished by their black and red +<a name="page148"></a> +colours. In the evening, the wind being not quite fair, as usual we immediately +moored, and the next day, as it blew rather freshly, though with a favouring +current, the master was much too indolent to think of starting. At Bajada, he +was described to me as “hombre muy aflicto”—a man always +miserable to get on; but certainly he bore all delays with admirable +resignation. He was an old Spaniard, and had been many years in this country. +He professed a great liking to the English, but stoutly maintained that the +battle of Trafalgar was merely won by the Spanish captains having been all +bought over; and that the only really gallant action on either side was +performed by the Spanish admiral. It struck me as rather characteristic, that +this man should prefer his countrymen being thought the worst of traitors, +rather than unskilful or cowardly. +</p> + +<p> +18<i>th and</i> 19<i>th.</i>—We continued slowly to sail down the noble +stream: the current helped us but little. We met, during our descent, very few +vessels. One of the best gifts of nature, in so grand a channel of +communication, seems here wilfully thrown away—a river in which ships +might navigate from a temperate country, as surprisingly abundant in certain +productions as destitute of others, to another possessing a tropical climate, +and a soil which, according to the best of judges, M. Bonpland, is perhaps +unequalled in fertility in any part of the world. How different would have been +the aspect of this river if English colonists had by good fortune first sailed +up the Plata! What noble towns would now have occupied its shores! Till the +death of Francia, the Dictator of Paraguay, these two countries must remain +distinct, as if placed on opposite sides of the globe. And when the old +bloody-minded tyrant is gone to his long account, Paraguay will be torn by +revolutions, violent in proportion to the previous unnatural calm. That country +will have to learn, like every other South American state, that a republic +cannot succeed till it contains a certain body of men imbued with the +principles of justice and honour. +</p> + +<p> +<i>October</i> 20<i>th.</i>—Being arrived at the mouth of the Parana, and +as I was very anxious to reach Buenos Ayres, I went on shore at Las Conchas, +with the intention of riding there. Upon landing, I found to my great surprise +that I was to a certain degree a prisoner. A violent revolution having broken +out, all +<a name="page149"></a> +the ports were laid under an embargo. I could not return to my vessel, and as +for going by land to the city, it was out of the question. After a long +conversation with the commandant, I obtained permission to go the next day to +General Rolor, who commanded a division of the rebels on this side the capital. +In the morning I rode to the encampment. The general, officers, and soldiers, +all appeared, and I believe really were, great villains. The general, the very +evening before he left the city, voluntarily went to the Governor, and with his +hand to his heart, pledged his word of honour that he at least would remain +faithful to the last. The general told me that the city was in a state of close +blockade, and that all he could do was to give me a passport to the +commander-in-chief of the rebels at Quilmes. We had therefore to take a great +sweep round the city, and it was with much difficulty that we procured horses. +My reception at the encampment was quite civil, but I was told it was +impossible that I could be allowed to enter the city. I was very anxious about +this, as I anticipated the <i>Beagle’s</i> departure from the Rio Plata +earlier than it took place. Having mentioned, however, General Rosas’s +obliging kindness to me when at the Colorado, magic itself could not have +altered circumstances quicker than did this conversation. I was instantly told +that though they could not give me a passport, if I chose to leave my guide and +horses, I might pass their sentinels. I was too glad to accept of this, and an +officer was sent with me to give directions that I should not be stopped at the +bridge. The road for the space of a league was quite deserted. I met one party +of soldiers, who were satisfied by gravely looking at an old passport: and at +length I was not a little pleased to find myself within the city. +</p> + +<p>This revolution was supported by scarcely any pretext of +grievances: but in a state which, in the course of nine months +(from February to October, 1820), underwent fifteen changes in its +government—each governor, according to the constitution, +being elected for three years—it would be very unreasonable +to ask for pretexts. In this case, a party of men—who, being +attached to Rosas, were disgusted with the governor +Balcarce—to the number of seventy left the city, and with the +cry of Rosas the whole country took arms. The city was then +blockaded, no provisions, cattle or horses, were allowed to enter; +besides this, +<a name="page150"></a> +there was only a little skirmishing, and a few men daily killed. +The outside party well knew that by stopping the supply of meat +they would certainly be victorious. General Rosas could not have +known of this rising; but it appears to be quite consonant with the +plans of his party. A year ago he was elected governor, but he +refused it, unless the Sala would also confer on him extraordinary +powers. This was refused, and since then his party have shown that +no other governor can keep his place. The warfare on both sides was +avowedly protracted till it was possible to hear from Rosas. A note +arrived a few days after I left Buenos Ayres, which stated that the +General disapproved of peace having been broken, but that he +thought the outside party had justice on their side. On the bare +reception of this the Governor, ministers, and part of the +military, to the number of some hundreds, fled from the city. The +rebels entered, elected a new governor, and were paid for their +services to the number of 5500 men. From these proceedings, it was +clear that Rosas ultimately would become the dictator: to the term +king, the people in this, as in other republics, have a particular +dislike. Since leaving South America, we have heard that Rosas has +been elected, with powers and for a time altogether opposed to the +constitutional principles of the republic.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl32.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl32.jpg" width="316" height="125" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl33.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl33.jpg" width="300" height="249" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="page151"></a><a name="chviii"></a>Chapter VIII</h2> + +<p class="letter">Excursion to Colonia del Sacramiento—Value +of an Estancia—Cattle, how counted—Singular Breed of +Oxen—Perforated Pebbles—Shepherd-dogs—Horses +broken-in, Gauchos Riding—Character of Inhabitants—Rio +Plata—Flocks of Butterflies—Aëronaut +Spiders—Phosphorescence of the Sea—Port +Desire—Guanaco—Port St. Julian—Geology of +Patagonia—Fossil gigantic Animal—Types of Organisation +constant—Change in the Zoology of America—Causes of +Extinction.</p> + +<h3>BANDA ORIENTAL AND PATAGONIA.</h3> + +<p>Having been delayed for nearly a fortnight in the city, I was +glad to escape on board a packet bound for Monte Video. A town in a +state of blockade must always be a disagreeable place of residence; +in this case moreover there were constant apprehensions from +robbers within. The sentinels were the worst of all; for, from +their office and from having arms in their hands, they robbed with +a degree of authority which other men could not imitate.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page152"></a> +Our passage was a very long and tedious one. The Plata looks +like a noble estuary on the map; but is in truth a poor affair. A +wide expanse of muddy water has neither grandeur nor beauty. At one +time of the day, the two shores, both of which are extremely low, +could just be distinguished from the deck. On arriving at Monte +Video I found that the <i>Beagle</i> would not sail for some time, +so I prepared for a short excursion in this part of Banda Oriental. +Everything which I have said about the country near Maldonado is +applicable to Monte Video; but the land, with the one exception of +the Green Mount, 450 feet high, from which it takes its name, is +far more level. Very little of the undulating grassy plain is +enclosed; but near the town there are a few hedge-banks, covered +with agaves, cacti, and fennel.</p> + +<p> +<i>November</i> 14<i>th.</i>—We left Monte Video in the afternoon. I +intended to proceed to Colonia del Sacramiento, situated on the northern bank +of the Plata and opposite to Buenos Ayres, and thence, following up the +Uruguay, to the village of Mercedes on the Rio Negro (one of the many rivers of +this name in South America), and from this point to return direct to Monte +Video. We slept at the house of my guide at Canelones. In the morning we rose +early, in the hopes of being able to ride a good distance; but it was a vain +attempt, for all the rivers were flooded. We passed in boats the streams of +Canelones, St. Lucia, and San José, and thus lost much time. On a former +excursion I crossed the Lucia near its mouth, and I was surprised to observe +how easily our horses, although not used to swim, passed over a width of at +least six hundred yards. On mentioning this at Monte Video, I was told that a +vessel containing some mountebanks and their horses, being wrecked in the +Plata, one horse swam seven miles to the shore. In the course of the day I was +amused by the dexterity with which a Gaucho forced a restive horse to swim a +river. He stripped off his clothes, and jumping on its back, rode into the +water till it was out of its depth; then slipping off over the crupper, he +caught hold of the tail, and as often as the horse turned round the man +frightened it back by splashing water in its face. As soon as the horse touched +the bottom on the other side, the man pulled himself on, and was firmly seated, +bridle in hand, before the horse gained the bank. A naked man on a naked +<a name="page153"></a> +horse is a fine spectacle; I had no idea how well the two animals suited each +other. The tail of a horse is a very useful appendage; I have passed a river in +a boat with four people in it, which was ferried across in the same way as the +Gaucho. If a man and horse have to cross a broad river, the best plan is for +the man to catch hold of the pommel or mane, and help himself with the other +arm. +</p> + +<p>We slept and stayed the following day at the post of Cufre. In +the evening the postman or letter-carrier arrived. He was a day +after his time, owing to the Rio Rozario being flooded. It would +not, however, be of much consequence; for, although he had passed +through some of the principal towns in Banda Oriental, his luggage +consisted of two letters! The view from the house was pleasing; an +undulating green surface, with distant glimpses of the Plata. I +find that I look at this province with very different eyes from +what I did upon my first arrival. I recollect I then thought it +singularly level; but now, after galloping over the Pampas, my only +surprise is, what could have induced me ever to have called it +level. The country is a series of undulations, in themselves +perhaps not absolutely great, but, as compared to the plains of St. +Fé, real mountains. From these inequalities there is an +abundance of small rivulets, and the turf is green and +luxuriant.</p> + +<p> +<i>November</i> 17<i>th.</i>—We crossed the Rozario, which was deep and +rapid, and passing the village of Colla, arrived at mid-day at Colonia del +Sacramiento. The distance is twenty leagues, through a country covered with +fine grass, but poorly stocked with cattle or inhabitants. I was invited to +sleep at Colonia, and to accompany on the following day a gentleman to his +estancia, where there were some limestone rocks. The town is built on a stony +promontory something in the same manner as at Monte Video. It is strongly +fortified, but both fortifications and town suffered much in the Brazilian war. +It is very ancient; and the irregularity of the streets, and the surrounding +groves of old orange and peach trees, gave it a pretty appearance. The church +is a curious ruin; it was used as a powder-magazine, and was struck by +lightning in one of the ten thousand thunderstorms of the Rio Plata. Two-thirds +of the building were blown away to the very foundation; and the rest stands a +shattered and curious monument of the +<a name="page154"></a> +united powers of lightning and gunpowder. In the evening I wandered about the +half-demolished walls of the town. It was the chief seat of the Brazilian +war—a war most injurious to this country, not so much in its immediate +effects, as in being the origin of a multitude of generals and all other grades +of officers. More generals are numbered (but not paid) in the United Provinces +of La Plata than in the United Kingdom of Great Britain. These gentlemen have +learned to like power, and do not object to a little skirmishing. Hence there +are many always on the watch to create disturbance and to overturn a government +which as yet has never rested on any stable foundation. I noticed, however, +both here and in other places, a very general interest in the ensuing election +for the President; and this appears a good sign for the prosperity of this +little country. The inhabitants do not require much education in their +representatives; I heard some men discussing the merits of those for Colonia; +and it was said that, “although they were not men of business, they could +all sign their names:” with this they seemed to think every reasonable +man ought to be satisfied. +</p> + +<p> +18<i>th.</i>—Rode with my host to his estancia, at the Arroyo de San +Juan. In the evening we took a ride round the estate: it contained two square +leagues and a half, and was situated in what is called a rincon; that is, one +side was fronted by the Plata, and the two others guarded by impassable brooks. +There was an excellent port for little vessels, and an abundance of small wood, +which is valuable as supplying fuel to Buenos Ayres. I was curious to know the +value of so complete an estancia. Of cattle there were 3000, and it would well +support three or four times that number; of mares 800, together with 150 +broken-in horses, and 600 sheep. There was plenty of water and limestone, a +rough house, excellent corrals, and a peach orchard. For all this he had been +offered £2000, and he only wanted £500 additional, and probably +would sell it for less. The chief trouble with an estancia is driving the +cattle twice a week to a central spot, in order to make them tame, and to count +them. This latter operation would be thought difficult, where there are ten or +fifteen thousand head together. It is managed on the principle that the cattle +invariably divide themselves into little troops of from forty to one hundred. +Each troop is recognised by a few peculiarly +<a name="page155"></a> +marked animals, and its number is known: so that, one being lost out of ten +thousand, it is perceived by its absence from one of the tropillas. During a +stormy night the cattle all mingle together; but the next morning the tropillas +separate as before; so that each animal must know its fellow out of ten +thousand others. +</p> + +<p> +On two occasions I met with in this province some oxen of a very +curious breed, called nãta or niata. They appear externally +to hold nearly the same relation to other cattle, which bull or pug +dogs do to other dogs. Their forehead is very short and broad, with +the nasal end turned up, and the upper lip much drawn back; their +lower jaws project beyond the upper, and have a corresponding +upward curve; hence their teeth are always exposed. Their nostrils +are seated high up and are very open; their eyes project outwards. +When walking they carry their heads low, on a short neck; and their +hinder legs are rather longer compared with the front legs than is +usual. Their bare teeth, their short heads, and upturned nostrils +give them the most ludicrous self-confident air of defiance +imaginable. +</p> + +<p> +Since my return, I have procured a skeleton head, through the kindness of my +friend Captain Sulivan, <small> R.N.</small>, which is now deposited in the +College of Surgeons.<a href="#fn-8.1" name="fnref-8.1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> Don +F. Muniz, of Luxan, has kindly collected for me all the information which he +could respecting this breed. From his account it seems that about eighty or +ninety years ago, they were rare and kept as curiosities at Buenos Ayres. The +breed is universally believed to have originated amongst the Indians southward +of the Plata; and that it was with them the commonest kind. Even to this day, +those reared in the provinces near the Plata show their less civilised origin, +in being fiercer than common cattle, and in the cow easily deserting her first +calf, if visited too often or molested. It is a singular fact that an almost +similar structure to the abnormal<a href="#fn-8.2" +name="fnref-8.2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> one of the niata breed, characterises, as I +am informed by Dr. Falconer, that great extinct ruminant of India, the +Sivatherium. The breed is very <i>true</i>; and a niata bull and cow invariably +produce niata calves. +<a name="page156"></a> +A niata bull with a common cow, or the reverse cross, produces offspring having +an intermediate character, but with the niata characters strongly displayed: +according to Señor Muniz, there is the clearest evidence, contrary to the +common belief of agriculturists in analogous cases, that the niata cow when +crossed with a common bull transmits her peculiarities more strongly than the +niata bull when crossed with a common cow. When the pasture is tolerably long, +the niata cattle feed with the tongue and palate as well as common cattle; but +during the great droughts, when so many animals perish, the niata breed is +under a great disadvantage, and would be exterminated if not attended to; for +the common cattle, like horses, are able just to keep alive, by browsing with +their lips on twigs of trees and reeds; this the niatas cannot so well do, as +their lips do not join, and hence they are found to perish before the common +cattle. This strikes me as a good illustration of how little we are able to +judge from the ordinary habits of life, on what circumstances, occurring only +at long intervals, the rarity or extinction of a species may be determined. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-8.1"></a> <a href="#fnref-8.1">[1]</a> +Mr. Waterhouse has drawn up a detailed description of this head, which I hope +he will publish in some Journal. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-8.2"></a> <a href="#fnref-8.2">[2]</a> +A nearly similar abnormal, but I do not know whether hereditary, structure has +been observed in the carp, and likewise in the crocodile of the Ganges: +<i>Histoire des Anomalies</i>, par M. Isid. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, tome i, p. +244.</p> + +<p> +<i>November</i> 19<i>th.</i>—Passing the valley of Las Vacas, we slept at +a house of a North American, who worked a lime-kiln on the Arroyo de las +Vivoras. In the morning we rode to a projecting headland on the banks of the +river, called Punta Gorda. On the way we tried to find a jaguar. There were +plenty of fresh tracks, and we visited the trees on which they are said to +sharpen their claws; but we did not succeed in disturbing one. From this point +the Rio Uruguay presented to our view a noble volume of water. From the +clearness and rapidity of the stream, its appearance was far superior to that +of its neighbour the Parana. On the opposite coast, several branches from the +latter river entered the Uruguay. As the sun was shining, the two colours of +the waters could be seen quite distinct. +</p> + +<p>In the evening we proceeded on our road towards Mercedes on the +Rio Negro. At night we asked permission to sleep at an estancia at +which we happened to arrive. It was a very large estate, being ten +leagues square, and the owner is one of the greatest landowners in +the country. His nephew had charge of it, and with him there was a +captain in the army, who the other day ran away from Buenos Ayres. +Considering +<a name="page157"></a> +their station, their conversation was rather amusing. They +expressed, as was usual, unbounded astonishment at the globe being +round, and could scarcely credit that a hole would, if deep enough, +come out on the other side. They had, however, heard of a country +where there were six months of light and six of darkness, and where +the inhabitants were very tall and thin! They were curious about +the price and condition of horses and cattle in England. Upon +finding out we did not catch our animals with the lazo, they cried +out, “Ah, then, you use nothing but the bolas:” the idea of an +enclosed country was quite new to them. The captain at last said, +he had one question to ask me, which he should be very much obliged +if I would answer with all truth. I trembled to think how deeply +scientific it would be: it was, “Whether the ladies of Buenos Ayres +were not the handsomest in the world.” I replied, like a renegade, +“Charmingly so.” He added, “I have one other question: Do ladies in +any other part of the world wear such large combs?” I solemnly +assured him that they did not. They were absolutely delighted. The +captain exclaimed, “Look there! a man who has seen half the world +says it is the case; we always thought so, but now we know it.” My +excellent judgment in combs and beauty procured me a most +hospitable reception; the captain forced me to take his bed, and he +would sleep on his recado.</p> + +<p> +21<i>st.</i>—Started at sunrise, and rode slowly during the whole day. +The geological nature of this part of the province was different from the rest, +and closely resembled that of the Pampas. In consequence, there were immense +beds of the thistle, as well as of the cardoon: the whole country, indeed, may +be called one great bed of these plants. The two sorts grow separate, each +plant in company with its own kind. The cardoon is as high as a horse’s +back, but the Pampas thistle is often higher than the crown of the +rider’s head. To leave the road for a yard is out of the question; and +the road itself is partly, and in some cases entirely, closed. Pasture, of +course, there is none; if cattle or horses once enter the bed, they are for the +time completely lost. Hence it is very hazardous to attempt to drive cattle at +this season of the year; for when jaded enough to face the thistles, they rush +among them, and are seen no more. In these districts there are very few +<a name="page158"></a> +estancias, and these few are situated in the neighbourhood of damp valleys, +where fortunately neither of these overwhelming plants can exist. As night came +on before we arrived at our journey’s end, we slept at a miserable little +hovel inhabited by the poorest people. The extreme though rather formal +courtesy of our host and hostess, considering their grade of life, was quite +delightful. +</p> + +<p> +<i>November</i> 22<i>nd.</i>—Arrived at an estancia on the Berquelo +belonging to a very hospitable Englishman, to whom I had a letter of +introduction from my friend Mr. Lumb. I stayed here three days. One morning I +rode with my host to the Sierra del Pedro Flaco, about twenty miles up the Rio +Negro. Nearly the whole country was covered with good though coarse grass, +which was as high as a horse’s belly; yet there were square leagues +without a single head of cattle. The province of Banda Oriental, if well +stocked, would support an astonishing number of animals, at present the annual +export of hides from Monte Video amounts to three hundred thousand; and the +home consumption, from waste, is very considerable. An estanciero told me that +he often had to send large herds of cattle a long journey to a salting +establishment, and that the tired beasts were frequently obliged to be killed +and skinned; but that he could never persuade the Gauchos to eat of them, and +every evening a fresh beast was slaughtered for their suppers! The view of the +Rio Negro from the Sierra was more picturesque than any other which I saw in +this province. The river, broad, deep, and rapid, wound at the foot of a rocky +precipitous cliff: a belt of wood followed its course, and the horizon +terminated in the distant undulations of the turf-plain. +</p> + +<p>When in this neighbourhood, I several times heard of the Sierra +de las Cuentas: a hill distant many miles to the northward. The +name signifies hill of beads. I was assured that vast numbers of +little round stones, of various colours, each with a small +cylindrical hole, are found there. Formerly the Indians used to +collect them, for the purpose of making necklaces and +bracelets—a taste, I may observe, which is common to all +savage nations, as well as to the most polished. I did not know +what to understand from this story, but upon mentioning it at the +Cape of Good Hope to Dr. Andrew Smith, he told me that he +recollected finding on the +<a name="page159"></a> +south-eastern coast of Africa, about one hundred miles to the eastward +of St. John’s river, some quartz crystals with their edges blunted +from attrition, and mixed with gravel on the sea-beach. Each +crystal was about five lines in diameter, and from an inch to an +inch and a half in length. Many of them had a small canal extending +from one extremity to the other, perfectly cylindrical, and of a +size that readily admitted a coarse thread or a piece of fine +catgut. Their colour was red or dull white. The natives were +acquainted with this structure in crystals. I have mentioned these +circumstances because, although no crystallised body is at present +known to assume this form, it may lead some future traveller to +investigate the real nature of such stones.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +While staying at this estancia, I was amused with what I saw and heard of the +shepherd-dogs of the country.<a href="#fn-8.3" +name="fnref-8.3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> When riding, it is a common thing to meet a +large flock of sheep guarded by one or two dogs, at the distance of some miles +from any house or man. I often wondered how so firm a friendship had been +established. The method of education consists in separating the puppy, while +very young, from the bitch, and in accustoming it to its future companions. An +ewe is held three or four times a day for the little thing to suck, and a nest +of wool is made for it in the sheep-pen; at no time is it allowed to associate +with other dogs, or with the children of the family. The puppy is, moreover, +generally castrated; so that, when grown up, it can scarcely have any feelings +in common with the rest of its kind. From this education it has no wish to +leave the flock, and just as another dog will defend its master, man, so will +these the sheep. It is amusing to observe, when approaching a flock, how the +dog immediately advances barking, and the sheep all close in his rear, as if +round the oldest ram. These dogs are also easily taught to bring home the flock +at a certain hour in the evening. Their most troublesome fault, when young, is +their desire of playing with the sheep; for in their sport they sometimes +gallop their poor subjects most unmercifully. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-8.3"></a> <a href="#fnref-8.3">[3]</a> +M. A. d’Orbigny has given nearly a similar account of these dogs, tome i, +p. 175.</p> + +<p>The shepherd-dog comes to the house every day for some +<a name="page160"></a> +meat, and as soon as it is given him, he skulks away as if +ashamed of himself. On these occasions the house-dogs are very +tyrannical, and the least of them will attack and pursue the +stranger. The minute, however, the latter has reached the flock, he +turns round and begins to bark, and then all the house-dogs take +very quickly to their heels. In a similar manner a whole pack of +the hungry wild dogs will scarcely ever (and I was told by some +never) venture to attack a flock guarded by even one of these +faithful shepherds. The whole account appears to me a curious +instance of the pliability of the affections in the dog; and yet, +whether wild or however educated, he has a feeling of respect or +fear for those that are fulfilling their instinct of association. +For we can understand on no principle the wild dogs being driven +away by the single one with its flock, except that they consider, +from some confused notion, that the one thus associated gains +power, as if in company with its own kind. F. Cuvier has observed +that all animals that readily enter into domestication consider man +as a member of their own society, and thus fulfil their instinct of +association. In the above case the shepherd-dog ranks the sheep as +its fellow-brethren, and thus gains confidence; and the wild dogs, +though knowing that the individual sheep are not dogs, but are good +to eat, yet partly consent to this view when seeing them in a flock +with a shepherd-dog at their head.</p> + +<p>One evening a “domidor” (a subduer of horses) came for the +purpose of breaking-in some colts. I will describe the preparatory +steps, for I believe they have not been mentioned by other +travellers. A troop of wild young horses is driven into the corral, +or large enclosure of stakes, and the door is shut. We will suppose +that one man alone has to catch and mount a horse, which as yet had +never felt bridle or saddle. I conceive, except by a Gaucho, such a +feat would be utterly impracticable. The Gaucho picks out a +full-grown colt; and as the beast rushes round the circus, he +throws his lazo so as to catch both the front legs. Instantly the +horse rolls over with a heavy shock, and whilst struggling on the +ground, the Gaucho, holding the lazo tight, makes a circle, so as +to catch one of the hind legs just beneath the fetlock, and draws +it close to the two front legs: he then hitches the lazo, so that +the +<a name="page161"></a> +three are bound together. Then sitting on the horse’s neck, he +fixes a strong bridle, without a bit, to the lower jaw: this he +does by passing a narrow thong through the eye-holes at the end of +the reins, and several times round both jaw and tongue. The two +front legs are now tied closely together with a strong leathern +thong, fastened by a slip-knot. The lazo, which bound the three +together, being then loosed, the horse rises with difficulty. The +Gaucho, now holding fast the bridle fixed to the lower jaw, leads +the horse outside the corral. If a second man is present (otherwise +the trouble is much greater) he holds the animal’s head, whilst the +first puts on the horsecloths and saddle, and girths the whole +together. During this operation, the horse, from dread and +astonishment at thus being bound round the waist, throws himself +over and over again on the ground, and, till beaten, is unwilling +to rise. At last, when the saddling is finished, the poor animal +can hardly breathe from fear, and is white with foam and sweat. The +man now prepares to mount by pressing heavily on the stirrup, so +that the horse may not lose its balance; and at the moment that he +throws his leg over the animal’s back, he pulls the slip-knot +binding the front legs, and the beast is free. Some “domidors” pull +the knot while the animal is lying on the ground, and, standing +over the saddle, allow him to rise beneath them. The horse, wild +with dread, gives a few most violent bounds, and then starts off at +full gallop: when quite exhausted, the man, by patience, brings him +back to the corral, where, reeking hot and scarcely alive, the poor +beast is let free. Those animals which will not gallop away, but +obstinately throw themselves on the ground, are by far the most +troublesome. This process is tremendously severe, but in two or +three trials the horse is tamed. It is not, however, for some weeks +that the animal is ridden with the iron bit and solid ring, for it +must learn to associate the will of its rider with the feel of the +rein, before the most powerful bridle can be of any service.</p> + +<p>Animals are so abundant in these countries, that humanity and +self-interest are not closely united; therefore I fear it is that +the former is here scarcely known. One day, riding in the Pampas +with a very respectable “Estanciero,” my horse, being tired, lagged +behind. The man often shouted to me to spur him. When I +remonstrated that it was a pity, for the horse +<a name="page162"></a> +was quite exhausted, he cried out, “Why not?—never +mind—spur him—it is <i>my</i> horse.” I had then some +difficulty in making him comprehend that it was for the horse’s +sake, and not on his account, that I did not choose to use my +spurs. He exclaimed, with a look of great surprise, “Ah, Don +Carlos, que cosa!” It was clear that such an idea had never before +entered his head.</p> + +<p>The Gauchos are well known to be perfect riders. The idea of +being thrown, let the horse do what it likes; never enters their +head. Their criterion of a good rider is, a man who can manage an +untamed colt, or who, if his horse falls, alights on his own feet, +or can perform other such exploits. I have heard of a man betting +that he would throw his horse down twenty times, and that nineteen +times he would not fall himself. I recollect seeing a Gaucho riding +a very stubborn horse, which three times successively reared so +high as to fall backwards with great violence. The man judged with +uncommon coolness the proper moment for slipping off, not an +instant before or after the right time; and as soon as the horse +got up, the man jumped on his back, and at last they started at a +gallop. The Gaucho never appears to exert any muscular force. I was +one day watching a good rider, as we were galloping along at a +rapid pace, and thought to myself, “Surely if the horse starts, you +appear so careless on your seat, you must fall.” At this moment a +male ostrich sprang from its nest right beneath the horse’s nose: +the young colt bounded on one side like a stag; but as for the man, +all that could be said was, that he started and took fright with +his horse.</p> + +<p>In Chile and Peru more pains are taken with the mouth of the +horse than in La Plata, and this is evidently a consequence of the +more intricate nature of the country. In Chile a horse is not +considered perfectly broken till he can be brought up standing, in +the midst of his full speed, on any particular spot,—for +instance, on a cloak thrown on the ground: or, again, he will +charge a wall, and rearing, scrape the surface with his hoofs. I +have seen an animal bounding with spirit, yet merely reined by a +forefinger and thumb, taken at full gallop across a courtyard, and +then made to wheel round the post of a veranda with great speed, +but at so equal a distance, that the rider, with outstretched arm, +all the while kept one finger rubbing the post. +<a name="page163"></a> +Then making a demi-volte in the air, with the other arm +outstretched in a like manner, he wheeled round, with astonishing +force, in an opposite direction.</p> + +<p>Such a horse is well broken; and although this at first may +appear useless, it is far otherwise. It is only carrying that which +is daily necessary into perfection. When a bullock is checked and +caught by the lazo, it will sometimes gallop round and round in a +circle, and the horse being alarmed at the great strain, if not +well broken, will not readily turn like the pivot of a wheel. In +consequence many men have been killed; for if the lazo once takes a +twist round a man’s body, it will instantly, from the power of the +two opposed animals, almost cut him in twain. On the same principle +the races are managed; the course is only two or three hundred +yards long, the wish being to have horses that can make a rapid +dash. The racehorses are trained not only to stand with their hoofs +touching a line, but to draw all four feet together, so as at the +first spring to bring into play the full action of the +hind-quarters. In Chile I was told an anecdote, which I believe was +true; and it offers a good illustration of the use of a well-broken +animal. A respectable man riding one day met two others, one of +whom was mounted on a horse, which he knew to have been stolen from +himself. He challenged them; they answered him by drawing their +sabres and giving chase. The man, on his good and fleet beast, kept +just ahead: as he passed a thick bush he wheeled round it, and +brought up his horse to a dead check. The pursuers were obliged to +shoot on one side and ahead. Then instantly dashing on, right +behind them, he buried his knife in the back of one, wounded the +other, recovered his horse from the dying robber, and rode home. +For these feats of horsemanship two things are necessary: a most +severe bit, like the Mameluke, the power of which, though seldom +used, the horse knows full well; and large blunt spurs, that can be +applied either as a mere touch, or as an instrument of extreme +pain. I conceive that with English spurs, the slightest touch of +which pricks the skin, it would be impossible to break in a horse +after the South American fashion.</p> + +<p>At an estancia near Las Vacas large numbers of mares are weekly +slaughtered for the sake of their hides, although worth only five +paper dollars, or about half a crown apiece. It seems +<a name="page164"></a> +at first strange that it can answer to kill mares for such a +trifle; but as it is thought ridiculous in this country ever to +break in or ride a mare, they are of no value except for breeding. +The only thing for which I ever saw mares used, was to tread out +wheat from the ear, for which purpose they were driven round a +circular enclosure, where the wheat-sheaves were strewed. The man +employed for slaughtering the mares happened to be celebrated for +his dexterity with the lazo. Standing at the distance of twelve +yards from the mouth of the corral, he has laid a wager that he +would catch by the legs every animal, without missing one, as it +rushed past him. There was another man who said he would enter the +corral on foot, catch a mare, fasten her front legs together, drive +her out, throw her down, kill, skin, and stake the hide for drying +(which latter is a tedious job); and he engaged that he would +perform this whole operation on twenty-two animals in one day. Or +he would kill and take the skin off fifty in the same time. This +would have been a prodigious task, for it is considered a good +day’s work to skin and stake the hides of fifteen or sixteen +animals.</p> + +<p> +<i>November</i> 26<i>th.</i>—I set out on my return in a direct line for +Monte Video. Having heard of some giant’s bones at a neighbouring +farmhouse on the Sarandis, a small stream entering the Rio Negro, I rode there +accompanied by my host, and purchased for the value of eighteenpence the head +of the Toxodon.<a href="#fn-8.4" name="fnref-8.4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> When found +it was quite perfect; but the boys knocked out some of the teeth with stones, +and then set up the head as a mark to throw at. By a most fortunate chance I +found a perfect tooth, which exactly fitted one of the sockets in this skull, +embedded by itself on the banks of the Rio Tercero, at the distance of about +180 miles from this place. I found remains of this extraordinary animal at two +other places, so that it must formerly have been common. I found here, also, +some large portions of the armour of a gigantic armadillo-like animal, and part +of the great head of a Mylodon. The bones of this head are so fresh, that they +contain, according to the analysis by Mr. T. Reeks, seven per cent of animal +matter; and when placed in a spirit-lamp, they burn with a small flame. +<a name="page165"></a> +The number of the remains embedded in the grand estuary deposit which forms the +Pampas and covers the granitic rocks of Banda Oriental, must be extraordinarily +great. I believe a straight line drawn in any direction through the Pampas +would cut through some skeleton or bones. Besides those which I found during my +short excursions, I heard of many others, and the origin of such names as +“the stream of the animal,” “the hill of the giant,” is +obvious. At other times I heard of the marvellous property of certain rivers, +which had the power of changing small bones into large; or, as some maintained, +the bones themselves grew. As far as I am aware, not one of these animals +perished, as was formerly supposed, in the marshes or muddy river-beds of the +present land, but their bones have been exposed by the streams intersecting the +subaqueous deposit in which they were originally embedded. We may conclude that +the whole area of the Pampas is one wide sepulchre of these extinct gigantic +quadrupeds. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-8.4"></a> <a href="#fnref-8.4">[4]</a> +I must express my obligation to Mr. Keane, at whose house I was staying on the +Berquelo, and to Mr. Lumb at Buenos Ayres, for without their assistance these +valuable remains would never have reached England.</p> + +<p>By the middle of the day, on the 28th, we arrived at Monte +Video, having been two days and a half on the road. The country for +the whole way was of a very uniform character, some parts being +rather more rocky and hilly than near the Plata. Not far from Monte +Video we passed through the village of Las Pietras, so named from +some large rounded masses of syenite. Its appearance was rather +pretty. In this country a few fig-trees round a group of houses, +and a site elevated a hundred feet above the general level, ought +always to be called picturesque.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +During the last six months I have had an opportunity of seeing a little of the +character of the inhabitants of these provinces. The Gauchos, or countrymen, +are very superior to those who reside in the towns. The Gaucho is invariably +most obliging, polite, and hospitable: I did not meet with even one instance of +rudeness or inhospitality. He is modest, both respecting himself and country, +but at the same time a spirited, bold fellow. On the other hand, many robberies +are committed, and there is much bloodshed: the habit of constantly wearing the +knife is the chief cause of the latter. It is lamentable to hear how many lives +are lost in trifling quarrels. In fighting, each party tries to mark the face +of his adversary by slashing +<a name="page166"></a> +his nose or eyes; as is often attested by deep and horrid-looking scars. +Robberies are a natural consequence of universal gambling, much drinking, and +extreme indolence. At Mercedes I asked two men why they did not work. One +gravely said the days were too long; the other that he was too poor. The number +of horses and the profusion of food are the destruction of all industry. +Moreover, there are so many feast-days; and again, nothing can succeed without +it be begun when the moon is on the increase; so that half the month is lost +from these two causes. +</p> + +<p>Police and justice are quite inefficient. If a man who is poor +commits murder and is taken, he will be imprisoned, and perhaps +even shot; but if he is rich and has friends, he may rely on it no +very severe consequence will ensue. It is curious that the most +respectable inhabitants of the country invariably assist a murderer +to escape: they seem to think that the individual sins against the +government, and not against the people. A traveller has no +protection besides his firearms; and the constant habit of carrying +them is the main check to more frequent robberies.</p> + +<p>The character of the higher and more educated classes who reside +in the towns, partakes, but perhaps in a lesser degree, of the good +parts of the Gaucho, but is, I fear, stained by many vices of which +he is free. Sensuality, mockery of all religion, and the grossest +corruption, are far from uncommon. Nearly every public officer can +be bribed. The head man in the post-office sold forged government +franks. The governor and prime minister openly combined to plunder +the State. Justice, where gold came into play, was hardly expected +by any one. I knew an Englishman who went to the Chief Justice (he +told me that, not then understanding the ways of the place, he +trembled as he entered the room), and said, “Sir, I have come to +offer you two hundred (paper) dollars (value about five pounds +sterling) if you will arrest before a certain time a man who has +cheated me. I know it is against the law, but my lawyer (naming +him) recommended me to take this step.” The Chief Justice smiled +acquiescence, thanked him, and the man before night was safe in +prison. With this entire want of principle in many of the leading +men, with the country full of ill-paid turbulent officers, the +people yet hope that a democratic form of government can +succeed!</p> + +<p> +<a name="page167"></a> +On first entering society in these countries, two or three +features strike one as particularly remarkable. The polite and +dignified manners pervading every rank of life, the excellent taste +displayed by the women in their dresses, and the equality amongst +all ranks. At the Rio Colorado some men who kept the humblest shops +used to dine with General Rosas. A son of a major at Bahia Blanca +gained his livelihood by making paper cigars, and he wished to +accompany me, as guide or servant, to Buenos Ayres, but his father +objected on the score of the danger alone. Many officers in the +army can neither read nor write, yet all meet in society as equals. +In Entre Rios, the Sala consisted of only six representatives. One +of them kept a common shop, and evidently was not degraded by the +office. All this is what would be expected in a new country; +nevertheless the absence of gentlemen by profession appears to an +Englishman something strange.</p> + +<p>When speaking of these countries, the manner in which they have +been brought up by their unnatural parent, Spain, should always be +borne in mind. On the whole, perhaps, more credit is due for what +has been done, than blame for that which may be deficient. It is +impossible to doubt but that the extreme liberalism of these +countries must ultimately lead to good results. The very general +toleration of foreign religions, the regard paid to the means of +education, the freedom of the press, the facilities offered to all +foreigners, and especially, as I am bound to add, to every one +professing the humblest pretensions to science, should be +recollected with gratitude by those who have visited Spanish South +America.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>December</i> 6<i>th.</i>—The <i>Beagle</i> sailed from the Rio Plata, +never again to enter its muddy stream. Our course was directed to Port Desire, +on the coast of Patagonia. Before proceeding any farther, I will here put +together a few observations made at sea. +</p> + +<p> +Several times when the ship has been some miles off the mouth of the Plata, and +at other times when off the shores of Northern Patagonia, we have been +surrounded by insects. One evening, when we were about ten miles from the Bay +of San Blas, vast numbers of butterflies, in bands or flocks of countless +myriads, extended as far as the eye could range. Even by the +<a name="page168"></a> +aid of a telescope it was not possible to see a space free from butterflies. +The seamen cried out “it was snowing butterflies,” and such in fact +was the appearance. More species than one were present, but the main part +belonged to a kind very similar to, but not identical with, the common English +Colias edusa. Some moths and hymenoptera accompanied the butterflies; and a +fine beetle (Calosoma) flew on board. Other instances are known of this beetle +having been caught far out at sea; and this is the more remarkable, as the +greater number of the Carabidæ seldom or never take wing. The day had been fine +and calm, and the one previous to it equally so, with light and variable airs. +Hence we cannot suppose that the insects were blown off the land, but we must +conclude that they voluntarily took flight. The great bands of the Colias seem +at first to afford an instance like those on record of the migrations of +another butterfly, Vanessa cardui;<a href="#fn-8.5" +name="fnref-8.5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> but the presence of other insects makes the +case distinct, and even less intelligible. Before sunset a strong breeze sprung +up from the north, and this must have caused tens of thousands of the +butterflies and other insects to have perished. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-8.5"></a> <a href="#fnref-8.5">[5]</a> +Lyell’s <i>Principles of Geology</i>, vol. iii, p. 63.</p> + +<p> +On another occasion, when seventeen miles off Cape Corrientes, I had a net +overboard to catch pelagic animals. Upon drawing it up, to my surprise I found +a considerable number of beetles in it, and although in the open sea, they did +not appear much injured by the salt water. I lost some of the specimens, but +those which I preserved belonged to the genera Colymbetes, Hydroporus, +Hydrobius (two species), Notaphus, Cynucus, Adimonia, and Scarabæus. At first I +thought that these insects had been blown from the shore; but upon reflecting +that out of the eight species four were aquatic, and two others partly so in +their habits, it appeared to me most probable that they were floated into the +sea by a small stream which drains a lake near Cape Corrientes. On any +supposition it is an interesting circumstance to find live insects swimming in +the open ocean seventeen miles from the nearest point of land. There are +several accounts of insects having been blown off the Patagonian shore. Captain +Cook observed it, as did more lately Captain King of the <i>Adventure</i>. The +cause probably is due to the want of shelter, both of trees and hills, so that +an +<a name="page169"></a> +insect on the wing with an offshore breeze, would be very apt to +be blown out to sea. The most remarkable instance I have known of +an insect being caught far from the land, was that of a large +grasshopper (Acrydium), which flew on board, when the “Beagle” was +to windward of the Cape de Verd Islands, and when the nearest point +of land, not directly opposed to the trade-wind, was Cape Blanco on +the coast of Africa, 370 miles distant.<a href="#fn-8.6" name="fnref-8.6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-8.6"></a> <a href="#fnref-8.6">[6]</a> +The flies which frequently accompany a ship for some days on its passage from +harbour to harbour, wandering from the vessel, are soon lost, and all +disappear.</p> + +<p>On several occasions, when the <i>Beagle</i> has been within the +mouth of the Plata, the rigging has been coated with the web of the +Gossamer Spider. One day (November 1st, 1832) I paid particular +attention to this subject. The weather had been fine and clear, and +in the morning the air was full of patches of the flocculent web, +as on an autumnal day in England. The ship was sixty miles distant +from the land, in the direction of a steady though light breeze. +Vast numbers of a small spider, about one-tenth of an inch in +length, and of a dusky red colour, were attached to the webs. There +must have been, I should suppose, some thousands on the ship. The +little spider, when first coming in contact with the rigging, was +always seated on a single thread, and not on the flocculent mass. +This latter seems merely to be produced by the entanglement of the +single threads. The spiders were all of one species, but of both +sexes, together with young ones. These latter were distinguished by +their smaller size and more dusky colour. I will not give the +description of this spider, but merely state that it does not +appear to me to be included in any of Latreille’s genera. The +little aëronaut as soon as it arrived on board was very active, +running about, sometimes letting itself fall, and then reascending +the same thread; sometimes employing itself in making a small and +very irregular mesh in the corners between the ropes. It could run +with facility on the surface of water. When disturbed it lifted up +its front legs, in the attitude of attention. On its first arrival +it appeared very thirsty, and with exserted maxillæ drank +eagerly of drops of water; this same circumstance has been observed +by Strack: may it not be in consequence of the little insect having +passed through a dry and rarefied atmosphere? Its stock of web +seemed inexhaustible. While +<a name="page170"></a> +watching some that were suspended by a single thread, I several +times observed that the slightest breath of air bore them away out +of sight, in a horizontal line. On another occasion (25th) under +similar circumstances, I repeatedly observed the same kind of small +spider, either when placed or having crawled on some little +eminence, elevate its abdomen, send forth a thread, and then sail +away horizontally, but with a rapidity which was quite +unaccountable. I thought I could perceive that the spider, before +performing the above preparatory steps, connected its legs together +with the most delicate threads, but I am not sure whether this +observation was correct.</p> + +<p> +One day, at St. Fé, I had a better opportunity of observing some similar facts. +A spider which was about three-tenths of an inch in length, and which in its +general appearance resembled a Citigrade (therefore quite different from the +gossamer), while standing on the summit of a post, darted forth four or five +threads from its spinners. These, glittering in the sunshine, might be compared +to diverging rays of light; they were not, however, straight, but in +undulations like films of silk blown by the wind. They were more than a yard in +length, and diverged in an ascending direction from the orifices. The spider +then suddenly let go its hold of the post, and was quickly borne out of sight. +The day was hot and apparently quite calm; yet under such circumstances, the +atmosphere can never be so tranquil as not to affect a vane so delicate as the +thread of a spider’s web. If during a warm day we look either at the +shadow of any object cast on a bank, or over a level plain at a distant +landmark, the effect of an ascending current of heated air is almost always +evident: such upward currents, it has been remarked, are also shown by the +ascent of soap-bubbles, which will not rise in an indoors room. Hence I think +there is not much difficulty in understanding the ascent of the fine lines +projected from a spider’s spinners, and afterwards of the spider itself; +the divergence of the lines has been attempted to be explained, I believe by +Mr. Murray, by their similar electrical condition. The circumstance of spiders +of the same species, but of different sexes and ages, being found on several +occasions at the distance of many leagues from the land, attached in vast +numbers to the lines, renders it probable that the habit of sailing through the +air is as characteristic of +<a name="page171"></a> +this tribe, as that of diving is of the Argyroneta. We may then reject +Latreille’s supposition, that the gossamer owes its origin indifferently +to the young of several genera of spiders: although, as we have seen, the young +of other spiders do possess the power of performing aërial voyages.<a +href="#fn-8.7" name="fnref-8.7"><sup>[7]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-8.7"></a> <a href="#fnref-8.7">[7]</a> +Mr. Blackwall, in his <i>Researches in Zoology</i>, has many excellent +observations on the habits of spiders.</p> + +<p>During our different passages south of the Plata, I often towed +astern a net made of bunting, and thus caught many curious animals. +Of Crustacea there were many strange and undescribed genera. One, +which in some respects is allied to the Notopods (or those crabs +which have their posterior legs placed almost on their backs, for +the purpose of adhering to the under side of rocks), is very +remarkable from the structure of its hind pair of legs. The +penultimate joint, instead of terminating in a simple claw, ends in +three bristle-like appendages of dissimilar lengths—the +longest equalling that of the entire leg. These claws are very +thin, and are serrated with the finest teeth, directed backwards: +their curved extremities are flattened, and on this part five most +minute cups are placed which seem to act in the same manner as the +suckers on the arms of the cuttle-fish. As the animal lives in the +open sea, and probably wants a place of rest, I suppose this +beautiful and most anomalous structure is adapted to take hold of +floating marine animals.</p> + +<p>In deep water, far from the land, the number of living creatures +is extremely small: south of the latitude 35°, I never +succeeded in catching anything besides some beroe, and a few +species of minute entomostracous crustacea. In shoaler water, at +the distance of a few miles from the coast, very many kinds of +crustacea and some other animals are numerous, but only during the +night. Between latitudes 56° and 57° south of Cape Horn, +the net was put astern several times; it never, however, brought up +anything besides a few of two extremely minute species of +Entomostraca. Yet whales and seals, petrels and albatross, are +exceedingly abundant throughout this part of the ocean. It has +always been a mystery to me on what the albatross, which lives far +from the shore, can subsist; I presume that, like the condor, it is +able to fast long; and that one good feast on the carcass of a +putrid whale lasts for a long +<a name="page172"></a> +time. The central and intertropical parts of the Atlantic swarm +with Pteropoda, Crustacea, and Radiata, and with their devourers +the flying-fish, and again with their devourers the bonitos and +albicores; I presume that the numerous lower pelagic animals feed +on the Infusoria, which are now known, from the researches of +Ehrenberg, to abound in the open ocean: but on what, in the clear +blue water, do these Infusoria subsist?</p> + +<p>While sailing a little south of the Plata on one very dark +night, the sea presented a wonderful and most beautiful spectacle. +There was a fresh breeze, and every part of the surface, which +during the day is seen as foam, now glowed with a pale light. The +vessel drove before her bows two billows of liquid phosphorus, and +in her wake she was followed by a milky train. As far as the eye +reached, the crest of every wave was bright, and the sky above the +horizon, from the reflected glare of these livid flames, was not so +utterly obscure as over the vault of the heavens.</p> + +<p> +As we proceed farther southward the sea is seldom phosphorescent; and off Cape +Horn I do not recollect more than once having seen it so, and then it was far +from being brilliant. This circumstance probably has a close connection with +the scarcity of organic beings in that part of the ocean. After the elaborate +paper<a href="#fn-8.8" name="fnref-8.8"><sup>[8]</sup></a> by Ehrenberg, on the +phosphorescence of the sea, it is almost superfluous on my part to make any +observations on the subject. I may however add, that the same torn and +irregular particles of gelatinous matter, described by Ehrenberg, seem in the +southern as well as in the northern hemisphere to be the common cause of this +phenomenon. The particles were so minute as easily to pass through fine gauze; +yet many were distinctly visible by the naked eye. The water when placed in a +tumbler and agitated gave out sparks, but a small portion in a watch-glass +scarcely ever was luminous. Ehrenberg states that these particles all retain a +certain degree of irritability. My observations, some of which were made +directly after taking up the water, gave a different result. I may also +mention, that having used the net during one night, I allowed it to become +partially dry, and having occasion twelve hours afterwards to employ it again, +I found +<a name="page173"></a> +the whole surface sparkled as brightly as when first taken out of the water. It +does not appear probable in this case that the particles could have remained so +long alive. On one occasion having kept a jelly-fish of the genus Dianæa till +it was dead, the water in which it was placed became luminous. When the waves +scintillate with bright green sparks, I believe it is generally owing to minute +crustacea. But there can be no doubt that very many other pelagic animals, when +alive, are phosphorescent. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-8.8"></a> <a href="#fnref-8.8">[8]</a> +An abstract is given in No. IV of the <i>Magazine of Zoology and +Botany.</i></p> + +<p>On two occasions I have observed the sea luminous at +considerable depths beneath the surface. Near the mouth of the +Plata some circular and oval patches, from two to four yards in +diameter, and with defined outlines, shone with a steady but pale +light; while the surrounding water only gave out a few sparks. The +appearance resembled the reflection of the moon, or some luminous +body; for the edges were sinuous from the undulations of the +surface. The ship, which drew thirteen feet water, passed over, +without disturbing these patches. Therefore we must suppose that +some animals were congregated together at a greater depth than the +bottom of the vessel.</p> + +<p>Near Fernando Noronha the sea gave out light in flashes. The +appearance was very similar to that which might be expected from a +large fish moving rapidly through a luminous fluid. To this cause +the sailors attributed it; at the time, however, I entertained some +doubts, on account of the frequency and rapidity of the flashes. I +have already remarked that the phenomenon is very much more common +in warm than in cold countries; and I have sometimes imagined that +a disturbed electrical condition of the atmosphere was most +favourable to its production. Certainly I think the sea is most +luminous after a few days of more calm weather than ordinary, +during which time it has swarmed with various animals. Observing +that the water charged with gelatinous particles is in an impure +state, and that the luminous appearance in all common cases is +produced by the agitation of the fluid in contact with the +atmosphere, I am inclined to consider that the phosphorescence is +the result of the decomposition of the organic particles, by which +process (one is tempted almost to call it a kind of respiration) +the ocean becomes purified.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page174"></a> +<i>December</i> 23<i>rd.</i>—We arrived at Port Desire, situated in lat. +47°, on the coast of Patagonia. The creek runs for about twenty miles +inland, with an irregular width. The <i>Beagle</i> anchored a few miles within +the entrance, in front of the ruins of an old Spanish settlement. +</p> + +<p>The same evening I went on shore. The first landing in any new +country is very interesting, and especially when, as in this case, +the whole aspect bears the stamp of a marked and individual +character. At the height of between two and three hundred feet +above some masses of porphyry a wide plain extends, which is truly +characteristic of Patagonia. The surface is quite level, and is +composed of well-rounded shingle mixed with a whitish earth. Here +and there scattered tufts of brown wiry grass are supported, and +still more rarely, some low thorny bushes. The weather is dry and +pleasant, and the fine blue sky is but seldom obscured. When +standing in the middle of one of these desert plains and looking +towards the interior, the view is generally bounded by the +escarpment of another plain, rather higher, but equally level and +desolate; and in every other direction the horizon is indistinct +from the trembling mirage which seems to rise from the heated +surface.</p> + +<p>In such a country the fate of the Spanish settlement was soon +decided; the dryness of the climate during the greater part of the +year, and the occasional hostile attacks of the wandering Indians, +compelled the colonists to desert their half-finished buildings. +The style, however, in which they were commenced shows the strong +and liberal hand of Spain in the old time. The result of all the +attempts to colonise this side of America south of 41° has been +miserable. Port Famine expresses by its name the lingering and +extreme sufferings of several hundred wretched people, of whom one +alone survived to relate their misfortunes. At St. Joseph’s Bay, on +the coast of Patagonia, a small settlement was made; but during one +Sunday the Indians made an attack and massacred the whole party, +excepting two men, who remained captives during many years. At the +Rio Negro I conversed with one of these men, now in extreme old +age.</p> + +<p>The zoology of Patagonia is as limited as its Flora.<a href="#fn-8.9" name="fnref-8.9"><sup>[9]</sup></a> +On +<a name="page175"></a> +the arid plains a few black beetles (Heteromera) might be seen +slowly crawling about, and occasionally a lizard darted from side +to side. Of birds we have three carrion hawks, and in the valleys a +few finches and insect-feeders. An ibis (Theristicus +melanops—a species said to be found in central Africa) is not +uncommon on the most desert parts: in their stomachs I found +grasshoppers, cicadæ, small lizards, and even +scorpions.<a href="#fn-8.10" name="fnref-8.10"><sup>[10]</sup></a> +At one time of the year these birds go in flocks, at another in pairs, their +cry is very loud and singular, like the neighing of the guanaco.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-8.9"></a> <a href="#fnref-8.9">[9]</a> +I found here a species of cactus, described by Professor Henslow, under the +name of <i>Opuntia Darwinii (Magazine of Zoology and Botany)</i>, vol. i, p. +466, which was remarkable for the irritability of the stamens, when I inserted +either a piece of stick or the end of my finger in the flower. The segments of +the perianth also closed on the pistil, but more slowly than the stamens. +Plants of this family, generally considered as tropical, occur in North America +(<i>Lewis and Clarke’s Travels</i>, p. 221), in the same high latitude as +here, namely, in both cases, in 47°.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-8.10"></a> <a href="#fnref-8.10">[10]</a> +These insects were not uncommon beneath stones. I found one cannibal scorpion +quietly devouring another.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl34.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl34.jpg" width="224" height="189" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p>The guanaco, or wild llama, is the characteristic quadruped of +the plains of Patagonia; it is the South American representative of +the camel of the East. It is an elegant animal in a state of +nature, with a long slender neck and fine legs. It is very common +over the whole of the temperate parts of the continent, as far +south as the islands near Cape Horn. It generally lives in small +herds of from half a dozen to thirty in each; but on the banks of +the St. Cruz we saw one herd which must have contained at least +five hundred.</p> + +<p>They are generally wild and extremely wary. Mr. Stokes +<a name="page176"></a> +told me that he one day saw through a glass a herd of these +animals which evidently had been frightened, and were running away +at full speed, although their distance was so great that he could +not distinguish them with his naked eye. The sportsman frequently +receives the first notice of their presence, by hearing from a long +distance their peculiar shrill neighing note of alarm. If he then +looks attentively, he will probably see the herd standing in a line +on the side of some distant hill. On approaching nearer, a few more +squeals are given, and off they set at an apparently slow, but +really quick canter, along some narrow beaten track to a +neighbouring hill. If, however, by chance he abruptly meets a +single animal, or several together, they will generally stand +motionless and intently gaze at him; then perhaps move on a few +yards, turn round, and look again. What is the cause of this +difference in their shyness? Do they mistake a man in the distance +for their chief enemy the puma? Or does curiosity overcome their +timidity? That they are curious is certain; for if a person lies on +the ground, and plays strange antics, such as throwing up his feet +in the air, they will almost always approach by degrees to +reconnoitre him. It was an artifice that was repeatedly practised +by our sportsmen with success, and it had moreover the advantage of +allowing several shots to be fired, which were all taken as parts +of the performance. On the mountains of Tierra del Fuego, I have +more than once seen a guanaco, on being approached, not only neigh +and squeal, but prance and leap about in the most ridiculous +manner, apparently in defiance as a challenge. These animals are +very easily domesticated, and I have seen some thus kept in +Northern Patagonia near a house, though not under any restraint. +They are in this state very bold, and readily attack a man by +striking him from behind with both knees. It is asserted that the +motive for these attacks is jealousy on account of their females. +The wild guanacos, however, have no idea of defence; even a single +dog will secure one of these large animals, till the huntsman can +come up. In many of their habits they are like sheep in a flock. +Thus when they see men approaching in several directions on +horseback, they soon become bewildered, and know not which way to +run. This greatly facilitates the Indian method of hunting, for +they are thus easily driven to a central point, and are +encompassed.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page177"></a> +The guanacos readily take to the water: several times at Port +Valdes they were seen swimming from island to island. Byron, in his +voyage, says he saw them drinking salt water. Some of our officers +likewise saw a herd apparently drinking the briny fluid from a +salina near Cape Blanco. I imagine in several parts of the country, +if they do not drink salt water, they drink none at all. In the +middle of the day they frequently roll in the dust, in +saucer-shaped hollows. The males fight together; two one day passed +quite close to me, squealing and trying to bite each other; and +several were shot with their hides deeply scored. Herds sometimes +appear to set out on exploring parties: at Bahia Blanca, where, +within thirty miles of the coast, these animals are extremely +unfrequent, I one day saw the tracks of thirty or forty, which had +come in a direct line to a muddy salt-water creek. They then must +have perceived that they were approaching the sea, for they had +wheeled with the regularity of cavalry, and had returned back in as +straight a line as they had advanced. The guanacos have one +singular habit, which is to me quite inexplicable; namely, that on +successive days they drop their dung in the same defined heap. I +saw one of these heaps which was eight feet in diameter, and was +composed of a large quantity. This habit, according to M. A. +d’Orbigny, is common to all the species of the genus; it is very +useful to the Peruvian Indians, who use the dung for fuel, and are +thus saved the trouble of collecting it.</p> + +<p>The guanacos appear to have favourite spots for lying down to +die. On the banks of the St. Cruz, in certain circumscribed spaces, +which were generally bushy and all near the river, the ground was +actually white with bones. On one such spot I counted between ten +and twenty heads. I particularly examined the bones; they did not +appear, as some scattered ones which I had seen, gnawed or broken, +as if dragged together by beasts of prey. The animals in most cases +must have crawled, before dying, beneath and amongst the bushes. +Mr. Bynoe informs me that during a former voyage he observed the +same circumstance on the banks of the Rio Gallegos. I do not at all +understand the reason of this, but I may observe, that the wounded +guanacos at the St. Cruz invariably walked towards the river. At +St. Jago in the Cape de Verd Islands, I remember having seen in a +ravine a retired corner covered with bones of the goat; we +<a name="page178"></a> +at the time exclaimed that it was the burial-ground of all the +goats in the island. I mention these trifling circumstances, +because in certain cases they might explain the occurrence of a +number of uninjured bones in a cave, or buried under alluvial +accumulations; and likewise the cause why certain animals are more +commonly embedded than others in sedimentary deposits.</p> + +<p>One day the yawl was sent under the command of Mr. Chaffers with +three days’ provisions to survey the upper part of the harbour. In +the morning we searched for some watering-places mentioned in an +old Spanish chart. We found one creek, at the head of which there +was a trickling rill (the first we had seen) of brackish water. +Here the tide compelled us to wait several hours; and in the +interval I walked some miles into the interior. The plain as usual +consisted of gravel, mingled with soil resembling chalk in +appearance, but very different from it in nature. From the softness +of these materials it was worn into many gulleys. There was not a +tree, and, excepting the guanaco, which stood on the hilltop a +watchful sentinel over its herd, scarcely an animal or a bird. All +was stillness and desolation. Yet in passing over these scenes, +without one bright object near, an ill-defined but strong sense of +pleasure is vividly excited. One asked how many ages the plain had +thus lasted, and how many more it was doomed thus to continue.</p> + +<p class="letter"> +None can reply—all seems eternal now.<br/> +The wilderness has a mysterious tongue,<br/> +Which teaches awful doubt.<a href="#fn-8.11" name="fnref-8.11"><sup>[11]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-8.11"></a> <a href="#fnref-8.11">[11]</a> +Shelley, <i>Lines on M. Blanc.</i> +</p> + +<p>In the evening we sailed a few miles farther up, and then +pitched the tents for the night. By the middle of the next day the +yawl was aground, and from the shoalness of the water could not +proceed any higher. The water being found partly fresh, Mr. +Chaffers took the dingey and went up two or three miles farther, +where she also grounded, but in a fresh-water river. The water was +muddy, and though the stream was most insignificant in size, it +would be difficult to account for its origin, except from the +melting snow on the Cordillera. At the spot where we bivouacked, we +were surrounded by bold cliffs and steep pinnacles of porphyry. I +do not think I ever saw a spot which appeared more secluded from +the rest of the world than this rocky crevice in the wide +plain.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page179"></a> +The second day after our return to the anchorage, a party of +officers and myself went to ransack an old Indian grave, which I +had found on the summit of a neighbouring hill. Two immense stones, +each probably weighing at least a couple of tons, had been placed +in front of a ledge of rock about six feet high. At the bottom of +the grave on the hard rock there was a layer of earth about a foot +deep, which must have been brought up from the plain below. Above +it a pavement of flat stones was placed, on which others were +piled, so as to fill up the space between the ledge and the two +great blocks. To complete the grave, the Indians had contrived to +detach from the ledge a huge fragment, and to throw it over the +pile so as to rest on the two blocks. We undermined the grave on +both sides, but could not find any relics, or even bones. The +latter probably had decayed long since (in which case the grave +must have been of extreme antiquity), for I found in another place +some smaller heaps, beneath which a very few crumbling fragments +could yet be distinguished as having belonged to a man. Falconer +states, that where an Indian dies he is buried, but that +subsequently his bones are carefully taken up and carried, let the +distance be ever so great, to be deposited near the sea-coast. This +custom, I think, may be accounted for by recollecting that, before +the introduction of horses, these Indians must have led nearly the +same life as the Fuegians now do, and therefore generally have +resided in the neighbourhood of the sea. The common prejudice of +lying where one’s ancestors have lain, would make the now roaming +Indians bring the less perishable part of their dead to their +ancient burial-ground on the coast.</p> + +<p> +<i>January</i> 9<i>th.</i>—Before it was dark the <i>Beagle</i> anchored +in the fine spacious harbour of Port St. Julian, situated about one hundred and +ten miles to the south of Port Desire. We remained here eight days. The country +is nearly similar to that of Port Desire, but perhaps rather more sterile. One +day a party accompanied Captain Fitz Roy on a long walk round the head of the +harbour. We were eleven hours without tasting any water, and some of the party +were quite exhausted. From the summit of a hill (since well named Thirsty Hill) +a fine lake was spied, and two of the party proceeded with concerted signals to +show whether it was fresh water. What was our disappointment to find a +snow-white expanse of salt, crystallised in great +<a name="page180"></a> +cubes! We attributed our extreme thirst to the dryness of the atmosphere; but +whatever the cause might be, we were exceedingly glad late in the evening to +get back to the boats. Although we could nowhere find, during our whole visit, +a single drop of fresh water, yet some must exist; for by an odd chance I found +on the surface of the salt water, near the head of the bay, a Colymbetes not +quite dead, which must have lived in some not far distant pool. Three other +insects (a Cincindela, like <i>hybrida</i>, a Cymindis, and a Harpalus, which +all live on muddy flats occasionally overflowed by the sea), and one other +found dead on the plain, complete the list of the beetles. A good-sized fly +(Tabanus) was extremely numerous, and tormented us by its painful bite. The +common horsefly, which is so troublesome in the shady lanes of England, belongs +to this same genus. We here have the puzzle that so frequently occurs in the +case of musquitoes—on the blood of what animals do these insects commonly +feed? The guanaco is nearly the only warm-blooded quadruped, and it is found in +quite inconsiderable numbers compared with the multitude of flies. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +The geology of Patagonia is interesting. Differently from Europe, where the +tertiary formations appear to have accumulated in bays, here along hundreds of +miles of coast we have one great deposit, including many tertiary shells, all +apparently extinct. The most common shell is a massive gigantic oyster, +sometimes even a foot in diameter. These beds are covered by others of a +peculiar soft white stone, including much gypsum, and resembling chalk, but +really of a pumiceous nature. It is highly remarkable, from being composed, to +at least one-tenth part of its bulk, of Infusoria: Professor Ehrenberg has +already ascertained in it thirty oceanic forms. This bed extends for 500 miles +along the coast, and probably for a considerably greater distance. At Port St. +Julian its thickness is more than 800 feet! These white beds are everywhere +capped by a mass of gravel, forming probably one of the largest beds of shingle +in the world: it certainly extends from near the Rio Colorado to between 600 +and 700 nautical miles southward, at Santa Cruz (a river a little south of St. +Julian) it reaches to the foot of the Cordillera; half way up the river its +thickness is more than 200 feet; it probably everywhere extends to this great +chain, +<a name="page181"></a> +whence the well-rounded pebbles of porphyry have been derived: we may consider +its average breadth as 200 miles, and its average thickness as about 50 feet. +If this great bed of pebbles, without including the mud necessarily derived +from their attrition, was piled into a mound, it would form a great mountain +chain! When we consider that all these pebbles, countless as the grains of sand +in the desert, have been derived from the slow falling of masses of rock on the +old coast-lines and banks of rivers, and that these fragments have been dashed +into smaller pieces, and that each of them has since been slowly rolled, +rounded, and far transported, the mind is stupefied in thinking over the long, +absolutely necessary, lapse of years. Yet all this gravel has been transported, +and probably rounded, subsequently to the deposition of the white beds, and +long subsequently to the underlying beds with the tertiary shells. +</p> + +<p>Everything in this southern continent has been effected on a +grand scale: the land, from the Rio Plata to Tierra del Fuego, a +distance of 1200 miles, has been raised in mass (and in Patagonia +to a height of between 300 and 400 feet), within the period of the +now existing sea-shells. The old and weathered shells left on the +surface of the upraised plain still partially retain their colours. +The uprising movement has been interrupted by at least eight long +periods of rest, during which the sea ate deeply back into the +land, forming at successive levels the long lines of cliffs or +escarpments, which separate the different plains as they rise like +steps one behind the other. The elevatory movement, and the +eating-back power of the sea during the periods of rest, have been +equable over long lines of coast; for I was astonished to find that +the step-like plains stand at nearly corresponding heights at far +distant points. The lowest plain is 90 feet high; and the highest, +which I ascended near the coast, is 950 feet; and of this only +relics are left in the form of flat gravel-capped hills. The upper +plain of Santa Cruz slopes up to a height of 3000 feet at the foot +of the Cordillera. I have said that within the period of existing +sea-shells, Patagonia has been upraised 300 to 400 feet: I may add, +that within the period when icebergs transported boulders over the +upper plain of Santa Cruz, the elevation has been at least 1500 +feet. Nor has Patagonia been +<a name="page182"></a> +affected only by upward movements: the extinct tertiary shells +from Port St. Julian and Santa Cruz cannot have lived, according to +Professor E. Forbes, in a greater depth of water than from 40 to +250 feet; but they are now covered with sea-deposited strata from +800 to 1000 feet in thickness: hence the bed of the sea, on which +these shells once lived, must have sunk downwards several hundred +feet, to allow of the accumulation of the superincumbent strata. +What a history of geological changes does the simply-constructed +coast of Patagonia reveal!</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl35.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl35.jpg" width="467" height="319" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p>At Port St. Julian,<a href="#fn-8.12" name="fnref-8.12"><sup>[12]</sup></a> +in some red mud capping the gravel on the 90-feet plain, I found half the +skeleton of the Macrauchenia Patachonica, a remarkable quadruped, full as large +as a camel. It belongs to the same division of the Pachydermata with the +rhinoceros, tapir, and palæotherium; but in the structure of the bones of its +long neck it shows a clear relation to the camel, or rather to the guanaco and +llama. From recent sea-shells being found on two of the higher step-formed +plains, which must have been modelled and upraised before the mud was deposited +in which the Macrauchenia was intombed, it is certain that this curious +quadruped lived long after the sea was inhabited by its present shells. I was +at first much surprised how a large quadruped could so lately have subsisted, +in lat. 49° 15′, on these wretched gravel plains with their stunted +vegetation; but the relationship of the Macrauchenia to the Guanaco, now an +inhabitant of the most sterile parts, partly explains this difficulty.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-8.12"></a> <a href="#fnref-8.12">[12]</a> +I have lately heard that Captain Sulivan, <small>R.N.</small>, has found +numerous fossil bones, embedded in regular strata, on the banks of the R. +Gallegos, in lat. 51° 4′. Some of the bones are large; others are +small, and appear to have belonged to an armadillo. This is a most interesting +and important discovery.</p> + +<p>The relationship, though distant, between the Macrauchenia and +the Guanaco, between the Toxodon and the Capybara,—the closer +relationship between the many extinct Edentata and the living +sloths, ant-eaters, and armadillos, now so eminently characteristic +of South American zoology,—and the still closer relationship +between the fossil and living species of Ctenomys and +Hydrochærus, are most interesting facts. This relationship is +shown wonderfully—as wonderfully as between the fossil and +extinct Marsupial animals of Australia—by the +<a name="page183"></a> +great collection lately brought to Europe from the caves of +Brazil by MM. Lund and Clausen. In this collection there are +extinct species of all the thirty-two genera, excepting four, of +the terrestrial quadrupeds now inhabiting the provinces in which +the caves occur; and the extinct species are much more numerous +than those now living: there are fossil ant-eaters, armadillos, +tapirs, peccaries, guanacos, opossums, and numerous South American +gnawers and monkeys, and other animals. This wonderful relationship +in the same continent between the dead and the living, will, I do +not doubt, hereafter throw more light on the appearance of organic +beings on our earth, and their disappearance from it, than any +other class of facts.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to reflect on the changed state of the American +continent without the deepest astonishment. Formerly it must have +swarmed with great monsters: now we find mere pigmies, compared +with the antecedent allied races. If Buffon had known of the +gigantic sloth and armadillo-like animals, and of the lost +Pachydermata, he might have said with a greater semblance of truth +that the creative force in America had lost its power, rather than +that it had never possessed great vigour. The greater number, if +not all, of these extinct quadrupeds lived at a late period, and +were the contemporaries of most of the existing sea-shells. Since +they lived, no very great change in the form of the land can have +taken place. What, then, has exterminated so many species and whole +genera? The mind at first is irresistibly hurried into the belief +of some great catastrophe; but thus to destroy animals, both large +and small, in Southern Patagonia, in Brazil, on the Cordillera of +Peru, in North America up to Behring’s Straits, we must shake the +entire framework of the globe. An examination, moreover, of the +geology of La Plata and Patagonia, leads to the belief that all the +features of the land result from slow and gradual changes. It +appears from the character of the fossils in Europe, Asia, +Australia, and in North and South America, that those conditions +which favour the life of the <i>larger</i> quadrupeds were lately +coextensive with the world: what those conditions were, no one has +yet even conjectured. It could hardly have been a change of +temperature, which at about the same time destroyed the inhabitants +of tropical, temperate, and arctic latitudes +<a name="page184"></a> +on both sides of the globe. In North America we positively know +from Mr. Lyell that the large quadrupeds lived subsequently to that +period, when boulders were brought into latitudes at which icebergs +now never arrive: from conclusive but indirect reasons we may feel +sure, that in the southern hemisphere the Macrauchenia, also, lived +long subsequently to the ice-transporting boulder-period. Did man, +after his first inroad into South America, destroy, as has been +suggested, the unwieldy Megatherium and the other Edentata? We must +at least look to some other cause for the destruction of the little +tucutuco at Bahia Blanca, and of the many fossil mice and other +small quadrupeds in Brazil. No one will imagine that a drought, +even far severer than those which cause such losses in the +provinces of La Plata, could destroy every individual of every +species from Southern Patagonia to Behring’s Straits. What shall we +say of the extinction of the horse? Did those plains fail of +pasture, which have since been overrun by thousands and hundreds of +thousands of the descendants of the stock introduced by the +Spaniards? Have the subsequently introduced species consumed the +food of the great antecedent races? Can we believe that the +Capybara has taken the food of the Toxodon, the Guanaco of the +Macrauchenia, the existing small Edentata of their numerous +gigantic prototypes? Certainly, no fact in the long history of the +world is so startling as the wide and repeated exterminations of +its inhabitants.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, if we consider the subject under another point of +view, it will appear less perplexing. We do not steadily bear in +mind how profoundly ignorant we are of the conditions of existence +of every animal; nor do we always remember that some check is +constantly preventing the too rapid increase of every organised +being left in a state of nature. The supply of food, on an average, +remains constant, yet the tendency in every animal to increase by +propagation is geometrical; and its surprising effects have nowhere +been more astonishingly shown, than in the case of the European +animals run wild during the last few centuries in America. Every +animal in a state of nature regularly breeds; yet in a species long +established, any <i>great</i> increase in numbers is obviously +impossible, and must be checked by some means. We are, +nevertheless, seldom able with certainty to tell in any given +<a name="page185"></a> +species, at what period of life, or at what period of the year, +or whether only at long intervals, the check falls; or, again, what +is the precise nature of the check. Hence probably it is that we +feel so little surprise at one, of two species closely allied in +habits, being rare and the other abundant in the same district; or, +again, that one should be abundant in one district, and another, +filling the same place in the economy of nature, should be abundant +in a neighbouring district, differing very little in its +conditions. If asked how this is, one immediately replies that it +is determined by some slight difference in climate, food, or the +number of enemies: yet how rarely, if ever, we can point out the +precise cause and manner of action of the check! We are therefore, +driven to the conclusion that causes generally quite inappreciable +by us, determine whether a given species shall be abundant or +scanty in numbers.</p> + +<p>In the cases where we can trace the extinction of a species +through man, either wholly or in one limited district, we know that +it becomes rarer and rarer, and is then lost: it would be difficult +to point out any just distinction<a href="#fn-8.13" name="fnref-8.13"><sup>[13]</sup></a> +between a species destroyed by man or by the increase of its natural enemies. +The evidence of rarity preceding extinction is more striking in the successive +tertiary strata, as remarked by several able observers; it has often been found +that a shell very common in a tertiary stratum is now most rare, and has even +long been thought to be extinct. If then, as appears probable, species first +become rare and then extinct—if the too rapid increase of every species, +even the most favoured, is steadily checked, as we must admit, though how and +when it is hard to say—and if we see, without the smallest surprise, +though unable to assign the precise reason, one species abundant and another +closely-allied species rare in the same district—why should we feel such +great astonishment at the rarity being carried a step farther to extinction? An +action going on, on every side of us, and yet barely appreciable, might surely +be carried a little farther without exciting our observation. Who would feel +any great surprise at hearing that the Magalonyx was formerly rare compared +with the Megatherium, or that one of the fossil monkeys was few in number +compared with one of the now +<a name="page186"></a> +living monkeys? and yet in this comparative rarity, we should +have the plainest evidence of less favourable conditions for their +existence. To admit that species generally become rare before they +become extinct—to feel no surprise at the comparative rarity +of one species with another, and yet to call in some extraordinary +agent and to marvel greatly when a species ceases to exist, appears +to me much the same as to admit that sickness in the individual is +the prelude to death—to feel no surprise at +sickness—but when the sick man dies to wonder, and to believe +that he died through violence.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-8.13"></a> <a href="#fnref-8.13">[13]</a> +See the excellent remarks on this subject by Mr. Lyell, in his <i>Principles of +Geology.</i></p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl36.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl36.jpg" width="170" height="228" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl37.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl37.jpg" width="211" height="316" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="page187"></a><a name="chix"></a>Chapter IX</h2> + +<p class="letter">Santa Cruz—Expedition up the +River—Indians—Immense Streams of basaltic +lava—Fragments not transported by the River—Excavation +of the valley—Condor, habits +of—Cordillera—Erratic boulders of great +size—Indian relics—Return to the ship—Falkland +Islands—Wild horses, cattle, rabbits—Wolf-like +fox—Fire made of bones—Manner of hunting wild +cattle—Geology—Streams of stones—Scenes of +violence—Penguin—Geese—Eggs of +Doris—Compound animals.</p> + +<h3>SANTA CRUZ, PATAGONIA, AND THE FALKLAND ISLANDS.</h3> + +<p> +<i>April</i> 13<i>th</i>, 1834.—The <i>Beagle</i> anchored within the +mouth of the Santa Cruz. This river is situated about sixty miles south of Port +St. Julian. During the last voyage Captain Stokes proceeded thirty miles up it, +but then, from the want of provisions, +<a name="page188"></a> +was obliged to return. Excepting what was discovered at that time, scarcely +anything was known about this large river. Captain Fitz Roy now determined to +follow its course as far as time would allow. On the 18th three whale-boats +started, carrying three weeks’ provisions; and the party consisted of +twenty-five souls—a force which would have been sufficient to have defied +a host of Indians. With a strong flood-tide and a fine day we made a good run, +soon drank some of the fresh water, and were at night nearly above the tidal +influence. +</p> + +<p>The river here assumed a size and appearance which, even at the +highest point we ultimately reached, was scarcely diminished. It +was generally from three to four hundred yards broad, and in the +middle about seventeen feet deep. The rapidity of the current, +which in its whole course runs at the rate of from four to six +knots an hour, is perhaps its most remarkable feature. The water is +of a fine blue colour, but with a slight milky tinge, and not so +transparent as at first sight would have been expected. It flows +over a bed of pebbles, like those which compose the beach and the +surrounding plains. It runs in a winding course through a valley, +which extends in a direct line westward. This valley varies from +five to ten miles in breadth; it is bounded by step-formed +terraces, which rise in most parts, one above the other, to the +height of five hundred feet, and have on the opposite sides a +remarkable correspondence.</p> + +<p> +<i>April</i> 19<i>th.</i>—Against so strong a current it was, of course, +quite impossible to row or sail: consequently the three boats were fastened +together head and stern, two hands left in each, and the rest came on shore to +track. As the general arrangements made by Captain Fitz Roy were very good for +facilitating the work of all, and as all had a share in it, I will describe the +system. The party, including every one, was divided into two spells, each of +which hauled at the tracking line alternately for an hour and a half. The +officers of each boat lived with, ate the same food, and slept in the same tent +with their crew, so that each boat was quite independent of the others. After +sunset the first level spot where any bushes were growing was chosen for our +night’s lodging. Each of the crew took it in turns to be cook. +Immediately the boat was hauled up, the cook made his fire; two others pitched +the tent; the coxswain handed the things out of the boat; the rest carried them +up to the tents +<a name="page189"></a> +and collected firewood. By this order, in half an hour everything was ready for +the night. A watch of two men and an officer was always kept, whose duty it was +to look after the boats, keep up the fire, and guard against Indians. Each in +the party had his one hour every night. +</p> + +<p>During this day we tracked but a short distance, for there were +many islets, covered by thorny bushes, and the channels between +them were shallow.</p> + +<p> +<i>April</i> 20<i>th.</i>—We passed the islands and set to work. Our +regular day’s march, although it was hard enough, carried us on an +average only ten miles in a straight line, and perhaps fifteen or twenty +altogether. Beyond the place where we slept last night, the country is +completely <i>terra incognita</i>, for it was there that Captain Stokes turned +back. We saw in the distance a great smoke, and found the skeleton of a horse, +so we knew that Indians were in the neighbourhood. On the next morning (21st) +tracks of a party of horse, and marks left by the trailing of the chuzos, or +long spears, were observed on the ground. It was generally thought that the +Indians had reconnoitred us during the night. Shortly afterwards we came to a +spot where, from the fresh footsteps of men, children, and horses, it was +evident that the party had crossed the river. +</p> + +<p> +<i>April</i> 22<i>nd.</i>—The country remained the same, and was +extremely uninteresting. The complete similarity of the productions throughout +Patagonia is one of its most striking characters. The level plains of arid +shingle support the same stunted and dwarf plants; and in the valleys the same +thorn-bearing bushes grow. Everywhere we see the same birds and insects. Even +the very banks of the river and of the clear streamlets which entered it, were +scarcely enlivened by a brighter tint of green. The curse of sterility is on +the land, and the water flowing over a bed of pebbles partakes of the same +curse. Hence the number of waterfowl is very scanty; for there is nothing to +support life in the stream of this barren river. +</p> + +<p>Patagonia, poor as she is in some respects, can however boast of +a greater stock of small rodents<a href="#fn-9.1" name="fnref-9.1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> +than perhaps any other country in the world. Several species of mice are +externally +<a name="page190"></a> +characterised by large thin ears and a very fine fur. These +little animals swarm amongst the thickets in the valleys, where +they cannot for months together taste a drop of water excepting the +dew. They all seem to be cannibals; for no sooner was a mouse +caught in one of my traps than it was devoured by others. A small +and delicately-shaped fox, which is likewise very abundant, +probably derives its entire support from these small animals. The +guanaco is also in his proper district, herds of fifty or a hundred +were common; and, as I have stated, we saw one which must have +contained at least five hundred. The puma, with the condor and +other carrion-hawks in its train, follows and preys upon these +animals. The footsteps of the puma were to be seen almost +everywhere on the banks of the river; and the remains of several +guanacos, with their necks dislocated and bones broken, showed how +they had met their death.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-9.1"></a> <a href="#fnref-9.1">[1]</a> +The desserts of Syria are characterised, according to Volney (tome i, p. 351), +by woody bushes, numerous rats, gazelles and hares. In the landscape of +Patagonia the guanaco replaces the gazelle, and the agouti the hare.</p> + +<p> +<i>April</i> 24<i>th.</i>—Like the navigators of old when approaching an +unknown land, we examined and watched for the most trivial sign of a change. +The drifted trunk of a tree, or a boulder of primitive rock, was hailed with +joy, as if we had seen a forest growing on the flanks of the Cordillera. The +top, however, of a heavy bank of clouds, which remained almost constantly in +one position, was the most promising sign, and eventually turned out a true +harbinger. At first the clouds were mistaken for the mountains themselves, +instead of the masses of vapour condensed by their icy summits. +</p> + +<p> +<i>April</i> 26<i>th.</i>—We this day met with a marked change in the +geological structure of the plains. From the first starting I had carefully +examined the gravel in the river, and for the two last days had noticed the +presence of a few small pebbles of a very cellular basalt. These gradually +increased in number and in size, but none were as large as a man’s head. +This morning, however, pebbles of the same rock, but more compact, suddenly +became abundant, and in the course of half an hour we saw, at the distance of +five or six miles, the angular edge of a great basaltic platform. When we +arrived at its base we found the stream bubbling among the fallen blocks. For +the next twenty-eight miles the river-course was encumbered with these basaltic +masses. Above that limit immense fragments of primitive rocks, derived from the +surrounding boulder-formation, were equally numerous. None of the fragments of +any considerable size had been washed +<a name="page191"></a> +more than three or four miles down the river below their parent-source: +considering the singular rapidity of the great body of water in the Santa Cruz, +and that no still reaches occur in any part, this example is a most striking +one, of the inefficiency of rivers in transporting even moderately-sized +fragments. +</p> + +<p>The basalt is only lava which has flowed beneath the sea; but +the eruptions must have been on the grandest scale. At the point +where we first met this formation it was 120 feet in thickness; +following up the river-course, the surface imperceptibly rose and +the mass became thicker, so that at forty miles above the first +station it was 320 feet thick. What the thickness may be close to +the Cordillera, I have no means of knowing, but the platform there +attains a height of about three thousand feet above the level of +the sea: we must therefore look to the mountains of that great +chain for its source; and worthy of such a source are streams that +have flowed over the gently inclined bed of the sea to a distance +of one hundred miles. At the first glance of the basaltic cliffs on +the opposite sides of the valley it was evident that the strata +once were united. What power, then, has removed along a whole line +of country a solid mass of very hard rock, which had an average +thickness of nearly three hundred feet, and a breadth varying from +rather less than two miles to four miles? The river, though it has +so little power in transporting even inconsiderable fragments, yet +in the lapse of ages might produce by its gradual erosion an +effect, of which it is difficult to judge the amount. But in this +case, independently of the insignificance of such an agency, good +reasons can be assigned for believing that this valley was formerly +occupied by an arm of the sea. It is needless in this work to +detail the arguments leading to this conclusion, derived from the +form and the nature of the step-formed terraces on both sides of +the valley, from the manner in which the bottom of the valley near +the Andes expands into a great estuary-like plain with +sand-hillocks on it, and from the occurrence of a few sea-shells +lying in the bed of the river. If I had space I could prove that +South America was formerly here cut off by a strait, joining the +Atlantic and Pacific oceans, like that of Magellan. But it may yet +be asked, how has the solid basalt been removed? Geologists +formerly would have brought into play the violent action of some +overwhelming debacle; but in this case such a +<a name="page192"></a> +supposition would have been quite inadmissible; because, the +same step-like plains with existing sea-shells lying on their +surface, which front the long line of the Patagonian coast, sweep +up on each side of the valley of Santa Cruz. No possible action of +any flood could thus have modelled the land, either within the +valley or along the open coast; and by the formation of such +step-like plains or terraces the valley itself has been hollowed +out. Although we know that there are tides which run within the +Narrows of the Strait of Magellan at the rate of eight knots an +hour, yet we must confess that it makes the head almost giddy to +reflect on the number of years, century after century, which the +tides, unaided by a heavy surf, must have required to have corroded +so vast an area and thickness of solid basaltic lava. Nevertheless, +we must believe that the strata undermined by the waters of this +ancient strait were broken up into huge fragments, and these lying +scattered on the beach were reduced first to smaller blocks, then +to pebbles, and lastly to the most impalpable mud, which the tides +drifted far into the Eastern or Western Ocean.</p> + +<p>With the change in the geological structure of the plains the +character of the landscape likewise altered. While rambling up some +of the narrow and rocky defiles, I could almost have fancied myself +transported back again to the barren valleys of the island of St. +Jago. Among the basaltic cliffs I found some plants which I had +seen nowhere else, but others I recognised as being wanderers from +Tierra del Fuego. These porous rocks serve as a reservoir for the +scanty rain-water; and consequently on the line where the igneous +and sedimentary formations unite, some small springs (most rare +occurrences in Patagonia) burst forth; and they could be +distinguished at a distance by the circumscribed patches of bright +green herbage.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl38.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl38.jpg" width="456" height="316" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p> +<i>April</i> 27<i>th.</i>—The bed of the river became rather narrower, +and hence the stream more rapid. It here ran at the rate of six knots an hour. +From this cause, and from the many great angular fragments, tracking the boats +became both dangerous and laborious. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +This day I shot a condor. It measured from tip to tip of the wings eight and a +half feet, and from beak to tail four +<a name="page193"></a> +feet. This bird is known to have a wide geographical range, being found on the +west coast of South America, from the Strait of Magellan along the Cordillera +as far as eight degrees north of the equator. The steep cliff near the mouth of +the Rio Negro is its northern limit on the Patagonian coast; and they have +there wandered about four hundred miles from the great central line of their +habitation in the Andes. Further south, among the bold precipices at the head +of Port Desire, the condor is not uncommon; yet only a few stragglers +occasionally visit the sea-coast. A line of cliff near the mouth of the Santa +Cruz is frequented by these birds, and about eighty miles up the river, where +the sides of the valley are formed by steep basaltic precipices, the condor +reappears. From these facts, it seems that the condors require perpendicular +cliffs. In Chile, they haunt, during the greater part of the year, the lower +country near the shores of the Pacific, and at night several roost together in +one tree; but in the early part of summer they retire to the most inaccessible +parts of the inner Cordillera, there to breed in peace. +</p> + +<p>With respect to their propagation, I was told by the country +people in Chile that the condor makes no sort of nest, but in the +months of November and December lays two large white eggs on a +shelf of bare rock. It is said that the young condors cannot fly +for an entire year; and long after they are able, they continue to +roost by night, an hunt by day with their parents. The old birds +generally live in pairs; but among the inland basaltic cliffs of +the Santa Cruz I found a spot where scores must usually haunt. On +coming suddenly to the brow of the precipice, it was a grand +spectacle to see between twenty and thirty of these great birds +start heavily from their resting-place, and wheel away in majestic +circles. From the quantity of dung on the rocks, they must long +have frequented this cliff for roosting and breeding. Having gorged +themselves with carrion on the plains below, they retire to these +favourite ledges to digest their food. From these facts, the +condor, like the gallinazo must to a certain degree be considered +as a gregarious bird. In this part of the country they live +altogether on the guanacos which have died a natural death, or as +more commonly happens, have been killed by the pumas. I believe, +from what I saw in Patagonia, that they do not on ordinary +occasions +<a name="page194"></a> +extend their daily excursions to any great distance from their +regular sleeping-places.</p> + +<p>The condors may oftentimes be seen at a great height, soaring +over a certain spot in the most graceful circles. On some occasions +I am sure that they do this only for pleasure, but on others, the +Chileno countryman tells you that they are watching a dying animal, +or the puma devouring its prey. If the condors glide down, and then +suddenly all rise together, the Chileno knows that it is the puma +which, watching the carcass, has sprung out to drive away the +robbers. Besides feeding on carrion, the condors frequently attack +young goats and lambs; and the shepherd-dogs are trained, whenever +they pass over, to run out, and looking upwards to bark violently. +The Chilenos destroy and catch numbers. Two methods are used; one +is to place a carcass on a level piece of ground within an +enclosure of sticks with an opening, and when the condors are +gorged, to gallop up on horseback to the entrance, and thus enclose +them: for when this bird has not space to run, it cannot give its +body sufficient momentum to rise from the ground. The second method +is to mark the trees in which, frequently to the number of five or +six together, they roost, and then at night to climb up and noose +them. They are such heavy sleepers, as I have myself witnessed, +that this is not a difficult task. At Valparaiso I have seen a +living condor sold for sixpence, but the common price is eight or +ten shillings. One which I saw brought in, had been tied with rope, +and was much injured; yet, the moment the line was cut by which its +bill was secured, although surrounded by people, it began +ravenously to tear a piece of carrion. In a garden at the same +place, between twenty and thirty were kept alive. They were fed +only once a week, but they appeared in pretty good +health.<a href="#fn-9.2" name="fnref-9.2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> +The Chileno countrymen assert that the condor will live, and retain its vigour, +between five and six weeks without eating: I cannot answer for the truth of +this, but it is a cruel experiment, which very likely has been tried.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-9.2"></a> <a href="#fnref-9.2">[2]</a> +I noticed that several hours before any one of the condors died, all the lice, +with which it was infested, crawled to the outside feathers. I was assured that +this always happens.</p> + +<p>When an animal is killed in the country, it is well known that +the condors, like other carrion-vultures, soon gain +intelligence +<a name="page195"></a> +of it, and congregate in an inexplicable manner. In most cases +it must not be overlooked, that the birds have discovered their +prey, and have picked the skeleton clean, before the flesh is in +the least degree tainted. Remembering the experiments of M. +Audubon, on the little smelling powers of carrion-hawks, I tried in +the above-mentioned garden the following experiment: the condors +were tied, each by a rope, in a long row at the bottom of a wall; +and having folded up a piece of meat in white paper, I walked +backwards and forwards, carrying it in my hand at the distance of +about three yards from them, but no notice whatever was taken. I +then threw it on the ground, within one yard of an old male bird; +he looked at it for a moment with attention, but then regarded it +no more. With a stick I pushed it closer and closer, until at last +he touched it with his beak; the paper was then instantly torn off +with fury, and at the same moment, every bird in the long row began +struggling and flapping its wings. Under the same circumstances it +would have been quite impossible to have deceived a dog. The +evidence in favour of and against the acute smelling powers of +carrion-vultures is singularly balanced. Professor Owen has +demonstrated that the olfactory nerves of the turkey-buzzard +(Cathartes aura) are highly developed, and on the evening when Mr. +Owen’s paper was read at the Zoological Society, it was mentioned +by a gentleman that he had seen the carrion-hawks in the West +Indies on two occasions collect on the roof of a house, when a +corpse had become offensive from not having been buried: in this +case, the intelligence could hardly have been acquired by sight. On +the other hand, besides the experiments of Audubon and that one by +myself, Mr. Bachman has tried in the United States many varied +plans, showing that neither the turkey-buzzard (the species +dissected by Professor Owen) nor the gallinazo find their food by +smell. He covered portions of highly-offensive offal with a thin +canvas cloth, and strewed pieces of meat on it: these the +carrion-vultures ate up, and then remained quietly standing, with +their beaks within the eighth of an inch of the putrid mass, +without discovering it. A small rent was made in the canvas, and +the offal was immediately discovered; the canvas was replaced by a +fresh piece, and meat again put on it, and was again devoured by +the vultures without their discovering the +<a name="page196"></a> +hidden mass on which they were trampling. These facts are +attested by the signatures of six gentlemen, besides that of Mr. +Bachman.<a href="#fn-9.3" name="fnref-9.3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-9.3"></a> <a href="#fnref-9.3">[3]</a> +Loudon’s <i>Magazine of Natural History</i>, vol. vii.</p> + +<p>Often when lying down to rest on the open plains, on looking +upwards, I have seen carrion-hawks sailing through the air at a +great height. Where the country is level I do not believe a space +of the heavens, of more than fifteen degrees above the horizon, is +commonly viewed with any attention by a person either walking or on +horseback. If such be the case, and the vulture is on the wing at a +height of between three and four thousand feet, before it could +come within the range of vision, its distance in a straight line +from the beholder’s eye would be rather more than two British +miles. Might it not thus readily be overlooked? When an animal is +killed by the sportsman in a lonely valley, may he not all the +while be watched from above by the sharp-sighted bird? And will not +the manner of its descent proclaim throughout the district to the +whole family of carrion-feeders, that their prey is at hand?</p> + +<p> +When the condors are wheeling in a flock round and round any spot, their flight +is beautiful. Except when rising from the ground, I do not recollect ever +having seen one of these birds flap its wings. Near Lima, I watched several for +nearly half an hour, without once taking off my eyes: they moved in large +curves, sweeping in circles, descending and ascending without giving a single +flap. As they glided close over my head, I intently watched from an oblique +position the outlines of the separate and great terminal feathers of each wing; +and these separate feathers, if there had been the least vibratory movement, +would have appeared as if blended together; but they were seen distinct against +the blue sky. The head and neck were moved frequently, and apparently with +force; and the extended wings seemed to form the fulcrum on which the movements +of the neck, body and tail acted. If the bird wished to descend, the wings were +for a moment collapsed; and when again expanded with an altered inclination, +the momentum gained by the rapid descent seemed to urge the bird upwards with +the even and steady movement of a paper kite. In the case of any bird +<i>soaring</i>, its motion must be +<a name="page197"></a> +sufficiently rapid, so that the action of the inclined surface +of its body on the atmosphere may counterbalance its gravity. The +force to keep up the momentum of a body moving in a horizontal +plane in the air (in which there is so little friction) cannot be +great, and this force is all that is wanted. The movement of the +neck and body of the condor, we must suppose is sufficient for +this. However this may be, it is truly wonderful and beautiful to +see so great a bird, hour after hour, without any apparent +exertion, wheeling and gliding over mountain and river.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>April</i> 29<i>th.</i>—From some high land we hailed with joy the +white summits of the Cordillera, as they were seen occasionally peeping through +their dusky envelope of clouds. During the few succeeding days we continued to +get on slowly, for we found the river-course very tortuous, and strewed with +immense fragments of various ancient slaty rocks, and of granite. The plain +bordering the valley had here attained an elevation of about 1100 feet above +the river, and its character was much altered. The well-rounded pebbles of +porphyry were mingled with many immense angular fragments of basalt and of +primary rocks. The first of these erratic boulders which I noticed was +sixty-seven miles distant from the nearest mountain; another which I measured +was five yards square, and projected five feet above the gravel. Its edges were +so angular, and its size so great, that I at first mistook it for a rock <i>in +situ</i>, and took out my compass to observe the direction of its cleavage. The +plain here was not quite so level as that nearer the coast, but yet it betrayed +no signs of any great violence. Under these circumstances it is, I believe, +quite impossible to explain the transportal of these gigantic masses of rock so +many miles from their parent-source, on any theory except by that of floating +icebergs. +</p> + +<p>During the two last days we met with signs of horses, and with +several small articles which had belonged to the Indians—such +as parts of a mantle and a bunch of ostrich feathers—but they +appeared to have been lying long on the ground. Between the place +where the Indians had so lately crossed the river and this +neighbourhood, though so many miles apart, the country appears to +be quite unfrequented. At first, considering +<a name="page198"></a> +the abundance of the guanacos, I was surprised at this; but it +is explained by the stony nature of the plains, which would soon +disable an unshod horse from taking part in the chase. +Nevertheless, in two places in this very central region, I found +small heaps of stones, which I do not think could have been +accidentally thrown together. They were placed on points projecting +over the edge of the highest lava cliff, and they resembled, but on +a small scale, those near Port Desire.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>May</i> 4<i>th.</i>—Captain Fitz Roy determined to take the boats no +higher. The river had a winding course, and was very rapid; and the appearance +of the country offered no temptation to proceed any farther. Everywhere we met +with the same productions, and the same dreary landscape. We were now one +hundred and forty miles distant from the Atlantic, and about sixty from the +nearest arm of the Pacific. The valley in this upper part expanded into a wide +basin, bounded on the north and south by the basaltic platforms, and fronted by +the long range of the snow-clad Cordillera. But we viewed these grand mountains +with regret, for we were obliged to imagine their nature and productions, +instead of standing, as we had hoped, on their summits. Besides the useless +loss of time which an attempt to ascend the river any higher would have cost +us, we had already been for some days on half allowance of bread. This, +although really enough for reasonable men, was, after a hard day’s march, +rather scanty food: a light stomach and an easy digestion are good things to +talk about, but very unpleasant in practice. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +5<i>th.</i>—Before sunrise we commenced our descent. We shot down the +stream with great rapidity, generally at the rate of ten knots an hour. In this +one day we effected what had cost us five and a half hard days’ labour in +ascending. On the 8th we reached the <i>Beagle</i> after our twenty-one +days’ expedition. Every one, excepting myself, had cause to be +dissatisfied; but to me the ascent afforded a most interesting section of the +great tertiary formation of Patagonia. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +On <i>March</i> 1<i>st</i>, 1833, and again on <i>March</i> 16<i>th</i>, 1834, +the +<a name="page199"></a> +<i>Beagle</i> anchored in Berkeley Sound, in East Falkland +Island. This archipelago is situated in nearly the same latitude +with the mouth of the Strait of Magellan; it covers a space of one +hundred and twenty by sixty geographical miles, and is a little +more than half the size of Ireland. After the possession of these +miserable islands had been contested by France, Spain, and England, +they were left uninhabited. The government of Buenos Ayres then +sold them to a private individual, but likewise used them, as old +Spain had done before, for a penal settlement. England claimed her +right an seized them. The Englishman who was left in charge of the +flag was consequently murdered. A British officer was next sent, +unsupported by any power: and when we arrived, we found him in +charge of a population, of which rather more than half were runaway +rebels and murderers.</p> + +<p>The theatre is worthy of the scenes acted on it. An undulating +land, with a desolate and wretched aspect, is everywhere covered by +a peaty soil and wiry grass, of one monotonous brown colour. Here +and there a peak or ridge of grey quartz rock breaks through the +smooth surface. Every one has heard of the climate of these +regions; it may be compared to that which is experienced at the +height of between one and two thousand feet, on the mountains of +North Wales; having however less sunshine and less frost, but more +wind and rain.<a href="#fn-9.4" name="fnref-9.4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-9.4"></a> <a href="#fnref-9.4">[4]</a> +From accounts published since our voyage, and more especially from several +interesting letters from Capt. Sulivan, <small>R.N.</small>, employed on the +survey, it appears that we took an exaggerated view of the badness of the +climate on these islands. But when I reflect on the almost universal covering +of peat, and on the fact of wheat seldom ripening here, I can hardly believe +that the climate in summer is so fine and dry as it has lately been +represented.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +16<i>th.</i>—I will now describe a short excursion which I made round a +part of this island. In the morning I started with six horses and two Gauchos: +the latter were capital men for the purpose, and well accustomed to living on +their own resources. The weather was very boisterous and cold, with heavy +hail-storms. We got on, however, pretty well, but, except the geology, nothing +could be less interesting than our day’s ride. The country is uniformly +the same undulating moorland; the surface being covered by light brown withered +grass and a few very small shrubs, all springing out of an elastic peaty soil. +In the valleys +<a name="page200"></a> +here and there might be seen a small flock of wild geese, and everywhere the +ground was so soft that the snipe were able to feed. Besides these two birds +there were few others. There is one main range of hills, nearly two thousand +feet in height, and composed of quartz rock, the rugged and barren crests of +which gave us some trouble to cross. On the south side we came to the best +country for wild cattle; we met, however, no great number, for they had been +lately much harassed. +</p> + +<p>In the evening we came across a small herd. One of my +companions, St. Jago by name, soon separated a fat cow; he threw +the bolas, and it struck her legs, but failed in becoming +entangled. Then dropping his hat to mark the spot where the balls +were left, while at full gallop he uncoiled his lazo, and after a +most severe chase again came up to the cow, and caught her round +the horns. The other Gaucho had gone on ahead with the spare +horses, so that St. Jago had some difficulty in killing the furious +beast. He managed to get her on a level piece of ground, by taking +advantage of her as often as she rushed at him; and when she would +not move, my horse, from having been trained, would canter up, and +with his chest give her a violent push. But when on level ground it +does not appear an easy job for one man to kill a beast mad with +terror. Nor would it be so if the horse, when left to itself +without its rider, did not soon learn, for its own safety, to keep +the lazo tight; so that, if the cow or ox moves forward, the horse +moves just as quickly forward; otherwise, it stands motionless +leaning on one side. This horse, however, was a young one, and +would not stand still, but gave in to the cow as she struggled. It +was admirable to see with what dexterity St. Jago dodged behind the +beast, till at last he contrived to give the fatal touch to the +main tendon of the hind leg; after which, without much difficulty, +he drove his knife into the head of the spinal marrow, and the cow +dropped as if struck by lightning. He cut off pieces of flesh with +the skin to it, but without any bones, sufficient for our +expedition. We then rode on to our sleeping-place, and had for +supper “carne con cuero,” or meat roasted with the skin on it. This +is as superior to common beef as venison is to mutton. A large +circular piece taken from the back is roasted on the embers with +the hide downwards and in the form of a saucer, so that none of the +gravy is lost. If any +<a name="page201"></a> +worthy alderman had supped with us that evening, “carne con +cuero,” without doubt, would soon have been celebrated in +London.</p> + +<p>During the night it rained, and the next day (17th) was very +stormy, with much hail and snow. We rode across the island to the +neck of land which joins the Rincon del Tor (the great peninsula at +the S.W. extremity) to the rest of the island. From the great +number of cows which have been killed, there is a large proportion +of bulls. These wander about single, or two and three together, and +are very savage. I never saw such magnificent beasts; they equalled +in the size of their huge heads and necks the Grecian marble +sculptures. Captain Sulivan informs me that the hide of an +average-sized bull weighs forty-seven pounds, whereas a hide of +this weight, less thoroughly dried, is considered as a very heavy +one at Monte Video. The young bulls generally run away for a short +distance; but the old ones do not stir a step, except to rush at +man and horse; and many horses have been thus killed. An old bull +crossed a boggy stream, and took his stand on the opposite side to +us; we in vain tried to drive him away, and failing, were obliged +to make a large circuit. The Gauchos in revenge determined to +emasculate him and render him for the future harmless. It was very +interesting to see how art completely mastered force. One lazo was +thrown over his horns as he rushed at the horse, and another round +his hind legs: in a minute the monster was stretched powerless on +the ground. After the lazo has once been drawn tightly round the +horns of a furious animal, it does not at first appear an easy +thing to disengage it again without killing the beast: nor, I +apprehend, would it be so if the man was by himself. By the aid, +however, of a second person throwing his lazo so as to catch both +hind legs, it is quickly managed: for the animal, as long as its +hind legs are kept outstretched, is quite helpless, and the first +man can with his hands loosen his lazo from the horns, and then +quietly mount his horse; but the moment the second man, by backing +ever so little, relaxes the strain, the lazo slips off the legs of +the struggling beast which then rises free, shakes himself, and +vainly rushes at his antagonist.</p> + +<p>During our whole ride we saw only one troop of wild horses. +These animals, as well as the cattle, were introduced by the +<a name="page202"></a> +French in 1764, since which time both have greatly increased. It +is a curious fact that the horses have never left the eastern end +of the island, although there is no natural boundary to prevent +them from roaming, and that part of the island is not more tempting +than the rest. The Gauchos whom I asked, though asserting this to +be the case, were unable to account for it, except from the strong +attachment which horses have to any locality to which they are +accustomed. Considering that the island does not appear fully +stocked, and that there are no beasts of prey, I was particularly +curious to know what has checked their originally rapid increase. +That in a limited island some check would sooner or later +supervene, is inevitable; but why has the increase of the horse +been checked sooner than that of the cattle? Capt. Sulivan has +taken much pains for me in this inquiry. The Gauchos employed here +attribute it chiefly to the stallions constantly roaming from place +to place, and compelling the mares to accompany them, whether or +not the young foals are able to follow. One Gaucho told Capt. +Sulivan that he had watched a stallion for a whole hour, violently +kicking and biting a mare till he forced her to leave her foal to +its fate. Captain Sulivan can so far corroborate this curious +account, that he has several times found young foals dead, whereas +he has never found a dead calf. Moreover, the dead bodies of +full-grown horses are more frequently found, as if more subject to +disease or accidents than those of the cattle. From the softness of +the ground their hoofs often grow irregularly to a great length, +and this causes lameness. The predominant colours are roan and +iron-grey. All the horses bred here, both tame and wild, are rather +small-sized, though generally in good condition; and they have lost +so much strength, that they are unfit to be used in taking wild +cattle with the lazo: in consequence, it is necessary to go to the +great expense of importing fresh horses from the Plata. At some +future period the southern hemisphere probably will have its breed +of Falkland ponies, as the northern has its Shetland breed.</p> + +<p>The cattle, instead of having degenerated like the horses, seem, +as before remarked, to have increased in size; and they are much +more numerous than the horses. Capt. Sulivan informs me that they +vary much less in the general form of their bodies and in the shape +of their horns than English cattle. In colour they differ much; and +it is a remarkable circumstance, +<a name="page203"></a> +that in different parts of this one small island, different +colours predominate. Round Mount Usborne, at a height of from 1000 +to 1500 feet above the sea, about half of some of the herds are +mouse or lead coloured, a tint which is not common in other parts +of the island. Near Port Pleasant dark brown prevails, whereas +south of Choiseul Sound (which almost divides the island into two +parts) white beasts with black heads and feet are the most common: +in all parts black, and some spotted animals may be observed. Capt. +Sulivan remarks that the difference in the prevailing colours was +so obvious, that in looking for the herds near Port Pleasant, they +appeared from a long distance like black spots, whilst south of +Choiseul Sound they appeared like white spots on the hill-sides. +Capt. Sulivan thinks that the herds do not mingle; and it is a +singular fact, that the mouse-coloured cattle, though living on the +high land, calve about a month earlier in the season than the other +coloured beasts on the lower land. It is interesting thus to find +the once domesticated cattle breaking into three colours, of which +some one colour would in all probability ultimately prevail over +the others, if the herd were left undisturbed for the next several +centuries.</p> + +<p>The rabbit is another animal which has been introduced, and has +succeeded very well; so that they abound over large parts of the +island. Yet, like the horses, they are confined within certain +limits; for they have not crossed the central chain of hills, nor +would they have extended even so far as its base, if, as the +Gauchos informed me, small colonies had not been carried there. I +should not have supposed that these animals, natives of Northern +Africa, could have existed in a climate so humid as this, and which +enjoys so little sunshine that even wheat ripens only occasionally. +It is asserted that in Sweden, which any one would have thought a +more favourable climate, the rabbit cannot live out of doors. The +first few pairs, moreover, had here to contend against pre-existing +enemies, in the fox and some large hawks. The French naturalists +have considered the black variety a distinct species, and called it +Lepus Magellanicus.<a href="#fn-9.5" name="fnref-9.5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> +<a name="page204"></a> +They imagined that Magellan, when talking of an animal under the +name of “conejos” in the Strait of Magellan, referred to this +species; but he was alluding to a small cavy, which to this day is +thus called by the Spaniards. The Gauchos laughed at the idea of +the black kind being different from the grey, and they said that at +all events it had not extended its range any farther than the grey +kind; that the two were never found separate; and that they readily +bred together, and produced piebald offspring. Of the latter I now +possess a specimen, and it is marked about the head differently +from the French specific description. This circumstance shows how +cautious naturalists should be in making species; for even Cuvier, +on looking at the skull of one of these rabbits, thought it was +probably distinct!</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-9.5"></a> <a href="#fnref-9.5">[5]</a> +Lesson’s <i>Zoology of the Voyage of the Coquille</i>, tome i, p. 168. +All the early voyagers, and especially Bougainville, distinctly state that the +wolf-like fox was the only native animal on the island. The distinction of the +rabbit as a species is taken from peculiarities in the fur, from the shape of +the head, and from the shortness of the ears. I may here observe that the +difference between the Irish and English hare rests upon nearly similar +characters, only more strongly marked.</p> + +<p>The only quadruped native to the island<a href="#fn-9.6" name="fnref-9.6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> +is a large wolf-like fox (Canis antarcticus), which is common to both East and +West Falkland. I have no doubt it is a peculiar species, and confined to this +archipelago; because many sealers, Gauchos, and Indians, who have visited these +islands, all maintain that no such animal is found in any part of South +America. Molina, from a similarity in habits, thought that this was the same +with his “culpeu”;<a href="#fn-9.7" name="fnref-9.7"><sup>[7]</sup></a> +but I have seen both, and they are quite distinct. These wolves are well known +from Byron’s account of their tameness and curiosity, which the sailors, +who ran into the water to avoid them, mistook for fierceness. To this day their +manners remain the same. They have been observed to enter a tent, and actually +pull some meat from beneath the head of a sleeping seaman. The Gauchos also +have frequently in the evening killed them, by holding out a piece of meat in +one hand, and in the other a knife ready to stick them. As far as I am aware, +there is no other instance in any part of the world, of so small a mass of +broken land, distant from a continent, possessing so large an aboriginal +quadruped peculiar to itself. Their numbers have rapidly decreased; they are +already banished from that half of the island which lies to the eastward of the +neck of land between St. Salvador Bay and Berkeley Sound. +<a name="page205"></a> +Within a very few years after these islands shall have become +regularly settled, in all probability this fox will be classed with +the dodo, as an animal which has perished from the face of the +earth.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-9.6"></a> <a href="#fnref-9.6">[6]</a> +I have reason, however, to suspect that there is a field-mouse. The common +European rat and mouse have roamed far from the habitations of the settlers. +The common hog has also run wild on one islet; all are of a black colour: the +boars are very fierce, and have great tusks. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-9.7"></a> <a href="#fnref-9.7">[7]</a> +The “culpeu” is the Canis Magellanicus brought home by Captain King +from the Strait of Magellan. It is common in Chile.</p> + +<p>At night (17th) we slept on the neck of land at the head of +Choiseul Sound, which forms the south-west peninsula. The valley +was pretty well sheltered from the cold wind; but there was very +little brushwood for fuel. The Gauchos, however, soon found what, +to my great surprise, made nearly as hot a fire as coals; this was +the skeleton of a bullock lately killed, from which the flesh had +been picked by the carrion-hawks. They told me that in winter they +often killed a beast, cleaned the flesh from the bones with their +knives and then with these same bones roasted the meat for their +suppers.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +18<i>th.</i>—It rained during nearly the whole day. At night we managed, +however, with our saddle-cloths to keep ourselves pretty well dry and warm; but +the ground on which we slept was on each occasion nearly in the state of a bog, +and there was not a dry spot to sit down on after our day’s ride. I have +in another part stated how singular it is that there should be absolutely no +trees on these islands, although Tierra del Fuego is covered by one large +forest. The largest bush in the island (belonging to the family of Compositæ) +is scarcely so tall as our gorse. The best fuel is afforded by a green little +bush about the size of common heath, which has the useful property of burning +while fresh and green. It was very surprising to see the Gauchos, in the midst +of rain and everything soaking wet, with nothing more than a tinder-box and a +piece of rag, immediately make a fire. They sought beneath the tufts of grass +and bushes for a few dry twigs, and these they rubbed into fibres; then +surrounding them with coarser twigs, something like a bird’s nest, they +put the rag with its spark of fire in the middle and covered it up. The nest +being then held up to the wind, by degrees it smoked more and more, and at last +burst out in flames. I do not think any other method would have had a chance of +succeeding with such damp materials. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +19<i>th.</i>—Each morning, from not having ridden for some time +previously, I was very stiff. I was surprised to hear the +<a name="page206"></a> +Gauchos, who have from infancy almost lived on horseback, say +that, under similar circumstances, they always suffer. St. Jago +told me, that having been confined for three months by illness, he +went out hunting wild cattle, and in consequence, for the next two +days, his thighs were so stiff that he was obliged to lie in bed. +This shows that the Gauchos, although they do not appear to do so, +yet really must exert much muscular effort in riding. The hunting +wild cattle, in a country so difficult to pass as this is on +account of the swampy ground, must be very hard work. The Gauchos +say they often pass at full speed over ground which would be +impassable at a slower pace; in the same manner as a man is able to +skate over thin ice. When hunting, the party endeavours to get as +close as possible to the herd without being discovered. Each man +carries four or five pair of the bolas; these he throws one after +the other at as many cattle, which, when once entangled, are left +for some days, till they become a little exhausted by hunger and +struggling. They are then let free and driven towards a small herd +of tame animals, which have been brought to the spot on purpose. +From their previous treatment, being too much terrified to leave +the herd, they are easily driven, if their strength last out, to +the settlement.</p> + +<p>The weather continued so very bad that we determine to make a +push, and try to reach the vessel before night. From the quantity +of rain which had fallen, the surface of the whole country was +swampy. I suppose my horse fell at least a dozen times, and +sometimes the whole six horses were floundering in the mud +together. All the little streams are bordered by soft peat, which +makes it very difficult for the horses to leap them without +falling. To complete our discomforts we were obliged to cross the +head of a creek of the sea, in which the water was as high as our +horses’ backs; and the little waves, owing to the violence of the +wind, broke over us, and made us very wet and cold. Even the +iron-framed Gauchos professed themselves glad when they reached the +settlement, after our little excursion.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +The geological structure of these islands is in most respects simple. The lower +country consists of clay-slate and sandstone, containing fossils, very closely +related to, but not identical with, +<a name="page207"></a> +those found in the Silurian formations of Europe; the hills are formed of white +granular quartz rock. The strata of the latter are frequently arched with +perfect symmetry, and the appearance of some of the masses is in consequence +most singular. Pernety<a href="#fn-9.8" name="fnref-9.8"><sup>[8]</sup></a> has +devoted several pages to the description of a Hill of Ruins, the successive +strata of which he has justly compared to the seats of an amphitheatre. The +quartz rock must have been quite pasty when it underwent such remarkable +flexures without being shattered into fragments. As the quartz insensibly +passes into the sandstone, it seems probable that the former owes its origin to +the sandstone having been heated to such a degree that it became viscid, and +upon cooling crystallised. While in the soft state it must have been pushed up +through the overlying beds. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-9.8"></a> <a href="#fnref-9.8">[8]</a> +Pernety, <i>Voyage aux Isles Malouines</i>, p. 526.</p> + +<p>In many parts of the island the bottoms of the valleys are +covered in an extraordinary manner by myriads of great loose +angular fragments of the quartz rock, forming “streams of stones.” +These have been mentioned with surprise by every voyager since the +time of Pernety. The blocks are not waterworn, their angles being +only a little blunted; they vary in size from one or two feet in +diameter to ten, or even more than twenty times as much. They are +not thrown together into irregular piles, but are spread out into +level sheets or great streams. It is not possible to ascertain +their thickness, but the water of small streamlets can be heard +trickling through the stones many feet below the surface. The +actual depth is probably great, because the crevices between the +lower fragments must long ago have been filled up with sand. The +width of these sheets of stones varies from a few hundred feet to a +mile; but the peaty soil daily encroaches on the borders, and even +forms islets wherever a few fragments happen to lie close together. +In a valley south of Berkeley Sound, which some of our party called +the “great valley of fragments,” it was necessary to cross an +uninterrupted band half a mile wide, by jumping from one pointed +stone to another. So large were the fragments, that being overtaken +by a shower of rain, I readily found shelter beneath one of +them.</p> + +<p>Their little inclination is the most remarkable circumstance in +these “streams of stones.” On the hill-sides I have seen +<a name="page208"></a> +them sloping at an angle of ten degrees with the horizon; but in +some of the level, broad-bottomed valleys, the inclination is only +just sufficient to be clearly perceived. On so rugged a surface +there was no means of measuring the angle; but to give a common +illustration, I may say that the slope would not have checked the +speed of an English mail-coach. In some places a continuous stream +of these fragments followed up the course of a valley, and even +extended to the very crest of the hill. On these crests huge +masses, exceeding in dimensions any small building, seemed to stand +arrested in their headlong course: there, also, the curved strata +of the archways lay piled on each other, like the ruins of some +vast and ancient cathedral. In endeavouring to describe these +scenes of violence one is tempted to pass from one simile to +another. We may imagine that streams of white lava had flowed from +many parts of the mountains into the lower country, and that when +solidified they had been rent by some enormous convulsion into +myriads of fragments. The expression “streams of stones,” which +immediately occurred to every one, conveys the same idea. These +scenes are on the spot rendered more striking by the contrast of +the low, rounded forms of the neighbouring hills.</p> + +<p>I was interested by finding on the highest peak of one range +(about 700 feet above the sea) a great arched fragment, lying on +its convex side, or back downwards. Must we believe that it was +fairly pitched up in the air, and thus turned? Or, with more +probability, that there existed formerly a part of the same range +more elevated than the point on which this monument of a great +convulsion of nature now lies. As the fragments in the valleys are +neither rounded nor the crevices filled up with sand, we must infer +that the period of violence was subsequent to the land having been +raised above the waters of the sea. In a transverse section within +these valleys the bottom is nearly level, or rises but very little +towards either side. Hence the fragments appear to have travelled +from the head of the valley; but in reality it seems more probable +that they have been hurled down from the nearest slopes; and that +since, by a vibratory movement of overwhelming force,<a href="#fn-9.9" name="fnref-9.9"><sup>[9]</sup></a> +the +<a name="page209"></a> +fragments have been levelled into one continuous sheet. If +during the earthquake<a href="#fn-9.10" name="fnref-9.10"><sup>[10]</sup></a> +which in 1835 overthrew Concepcion, in Chile, it was thought wonderful that +small bodies should have been pitched a few inches from the ground, what must +we say to a movement which has caused fragments many tons in weight to move +onwards like so much sand on a vibrating board, and find their level? I have +seen, in the Cordillera of the Andes, the evident marks where stupendous +mountains have been broken into pieces like so much thin crust, and the strata +thrown on their vertical edges; but never did any scene, like these +“streams of stones,” so forcibly convey to my mind the idea of a +convulsion, of which in historical records we might in vain seek for any +counterpart: yet the progress of knowledge will probably some day give a simple +explanation of this phenomenon, as it already has of the so long thought +inexplicable transportal of the erratic boulders which are strewed over the +plains of Europe.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-9.9"></a> <a href="#fnref-9.9">[9]</a> +“Nous n’avons pas été moins saisis d’étonnement à la vûe de +l’innombrable quantité de pierres de toutes grandeurs, bouleversées les +unes sur les autres, et cependant rangées, comme si elles avoient été +amoncelées négligemment pour remplir des ravins. On ne se lassoit pas +d’admirer les effets prodigieux de la +nature.”—<i>Pernety</i>, p. 526.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-9.10"></a> <a href="#fnref-9.10">[10]</a> +An inhabitant of Mendoza, and hence well capable of judging, assured me that, +during the several years he had resided on these islands, he had never felt the +slightest shock of an earthquake.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +I have little to remark on the zoology of these islands. I have before +described the carrion-vulture of Polyborus. There are some other hawks, owls, +and a few small land-birds. The waterfowl are particularly numerous, and they +must formerly, from the accounts of the old navigators, have been much more so. +One day I observed a cormorant playing with a fish which it had caught. Eight +times successively the bird let its prey go, then dived after it, and although +in deep water, brought it each time to the surface. In the Zoological Gardens I +have seen the otter treat a fish in the same manner, much as a cat does a +mouse: I do not know of any other instance where dame Nature appears so +wilfully cruel. Another day, having placed myself between a penguin +(Aptenodytes demersa) and the water, I was much amused by watching its habits. +It was a brave bird; and till reaching the sea, it regularly fought and drove +me backwards. Nothing less than heavy blows would have stopped him; every inch +he gained he firmly kept, standing +<a name="page210"></a> +close before me erect and determined. When thus opposed he continually rolled +his head from side to side, in a very odd manner, as if the power of distinct +vision lay only in the anterior and basal part of each eye. This bird is +commonly called the jackass penguin, from its habit, while on shore, of +throwing its head backwards, and making a loud strange noise, very like the +braying of an ass; but while at sea, and undisturbed, its note is very deep and +solemn, and is often heard in the night-time. In diving, its little wings are +used as fins; but on the land, as front legs. When crawling, it may be said on +four legs, through the tussocks or on the side of a grassy cliff, it moves so +very quickly that it might easily be mistaken for a quadruped. When at sea and +fishing, it comes to the surface for the purpose of breathing with such a +spring, and dives again so instantaneously, that I defy any one at first sight +to be sure that it was not a fish leaping for sport. +</p> + +<p>Two kinds of geese frequent the Falklands. The upland species +(Anas Magellanica) is common, in pairs and in small flocks, +throughout the island. They do not migrate, but build on the small +outlying islets. This is supposed to be from fear of the foxes: and +it is perhaps from the same cause that these birds, though very +tame by day, are shy and wild in the dusk of the evening. They live +entirely on vegetable matter. The rock-goose, so called from living +exclusively on the sea-beach (Anas antarctica), is common both here +and on the west coast of America, as far north as Chile. In the +deep and retired channels of Tierra del Fuego, the snow-white +gander, invariably accompanied by his darker consort, and standing +close by each other on some distant rocky point, is a common +feature in the landscape.</p> + +<p>In these islands a great loggerheaded duck or goose (Anas +brachyptera), which sometimes weighs twenty-two pounds, is very +abundant. These birds were in former days called, from their +extraordinary manner of paddling and splashing upon the water, +racehorses; but now they are named, much more appropriately, +steamers. Their wings are too small and weak to allow of flight, +but by their aid, partly swimming and partly flapping the surface +of the water, they move very quickly. The manner is something like +that by which the common house-duck escapes when pursued by a dog; +but I am nearly sure that the steamer +<a name="page211"></a> +moves its wings alternately, instead of both together, as in +other birds. These clumsy, loggerheaded ducks make such a noise and +splashing, that the effect is exceedingly curious.</p> + +<p>Thus we find in South America three birds which use their wings +for other purposes besides flight; the penguin as fins, the steamer +as paddles, and the ostrich as sails: and the Apteryx of New +Zealand, as well as its gigantic extinct prototype the Deinornis, +possess only rudimentary representatives of wings. The steamer is +able to dive only to a very short distance. It feeds entirely on +shell-fish from the kelp and tidal rocks; hence the beak and head, +for the purpose of breaking them, are surprisingly heavy and +strong: the head is so strong that I have scarcely been able to +fracture it with my geological hammer; and all our sportsmen soon +discovered how tenacious these birds were of life. When in the +evening pluming themselves in a flock, they make the same odd +mixture of sounds which bull-frogs do within the tropics.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +In Tierra del Fuego, as well as in the Falkland Islands, I made many +observations on the lower marine animals,<a href="#fn-9.11" +name="fnref-9.11"><sup>[11]</sup></a> but they are of little general interest. +I will mention only one class of facts, relating to certain zoophytes in the +more highly organised division of that class. Several genera (Flustra, Eschara, +Cellaria, Crisia, and others) agree in having singular movable organs (like +those of Flustra avicularia, found in the European seas) attached to their +cells. The organ, in the greater number of cases, very closely resembles the +head of a vulture; but the lower mandible can be opened much wider than in a +real bird’s beak. The head itself possesses considerable powers of +movement, by means of a short neck. In one zoophyte the head itself was fixed, +but the lower jaw free: in another it was replaced by +<a name="page212"></a> +a triangular hood, with a beautifully-fitted trap-door, which evidently +answered to the lower mandible. In the greater number of species, each cell was +provided with one head, but in others each cell had two. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-9.11"></a> <a href="#fnref-9.11">[11]</a> +I was surprised to find, on counting the eggs of a large white Doris (this +sea-slug was three and a half inches long), how extraordinarily numerous they +were. From two to five eggs (each three-thousandths of an inch in diameter) +were contained in spherical little case. These were arranged two deep in +transverse rows forming a ribbon. The ribbon adhered by its edge to the rock in +an oval spire. One which I found measured nearly twenty inches in length and +half in breadth. By counting how many balls were contained in a tenth of an +inch in the row, and how many rows in an equal length of the ribbon, on the +most moderate computation there were six hundred thousand eggs. Yet this Doris +was certainly not very common: although I was often searching under the stones, +I saw only seven individuals. <i>No fallacy is more common with naturalists, +than that the numbers of an individual species depend on its powers of +propagation.</i></p> + +<p>The young cells at the end of the branches of these corallines +contain quite immature polypi, yet the vulture-heads attached to +them, though small, are in every respect perfect. When the polypus +was removed by a needle from any of the cells, these organs did not +appear in the least affected. When one of the vulture-like heads +was cut off from the cell, the lower mandible retained its power of +opening and closing. Perhaps the most singular part of their +structure is, that when there were more than two rows of cells on a +branch, the central cells were furnished with these appendages, of +only one-fourth the size of the outside ones. Their movements +varied according to the species; but in some I never saw the least +motion; while others, with the lower mandible generally wide open, +oscillated backwards and forwards at the rate of about five seconds +each turn; others moved rapidly and by starts. When touched with a +needle, the beak generally seized the point so firmly that the +whole branch might be shaken.</p> + +<p>These bodies have no relation whatever with the production of +the eggs or gemmules, as they are formed before the young polypi +appear in the cells at the end of the growing branches; as they +move independently of the polypi, and do not appear to be in any +way connected with them; and as they differ in size on the outer +and inner rows of cells, I have little doubt that in their +functions they are related rather to the horny axis of the branches +than to the polypi in the cells. The fleshy appendage at the lower +extremity of the sea-pen (described at Bahia Blanca) also forms +part of the zoophyte, as a whole, in the same manner as the roots +of a tree form part of the whole tree, and not of the individual +leaf or flower-buds.</p> + +<p>In another elegant little coralline (Crisia?) each cell was +furnished with a long-toothed bristle, which had the power of +moving quickly. Each of these bristles and each of the vulture-like +heads generally moved quite independently of the others, but +sometimes all on both sides of a branch, sometimes only those on +one side, moved together coinstantaneously; sometimes each moved in +regular order one after another. In these actions we +<a name="page213"></a> +apparently behold as perfect a transmission of will in the +zoophyte, though composed of thousands of distinct polypi, as in +any single animal. The case, indeed, is not different from that of +the sea-pens, which, when touched, drew themselves into the sand on +the coast of Bahia Blanca. I will state one other instance of +uniform action, though of a very different nature, in a zoophyte +closely allied to Clytia, and therefore very simply organised. +Having kept a large tuft of it in a basin of salt-water, when it +was dark I found that as often as I rubbed any part of a branch, +the whole became strongly phosphorescent with a green light: I do +not think I ever saw any object more beautifully so. But the +remarkable circumstance was, that the flashes of light always +proceeded up the branches, from the base towards the +extremities.</p> + +<p>The examination of these compound animals was always very +interesting to me. What can be more remarkable than to see a +plant-like body producing an egg, capable of swimming about and of +choosing a proper place to adhere to, which then sprouts into +branches, each crowded with innumerable distinct animals, often of +complicated organisations. The branches, moreover, as we have just +seen, sometimes possess organs capable of movement and independent +of the polypi. Surprising as this union of separate individuals in +a common stock must always appear, every tree displays the same +fact, for buds must be considered as individual plants. It is, +however, natural to consider a polypus, furnished with a mouth, +intestines, and other organs, as a distinct individual, whereas the +individuality of a leaf-bud is not easily realised; so that the +union of separate individuals in a common body is more striking in +a coralline than in a tree. Our conception of a compound animal, +where in some respects the individuality of each is not completed, +may be aided, by reflecting on the production of two distinct +creatures by bisecting a single one with a knife, or where Nature +herself performs the task of bisection. We may consider the polypi +in a zoophyte, or the buds in a tree, as cases where the division +of the individual has not been completely effected. Certainly in +the case of trees, and judging from analogy in that of corallines, +the individuals propagated by buds seem more intimately related to +each other, than eggs or seeds are to their parents. It seems now +pretty well established that plants propagated by buds all +<a name="page214"></a> +partake of a common duration of life; and it is familiar to +every one, what singular and numerous peculiarities are transmitted +with certainty, by buds, layers, and grafts, which by seminal +propagation never or only casually reappear.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl39.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl39.jpg" width="288" height="253" alt="Berkeley Sound, Falkland Islands." /> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl40.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl40.jpg" width="282" height="199" alt="York Minster, bearing S. 66° E." /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="page215"></a><a name="chx"></a>Chapter X</h2> + +<p class="letter">Tierra del Fuego, first arrival—Good Success +Bay—An account of the Fuegians on board—Interview with +the savages—Scenery of the forests—Cape +Horn—Wigwam Cove—Miserable condition of the +savages—Famines—Cannibals—Matricide—Religious +feelings—Great gale—Beagle Channel—Ponsonby +Sound—Build wigwams and settle the Fuegians—Bifurcation +of the Beagle Channel—Glaciers—Return to the +ship—Second visit in the ship to the +settlement—Equality of condition amongst the natives.</p> + +<h3>TIERRA DEL FUEGO.</h3> + +<p> +<i>December</i> 17<i>th</i>, 1832.—Having now finished with Patagonia and +the Falkland Islands, I will describe our first arrival in Tierra del Fuego. A +little after noon we doubled Cape St. Diego, and entered the famous Strait of +Le Maire. We kept close to the Fuegian shore, but the outline of the rugged, +inhospitable Staten-land was visible amidst the clouds. In the afternoon we +anchored in the Bay of Good Success. While entering we were saluted in a manner +becoming the inhabitants of this savage land. A group of Fuegians partly +concealed by the entangled forest, were perched on a wild point overhanging the +<a name="page216"></a> +sea; and as we passed by, they sprang up and waving their tattered cloaks sent +forth a loud and sonorous shout. The savages followed the ship, and just before +dark we saw their fire, and again heard their wild cry. The harbour consists of +a fine piece of water half surrounded by low rounded mountains of clay-slate, +which are covered to the water’s edge by one dense gloomy forest. A +single glance at the landscape was sufficient to show me how widely different +it was from anything I had ever beheld. At night it blew a gale of wind, and +heavy squalls from the mountains swept past us. It would have been a bad time +out at sea, and we, as well as others, may call this Good Success Bay. +</p> + +<p>In the morning the Captain sent a party to communicate with the +Fuegians. When we came within hail, one of the four natives who +were present advanced to receive us, and began to shout most +vehemently, wishing to direct us where to land. When we were on +shore the party looked rather alarmed, but continued talking and +making gestures with great rapidity. It was without exception the +most curious and interesting spectacle I ever beheld: I could not +have believed how wide was the difference between savage and +civilised man: it is greater than between a wild and domesticated +animal, inasmuch as in man there is a greater power of improvement. +The chief spokesman was old, and appeared to be the head of the +family; the three others were powerful young men, about six feet +high. The women and children had been sent away. These Fuegians are +a very different race from the stunted, miserable wretches farther +westward; and they seem closely allied to the famous Patagonians of +the Strait of Magellan. Their only garment consists of a mantle +made of guanaco skin, with the wool outside: this they wear just +thrown over their shoulders, leaving their persons as often exposed +as covered. Their skin is of a dirty coppery-red colour.</p> + +<p>The old man had a fillet of white feathers tied round his head, +which partly confined his black, coarse, and entangled hair. His +face was crossed by two broad transverse bars; one, painted bright +red, reached from ear to ear and included the upper lip; the other, +white like chalk, extended above and parallel to the first, so that +even his eyelids were thus coloured. The other two men were +ornamented by streaks of black powder, made of +<a name="page217"></a> +charcoal. The party altogether closely resembled the devils +which come on the stage in plays like Der Freischutz.</p> + +<p>Their very attitudes were abject, and the expression of their +countenances distrustful, surprised, and startled. After we had +presented them with some scarlet cloth, which they immediately tied +round their necks, they became good friends. This was shown by the +old man patting our breasts, and making a chuckling kind of noise, +as people do when feeding chickens. I walked with the old man, and +this demonstration of friendship was repeated several times; it was +concluded by three hard slaps, which were given me on the breast +and back at the same time. He then bared his bosom for me to return +the compliment, which being done, he seemed highly pleased. The +language of these people, according to our notions, scarcely +deserves to be called articulate. Captain Cook has compared it to a +man clearing his throat, but certainly no European ever cleared his +throat with so many hoarse, guttural, and clicking sounds.</p> + +<p>They are excellent mimics: as often as we coughed or yawned, or +made any odd motion, they immediately imitated us. Some of our +party began to squint and look awry; but one of the young Fuegians +(whose whole face was painted black, excepting a white band across +his eyes) succeeded in making far more hideous grimaces. They could +repeat with perfect correctness each word in any sentence we +addressed them, and they remembered such words for some time. Yet +we Europeans all know how difficult it is to distinguish apart the +sounds in a foreign language. Which of us, for instance, could +follow an American Indian through a sentence of more than three +words? All savages appear to possess, to an uncommon degree, this +power of mimicry. I was told, almost in the same words, of the same +ludicrous habit among the Caffres; the Australians, likewise, have +long been notorious for being able to imitate and describe the gait +of any man, so that he may be recognised. How can this faculty be +explained? is it a consequence of the more practised habits of +perception and keener senses, common to all men in a savage state, +as compared with those long civilised?</p> + +<p>When a song was struck up by our party, I thought the Fuegians +would have fallen down with astonishment. With equal surprise they +viewed our dancing; but one of the young men, when asked, had no +objection to a little waltzing. Little +<a name="page218"></a> +accustomed to Europeans as they appeared to be, yet they knew +and dreaded our firearms; nothing would tempt them to take a gun in +their hands. They begged for knives, calling them by the Spanish +word “cuchilla.” They explained also what they wanted, by acting as +if they had a piece of blubber in their mouth, and then pretending +to cut instead of tear it.</p> + +<p>I have not as yet noticed the Fuegians whom we had on board. +During the former voyage of the <i>Adventure</i> and <i>Beagle</i> +in 1826 to 1830, Captain Fitz Roy seized on a party of natives, as +hostages for the loss of a boat, which had been stolen, to the +great jeopardy of a party employed on the survey; and some of these +natives, as well as a child whom he bought for a pearl-button, he +took with him to England, determining to educate them and instruct +them in religion at his own expense. To settle these natives in +their own country was one chief inducement to Captain Fitz Roy to +undertake our present voyage; and before the Admiralty had resolved +to send out this expedition, Captain Fitz Roy had generously +chartered a vessel, and would himself have taken them back. The +natives were accompanied by a missionary, R. Matthews; of whom and +of the natives, Captain Fitz Roy has published a full and excellent +account. Two men, one of whom died in England of the smallpox, a +boy and a little girl, were originally taken; and we had now on +board, York Minster, Jemmy Button (whose name expresses his +purchase-money), and Fuegia Basket. York Minster was a full-grown, +short, thick, powerful man: his disposition was reserved, taciturn, +morose, and when excited violently passionate; his affections were +very strong towards a few friends on board; his intellect good. +Jemmy Button was a universal favourite, but likewise passionate; +the expression of his face at once showed his nice disposition. He +was merry and often laughed, and was remarkably sympathetic with +any one in pain: when the water was rough, I was often a little +sea-sick, and he used to come to me and say in a plaintive voice, +“Poor, poor fellow!” but the notion, after his aquatic life, of a +man being sea-sick, was too ludicrous, and he was generally obliged +to turn on one side to hide a smile or laugh, and then he would +repeat his “Poor, poor fellow!” He was of a patriotic disposition; +and he liked to praise his own tribe and country, in which he truly +said there were “plenty of trees,” and he abused all the other +tribes: he stoutly declared that there +<a name="page219"></a> +was no Devil in his land. Jemmy was short, thick, and fat, but +vain of his personal appearance; he used always to wear gloves, his +hair was neatly cut, and he was distressed if his well-polished +shoes were dirtied. He was fond of admiring himself in a looking +glass; and a merry-faced little Indian boy from the Rio Negro, whom +we had for some months on board, soon perceived this, and used to +mock him: Jemmy, who was always rather jealous of the attention +paid to this little boy, did not at all like this, and used to say, +with rather a contemptuous twist of his head, “Too much skylark.” +It seems yet wonderful to me, when I think over all his many good +qualities, that he should have been of the same race, and doubtless +partaken of the same character, with the miserable, degraded +savages whom we first met here. Lastly, Fuegia Basket was a nice, +modest, reserved young girl, with a rather pleasing but sometimes +sullen expression, and very quick in learning anything, especially +languages. This she showed in picking up some Portuguese and +Spanish, when left on shore for only a short time at Rio de Janeiro +and Monte Video, and in her knowledge of English. York Minster was +very jealous of any attention paid to her; for it was clear he +determined to marry her as soon as they were settled on shore.</p> + +<p> +Although all three could both speak and understand a good deal of English, it +was singularly difficult to obtain much information from them concerning the +habits of their countrymen; this was partly owing to their apparent difficulty +in understanding the simplest alternative. Every one accustomed to very young +children knows how seldom one can get an answer even to so simple a question as +whether a thing is black <i>or</i> white; the idea of black or white seems +alternately to fill their minds. So it was with these Fuegians, and hence it +was generally impossible to find out, by cross-questioning, whether one had +rightly understood anything which they had asserted. Their sight was remarkably +acute; it is well known that sailors, from long practice, can make out a +distant object much better than a landsman; but both York and Jemmy were much +superior to any sailor on board: several times they have declared what some +distant object has been, and though doubted by every one, they have proved +right when it has been examined through a telescope. They were quite conscious +of this power; and Jemmy, when he had any little quarrel +<a name="page220"></a> +with the officer on watch, would say, “Me see ship, me no tell.” +</p> + +<p>It was interesting to watch the conduct of the savages, when we +landed, towards Jemmy Button: they immediately perceived the +difference between him and ourselves, and held much conversation +one with another on the subject. The old man addressed a long +harangue to Jemmy, which it seems was to invite him to stay with +them. But Jemmy understood very little of their language, and was, +moreover, thoroughly ashamed of his countrymen. When York Minster +afterwards came on shore, they noticed him in the same way, and +told him he ought to shave; yet he had not twenty dwarf hairs on +his face, whilst we all wore our untrimmed beards. They examined +the colour of his skin, and compared it with ours. One of our arms +being bared, they expressed the liveliest surprise and admiration +at its whiteness, just in the same way in which I have seen the +ourang-outang do at the Zoological Gardens. We thought that they +mistook two or three of the officers, who were rather shorter and +fairer, though adorned with large beards, for the ladies of our +party. The tallest amongst the Fuegians was evidently much pleased +at his height being noticed. When placed back to back with the +tallest of the boat’s crew, he tried his best to edge on higher +ground, and to stand on tiptoe. He opened his mouth to show his +teeth, and turned his face for a side view; and all this was done +with such alacrity, that I daresay he thought himself the +handsomest man in Tierra del Fuego. After our first feeling of +grave astonishment was over, nothing could be more ludicrous than +the odd mixture of surprise and imitation which these savages every +moment exhibited.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +The next day I attempted to penetrate some way into the country. Tierra del +Fuego may be described as a mountainous land, partly submerged in the sea, so +that deep inlets and bays occupy the place where valleys should exist. The +mountain sides, except on the exposed western coast, are covered from the +water’s edge upwards by one great forest. The trees reach to an elevation +of between 1000 and 1500 feet, and are succeeded by a band of peat, with minute +alpine plants; and this again is succeeded by the line of perpetual snow, +which, +<a name="page221"></a> +according to Captain King, in the Strait of Magellan descends to between 3000 +and 4000 feet. To find an acre of level land in any part of the country is most +rare. I recollect only one little flat piece near Port Famine, and another of +rather larger extent near Goeree Road. In both places, and everywhere else, the +surface is covered by a thick bed of swampy peat. Even within the forest, the +ground is concealed by a mass of slowly putrefying vegetable matter, which, +from being soaked with water, yields to the foot. +</p> + +<p>Finding it nearly hopeless to push my way through the wood, I +followed the course of a mountain torrent. At first, from the +waterfalls and number of dead trees, I could hardly crawl along; +but the bed of the stream soon became a little more open, from the +floods having swept the sides. I continued slowly to advance for an +hour along the broken and rocky banks, and was amply repaid by the +grandeur of the scene. The gloomy depth of the ravine well accorded +with the universal signs of violence. On every side were lying +irregular masses of rock and torn-up trees; other trees, though +still erect, were decayed to the heart and ready to fall. The +entangled mass of the thriving and the fallen reminded me of the +forests within the tropics—yet there was a difference: for in +these still solitudes, Death, instead of Life, seemed the +predominant spirit. I followed the watercourse till I came to a +spot where a great slip had cleared a straight space down the +mountain side. By this road I ascended to a considerable elevation, +and obtained a good view of the surrounding woods. The trees all +belong to one kind, the Fagus betuloides; for the number of the +other species of Fagus and of the Winter’s Bark is quite +inconsiderable. This beech keeps its leaves throughout the year; +but its foliage is of a peculiar brownish-green colour, with a +tinge of yellow. As the whole landscape is thus coloured, it has a +sombre, dull appearance; nor is it often enlivened by the rays of +the sun.</p> + +<p> +<i>December</i> 20<i>th.</i>—One side of the harbour is formed by a hill +about 1500 feet high, which Captain Fitz Roy has called after Sir J. Banks, in +commemoration of his disastrous excursion which proved fatal to two men of his +party, and nearly so to Dr. Solander. The snow-storm, which was the cause of +their misfortune, happened in the middle of January, corresponding +<a name="page222"></a> +to our July, and in the latitude of Durham! I was anxious to reach the summit +of this mountain to collect alpine plants; for flowers of any kind in the lower +parts are few in number. We followed the same watercourse as on the previous +day, till it dwindled away, and we were then compelled to crawl blindly among +the trees. These, from the effects of the elevation and of the impetuous winds, +were low, thick and crooked. At length we reached that which from a distance +appeared like a carpet of fine green turf, but which, to our vexation, turned +out to be a compact mass of little beech-trees about four or five feet high. +They were as thick together as box in the border of a garden, and we were +obliged to struggle over the flat but treacherous surface. After a little more +trouble we gained the peat, and then the bare slate rock. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl41.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl41.jpg" width="284" height="176" alt="Cape Horn" /> +</div> + +<p>A ridge connected this hill with another, distant some miles, +and more lofty, so that patches of snow were lying on it. As the +day was not far advanced, I determined to walk there and collect +plants along the road. It would have been very hard work, had it +not been for a well-beaten and straight path made by the guanacos; +for these animals, like sheep, always follow the same line. When we +reached the hill we found it the highest in the immediate +neighbourhood, and the waters flowed to the sea in opposite +directions. We obtained a wide view over the surrounding country: +to the north a swampy moorland extended, but to the south we had a +scene of savage +<a name="page223"></a> +magnificence, well becoming Tierra del Fuego. There was a degree +of mysterious grandeur in mountain behind mountain, with the deep +intervening valleys, all covered by one thick, dusky mass of +forest. The atmosphere, likewise, in this climate, where gale +succeeds gale, with rain, hail, and sleet, seems blacker than +anywhere else. In the Strait of Magellan, looking due southward +from Port Famine, the distant channels between the mountains +appeared from their gloominess to lead beyond the confines of this +world.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl42.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl42.jpg" width="277" height="169" alt="Cape Horn (another view)" /> +</div> + +<p> +<i>December</i> 21<i>st.</i>—The <i>Beagle</i> got under way: and on the +succeeding day, favoured to an uncommon degree by a fine easterly breeze, we +closed in with the Barnevelts, and running past Cape Deceit with its stony +peaks, about three o’clock doubled the weather-beaten Cape Horn. The +evening was calm and bright, and we enjoyed a fine view of the surrounding +isles. Cape Horn, however, demanded his tribute, and before night sent us a +gale of wind directly in our teeth. We stood out to sea, and on the second day +again made the land, when we saw on our weather-bow this notorious promontory +in its proper form—veiled in a mist, and its dim outline surrounded by a +storm of wind and water. Great black clouds were rolling across the heavens, +and squalls of rain, with hail, swept by us with such extreme violence, that +the Captain determined to run into Wigwam Cove. This is a snug little harbour, +not far from Cape Horn; and here, at Christmas-eve, we anchored in +<a name="page224"></a> +smooth water. The only thing which reminded us of the gale outside was every +now and then a puff from the mountains, which made the ship surge at her +anchors. +</p> + +<p> +<i>December</i> 25<i>th.</i>—Close by the cove, a pointed hill, called +Kater’s Peak, rises to the height of 1700 feet. The surrounding islands +all consist of conical masses of greenstone, associated sometimes with less +regular hills of baked and altered clay-slate. This part of Tierra del Fuego +may be considered as the extremity of the submerged chain of mountains already +alluded to. The cove takes its name of “Wigwam” from some of the +Fuegian habitations; but every bay in the neighbourhood might be so called with +equal propriety. The inhabitants, living chiefly upon shell-fish, are obliged +constantly to change their place of residence; but they return at intervals to +the same spots, as is evident from the piles of old shells, which must often +amount to many tons in weight. These heaps can be distinguished at a long +distance by the bright green colour of certain plants, which invariably grow on +them. Among these may be enumerated the wild celery and scurvy grass, two very +serviceable plants, the use of which has not been discovered by the natives. +</p> + +<p>The Fuegian wigwam resembles, in size and dimensions, a haycock. +It merely consists of a few broken branches stuck in the ground, +and very imperfectly thatched on one side with a few tufts of grass +and rushes. The whole cannot be the work of an hour, and it is only +used for a few days. At Goeree Roads I saw a place where one of +these naked men had slept, which absolutely offered no more cover +than the form of a hare. The man was evidently living by himself, +and York Minster said he was “very bad man,” and that probably he +had stolen something. On the west coast, however, the wigwams are +rather better, for they are covered with seal-skins. We were +detained here several days by the bad weather. The climate is +certainly wretched: the summer solstice was now past, yet every day +snow fell on the hills, and in the valleys there was rain, +accompanied by sleet. The thermometer generally stood about +45°, but in the night fell to 38° or 40°. From the damp +and boisterous state of the atmosphere, not cheered by a gleam of +sunshine, one fancied the climate even worse than it really +was.</p> + +<p>While going one day on shore near Wollaston Island, we +<a name="page225"></a> +pulled alongside a canoe with six Fuegians. These were the most +abject and miserable creatures I anywhere beheld. On the east coast +the natives, as we have seen, have guanaco cloaks, and on the west +they possess seal-skins. Amongst these central tribes the men +generally have an otter-skin, or some small scrap about as large as +a pocket-handkerchief, which is barely sufficient to cover their +backs as low down as their loins. It is laced across the breast by +strings, and according as the wind blows, it is shifted from side +to side. But these Fuegians in the canoe were quite naked, and even +one full-grown woman was absolutely so. It was raining heavily, and +the fresh water, together with the spray, trickled down her body. +In another harbour not far distant, a woman, who was suckling a +recently-born child, came one day alongside the vessel, and +remained there out of mere curiosity, whilst the sleet fell and +thawed on her naked bosom, and on the skin of her naked baby! These +poor wretches were stunted in their growth, their hideous faces +bedaubed with white paint, their skins filthy and greasy, their +hair entangled, their voices discordant, and their gestures +violent. Viewing such men, one can hardly make oneself believe that +they are fellow-creatures, and inhabitants of the same world. It is +a common subject of conjecture what pleasure in life some of the +lower animals can enjoy: how much more reasonably the same question +may be asked with respect to these barbarians! At night five or six +human beings, naked and scarcely protected from the wind and rain +of this tempestuous climate, sleep on the wet ground coiled up like +animals. Whenever it is low water, winter or summer, night or day, +they must rise to pick shellfish from the rocks; and the women +either dive to collect sea-eggs, or sit patiently in their canoes, +and with a baited hair-line without any hook, jerk out little fish. +If a seal is killed, or the floating carcass of a putrid whale is +discovered, it is a feast; and such miserable food is assisted by a +few tasteless berries and fungi.</p> + +<p>They often suffer from famine: I heard Mr. Low, a sealing-master +intimately acquainted with the natives of this country, give a +curious account of the state of a party of one hundred and fifty +natives on the west coast, who were very thin and in great +distress. A succession of gales prevented the women from getting +shell-fish on the rocks, and they could not go out in +<a name="page226"></a> +their canoes to catch seal. A small party of these men one +morning set out, and the other Indians explained to him that they +were going a four days’ journey for food: on their return, Low went +to meet them, and he found them excessively tired, each man +carrying a great square piece of putrid whales-blubber with a hole +in the middle, through which they put their heads, like the Gauchos +do through their ponchos or cloaks. As soon as the blubber was +brought into a wigwam, an old man cut off thin slices, and +muttering over them, broiled them for a minute, and distributed +them to the famished party, who during this time preserved a +profound silence. Mr. Low believes that whenever a whale is cast on +shore, the natives bury large pieces of it in the sand, as a +resource in time of famine; and a native boy, whom he had on board, +once found a stock thus buried. The different tribes when at war +are cannibals. From the concurrent, but quite independent evidence +of the boy taken by Mr. Low, and of Jemmy Button, it is certainly +true, that when pressed in winter by hunger they kill and devour +their old women before they kill their dogs: the boy, being asked +by Mr. Low why they did this, answered, “Doggies catch otters, old +women no.” This boy described the manner in which they are killed +by being held over smoke and thus choked; he imitated their screams +as a joke, and described the parts of their bodies which are +considered best to eat. Horrid as such a death by the hands of +their friends and relatives must be, the fears of the old women, +when hunger begins to press, are more painful to think of; we were +told that they then often run away into the mountains, but that +they are pursued by the men and brought back to the slaughter-house +at their own firesides!</p> + +<p>Captain Fitz Roy could never ascertain that the Fuegians have +any distinct belief in a future life. They sometimes bury their +dead in caves, and sometimes in the mountain forests; we do not +know what ceremonies they perform. Jemmy Button would not eat +land-birds, because “eat dead men”; they are unwilling even to +mention their dead friends. We have no reason to believe that they +perform any sort of religious worship; though perhaps the muttering +of the old man before he distributed the putrid blubber to his +famished party may be of this nature. Each family or tribe has a +wizard or conjuring doctor, whose office we could never clearly +ascertain. Jemmy believed in dreams, +<a name="page227"></a> +though not, as I have said, in the devil: I do not think that +our Fuegians were much more superstitious than some of the sailors; +for an old quartermaster firmly believed that the successive heavy +gales, which we encountered off Cape Horn, were caused by our +having the Fuegians on board. The nearest approach to a religious +feeling which I heard of, was shown by York Minster, who, when Mr. +Bynoe shot some very young ducklings as specimens, declared in the +most solemn manner, “Oh, Mr. Bynoe, much rain, snow, blow much.” +This was evidently a retributive punishment for wasting human food. +In a wild and excited manner he also related that his brother one +day, whilst returning to pick up some dead birds which he had left +on the coast, observed some feathers blown by the wind. His brother +said (York imitating his manner), “What that?” and crawling +onwards, he peeped over the cliff, and saw “wild man” picking his +birds; he crawled a little nearer, and then hurled down a great +stone and killed him. York declared for a long time afterwards +storms raged, and much rain and snow fell. As far as we could make +out, he seemed to consider the elements themselves as the avenging +agents: it is evident in this case, how naturally, in a race a +little more advanced in culture, the elements would become +personified. What the “bad wild men” were, has always appeared to +me most mysterious: from what York said, when we found the place +like the form of a hare, where a single man had slept the night +before, I should have thought that they were thieves who had been +driven from their tribes; but other obscure speeches made me doubt +this; I have sometimes imagined that the most probable explanation +was that they were insane.</p> + +<p>The different tribes have no government or chief; yet each is +surrounded by other hostile tribes, speaking different dialects, +and separated from each other only by a deserted border or neutral +territory: the cause of their warfare appears to be the means of +subsistence. Their country is a broken mass of wild rocks, lofty +hills, and useless forests: and these are viewed through mists and +endless storms. The habitable land is reduced to the stones on the +beach; in search of food they are compelled unceasingly to wander +from spot to spot, and so steep is the coast, that they can only +move about in their wretched canoes. They cannot know the feeling +of having a home, and +<a name="page228"></a> +still less that of domestic affection; for the husband is to the +wife a brutal master to a laborious slave. Was a more horrid deed +ever perpetrated, than that witnessed on the west coast by Byron, +who saw a wretched mother pick up her bleeding dying infant-boy, +whom her husband had mercilessly dashed on the stones for dropping +a basket of sea-eggs! How little can the higher powers of the mind +be brought into play: what is there for imagination to picture, for +reason to compare, for judgment to decide upon? to knock a limpet +from the rock does not require even cunning, that lowest power of +the mind. Their skill in some respects may be compared to the +instinct of animals; for it is not improved by experience: the +canoe, their most ingenious work, poor as it is, has remained the +same, as we know from Drake, for the last two hundred and fifty +years.</p> + +<p>Whilst beholding these savages, one asks, Whence have they come? +What could have tempted, or what change compelled, a tribe of men, +to leave the fine regions of the north, to travel down the +Cordillera or backbone of America, to invent and build canoes, +which are not used by the tribes of Chile, Peru, and Brazil, and +then to enter on one of the most inhospitable countries within the +limits of the globe? Although such reflections must at first seize +on the mind, yet we may feel sure that they are partly erroneous. +There is no reason to believe that the Fuegians decrease in number; +therefore we must suppose that they enjoy a sufficient share of +happiness, of whatever kind it may be, to render life worth having. +Nature by making habit omnipotent, and its effects hereditary, has +fitted the Fuegian to the climate and the productions of his +miserable country.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl43.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl43.jpg" width="239" height="199" alt="Bad weather, Magellan Straits" /> +</div> + +<p class="p2"> +After having been detained six days in Wigwam Cove by very bad weather, we put +to sea on the 30th of December. Captain Fitz Roy wished to get westward to land +York and Fuegia in their own country. When at sea we had a constant succession +of gales, and the current was against us: we drifted to 57° 23′ +south. On the 11th of January, 1833, by carrying a press of sail, we fetched +within a few miles of the great rugged mountain of York Minster (so called by +Captain Cook, and the origin of the name of the elder Fuegian), when a violent +squall +<a name="page229"></a> +compelled us to shorten sail and stand out to sea. The surf was breaking +fearfully on the coast, and the spray was carried over a cliff estimated at 200 +feet in height. On the 12th the gale was very heavy, and we did not know +exactly where we were: it was a most unpleasant sound to hear constantly +repeated, “Keep a good lookout to leeward.” On the 13th the storm +raged with its full fury: our horizon was narrowly limited by the sheets of +spray borne by the wind. The sea looked ominous, like a dreary waving plain +with patches of drifted snow: whilst the ship laboured heavily, the albatross +glided with its expanded wings right up the wind. At noon a great sea broke +over us, and filled one of the whale-boats, which was obliged to be instantly +cut away. The poor <i>Beagle</i> trembled at the shock, and for a few minutes +would not obey her helm; but soon, like a good ship that she was, she righted +and came up to the wind again. Had another sea followed the first, our fate +would have been decided soon, and for ever. We had now been twenty-four days +trying in vain to get westward; the men were worn out with fatigue, and they +had not had for many nights or days a dry thing to put on. Captain Fitz Roy +gave up the attempt to get westward by the outside coast. In the evening we ran +in behind False Cape Horn, and +<a name="page230"></a> +dropped our anchor in forty-seven fathoms, fire flashing from the windlass as +the chain rushed round it. How delightful was that still night, after having +been so long involved in the din of the warring elements! +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl44.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl44.jpg" width="301" height="470" alt="Fuegian basket and bone weapons" /> +</div> + +<p> +<i>January</i> 15, 1833.—The <i>Beagle</i> anchored in Goeree Roads. +Captain Fitz Roy having resolved to settle the Fuegians, according to their +wishes, in Ponsonby Sound, four boats were equipped to carry them there through +the Beagle Channel. This channel, which was discovered by Captain Fitz Roy +during the last voyage, is a most remarkable feature in the geography of this, +or indeed of any other country: it may be compared to the valley of Loch Ness +in Scotland, with its chain of lakes and friths. It is about one hundred and +twenty miles long, with an average breadth, not subject to any very great +variation, of about two miles; and is throughout the greater part so perfectly +straight, that the view, bounded on each side by a line of mountains, gradually +becomes indistinct in the long distance. It crosses the southern part of Tierra +del Fuego in an east and west line, and in the middle is joined at right angles +on the south side by an irregular channel, which has been called Ponsonby +Sound. This is the residence of Jemmy Button’s tribe and family. +</p> + +<p> +19<i>th.</i>—Three whale-boats and the yawl, with a party of +<a name="page231"></a> +twenty-eight, started under the command of Captain Fitz Roy. In the afternoon +we entered the eastern mouth of the channel, and shortly afterwards found a +snug little cove concealed by some surrounding islets. Here we pitched our +tents and lighted our fires. Nothing could look more comfortable than this +scene. The glassy water of the little harbour, with the branches of the trees +hanging over the rocky beach, the boats at anchor, the tents supported by the +crossed oars, and the smoke curling up the wooded valley, formed a picture of +quiet retirement. The next day (20th) we smoothly glided onwards in our little +fleet, and came to a more inhabited district. Few if any of these natives could +ever have seen a white man; certainly nothing could exceed their astonishment +at the apparition of the four boats. Fires were lighted on every point (hence +the name of Tierra del Fuego, or the land of fire), both to attract our +attention and to spread far and wide the news. Some of the men ran for miles +along the shore. I shall never forget how wild and savage one group appeared: +suddenly four or five men came to the edge of an overhanging cliff; they were +absolutely naked, and their long hair streamed about their faces; they held +rugged staffs in their hands, and, springing from the ground, they waved their +arms round their heads, and sent forth the most hideous yells. +</p> + +<p>At dinner-time we landed among a party of Fuegians. At first +they were not inclined to be friendly; for until the Captain pulled +in ahead of the other boats, they kept their slings in their hands. +We soon, however, delighted them by trifling presents, such as +tying red tape round their heads. They liked our biscuit: but one +of the savages touched with his finger some of the meat preserved +in tin cases which I was eating, and feeling it soft and cold, +showed as much disgust at it, as I should have done at putrid +blubber. Jemmy was thoroughly ashamed of his countrymen, and +declared his own tribe were quite different, in which he was +woefully mistaken. It was as easy to please as it was difficult to +satisfy these savages. Young and old, men and children, never +ceased repeating the word “yammerschooner,” which means “give me.” +After pointing to almost every object, one after the other, even to +the buttons on our coats, and saying their favourite word in as +many intonations as possible, they would then use it in a neuter +sense, and vacantly repeat “yammerschooner.” After +yammerschoonering for any article very +<a name="page232"></a> +eagerly, they would by a simple artifice point to their young +women or little children, as much as to say, “If you will not give +it me, surely you will to such as these.”</p> + +<p>At night we endeavoured in vain to find an uninhabited cove; and +at last were obliged to bivouac not far from a party of natives. +They were very inoffensive as long as they were few in numbers, but +in the morning (21st) being joined by others they showed symptoms +of hostility, and we thought that we should have come to a +skirmish. An European labours under great disadvantages when +treating with savages like these who have not the least idea of the +power of firearms. In the very act of levelling his musket he +appears to the savage far inferior to a man armed with a bow and +arrow, a spear, or even a sling. Nor is it easy to teach them our +superiority except by striking a fatal blow. Like wild beasts, they +do not appear to compare numbers; for each individual, if attacked, +instead of retiring, will endeavour to dash your brains out with a +stone, as certainly as a tiger under similar circumstances would +tear you. Captain Fitz Roy, on one occasion being very anxious, +from good reasons, to frighten away a small party, first flourished +a cutlass near them, at which they only laughed; he then twice +fired his pistol close to a native. The man both times looked +astounded, and carefully but quickly rubbed his head; he then +stared awhile, and gabbled to his companions, but he never seemed +to think of running away. We can hardly put ourselves in the +position of these savages, and understand their actions. In the +case of this Fuegian, the possibility of such a sound as the report +of a gun close to his ear could never have entered his mind. He +perhaps literally did not for a second know whether it was a sound +or a blow, and therefore very naturally rubbed his head. In a +similar manner, when a savage sees a mark struck by a bullet, it +may be some time before he is able at all to understand how it is +effected; for the fact of a body being invisible from its velocity +would perhaps be to him an idea totally inconceivable. Moreover, +the extreme force of a bullet that penetrates a hard substance +without tearing it, may convince the savage that it has no force at +all. Certainly I believe that many savages of the lowest grade, +such as these of Tierra del Fuego, have seen objects struck, and +even small animals killed by the musket, +<a name="page233"></a> +without being in the least aware how deadly an instrument it +is.</p> + +<p> +22<i>nd.</i>—After having passed an unmolested night, in what would +appear to be neutral territory between Jemmy’s tribe and the people whom +we saw yesterday, we sailed pleasantly along. I do not know anything which +shows more clearly the hostile state of the different tribes, than these wide +border or neutral tracts. Although Jemmy Button well knew the force of our +party, he was, at first, unwilling to land amidst the hostile tribe nearest to +his own. He often told us how the savage Oens men “when the leaf +red,” crossed the mountains from the eastern coast of Tierra del Fuego, +and made inroads on the natives of this part of the country. It was most +curious to watch him when thus talking, and see his eyes gleaming and his whole +face assume a new and wild expression. As we proceeded along the Beagle +Channel, the scenery assumed a peculiar and very magnificent character; but the +effect was much lessened from the lowness of the point of view in a boat, and +from looking along the valley, and thus losing all the beauty of a succession +of ridges. The mountains were here about three thousand feet high, and +terminated in sharp and jagged points. They rose in one unbroken sweep from the +water’s edge, and were covered to the height of fourteen or fifteen +hundred feet by the dusky-coloured forest. It was most curious to observe, as +far as the eye could range, how level and truly horizontal the line on the +mountain side was, at which trees ceased to grow: it precisely resembled the +high-water mark of driftweed on a sea-beach. +</p> + +<p>At night we slept close to the junction of Ponsonby Sound with +the Beagle Channel. A small family of Fuegians, who were living in +the cove, were quiet and inoffensive, and soon joined our party +round a blazing fire. We were well clothed, and though sitting +close to the fire were far from too warm; yet these naked savages, +though farther off, were observed, to our great surprise, to be +streaming with perspiration at undergoing such a roasting. They +seemed, however, very well pleased, and all joined in the chorus of +the seamen’s songs: but the manner in which they were invariably a +little behindhand was quite ludicrous.</p> + +<p>During the night the news had spread, and early in the +<a name="page234"></a> +morning (23rd) a fresh party arrived, belonging to the Tekenika, +or Jemmy’s tribe. Several of them had run so fast that their noses +were bleeding, and their mouths frothed from the rapidity with +which they talked; and with their naked bodies all bedaubed with +black, white,<a href="#fn-10.1" name="fnref-10.1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> +and red, they looked like so many demoniacs who had been fighting. We then +proceeded (accompanied by twelve canoes, each holding four or five people) down +Ponsonby Sound to the spot where poor Jemmy expected to find his mother and +relatives. He had already heard that his father was dead; but as he had had a +“dream in his head” to that effect, he did not seem to care much +about it, and repeatedly comforted himself with the very natural +reflection—“Me no help it.” He was not able to learn any +particulars regarding his father’s death, as his relations would not +speak about it.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-10.1"></a> <a href="#fnref-10.1">[1]</a> +This substance, when dry, is tolerably compact, and of little specific gravity: +Professor Ehrenberg has examined it: he states (<i>König Akad. der Wissen:</i> +Berlin, Feb. 1845) that it is composed of infusoria, including fourteen +polygastrica and four phytolitharia. He says that they are all inhabitants of +fresh water; this is a beautiful example of the results obtainable through +Professor Ehrenberg’s microscopic researches; for Jemmy Button told me +that it is always collected at the bottoms of mountain-brooks. It is, moreover, +a striking fact in the geographical distribution of the infusoria, which are +well known to have very wide ranges, that all the species in this substance, +although brought from the extreme southern point of Tierra del Fuego, are old, +known forms. +</p> + +<p>Jemmy was now in a district well known to him, and guided the +boats to a quiet pretty cove named Woollya, surrounded by islets, +every one of which and every point had its proper native name. We +found here a family of Jemmy’s tribe, but not his relations: we +made friends with them; and in the evening they sent a canoe to +inform Jemmy’s mother and brothers. The cove was bordered by some +acres of good sloping land, not covered (as elsewhere) either by +peat or by forest-trees. Captain Fitz Roy originally intended, as +before stated, to have taken York Minster and Fuegia to their own +tribe on the west coast; but as they expressed a wish to remain +here, and as the spot was singularly favourable, Captain Fitz Roy +determined to settle here the whole party, including Matthews, the +missionary. Five days were spent in building for them three large +wigwams, in landing their goods, in digging two gardens, and sowing +seeds.</p> + +<p>The next morning after our arrival (the 24th) the Fuegians +<a name="page235"></a> +began to pour in, and Jemmy’s mother and brothers arrived. Jemmy +recognised the stentorian voice of one of his brothers at a +prodigious distance. The meeting was less interesting than that +between a horse, turned out into a field, when he joins an old +companion. There was no demonstration of affection; they simply +stared for a short time at each other; and the mother immediately +went to look after her canoe. We heard, however, through York that +the mother had been inconsolable for the loss of Jemmy, and had +searched everywhere for him, thinking that he might have been left +after having been taken in the boat. The women took much notice of +and were very kind to Fuegia. We had already perceived that Jemmy +had almost forgotten his own language. I should think there was +scarcely another human being with so small a stock of language, for +his English was very imperfect. It was laughable, but almost +pitiable, to hear him speak to his wild brother in English, and +then ask him in Spanish (“no sabe?”) whether he did not understand +him.</p> + +<p>Everything went on peaceably during the three next days, whilst +the gardens were digging and wigwams building. We estimated the +number of natives at about one hundred and twenty. The women worked +hard, whilst the men lounged about all day long, watching us. They +asked for everything they saw, and stole what they could. They were +delighted at our dancing and singing, and were particularly +interested at seeing us wash in a neighbouring brook; they did not +pay much attention to anything else, not even to our boats. Of all +the things which York saw, during his absence from his country, +nothing seems more to have astonished him than an ostrich, near +Maldonado: breathless with astonishment he came running to Mr. +Bynoe, with whom he was out walking—“Oh, Mr. Bynoe, oh, bird +all same horse!” Much as our white skins surprised the natives, by +Mr. Low’s account a negro-cook to a sealing vessel did so more +effectually, and the poor fellow was so mobbed and shouted at that +he would never go on shore again. Everything went on so quietly, +that some of the officers and myself took long walks in the +surrounding hills and woods. Suddenly, however, on the 27th, every +woman and child disappeared. We were all uneasy at this, as neither +York nor Jemmy could make out the cause. It was thought by some +<a name="page236"></a> +that they had been frightened by our cleaning and firing off our +muskets on the previous evening: by others, that it was owing to +offence taken by an old savage, who, when told to keep farther off, +had coolly spit in the sentry’s face, and had then, by gestures +acted over a sleeping Fuegian, plainly showed, as it was said, that +he should like to cut up and eat our man. Captain Fitz Roy, to +avoid the chance of an encounter, which would have been fatal to so +many of the Fuegians, thought it advisable for us to sleep at a +cove a few miles distant. Matthews, with his usual quiet fortitude +(remarkable in a man apparently possessing little energy of +character), determined to stay with the Fuegians, who evinced no +alarm for themselves; and so we left them to pass their first awful +night.</p> + +<p>On our return in the morning (28th) we were delighted to find +all quiet, and the men employed in their canoes spearing fish. +Captain Fitz Roy determined to send the yawl and one whale-boat +back to the ship; and to proceed with the two other boats, one +under his own command (in which he most kindly allowed me to +accompany him), and one under Mr. Hammond, to survey the western +parts of the Beagle Channel, and afterwards to return and visit the +settlement. The day to our astonishment was overpoweringly hot, so +that our skins were scorched; with this beautiful weather, the view +in the middle of the Beagle Channel was very remarkable. Looking +towards either hand, no object intercepted the vanishing points of +this long canal between the mountains. The circumstance of its +being an arm of the sea was rendered very evident by several huge +whales<a href="#fn-10.2" name="fnref-10.2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> +spouting in different directions. On one occasion I saw two of these monsters, +probably male and female, slowly swimming one after the other, within less than +a stone’s throw of the shore, over which the beech-tree extended its +branches.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-10.2"></a> <a href="#fnref-10.2">[2]</a> +One day, off the East coast of Tierra del Fuego, we saw a grand sight in +several spermaceti whales jumping upright quite out of the water, with the +exception of their tail-fins. As they fell down sideways, they splashed the +water high up, and the sound reverberated like a distant broadside.</p> + +<p>We sailed on till it was dark, and then pitched our tents in a +quiet creek. The greatest luxury was to find for our beds a beach +of pebbles, for they were dry and yielded to the body. Peaty soil +is damp; rock is uneven and hard; sand gets into one’s meat, when +cooked and eaten boat-fashion; but when lying +<a name="page237"></a> +in our blanket-bags, on a good bed of smooth pebbles, we passed +most comfortable nights.</p> + +<p>It was my watch till one o’clock. There is something very solemn +in these scenes. At no time does the consciousness in what a remote +corner of the world you are then standing come so strongly before +the mind. Everything tends to this effect; the stillness of the +night is interrupted only by the heavy breathing of the seamen +beneath the tents, and sometimes by the cry of a night-bird. The +occasional barking of a dog, heard in the distance, reminds one +that it is the land of the savage.</p> + +<p> +<i>January</i> 29<i>th.</i>—Early in the morning we arrived at the point +where the Beagle Channel divides into two arms; and we entered the northern +one. The scenery here becomes even grander than before. The lofty mountains on +the north side compose the granitic axis, or backbone of the country, and +boldly rise to a height of between three and four thousand feet, with one peak +above six thousand feet. They are covered by a wide mantle of perpetual snow, +and numerous cascades pour their waters, through the woods, into the narrow +channel below. In many parts, magnificent glaciers extend from the mountain +side to the water’s edge. It is scarcely possible to imagine anything +more beautiful than the beryl-like blue of these glaciers, and especially as +contrasted with the dead white of the upper expanse of snow. The fragments +which had fallen from the glacier into the water were floating away, and the +channel with its icebergs presented, for the space of a mile, a miniature +likeness of the Polar Sea. The boats being hauled on shore at our dinner-hour, +we were admiring from the distance of half a mile a perpendicular cliff of ice, +and were wishing that some more fragments would fall. At last, down came a mass +with a roaring noise, and immediately we saw the smooth outline of a wave +travelling towards us. The men ran down as quickly as they could to the boats; +for the chance of their being dashed to pieces was evident. One of the seamen +just caught hold of the bows, as the curling breaker reached it: he was knocked +over and over, but not hurt, and the boats, though thrice lifted on high and +let fall again, received no damage. This was most fortunate for us, for we were +a hundred miles distant from the ship, and we should have been left without +provisions or firearms. I had previously observed that some large fragments of +rock on the beach had been lately displaced; +<a name="page238"></a> +but until seeing this wave I did not understand the cause. One side of the +creek was formed by a spur of mica-slate; the head by a cliff of ice about +forty feet high; and the other side by a promontory fifty feet high, built up +of huge rounded fragments of granite and mica-slate, out of which old trees +were growing. This promontory was evidently a moraine, heaped up at a period +when the glacier had greater dimensions. +</p> + +<p>When we reached the western mouth of this northern branch of the +Beagle Channel, we sailed amongst many unknown desolate islands, +and the weather was wretchedly bad. We met with no natives. The +coast was almost everywhere so steep that we had several times to +pull many miles before we could find space enough to pitch our two +tents: one night we slept on large round boulders, with putrefying +sea-weed between them; and when the tide rose, we had to get up and +move our blanket-bags. The farthest point westward which we reached +was Stewart Island, a distance of about one hundred and fifty miles +from our ship. We returned into the Beagle Channel by the southern +arm, and thence proceeded, with no adventure, back to Ponsonby +Sound.</p> + +<p> +<i>February</i> 6<i>th.</i>—We arrived at Woollya. Matthews gave so bad +an account of the conduct of the Fuegians, that Captain Fitz Roy determined to +take him back to the <i>Beagle</i>; and ultimately he was left at New Zealand, +where his brother was a missionary. From the time of our leaving, a regular +system of plunder commenced; fresh parties of the natives kept arriving: York +and Jemmy lost many things, and Matthews almost everything which had not been +concealed underground. Every article seemed to have been torn up and divided by +the natives. Matthews described the watch he was obliged always to keep as most +harassing; night and day he was surrounded by the natives, who tried to tire +him out by making an incessant noise close to his head. One day an old man, +whom Matthews asked to leave his wigwam, immediately returned with a large +stone in his hand: another day a whole party came armed with stones and stakes, +and some of the younger men and Jemmy’s brother were crying: Matthews met +them with presents. Another party showed by signs that they wished to strip him +naked and pluck all the hairs out of his face and body. I think we arrived just +in time to save his life. Jemmy’s relatives had been so vain and foolish, +that they had showed to strangers their plunder, and their manner +<a name="page239"></a> +of obtaining it. It was quite melancholy leaving the three Fuegians with their +savage countrymen; but it was a great comfort that they had no personal fears. +York, being a powerful resolute man, was pretty sure to get on well, together +with his wife Fuegia. Poor Jemmy looked rather disconsolate, and would then, I +have little doubt, have been glad to have returned with us. His own brother had +stolen many things from him; and as he remarked, “What fashion call +that:” he abused his countrymen, “all bad men, no sabe (know) +nothing” and, though I never heard him swear before, “damned +fools.” Our three Fuegians, though they had been only three years with +civilised men, would, I am sure, have been glad to have retained their new +habits; but this was obviously impossible. I fear it is more than doubtful +whether their visit will have been of any use to them. +</p> + +<p> +In the evening, with Matthews on board, we made sail back to the ship, not by +the Beagle Channel, but by the southern coast. The boats were heavily laden and +the sea rough, and we had a dangerous passage. By the evening of the 7th we +were on board the <i>Beagle</i> after an absence of twenty days, during which +time we had gone three hundred miles in the open boats. On the 11th Captain +Fitz Roy paid a visit by himself to the Fuegians and found them going on well; +and that they had lost very few more things. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +On the last day of February in the succeeding year (1834) the <i>Beagle</i> +anchored in a beautiful little cove at the eastern entrance of the Beagle +Channel. Captain Fitz Roy determined on the bold, and as it proved successful, +attempt to beat against the westerly winds by the same route which we had +followed in the boats to the settlement at Woollya. We did not see many natives +until we were near Ponsonby Sound, where we were followed by ten or twelve +canoes. The natives did not at all understand the reason of our tacking, and, +instead of meeting us at each tack, vainly strove to follow us in our zigzag +course. I was amused at finding what a difference the circumstance of being +quite superior in force made, in the interest of beholding these savages. While +in the boats I got to hate the very sound of their voices, so much trouble did +they give us. The first and last word was “yammerschooner.” When, +entering some quiet little cove, we have looked round and thought to pass a +quiet +<a name="page240"></a> +night, the odious word “yammerschooner” has shrilly sounded from +some gloomy nook, and then the little signal-smoke has curled up to spread the +news far and wide. On leaving some place we have said to each other, +“Thank heaven, we have at last fairly left these wretches!” when +one more faint halloo from an all-powerful voice, heard at a prodigious +distance, would reach our ears, and clearly could we +distinguish—“yammerschooner.” But now, the more Fuegians the +merrier; and very merry work it was. Both parties laughing, wondering, gaping +at each other; we pitying them, for giving us good fish and crabs for rags, +etc.; they grasping at the chance of finding people so foolish as to exchange +such splendid ornaments for a good supper. It was most amusing to see the +undisguised smile of satisfaction with which one young woman with her face +painted black, tied several bits of scarlet cloth round her head with rushes. +Her husband, who enjoyed the very universal privilege in this country of +possessing two wives, evidently became jealous of all the attention paid to his +young wife; and, after a consultation with his naked beauties, was paddled away +by them. +</p> + +<p> +Some of the Fuegians plainly showed that they had a fair notion of barter. I +gave one man a large nail (a most valuable present) without making any signs +for a return; but he immediately picked out two fish, and handed them up on the +point of his spear. If any present was designed for one canoe, and it fell near +another, it was invariably given to the right owner. The Fuegian boy, whom Mr. +Low had on board, showed, by going into the most violent passion, that he quite +understood the reproach of being called a liar, which in truth he was. We were +this time, as on all former occasions, much surprised at the little notice, or +rather none whatever, which was taken of many things, the use of which must +have been evident to the natives. Simple circumstances—such as the beauty +of scarlet cloth or blue beads, the absence of women, our care in washing +ourselves,—excited their admiration far more than any grand or +complicated object, such as our ship. Bougainville has well remarked concerning +these people, that they treat the “chefs d’œuvres de +l’industrie humaine, comme ils traitent les loix de la nature et ses +phénomènes.” +</p> + +<p>On the 5th of March we anchored in a cove at Woollya, +<a name="page241"></a> +but we saw not a soul there. We were alarmed at this, for the +natives in Ponsonby Sound showed by gestures that there had been +fighting; and we afterwards heard that the dreaded Oens men had +made a descent. Soon a canoe, with a little flag flying, was seen +approaching, with one of the men in it washing the paint off his +face. This man was poor Jemmy,—now a thin, haggard savage, +with long disordered hair, and naked, except a bit of blanket round +his waist. We did not recognize him till he was close to us, for he +was ashamed of himself, and turned his back to the ship. We had +left him plump, fat, clean, and well-dressed;—I never saw so +complete and grievous a change. As soon however as he was clothed, +and the first flurry was over, things wore a good appearance. He +dined with Captain Fitz Roy, and ate his dinner as tidily as +formerly. He told us that he had “too much” (meaning enough) to +eat, that he was not cold, that his relations were very good +people, and that he did not wish to go back to England: in the +evening we found out the cause of this great change in Jemmy’s +feelings, in the arrival of his young and nice-looking wife. With +his usual good feeling, he brought two beautiful otter-skins for +two of his best friends, and some spear-heads and arrows made with +his own hands for the Captain. He said he had built a canoe for +himself, and he boasted that he could talk a little of his own +language! But it is a most singular fact, that he appears to have +taught all his tribe some English: an old man spontaneously +announced “Jemmy Button’s wife.” Jemmy had lost all his property. +He told us that York Minster had built a large canoe, and with his +wife Fuegia,<a href="#fn-10.3" name="fnref-10.3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> +had several months since gone to his own country, and had taken farewell by an +act of consummate villainy; he persuaded Jemmy and his mother to come with him, +and then on the way deserted them by night, stealing every article of their +property.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-10.3"></a> <a href="#fnref-10.3">[3]</a> +Captain Sulivan, who, since his voyage in the <i>Beagle</i>, has been employed +on the survey of the Falkland Islands, heard from a sealer in (1842?), that +when in the western part of the Strait of Magellan, he was astonished by a +native woman coming on board, who could talk some English. Without doubt this +was Fuegia Basket. She lived (I fear the term probably bears a double +interpretation) some days on board.</p> + +<p>Jemmy went to sleep on shore, and in the morning returned, and +remained on board till the ship got under weigh, which frightened +his wife, who continued crying violently till he got +<a name="page242"></a> +into his canoe. He returned loaded with valuable property. Every +soul on board was heartily sorry to shake hands with him for the +last time. I do not now doubt that he will be as happy as, perhaps +happier than, if he had never left his own country. Every one must +sincerely hope that Captain Fitz Roy’s noble hope may be fulfilled, +of being rewarded for the many generous sacrifices which he made +for these Fuegians, by some shipwrecked sailor being protected by +the descendants of Jemmy Button and his tribe! When Jemmy reached +the shore, he lighted a signal fire, and the smoke curled up, +bidding us a last and long farewell, as the ship stood on her +course into the open sea.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +The perfect equality among the individuals composing the Fuegian tribes must +for a long time retard their civilisation. As we see those animals, whose +instinct compels them to live in society and obey a chief, are most capable of +improvement, so is it with the races of mankind. Whether we look at it as a +cause or a consequence, the more civilised always have the most artificial +governments. For instance, the inhabitants of Otaheite, who, when first +discovered, were governed by hereditary kings, had arrived at a far higher +grade than another branch of the same people, the New Zealanders,—who, +although benefited by being compelled to turn their attention to agriculture, +were republicans in the most absolute sense. In Tierra del Fuego, until some +chief shall arise with power sufficient to secure any acquired advantage, such +as the domesticated animals, it seems scarcely possible that the political +state of the country can be improved. At present, even a piece of cloth given +to one is torn into shreds and distributed; and no one individual becomes +richer than another. On the other hand, it is difficult to understand how a +chief can arise till there is property of some sort by which he might manifest +his superiority and increase his power. +</p> + +<p>I believe, in this extreme part of South America, man exists in +a lower state of improvement than in any other part of the world. +The South Sea Islanders, of the two races inhabiting the Pacific, +are comparatively civilised. The Esquimaux, in his subterranean +hut, enjoys some of the comforts of life, and in his canoe, when +fully equipped, manifests much skill. Some of the +<a name="page243"></a> +tribes of Southern Africa, prowling about in search of roots, +and living concealed on the wild and arid plains, are sufficiently +wretched. The Australian, in the simplicity of the arts of life, +comes nearest the Fuegian: he can, however, boast of his boomerang, +his spear and throwing-stick, his method of climbing trees, of +tracking animals, and of hunting. Although the Australian may be +superior in acquirements, it by no means follows that he is +likewise superior in mental capacity: indeed, from what I saw of +the Fuegians when on board and from what I have read of the +Australians, I should think the case was exactly the reverse. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl45.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl45.jpg" width="302" height="189" alt="False Horn, Cape Horn." /> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl46.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl46.jpg" width="289" height="212" alt="Wollaston Island, Tierra del Fuego" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="page244"></a><a name="chxi"></a>Chapter XI</h2> + +<p class="letter">Strait of Magellan—Port Famine—Ascent +of Mount Tarn—Forests—Edible +fungus—Zoology—Great Seaweed—Leave Tierra del +Fuego—Climate—Fruit-trees and productions of the +southern coasts—Height of snow-line on the +Cordillera—Descent of glaciers to the sea—Icebergs +formed—Transportal of boulders—Climate and productions +of the Antarctic Islands—Preservation of frozen +carcasses—Recapitulation.</p> + +<h3>STRAIT OF MAGELLAN.—CLIMATE OF THE SOUTHERN COASTS.</h3> + +<p>In the end of May 1834 we entered for a second time the eastern +mouth of the Strait of Magellan. The country on both sides of this +part of the Strait consists of nearly level plains, like those of +Patagonia. Cape Negro, a little within the second Narrows, may be +considered as the point where the land begins to assume the marked +features of Tierra del Fuego. On the east coast, south of the +Strait, broken park-like scenery in a like manner connects these +two countries, which are opposed to each other in almost every +feature. It is truly surprising to find in a space of twenty miles +such a change in the landscape. If we take a rather greater +distance, as between Port Famine and +<a name="page245"></a> +Gregory Bay, that is about sixty miles, the difference is still +more wonderful. At the former place we have rounded mountains +concealed by impervious forests, which are drenched with the rain +brought by an endless succession of gales; while at Cape Gregory +there is a clear and bright blue sky over the dry and sterile +plains. The atmospheric currents,<a href="#fn-11.1" name="fnref-11.1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> +although rapid, turbulent, and unconfined by any apparent limits, yet seem to +follow, like a river in its bed, a regularly determined course.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-11.1"></a> <a href="#fnref-11.1">[1]</a> +The south-westerly breezes are generally very dry. January 29th, being at +anchor under Cape Gregory: a very hard gale from west by south, clear sky with +few cumuli; temperature 57°, dew-point 36°,—difference 21°. +On January 15th, at Port St. Julian: in the morning light winds with much rain, +followed by a very heavy squall with rain,—settled into heavy gale with +large cumuli,—cleared up, blowing very strong from south-south-west. +Temperature 60°, dew-point 42°,—difference 18°.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl47.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl47.jpg" width="286" height="227" alt="Patagonians from Cape Gregory" /> +</div> + +<p>During our previous visit (in January), we had an interview at +Cape Gregory with the famous so-called gigantic Patagonians, who +gave us a cordial reception. Their height appears greater than it +really is, from their large guanaco mantles, their long flowing +hair, and general figure: on an average their height is about six +feet, with some men taller and only a few shorter; and the women +are also tall; altogether they are certainly the tallest race which +we anywhere saw. In features they strikingly +<a name="page246"></a> +resemble the more northern Indians whom I saw with Rosas, but +they have a wilder and more formidable appearance: their faces were +much painted with red and black, and one man was ringed and dotted +with white like a Fuegian. Captain Fitz Roy offered to take any +three of them on board, and all seemed determined to be of the +three. It was long before we could clear the boat; at last we got +on board with our three giants, who dined with the Captain, and +behaved quite like gentlemen, helping themselves with knives, +forks, and spoons: nothing was so much relished as sugar. This +tribe has had so much communication with sealers and whalers, that +most of the men can speak a little English and Spanish; and they +are half civilised, and proportionally demoralised.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl48.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl48.jpg" width="304" height="259" alt="Port Famine, Magellan" /> +</div> + +<p> +The next morning a large party went on shore, to barter for skins and +ostrich-feathers; fire-arms being refused, tobacco was in greatest request, far +more so than axes or tools. The whole population of the toldos, men, women, and +children, were arranged on a bank. It was an amusing scene, and it was +impossible not to +<a name="page247"></a> +like the so-called giants, they were so thoroughly good-humoured and +unsuspecting: they asked us to come again. They seem to like to have Europeans +to live with them; and old Maria, an important woman in the tribe, once begged +Mr. Low to leave any one of his sailors with them. They spend the greater part +of the year here; but in summer they hunt along the foot of the Cordillera: +sometimes they travel as far as the Rio Negro, 750 miles to the north. They are +well stocked with horses, each man having, according to Mr. Low, six or seven, +and all the women, and even children, their one own horse. In the time of +Sarmiento (1580) these Indians had bows and arrows, now long since disused; +they then also possessed some horses. This is a very curious fact, showing the +extraordinarily rapid multiplication of horses in South America. The horse was +first landed at Buenos Ayres in 1537, and the colony being then for a time +deserted, the horse ran wild;<a href="#fn-11.2" +name="fnref-11.2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> in 1580, only forty-three years +afterwards, we hear of them at the Strait of Magellan! Mr. Low informs me, that +a neighbouring tribe of foot-Indians is now changing into horse-Indians: the +tribe at Gregory Bay giving them their worn-out horses, and sending in winter a +few of their best skilled men to hunt for them. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-11.2"></a> <a href="#fnref-11.2">[2]</a> +Rengger, <i>Natur. der Saeugethiere von Paraguay.</i> S. 334.</p> + +<p> +<i>June</i> 1<i>st.</i>—We anchored in the fine bay of Port Famine. It +was now the beginning of winter, and I never saw a more cheerless prospect; the +dusky woods, piebald with snow, could be only seen indistinctly through a +drizzling hazy atmosphere. We were, however, lucky in getting two fine days. On +one of these, Mount Sarmiento, a distant mountain 6800 feet high, presented a +very noble spectacle. I was frequently surprised, in the scenery of Tierra del +Fuego, at the little apparent elevation of mountains really lofty. I suspect it +is owing to a cause which would not at first be imagined, namely, that the +whole mass, from the summit to the water’s edge, is generally in full +view. I remember having seen a mountain, first from the Beagle Channel, where +the whole sweep from the summit to the base was full in view, and then from +Ponsonby Sound across several successive ridges; and it was curious to observe +in the latter case, as each fresh ridge afforded fresh means of judging of the +distance, how the mountain rose in height. +</p> + +<p>Before reaching Port Famine, two men were seen running along the +shore and hailing the ship. A boat was sent for them. +<a name="page248"></a> +They turned out to be two sailors who had run away from a +sealing-vessel, and had joined the Patagonians. These Indians had +treated them with their usual disinterested hospitality. They had +parted company through accident, and were then proceeding to Port +Famine in hopes of finding some ship. I daresay they were worthless +vagabonds, but I never saw more miserable-looking ones. They had +been living for some days on mussel-shells and berries, and their +tattered clothes had been burnt by sleeping so near their fires. +They had been exposed night and day, without any shelter, to the +late incessant gales, with rain, sleet, and snow, and yet they were +in good health.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl49.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl49.jpg" width="59" height="396" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p>During our stay at Port Famine, the Fuegians twice came and +plagued us. As there were many instruments, clothes, and men on +shore, it was thought necessary to frighten them away. The first +time a few great guns were fired, when they were far distant. It +was most ludicrous to watch through a glass the Indians, as often +as the shot struck the water, take up stones, and, as a bold +defiance, throw them towards the ship, though about a mile and a +half distant! A boat was then sent with orders to fire a few +musket-shots wide of them. The Fuegians hid themselves behind the +trees, and for every discharge of the muskets they fired their +arrows; all, however, fell short of the boat, and the officer as he +pointed at them laughed. This made the Fuegians frantic with +passion, and they shook their mantles in vain rage. At last, seeing +the balls cut and strike the trees, they ran away, and we were left +in peace and quietness. During the former voyage the Fuegians were +here very troublesome, and to frighten them a rocket was fired at +night over their wigwams; it answered effectually, and one of the +officers told me that the clamour first raised, and the barking of +the dogs, was quite ludicrous in contrast with the profound silence +which in a minute or two afterwards prevailed. The next morning not +a single Fuegian was in the neighbourhood.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl50.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl50.jpg" width="272" height="177" alt="Patagonian spurs and pipe" /> +</div> + +<p> +<a name="page249"></a> +When the <i>Beagle</i> was here in the month of February, I +started one morning at four o’clock to ascend Mount Tarn, which is +2600 feet high, and is the most elevated point in this immediate +district. We went in a boat to the foot of the mountain (but +unluckily not to the best part), and then began our ascent. The +forest commences at the line of high-water mark, and during the +first two hours I gave over all hopes of reaching the summit. So +thick was the wood, that it was necessary to have constant recourse +to the compass; for every landmark, though in a mountainous +country, was completely shut out. In the deep ravines the +death-like scene of desolation exceeded all description; outside it +was blowing a gale, but in these hollows not even a breath of wind +stirred the leaves of the tallest trees. So gloomy, cold, and wet +was every part, that not even the fungi, mosses, or ferns could +flourish. In the valleys it was scarcely possible to crawl along, +they were so completely barricaded by great mouldering trunks, +which had fallen down in every direction. When passing over these +natural bridges, one’s course was often arrested by sinking knee +deep into the rotten wood; at other times, when attempting to lean +against a firm tree, one was startled by finding a mass of decayed +matter ready to fall at the slightest touch. We at last found +ourselves among the stunted trees, and then soon reached the bare +ridge, which conducted us to the summit. Here was a view +characteristic of Tierra del Fuego; irregular chains of hills, +mottled with patches +<a name="page250"></a> +of snow, deep yellowish-green valleys, and arms of the sea +intersecting the land in many directions. The strong wind was +piercingly cold, and the atmosphere rather hazy, so that we did not +stay long on the top of the mountain. Our descent was not quite so +laborious as our ascent, for the weight of the body forced a +passage, and all the slips and falls were in the right +direction.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +I have already mentioned the sombre and dull character of the evergreen +forests,<a href="#fn-11.3" name="fnref-11.3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> in which two or +three species of trees grow, to the exclusion of all others. Above the forest +land there are many dwarf alpine plants, which all spring from the mass of +peat, and help to compose it: these plants are very remarkable from their close +alliance with the species growing on the mountains of Europe, though so many +thousand miles distant. The central part of Tierra del Fuego, where the +clay-slate formation occurs, is most favourable to the growth of trees; on the +outer coast the poorer granitic soil, and a situation more exposed to the +violent winds, do not allow of their attaining any great size. Near Port Famine +I have seen more large trees than anywhere else: I measured a Winter’s +Bark which was four feet six inches in girth, and several of the beech were as +much as thirteen feet. Captain King also mentions a beech which was seven feet +in diameter seventeen feet above the roots. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-11.3"></a> <a href="#fnref-11.3">[3]</a> +Captain Fitz Roy informs me that in April (our October) the leaves of those +trees which grow near the base of the mountains change colour, but not those on +the more elevated parts. I remember having read some observations, showing that +in England the leaves fall earlier in a warm and fine autumn than in a late and +cold one. The change in the colour being here retarded in the more elevated, +and therefore colder situations, must be owing to the same general law of +vegetation. The trees of Tierra del Fuego during no part of the year entirely +shed their leaves. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl51.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl51.jpg" width="100" height="117" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p>There is one vegetable production deserving notice from its +importance as an article of food to the Fuegians. It is a globular, +bright-yellow fungus, which grows in vast numbers on the +beech-trees. When young it is elastic and turgid, with a smooth +surface; but when mature, it shrinks, becomes tougher, and has its +entire surface deeply pitted or honeycombed, as represented in the +figure at right. This fungus belongs to a new and curious +genus;<a href="#fn-11.4" name="fnref-11.4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> +I found a second +<a name="page251"></a> +species on another species of beech in Chile: and Dr. Hooker +informs me that just lately a third species has been discovered on +a third species of beech in Van Diemen’s Land. How singular is this +relationship between parasitical fungi and the trees on which they +grow, in distant parts of the world! In Tierra del Fuego the fungus +in its tough and mature state is collected in large quantities by +the women and children, and is eaten uncooked. It has a +mucilaginous, slightly sweet taste, with a faint smell like that of +a mushroom. With the exception of a few berries, chiefly of a dwarf +arbutus, the natives eat no vegetable food besides this fungus. In +New Zealand, before the introduction of the potato, the roots of +the fern were largely consumed; at the present time, I believe, +Tierra del Fuego is the only country in the world where a +cryptogamic plant affords a staple article of food.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-11.4"></a> <a href="#fnref-11.4">[4]</a> +Described from my specimens and notes by the Reverend J. M. Berkeley in the +<i>Linnean Transactions</i> (vol. xix, p. 37), under the name of Cyttaria +Darwinii: the Chilean species is the C. Berteroii. This genus is allied to +Bulgaria.</p> + +<p>The zoology of Tierra del Fuego, as might have been expected +from the nature of its climate and vegetation, is very poor. Of +mammalia, besides whales and seals, there is one bat, a kind of +mouse (Reithrodon chinchilloides), two true mice, a ctenomys allied +to or identical with the tucutuco, two foxes (Canis Magellanicus +and C. Azaræ), a sea-otter, the guanaco, and a deer. Most of +these animals inhabit only the drier eastern parts of the country; +and the deer has never been seen south of the Strait of Magellan. +Observing the general correspondence of the cliffs of soft +sandstone, mud, and shingle, on the opposite sides of the Strait, +and on some intervening islands, one is strongly tempted to believe +that the land was once joined, and thus allowed animals so delicate +and helpless as the tucutuco and Reithrodon to pass over. The +correspondence of the cliffs is far from proving any junction; +because such cliffs generally are formed by the intersection of +sloping deposits, which, before the elevation of the land, had been +accumulated near the then existing shores. It is, however, a +remarkable coincidence, that in the two large islands cut off by +the Beagle Channel from the rest of Tierra del Fuego, one has +cliffs composed of matter that may be called stratified alluvium, +which front similar ones on the opposite side of the +<a name="page252"></a> +channel,—while the other is exclusively bordered by old +crystalline rocks; in the former, called Navarin Island, both foxes +and guanacos occur; but in the latter, Hoste Island, although +similar in every respect, and only separated by a channel a little +more than half a mile wide, I have the word of Jemmy Button for +saying that neither of these animals is found.</p> + +<p>The gloomy woods are inhabited by few birds: occasionally the +plaintive note of a white-tufted tyrant-flycatcher (Myiobius +albiceps) may be heard, concealed near the summit of the most lofty +trees; and more rarely the loud strange cry of a black woodpecker, +with a fine scarlet crest on its head. A little, dusky-coloured +wren (Scytalopus Magellanicus) hops in a skulking manner among the +entangled mass of the fallen and decaying trunks. But the creeper +(Oxyurus tupinieri) is the commonest bird in the country. +Throughout the beech forests, high up and low down, in the most +gloomy, wet, and impenetrable ravines, it may be met with. This +little bird no doubt appears more numerous than it really is, from +its habit of following with seeming curiosity any person who enters +these silent woods: continually uttering a harsh twitter, it +flutters from tree to tree, within a few feet of the intruder’s +face. It is far from wishing for the modest concealment of the true +creeper (Certhia familiaris); nor does it, like that bird, run up +the trunks of trees, but industriously, after the manner of a +willow-wren, hops about, and searches for insects on every twig and +branch. In the more open parts, three or four species of finches, a +thrush, a starling (or Icterus), two Opetiorhynchi, and several +hawks and owls occur.</p> + +<p>The absence of any species whatever in the whole class of +Reptiles is a marked feature in the zoology of this country, as +well as in that of the Falkland Islands. I do not ground this +statement merely on my own observation, but I heard it from the +Spanish inhabitants of the latter place, and from Jemmy Button with +regard to Tierra del Fuego. On the banks of the Santa Cruz, in 50 +degrees south, I saw a frog; and it is not improbable that these +animals, as well as lizards, may be found as far south as the +Strait of Magellan, where the country retains the character of +Patagonia; but within the damp and cold limit of Tierra del Fuego +not one occurs. That the climate would not have +<a name="page253"></a> +suited some of the orders, such as lizards, might have been +foreseen; but with respect to frogs, this was not so obvious.</p> + +<p>Beetles occur in very small numbers: it was long before I could +believe that a country as large as Scotland, covered with vegetable +productions and with a variety of stations, could be so +unproductive. The few which I found were alpine species +(Harpalidæ and Heteromidæ) living under stones. The +vegetable-feeding Chrysomelidæ, so eminently characteristic +of the Tropics, are here almost entirely absent;<a href="#fn-11.5" name="fnref-11.5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> +I saw very few flies, butterflies, or bees, and no crickets or Orthoptera. In +the pools of water I found but few aquatic beetles, and not any fresh-water +shells: Succinea at first appears an exception; but here it must be called a +terrestrial shell, for it lives on the damp herbage far from water. Land-shells +could be procured only in the same alpine situations with the beetles. I have +already contrasted the climate as well as the general appearance of Tierra del +Fuego with that of Patagonia; and the difference is strongly exemplified in the +entomology. I do not believe they have one species in common; certainly the +general character of the insects is widely different.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-11.5"></a> <a href="#fnref-11.5">[5]</a> +I believe I must except one alpine Haltica, and a single specimen of a +Melasoma. Mr. Waterhouse informs me, that of the Harpalidæ there are eight or +nine species—the forms of the greater number being very peculiar; of +Heteromera, four or five species; of Rhyncophora, six or seven; and of the +following families one species in each: Staphylinidæ, Elateridæ, Cebrionidæ, +Melolonthidæ. The species in the other orders are even fewer. In all the +orders, the scarcity of the individuals is even more remarkable than that of +the species. Most of the Coleoptera have been carefully described by Mr. +Waterhouse in the <i>Annals of Nat. Hist.</i> +</p> + +<p>If we turn from the land to the sea, we shall find the latter as +abundantly stocked with living creatures as the former is poorly +so. In all parts of the world a rocky and partially protected shore +perhaps supports, in a given space, a greater number of individual +animals than any other station. There is one marine production +which, from its importance, is worthy of a particular history. It +is the kelp, or Macrocystis pyrifera. This plant grows on every +rock from low-water mark to a great depth, both on the outer coast +and within the channels.<a href="#fn-11.6" name="fnref-11.6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> +I +<a name="page254"></a> +believe, during the voyages of the <i>Adventure</i> and <i>Beagle</i>, not one +rock near the surface was discovered which was not buoyed by this floating +weed. The good service it thus affords to vessels navigating near this stormy +land is evident; and it certainly has saved many a one from being wrecked. I +know few things more surprising than to see this plant growing and flourishing +amidst those great breakers of the western ocean, which no mass of rock, let it +be ever so hard, can long resist. The stem is round, slimy, and smooth, and +seldom has a diameter of so much as an inch. A few taken together are +sufficiently strong to support the weight of the large loose stones, to which +in the inland channels they grow attached; and yet some of these stones were so +heavy that when drawn to the surface, they could scarcely be lifted into a boat +by one person. Captain Cook, in his second voyage, says that this plant at +Kerguelen Land rises from a greater depth than twenty-four fathoms; “and +as it does not grow in a perpendicular direction, but makes a very acute angle +with the bottom, and much of it afterwards spreads many fathoms on the surface +of the sea, I am well warranted to say that some of it grows to the length of +sixty fathoms and upwards.” I do not suppose the stem of any other plant +attains so great a length as three hundred and sixty feet, as stated by Captain +Cook. Captain Fitz Roy, moreover, found it growing<a href="#fn-11.7" +name="fnref-11.7"><sup>[7]</sup></a> up from the greater depth of forty-five +fathoms. The beds of this sea-weed, even when of not great breadth, make +excellent natural floating breakwaters. It is quite curious to see, in an +exposed harbour, how soon the waves from the open sea, as they travel through +the straggling stems, sink in height, and pass into smooth water. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-11.6"></a> <a href="#fnref-11.6">[6]</a> +Its geographical range is remarkably wide; it is found from the extreme +southern islets near Cape Horn, as far north on the eastern coast (according to +information given me by Mr. Stokes) as lat. 43°,—but on the western +coast, as Dr. Hooker tells me, it extends to the R. San Francisco in +California, and perhaps even to Kamtschatka. We thus have an immense range in +latitude; and as Cook, who must have been well acquainted with the species, +found it at Kerguelen Land, no less than 140° in longitude.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-11.7"></a> <a href="#fnref-11.7">[7]</a> +<i>Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle</i>, vol. i, p. 363. It appears that +seaweed grows extremely quick. Mr. Stephenson found (Wilson’s <i>Voyage +round Scotland</i> vol. ii, p. 228) that a rock uncovered only at spring-tides, +which had been chiselled smooth in November, on the following May, that is, +within six months afterwards, was thickly covered with Fucus digitatus two +feet, and F. esculentus six feet, in length.</p> + +<p>The number of living creatures of all Orders, whose existence +intimately depends on the kelp, is wonderful. A great volume might +be written, describing the inhabitants of one of these beds of +seaweed. Almost all the leaves, excepting those that float on the +surface, are so thickly incrusted with corallines as +<a name="page255"></a> +to be of a white colour. We find exquisitely delicate +structures, some inhabited by simple hydra-like polypi, others by +more organised kinds, and beautiful compound Ascidiæ. On the +leaves, also, various patelliform shells, Trochi, uncovered +molluscs, and some bivalves are attached. Innumerable crustacea +frequent every part of the plant. On shaking the great entangled +roots, a pile of small fish, shells, cuttlefish, crabs of all +orders, sea-eggs, starfish, beautiful Holothuriæ, +Planariæ, and crawling nereidous animals of a multitude of +forms, all fall out together. Often as I recurred to a branch of +the kelp, I never failed to discover animals of new and curious +structures. In Chiloe, where the kelp does not thrive very well, +the numerous shells, corallines, and crustacea are absent; but +there yet remain a few of the Flustraceæ, and some compound +Ascidiæ; the latter, however, are of different species from +those in Tierra del Fuego; we see here the fucus possessing a wider +range than the animals which use it as an abode. I can only compare +these great aquatic forests of the southern hemisphere with the +terrestrial ones in the intertropical regions. Yet if in any +country a forest was destroyed, I do not believe nearly so many +species of animals would perish as would here, from the destruction +of the kelp. Amidst the leaves of this plant numerous species of +fish live, which nowhere else could find food or shelter; with +their destruction the many cormorants and other fishing birds, the +otters, seals, and porpoises, would soon perish also; and lastly, +the Fuegian savage, the miserable lord of this miserable land, +would redouble his cannibal feast, decrease in numbers, and perhaps +cease to exist.</p> + +<p> +<i>June</i> 8<i>th.</i>—We weighed anchor early in the morning and left +Port Famine. Captain Fitz Roy determined to leave the Strait of Magellan by the +Magdalen Channel, which had not long been discovered. Our course lay due south, +down that gloomy passage which I have before alluded to as appearing to lead to +another and worse world. The wind was fair, but the atmosphere was very thick; +so that we missed much curious scenery. The dark ragged clouds were rapidly +driven over the mountains, from their summits nearly down to their bases. The +glimpses which we caught through the dusky mass were highly interesting; jagged +points, cones of snow, blue glaciers, strong outlines, marked on a lurid sky, +were seen at different distances and +<a name="page256"></a> +heights. In the midst of such scenery we anchored at Cape Turn, close to Mount +Sarmiento, which was then hidden in the clouds. At the base of the lofty and +almost perpendicular sides of our little cove there was one deserted wigwam, +and it alone reminded us that man sometimes wandered into these desolate +regions. But it would be difficult to imagine a scene where he seemed to have +fewer claims or less authority. The inanimate works of nature—rock, ice, +snow, wind, and water, all warring with each other, yet combined against +man—here reigned in absolute sovereignty. +</p> + +<p> +<i>June</i> 9<i>th.</i>—In the morning we were delighted by seeing the +veil of mist gradually rise from Sarmiento, and display it to our view. This +mountain, which is one of the highest in Tierra del Fuego, has an altitude of +6800 feet. Its base, for about an eighth of its total height, is clothed by +dusky woods, and above this a field of snow extends to the summit. These vast +piles of snow, which never melt, and seem destined to last as long as the world +holds together, present a noble and even sublime spectacle. The outline of the +mountain was admirably clear and defined. Owing to the abundance of light +reflected from the white and glittering surface, no shadows were cast on any +part; and those lines which intersected the sky could alone be distinguished: +hence the mass stood out in the boldest relief. Several glaciers descended in a +winding course from the upper great expanse of snow to the sea-coast: they may +be likened to great frozen Niagaras; and perhaps these cataracts of blue ice +are full as beautiful as the moving ones of water. By night we reached the +western part of the channel; but the water was so deep that no anchorage could +be found. We were in consequence obliged to stand off and on in this narrow arm +of the sea, during a pitch-dark night of fourteen hours long. +</p> + +<p> +<i>June</i> 10<i>th.</i>—In the morning we made the best of our way into +the open Pacific. The western coast generally consists of low, rounded, quite +barren hills of granite and greenstone. Sir J. Narborough called one part South +Desolation, because it is “so desolate a land to behold:” and well +indeed might he say so. Outside the main islands there are numberless scattered +rocks on which the long swell of the open ocean incessantly rages. We passed +out between the East and West Furies; +<a name="page257"></a> +and a little farther northward there are so many breakers that the sea is +called the Milky Way. One sight of such a coast is enough to make a landsman +dream for a week about shipwrecks, peril, and death; and with this sight we +bade farewell for ever to Tierra del Fuego. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +The following discussion on the climate of the southern parts of the continent +with relation to its productions, on the snow-line, on the extraordinarily low +descent of the glaciers, and on the zone of perpetual congelation in the +antarctic islands, may be passed over by any one not interested in these +curious subjects, or the final recapitulation alone may be read. I shall, +however, here give only an abstract, and must refer for details to the +Thirteenth Chapter and the Appendix of the former edition of this work. +</p> + +<p><i>On the Climate and Productions of Tierra del Fuego and of the +South-west Coast.</i>—The following table gives the mean +temperature of Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands, and, for +comparison, that of Dublin:—</p> + +<table border="0" cellspacing="10" summary= +"Difference in temperatures between Tierra del Fuego, Falkland Islands, and Dublin"> +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td align="center" valign="bottom"><small>Latitude.</small></td> +<td align="center"><small>Summer<br/> +Temp.</small></td> +<td align="center"><small>Winter<br/> +Temp.</small></td> +<td align="center"><small>Mean of Summer<br/> +and Winter.</small></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Tierra del Fuego</td> +<td align="center">53° 38′ S.</td> +<td align="center">50°</td> +<td align="center">33.08°</td> +<td align="center">41.54°</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Falkland Islands</td> +<td align="center">51° 30′ S.</td> +<td align="center">51°</td> +<td align="center">—</td> +<td align="center">—</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Dublin</td> +<td align="center">53° 21′ N.</td> +<td align="center">59.54°</td> +<td align="center">39.20°</td> +<td align="center">49.37°</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Hence we see that the central part of Tierra del Fuego is colder +in winter, and no less than 9.5° less hot in summer, than +Dublin. According to von Buch the mean temperature of July (not the +hottest month in the year) at Saltenfiord in Norway, is as high as +57.8°, and this place is actually 13° nearer the pole than +Port Famine!<a href="#fn-11.8" name="fnref-11.8"><sup>[8]</sup></a> +Inhospitable as this climate appears to our feelings, evergreen trees flourish +luxuriantly under it. Humming-birds may be seen sucking the flowers, and +parrots feeding on the seeds of the Winter’s Bark, in latitude 55 degrees +south. I have already remarked to what a degree the sea swarms with living +creatures; and the shells +<a name="page258"></a> +(such as the Patellæ, Fissurellæ, Chitons, and +Barnacles), according to Mr. G. B. Sowerby, are of a much larger +size, and of a more vigorous growth, than the analogous species in +the northern hemisphere. A large Voluta is abundant in southern +Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands. At Bahia Blanca, in lat. +39° S., the most abundant shells were three species of Oliva +(one of large size), one or two Volutas, and a Terebra. Now these +are amongst the best characterised tropical forms. It is doubtful +whether even one small species of Oliva exists on the southern +shores of Europe, and there are no species of the two other genera. +If a geologist were to find in lat. 39° on the coast of +Portugal a bed containing numerous shells belonging to three +species of Oliva, to a Voluta, and Terebra, he would probably +assert that the climate at the period of their existence must have +been tropical; but, judging from South America, such an inference +might be erroneous.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-11.8"></a> <a href="#fnref-11.8">[8]</a> +With respect to Tierra del Fuego, the results are deduced from the observations +of Capt. King (<i>Geographical Journal</i>, 1830), and those taken on board the +<i>Beagle.</i> For the Falkland Islands, I am indebted to Captain Sulivan for +the mean of the mean temperature (reduced from careful observation at midnight, +8 <small>A.M.</small>, noon, and 8 <small>P.M.</small>) of the three hottest +months, namely, December, January, and February. The temperature of Dublin is +taken from Barton.</p> + +<p>The equable, humid, and windy climate of Tierra del Fuego +extends, with only a small increase of heat, for many degrees along +the west coast of the continent. The forests for 600 miles +northward of Cape Horn, have a very similar aspect. As a proof of +the equable climate, even for 300 or 400 miles still farther +northward, I may mention that in Chiloe (corresponding in latitude +with the northern parts of Spain) the peach seldom produces fruit, +whilst strawberries and apples thrive to perfection. Even the crops +of barley and wheat<a href="#fn-11.9" name="fnref-11.9"><sup>[9]</sup></a> +are often brought into the houses to be dried and ripened. At Valdivia (in the +same latitude of 40° with Madrid) grapes and figs ripen, but are not +common; olives seldom ripen even partially, and oranges not at all. These +fruits, in corresponding latitudes in Europe, are well known to succeed to +perfection; and even in this continent, at the Rio Negro, under nearly the same +parallel with Valdivia, sweet potatoes (convolvulus) are cultivated; and +grapes, figs, olives, oranges, water and musk melons, produce abundant fruit. +Although the humid and equable climate of Chiloe, and of the coast northward +and southward of it, is so unfavourable to our fruits, yet the native forests, +from lat. 45° to 38°, almost rival in luxuriance those of the glowing +intertropical regions. Stately trees of many kinds, with smooth and highly +coloured barks, are loaded by parasitical monocotyledonous +<a name="page259"></a> +plants; large and elegant ferns are numerous, and arborescent +grasses entwine the trees into one entangled mass to the height of +thirty or forty feet above the ground. Palm-trees grow in latitude +37°; an arborescent grass, very like a bamboo, in 40°; and +another closely allied kind, of great length, but not erect, +flourishes even as far south as 45° S.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-11.9"></a> <a href="#fnref-11.9">[9]</a> +Agüeros, <i>Descrip. Hist. de la Prov. de Chiloé</i>, 1791, p. 94. +</p> + +<p>An equable climate, evidently due to the large area of sea +compared with the land, seems to extend over the greater part of +the southern hemisphere; and as a consequence, the vegetation +partakes of a semi-tropical character. Tree-ferns thrive +luxuriantly in Van Diemen’s Land (lat. 45°), and I measured one +trunk no less than six feet in circumference. An arborescent fern +was found by Forster in New Zealand in 46°, where orchideous +plants are parasitical on the trees. In the Auckland Islands, +ferns, according to Dr. Dieffenbach,<a href="#fn-11.10" name="fnref-11.10"><sup>[10]</sup></a> +have trunks so thick and high that they may be almost called tree-ferns; and in +these islands, and even as far south as lat. 55° in the Macquarie Islands, +parrots abound.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-11.10"></a> <a href="#fnref-11.10">[10]</a> +See the German Translation of this Journal; and for the other facts Mr. +Brown’s Appendix to Flinders’s <i>Voyage.</i></p> + +<p><i>On the Height of the Snow-line, and on the Descent of the +Glaciers, in South America.</i>—For the detailed authorities +for the following table, I must refer to the former +edition:—</p> + +<table border="0" cellspacing="10" summary= +"Height of the snow-line and descent of the glaciers in South America"> +<tr> +<td valign="bottom" align="center"><small>Latitude.</small></td> +<td align="center"><small>Height in feet<br/> +of Snow-line</small></td> +<td align="center" valign="bottom"><small>Observer</small></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Equatorial region: mean result</td> +<td align="center">15,748</td> +<td align="left">Humboldt.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Bolivia, lat. 16° to 18° S.</td> +<td align="center">17,000</td> +<td align="left">Pentland.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Central Chile, lat. 33° S.</td> +<td align="center">14,500 to 15,000</td> +<td align="left">Gillies, and the Author.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Chiloe, lat. 41° to 43° S.</td> +<td align="center">6000</td> +<td align="left">Officers of the <i>Beagle</i> and the Author.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Tierra del Fuego, 54° S.</td> +<td align="center">3500 to 4000</td> +<td align="left">King.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p> +As the height of the plane of perpetual snow seems chiefly to be +determined by the extreme heat of the summer, rather than by the +mean temperature of the year, we ought not to be surprised at its +descent in the Strait of Magellan, where the summer is so cool, to +only 3500 or 4000 feet above the level of the sea; although in +Norway, we must travel to between lat. 67° and 70° N., that +is, about 14° nearer the pole, to meet with perpetual snow at +this low level. The difference in height, namely, about 9000 feet, +between the snow-line on the Cordillera behind Chiloe (with its +highest points ranging from +<a name="page260"></a> +only 5600 to 7500 feet) and in central Chile<a href="#fn-11.11" name="fnref-11.11"><sup>[11]</sup></a> +(a distance of only 9° of latitude), is truly wonderful. The land from the +southward of Chiloe to near Concepcion (lat. 37°) is hidden by one dense +forest dripping with moisture. The sky is cloudy, and we have seen how badly +the fruits of southern Europe succeed. In central Chile, on the other hand, a +little northward of Concepcion, the sky is generally clear, rain does not fall +for the seven summer months, and southern European fruits succeed admirably; +and even the sugar-cane has been cultivated.<a href="#fn-11.12" name="fnref-11.12"><sup>[12]</sup></a> +No doubt the plane of perpetual snow undergoes the above remarkable flexure of +9000 feet, unparalleled in other parts of the world, not far from the latitude +of Concepcion, where the land ceases to be covered with forest-trees; for trees +in South America indicate a rainy climate, and rain a clouded sky and little +heat in summer.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-11.11"></a> <a href="#fnref-11.11">[11]</a> +On the Cordillera of central Chile, I believe the snow-line varies exceedingly +in height in different summers. I was assured that during one very dry and long +summer, all the snow disappeared from Aconcagua, although it attains the +prodigious height of 23,000 feet. It is probable that much of the snow at these +great heights is evaporated, rather than thawed. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-11.12"></a> <a href="#fnref-11.12">[12]</a> +Miers’s <i>Chile</i>, vol. i, p. 415. It is said that the sugar-cane grew +at Ingenio, lat. 32° to 33°, but not in sufficient quantity to make the +manufacture profitable. In the valley of Quillota, south of Ingenio, I saw some +large date-palm trees.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl52.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl52.jpg" width="461" height="312" alt="Eyre Sound" /> +</div> + +<p>The descent of glaciers to the sea must, I conceive, mainly +depend (subject, of course, to a proper supply of snow in the upper +region) on the lowness of the line of perpetual snow on steep +mountains near the coast. As the snow-line is so low in Tierra del +Fuego, we might have expected that many of the glaciers would have +reached the sea. Nevertheless I was astonished when I first saw a +range, only from 3000 to 4000 feet in height, in the latitude of +Cumberland, with every valley filled with streams of ice descending +to the sea-coast. Almost every arm of the sea, which penetrates to +the interior higher chain, not only in Tierra del Fuego, but on the +coast for 650 miles northwards, is terminated by “tremendous and +astonishing glaciers,” as described by one of the officers on the +survey. Great masses of ice frequently fall from these icy cliffs, +and the crash reverberates like the broadside of a man-of-war +through the lonely channels. These falls, as noticed in the last +chapter, produce great waves which break on the adjoining coasts. +It is known that earthquakes frequently cause masses of earth to +fall from sea-cliffs: how terrific, then, would be the +<a name="page261"></a> +effect of a severe shock (and such occur here<a href="#fn-11.13" name="fnref-11.13"><sup>[13]</sup></a>) +on a body like a glacier, already in motion, and traversed by fissures! I can +readily believe that the water would be fairly beaten back out of the deepest +channel, and then, returning with an overwhelming force, would whirl about huge +masses of rock like so much chaff. In Eyre’s Sound, in the latitude of +Paris, there are immense glaciers, and yet the loftiest neighbouring mountain +is only 6200 feet high. In this Sound, about fifty icebergs were seen at one +time floating outwards, and one of them must have been <i>at least</i> 168 feet +in total height. Some of the icebergs were loaded with blocks of no +inconsiderable size, of granite and other rocks, different from the clay-slate +of the surrounding mountains. The glacier farthest from the Pole, surveyed +during the voyages of the <i>Adventure</i> and <i>Beagle</i>, is in lat. +46° 50′, in the Gulf of Penas. It is 15 miles long, and in one part +7 broad, and descends to the sea-coast. But even a few miles northward of this +glacier, in the Laguna de San Rafael, some Spanish +missionaries<a href="#fn-11.14" name="fnref-11.14"><sup>[14]</sup></a> +encountered “many icebergs, some great, some small, and others +middle-sized,” in a narrow arm of the sea, on the 22nd of the month +corresponding with our +<a name="page262"></a> +June, and in a latitude corresponding with that of the Lake of +Geneva!</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-11.13"></a> <a href="#fnref-11.13">[13]</a> +Bulkeley’s and Cummin’s <i>Faithful Narrative of the Loss of the +Wager.</i> The earthquake happened August 25, 1741. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-11.14"></a> <a href="#fnref-11.14">[14]</a> +Agüeros, <i>Desc. Hist. de Chiloé</i>, p. 227. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl53.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl53.jpg" width="252" height="205" alt="Glacier in Gulf of Penas" /> +</div> + +<p>In Europe, the most southern glacier which comes down to the sea +is met with, according to Von Buch, on the coast of Norway, in lat. +67°. Now, this is more than 20° of latitude, or 1230 miles, +nearer the pole than the Laguna de San Rafael. The position of the +glaciers at this place and in the Gulf of Penas may be put even in +a more striking point of view, for they descend to the sea-coast +within 7½° degrees of latitude, or 450 miles, of a +harbour, where three species of Oliva, a Voluta, and a Terebra, are +the commonest shells, within less than 9° from where palms +grow, within 4½° of a region where the jaguar and puma +range over the plains, less than 2½° from arborescent +grasses, and (looking to the westward in the same hemisphere) less +than 2° from orchideous parasites, and within a single degree +of tree-ferns!</p> + +<p>These facts are of high geological interest with respect to the +climate of the northern hemisphere, at the period when boulders +were transported. I will not here detail how simply the theory of +icebergs being charged with fragments of rock explains the origin +and position of the gigantic boulders of eastern Tierra del Fuego, +on the high plain of Santa Cruz, and on the island of Chiloe. In +Tierra del Fuego the greater number of boulders lie on the lines of +old sea-channels, now converted into dry valleys by the elevation +of the land. They are associated with a great unstratified +formation of mud and sand, containing rounded and angular fragments +of all sizes, which has originated<a href="#fn-11.15" name="fnref-11.15"><sup>[15]</sup></a> +in the repeated ploughing up of the sea-bottom by the stranding of icebergs, +and by the matter transported on them. Few geologists now doubt that those +erratic boulders which lie near lofty mountains have been pushed forward by the +glaciers themselves, and that those distant from mountains, and embedded in +subaqueous deposits, have been conveyed thither either on icebergs, or frozen +in coast-ice. The connection between the transportal of boulders and the +presence of ice in some form, is strikingly shown by their geographical +distribution over the earth. In South America they are not found farther than +48° of latitude, measured from the southern pole; in North America it +appears +<a name="page263"></a> +that the limit of their transportal extends to 53½° +from the northern pole; but in Europe to not more than 40° of +latitude, measured from the same point. On the other hand, in the +intertropical parts of America, Asia, and Africa, they have never +been observed; nor at the Cape of Good Hope, nor in +Australia.<a href="#fn-11.16" name="fnref-11.16"><sup>[16]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-11.15"></a> <a href="#fnref-11.15">[15]</a> +<i>Geological Transactions</i>, vol. vi, p. 415.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-11.16"></a> <a href="#fnref-11.16">[16]</a> +I have given details (the first, I believe, published) on this subject in the +first edition, and in the Appendix to it. I have there shown that the apparent +exceptions to the absence of erratic boulders in certain hot countries are due +to erroneous observations; several statements there given I have since found +confirmed by various authors. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>On the Climate and Productions of the Antarctic +Islands.</i>—Considering the rankness of the vegetation in Tierra del +Fuego, and on the coast northward of it, the condition of the islands south and +south-west of America is truly surprising. Sandwich Land, in the latitude of +the north part of Scotland, was found by Cook, during the hottest month of the +year, “covered many fathoms thick with everlasting snow;” and there +seems to be scarcely any vegetation. Georgia, an island 96 miles long and 10 +broad, in the latitude of Yorkshire, “in the very height of summer, is in +a manner wholly covered with frozen snow.” It can boast only of moss, +some tufts of grass, and wild burnet; it has only one land-bird (Anthus +correndera), yet Iceland, which is 10° nearer the pole, has, according to +Mackenzie, fifteen land-birds. The South Shetland Islands, in the same latitude +as the southern half of Norway, possess only some lichens, moss, and a little +grass; and Lieut. Kendall<a href="#fn-11.17" +name="fnref-11.17"><sup>[17]</sup></a> found the bay in which he was at anchor, +beginning to freeze at a period corresponding with our 8th of September. The +soil here consists of ice and volcanic ashes interstratified; and at a little +depth beneath the surface it must remain perpetually congealed, for Lieut. +Kendall found the body of a foreign sailor which had long been buried, with the +flesh and all the features perfectly preserved. It is a singular fact that on +the two great continents in the northern hemisphere (but not in the broken land +of Europe between them) we have the zone of perpetually frozen under-soil in a +low latitude—namely, in 56 degrees in North America at the depth of three +feet,<a href="#fn-11.18" name="fnref-11.18"><sup>[18]</sup></a> and in 62° +<a name="page264"></a> +in Siberia at the depth of twelve to fifteen feet—as the result of a +directly opposite condition of things to those of the southern hemisphere. On +the northern continents, the winter is rendered excessively cold by the +radiation from a large area of land into a clear sky, nor is it moderated by +the warmth-bringing currents of the sea; the short summer, on the other hand, +is hot. In the Southern Ocean the winter is not so excessively cold, but the +summer is far less hot, for the clouded sky seldom allows the sun to warm the +ocean, itself a bad absorbent of heat: and hence the mean temperature of the +year, which regulates the zone of perpetually congealed under-soil, is low. It +is evident that a rank vegetation, which does not so much require heat as it +does protection from intense cold, would approach much nearer to this zone of +perpetual congelation under the equable climate of the southern hemisphere, +than under the extreme climate of the northern continents. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-11.17"></a> <a href="#fnref-11.17">[17]</a> +<i>Geographical Journal</i>, 1830, pp. 65, 66. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-11.18"></a> <a href="#fnref-11.18">[18]</a> +Richardson’s <i>Append. to Back’s Exped.</i> and Humboldt’s +<i>Fragm. Asiat.</i> tome ii, p. 386. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl54.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl54.jpg" width="164" height="467" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p> +The case of the sailor’s body perfectly preserved in the icy soil of the +South Shetland Islands (lat. 62° to 63° S.), in a rather lower latitude +than that (lat. 64° N.) under which Pallas found the frozen rhinoceros in +Siberia, is very interesting. Although it is a fallacy, as I have endeavoured +to show in a former chapter, to suppose that the larger quadrupeds require a +luxuriant vegetation for their support, nevertheless it is important to find in +the South Shetland Islands a frozen under-soil within 360 miles of the +forest-clad islands near Cape Horn, where, as far as the <i>bulk</i> of +vegetation is concerned, any number of great quadrupeds might be supported. The +perfect preservation of the carcasses of the Siberian elephants and +rhinoceroses is certainly one of the most wonderful facts in geology; but +independently of the imagined difficulty of supplying them with food from the +adjoining countries, the whole case is not, I think, so perplexing as it has +generally been considered. The plains of Siberia, like those of the Pampas, +appear to have been formed under the sea, into which rivers brought down the +bodies of many animals; of the greater number of these only the skeletons have +been preserved, but of others the perfect carcass. Now it is known that in the +shallow sea on the Arctic coast of America the bottom freezes,<a +href="#fn-11.19" name="fnref-11.19"><sup>[19]</sup></a> and does not thaw in +spring so soon as the surface +<a name="page265"></a> +of the land, moreover, at greater depths, where the bottom of the sea does not +freeze, the mud a few feet beneath the top layer might remain even in summer +below 32°, as is the case on the land with the soil at the depth of a few +feet. At still greater depths the temperature of the mud and water would +probably not be low enough to preserve the flesh; and hence, carcasses drifted +beyond the shallow parts near an arctic coast, would have only their skeletons +preserved: now in the extreme northern parts of Siberia bones are infinitely +numerous, so that even islets are said to be almost composed of them;<a +href="#fn-11.20" name="fnref-11.20"><sup>[20]</sup></a> and those islets lie no +less than ten degrees of latitude north of the place where Pallas found the +frozen rhinoceros. On the other hand, a carcass washed by a flood into a +shallow part of the Arctic Sea, would be preserved for an indefinite period, if +it were soon afterwards covered with mud sufficiently thick to prevent the heat +of the summer water penetrating to it; and if, when the sea-bottom was upraised +into land, the covering was sufficiently thick to prevent the heat of the +summer air and sun thawing and corrupting it. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-11.19"></a> <a href="#fnref-11.19">[19]</a> +Messrs. Dease and Simpson, in <i>Geographical Journal</i> vol. viii, pp. 218 +and 220.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-11.20"></a> <a href="#fnref-11.20">[20]</a> +Cuvier (<i>Ossemens Fossiles,</i> tome i, p. 151), from Billing’s +<i>Voyage.</i></p> + +<p> +<a name="page266"></a> +<i>Recapitulation.</i>—I will recapitulate the principal +facts with regard to the climate, ice-action, and organic +productions of the southern hemisphere, transposing the places in +imagination to Europe, with which we are so much better acquainted. +Then, near Lisbon, the commonest sea-shells, namely, three species +of Oliva, a Voluta, and a Terebra, would have a tropical character. +In the southern provinces of France, magnificent forests, intwined +by arborescent grasses and with the trees loaded with parasitical +plants, would hide the face of the land. The puma and the jaguar +would haunt the Pyrenees. In the latitude of Mont Blanc, but on an +island as far westward as Central North America, tree-ferns and +parasitical Orchideæ would thrive amidst the thick woods. +Even as far north as central Denmark humming-birds would be seen +fluttering about delicate flowers, and parrots feeding amidst the +evergreen woods; and in the sea there we should have a Voluta, and +all the shells of large size and vigorous growth. Nevertheless, on +some islands only 360 miles northward of our new Cape Horn in +Denmark, a carcass buried in the soil (or if washed into a shallow +sea, and covered up with mud) would be preserved perpetually +frozen. If some bold navigator attempted to penetrate northward of +these islands, he would run a thousand dangers amidst gigantic +icebergs, on some of which he would see great blocks of rock borne +far away from their original site. Another island of large size in +the latitude of southern Scotland, but twice as far to the west, +would be “almost wholly covered with everlasting snow,” and would +have each bay terminated by ice-cliffs, whence great masses would +be yearly detached: this island would boast only of a little moss, +grass, and burnet, and a titlark would be its only land inhabitant. +From our new Cape Horn in Denmark, a chain of mountains, scarcely +half the height of the Alps, would run in a straight line due +southward; and on its western flank every deep creek of the sea, or +fiord, would end in “bold and astonishing glaciers.” These lonely +channels would frequently reverberate with the falls of ice, and so +often would great waves rush along their coasts; numerous icebergs, +some as tall as cathedrals, and occasionally loaded with “no +inconsiderable blocks of rock,” would be stranded on the outlying +islets; at intervals violent earthquakes would shoot prodigious +masses of ice into the waters below. Lastly, some missionaries +<a name="page267"></a> +attempting to penetrate a long arm of the sea, would behold the +not lofty surrounding mountains, sending down their many grand icy +streams to the sea-coast, and their progress in the boats would be +checked by the innumerable floating icebergs, some small and some +great; and this would have occurred on our twenty-second of June, +and where the Lake of Geneva is now spread +out!<a href="#fn-11.21" name="fnref-11.21"><sup>[21]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-11.21"></a> <a href="#fnref-11.21">[21]</a> +In the former edition and Appendix, I have given some facts on the transportal +of erratic boulders and icebergs in the Antarctic Ocean. This subject has +lately been treated excellently by Mr. Hayes, in the <i>Boston Journal</i> +(vol. iv, p. 426). The author does not appear aware of a case published by me +(<i>Geographical Journal</i>, vol. ix, p. 528), of a gigantic boulder embedded +in an iceberg in the Antarctic Ocean, almost certainly one hundred miles +distant from any land, and perhaps much more distant. In the Appendix I have +discussed at length the probability (at that time hardly thought of) of +icebergs, when stranded, grooving and polishing rocks, like glaciers. This is +now a very commonly received opinion; and I cannot still avoid the suspicion +that it is applicable even to such cases as that of the Jura. Dr. Richardson +has assured me that the icebergs off North America push before them pebbles and +sand, and leave the submarine rocky flats quite bare; it is hardly possible to +doubt that such ledges must be polished and scored in the direction of the set +of the prevailing currents. Since writing that Appendix I have seen in North +Wales (<i>London Phil. Mag.</i> vol. xxi, p. 180) the adjoining action of +glaciers and floating icebergs.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl55.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl55.jpg" width="170" height="451" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl56.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl56.jpg" width="275" height="257" alt= "Trochilus Forficatus" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="page268"></a><a name="chxii"></a>Chapter XII</h2> + +<p class="letter">Valparaiso—Excursion to the Foot of the +Andes—Structure of the land—Ascend the Bell of +Quillota—Shattered masses of greenstone—Immense +valleys—Mines—State of +miners—Santiago—Hot-baths of +Cauquenes—Gold-mines—Grinding-mills—Perforated +stones—Habits of the Puma—El Turco and +Tapacolo—Humming-birds.</p> + +<h3>CENTRAL CHILE</h3> + +<p> +<i>July</i> 23<i>rd.</i>—The <i>Beagle</i> anchored late at night in the +bay of Valparaiso, the chief seaport of Chile. When morning came, everything +appeared delightful. After Tierra del Fuego, the climate felt quite +delicious—the atmosphere so dry, and the heavens so clear and blue with +the sun shining brightly, that all nature seemed sparkling with life. The view +from the anchorage is very pretty. The town is built at the very foot of a +range of hills, about 1600 feet high, and rather steep. +<a name="page269"></a> +From its position, it consists of one long, straggling street, which runs +parallel to the beach, and wherever a ravine comes down, the houses are piled +up on each side of it. The rounded hills, being only partially protected by a +very scanty vegetation, are worn into numberless little gullies, which expose a +singularly bright red soil. From this cause, and from the low whitewashed +houses with tile roofs, the view reminded me of St. Cruz in Teneriffe. In a +north-easterly direction there are some fine glimpses of the Andes: but these +mountains appear much grander when viewed from the neighbouring hills: the +great distance at which they are situated can then more readily be perceived. +The volcano of Aconcagua is particularly magnificent. This huge and irregularly +conical mass has an elevation greater than that of Chimborazo; for, from +measurements made by the officers in the <i>Beagle</i>, its height is no less +than 23,000 feet. The Cordillera, however, viewed from this point, owe the +greater part of their beauty to the atmosphere through which they are seen. +When the sun was setting in the Pacific, it was admirable to watch how clearly +their rugged outlines could be distinguished, yet how varied and how delicate +were the shades of their colour. +</p> + +<p>I had the good fortune to find living here Mr. Richard Corfield, +an old schoolfellow and friend, to whose hospitality and kindness I +was greatly indebted, in having afforded me a most pleasant +residence during the <i>Beagle’s</i> stay in Chile. The immediate +neighbourhood of Valparaiso is not very productive to the +naturalist. During the long summer the wind blows steadily from the +southward, and a little off shore, so that rain never falls; during +the three winter months, however, it is sufficiently abundant. The +vegetation in consequence is very scanty: except in some deep +valleys there are no trees, and only a little grass and a few low +bushes are scattered over the less steep parts of the hills. When +we reflect that at the distance of 350 miles to the south, this +side of the Andes is completely hidden by one impenetrable forest, +the contrast is very remarkable. I took several long walks while +collecting objects of natural history. The country is pleasant for +exercise. There are many very beautiful flowers; and, as in most +other dry climates, the plants and shrubs possess strong and +peculiar odours—even one’s clothes by brushing through them +became +<a name="page270"></a> +scented. I did not cease from wonder at finding each succeeding +day as fine as the foregoing. What a difference does climate make +in the enjoyment of life! How opposite are the sensations when +viewing black mountains half-enveloped in clouds, and seeing +another range through the light blue haze of a fine day! The one +for a time may be very sublime; the other is all gaiety and happy +life.</p> + +<p> +<i>August</i> 14<i>th.</i>—I set out on a riding excursion, for the +purpose of geologising the basal parts of the Andes, which alone at this time +of the year are not shut up by the winter snow. Our first day’s ride was +northward along the sea-coast. After dark we reached the Hacienda of Quintero, +the estate which formerly belonged to Lord Cochrane. My object in coming here +was to see the great beds of shells which stand some yards above the level of +the sea, and are burnt for lime. The proofs of the elevation of this whole line +of coast are unequivocal: at the height of a few hundred feet old-looking +shells are numerous, and I found some at 1300 feet. These shells either lie +loose on the surface, or are embedded in a reddish-black vegetable mould. I was +much surprised to find under the microscope that this vegetable mould is really +marine mud, full of minute particles of organic bodies. +</p> + +<p> +15<i>th.</i>—We returned towards the valley of Quillota. The country was +exceedingly pleasant; just such as poets would call pastoral: green open lawns, +separated by small valleys with rivulets, and the cottages, we may suppose of +the shepherds, scattered on the hill-sides. We were obliged to cross the ridge +of the Chilicauquen. At its base there were many fine evergreen forest-trees, +but these flourished only in the ravines, where there was running water. Any +person who had seen only the country near Valparaiso would never have imagined +that there had been such picturesque spots in Chile. As soon as we reached the +brow of the Sierra, the valley of Quillota was immediately under our feet. The +prospect was one of remarkable artificial luxuriance. The valley is very broad +and quite flat, and is thus easily irrigated in all parts. The little square +gardens are crowded with orange and olive trees and every sort of vegetable. On +each side huge bare mountains rise, and this from the contrast renders the +patchwork valley the more pleasing. Whoever called “Valparaiso” the +“Valley of +<a name="page271"></a> +Paradise,” must have been thinking of Quillota. We crossed over to the +Hacienda de San Isidro, situated at the very foot of the Bell Mountain. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl57.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl57.jpg" width="294" height="231" alt="Hacienda, condor, cactus, etc." /> +</div> + +<p>Chile, as may be seen in the maps, is a narrow strip of land +between the Cordillera and the Pacific; and this strip is itself +traversed by several mountain-lines, which in this part run +parallel to the great range. Between these outer lines and the main +Cordillera, a succession of level basins, generally opening into +each other by narrow passages, extend far to the southward: in +these, the principal towns are situated, as San Felipe, Santiago, +San Fernando. These basins or plains, together with the transverse +flat valleys (like that of Quillota) which connect them with the +coast, I have no doubt are the bottoms of ancient inlets and deep +bays, such as at the present day intersect every part of Tierra del +Fuego and the western coast. Chile must formerly have resembled the +latter country in the configuration of its land and water. The +resemblance was occasionally shown strikingly when a level fog-bank +covered, as with a mantle, all the lower parts of the country: the +white vapour curling into the ravines, beautifully represented +<a name="page272"></a> +little coves and bays; and here and there a solitary hillock +peeping up showed that it had formerly stood there as an islet. The +contrast of these flat valleys and basins with the irregular +mountains gave the scenery a character which to me was new and very +interesting.</p> + +<p>From the natural slope to seaward of these plains, they are very +easily irrigated, and in consequence singularly fertile. Without +this process the land would produce scarcely anything, for during +the whole summer the sky is cloudless. The mountains and hills are +dotted over with bushes and low trees, and excepting these the +vegetation is very scanty. Each landowner in the valley possesses a +certain portion of hill-country, where his half-wild cattle, in +considerable numbers, manage to find sufficient pasture. Once every +year there is a grand “rodeo,” when all the cattle are driven down, +counted, and marked, and a certain number separated to be fattened +in the irrigated fields. Wheat is extensively cultivated, and a +good deal of Indian corn: a kind of bean is, however, the staple +article of food for the common labourers. The orchards produce an +overflowing abundance of peaches, figs, and grapes. With all these +advantages the inhabitants of the country ought to be much more +prosperous than they are.</p> + +<p> +16<i>th.</i>—The mayor-domo of the Hacienda was good enough to give me a +guide and fresh horses; and in the morning we set out to ascend the Campana, or +Bell Mountain, which is 6400 feet high. The paths were very bad, but both the +geology and scenery amply repaid the trouble. We reached, by the evening, a +spring called the Agua del Guanaco, which is situated at a great height. This +must be an old name, for it is very many years since a guanaco drank its +waters. During the ascent I noticed that nothing but bushes grew on the +northern slope, whilst on the southern slope there was a bamboo about fifteen +feet high. In a few places there were palms, and I was surprised to see one at +an elevation of at least 4500 feet. These palms are, for their family, ugly +trees. Their stem is very large, and of a curious form, being thicker in the +middle than at the base or top. They are excessively numerous in some parts of +Chile, and valuable on account of a sort of treacle made from the sap. On one +estate near Petorca they tried to count them, but failed, after having numbered +several +<a name="page273"></a> +hundred thousand. Every year in the early spring, in August, very many are cut +down, and when the trunk is lying on the ground, the crown of leaves is lopped +off. The sap then immediately begins to flow from the upper end, and continues +so doing for some months: it is, however, necessary that a thin slice should be +shaved off from that end every morning, so as to expose a fresh surface. A good +tree will give ninety gallons, and all this must have been contained in the +vessels of the apparently dry trunk. It is said that the sap flows much more +quickly on those days when the sun is powerful; and likewise, that it is +absolutely necessary to take care, in cutting down the tree, that it should +fall with its head upwards on the side of the hill; for if it falls down the +slope, scarcely any sap will flow; although in that case one would have thought +that the action would have been aided, instead of checked, by the force of +gravity. The sap is concentrated by boiling, and is then called treacle, which +it very much resembles in taste. +</p> + +<p>We unsaddled our horses near the spring, and prepared to pass +the night. The evening was fine, and the atmosphere so clear that +the masts of the vessels at anchor in the bay of Valparaiso, +although no less than twenty-six geographical miles distant, could +be distinguished clearly as little black streaks. A ship doubling +the point under sail appeared as a bright white speck. Anson +expresses much surprise, in his voyage, at the distance at which +his vessels were discovered from the coast; but he did not +sufficiently allow for the height of the land and the great +transparency of the air.</p> + +<p>The setting of the sun was glorious; the valleys being black, +whilst the snowy peaks of the Andes yet retained a ruby tint. When +it was dark, we made a fire beneath a little arbour of bamboos, +fried our charqui (or dried slips of beef), took our maté, +and were quite comfortable. There is an inexpressible charm in thus +living in the open air. The evening was calm and still;—the +shrill noise of the mountain bizcacha, and the faint cry of a +goatsucker, were occasionally to be heard. Besides these, few +birds, or even insects, frequent these dry, parched mountains.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>August</i> 17<i>th.</i>—In the morning we climbed up the rough mass of +greenstone which crowns the summit. This rock, as +<a name="page274"></a> +frequently happens, was much shattered and broken into huge angular fragments. +I observed, however, one remarkable circumstance, namely, that many of the +surfaces presented every degree of freshness—some appearing as if broken +the day before, whilst on others lichens had either just become, or had long +grown, attached. I so fully believed that this was owing to the frequent +earthquakes, that I felt inclined to hurry from below each loose pile. As one +might very easily be deceived in a fact of this kind, I doubted its accuracy, +until ascending Mount Wellington, in Van Diemen’s Land, where earthquakes +do not occur; and there I saw the summit of the mountain similarly composed and +similarly shattered, but all the blocks appeared as if they had been hurled +into their present position thousands of years ago. +</p> + +<p>We spent the day on the summit, and I never enjoyed one more +thoroughly. Chile, bounded by the Andes and the Pacific, was seen +as in a map. The pleasure from the scenery, in itself beautiful, +was heightened by the many reflections which arose from the mere +view of the Campana range with its lesser parallel ones, and of the +broad valley of Quillota directly intersecting them. Who can avoid +wondering at the force which has upheaved these mountains, and even +more so at the countless ages which it must have required to have +broken through, removed, and levelled whole masses of them? It is +well in this case to call to mind the vast shingle and sedimentary +beds of Patagonia, which, if heaped on the Cordillera, would +increase its height by so many thousand feet. When in that country, +I wondered how any mountain-chain could have supplied such masses, +and not have been utterly obliterated. We must not now reverse the +wonder, and doubt whether all-powerful time can grind down +mountains—even the gigantic Cordillera—into gravel and +mud.</p> + +<p>The appearance of the Andes was different from that which I had +expected. The lower line of the snow was of course horizontal, and +to this line the even summits of the range seemed quite parallel. +Only at long intervals a group of points or a single cone showed +where a volcano had existed, or does now exist. Hence the range +resembled a great solid wall, surmounted here and there by a tower, +and making a most perfect barrier to the country.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page275"></a> +Almost every part of the hill had been drilled by attempts to +open gold-mines: the rage for mining has left scarcely a spot in +Chile unexamined. I spent the evening as before, talking round the +fire with my two companions. The Guasos of Chile, who correspond to +the Gauchos of the Pampas, are, however, a very different set of +beings. Chile is the more civilised of the two countries, and the +inhabitants, in consequence, have lost much individual character. +Gradations in rank are much more strongly marked: the Guaso does +not by any means consider every man his equal; and I was quite +surprised to find that my companions did not like to eat at the +same time with myself. This feeling of inequality is a necessary +consequence of the existence of an aristocracy of wealth. It is +said that some few of the greater landowners possess from five to +ten thousand pounds sterling per annum: an inequality of riches +which I believe is not met with in any of the cattle-breeding +countries eastward of the Andes. A traveller does not here meet +that unbounded hospitality which refuses all payment, but yet is so +kindly offered that no scruples can be raised in accepting it. +Almost every house in Chile will receive you for the night, but a +trifle is expected to be given in the morning; even a rich man will +accept two or three shillings. The Gaucho, although he may be a +cutthroat, is a gentleman; the Guaso is in few respects better, but +at the same time a vulgar, ordinary fellow. The two men, although +employed much in the same manner, are different in their habits and +attire; and the peculiarities of each are universal in their +respective countries. The Gaucho seems part of his horse, and +scorns to exert himself excepting when on its back; the Guaso may +be hired to work as a labourer in the fields. The former lives +entirely on animal food; the latter almost wholly on vegetable. We +do not here see the white boots, the broad drawers, and scarlet +chilipa; the picturesque costume of the Pampas. Here, common +trousers are protected by black and green worsted leggings. The +poncho, however, is common to both. The chief pride of the Guaso +lies in his spurs, which are absurdly large. I measured one which +was six inches in the <i>diameter</i> of the rowel, and the rowel +itself contained upwards of thirty points. The stirrups are on the +same scale, each consisting of a square, carved +<a name="page276"></a> +block of wood, hollowed out, yet weighing three or four pounds. +The Guaso is perhaps more expert with the lazo than the Gaucho; +but, from the nature of the country, he does not know the use of +the bolas.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>August</i> 18<i>th.</i>—We descended the mountain, and passed some +beautiful little spots, with rivulets and fine trees. Having slept at the same +hacienda as before, we rode during the two succeeding days up the valley, and +passed through Quillota, which is more like a collection of nursery-gardens +than a town. The orchards were beautiful, presenting one mass of +peach-blossoms. I saw, also, in one or two places the date-palm; it is a most +stately tree; and I should think a group of them in their native Asiatic or +African deserts must be superb. We passed likewise San Felipe, a pretty +straggling town like Quillota. The valley in this part expands into one of +those great bays or plains, reaching to the foot of the Cordillera, which have +been mentioned as forming so curious a part of the scenery of Chile. In the +evening we reached the mines of Jajuel, situated in a ravine at the flank of +the great chain. I stayed here five days. My host, the superintendent of the +mine, was a shrewd but rather ignorant Cornish miner. He had married a Spanish +woman, and did not mean to return home; but his admiration for the mines of +Cornwall remained unbounded. Amongst many other questions, he asked me, +“Now that George Rex is dead, how many more of the family of Rexes are +yet alive?” This Rex certainly must be a relation of the great author +Finis, who wrote all books! +</p> + +<p>These mines are of copper, and the ore is all shipped to +Swansea, to be smelted. Hence the mines have an aspect singularly +quiet, as compared to those in England: here no smoke, furnaces, or +great steam-engines, disturb the solitude of the surrounding +mountains.</p> + +<p>The Chilian government, or rather the old Spanish law, +encourages by every method the searching for mines. The discoverer +may work a mine on any ground, by paying five shillings; and before +paying this he may try, even in the garden of another man, for +twenty days.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl58.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl58.jpg" width="126" height="317" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p>It is now well known that the Chilian method of mining is the +cheapest. My host says that the two principal +<a name="page277"></a> +improvements introduced by foreigners have been, first, reducing by +previous roasting the copper pyrites—which, being the common +ore in Cornwall, the English miners were astounded on their arrival +to find thrown away as useless: secondly, stamping and washing the +scoriæ from the old furnaces—by which process particles +of metal are recovered in abundance. I have actually seen mules +carrying to the coast, for transportation to England, a cargo of +such cinders. But the first case is much the most curious. The +Chilian miners were so convinced that copper pyrites contained not +a particle of copper, that they laughed at the Englishmen for their +ignorance, who laughed in turn, and bought their richest veins for +a few dollars. It is very odd that, in a country where mining had +been extensively carried on for many years, so simple a process as +gently roasting the ore to expel the sulphur previous to smelting +it, had never been discovered. A few improvements have likewise +been introduced in some of the simple machinery; but even to the +present day, water is removed from some mines by men carrying it up +the shaft in leathern bags!</p> + +<p>The labouring men work very hard. They have little time allowed +for their meals, and during summer and winter they begin when it is +light, and leave off at dark. They are paid one pound sterling a +month, and their food is given them: this for breakfast consists of +sixteen figs and two small loaves of bread; for dinner, boiled +beans; for supper, broken roasted wheat grain. They scarcely ever +taste meat; as, with the twelve pounds per annum, they have to +clothe themselves and support their families. The miners who work +in the mine itself have twenty-five shillings per month, and are +allowed +<a name="page278"></a> +a little charqui. But these men come down from their bleak +habitations only once in every fortnight or three weeks.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl59.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl59.jpg" width="224" height="261" alt="Cactus; Cereus Peruviana" /> +</div> + +<p>During my stay here I thoroughly enjoyed scrambling about these +huge mountains. The geology, as might have been expected, was very +interesting. The shattered and baked rocks, traversed by +innumerable dikes of greenstone, showed what commotions had +formerly taken place. The scenery was much the same as that near +the Bell of Quillota—dry barren mountains, dotted at +intervals by bushes with a scanty foliage. The cactuses, or rather +opuntias, were here very numerous. I measured one of a spherical +figure, which, including the spines, was six feet and four inches +in circumference. The height of the common cylindrical, branching +kind, is from twelve to fifteen feet, and the girth (with spines) +of the branches between three and four feet.</p> + +<p>A heavy fall of snow on the mountains prevented me, during the +last two days, from making some interesting excursions. I attempted +to reach a lake which the inhabitants, from some +<a name="page279"></a> +unaccountable reason, believe to be an arm of the sea. During a +very dry season, it was proposed to attempt cutting a channel from +it for the sake of the water, but the padre, after a consultation, +declared it was too dangerous, as all Chile would be inundated, if, +as generally supposed, the lake was connected with the Pacific. We +ascended to a great height, but becoming involved in the +snow-drifts failed in reaching this wonderful lake, and had some +difficulty in returning. I thought we should have lost our horses; +for there was no means of guessing how deep the drifts were, and +the animals, when led, could only move by jumping. The black sky +showed that a fresh snowstorm was gathering, and we therefore were +not a little glad when we escaped. By the time we reached the base +the storm commenced, and it was lucky for us that this did not +happen three hours earlier in the day.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>August</i> 26<i>th.</i>—We left Jajuel and again crossed the basin of +San Felipe. The day was truly Chilian: glaringly bright, and the atmosphere +quite clear. The thick and uniform covering of newly-fallen snow rendered the +view of the volcano of Aconcagua and the main chain quite glorious. We were now +on the road to Santiago, the capital of Chile. We crossed the Cerro del +Talguen, and slept at a little rancho. The host, talking about the state of +Chile as compared to other countries, was very humble: “Some see with two +eyes, and some with one, but for my part I do not think that Chile sees with +any.” +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>August</i> 27<i>th.</i>—After crossing many low hills we descended +into the small land-locked plain of Guitron. In the basins, such as this one, +which are elevated from one thousand to two thousand feet above the sea, two +species of acacia, which are stunted in their forms, and stand wide apart from +each other, grow in large numbers. These trees are never found near the +sea-coast; and this gives another characteristic feature to the scenery of +these basins. We crossed a low ridge which separates Guitron from the great +plain on which Santiago stands. The view was here pre-eminently striking: the +dead level surface, covered in parts by woods of acacia, and with the city in +the distance, abutting horizontally against the base of the Andes, +<a name="page280"></a> +whose snowy peaks were bright with the evening sun. At the first glance of this +view, it was quite evident that the plain represented the extent of a former +inland sea. As soon as we gained the level road we pushed our horses into a +gallop, and reached the city before it was dark. +</p> + +<p>I stayed a week in Santiago and enjoyed myself very much. In the +morning I rode to various places on the plain, and in the evening +dined with several of the English merchants, whose hospitality at +this place is well known. A never-failing source of pleasure was to +ascend the little hillock of rock (St. Lucia) which projects in the +middle of the city. The scenery certainly is most striking, and, as +I have said, very peculiar. I am informed that this same character +is common to the cities on the great Mexican platform. Of the town +I have nothing to say in detail: it is not so fine or so large as +Buenos Ayres, but is built after the same model. I arrived here by +a circuit to the north; so I resolved to return to Valparaiso by a +rather longer excursion to the south of the direct road.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>September</i> 5<i>th.</i>—By the middle of the day we arrived at one +of the suspension bridges made of hide, which cross the Maypu, a large +turbulent river a few leagues southward of Santiago. These bridges are very +poor affairs. The road, following the curvature of the suspending ropes, is +made of bundles of sticks placed close together. It was full of holes, and +oscillated rather fearfully, even with the weight of a man leading his horse. +In the evening we reached a comfortable farm-house, where there were several +very pretty señoritas. They were much horrified at my having entered one of +their churches out of mere curiosity. They asked me, “Why do you not +become a Christian—for our religion is certain?” I assured them I +was a sort of Christian; but they would not hear of it—appealing to my +own words, “Do not your padres, your very bishops, marry?” The +absurdity of a bishop having a wife particularly struck them: they scarcely +knew whether to be most amused or horror-struck at such an enormity. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +6<i>th.</i>—We proceeded due south, and slept at Rancagua. The road +passed over the level but narrow plain, bounded on +<a name="page281"></a> +one side by lofty hills, and on the other by the Cordillera. The next day we +turned up the valley of the Rio Cachapual, in which the hot-baths of Cauquenes, +long celebrated for their medicinal properties, are situated. The suspension +bridges, in the less frequented parts, are generally taken down during the +winter when the rivers are low. Such was the case in this valley, and we were +therefore obliged to cross the stream on horseback. This is rather +disagreeable, for the foaming water, though not deep, rushes so quickly over +the bed of large rounded stones, that one’s head becomes quite confused, +and it is difficult even to perceive whether the horse is moving onward or +standing still. In summer, when the snow melts, the torrents are quite +impassable; their strength and fury are then extremely great, as might be +plainly seen by the marks which they had left. We reached the baths in the +evening, and stayed there five days, being confined the two last by heavy rain. +The buildings consist of a square of miserable little hovels, each with a +single table and bench. They are situated in a narrow deep valley just without +the central Cordillera. It is a quiet, solitary spot, with a good deal of wild +beauty. +</p> + +<p>The mineral springs of Cauquenes burst forth on a line of +dislocation, crossing a mass of stratified rock, the whole of which +betrays the action of heat. A considerable quantity of gas is +continually escaping from the same orifices with the water. Though +the springs are only a few yards apart, they have very different +temperatures; and this appears to be the result of an unequal +mixture of cold water: for those with the lowest temperature have +scarcely any mineral taste. After the great earthquake of 1822 the +springs ceased, and the water did not return for nearly a year. +They were also much affected by the earthquake of 1835; the +temperature being suddenly changed from 118° to +92°.<a href="#fn-12.1" name="fnref-12.1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> +It seems probable that mineral waters rising deep from the bowels of the earth +would always be more deranged by subterranean disturbances than those nearer +the surface. The man who had charge of the baths assured me that in summer the +water is hotter and more plentiful than in winter. The former circumstance I +should have expected, from the less mixture, during the dry season, of cold +water; but the latter statement appears very strange and contradictory. The +<a name="page282"></a> +periodical increase during the summer, when rain never falls, +can, I think, only be accounted for by the melting of the snow: yet +the mountains which are covered by snow during that season are +three or four leagues distant from the springs. I have no reason to +doubt the accuracy of my informer, who, having lived on the spot +for several years, ought to be well acquainted with the +circumstance,—which, if true, certainly is very curious: for +we must suppose that the snow-water, being conducted through porous +strata to the regions of heat, is again thrown up to the surface by +the line of dislocated and injected rocks at Cauquenes; and the +regularity of the phenomenon would seem to indicate that in this +district heated rock occurred at a depth not very great.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-12.1"></a> <a href="#fnref-12.1">[1]</a> +Caldcleugh, in <i>Philosoph. Transact.</i> for 1836.</p> + +<p>One day I rode up the valley to the farthest inhabited spot. +Shortly above that point, the Cachapual divides into two deep +tremendous ravines, which penetrate directly into the great range. +I scrambled up a peaked mountain, probably more than six thousand +feet high. Here, as indeed everywhere else, scenes of the highest +interest presented themselves. It was by one of these ravines that +Pincheira entered Chile and ravaged the neighbouring country. This +is the same man whose attack on an estancia at the Rio Negro I have +described. He was a renegade half-caste Spaniard, who collected a +great body of Indians together and established himself by a stream +in the Pampas, which place none of the forces sent after him could +ever discover. From this point he used to sally forth, and crossing +the Cordillera by passes hitherto unattempted, he ravaged the +farm-houses and drove the cattle to his secret rendezvous. +Pincheira was a capital horseman, and he made all around him +equally good, for he invariably shot any one who hesitated to +follow him. It was against this man, and other wandering Indian +tribes, that Rosas waged the war of extermination.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl60.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl60.jpg" width="479" height="316" alt="Cordilleras from Santiago de Chile" /> +</div> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>September</i> 13<i>th.</i>—We left the baths of Cauquenes, and, +rejoining the main road, slept at the Rio Claro. From this place we rode to the +town of San Fernando. Before arriving there, the last land-locked basin had +expanded into a great plain, which extended so far to the south that the snowy +summits of the more distant Andes were seen as if above the horizon of the sea. +San Fernando is forty leagues from Santiago; and it was my +<a name="page283"></a> +farthest point southward; for we here turned at right angles towards the coast. +We slept at the gold-mines of Yaquil, which are worked by Mr. Nixon, an +American gentleman, to whose kindness I was much indebted during the four days +I stayed at his house. The next morning we rode to the mines, which are +situated at the distance of some leagues, near the summit of a lofty hill. On +the way we had a glimpse of the lake Tagua-tagua, celebrated for its floating +islands, which have been described by M. Gay.<a href="#fn-12.2" +name="fnref-12.2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> They are composed of the stalks of various +dead plants intertwined together, and on the surface of which other living ones +take root. Their form is generally circular, and their thickness from four to +six feet, of which the greater part is immersed in the water. As the wind +blows, they pass from one side of the lake to the other, and often carry cattle +and horses as passengers. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-12.2"></a> <a href="#fnref-12.2">[2]</a> +<i>Annales des Sciences Naturelles</i>, March, 1833. M. Gay, a zealous and able +naturalist, was then occupied in studying every branch of natural history +throughout the kingdom of Chile.</p> + +<p>When we arrived at the mine, I was struck by the pale appearance +of many of the men, and inquired from Mr. Nixon respecting their +condition. The mine is 450 feet deep, and each man brings up about +200 pounds weight of stone. With this load they have to climb up +the alternate notches cut in the trunks of trees, placed in a +zigzag line up the shaft. Even beardless young men, eighteen and +twenty years old, with little muscular development of their bodies +(they are quite naked excepting drawers) ascend with this great +load from nearly the same depth. A strong man, who is not +accustomed to this labour, perspires most profusely, with merely +carrying up his own body. With this very severe labour, they live +entirely on boiled beans and bread. They would prefer having bread +alone; but their masters, finding that they cannot work so hard +upon this, treat them like horses, and make them eat the beans. +Their pay is here rather more than at the mines of Jajuel, being +from 24 to 28 shillings per month. They leave the mine only once in +three weeks; when they stay with their families for two days. One +of the rules of this mine sounds very harsh, but answers pretty +well for the master. The only method of stealing gold is to secrete +pieces of the ore, and take them out as occasion may offer. +Whenever the major-domo +<a name="page284"></a> +finds a lump thus hidden, its full value is stopped out of the +wages of all the men; who thus, without they all combine, are +obliged to keep watch over each other.</p> + +<p>When the ore is brought to the mill, it is ground into an +impalpable powder; the process of washing removes all the lighter +particles, and amalgamation finally secures the gold-dust. The +washing, when described, sounds a very simple process; but it is +beautiful to see how the exact adaptation of the current of water +to the specific gravity of the gold so easily separates the +powdered matrix from the metal. The mud which passes from the mills +is collected into pools, where it subsides, and every now and then +is cleared out, and thrown into a common heap. A great deal of +chemical action then commences, salts of various kinds effloresce +on the surface, and the mass becomes hard. After having been left +for a year or two, and then rewashed, it yields gold; and this +process may be repeated even six or seven times; but the gold each +time becomes less in quantity, and the intervals required (as the +inhabitants say, to generate the metal) are longer. There can be no +doubt that the chemical action, already mentioned, each time +liberates fresh gold from some combination. The discovery of a +method to effect this before the first grinding would without doubt +raise the value of gold-ores many fold. It is curious to find how +the minute particles of gold, being scattered about and not +corroding, at last accumulate in some quantity. A short time since +a few miners, being out of work, obtained permission to scrape the +ground round the house and mill; they washed the earth thus got +together, and so procured thirty dollars worth of gold. This is an +exact counterpart of what takes place in nature. Mountains suffer +degradation and wear away, and with them the metallic veins which +they contain. The hardest rock is worn into impalpable mud, the +ordinary metals oxidate, and both are removed; but gold, platina, +and a few others are nearly indestructible, and from their weight, +sinking to the bottom, are left behind. After whole mountains have +passed through this grinding mill, and have been washed by the hand +of nature, the residue becomes metalliferous, and man finds it +worth his while to complete the task of separation.</p> + +<p>Bad as the above treatment of the miners appears, it is +<a name="page285"></a> +gladly accepted of by them; for the condition of the labouring +agriculturists is much worse. Their wages are lower, and they live +almost exclusively on beans. This poverty must be chiefly owing to +the feudal-like system on which the land is tilled: the landowner +gives a small plot of ground to the labourer, for building on and +cultivating, and in return has his services (or those of a proxy) +for every day of his life, without any wages. Until a father has a +grown-up son, who can by his labour pay the rent, there is no one, +except on occasional days, to take care of his own patch of ground. +Hence extreme poverty is very common among the labouring classes in +this country.</p> + +<p>There are some old Indian ruins in this neighbourhood, and I was +shown one of the perforated stones, which Molina mentions as being +found in many places in considerable numbers. They are of a +circular flattened form, from five to six inches in diameter, with +a hole passing quite through the centre. It has generally been +supposed that they were used as heads to clubs, although their form +does not appear at all well adapted for that purpose. +Burchell<a href="#fn-12.3" name="fnref-12.3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> +states that some of the tribes in Southern Africa dig up roots by the aid of a +stick pointed at one end, the force and weight of which are increased by a +round stone with a hole in it, into which the other end is firmly wedged. It +appears probable that the Indians of Chile formerly used some such rude +agricultural instrument.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-12.3"></a> <a href="#fnref-12.3">[3]</a> +Burchell’s <i>Travels</i>, vol. ii, p. 45.</p> + +<p>One day, a German collector in natural history, of the name of +Renous, called, and nearly at the same time an old Spanish lawyer. +I was amused at being told the conversation which took place +between them. Renous speaks Spanish so well that the old lawyer +mistook him for a Chilian. Renous alluding to me, asked him what he +thought of the King of England sending out a collector to their +country, to pick up lizards and beetles, and to break stones? The +old gentleman thought seriously for some time, and then said, “It +is not well,—<i>hay un gato encerrado aqui</i> (there is a +cat shut up here). No man is so rich as to send out people to pick +up such rubbish. I do not like it: if one of us were to go and do +such things in England, do not you think the King of England would +very soon send us out of his country?” And this old gentleman, +from +<a name="page286"></a> +his profession, belongs to the better informed and more +intelligent classes! Renous himself, two or three years before, +left in a house at San Fernando some caterpillars, under charge of +a girl to feed, that they might turn into butterflies. This was +rumoured through the town, and at last the Padres and Governor +consulted together, and agreed it must be some heresy. Accordingly, +when Renous returned, he was arrested.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>September</i> 19<i>th.</i>—We left Yaquil, and followed the flat +valley, formed like that of Quillota, in which the Rio Tinderidica flows. Even +at these few miles south of Santiago the climate is much damper; in consequence +there were fine tracts of pasturage which were not irrigated. (<i>20th.</i>) We +followed this valley till it expanded into a great plain, which reaches from +the sea to the mountains west of Rancagua. We shortly lost all trees and even +bushes; so that the inhabitants are nearly as badly off for firewood as those +in the Pampas. Never having heard of these plains, I was much surprised at +meeting with such scenery in Chile. The plains belong to more than one series +of different elevations, and they are traversed by broad flat-bottomed valleys; +both of which circumstances, as in Patagonia, bespeak the action of the sea on +gently rising land. In the steep cliffs bordering these valleys there are some +large caves, which no doubt were originally formed by the waves: one of these +is celebrated under the name of Cueva del Obispo; having formerly been +consecrated. During the day I felt very unwell, and from that time till the end +of October did not recover. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>September</i> 22<i>nd.</i>—We continued to pass over green plains +without a tree. The next day we arrived at a house near Navedad, on the +sea-coast, where a rich Haciendero gave us lodgings. I stayed here the two +ensuing days, and although very unwell, managed to collect from the tertiary +formation some marine shells. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +24<i>th.</i>—Our course was now directed towards Valparaiso, which with +great difficulty I reached on the 27th, and was there confined to my bed till +the end of October. During this +<a name="page287"></a> +time I was an inmate in Mr. Corfield’s house, whose kindness to me I do +not know how to express. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +I will here add a few observations on some of the animals and birds of Chile. +The Puma, or South American Lion, is not uncommon. This animal has a wide +geographical range; being found from the equatorial forests, throughout the +deserts of Patagonia, as far south as the damp and cold latitudes (53° to +54°) of Tierra del Fuego. I have seen its footsteps in the Cordillera of +central Chile, at an elevation of at least 10,000 feet. In La Plata the puma +preys chiefly on deer, ostriches, bizcacha, and other small quadrupeds; it +there seldom attacks cattle or horses, and most rarely man. In Chile, however, +it destroys many young horses and cattle, owing probably to the scarcity of +other quadrupeds: I heard, likewise, of two men and a woman who had been thus +killed. It is asserted that the puma always kills its prey by springing on the +shoulders, and then drawing back the head with one of its paws, until the +vertebræ break: I have seen in Patagonia the skeletons of guanacos, with their +necks thus dislocated. +</p> + +<p>The puma, after eating its fill, covers the carcass with many +large bushes, and lies down to watch it. This habit is often the +cause of its being discovered; for the condors wheeling in the air, +every now and then descend to partake of the feast, and being +angrily driven away, rise all together on the wing. The Chileno +Guaso then knows there is a lion watching his prey—the word +is given—and men and dogs hurry to the chase. Sir F. Head +says that a Gaucho in the Pampas, upon merely seeing some condors +wheeling in the air, cried “A lion!” I could never myself meet with +any one who pretended to such powers of discrimination. It is +asserted that if a puma has once been betrayed by thus watching the +carcass, and has then been hunted, it never resumes this habit; but +that having gorged itself, it wanders far away. The puma is easily +killed. In an open country it is first entangled with the bolas, +then lazoed, and dragged along the ground till rendered insensible. +At Tandeel (south of the Plata), I was told that within three +months one hundred were thus destroyed. In Chile they are generally +driven up bushes or trees, and are then either shot, or baited to +death by dogs. The dogs employed in this chase +<a name="page288"></a> +belong to a particular breed, called Leoneros: they are weak, +slight animals, like long-legged terriers, but are born with a +particular instinct for this sport. The puma is described as being +very crafty: when pursued, it often returns on its former track, +and then suddenly making a spring on one side, waits there till the +dogs have passed by. It is a very silent animal, uttering no cry +even when wounded, and only rarely during the breeding season.</p> + +<p>Of birds, two species of the genus Pteroptochos (megapodius and +albicollis of Kittlitz) are perhaps the most conspicuous. The +former, called by the Chilenos “el Turco,” is as large as a +fieldfare, to which bird it has some alliance; but its legs are +much longer, tail shorter, and beak stronger: its colour is a +reddish brown. The Turco is not uncommon. It lives on the ground, +sheltered among the thickets which are scattered over the dry and +sterile hills. With its tail erect, and stilt-like legs, it may be +seen every now and then popping from one bush to another with +uncommon quickness. It really requires little imagination to +believe that the bird is ashamed of itself, and is aware of its +most ridiculous figure. On first seeing it, one is tempted to +exclaim, “A vilely stuffed specimen has escaped from some museum, +and has come to life again!” It cannot be made to take flight +without the greatest trouble, nor does it run, but only hops. The +various loud cries which it utters when concealed amongst the +bushes are as strange as its appearance. It is said to build its +nest in a deep hole beneath the ground. I dissected several +specimens: the gizzard, which was very muscular, contained beetles, +vegetable fibres, and pebbles. From this character, from the length +of its legs, scratching feet, membranous covering to the nostrils, +short and arched wings, this bird seems in a certain degree to +connect the thrushes with the gallinaceous order.</p> + +<p>The second species (or P. albicollis) is allied to the first in +its general form. It is called Tapacolo, or “cover your posterior;” +and well does the shameless little bird deserve its name; for it +carries its tail more than erect, that is, inclined backwards +towards its head. It is very common, and frequents the bottoms of +hedgerows, and the bushes scattered over the barren hills, where +scarcely another bird can exist. In its general manner of feeding, +of quickly hopping out of the thickets +<a name="page289"></a> +and back again, in its desire of concealment, unwillingness to +take flight, and nidification, it bears a close resemblance to the +Turco; but its appearance is not quite so ridiculous. The Tapacolo +is very crafty: when frightened by any person, it will remain +motionless at the bottom of a bush, and will then, after a little +while, try with much address to crawl away on the opposite side. It +is also an active bird, and continually making a noise: these +noises are various and strangely odd; some are like the cooing of +doves, others like the bubbling of water, and many defy all +similes. The country people say it changes its cry five times in +the year—according to some change of season, I +suppose.<a href="#fn-12.4" name="fnref-12.4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-12.4"></a> <a href="#fnref-12.4">[4]</a> +It is a remarkable fact that Molina, though describing in detail all the birds +and animals of Chile, never once mentions this genus, the species of which are +so common, and so remarkable in their habits. Was he at a loss how to classify +them, and did he consequently think that silence was the more prudent course? +It is one more instance of the frequency of omissions by authors on those very +subjects where it might have been least expected.</p> + +<p>Two species of humming-birds are common; Trochilus forficatus is +found over a space of 2500 miles on the west coast, from the hot +dry country of Lima to the forests of Tierra del Fuego—where +it may be seen flitting about in snow-storms. In the wooded island +of Chiloe, which has an extremely humid climate, this little bird, +skipping from side to side amidst the dripping foliage, is perhaps +more abundant than almost any other kind. I opened the stomachs of +several specimens, shot in different parts of the continent, and in +all, remains of insects were as numerous as in the stomach of a +creeper. When this species migrates in the summer southward, it is +replaced by the arrival of another species coming from the north. +This second kind (Trochilus gigas) is a very large bird for the +delicate family to which it belongs: when on the wing its +appearance is singular. Like others of the genus, it moves from +place to place with a rapidity which may be compared to that of +Syrphus amongst flies, and Sphinx among moths; but whilst hovering +over a flower, it flaps its wings with a very slow and powerful +movement, totally different from that vibratory one common to most +of the species, which produces the humming noise. I never saw any +other bird where the force of its wings appeared (as in a +butterfly) so powerful in proportion to the weight of its body. +When hovering by a flower, its tail is constantly expanded and shut +like a fan, the +<a name="page290"></a> +body being kept in a nearly vertical position. This action +appears to steady and support the bird, between the slow movements +of its wings. Although flying from flower to flower in search of +food, its stomach generally contained abundant remains of insects, +which I suspect are much more the object of its search than honey. +The note of this species, like that of nearly the whole family, is +extremely shrill.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl61.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl61.jpg" width="284" height="260" alt="Chilian spurs, stirrup, etc." /> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl62.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl62.jpg" width="287" height="232" alt="Old Church, Castro, Chiloe" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="page291"></a><a name="chxiii"></a>Chapter XIII</h2> + +<p class="letter">Chiloe—General Aspect—Boat +excursion—Native Indians—Castro—Tame +fox—Ascend San Pedro—Chonos Archipelago—Peninsula +of Tres Montes—Granitic range—Boat-wrecked +sailors—Low’s Harbour—Wild potato—Formation of +peat—Myopotamus, otter and mice—Cheucau and +Barking-bird—Opetiorhynchus—Singular character of +ornithology—Petrels.</p> + +<h3>CHILOE AND CHONOS ISLANDS</h3> + +<p> +<i>November</i> 10<i>th.</i>—The <i>Beagle</i> sailed from Valparaiso to +the south, for the purpose of surveying the southern part of Chile, the island +of Chiloe, and the broken land called the Chonos Archipelago, as far south as +the Peninsula of Tres Montes. On the 21st we anchored in the bay of S. Carlos, +the capital of Chiloe. +</p> + +<p>This island is about ninety miles long, with a breadth of rather +less than thirty. The land is hilly, but not mountainous, and is +covered by one great forest, except where a few green patches have +been cleared round the thatched cottages. From +<a name="page292"></a> +a distance the view somewhat resembles that of Tierra del Fuego; +but the woods, when seen nearer, are incomparably more beautiful. +Many kinds of fine evergreen trees, and plants with a tropical +character, here take the place of the gloomy beech of the southern +shores. In winter the climate is detestable, and in summer it is +only a little better. I should think there are few parts of the +world, within the temperate regions, where so much rain falls. The +winds are very boisterous, and the sky almost always clouded: to +have a week of fine weather is something wonderful. It is even +difficult to get a single glimpse of the Cordillera: during our +first visit, once only the volcano of Osorno stood out in bold +relief, and that was before sunrise; it was curious to watch, as +the sun rose, the outline gradually fading away in the glare of the +eastern sky.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants, from their complexion and low stature, appear +to have three-fourths of Indian blood in their veins. They are an +humble, quiet, industrious set of men. Although the fertile soil, +resulting from the decomposition of the volcanic rocks, supports a +rank vegetation, yet the climate is not favourable to any +production which requires much sunshine to ripen it. There is very +little pasture for the larger quadrupeds; and in consequence, the +staple articles of food are pigs, potatoes, and fish. The people +all dress in strong woollen garments, which each family makes for +itself, and dyes with indigo of a dark blue colour. The arts, +however, are in the rudest state;—as may be seen in their +strange fashion of ploughing, their method of spinning, grinding +corn, and in the construction of their boats. The forests are so +impenetrable that the land is nowhere cultivated except near the +coast and on the adjoining islets. Even where paths exist, they are +scarcely passable from the soft and swampy state of the soil. The +inhabitants, like those of Tierra del Fuego, move about chiefly on +the beach or in boats. Although with plenty to eat, the people are +very poor: there is no demand for labour, and consequently the +lower orders cannot scrape together money sufficient to purchase +even the smallest luxuries. There is also a great deficiency of a +circulating medium. I have seen a man bringing on his back a bag of +charcoal, with which to buy some trifle, and another carrying a +plank to exchange for a bottle of wine. Hence every tradesman must +also be +<a name="page293"></a> +a merchant, and again sell the goods which he takes in +exchange.</p> + +<p> +<i>November</i> 24<i>th.</i>—The yawl and whale-boat were sent under the +command of Mr. (now Captain) Sulivan to survey the eastern or inland coast of +Chiloe; and with orders to meet the <i>Beagle</i> at the southern extremity of +the island; to which point she would proceed by the outside, so as thus to +circumnavigate the whole. I accompanied this expedition, but instead of going +in the boats the first day, I hired horses to take me to Chacao, at the +northern extremity of the island. The road followed the coast; every now and +then crossing promontories covered by fine forests. In these shaded paths it is +absolutely necessary that the whole road should be made of logs of wood, which +are squared and placed by the side of each other. From the rays of the sun +never penetrating the evergreen foliage, the ground is so damp and soft, that +except by this means neither man nor horse would be able to pass along. I +arrived at the village of Chacao shortly after the tents belonging to the boats +were pitched for the night. +</p> + +<p>The land in this neighbourhood has been extensively cleared, and +there were many quiet and most picturesque nooks in the forest. +Chacao was formerly the principal port in the island; but many +vessels having been lost, owing to the dangerous currents and rocks +in the straits, the Spanish government burnt the church, and thus +arbitrarily compelled the greater number of inhabitants to migrate +to S. Carlos. We had not long bivouacked, before the barefooted son +of the governor came down to reconnoitre us. Seeing the English +flag hoisted at the yawl’s masthead, he asked with the utmost +indifference, whether it was always to fly at Chacao. In several +places the inhabitants were much astonished at the appearance of +men-of-war’s boats, and hoped and believed it was the forerunner of +a Spanish fleet, coming to recover the island from the patriot +government of Chile. All the men in power, however, had been +informed of our intended visit, and were exceedingly civil. While +we were eating our supper, the governor paid us a visit. He had +been a lieutenant-colonel in the Spanish service, but now was +miserably poor. He gave us two sheep, and accepted in return two +cotton handkerchiefs, some brass trinkets, and a little +tobacco.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page294"></a> +25<i>th.</i>—Torrents of rain: we managed, however, to run down the coast +as far as Huapi-lenou. The whole of this eastern side of Chiloe has one aspect; +it is a plain, broken by valleys and divided into little islands, and the whole +thickly covered with one impervious blackish-green forest. On the margins there +are some cleared spaces, surrounding the high-roofed cottages. +</p> + +<p> +26<i>th.</i>—The day rose splendidly clear. The volcano of Orsono was +spouting out volumes of smoke. This most beautiful mountain, formed like a +perfect cone, and white with snow, stands out in front of the Cordillera. +Another great volcano, with a saddle-shaped summit, also emitted from its +immense crater little jets of steam. Subsequently we saw the lofty-peaked +Corcovado—well deserving the name of “el famoso Corcovado.” +Thus we beheld, from one point of view, three great active volcanoes, each +about seven thousand feet high. In addition to this, far to the south there +were other lofty cones covered with snow, which, although not known to be +active, must be in their origin volcanic. The line of the Andes is not, in this +neighbourhood, nearly so elevated as in Chile; neither does it appear to form +so perfect a barrier between the regions of the earth. This great range, +although running in a straight north and south line, owing to an optical +deception always appeared more or less curved; for the lines drawn from each +peak to the beholder’s eye necessarily converged like the radii of a +semicircle, and as it was not possible (owing to the clearness of the +atmosphere and the absence of all intermediate objects) to judge how far +distant the farthest peaks were off, they appeared to stand in a flattish +semicircle. +</p> + +<p>Landing at midday, we saw a family of pure Indian extraction. +The father was singularly like York Minster; and some of the +younger boys, with their ruddy complexions, might have been +mistaken for Pampas Indians. Everything I have seen convinces me of +the close connexion of the different American tribes, who +nevertheless speak distinct languages. This party could muster but +little Spanish, and talked to each other in their own tongue. It is +a pleasant thing to see the aborigines advanced to the same degree +of civilisation, however low that may be, which their white +conquerors have attained. +<a name="page295"></a> +More to the south we saw many pure Indians: indeed, all the +inhabitants of some of the islets retain their Indian surnames. In +the census of 1832 there were in Chiloe and its dependencies +forty-two thousand souls: the greater number of these appear to be +of mixed blood. Eleven thousand retain their Indian surnames, but +it is probable that not nearly all of these are of a pure breed. +Their manner of life is the same with that of the other poor +inhabitants, and they are all Christians; but it is said that they +yet retain some strange superstitious ceremonies, and that they +pretend to hold communication with the devil in certain caves. +Formerly, every one convicted of this offence was sent to the +Inquisition at Lima. Many of the inhabitants who are not included +in the eleven thousand with Indian surnames, cannot be +distinguished by their appearance from Indians. Gomez, the governor +of Lemuy, is descended from noblemen of Spain on both sides; but by +constant intermarriages with the natives the present man is an +Indian. On the other hand, the governor of Quinchao boasts much of +his purely kept Spanish blood.</p> + +<p>We reached at night a beautiful little cove, north of the island +of Caucahue. The people here complained of want of land. This is +partly owing to their own negligence in not clearing the woods, and +partly to restrictions by the government, which makes it necessary, +before buying ever so small a piece, to pay two shillings to the +surveyor for measuring each quadra (150 yards square), together +with whatever price he fixes for the value of the land. After his +valuation the land must be put up three times to auction, and if no +one bids more, the purchaser can have it at that rate. All these +exactions must be a serious check to clearing the ground, where the +inhabitants are so extremely poor. In most countries, forests are +removed without much difficulty by the aid of fire; but in Chiloe, +from the damp nature of the climate, and the sort of trees, it is +necessary first to cut them down. This is a heavy drawback to the +prosperity of Chiloe. In the time of the Spaniards the Indians +could not hold land; and a family, after having cleared a piece of +ground, might be driven away, and the property seized by the +government. The Chilian authorities are now performing an act of +justice by making retribution to these poor Indians, giving to +each +<a name="page296"></a> +man, according to his grade of life, a certain portion of land. +The value of uncleared ground is very little. The government gave +Mr. Douglas (the present surveyor, who informed me of these +circumstances) eight and a half square miles of forest near S. +Carlos, in lieu of a debt; and this he sold for 350 dollars, or +about £70 sterling.</p> + +<p>The two succeeding days were fine, and at night we reached the +island of Quinchao. This neighbourhood is the most cultivated part +of the Archipelago; for a broad strip of land on the coast of the +main island, as well as on many of the smaller adjoining ones, is +almost completely cleared. Some of the farmhouses seemed very +comfortable. I was curious to ascertain how rich any of these +people might be, but Mr. Douglas says that no one can be considered +as possessing a regular income. One of the richest landowners might +possibly accumulate, in a long industrious life, as much as +£1000 sterling; but should this happen, it would all be +stowed away in some secret corner, for it is the custom of almost +every family to have a jar or treasure-chest buried in the +ground.</p> + +<p> +<i>November</i> 30<i>th.</i>—Early on Sunday morning we reached Castro, +the ancient capital of Chiloe, but now a most forlorn and deserted place. The +usual quadrangular arrangement of Spanish towns could be traced, but the +streets and plaza were coated with fine green turf, on which sheep were +browsing. The church, which stands in the middle, is entirely built of plank, +and has a picturesque and venerable appearance. The poverty of the place may be +conceived from the fact, that although containing some hundreds of inhabitants, +one of our party was unable anywhere to purchase either a pound of sugar or an +ordinary knife. No individual possessed either a watch or a clock; and an old +man who was supposed to have a good idea of time, was employed to strike the +church bell by guess. The arrival of our boats was a rare event in this quiet +retired corner of the world; and nearly all the inhabitants came down to the +beach to see us pitch our tents. They were very civil, and offered us a house; +and one man even sent us a cask of cider as a present. In the afternoon we paid +our respects to the governor—a quiet old man, who, in his appearance and +manner of life, was scarcely superior to an English cottager. At night heavy +rain set in, which was +<a name="page297"></a> +hardly sufficient to drive away from our tents the large circle of lookers on. +An Indian family, who had come to trade in a canoe from Caylen, bivouacked near +us. They had no shelter during the rain. In the morning I asked a young Indian, +who was wet to the skin, how he had passed the night. He seemed perfectly +content, and answered, “Muy bien, señor.” +</p> + +<p> +<i>December</i> 1<i>st.</i>—We steered for the island of Lemuy. I was +anxious to examine a reported coal-mine which turned out to be lignite of +little value, in the sandstone (probably of an ancient tertiary epoch) of which +these islands are composed. When we reached Lemuy we had much difficulty in +finding any place to pitch our tents, for it was spring-tide, and the land was +wooded down to the water’s edge. In a short time we were surrounded by a +large group of the nearly pure Indian inhabitants. They were much surprised at +our arrival, and said one to the other, “This is the reason we have seen +so many parrots lately; the cheucau (an odd red-breasted little bird, which +inhabits the thick forest, and utters very peculiar noises) has not cried +‘beware’ for nothing.” They were soon anxious for barter. +Money was scarcely worth anything, but their eagerness for tobacco was +something quite extraordinary. After tobacco, indigo came next in value; then +capsicum, old clothes, and gunpowder. The latter article was required for a +very innocent purpose: each parish has a public musket, and the gunpowder was +wanted for making a noise on their saint or feast days. +</p> + +<p>The people here live chiefly on shell-fish and potatoes. At +certain seasons they catch also, in “corrales,” or hedges under +water, many fish which are left on the mud-banks as the tide falls. +They occasionally possess fowls, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and +cattle; the order in which they are here mentioned, expressing +their respective numbers. I never saw anything more obliging and +humble than the manners of these people. They generally began with +stating that they were poor natives of the place, and not Spaniards +and that they were in sad want of tobacco and other comforts. At +Caylen, the most southern island, the sailors bought with a stick +of tobacco, of the value of three-halfpence, two fowls, one of +which, the Indian stated, had skin between its toes, and turned out +to +<a name="page298"></a> +be a fine duck; and with some cotton handkerchiefs, worth three +shillings, three sheep and a large bunch of onions were procured. +The yawl at this place was anchored some way from the shore, and we +had fears for her safety from robbers during the night. Our pilot, +Mr. Douglas, accordingly told the constable of the district that we +always placed sentinels with loaded arms, and not understanding +Spanish, if we saw any person in the dark, we should assuredly +shoot him. The constable, with much humility, agreed to the perfect +propriety of this arrangement, and promised us that no one should +stir out of his house during that night.</p> + +<p>During the four succeeding days we continued sailing southward. +The general features of the country remained the same, but it was +much less thickly inhabited. On the large island of Tanqui there +was scarcely one cleared spot, the trees on every side extending +their branches over the sea-beach. I one day noticed, growing on +the sandstone cliffs, some very fine plants of the panke (Gunnera +scabra), which somewhat resembles the rhubarb on a gigantic scale. +The inhabitants eat the stalks, which are subacid, and tan leather +with the roots, and prepare a black dye from them. The leaf is +nearly circular, but deeply indented on its margin. I measured one +which was nearly eight feet in diameter, and therefore no less than +twenty-four in circumference! The stalk is rather more than a yard +high, and each plant sends out four or five of these enormous +leaves, presenting together a very noble appearance.</p> + +<p> +<i>December</i> 6<i>th.</i>—We reached Caylen, called “el fin del +Cristiandad.” In the morning we stopped for a few minutes at a house on +the northern end of Laylec, which was the extreme point of South American +Christendom, and a miserable hovel it was. The latitude is 43° 10′, +which is two degrees farther south than the Rio Negro on the Atlantic coast. +These extreme Christians were very poor, and, under the plea of their +situation, begged for some tobacco. As a proof of the poverty of these Indians, +I may mention that shortly before this we had met a man, who had travelled +three days and a half on foot, and had as many to return, for the sake of +recovering the value of a small axe and a few fish. How very difficult it must +be to buy the smallest article, when such trouble is taken to recover so small +a debt. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="page299"></a> +In the evening we reached the island of San Pedro, where we +found the <i>Beagle</i> at anchor. In doubling the point, two of +the officers landed to take a round of angles with the theodolite. +A fox (Canis fulvipes), of a kind said to be peculiar to the +island, and very rare in it, and which is a new species, was +sitting on the rocks. He was so intently absorbed in watching the +work of the officers, that I was able, by quietly walking up +behind, to knock him on the head with my geological hammer. This +fox, more curious or more scientific, but less wise, than the +generality of his brethren, is now mounted in the museum of the +Zoological Society.</p> + +<p>We stayed three days in this harbour, on one of which Captain +Fitz Roy, with a party, attempted to ascend to the summit of San +Pedro. The woods here had rather a different appearance from those +on the northern part of the island. The rock, also, being micaceous +slate, there was no beach, but the steep sides dipped directly +beneath the water. The general aspect in consequence was more like +that of Tierra del Fuego than of Chiloe. In vain we tried to gain +the summit: the forest was so impenetrable, that no one who has not +beheld it can imagine so entangled a mass of dying and dead trunks. +I am sure that often, for more than ten minutes together, our feet +never touched the ground, and we were frequently ten or fifteen +feet above it, so that the seamen as a joke called out the +soundings. At other times we crept one after another, on our hands +and knees, under the rotten trunks. In the lower part of the +mountain, noble trees of the Winter’s Bark, and a laurel like the +sassafras with fragrant leaves, and others, the names of which I do +not know, were matted together by a trailing bamboo or cane. Here +we were more like fishes struggling in a net than any other animal. +On the higher parts, brushwood takes the place of larger trees, +with here and there a red cedar or an alerce pine. I was also +pleased to see, at an elevation of a little less than 1000 feet, +our old friend the southern beech. They were, however, poor stunted +trees, and I should think that this must be nearly their northern +limit. We ultimately gave up the attempt in despair.</p> + +<p> +<i>December</i> 10<i>th.</i>—The yawl and whale-boat, with Mr. Sulivan, +proceeded on their survey, but I remained on board the <i>Beagle</i>, which the +next day left San Pedro for the southward. On the +<a name="page300"></a> +13th we ran into an opening in the southern part of Guayatecas, or the Chonos +Archipelago; and it was fortunate we did so, for on the following day a storm, +worthy of Tierra del Fuego, raged with great fury. White massive clouds were +piled up against a dark blue sky, and across them black ragged sheets of vapour +were rapidly driven. The successive mountain ranges appeared like dim shadows, +and the setting sun cast on the woodland a yellow gleam, much like that +produced by the flame of spirits of wine. The water was white with the flying +spray, and the wind lulled and roared again through the rigging: it was an +ominous, sublime scene. During a few minutes there was a bright rainbow, and it +was curious to observe the effect of the spray, which, being carried along the +surface of the water, changed the ordinary semicircle into a circle—a +band of prismatic colours being continued, from both feet of the common arch +across the bay, close to the vessel’s side: thus forming a distorted, but +very nearly entire ring. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl63.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl63.jpg" width="294" height="221" alt="Inside Chonos Archipelago" /> +</div> + +<p>We stayed here three days. The weather continued bad; but this +did not much signify, for the surface of the land in all these +islands is all but impassable. The coast is so very rugged that to +attempt to walk in that direction requires +<a name="page301"></a> +continued scrambling up and down over the sharp rocks of +mica-slate; and as for the woods, our faces, hands, and shin-bones +all bore witness to the maltreatment we received, in merely +attempting to penetrate their forbidden recesses.</p> + +<p> +<i>December</i> 18<i>th.</i>—We stood out to sea. On the 20th we bade +farewell to the south, and with a fair wind turned the ship’s head +northward. From Cape Tres Montes we sailed pleasantly along the lofty +weather-beaten coast, which is remarkable for the bold outline of its hills, +and the thick covering of forest even on the almost precipitous flanks. The +next day a harbour was discovered, which on this dangerous coast might be of +great service to a distressed vessel. It can easily be recognised by a hill +1600 feet high, which is even more perfectly conical than the famous sugar-loaf +at Rio de Janeiro. The next day, after anchoring, I succeeded in reaching the +summit of this hill. It was a laborious undertaking, for the sides were so +steep that in some parts it was necessary to use the trees as ladders. There +were also several extensive brakes of the Fuchsia, covered with its beautiful +drooping flowers, but very difficult to crawl through. In these wild countries +it gives much delight to gain the summit of any mountain. There is an +indefinite expectation of seeing something very strange, which, however often +it may be balked, never failed with me to recur on each successive attempt. +Every one must know the feeling of triumph and pride which a grand view from a +height communicates to the mind. In these little frequented countries there is +also joined to it some vanity, that you perhaps are the first man who ever +stood on this pinnacle or admired this view. +</p> + +<p>A strong desire is always felt to ascertain whether any human +being has previously visited an unfrequented spot. A bit of wood +with a nail in it is picked up and studied as if it were covered +with hieroglyphics. Possessed with this feeling, I was much +interested by finding, on a wild part of the coast, a bed made of +grass beneath a ledge of rock. Close by it there had been a fire, +and the man had used an axe. The fire, bed, and situation showed +the dexterity of an Indian; but he could scarcely have been an +Indian, for the race is in this part extinct, owing to the Catholic +desire of making at one blow Christians and Slaves. I had at the +time some misgivings +<a name="page302"></a> +that the solitary man who had made his bed on this wild spot, +must have been some poor shipwrecked sailor, who, in trying to +travel up the coast, had here laid himself down for his dreary +night.</p> + +<p> +<i>December</i> 28<i>th.</i>—The weather continued very bad, but it at +last permitted us to proceed with the survey. The time hung heavy on our hands, +as it always did when we were delayed from day to day by successive gales of +wind. In the evening another harbour was discovered, where we anchored. +Directly afterwards a man was seen waving his shirt, and a boat was sent which +brought back two seamen. A party of six had run away from an American whaling +vessel, and had landed a little to the southward in a boat, which was shortly +afterwards knocked to pieces by the surf. They had now been wandering up and +down the coast for fifteen months, without knowing which way to go, or where +they were. What a singular piece of good fortune it was that this harbour was +now discovered! Had it not been for this one chance, they might have wandered +till they had grown old men, and at last have perished on this wild coast. +Their sufferings had been very great, and one of their party had lost his life +by falling from the cliffs. They were sometimes obliged to separate in search +of food, and this explained the bed of the solitary man. Considering what they +had undergone, I think they had kept a very good reckoning of time, for they +had lost only four days. +</p> + +<p> +<i>December</i> 30<i>th.</i>—We anchored in a snug little cove at the +foot of some high hills, near the northern extremity of Tres Montes. After +breakfast the next morning a party ascended one of these mountains, which was +2400 feet high. The scenery was remarkable. The chief part of the range was +composed of grand, solid, abrupt masses of granite, which appeared as if they +had been coeval with the beginning of the world. The granite was capped with +mica-slate, and this in the lapse of ages had been worn into strange +finger-shaped points. These two formations, thus differing in their outlines, +agree in being almost destitute of vegetation. This barrenness had to our eyes +a strange appearance, from having been so long accustomed to the sight of an +almost universal forest of dark-green trees. I took much delight in examining +the +<a name="page303"></a> +structure of these mountains. The complicated and lofty ranges bore a noble +aspect of durability—equally profitless, however, to man and to all other +animals. Granite to the geologist is classic ground: from its widespread +limits, and its beautiful and compact texture, few rocks have been more +anciently recognised. Granite has given rise, perhaps, to more discussion +concerning its origin than any other formation. We generally see it +constituting the fundamental rock, and, however formed, we know it is the +deepest layer in the crust of this globe to which man has penetrated. The limit +of man’s knowledge in any subject possesses a high interest, which is +perhaps increased by its close neighbourhood to the realms of imagination. +</p> + +<p> +<i>January</i> 1<i>st</i>, 1835.—The new year is ushered in with the +ceremonies proper to it in these regions. She lays out no false hopes: a heavy +north-western gale, with steady rain, bespeaks the rising year. Thank God, we +are not destined here to see the end of it, but hope then to be in the Pacific +Ocean, where a blue sky tells one there is a heaven,—a something beyond +the clouds above our heads. +</p> + +<p>The north-west winds prevailing for the next four days, we only +managed to cross a great bay, and then anchored in another secure +harbour. I accompanied the Captain in a boat to the head of a deep +creek. On the way the number of seals which we saw was quite +astonishing: every bit of flat rock and parts of the beach were +covered with them. They appeared to be of a loving disposition, and +lay huddled together, fast asleep, like so many pigs; but even pigs +would have been ashamed of their dirt, and of the foul smell which +came from them. Each herd was watched by the patient but +inauspicious eyes of the turkey-buzzard. This disgusting bird, with +its bald scarlet head, formed to wallow in putridity, is very +common on the west coast, and their attendance on the seals shows +on what they rely for their food. We found the water (probably only +that of the surface) nearly fresh: this was caused by the number of +torrents which, in the form of cascades, came tumbling over the +bold granite mountains into the sea. The fresh water attracts the +fish, and these bring many terns, gulls, and two kinds of +cormorant. We saw also a pair of the beautiful black-necked swans, +and several small sea-otters, the fur of which is held in such high +estimation. In returning, we +<a name="page304"></a> +were again amused by the impetuous manner in which the heap of +seals, old and young, tumbled into the water as the boat passed. +They did not remain long under water, but rising, followed us with +outstretched necks, expressing great wonder and curiosity.</p> + +<p> +7<i>th.</i>—Having run up the coast, we anchored near the northern end of +the Chonos Archipelago, in Low’s Harbour, where we remained a week. The +islands were here, as in Chiloe, composed of a stratified, soft, littoral +deposit; and the vegetation in consequence was beautifully luxuriant. The woods +came down to the sea-beach, just in the manner of an evergreen shrubbery over a +gravel walk. We also enjoyed from the anchorage a splendid view of four great +snowy cones of the Cordillera, including “el famoso Corcovado;” the +range itself had in this latitude so little height, that few parts of it +appeared above the tops of the neighbouring islets. We found here a party of +five men from Caylen, “el fin del Cristiandad,” who had most +adventurously crossed in their miserable boat-canoe, for the purpose of +fishing, the open space of sea which separates Chonos from Chiloe. These +islands will, in all probability, in a short time become peopled like those +adjoining the coast of Chiloe. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +The wild potato grows on these islands in great abundance, on the sandy, shelly +soil near the sea-beach. The tallest plant was four feet in height. The tubers +were generally small, but I found one, of an oval shape, two inches in +diameter: they resembled in every respect, and had the same smell as English +potatoes; but when boiled they shrunk much, and were watery and insipid, +without any bitter taste. They are undoubtedly here indigenous: they grow as +far south, according to Mr. Low, as lat. 50°, and are called Aquinas by the +wild Indians of that part: the Chilotan Indians have a different name for them. +Professor Henslow, who has examined the dried specimens which I brought home, +says that they are the same with those described by Mr. Sabine<a +href="#fn-13.1" name="fnref-13.1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> from Valparaiso, but that +they form a +<a name="page305"></a> +variety which by some botanists has been considered as specifically distinct. +It is remarkable that the same plant should be found on the sterile mountains +of central Chile, where a drop of rain does not fall for more than six months, +and within the damp forests of these southern islands. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-13.1"></a> <a href="#fnref-13.1">[1]</a> +<i>Horticultural Transact.</i> vol. v, p. 249. Mr. Caldeleugh sent home two +tubers, which, being well manured, even the first season produced numerous +potatoes and an abundance of leaves. See Humboldt’s interesting +discussion on this plant, which it appears was unknown in Mexico,—in +<i>Polit. Essay on New Spain</i>, book iv, chap. ix.</p> + +<p>In the central parts of the Chonos Archipelago (lat. 45°), +the forest has very much the same character with that along the +whole west coast, for 600 miles southward to Cape Horn. The +arborescent grass of Chiloe is not found here; while the beech of +Tierra del Fuego grows to a good size, and forms a considerable +proportion of the wood; not, however, in the same exclusive manner +as it does farther southward. Cryptogamic plants here find a most +congenial climate. In the Strait of Magellan, as I have before +remarked, the country appears too cold and wet to allow of their +arriving at perfection; but in these islands, within the forest, +the number of species and great abundance of mosses, lichens, and +small ferns, is quite extraordinary.<a href="#fn-13.2" name="fnref-13.2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> +In Tierra del Fuego trees grow only on the hillsides; every level piece of land +being invariably covered by a thick bed of peat; but in Chiloe flat land +supports the most luxuriant forests. Here, within the Chonos Archipelago, the +nature of the climate more closely approaches that of Tierra del Fuego than +that of northern Chiloe; for every patch of level ground is covered by two +species of plants (Astelia pumila and Donatia magellanica), which by their +joint decay compose a thick bed of elastic peat.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-13.2"></a> <a href="#fnref-13.2">[2]</a> +By sweeping with my insect-net, I procured from these situations a considerable +number of minute insects, of the family of Staphylinidæ, and others allied to +Pselaphus, and minute Hymenoptera. But the most characteristic family in +number, both of individuals and species, throughout the more open parts of +Chiloe and Chonos is that of Telephoridæ.</p> + +<p>In Tierra del Fuego, above the region of woodland, the former of +these eminently sociable plants is the chief agent in the +production of peat. Fresh leaves are always succeeding one to the +other round the central tap-root, the lower ones soon decay, and in +tracing a root downwards in the peat, the leaves, yet holding their +place, can be observed passing through every stage of +decomposition, till the whole becomes blended in one confused mass. +The Astelia is assisted by a few other plants,—here and there +a small creeping Myrtus (M. nummularia), with a woody stem like our +cranberry and with a sweet berry,—an +<a name="page306"></a> +Empetrum (E. rubrum), like our heath,—a rush +(Juncus grandiflorus), are nearly the only ones that grow on the +swampy surface. These plants, though possessing a very close +general resemblance to the English species of the same genera, are +different. In the more level parts of the country, the surface of +the peat is broken up into little pools of water, which stand at +different heights, and appear as if artificially excavated. Small +streams of water, flowing underground, complete the disorganisation +of the vegetable matter, and consolidate the whole.</p> + +<p>The climate of the southern part of America appears particularly +favourable to the production of peat. In the Falkland Islands +almost every kind of plant, even the coarse grass which covers the +whole surface of the land, becomes converted into this substance: +scarcely any situation checks its growth; some of the beds are as +much as twelve feet thick, and the lower part becomes so solid when +dry, that it will hardly burn. Although every plant lends its aid, +yet in most parts the Astelia is the most efficient. It is rather a +singular circumstance, as being so very different from what occurs +in Europe, that I nowhere saw moss forming by its decay any portion +of the peat in South America. With respect to the northern limit at +which the climate allows of that peculiar kind of slow +decomposition which is necessary for its production, I believe that +in Chiloe (lat. 41° to 42°), although there is much swampy +ground, no well-characterised peat occurs: but in the Chonos +Islands, three degrees farther southward, we have seen that it is +abundant. On the eastern coast in La Plata (lat. 35°) I was +told by a Spanish resident who had visited Ireland, that he had +often sought for this substance, but had never been able to find +any. He showed me, as the nearest approach to it which he had +discovered, a black peaty soil, so penetrated with roots as to +allow of an extremely slow and imperfect combustion.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +The zoology of these broken islets of the Chonos Archipelago is, as might have +been expected, very poor. Of quadrupeds two aquatic kinds are common. The +Myopotamus Coypus (like a beaver, but with a round tail) is well known from its +fine fur, which is an object of trade throughout the tributaries of La +<a name="page307"></a> +Plata. It here, however, exclusively frequents salt water; which same +circumstance has been mentioned as sometimes occurring with the great rodent, +the Capybara. A small sea-otter is very numerous; this animal does not feed +exclusively on fish, but, like the seals, draws a large supply from a small red +crab, which swims in shoals near the surface of the water. Mr. Bynoe saw one in +Tierra del Fuego eating a cuttle-fish; and at Low’s Harbour, another was +killed in the act of carrying to its hole a large volute shell. At one place I +caught in a trap a singular little mouse (M. brachiotis); it appeared common on +several of the islets, but the Chilotans at Low’s Harbour said that it +was not found in all. What a succession of chances,<a href="#fn-13.3" +name="fnref-13.3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> or what changes of level must have been +brought into play, thus to spread these small animals throughout this broken +archipelago! +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-13.3"></a> <a href="#fnref-13.3">[3]</a> +It is said that some rapacious birds bring their prey alive to their nests. If +so, in the course of centuries, every now and then, one might escape from the +young birds. Some such agency is necessary, to account for the distribution of +the smaller gnawing animals on islands not very near each other.</p> + +<p>In all parts of Chiloe and Chonos, two very strange birds occur, +which are allied to, and replace, the Turco and Tapacolo of central +Chile. One is called by the inhabitants “Cheucau” (Pteroptochos +rubecula): it frequents the most gloomy and retired spots within +the damp forests. Sometimes, although its cry may be heard close at +hand, let a person watch ever so attentively he will not see the +cheucau; at other times let him stand motionless and the +red-breasted little bird will approach within a few feet in the +most familiar manner. It then busily hops about the entangled mass +of rotting canes and branches, with its little tail cocked upwards. +The cheucau is held in superstitious fear by the Chilotans, on +account of its strange and varied cries. There are three very +distinct cries: One is called “chiduco,” and is an omen of good; +another, “huitreu,” which is extremely unfavourable; and a third, +which I have forgotten. These words are given in imitation of the +noises; and the natives are in some things absolutely governed by +them. The Chilotans assuredly have chosen a most comical little +creature for their prophet. An allied species, but rather larger, +is called by the natives “Guid-guid” (Pteroptochos Tarnii), and by +the English the barking-bird. This latter name is well given; +for +<a name="page308"></a> +I defy any one at first to feel certain that a small dog is not +yelping somewhere in the forest. Just as with the cheucau, a person +will sometimes hear the bark close by, but in vain may endeavour by +watching, and with still less chance by beating the bushes, to see +the bird; yet at other times the guid-guid fearlessly comes near. +Its manner of feeding and its general habits are very similar to +those of the cheucau.</p> + +<p>On the coast,<a href="#fn-13.4" name="fnref-13.4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> +a small dusky-coloured bird (Opetiorhynchus Patagonicus) is very common. It is +remarkable from its quiet habits; it lives entirely on the sea-beach, like a +sandpiper. Besides these birds only few others inhabit this broken land. In my +rough notes I describe the strange noises, which, although frequently heard +within these gloomy forests, yet scarcely disturb the general silence. The +yelping of the guid-guid, and the sudden whew-whew of the cheucau, sometimes +come from afar off, and sometimes from close at hand; the little black wren of +Tierra del Fuego occasionally adds its cry; the creeper (Oxyurus) follows the +intruder screaming and twittering; the humming-bird may be seen every now and +then darting from side to side, and emitting, like an insect, its shrill chirp; +lastly, from the top of some lofty tree the indistinct but plaintive note of +the white-tufted tyrant-flycatcher (Myiobius) may be noticed. From the great +preponderance in most countries of certain common genera of birds, such as the +finches, one feels at first surprised at meeting with the peculiar forms above +enumerated, as the commonest birds in any district. In central Chile two of +them, namely, the Oxyurus and Scytalopus, occur, although most rarely. When +finding, as in this case, animals which seem to play so insignificant a part in +the great scheme of nature, one is apt to wonder why they were created. But it +should always be recollected, that in some other country perhaps they are +essential members of society, or at some former period may have been so. If +America south of 37° were sunk beneath the waters of the ocean, these two +birds might continue to exist in central Chile for a long period, but it is +very improbable that their numbers would increase. We +<a name="page309"></a> +should then see a case which must inevitably have happened with +very many animals.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-13.4"></a> <a href="#fnref-13.4">[4]</a> +I may mention, as a proof of how great a difference there is between the +seasons of the wooded and the open parts of this coast, that on September 20th, +in lat. 34°, these birds had young ones in the nest, while among the Chonos +Islands, three months later in the summer, they were only laying, the +difference in latitude between these two places being about 700 miles.</p> + +<p>These southern seas are frequented by several species of +Petrels: the largest kind, Procellaria gigantea, or nelly +(quebrantahuesos, or break-bones, of the Spaniards), is a common +bird, both in the inland channels and on the open sea. In its +habits and manner of flight there is a very close resemblance with +the albatross; and as with the albatross, a person may watch it for +hours together without seeing on what it feeds. The “break-bones” +is, however, a rapacious bird, for it was observed by some of the +officers at Port St. Antonio chasing a diver, which tried to escape +by diving and flying, but was continually struck down, and at last +killed by a blow on its head. At Port St. Julian these great +petrels were seen killing and devouring young gulls. A second +species (Puffinus cinereus), which is common to Europe, Cape Horn, +and the coast of Peru, is of a much smaller size than the P. +gigantea, but, like it, of a dirty black colour. It generally +frequents the inland sounds in very large flocks: I do not think I +ever saw so many birds of any other sort together, as I once saw of +these behind the island of Chiloe. Hundreds of thousands flew in an +irregular line for several hours in one direction. When part of the +flock settled on the water the surface was blackened, and a noise +proceeded from them as of human beings talking in the distance.</p> + +<p>There are several other species of petrels, but I will only +mention one other kind, the Pelacanoides Berardi, which offers an +example of those extraordinary cases, of a bird evidently belonging +to one well-marked family, yet both in its habits and structure +allied to a very distinct tribe. This bird never leaves the quiet +inland sounds. When disturbed it dives to a distance, and on coming +to the surface, with the same movement takes flight. After flying +by the rapid movement of its short wings for a space in a straight +line, it drops, as if struck dead, and dives again. The form of its +beak and nostrils, length of foot, and even the colouring of its +plumage, show that this bird is a petrel: on the other hand, its +short wings and consequent little power of flight, its form of body +and shape of tail, the absence of a hind toe to its foot, its habit +of living, and its choice of situation, make it at first +doubtful +<a name="page310"></a> +whether its relationship is not equally close with the auks. It +would undoubtedly be mistaken for an auk, when seen from a +distance, either on the wing, or when diving and quietly swimming +about the retired channels of Tierra del Fuego. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl64.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl64.jpg" width="203" height="282" alt="Gunnera Scabra, Chiloe" /> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl65.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl65.jpg" width="288" height="253" alt="Antuco Volcano, near Talcahuano" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="page311"></a><a name="chxiv"></a>Chapter XIV</h2> + +<p class="letter">San Carlos, Chiloe—Osorno in eruption, +contemporaneously with Aconcagua and Coseguina—Ride to +Cucao—Impenetrable +forests—Valdivia—Indians—Earthquake—Concepcion—Great +earthquake—Rocks fissured—Appearance of the former +towns—The sea black and boiling—Direction of the +vibrations—Stones twisted round—Great +wave—Permanent elevation of the land—Area of volcanic +phenomena—The connection between the elevatory and eruptive +forces—Cause of earthquakes—Slow elevation of +mountain-chains.</p> + +<h3>CHILOE AND CONCEPCION: GREAT EARTHQUAKE</h3> + +<p>On January the 15th, 1835 we sailed from Low’s Harbour, and +three days afterwards anchored a second time in the bay of S. +Carlos in Chiloe. On the night of the 19th the volcano of Osorno +was in action. At midnight the sentry observed something like a +large star, which gradually increased in size till about three +o’clock, when it presented a very magnificent +<a name="page312"></a> +spectacle. By the aid of a glass, dark objects, in constant +succession, were seen, in the midst of a great glare of red light, +to be thrown up and to fall down. The light was sufficient to cast +on the water a long bright reflection. Large masses of molten +matter seem very commonly to be cast out of the craters in this +part of the Cordillera. I was assured that when the Corcovado is in +eruption, great masses are projected upwards and are seen to burst +in the air, assuming many fantastical forms, such as trees: their +size must be immense, for they can be distinguished from the high +land behind S. Carlos, which is no less than ninety-three miles +from the Corcovado. In the morning the volcano became tranquil.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl66.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl66.jpg" width="301" height="187" alt="Panoramic view of coast" /> +</div> + +<p>I was surprised at hearing afterwards that Aconcagua in Chile, +480 miles northwards, was in action on the same night; and still +more surprised to hear that the great eruption of Coseguina (2700 +miles north of Aconcagua), accompanied by an earthquake felt over +1000 miles, also occurred within six hours of this same time. This +coincidence is the more remarkable, as Coseguina had been dormant +for twenty-six years: and Aconcagua most rarely shows any signs of +action. It is difficult even to conjecture whether this coincidence +was accidental, or shows some subterranean connection. If Vesuvius, +Etna, and Hecla in Iceland (all three relatively nearer each other +than the corresponding points in South America), +<a name="page313"></a> +suddenly burst forth in eruption on the same night, the +coincidence would be thought remarkable; but it is far more +remarkable in this case, where the three vents fall on the same +great mountain-chain, and where the vast plains along the entire +eastern coast, and the upraised recent shells along more than 2000 +miles on the western coast, show in how equable and connected a +manner the elevatory forces have acted.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl67.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl67.jpg" width="303" height="186" alt="Inside island of Chiloe" /> +</div> + +<p>Captain Fitz Roy being anxious that some bearings should be +taken on the outer coast of Chiloe, it was planned that Mr. King +and myself should ride to Castro, and thence across the island to +the Capella de Cucao, situated on the west coast. Having hired +horses and a guide, we set out on the morning of the 22nd. We had +not proceeded far, before we were joined by a woman and two boys, +who were bent on the same journey. Every one on this road acts on a +“hail-fellow-well-met” fashion; and one may here enjoy the +privilege, so rare in South America, of travelling without +firearms. At first the country consisted of a succession of hills +and valleys: nearer to Castro it became very level. The road itself +is a curious affair; it consists in its whole length, with the +exception of very few parts, of great logs of wood, which are +either broad and laid longitudinally, or narrow and placed +transversely. In summer the road is not very bad: but in winter, +when the wood is rendered slippery from rain, travelling is +exceedingly +<a name="page314"></a> +difficult. At that time of the year, the ground on each side +becomes a morass, and is often overflowed: hence it is necessary +that the longitudinal logs should be fastened down by transverse +poles, which are pegged on each side into the earth. These pegs +render a fall from a horse dangerous, as the chance of alighting on +one of them is not small. It is remarkable, however, how active +custom has made the Chilotan horses. In crossing bad parts, where +the logs had been displaced, they skipped from one to the other, +almost with the quickness and certainty of a dog. On both hands the +road is bordered by the lofty forest-trees, with their bases matted +together by canes. When occasionally a long reach of this avenue +could be beheld, it presented a curious scene of uniformity: the +white line of logs, narrowing in perspective, became hidden by the +gloomy forest, or terminated in a zigzag which ascended some steep +hill.</p> + +<p>Although the distance from S. Carlos to Castro is only twelve +leagues in a straight line, the formation of the road must have +been a great labour. I was told that several people had formerly +lost their lives in attempting to cross the forest. The first who +succeeded was an Indian, who cut his way through the canes in eight +days, and reached S. Carlos: he was rewarded by the Spanish +government with a grant of land. During the summer, many of the +Indians wander about the forests (but chiefly in the higher parts, +where the woods are not quite so thick), in search of the half-wild +cattle which live on the leaves of the cane and certain trees. It +was one of these huntsmen who by chance discovered, a few years +since, an English vessel, which had been wrecked on the outer +coast. The crew were beginning to fail in provisions, and it is not +probable that, without the aid of this man, they would ever have +extricated themselves from these scarcely penetrable woods. As it +was, one seaman died on the march, from fatigue. The Indians in +these excursions steer by the sun; so that if there is a +continuance of cloudy weather, they cannot travel.</p> + +<p>The day was beautiful, and the number of trees which were in +full flower perfumed the air; yet even this could hardly dissipate +the effect of the gloomy dampness of the forest. Moreover, the many +dead trunks that stand like skeletons, never fail to give to these +primeval woods a character of solemnity, absent +<a name="page315"></a> +in those of countries long civilised. Shortly after sunset we +bivouacked for the night. Our female companion, who was rather +good-looking, belonged to one of the most respectable families in +Castro: she rode, however, astride, and without shoes or stockings. +I was surprised at the total want of pride shown by her and her +brother. They brought food with them, but at all our meals sat +watching Mr. King and myself whilst eating, till we were fairly +shamed into feeding the whole party. The night was cloudless; and +while lying in our beds, we enjoyed the sight (and it is a high +enjoyment) of the multitude of stars which illumined the darkness +of the forest.</p> + +<p> +<i>January</i> 23<i>rd.</i>—We rose early in the morning, and reached the +pretty quiet town of Castro by two o’clock. The old governor had died +since our last visit, and a Chileno was acting in his place. We had a letter of +introduction to Don Pedro, whom we found exceedingly hospitable and kind, and +more disinterested than is usual on this side of the continent. The next day +Don Pedro procured us fresh horses, and offered to accompany us himself. We +proceeded to the south—generally following the coast, and passing through +several hamlets, each with its large barn-like chapel built of wood. At +Vilipilli, Don Pedro asked the commandant to give us a guide to Cucao. The old +gentleman offered to come himself; but for a long time nothing would persuade +him that two Englishmen really wished to go to such an out-of-the-way place as +Cucao. We were thus accompanied by the two greatest aristocrats in the country, +as was plainly to be seen in the manner of all the poorer Indians towards them. +At Chonchi we struck across the island, following intricate winding paths, +sometimes passing through magnificent forests, and sometimes through pretty +cleared spots, abounding with corn and potato crops. This undulating woody +country, partially cultivated, reminded me of the wilder parts of England, and +therefore had to my eye a most fascinating aspect. At Vilinco, which is +situated on the borders of the lake of Cucao, only a few fields were cleared; +and all the inhabitants appeared to be Indians. This lake is twelve miles long, +and runs in an east and west direction. From local circumstances, the +sea-breeze blows very regularly during the day, and during the night it falls +calm: this has given rise to strange exaggerations, +<a name="page316"></a> +for the phenomenon, as described to us at S. Carlos, was quite a prodigy. +</p> + +<p>The road to Cucao was so very bad that we determined to embark +in a <i>periagua.</i> The commandant, in the most authoritative +manner, ordered six Indians to get ready to pull us over, without +deigning to tell them whether they would be paid. The periagua is a +strange rough boat, but the crew were still stranger: I doubt if +six uglier little men ever got into a boat together. They pulled, +however, very well and cheerfully. The stroke-oarsman gabbled +Indian, and uttered strange cries, much after the fashion of a +pig-driver driving his pigs. We started with a light breeze against +us, but yet reached the Capella de Cucao before it was late. The +country on each side of the lake was one unbroken forest. In the +same periagua with us a cow was embarked. To get so large an animal +into a small boat appears at first a difficulty, but the Indians +managed it in a minute. They brought the cow alongside the boat, +which was heeled towards her; then placing two oars under her +belly, with their ends resting on the gunwale, by the aid of these +levers they fairly tumbled the poor beast heels over head into the +bottom of the boat, and then lashed her down with ropes. At Cucao +we found an uninhabited hovel (which is the residence of the padre +when he pays this Capella a visit), where, lighting a fire, we +cooked our supper, and were very comfortable.</p> + +<p>The district of Cucao is the only inhabited part on the whole +west coast of Chiloe. It contains about thirty or forty Indian +families, who are scattered along four or five miles of the shore. +They are very much secluded from the rest of Chiloe, and have +scarcely any sort of commerce, except sometimes in a little oil, +which they get from seal-blubber. They are tolerably dressed in +clothes of their own manufacture, and they have plenty to eat. They +seemed, however, discontented, yet humble to a degree which it was +quite painful to witness. These feelings are, I think, chiefly to +be attributed to the harsh and authoritative manner in which they +are treated by their rulers. Our companions, although so very civil +to us, behaved to the poor Indians as if they had been slaves, +rather than free men. They ordered provisions and the use of their +horses, without ever condescending to say how much, or indeed +whether the owners should +<a name="page317"></a> +be paid at all. In the morning, being left alone with these poor +people, we soon ingratiated ourselves by presents of cigars and +maté. A lump of white sugar was divided between all present, +and tasted with the greatest curiosity. The Indians ended all their +complaints by saying, “And it is only because we are poor Indians, +and know nothing; but it was not so when we had a King.”</p> + +<p>The next day after breakfast we rode a few miles northward to +Punta Huantamó. The road lay along a very broad beach, on +which, even after so many fine days, a terrible surf was breaking. +I was assured that after a heavy gale, the roar can be heard at +night even at Castro, a distance of no less than twenty-one +sea-miles across a hilly and wooded country. We had some difficulty +in reaching the point, owing to the intolerably bad paths; for +everywhere in the shade the ground soon becomes a perfect quagmire. +The point itself is a bold rocky hill. It is covered by a plant +allied, I believe, to Bromelia, and called by the inhabitants +Chepones. In scrambling through the beds, our hands were very much +scratched. I was amused by observing the precaution our Indian +guide took, in turning up his trousers, thinking that they were +more delicate than his own hard skin. This plant bears a fruit, in +shape like an artichoke, in which a number of seed-vessels are +packed: these contain a pleasant sweet pulp, here much esteemed. I +saw at Low’s Harbour the Chilotans making chichi, or cider, with +this fruit: so true is it, as Humboldt remarks, that almost +everywhere man finds means of preparing some kind of beverage from +the vegetable kingdom. The savages, however, of Tierra del Fuego, +and I believe of Australia, have not advanced thus far in the +arts.</p> + +<p>The coast to the north of Punta Huantamó is exceedingly +rugged and broken, and is fronted by many breakers, on which the +sea is eternally roaring. Mr. King and myself were anxious to +return, if it had been possible, on foot along this coast; but even +the Indians said it was quite impracticable. We were told that men +have crossed by striking directly through the woods from Cucao to +S. Carlos, but never by the coast. On these expeditions, the +Indians carry with them only roasted corn, and of this they eat +sparingly twice a day.</p> + +<p> +26<i>th.</i>—Re-embarking in the periagua, we returned across the lake, +and then mounted our horses. The whole of Chiloe took advantage of this week of +unusually fine weather, to clear +<a name="page318"></a> +the ground by burning. In every direction volumes of smoke were curling +upwards. Although the inhabitants were so assiduous in setting fire to every +part of the wood, yet I did not see a single fire which they had succeeded in +making extensive. We dined with our friend the commandant, and did not reach +Castro till after dark. The next morning we started very early. After having +ridden for some time, we obtained from the brow of a steep hill an extensive +view (and it is a rare thing on this road) of the great forest. Over the +horizon of trees, the volcano of Corcovado, and the great flat-topped one to +the north, stood out in proud pre-eminence: scarcely another peak in the long +range showed its snowy summit. I hope it will be long before I forget this +farewell view of the magnificent Cordillera fronting Chiloe. At night we +bivouacked under a cloudless sky, and the next morning reached S. Carlos. We +arrived on the right day, for before evening heavy rain commenced. +</p> + +<p> +<i>February</i> 4<i>th.</i>—Sailed from Chiloe. During the last week I +made several short excursions. One was to examine a great bed of now-existing +shells, elevated 350 feet above the level of the sea: from among these shells, +large forest-trees were growing. Another ride was to P. Huechucucuy. I had with +me a guide who knew the country far too well; for he would pertinaciously tell +me endless Indian names for every little point, rivulet, and creek. In the same +manner as in Tierra del Fuego, the Indian language appears singularly well +adapted for attaching names to the most trivial features of the land. I believe +every one was glad to say farewell to Chiloe; yet if we could forget the gloom +and ceaseless rain of winter, Chiloe might pass for a charming island. There is +also something very attractive in the simplicity and humble politeness of the +poor inhabitants. +</p> + +<p>We steered northward along shore, but owing to thick weather did +not reach Valdivia till the night of the 8th. The next morning the +boat proceeded to the town, which is distant about ten miles. We +followed the course of the river, occasionally passing a few +hovels, and patches of ground cleared out of the otherwise unbroken +forest; and sometimes meeting a canoe with an Indian family. The +town is situated on the low banks of the stream, and is so +completely buried in a wood of apple-trees that the streets are +merely paths in an +<a name="page319"></a> +orchard. I have never seen any country where apple-trees +appeared to thrive so well as in this damp part of South America: +on the borders of the roads there were many young trees evidently +self-sown. In Chiloe the inhabitants possess a marvellously short +method of making an orchard. At the lower part of almost every +branch, small, conical, brown, wrinkled points project: these are +always ready to change into roots, as may sometimes be seen, where +any mud has been accidentally splashed against the tree. A branch +as thick as a man’s thigh is chosen in the early spring, and is cut +off just beneath a group of these points, all the smaller branches +are lopped off, and it is then placed about two feet deep in the +ground. During the ensuing summer the stump throws out long shoots, +and sometimes even bears fruit: I was shown one which had produced +as many as twenty-three apples, but this was thought very unusual. +In the third season the stump is changed (as I have myself seen) +into a well-wooded tree, loaded with fruit. An old man near +Valdivia illustrated his motto, “Necesidad es la madre del +invencion,” by giving an account of the several useful things he +manufactured from his apples. After making cider, and likewise +wine, he extracted from the refuse a white and finely flavoured +spirit; by another process he procured a sweet treacle, or, as he +called it, honey. His children and pigs seemed almost to live, +during this season of the year, in his orchard.</p> + +<p> +<i>February</i> 11<i>th.</i>—I set out with a guide on a short ride, in +which, however, I managed to see singularly little, either of the geology of +the country or of its inhabitants. There is not much cleared land near +Valdivia: after crossing a river at the distance of a few miles, we entered the +forest, and then passed only one miserable hovel, before reaching our +sleeping-place for the night. The short difference in latitude, of 150 miles, +has given a new aspect to the forest compared with that of Chiloe. This is +owing to a slightly different proportion in the kinds of trees. The evergreens +do not appear to be quite so numerous, and the forest in consequence has a +brighter tint. As in Chiloe, the lower parts are matted together by canes: here +also another kind (resembling the bamboo of Brazil and about twenty feet in +height) grows in clusters, and ornaments the banks of some of the streams in a +very pretty manner. It +<a name="page320"></a> +is with this plant that the Indians make their chuzos, or long tapering spears. +Our resting-house was so dirty that I preferred sleeping outside: on these +journeys the first night is generally very uncomfortable, because one is not +accustomed to the tickling and biting of the fleas. I am sure, in the morning, +there was not a space on my legs of the size of a shilling which had not its +little red mark where the flea had feasted. +</p> + +<p> +12<i>th.</i>—We continued to ride through the uncleared forest; only +occasionally meeting an Indian on horseback, or a troop of fine mules bringing +alerce-planks and corn from the southern plains. In the afternoon one of the +horses knocked up; we were then on a brow of a hill, which commanded a fine +view of the Llanos. The view of these open plains was very refreshing, after +being hemmed in and buried in the wilderness of trees. The uniformity of a +forest soon becomes very wearisome. This west coast makes me remember with +pleasure the free, unbounded plains of Patagonia; yet, with the true spirit of +contradiction, I cannot forget how sublime is the silence of the forest. The +Llanos are the most fertile and thickly peopled parts of the country, as they +possess the immense advantage of being nearly free from trees. Before leaving +the forest we crossed some flat little lawns, around which single trees stood, +as in an English park: I have often noticed with surprise, in wooded undulatory +districts, that the quite level parts have been destitute of trees. On account +of the tired horse, I determined to stop at the Mission of Cudico, to the friar +of which I had a letter of introduction. Cudico is an intermediate district +between the forest and the Llanos. There are a good many cottages, with patches +of corn and potatoes, nearly all belonging to Indians. The tribes dependent on +Valdivia are “reducidos y cristianos.” The Indians farther +northward, about Arauco and Imperial, are still very wild, and not converted; +but they have all much intercourse with the Spaniards. The padre said that the +Christian Indians did not much like coming to mass, but that otherwise they +showed respect for religion. The greatest difficulty is in making them observe +the ceremonies of marriage. The wild Indians take as many wives as they can +support, and a cacique will sometimes have more than ten: on entering his +house, the number may be told by that of the separate fires. Each wife lives a +week in turn with the cacique; +<a name="page321"></a> +but all are employed in weaving ponchos, etc., for his profit. To be the wife +of a cacique is an honour much sought after by the Indian women. +</p> + +<p>The men of all these tribes wear a coarse woolen poncho: those +south of Valdivia wear short trousers, and those north of it a +petticoat, like the chilipa of the Gauchos. All have their long +hair bound by a scarlet fillet, but with no other covering on their +heads. These Indians are good-sized men; their cheek-bones are +prominent, and in general appearance they resemble the great +American family to which they belong; but their physiognomy seemed +to me to be slightly different from that of any other tribe which I +had before seen. Their expression is generally grave, and even +austere, and possesses much character: this may pass either for +honest bluntness or fierce determination. The long black hair, the +grave and much-lined features, and the dark complexion, called to +my mind old portraits of James I. On the road we met with none of +that humble politeness so universal in Chiloe. Some gave their +“mari-mari” (good morning) with promptness, but the greater number +did not seem inclined to offer any salute. This independence of +manners is probably a consequence of their long wars, and the +repeated victories which they alone, of all the tribes in America, +have gained over the Spaniards.</p> + +<p>I spent the evening very pleasantly, talking with the padre. He +was exceedingly kind and hospitable; and coming from Santiago, had +contrived to surround himself with some few comforts. Being a man +of some little education, he bitterly complained of the total want +of society. With no particular zeal for religion, no business or +pursuit, how completely must this man’s life be wasted! The next +day, on our return, we met seven very wild-looking Indians, of whom +some were caciques that had just received from the Chilian +government their yearly small stipend for having long remained +faithful. They were fine-looking men, and they rode one after the +other, with most gloomy faces. An old cacique, who headed them, had +been, I suppose, more excessively drunk than the rest, for he +seemed both extremely grave and very crabbed. Shortly before this, +two Indians joined us, who were travelling from a distant mission +to Valdivia concerning some lawsuit. One was a good-humoured old +man, but from his wrinkled beardless +<a name="page322"></a> +face looked more like an old woman than a man. I frequently +presented both of them with cigars; and though ready to receive +them, and I daresay grateful, they would hardly condescend to thank +me. A Chilotan Indian would have taken off his hat, and given his +“Dios le page!” The travelling was very tedious, both from the +badness of the roads and from the number of great fallen trees, +which it was necessary either to leap over or to avoid by making +long circuits. We slept on the road, and next morning reached +Valdivia, whence I proceeded on board.</p> + +<p>A few days afterwards I crossed the bay with a party of +officers, and landed near the fort called Niebla. The buildings +were in a most ruinous state, and the gun-carriages quite rotten. +Mr. Wickham remarked to the commanding officer, that with one +discharge they would certainly all fall to pieces. The poor man, +trying to put a good face upon it, gravely replied, “No, I am sure, +sir, they would stand two!” The Spaniards must have intended to +have made this place impregnable. There is now lying in the middle +of the courtyard a little mountain of mortar, which rivals in +hardness the rock on which it is placed. It was brought from Chile, +and cost 7000 dollars. The revolution having broken out prevented +its being applied to any purpose, and now it remains a monument of +the fallen greatness of Spain.</p> + +<p>I wanted to go to a house about a mile and a half distant, but +my guide said it was quite impossible to penetrate the wood in a +straight line. He offered, however, to lead me, by following +obscure cattle-tracks, the shortest way: the walk, nevertheless, +took no less than three hours! This man is employed in hunting +strayed cattle; yet, well as he must know the woods, he was not +long since lost for two whole days, and had nothing to eat. These +facts convey a good idea of the impracticability of the forests of +these countries. A question often occurred to me—how long +does any vestige of a fallen tree remain? This man showed me one +which a party of fugitive royalists had cut down fourteen years +ago; and taking this as a criterion, I should think a bole a foot +and a half in diameter would in thirty years be changed into a heap +of mould.</p> + +<p> +<i>February</i> 20<i>th.</i>—This day has been memorable in the annals of +Valdivia, for the most severe earthquake experienced +<a name="page323"></a> +by the oldest inhabitant. I happened to be on shore, and was lying down in the +wood to rest myself. It came on suddenly, and lasted two minutes, but the time +appeared much longer. The rocking of the ground was very sensible. The +undulations appeared to my companion and myself to come from due east, whilst +others thought they proceeded from south-west: this shows how difficult it +sometimes is to perceive the direction of the vibrations. There was no +difficulty in standing upright, but the motion made me almost giddy: it was +something like the movement of a vessel in a little cross-ripple, or still more +like that felt by a person skating over thin ice, which bends under the weight +of his body. +</p> + +<p>A bad earthquake at once destroys our oldest associations: the +earth, the very emblem of solidity, has moved beneath our feet like +a thin crust over a fluid;—one second of time has created in +the mind a strange idea of insecurity, which hours of reflection +would not have produced. In the forest, as a breeze moved the +trees, I felt only the earth tremble, but saw no other effect. +Captain Fitz Roy and some officers were at the town during the +shock, and there the scene was more striking; for although the +houses, from being built of wood, did not fall, they were violently +shaken, and the boards creaked and rattled together. The people +rushed out of doors in the greatest alarm. It is these +accompaniments that create that perfect horror of earthquakes, +experienced by all who have thus seen, as well as felt, their +effects. Within the forest it was a deeply interesting, but by no +means an awe-exciting phenomenon. The tides were very curiously +affected. The great shock took place at the time of low water; and +an old woman who was on the beach told me that the water flowed +very quickly, but not in great waves, to high-water mark, and then +as quickly returned to its proper level; this was also evident by +the line of wet sand. The same kind of quick but quiet movement in +the tide happened a few years since at Chiloe, during a slight +earthquake, and created much causeless alarm. In the course of the +evening there were many weaker shocks, which seemed to produce in +the harbour the most complicated currents, and some of great +strength.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>March</i> 4<i>th.</i>—We entered the harbour of Concepcion. +<a name="page324"></a> +While the ship was beating up to the anchorage, I landed on the island of +Quiriquina. The mayor-domo of the estate quickly rode down to tell me the +terrible news of the great earthquake of the 20th:—“That not a +house in Concepcion or Talcahuano (the port) was standing; that seventy +villages were destroyed; and that a great wave had almost washed away the ruins +of Talcahuano.” Of this latter statement I soon saw abundant +proofs—the whole coast being strewed over with timber and furniture as if +a thousand ships had been wrecked. Besides chairs, tables, book-shelves, etc., +in great numbers, there were several roofs of cottages, which had been +transported almost whole. The storehouses at Talcahuano had been burst open, +and great bags of cotton, yerba, and other valuable merchandise were scattered +on the shore. During my walk round the island, I observed that numerous +fragments of rock, which, from the marine productions adhering to them, must +recently have been lying in deep water, had been cast up high on the beach; one +of these was six feet long, three broad, and two thick. +</p> + +<p>The island itself as plainly showed the overwhelming power of +the earthquake, as the beach did that of the consequent great wave. +The ground in many parts was fissured in north and south lines, +perhaps caused by the yielding of the parallel and steep sides of +this narrow island. Some of the fissures near the cliffs were a +yard wide. Many enormous masses had already fallen on the beach; +and the inhabitants thought that when the rains commenced far +greater slips would happen. The effect of the vibration on the hard +primary slate, which composes the foundation of the island, was +still more curious: the superficial parts of some narrow ridges +were as completely shivered as if they had been blasted by +gunpowder. This effect, which was rendered conspicuous by the fresh +fractures and displaced soil, must be confined to near the surface, +for otherwise there would not exist a block of solid rock +throughout Chile; nor is this improbable, as it is known that the +surface of a vibrating body is affected differently from the +central part. It is, perhaps, owing to this same reason that +earthquakes do not cause quite such terrific havoc within deep +mines as would be expected. I believe this convulsion has been more +effectual in lessening the size of the island of +<a name="page325"></a> +Quiriquina, than the ordinary wear-and-tear of the sea and +weather during the course of a whole century.</p> + +<p>The next day I landed at Talcahuano, and afterwards rode to +Concepcion. Both towns presented the most awful yet interesting +spectacle I ever beheld. To a person who had formerly known them, +it possibly might have been still more impressive; for the ruins +were so mingled together, and the whole scene possessed so little +the air of a habitable place, that it was scarcely possible to +imagine its former condition. The earthquake commenced at half-past +eleven o’clock in the forenoon. If it had happened in the middle of +the night, the greater number of the inhabitants (which in this one +province amount to many thousands) must have perished, instead of +less than a hundred: as it was, the invariable practice of running +out of doors at the first trembling of the ground, alone saved +them. In Concepcion each house, or row of houses, stood by itself, +a heap or line of ruins; but in Talcahuano, owing to the great +wave, little more than one layer of bricks, tiles, and timber, with +here and there part of a wall left standing, could be +distinguished. From this circumstance Concepcion, although not so +completely desolated, was a more terrible, and if I may so call it, +picturesque sight. The first shock was very sudden. The mayor-domo +at Quiriquina told me that the first notice he received of it, was +finding both the horse he rode and himself rolling together on the +ground. Rising up, he was again thrown down. He also told me that +some cows which were standing on the steep side of the island were +rolled into the sea. The great wave caused the destruction of many +cattle; on one low island near the head of the bay, seventy animals +were washed off and drowned. It is generally thought that this has +been the worst earthquake ever recorded in Chile; but as the very +severe ones occur only after long intervals, this cannot easily be +known; nor indeed would a much worse shock have made any great +difference, for the ruin was now complete. Innumerable small +tremblings followed the great earthquake, and within the first +twelve days no less than three hundred were counted.</p> + +<p>After viewing Concepcion, I cannot understand how the greater +number of inhabitants escaped unhurt. The houses in many parts fell +outwards; thus forming in the middle of the +<a name="page326"></a> +streets little hillocks of brickwork and rubbish. Mr. Rouse, the +English consul, told us that he was at breakfast when the first +movement warned him to run out. He had scarcely reached the middle +of the courtyard, when one side of his house came thundering down. +He retained presence of mind to remember that, if he once got on +the top of that part which had already fallen, he would be safe. +Not being able from the motion of the ground to stand, he crawled +up on his hands and knees; and no sooner had he ascended this +little eminence, than the other side of the house fell in, the +great beams sweeping close in front of his head. With his eyes +blinded and his mouth choked with the cloud of dust which darkened +the sky, at last he gained the street. As shock succeeded shock, at +the interval of a few minutes, no one dared approach the shattered +ruins, and no one knew whether his dearest friends and relations +were not perishing from the want of help. Those who had saved any +property were obliged to keep a constant watch, for thieves prowled +about, and at each little trembling of the ground, with one hand +they beat their breasts and cried “misericordia!” and then with the +other filched what they could from the ruins. The thatched roofs +fell over the fires, and flames burst forth in all parts. Hundreds +knew themselves ruined, and few had the means of providing food for +the day.</p> + +<p>Earthquakes alone are sufficient to destroy the prosperity of +any country. If beneath England the now inert subterranean forces +should exert those powers which most assuredly in former geological +ages they have exerted, how completely would the entire condition +of the country be changed! What would become of the lofty houses, +thickly packed cities, great manufactories, the beautiful public +and private edifices? If the new period of disturbance were first +to commence by some great earthquake in the dead of the night, how +terrific would be the carnage! England would at once be bankrupt; +all papers, records, and accounts would from that moment be lost. +Government being unable to collect the taxes, and failing to +maintain its authority, the hand of violence and rapine would +remain uncontrolled. In every large town famine would go forth, +pestilence and death following in its train.</p> + +<p>Shortly after the shock, a great wave was seen from the +<a name="page327"></a> +distance of three or four miles, approaching in the middle of +the bay with a smooth outline; but along the shore it tore up +cottages and trees, as it swept onwards with irresistible force. At +the head of the bay it broke in a fearful line of white breakers, +which rushed up to a height of 23 vertical feet above the highest +spring-tides. Their force must have been prodigious; for at the +Fort a cannon with its carriage, estimated at four tons in weight, +was moved 15 feet inwards. A schooner was left in the midst of the +ruins, 200 yards from the beach. The first wave was followed by two +others, which in their retreat carried away a vast wreck of +floating objects. In one part of the bay, a ship was pitched high +and dry on shore, was carried off, again driven on shore, and again +carried off. In another part two large vessels anchored near +together were whirled about, and their cables were thrice wound +round each other: though anchored at a depth of 36 feet, they were +for some minutes aground. The great wave must have travelled +slowly, for the inhabitants of Talcahuano had time to run up the +hills behind the town; and some sailors pulled out seaward, +trusting successfully to their boat riding securely over the swell, +if they could reach it before it broke. One old woman with a little +boy, four or five years old, ran into a boat, but there was nobody +to row it out: the boat was consequently dashed against an anchor +and cut in twain; the old woman was drowned, but the child was +picked up some hours afterwards clinging to the wreck. Pools of +salt-water were still standing amidst the ruins of the houses, and +children, making boats with old tables and chairs, appeared as +happy as their parents were miserable. It was, however, exceedingly +interesting to observe, how much more active and cheerful all +appeared than could have been expected. It was remarked with much +truth, that from the destruction being universal, no one individual +was humbled more than another, or could suspect his friends of +coldness—that most grievous result of the loss of wealth. Mr. +Rouse, and a large party whom he kindly took under his protection, +lived for the first week in a garden beneath some apple-trees. At +first they were as merry as if it had been a picnic; but soon +afterwards heavy rain caused much discomfort, for they were +absolutely without shelter.</p> + +<p>In Captain Fitz Roy’s excellent account of the earthquake it is +said that two explosions, one like a column of smoke and +<a name="page328"></a> +another like the blowing of a great whale, were seen in the bay. +The water also appeared everywhere to be boiling; and it “became +black, and exhaled a most disagreeable sulphureous smell.” These +latter circumstances were observed in the Bay of Valparaiso during +the earthquake of 1822; they may, I think, be accounted for by the +disturbance of the mud at the bottom of the sea containing organic +matter in decay. In the Bay of Callao, during a calm day, I +noticed, that as the ship dragged her cable over the bottom, its +course was marked by a line of bubbles. The lower orders in +Talcahuano thought that the earthquake was caused by some old +Indian women, who two years ago, being offended, stopped the +volcano of Antuco. This silly belief is curious, because it shows +that experience has taught them to observe that there exists a +relation between the suppressed action of the volcanos, and the +trembling of the ground. It was necessary to apply the witchcraft +to the point where their perception of cause and effect failed; and +this was the closing of the volcanic vent. This belief is the more +singular in this particular instance because, according to Captain +Fitz Roy, there is reason to believe that Antuco was noways +affected.</p> + +<p>The town of Concepcion was built in the usual Spanish fashion, +with all the streets running at right angles to each other; one set +ranging south-west by west, and the other set north-west by north. +The walls in the former direction certainly stood better than those +in the latter; the greater number of the masses of brickwork were +thrown down towards the N.E. Both these circumstances perfectly +agree with the general idea of the undulations having come from the +S.W.; in which quarter subterranean noises were also heard; for it +is evident that the walls running S.W. and N.E. which presented +their ends to the point whence the undulations came, would be much +less likely to fall than those walls which, running N.W. and S.E., +must in their whole lengths have been at the same instant thrown +out of the perpendicular; for the undulations, coming from the +S.W., must have extended in N.W. and S.E. waves, as they passed +under the foundations. This may be illustrated by placing books +edgeways on a carpet, and then, after the manner suggested by +Michell, imitating the undulations of an earthquake: it will be +found that they fall with more or less +<a name="page329"></a> +readiness, according as their direction more or less nearly +coincides with the line of the waves. The fissures in the ground +generally, though not uniformly, extended in a S.E. and N.W. +direction, and therefore corresponded to the lines of undulation or +of principal flexure. Bearing in mind all these circumstances, +which so clearly point to the S.W. as the chief focus of +disturbance, it is a very interesting fact that the island of S. +Maria, situated in that quarter, was, during the general uplifting +of the land, raised to nearly three times the height of any other +part of the coast.</p> + +<p>The different resistance offered by the walls, according to +their direction, was well exemplified in the case of the Cathedral. +The side which fronted the N.E. presented a grand pile of ruins, in +the midst of which door-cases and masses of timber stood up, as if +floating in a stream. Some of the angular blocks of brickwork were +of great dimensions; and they were rolled to a distance on the +level plaza, like fragments of rock at the base of some high +mountain. The side walls (running S.W. and N.E.), though +exceedingly fractured, yet remained standing; but the vast +buttresses (at right angles to them, and therefore parallel to the +walls that fell) were in many cases cut clean off, as if by a +chisel, and hurled to the ground. Some square ornaments on the +coping of these same walls were moved by the earthquake into a +diagonal position. A similar circumstance was observed after an +earthquake at Valparaiso, Calabria, and other places, including +some of the ancient Greek temples.<a href="#fn-14.1" name="fnref-14.1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> +This twisting displacement at first appears to indicate a vorticose movement +beneath each point thus affected; but this is highly improbable. May it not be +caused by a tendency in each stone to arrange itself in some particular +position with respect to the lines of vibration,—in a manner somewhat +similar to pins on a sheet of paper when shaken? Generally speaking, arched +doorways or windows stood much better than any other part of the buildings. +Nevertheless, a poor lame old man, who had been in the habit, during trifling +shocks, of crawling to a certain doorway, was this time crushed to pieces.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-14.1"></a> <a href="#fnref-14.1">[1]</a> +M. Arago in <i>L’Institut</i>, 1839, p. 337. See also Miers’s +<i>Chile</i>, vol. i, p. 392; also Lyell’s <i>Principles of Geology</i>, +chap. xv, book ii.</p> + +<p>I have not attempted to give any detailed description of the +appearance of Concepcion, for I feel that it is quite +<a name="page330"></a> +impossible to convey the mingled feelings which I experienced. +Several of the officers visited it before me, but their strongest +language failed to give a just idea of the scene of desolation. It +is a bitter and humiliating thing to see works, which have cost man +so much time and labour, overthrown in one minute; yet compassion +for the inhabitants was almost instantly banished, by the surprise +in seeing a state of things produced in a moment of time, which one +was accustomed to attribute to a succession of ages. In my opinion, +we have scarcely beheld, since leaving England, any sight so deeply +interesting.</p> + +<p>In almost every severe earthquake, the neighbouring waters of +the sea are said to have been greatly agitated. The disturbance +seems generally, as in the case of Concepcion, to have been of two +kinds: first, at the instant of the shock, the water swells high up +on the beach with a gentle motion, and then as quietly retreats; +secondly, some time afterwards, the whole body of the sea retires +from the coast, and then returns in waves of overwhelming force. +The first movement seems to be an immediate consequence of the +earthquake affecting differently a fluid and a solid, so that their +respective levels are slightly deranged: but the second case is a +far more important phenomenon. During most earthquakes, and +especially during those on the west coast of America, it is certain +that the first great movement of the waters has been a retirement. +Some authors have attempted to explain this, by supposing that the +water retains its level, whilst the land oscillates upwards; but +surely the water close to the land, even on a rather steep coast, +would partake of the motion of the bottom: moreover, as urged by +Mr. Lyell, similar movements of the sea have occurred at islands +far distant from the chief line of disturbance, as was the case +with Juan Fernandez during this earthquake, and with Madeira during +the famous Lisbon shock. I suspect (but the subject is a very +obscure one) that a wave, however produced, first draws the water +from the shore, on which it is advancing to break: I have observed +that this happens with the little waves from the paddles of a +steam-boat. It is remarkable that whilst Talcahuano and Callao +(near Lima), both situated at the head of large shallow bays, have +suffered during every severe earthquake from great waves, +Valparaiso, seated close to the edge of profoundly deep water, has +never +<a name="page331"></a> +been overwhelmed, though so often shaken by the severest shocks. +From the great wave not immediately following the earthquake, but +sometimes after the interval of even half an hour, and from distant +islands being affected similarly with the coasts near the focus of +the disturbance, it appears that the wave first rises in the +offing; and as this is of general occurrence, the cause must be +general: I suspect we must look to the line where the less +disturbed waters of the deep ocean join the water nearer the coast, +which has partaken of the movements of the land, as the place where +the great wave is first generated; it would also appear that the +wave is larger or smaller, according to the extent of shoal water +which has been agitated together with the bottom on which it +rested.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +The most remarkable effect of this earthquake was the permanent elevation of +the land; it would probably be far more correct to speak of it as the cause. +There can be no doubt that the land round the Bay of Concepcion was upraised +two or three feet; but it deserves notice, that owing to the wave having +obliterated the old lines of tidal action on the sloping sandy shores, I could +discover no evidence of this fact, except in the united testimony of the +inhabitants, that one little rocky shoal, now exposed, was formerly covered +with water. At the island of S. Maria (about thirty miles distant) the +elevation was greater; on one part, Captain Fitz Roy found beds of putrid +mussel-shells <i>still adhering to the rocks,</i> ten feet above high-water +mark: the inhabitants had formerly dived at lower-water spring-tides for these +shells. The elevation of this province is particularly interesting, from its +having been the theatre of several other violent earthquakes, and from the vast +numbers of sea-shells scattered over the land, up to a height of certainly 600, +and I believe, of 1000 feet. At Valparaiso, as I have remarked, similar shells +are found at the height of 1300 feet: it is hardly possible to doubt that this +great elevation has been effected by successive small uprisings, such as that +which accompanied or caused the earthquake of this year, and likewise by an +insensibly slow rise, which is certainly in progress on some parts of this +coast. +</p> + +<p>The island of Juan Fernandez, 360 miles to the N.E., was, at the +time of the great shock of the 20th, violently shaken, so +<a name="page332"></a> +that the trees beat against each other, and a volcano burst +forth under water close to the shore: these facts are remarkable +because this island, during the earthquake of 1751, was then also +affected more violently than other places at an equal distance from +Concepcion, and this seems to show some subterranean connexion +between these two points. Chiloe, about 340 miles southward of +Concepcion, appears to have been shaken more strongly than the +intermediate district of Valdivia, where the volcano of Villarica +was noways affected, whilst in the Cordillera in front of Chiloe +two of the volcanos burst forth at the same instant in violent +action. These two volcanos, and some neighbouring ones, continued +for a long time in eruption, and ten months afterwards were again +influenced by an earthquake at Concepcion. Some men cutting wood +near the base of one of these volcanos, did not perceive the shock +of the 20th, although the whole surrounding Province was then +trembling; here we have an eruption relieving and taking the place +of an earthquake, as would have happened at Concepcion, according +to the belief of the lower orders, if the volcano at Antuco had not +been closed by witchcraft. Two years and three-quarters afterwards +Valdivia and Chiloe were again shaken, more violently than on the +20th, and an island in the Chonos Archipelago was permanently +elevated more than eight feet. It will give a better idea of the +scale of these phenomena, if (as in the case of the glaciers) we +suppose them to have taken place at corresponding distances in +Europe:—then would the land from the North Sea to the +Mediterranean have been violently shaken, and at the same instant +of time a large tract of the eastern coast of England would have +been permanently elevated, together with some outlying +islands,—a train of volcanos on the coast of Holland would +have burst forth in action, and an eruption taken place at the +bottom of the sea, near the northern extremity of Ireland—and +lastly, the ancient vents of Auvergne, Cantal, and Mont d’Or would +each have sent up to the sky a dark column of smoke, and have long +remained in fierce action. Two years and three-quarters afterwards, +France, from its centre to the English Channel, would have been +again desolated by an earthquake, and an island permanently +upraised in the Mediterranean.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page333"></a> +The space, from under which volcanic matter on the 20th was +actually erupted, is 720 miles in one line, and 400 miles in +another line at right angles to the first: hence, in all +probability, a subterranean lake of lava is here stretched out, of +nearly double the area of the Black Sea. From the intimate and +complicated manner in which the elevatory and eruptive forces were +shown to be connected during this train of phenomena, we may +confidently come to the conclusion that the forces which slowly and +by little starts uplift continents, and those which at successive +periods pour forth volcanic matter from open orifices, are +identical. From many reasons, I believe that the frequent quakings +of the earth on this line of coast are caused by the rending of the +strata, necessarily consequent on the tension of the land when +upraised, and their injection by fluidified rock. This rending and +injection would, if repeated often enough (and we know that +earthquakes repeatedly affect the same areas in the same manner), +form a chain of hills;—and the linear island of St. Mary, +which was upraised thrice the height of the neighbouring country, +seems to be undergoing this process. I believe that the solid axis +of a mountain differs in its manner of formation from a volcanic +hill, only in the molten stone having been repeatedly injected, +instead of having been repeatedly ejected. Moreover, I believe that +it is impossible to explain the structure of great mountain-chains, +such as that of the Cordillera, where the strata, capping the +injected axis of plutonic rock, have been thrown on their edges +along several parallel and neighbouring lines of elevation, except +on this view of the rock of the axis having been repeatedly +injected, after intervals sufficiently long to allow the upper +parts or wedges to cool and become solid;—for if the strata +had been thrown into their present highly-inclined, vertical, and +even inverted positions, by a single blow, the very bowels of the +earth would have gushed out; and instead of beholding abrupt +mountain-axes of rock solidified under great pressure, deluges of +lava would have flowed out at innumerable points on every line of +elevation.<a href="#fn-14.2" name="fnref-14.2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-14.2"></a> <a href="#fnref-14.2">[2]</a> +For a full account of the volcanic phenomena which accompanied the earthquake +of the 20th, and for the conclusions deducible from them, I must refer to +Volume V of the <i>Geological Transactions.</i></p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl68.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl68.jpg" width="297" height="235" alt="Hide Bridge, Santiago de Chile" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="page334"></a><a name="chxv"></a>Chapter XV</h2> + +<p class="letter">Valparaiso—Portillo Pass—Sagacity of +mules—Mountain-torrents—Mines, how +discovered—Proofs of the gradual elevation of the +Cordillera—Effect of snow on rocks—Geological structure +of the two main ranges, their distinct origin and +upheaval—Great subsidence—Red +snow—Winds—Pinnacles of snow—Dry and clear +atmosphere—Electricity—Pampas—Zoology of the +opposite sides of the Andes—Locusts—Great +Bugs—Mendoza—Uspallata Pass—Silicified trees +buried as they grew—Incas Bridge—Badness of the passes +exaggerated—Cumbre—Casuchas—Valparaiso.</p> + +<h3>PASSAGE OF THE CORDILLERA</h3> + +<p> +<i>March</i> 7<i>th</i>, 1835.—We stayed three days at Concepcion, and +then sailed for Valparaiso. The wind being northerly, we only reached the mouth +of the harbour of Concepcion before it was dark. Being very near the land, and +a fog coming on, the anchor was dropped. Presently a large American whaler +appeared close alongside of us; and we heard the Yankee swearing at his men to +keep quiet, whilst he listened for the +<a name="page335"></a> +breakers. Captain Fitz Roy hailed him, in a loud clear voice, to anchor where +he then was. The poor man must have thought the voice came from the shore: such +a Babel of cries issued at once from the ship—every one hallooing out, +“Let go the anchor! veer cable! shorten sail!” It was the most +laughable thing I ever heard. If the ship’s crew had been all captains, +and no men, there could not have been a greater uproar of orders. We afterwards +found that the mate stuttered: I suppose all hands were assisting him in giving +his orders. +</p> + +<p>On the 11th we anchored at Valparaiso, and two days afterwards I +set out to cross the Cordillera. I proceeded to Santiago, where Mr. +Caldcleugh most kindly assisted me in every possible way in making +the little preparations which were necessary. In this part of Chile +there are two passes across the Andes to Mendoza: the one most +commonly used, namely, that of Aconcagua or Uspallata—is +situated some way to the north; the other, called the Portillo, is +to the south, and nearer, but more lofty and dangerous.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>March</i> 18<i>th.</i>—We set out for the Portillo pass. Leaving +Santiago we crossed the wide burnt-up plain on which that city stands, and in +the afternoon arrived at the Maypu, one of the principal rivers in Chile. The +valley, at the point where it enters the first Cordillera, is bounded on each +side by lofty barren mountains; and although not broad, it is very fertile. +Numerous cottages were surrounded by vines, and by orchards of apple, +nectarine, and peach-trees—their boughs breaking with the weight of the +beautiful ripe fruit. In the evening we passed the custom-house, where our +luggage was examined. The frontier of Chile is better guarded by the Cordillera +than by the waters of the sea. There are very few valleys which lead to the +central ranges, and the mountains are quite impassable in other parts by beasts +of burden. The custom-house officers were very civil, which was perhaps partly +owing to the passport which the President of the Republic had given me; but I +must express my admiration at the natural politeness of almost every Chileno. +In this instance, the contrast with the same class of men in most other +countries was strongly marked. I may mention an anecdote with which I was at +the time much pleased: we met near Mendoza a little and very fat negress, +<a name="page336"></a> +riding astride on a mule. She had a <i>goître</i> so enormous that it was +scarcely possible to avoid gazing at her for a moment; but my two companions +almost instantly, by way of apology, made the common salute of the country by +taking off their hats. Where would one of the lower or higher classes in Europe +have shown such feeling politeness to a poor and miserable object of a degraded +race? +</p> + +<p>At night we slept at a cottage. Our manner of travelling was +delightfully independent. In the inhabited parts we bought a little +firewood, hired pasture for the animals, and bivouacked in the +corner of the same field with them. Carrying an iron pot, we cooked +and ate our supper under a cloudless sky, and knew no trouble. My +companions were Mariano Gonzales, who had formerly accompanied me +in Chile, and an “arriero,” with his ten mules and a “madrina.” The +madrina (or godmother) is a most important personage: she is an old +steady mare, with a little bell round her neck; and wherever she +goes, the mules, like good children, follow her. The affection of +these animals for their madrinas saves infinite trouble. If several +large troops are turned into one field to graze, in the morning the +muleteers have only to lead the madrinas a little apart, and tinkle +their bells; and although there may be two or three hundred +together, each mule immediately knows the bell of its own madrina, +and comes to her. It is nearly impossible to lose an old mule; for +if detained for several hours by force, she will, by the power of +smell, like a dog, track out her companions, or rather the madrina, +for, according to the muleteer, she is the chief object of +affection. The feeling, however, is not of an individual nature; +for I believe I am right in saying that any animal with a bell will +serve as a madrina. In a troop each animal carries on a level road, +a cargo weighing 416 pounds (more than 29 stone), but in a +mountainous country 100 pounds less; yet with what delicate slim +limbs, without any proportional bulk of muscle, these animals +support so great a burden! The mule always appears to me a most +surprising animal. That a hybrid should possess more reason, +memory, obstinacy, social affection, powers of muscular endurance, +and length of life, than either of its parents, seems to indicate +that art has here outdone nature. Of our ten animals, six were +intended for riding, and four for carrying cargoes, each taking +turn about. We carried a good +<a name="page337"></a> +deal of food in case we should be snowed up, as the season was +rather late for passing the Portillo.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl69.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl69.jpg" width="156" height="286" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p> +<i>March</i> 19<i>th.</i>—We rode during this day to the last, and +therefore most elevated, house in the valley. The number of inhabitants became +scanty; but wherever water could be brought on the land, it was very fertile. +All the main valleys in the Cordillera are characterised by having, on both +sides, a fringe or terrace of shingle and sand, rudely stratified, and +generally of considerable thickness. These fringes evidently once extended +across the valleys and were united; and the bottoms of the valleys in northern +Chile, where there are no streams, are thus smoothly filled up. On these +fringes the roads are generally carried, for their surfaces are even, and they +rise with a very gentle slope up the valleys: hence, also, they are easily +cultivated by irrigation. They may be traced up to a height of between 7000 and +9000 feet, where they become hidden by the irregular piles of debris. At the +lower end or mouths of the valleys they are continuously united to those +land-locked plains (also formed of shingle) at the foot of the main Cordillera, +which I have described in a former chapter as characteristic of the scenery of +Chile, and which were undoubtedly deposited when the sea penetrated Chile, as +it now does the more southern coasts. No one fact in the geology of South +America interested me more than these terraces of rudely-stratified shingle. +They precisely resemble in composition the matter which the torrents in each +valley would deposit if they were checked in +<a name="page338"></a> +their course by any cause, such as entering a lake or arm of the sea; but the +torrents, instead of depositing matter, are now steadily at work wearing away +both the solid rock and these alluvial deposits, along the whole line of every +main valley and side valley. It is impossible here to give the reasons, but I +am convinced that the shingle terraces were accumulated, during the gradual +elevation of the Cordillera, by the torrents delivering, at successive levels, +their detritus on the beach-heads of long narrow arms of the sea, first high up +the valleys, then lower and lower down as the land slowly rose. If this be so, +and I cannot doubt it, the grand and broken chain of the Cordillera, instead of +having been suddenly thrown up, as was till lately the universal, and still is +the common opinion of geologists, has been slowly upheaved in mass, in the same +gradual manner as the coasts of the Atlantic and Pacific have risen within the +recent period. A multitude of facts in the structure of the Cordillera, on this +view receive a simple explanation. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl70.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl70.jpg" width="195" height="216" alt="South American bit" /> +</div> + +<p>The rivers which flow in these valleys ought rather to be called +mountain-torrents. Their inclination is very great, and their water +the colour of mud. The roar which the Maypu made, as it rushed over +the great rounded fragments, was like that of the sea. Amidst the +din of rushing waters, the noise from the +<a name="page339"></a> +stones, as they rattled one over another, was most distinctly +audible even from a distance. This rattling noise, night and day, +may be heard along the whole course of the torrent. The sound spoke +eloquently to the geologist; the thousands and thousands of stones +which, striking against each other, made the one dull uniform +sound, were all hurrying in one direction. It was like thinking on +time, where the minute that now glides past is irrevocable. So was +it with these stones; the ocean is their eternity, and each note of +that wild music told of one more step towards their destiny.</p> + +<p>It is not possible for the mind to comprehend, except by a slow +process, any effect which is produced by a cause repeated so often +that the multiplier itself conveys an idea not more definite than +the savage implies when he points to the hairs of his head. As +often as I have seen beds of mud, sand, and shingle, accumulated to +the thickness of many thousand feet, I have felt inclined to +exclaim that causes, such as the present rivers and the present +beaches, could never have ground down and produced such masses. +But, on the other hand, when listening to the rattling noise of +these torrents, and calling to mind that whole races of animals +have passed away from the face of the earth, and that during this +whole period, night and day, these stones have gone rattling +onwards in their course, I have thought to myself, can any +mountains, any continent, withstand such waste?</p> + +<p>In this part of the valley, the mountains on each side were from +3000 to 6000 or 8000 feet high, with rounded outlines and steep +bare flanks. The general colour of the rock was dullish purple, and +the stratification very distinct. If the scenery was not beautiful, +it was remarkable and grand. We met during the day several herds of +cattle, which men were driving down from the higher valleys in the +Cordillera. This sign of the approaching winter hurried our steps, +more than was convenient for geologising. The house where we slept +was situated at the foot of a mountain, on the summit of which are +the mines of S. Pedro de Nolasko. Sir F. Head marvels how mines +have been discovered in such extraordinary situations, as the bleak +summit of the mountain of S. Pedro de Nolasko. In the first place, +metallic veins in this country are generally harder than the +surrounding strata: hence, during the gradual +<a name="page340"></a> +wear of the hills, they project above the surface of the ground. +Secondly, almost every labourer, especially in the northern parts +of Chile, understands something about the appearance of ores. In +the great mining provinces of Coquimbo and Copiapó, firewood +is very scarce, and men search for it over every hill and dale; and +by this means nearly all the richest mines have there been +discovered. Chanuncillo, from which silver to the value of many +hundred thousand pounds has been raised in the course of a few +years, was discovered by a man who threw a stone at his loaded +donkey, and thinking that it was very heavy, he picked it up, and +found it full of pure silver: the vein occurred at no great +distance, standing up like a wedge of metal. The miners, also, +taking a crowbar with them, often wander on Sundays over the +mountains. In this south part of Chile the men who drive cattle +into the Cordillera, and who frequent every ravine where there is a +little pasture, are the usual discoverers.</p> + +<p> +20<i>th.</i>—As we ascended the valley, the vegetation, with the +exception of a few pretty alpine flowers, became exceedingly scanty; and of +quadrupeds, birds, or insects, scarcely one could be seen. The lofty mountains, +their summits marked with a few patches of snow, stood well separated from each +other; the valleys being filled up with an immense thickness of stratified +alluvium. The features in the scenery of the Andes which struck me most, as +contrasted with the other mountain chains with which I am acquainted, +were,—the flat fringes sometimes expanding into narrow plains on each +side of the valleys,—the bright colours, chiefly red and purple, of the +utterly bare and precipitous hills of porphyry, the grand and continuous +wall-like dikes,—the plainly-divided strata which, where nearly vertical, +formed the picturesque and wild central pinnacles, but where less inclined, +composed the great massive mountains on the outskirts of the range,—and +lastly, the smooth conical piles of fine and brightly coloured detritus, which +sloped up at a high angle from the base of the mountains, sometimes to a height +of more than 2000 feet. +</p> + +<p>I frequently observed, both in Tierra del Fuego and within the +Andes, that where the rock was covered during the greater part of +the year with snow, it was shivered in a very extraordinary manner +into small angular fragments. Scoresby<a href="#fn-15.1" name="fnref-15.1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> +has +<a name="page341"></a> +observed the same fact in Spitzbergen. The case appears to me +rather obscure: for that part of the mountain which is protected by +a mantle of snow must be less subject to repeated and great changes +of temperature than any other part. I have sometimes thought that +the earth and fragments of stone on the surface were perhaps less +effectually removed by slowly percolating +snow-water<a href="#fn-15.2" name="fnref-15.2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> +than by rain, and therefore that the appearance of a quicker +disintegration of the solid rock under the snow was deceptive. +Whatever the cause may be, the quantity of crumbling stone on the +Cordillera is very great. Occasionally in the spring great masses +of this detritus slide down the mountains, and cover the +snow-drifts in the valleys, thus forming natural ice-houses. We +rode over one, the height of which was far below the limit of +perpetual snow.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-15.1"></a> <a href="#fnref-15.1">[1]</a> +Scoresby’s <i>Arctic Regions</i>, vol. i, p. 122.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-15.2"></a> <a href="#fnref-15.2">[2]</a> +I have heard it remarked in Shropshire that the water, when the Severn is +flooded from long-continued rain, is much more turbid than when it proceeds +from the snow melting on the Welsh mountains. D’Orbigny (tome i, 1 p. +184), in explaining the cause of the various colours of the rivers in South +America, remarks that those with blue or clear water have their source in the +Cordillera, where the snow melts.</p> + +<p>As the evening drew to a close, we reached a singular basin-like +plain, called the Valle del Yeso. It was covered by a little dry +pasture, and we had the pleasant sight of a herd of cattle amidst +the surrounding rocky deserts. The valley takes its name of Yeso +from a great bed, I should think at least 2000 feet thick, of +white, and in some parts quite pure, gypsum. We slept with a party +of men, who were employed in loading mules with this substance, +which is used in the manufacture of wine. We set out early in the +morning (21st), and continued to follow the course of the river, +which had become very small, till we arrived at the foot of the +ridge that separates the waters flowing into the Pacific and +Atlantic Oceans. The road, which as yet had been good with a steady +but very gradual ascent, now changed into a steep zigzag track up +the great range dividing the republics of Chile and Mendoza.</p> + +<p>I will here give a very brief sketch of the geology of the +several parallel lines forming the Cordillera. Of these lines, +there are two considerably higher than the others; namely, on the +Chilian side, the Peuquenes ridge, which, where the road crosses +it, is 13,210 feet above the sea; and the Portillo ridge, on the +Mendoza side, which is 14,305 feet. The lower beds +<a name="page342"></a> +of the Peuquenes ridge, and of the several great lines to the +westward of it, are composed of a vast pile, many thousand feet in +thickness, of porphyries which have flowed as submarine lavas, +alternating with angular and rounded fragments of the same rocks, +thrown out of the submarine craters. These alternating masses are +covered in the central parts by a great thickness of red sandstone, +conglomerate, and calcareous clay-slate, associated with, and +passing into, prodigious beds of gypsum. In these upper beds shells +are tolerably frequent; and they belong to about the period of the +lower chalk of Europe. It is an old story, but not the less +wonderful, to hear of shells which were once crawling on the bottom +of the sea, now standing nearly 14,000 feet above its level. The +lower beds in this great pile of strata have been dislocated, +baked, crystallised and almost blended together, through the agency +of mountain masses of a peculiar white soda-granitic rock.</p> + +<p> +The other main line, namely, that of the Portillo, is of a totally different +formation: it consists chiefly of grand bare pinnacles of a red potash-granite, +which low down on the western flank are covered by a sandstone, converted by +the former heat into a quartz-rock. On the quartz there rest beds of a +conglomerate several thousand feet in thickness, which have been upheaved by +the red granite, and dip at an angle of 45° towards the Peuquenes line. I +was astonished to find that this conglomerate was partly composed of pebbles, +derived from the rocks, with their fossil shells, of the Peuquenes range; and +partly of red potash-granite, like that of the Portillo. Hence we must conclude +that both the Peuquenes and Portillo ranges were partially upheaved and exposed +to wear and tear when the conglomerate was forming; but as the beds of the +conglomerate have been thrown off at an angle of 45° by the red Portillo +granite (with the underlying sandstone baked by it), we may feel sure that the +greater part of the injection and upheaval of the already partially formed +Portillo line took place after the accumulation of the conglomerate, and long +after the elevation of the Peuquenes ridge. So that the Portillo, the loftiest +line in this part of the Cordillera, is not so old as the less lofty line of +the Peuquenes. Evidence derived from an inclined stream of lava at the eastern +base of the Portillo might be adduced to show that it owes part of +<a name="page343"></a> +its great height to elevations of a still later date. Looking to its earliest +origin, the red granite seems to have been injected on an ancient pre-existing +line of white granite and mica-slate. In most parts, perhaps in all parts, of +the Cordillera, it may be concluded that each line has been formed by repeated +upheavals and injections; and that the several parallel lines are of different +ages. Only thus can we gain time at all sufficient to explain the truly +astonishing amount of denudation which these great, though comparatively with +most other ranges recent, mountains have suffered. +</p> + +<p>Finally, the shells in the Peuquenes or oldest ridge prove, as +before remarked, that it has been upraised 14,000 feet since a +Secondary period, which in Europe we are accustomed to consider as +far from ancient; but since these shells lived in a moderately deep +sea, it can be shown that the area now occupied by the Cordillera +must have subsided several thousand feet—in northern Chile as +much as 6000 feet—so as to have allowed that amount of +submarine strata to have been heaped on the bed on which the shells +lived. The proof is the same with that by which it was shown that, +at a much later period since the tertiary shells of Patagonia +lived, there must have been there a subsidence of several hundred +feet, as well as an ensuing elevation. Daily it is forced home on +the mind of the geologist that nothing, not even the wind that +blows, is so unstable as the level of the crust of this earth.</p> + +<p>I will make only one other geological remark: although the +Portillo chain is here higher than the Peuquenes, the waters, +draining the intermediate valleys, have burst through it. The same +fact, on a grander scale, has been remarked in the eastern and +loftiest line of the Bolivian Cordillera, through which the rivers +pass: analogous facts have also been observed in other quarters of +the world. On the supposition of the subsequent and gradual +elevation of the Portillo line, this can be understood; for a chain +of islets would at first appear, and, as these were lifted up, the +tides would be always wearing deeper and broader channels between +them. At the present day, even in the most retired Sounds on the +coast of Tierra del Fuego, the currents in the transverse breaks +which connect the longitudinal channels are very strong, so that in +one transverse channel even a small vessel under sail was whirled +round and round.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page344"></a> +About noon we began the tedious ascent of the Peuquenes ridge, +and then for the first time experienced some little difficulty in +our respiration. The mules would halt every fifty yards, and after +resting for a few seconds the poor willing animals started of their +own accord again. The short breathing from the rarefied atmosphere +is called by the Chilenos “puna;” and they have most ridiculous +notions concerning its origin. Some say “All the waters here have +puna;” others that “where there is snow there is puna;”—and +this no doubt is true. The only sensation I experienced was a +slight tightness across the head and chest, like that felt on +leaving a warm room and running quickly in frosty weather. There +was some imagination even in this; for upon finding fossil shells +on the highest ridge, I entirely forgot the puna in my delight. +Certainly the exertion of walking was extremely great, and the +respiration became deep and laborious: I am told that in Potosi +(about 13,000 feet above the sea) strangers do not become +thoroughly accustomed to the atmosphere for an entire year. The +inhabitants all recommend onions for the puna; as this vegetable +has sometimes been given in Europe for pectoral complaints, it may +possibly be of real service:—for my part I found nothing so +good as the fossil shells!</p> + +<p>When about half-way up we met a large party with seventy loaded +mules. It was interesting to hear the wild cries of the muleteers, +and to watch the long descending string of the animals; they +appeared so diminutive, there being nothing but the black mountains +with which they could be compared. When near the summit, the wind, +as generally happens, was impetuous and extremely cold. On each +side of the ridge we had to pass over broad bands of perpetual +snow, which were now soon to be covered by a fresh layer. When we +reached the crest and looked backwards, a glorious view was +presented. The atmosphere resplendently clear; the sky an intense +blue; the profound valleys; the wild broken forms: the heaps of +ruins, piled up during the lapse of ages; the bright-coloured +rocks, contrasted with the quiet mountains of snow, all these +together produced a scene no one could have imagined. Neither plant +nor bird, excepting a few condors wheeling around the higher +pinnacles, distracted my attention from the inanimate mass. I felt +glad that I was alone: it was like +<a name="page345"></a> +watching a thunderstorm, or hearing in full orchestra a chorus +of the <i>Messiah.</i></p> + +<p>On several patches of the snow I found the Protococcus nivalis, +or red snow, so well known from the accounts of Arctic navigators. +My attention was called to it by observing the footsteps of the +mules stained a pale red, as if their hoofs had been slightly +bloody. I at first thought that it was owing to dust blown from the +surrounding mountains of red porphyry; for from the magnifying +power of the crystals of snow, the groups of these microscopical +plants appeared like coarse particles. The snow was coloured only +where it had thawed very rapidly, or had been accidentally crushed. +A little rubbed on paper gave it a faint rose tinge mingled with a +little brick-red. I afterwards scraped some off the paper, and +found that it consisted of groups of little spheres in colourless +cases, each the thousandth part of an inch in diameter.</p> + +<p>The wind on the crest of the Peuquenes, as just remarked, is +generally impetuous and very cold: it is said<a href="#fn-15.3" name="fnref-15.3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> +to blow steadily from the westward or Pacific side. As the observations have +been chiefly made in summer, this wind must be an upper and return current. The +Peak of Teneriffe, with a less elevation, and situated in lat. 28°, in like +manner falls within an upper return stream. At first it appears rather +surprising that the trade-wind along the northern parts of Chile and on the +coast of Peru should blow in so very southerly a direction as it does; but when +we reflect that the Cordillera, running in a north and south line, intercepts, +like a great wall, the entire depth of the lower atmospheric current, we can +easily see that the trade-wind must be drawn northward, following the line of +mountains, towards the equatorial regions, and thus lose part of that easterly +movement which it otherwise would have gained from the earth’s rotation. +At Mendoza, on the eastern foot of the Andes, the climate is said to be subject +to long calms, and to frequent though false appearances of gathering +rain-storms: we may imagine that the wind, which coming from the eastward is +thus banked up by the line of mountains, would become stagnant and irregular in +its movements.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-15.3"></a> <a href="#fnref-15.3">[3]</a> +Dr. Gillies in <i>Journ. of Nat. and Geograph. Science</i>, Aug. 1830. This +author gives the heights of the Passes.</p> + +<p>Having crossed the Peuquenes, we descended into a +<a name="page346"></a> +mountainous country, intermediate between the two main ranges, and +then took up our quarters for the night. We were now in the +republic of Mendoza. The elevation was probably not under 11,000 +feet, and the vegetation in consequence exceedingly scanty. The +root of a small scrubby plant served as fuel, but it made a +miserable fire, and the wind was piercingly cold. Being quite tired +with my days work, I made up my bed as quickly as I could, and went +to sleep. About midnight I observed the sky became suddenly +clouded: I awakened the arriero to know if there was any danger of +bad weather; but he said that without thunder and lightning there +was no risk of a heavy snow-storm. The peril is imminent, and the +difficulty of subsequent escape great, to any one overtaken by bad +weather between the two ranges. A certain cave offers the only +place of refuge: Mr. Caldcleugh, who crossed on this same day of +the month, was detained there for some time by a heavy fall of +snow. Casuchas, or houses of refuge, have not been built in this +pass as in that of Uspallata, and therefore, during the autumn, the +Portillo is little frequented. I may here remark that within the +main Cordillera rain never falls, for during the summer the sky is +cloudless, and in winter snow-storms alone occur.</p> + +<p>At the place where we slept water necessarily boiled, from the +diminished pressure of the atmosphere, at a lower temperature than +it does in a less lofty country; the case being the converse of +that of a Papin’s digester. Hence the potatoes, after remaining for +some hours in the boiling water, were nearly as hard as ever. The +pot was left on the fire all night, and next morning it was boiled +again, but yet the potatoes were not cooked. I found out this by +overhearing my two companions discussing the cause, they had come +to the simple conclusion “that the cursed pot (which was a new one) +did not choose to boil potatoes.”</p> + +<p> +<i>March</i> 22<i>nd.</i>—After eating our potato-less breakfast, we +travelled across the intermediate tract to the foot of the Portillo range. In +the middle of summer cattle are brought up here to graze; but they had now all +been removed: even the greater number of the guanacos had decamped, knowing +well that if overtaken here by a snow-storm, they would be caught in a trap. We +had a fine view of a mass of mountains called +<a name="page347"></a> +Tupungato, the whole clothed with unbroken snow, in the midst of which there +was a blue patch, no doubt a glacier;—a circumstance of rare occurrence +in these mountains. Now commenced a heavy and long climb, similar to that of +the Peuquenes. Bold conical hills of red granite rose on each hand; in the +valleys there were several broad fields of perpetual snow. These frozen masses, +during the process of thawing, had in some parts been converted into pinnacles +or columns,<a href="#fn-15.4" name="fnref-15.4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> which, as +they were high and close together, made it difficult for the cargo mules to +pass. On one of these columns of ice a frozen horse was sticking as on a +pedestal, but with its hind legs straight up in the air. The animal, I suppose, +must have fallen with its head downward into a hole, when the snow was +continuous, and afterwards the surrounding parts must have been removed by the +thaw. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-15.4"></a> <a href="#fnref-15.4">[4]</a> +This structure in frozen snow was long since observed by Scoresby in the +icebergs near Spitzbergen, and, lately, with more care, by Colonel Jackson +(<i>Journ. of Geograph. Soc.</i> vol. v, p. 12) on the Neva. Mr. Lyell +(<i>Principles</i>, vol. iv, p. 360 has compared the fissures, by which the +columnar structure seems to be determined, to the joints that traverse nearly +all rocks, but which are best seen in the non-stratified masses. I may observe +that in the case of the frozen snow the columnar structure must be owing to a +“metamorphic” action, and not to a process during +<i>deposition.</i></p> + +<p>When nearly on the crest of the Portillo, we were enveloped in a +falling cloud of minute frozen spicula. This was very unfortunate, +as it continued the whole day, and quite intercepted our view. The +pass takes its name of Portillo from a narrow cleft or doorway on +the highest ridge, through which the road passes. From this point, +on a clear day, those vast plains which uninterruptedly extend to +the Atlantic Ocean can be seen. We descended to the upper limit of +vegetation, and found good quarters for the night under the shelter +of some large fragments of rock. We met here some passengers, who +made anxious inquiries about the state of the road. Shortly after +it was dark the clouds suddenly cleared away, and the effect was +quite magical. The great mountains, bright with the full moon, +seemed impending over us on all sides, as over a deep crevice: one +morning, very early, I witnessed the same striking effect. As soon +as the clouds were dispersed it froze severely; but as there was no +wind, we slept very comfortably.</p> + +<p>The increased brilliancy of the moon and stars at this +elevation, owing to the perfect transparency of the atmosphere, +was +<a name="page348"></a> +very remarkable. Travellers having observed the difficulty of +judging heights and distances amidst lofty mountains, have +generally attributed it to the absence of objects of comparison. It +appears to me, that it is fully as much owing to the transparency +of the air confounding objects at different distances, and likewise +partly to the novelty of an unusual degree of fatigue arising from +a little exertion,—habit being thus opposed to the evidence +of the senses. I am sure that this extreme clearness of the air +gives a peculiar character to the landscape, all objects appearing +to be brought nearly into one plane, as in a drawing or panorama. +The transparency is, I presume, owing to the equable and high state +of atmospheric dryness. This dryness was shown by the manner in +which woodwork shrank (as I soon found by the trouble my geological +hammer gave me); by articles of food, such as bread and sugar, +becoming extremely hard; and by the preservation of the skin and +parts of the flesh of the beasts which had perished on the road. To +the same cause we must attribute the singular facility with which +electricity is excited. My flannel-waistcoat, when rubbed in the +dark, appeared as if it had been washed with +phosphorus,—every hair on a dog’s back crackled;—even +the linen sheets, and leathern straps of the saddle, when handled, +emitted sparks.</p> + +<p> +<i>March</i> 23<i>rd.</i>—The descent on the eastern side of the +Cordillera is much shorter or steeper than on the Pacific side; in other words, +the mountains rise more abruptly from the plains than from the alpine country +of Chile. A level and brilliantly white sea of clouds was stretched out beneath +our feet, shutting out the view of the equally level Pampas. We soon entered +the band of clouds, and did not again emerge from it that day. About noon, +finding pasture for the animals and bushes for firewood at Los Arenales, we +stopped for the night. This was near the uppermost limit of bushes, and the +elevation, I suppose, was between seven and eight thousand feet. +</p> + +<p>I was much struck with the marked difference between the +vegetation of these eastern valleys and those on the Chilian side: +yet the climate, as well as the kind of soil, is nearly the same, +and the difference of longitude very trifling. The same remark +holds good with the quadrupeds, and in a lesser degree with the +birds and insects. I may instance the mice, of which +<a name="page349"></a> +I obtained thirteen species on the shores of the Atlantic, and +five on the Pacific, and not one of them is identical. We must +except all those species which habitually or occasionally frequent +elevated mountains; and certain birds, which range as far south as +the Strait of Magellan. This fact is in perfect accordance with the +geological history of the Andes; for these mountains have existed +as a great barrier since the present races of animals have +appeared; and therefore, unless we suppose the same species to have +been created in two different places, we ought not to expect any +closer similarity between the organic beings on the opposite sides +of the Andes than on the opposite shores of the ocean. In both +cases, we must leave out of the question those kinds which have +been able to cross the barrier, whether of solid rock or +salt water.<a href="#fn-15.5" name="fnref-15.5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-15.5"></a> <a href="#fnref-15.5">[5]</a> +This is merely an illustration of the admirable laws, first laid down by Mr. +Lyell, on the geographical distribution of animals, as influenced by geological +changes. The whole reasoning, of course, is founded on the assumption of the +immutability of species; otherwise the difference in the species in the two +regions might be considered as superinduced during a length of time.</p> + +<p>A great number of the plants and animals were absolutely the +same as, or most closely allied to, those of Patagonia. We here +have the agouti, bizcacha, three species of armadillo, the ostrich, +certain kinds of partridges and other birds, none of which are ever +seen in Chile, but are the characteristic animals of the desert +plains of Patagonia. We have likewise many of the same (to the eyes +of a person who is not a botanist) thorny stunted bushes, withered +grass, and dwarf plants. Even the black slowly crawling beetles are +closely similar, and some, I believe, on rigorous examination, +absolutely identical. It had always been to me a subject of regret +that we were unavoidably compelled to give up the ascent of the S. +Cruz river before reaching the mountains: I always had a latent +hope of meeting with some great change in the features of the +country; but I now feel sure that it would only have been following +the plains of Patagonia up a mountainous ascent.</p> + +<p> +<i>March</i> 24<i>th.</i>—Early in the morning I climbed up a mountain on +one side of the valley, and enjoyed a far extended view over the Pampas. This +was a spectacle to which I had always looked forward with interest, but I was +disappointed: at the first glance it much resembled a distant view of the +ocean, but in the northern parts many irregularities were soon +<a name="page350"></a> +distinguishable. The most striking feature consisted in the rivers, which, +facing the rising sun, glittered like silver threads, till lost in the +immensity of the distance. At mid-day we descended the valley, and reached a +hovel, where an officer and three soldiers were posted to examine passports. +One of these men was a thoroughbred Pampas Indian: he was kept much for the +same purpose as a bloodhound, to track out any person who might pass by +secretly, either on foot or horseback. Some years ago a passenger endeavoured +to escape detection by making a long circuit over a neighbouring mountain; but +this Indian, having by chance crossed his track, followed it for the whole day +over dry and very stony hills, till at last he came on his prey hidden in a +gully. We here heard that the silvery clouds, which we had admired from the +bright region above, had poured down torrents of rain. The valley from this +point gradually opened, and the hills became mere water-worn hillocks compared +to the giants behind; it then expanded into a gently sloping plain of shingle, +covered with low trees and bushes. This talus, although appearing narrow, must +be nearly ten miles wide before it blends into the apparently dead level +Pampas. We passed the only house in this neighbourhood, the Estancia of +Chaquaio: and at sunset we pulled up in the first snug corner, and there +bivouacked. +</p> + +<p> +<i>March</i> 25<i>th.</i>—I was reminded of the Pampas of Buenos Ayres, +by seeing the disk of the rising sun intersected by an horizon level as that of +the ocean. During the night a heavy dew fell, a circumstance which we did not +experience within the Cordillera. The road proceeded for some distance due east +across a low swamp; then meeting the dry plain, it turned to the north towards +Mendoza. The distance is two very long days’ journey. Our first +day’s journey was called fourteen leagues to Estacado, and the second +seventeen to Luxan, near Mendoza. The whole distance is over a level desert +plain, with not more than two or three houses. The sun was exceedingly +powerful, and the ride devoid of all interest. There is very little water in +this “traversia,” and in our second day’s journey we found +only one little pool. Little water flows from the mountains, and it soon +becomes absorbed by the dry and porous soil; so that, although we travelled at +the distance of only ten or fifteen miles from the +<a name="page351"></a> +outer range of the Cordillera, we did not cross a single stream. In many parts +the ground was incrusted with a saline efflorescence; hence we had the same +salt-loving plants which are common near Bahia Blanca. The landscape has a +uniform character from the Strait of Magellan, along the whole eastern coast of +Patagonia, to the Rio Colorado; and it appears that the same kind of country +extends inland from this river, in a sweeping line as far as San Luis, and +perhaps even farther north. To the eastward of this curved line lies the basin +of the comparatively damp and green plains of Buenos Ayres. The sterile plains +of Mendoza and Patagonia consist of a bed of shingle, worn smooth and +accumulated by the waves of the sea; while the Pampas, covered by thistles, +clover, and grass, have been formed by the ancient estuary mud of the Plata. +</p> + +<p>After our two days’ tedious journey, it was refreshing to see in +the distance the rows of poplars and willows growing round the +village and river of Luxan. Shortly before we arrived at this place +we observed to the south a ragged cloud of a dark reddish-brown +colour. At first we thought that it was smoke from some great fire +on the plains; but we soon found that it was a swarm of locusts. +They were flying northward; and with the aid of a light breeze, +they overtook us at a rate of ten or fifteen miles an hour. The +main body filled the air from a height of twenty feet to that, as +it appeared, of two or three thousand above the ground; “and the +sound of their wings was as the sound of chariots of many horses +running to battle:” or rather, I should say, like a strong breeze +passing through the rigging of a ship. The sky, seen through the +advanced guard, appeared like a mezzotinto engraving, but the main +body was impervious to sight; they were not, however, so thick +together, but that they could escape a stick waved backwards and +forwards. When they alighted, they were more numerous than the +leaves in the field, and the surface became reddish instead of +being green: the swarm having once alighted, the individuals flew +from side to side in all directions. Locusts are not an uncommon +pest in this country: already during this season several smaller +swarms had come up from the south, where, as apparently in all +other parts of the world, they are bred in the deserts. The poor +cottagers in vain attempted by lighting fires, by shouts, and by +waving branches, to avert the attack. This +<a name="page352"></a> +species of locust closely resembles, and perhaps is identical +with, the famous Gryllus migratorius of the East.</p> + +<p>We crossed the Luxan, which is a river of considerable size, +though its course towards the sea-coast is very imperfectly known: +it is even doubtful whether, in passing over the plains, it is not +evaporated and lost. We slept in the village of Luxan, which is a +small place surrounded by gardens, and forms the most southern +cultivated district in the Province of Mendoza; it is five leagues +south of the capital. At night I experienced an attack (for it +deserves no less a name) of the <i>Benchuca</i>, a species of +Reduvius, the great black bug of the Pampas. It is most disgusting +to feel soft wingless insects, about an inch long, crawling over +one’s body. Before sucking they are quite thin, but afterwards they +become round and bloated with blood, and in this state are easily +crushed. One which I caught at Iquique (for they are found in Chile +and Peru) was very empty. When placed on a table, and though +surrounded by people, if a finger was presented, the bold insect +would immediately protrude its sucker, make a charge, and if +allowed, draw blood. No pain was caused by the wound. It was +curious to watch its body during the act of sucking, as in less +than ten minutes it changed from being as flat as a wafer to a +globular form. This one feast, for which the benchuca was indebted +to one of the officers, kept it fat during four whole months; but, +after the first fortnight, it was quite ready to have another +suck.</p> + +<p> +<i>March</i> 27<i>th.</i>—We rode on to Mendoza. The country was +beautifully cultivated, and resembled Chile. This neighbourhood is celebrated +for its fruit; and certainly nothing could appear more flourishing than the +vineyards and the orchards of figs, peaches, and olives. We bought water-melons +nearly twice as large as a man’s head, most deliciously cool and +well-flavoured, for a halfpenny apiece; and for the value of threepence, half a +wheelbarrowful of peaches. The cultivated and enclosed part of this province is +very small; there is little more than that which we passed through between +Luxan and the Capital. The land, as in Chile, owes its fertility entirely to +artificial irrigation; and it is really wonderful to observe how +extraordinarily productive a barren traversia is thus rendered. +</p> + +<p>We stayed the ensuing day in Mendoza. The prosperity of the +place has much declined of late years. The inhabitants +<a name="page353"></a> +say “it is good to live in, but very bad to grow rich in.” The +lower orders have the lounging, reckless manners of the Gauchos of +the Pampas; and their dress, riding-gear, and habits of life, are +nearly the same. To my mind the town had a stupid, forlorn aspect. +Neither the boasted alameda, nor the scenery, is at all comparable +with that of Santiago; but to those who, coming from Buenos Ayres, +have just crossed the unvaried Pampas, the gardens and orchards +must appear delightful. Sir F. Head, speaking of the inhabitants, +says, “They eat their dinners, and it is so very hot, they go to +sleep—and could they do better?” I quite agree with Sir F. +Head: the happy doom of the Mendozinos is to eat, sleep and be +idle.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>March</i> 29<i>th.</i>—We set out on our return to Chile by the +Uspallata pass situated north of Mendoza. We had to cross a long and most +sterile traversia of fifteen leagues. The soil in parts was absolutely bare, in +others covered by numberless dwarf cacti, armed with formidable spines, and +called by the inhabitants “little lions.” There were, also, a few +low bushes. Although the plain is nearly three thousand feet above the sea, the +sun was very powerful; and the heat, as well as the clouds of impalpable dust, +rendered the travelling extremely irksome. Our course during the day lay nearly +parallel to the Cordillera, but gradually approaching them. Before sunset we +entered one of the wide valleys, or rather bays, which open on the plain: this +soon narrowed into a ravine, where a little higher up the house of Villa +Vicencio is situated. As we had ridden all day without a drop of water, both +our mules and selves were very thirsty, and we looked out anxiously for the +stream which flows down this valley. It was curious to observe how gradually +the water made its appearance: on the plain the course was quite dry; by +degrees it became a little damper; then puddles of water appeared; these soon +became connected; and at Villa Vicencio there was a nice little rivulet. +</p> + +<p> +30<i>th.</i>—The solitary hovel which bears the imposing name of Villa +Vicencio has been mentioned by every traveller who has crossed the Andes. I +stayed here and at some neighbouring mines during the two succeeding days. The +geology of the surrounding country is very curious. The Uspallata range is +separated from the main Cordillera by a long narrow plain or +<a name="page354"></a> +basin, like those so often mentioned in Chile, but higher, being six thousand +feet above the sea. This range has nearly the same geographical position with +respect to the Cordillera, which the gigantic Portillo line has, but it is of a +totally different origin: it consists of various kinds of submarine lava, +alternating with volcanic sandstones and other remarkable sedimentary deposits; +the whole having a very close resemblance to some of the tertiary beds on the +shores of the Pacific. From this resemblance I expected to find silicified +wood, which is generally characteristic of those formations. I was gratified in +a very extraordinary manner. In the central part of the range, at an elevation +of about seven thousand feet, I observed on a bare slope some snow-white +projecting columns. These were petrified trees, eleven being silicified, and +from thirty to forty converted into coarsely-crystallised white calcareous +spar. They were abruptly broken off, the upright stumps projecting a few feet +above the ground. The trunks measured from three to five feet each in +circumference. They stood a little way apart from each other, but the whole +formed one group. Mr. Robert Brown has been kind enough to examine the wood: he +says it belongs to the fir tribe, partaking of the character of the Araucarian +family, but with some curious points of affinity with the yew. The volcanic +sandstone in which the trees were embedded, and from the lower part of which +they must have sprung, had accumulated in successive thin layers around their +trunks; and the stone yet retained the impression of the bark. +</p> + +<p>It required little geological practice to interpret the +marvellous story which this scene at once unfolded; though I +confess I was at first so much astonished that I could scarcely +believe the plainest evidence. I saw the spot where a cluster of +fine trees once waved their branches on the shores of the Atlantic, +when that ocean (now driven back 700 miles) came to the foot of the +Andes. I saw that they had sprung from a volcanic soil which had +been raised above the level of the sea, and that subsequently this +dry land, with its upright trees, had been let down into the depths +of the ocean. In these depths, the formerly dry land was covered by +sedimentary beds, and these again by enormous streams of submarine +lava—one such mass attaining the thickness of a thousand +feet; and these deluges of molten stone and aqueous deposits five +times alternately had +<a name="page355"></a> +been spread out. The ocean which received such thick masses must +have been profoundly deep; but again the subterranean forces +exerted themselves, and I now beheld the bed of that ocean, forming +a chain of mountains more than seven thousand feet in height. Nor +had those antagonistic forces been dormant, which are always at +work wearing down the surface of the land; the great piles of +strata had been intersected by many wide valleys, and the trees, +now changed into silex, were exposed projecting from the volcanic +soil, now changed into rock, whence formerly, in a green and +budding state, they had raised their lofty heads. Now, all is +utterly irreclaimable and desert; even the lichen cannot adhere to +the stony casts of former trees. Vast, and scarcely comprehensible +as such changes must ever appear, yet they have all occurred within +a period, recent when compared with the history of the Cordillera; +and the Cordillera itself is absolutely modern as compared with +many of the fossiliferous strata of Europe and America.</p> + +<p> +<i>April</i> 1<i>st.</i>—We crossed the Uspallata range, and at night +slept at the custom-house—the only inhabited spot on the plain. Shortly +before leaving the mountains, there was a very extraordinary view; red, purple, +green, and quite white sedimentary rocks, alternating with black lavas, were +broken up and thrown into all kinds of disorder by masses of porphyry of every +shade of colour, from dark brown to the brightest lilac. It was the first view +I ever saw, which really resembled those pretty sections which geologists make +of the inside of the earth. +</p> + +<p>The next day we crossed the plain, and followed the course of +the same great mountain stream which flows by Luxan. Here it was a +furious torrent, quite impassable, and appeared larger than in the +low country, as was the case with the rivulet of Villa Vicencio. On +the evening of the succeeding day we reached the Rio de las Vacas, +which is considered the worst stream in the Cordillera to cross. As +all these rivers have a rapid and short course, and are formed by +the melting of the snow, the hour of the day makes a considerable +difference in their volume. In the evening the stream is muddy and +full, but about daybreak it becomes clearer and much less +impetuous. This we found to be the case with the Rio Vacas, and in +the morning we crossed it with little difficulty.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page356"></a> +The scenery thus far was very uninteresting, compared with that +of the Portillo pass. Little can be seen beyond the bare walls of +the one grand, flat-bottomed valley, which the road follows up to +the highest crest. The valley and the huge rocky mountains are +extremely barren: during the two previous nights the poor mules had +absolutely nothing to eat, for excepting a few low resinous bushes, +scarcely a plant can be seen. In the course of this day we crossed +some of the worst passes in the Cordillera, but their danger has +been much exaggerated. I was told that if I attempted to pass on +foot, my head would turn giddy, and that there was no room to +dismount; but I did not see a place where any one might not have +walked over backwards, or got off his mule on either side. One of +the bad passes, called <i>las Animas</i> (the Souls), I had +crossed, and did not find out till a day afterwards that it was one +of the awful dangers. No doubt there are many parts in which, if +the mule should stumble, the rider would be hurled down a great +precipice; but of this there is little chance. I daresay, in the +spring, the “laderas,” or roads, which each year are formed anew +across the piles of fallen detritus, are very bad; but from what I +saw, I suspect the real danger is nothing. With cargo-mules the +case is rather different, for the loads project so far, that the +animals, occasionally running against each other, or against a +point of rock, lose their balance, and are thrown down the +precipices. In crossing the rivers I can well believe that the +difficulty may be very great: at this season there was little +trouble, but in the summer they must be very hazardous. I can quite +imagine, as Sir F. Head describes, the different expressions of +those who <i>have</i> passed the gulf, and those who <i>are</i> +passing. I never heard of any man being drowned, but with loaded +mules it frequently happens. The arriero tells you to show your +mule the best line, and then allow her to cross as she likes: the +cargo-mule takes a bad line, and is often lost.</p> + +<p> +<i>April</i> 4<i>th.</i>—From the Rio de las Vacas to the Puente del +Incas, half a day’s journey. As there was pasture for the mules, and +geology for me, we bivouacked here for the night. When one hears of a natural +Bridge, one pictures to oneself some deep and narrow ravine, across which a +bold mass of rock has fallen; or a great arch hollowed out like the vault of a +cavern. Instead of this, the Incas Bridge consists of a crust of stratified +shingle +<a name="page357"></a> +cemented together by the deposits of the neighbouring hot springs. It appears +as if the stream had scooped out a channel on one side, leaving an overhanging +ledge, which was met by earth and stones falling down from the opposite cliff. +Certainly an oblique junction, as would happen in such a case, was very +distinct on one side. The Bridge of the Incas is by no means worthy of the +great monarchs whose name it bears. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl71.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl71.jpg" width="302" height="365" alt="Bridge of the Incas—Uspallata Pass" /> +</div> + +<p> +5<i>th.</i>—We had a long day’s ride across the central ridge, from +the Incas Bridge to the Ojos del Agua, which are situated near the lowest +<i>casucha</i> on the Chilian side. These casuchas +<a name="page358"></a> +are round little towers, with steps outside to reach the floor, which is raised +some feet above the ground on account of the snow-drifts. They are eight in +number, and under the Spanish government were kept during the winter well +stored with food and charcoal, and each courier had a master-key. Now they only +answer the purpose of caves, or rather dungeons. Seated on some little +eminence, they are not, however, ill suited to the surrounding scene of +desolation. The zigzag ascent of the Cumbre, or the partition of the waters, +was very steep and tedious; its height, according to Mr. Pentland, is 12,454 +feet. The road did not pass over any perpetual snow, although there were +patches of it on both hands. The wind on the summit was exceedingly cold, but +it was impossible not to stop for a few minutes to admire, again and again, the +colour of the heavens, and the brilliant transparency of the atmosphere. The +scenery was grand: to the westward there was a fine chaos of mountains, divided +by profound ravines. Some snow generally falls before this period of the +season, and it has even happened that the Cordillera have been finally closed +by this time. But we were most fortunate. The sky, by night and by day, was +cloudless, excepting a few round little masses of vapour, that floated over the +highest pinnacles. I have often seen these islets in the sky, marking the +position of the Cordillera, when the far-distant mountains have been hidden +beneath the horizon. +</p> + +<p> +<i>April</i> 6<i>th.</i>—In the morning we found some thief had stolen +one of our mules, and the bell of the madrina. We therefore rode only two or +three miles down the valley, and stayed there the ensuing day in hopes of +recovering the mule, which the arriero thought had been hidden in some ravine. +The scenery in this part had assumed a Chilian character: the lower sides of +the mountains, dotted over with the pale evergreen Quillay tree, and with the +great chandelier-like cactus, are certainly more to be admired than the bare +eastern valleys; but I cannot quite agree with the admiration expressed by some +travellers. The extreme pleasure, I suspect, is chiefly owing to the prospect +of a good fire and of a good supper, after escaping from the cold regions +above: and I am sure I most heartily participated in these feelings. +</p> + +<p> +8<i>th.</i>—We left the valley of the Aconcagua, by which we +<a name="page359"></a> +had descended, and reached in the evening a cottage near the Villa de St. Rosa. +The fertility of the plain was delightful: the autumn being advanced, the +leaves of many of the fruit-trees were falling; and of the +labourers,—some were busy in drying figs and peaches on the roofs of +their cottages, while others were gathering the grapes from the vineyards. It +was a pretty scene; but I missed that pensive stillness which makes the autumn +in England indeed the evening of the year. On the 10th we reached Santiago, +where I received a very kind and hospitable reception from Mr. Caldcleugh. My +excursion only cost me twenty-four days, and never did I more deeply enjoy an +equal space of time. A few days afterwards I returned to Mr. Corfield’s +house at Valparaiso. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl72.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl72.jpg" width="279" height="247" alt="Lima and San Lorenzo" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="page360"></a><a name="chxvi"></a>Chapter XVI</h2> + +<p class="letter">Coast-road to Coquimbo—Great loads carried +by the miners—Coquimbo—Earthquake—Step-formed +terraces—Absence of recent deposits—Contemporaneousness +of the Tertiary formations—Excursion up the valley—Road +to Guasco—Deserts—Valley of Copiapó—Rain +and Earthquakes—Hydrophobia—The Despoblado—Indian +ruins—Probable change of climate—River-bed arched by an +earthquake—Cold gales of wind—Noises from a +hill—Iquique—Salt alluvium—Nitrate of +soda—Lima—Unhealthy country—Ruins of Callao, +overthrown by an earthquake—Recent subsidence—Elevated +shells on San Lorenzo, their decomposition—Plain with +embedded shells and fragments of pottery—Antiquity of the +Indian Race.</p> + +<h3>NORTHERN CHILE AND PERU.</h3> + +<p> +<i>April</i> 27<i>th.</i>—I set out on a journey to Coquimbo, and thence +through Guasco to Copiapó, where Captain Fitz Roy kindly offered to pick me up +in the <i>Beagle.</i> The distance in a straight line along the shore northward +is only 420 miles; but my mode of travelling made it a very long journey. I +bought +<a name="page361"></a> +four horses and two mules, the latter carrying the luggage on alternate days. +The six animals together only cost the value of twenty-five pounds sterling, +and at Copiapó I sold them again for twenty-three. We travelled in the same +independent manner as before, cooking our own meals, and sleeping in the open +air. As we rode towards the Viño del Mar, I took a farewell view of Valparaiso, +and admired its picturesque appearance. For geological purposes I made a detour +from the high road to the foot of the Bell of Quillota. We passed through an +alluvial district rich in gold, to the neighbourhood of Limache, where we +slept. Washing for gold supports the inhabitants of numerous hovels, scattered +along the sides of each little rivulet; but, like all those whose gains are +uncertain, they are unthrifty in their habits, and consequently poor. +</p> + +<p> +28<i>th.</i>—In the afternoon we arrived at a cottage at the foot of the +Bell mountain. The inhabitants were freeholders, which is not very usual in +Chile. They supported themselves on the produce of a garden and a little field, +but were very poor. Capital is here so deficient that the people are obliged to +sell their green corn while standing in the field, in order to buy necessaries +for the ensuing year. Wheat in consequence was dearer in the very district of +its production than at Valparaiso, where the contractors live. The next day we +joined the main road to Coquimbo. At night there was a very light shower of +rain: this was the first drop that had fallen since the heavy rain of September +11th and 12th, which detained me a prisoner at the Baths of Cauquenes. The +interval was seven and a half months; but the rain this year in Chile was +rather later than usual. The distant Andes were now covered by a thick mass of +snow, and were a glorious sight. +</p> + +<p> +<i>May</i> 2<i>nd.</i>—The road continued to follow the coast at no great +distance from the sea. The few trees and bushes which are common in central +Chile decreased rapidly in numbers, and were replaced by a tall plant, +something like a yucca in appearance. The surface of the country, on a small +scale, was singularly broken and irregular; abrupt little peaks of rock rising +out of small plains or basins. The indented coast and the bottom of the +neighbouring sea, studded with breakers, would, if converted into dry land, +present similar forms; and +<a name="page362"></a> +such a conversion without doubt has taken place in the part over which we rode. +</p> + +<p> +3<i>rd.</i>—Quilimari to Conchalee. The country became more and more +barren. In the valleys there was scarcely sufficient water for any irrigation; +and the intermediate land was quite bare, not supporting even goats. In the +spring, after the winter showers, a thin pasture rapidly springs up, and cattle +are then driven down from the Cordillera to graze for a short time. It is +curious to observe how the seeds of the grass and other plants seem to +accommodate themselves, as if by an acquired habit, to the quantity of rain +which falls upon different parts of this coast. One shower far northward at +Copiapó produces as great an effect on the vegetation, as two at Guasco, and +three or four in this district. At Valparaiso a winter so dry as greatly to +injure the pasture, would at Guasco produce the most unusual abundance. +Proceeding northward, the quantity of rain does not appear to decrease in +strict proportion to the latitude. At Conchalee, which is only 67 miles north +of Valparaiso, rain is not expected till the end of May; whereas at Valparaiso +some generally falls early in April: the annual quantity is likewise small in +proportion to the lateness of the season at which it commences. +</p> + +<p> +4<i>th.</i>—Finding the coast-road devoid of interest of any kind, we +turned inland towards the mining district and valley of Illapel. This valley, +like every other in Chile, is level, broad, and very fertile: it is bordered on +each side, either by cliffs of stratified shingle, or by bare rocky mountains. +Above the straight line of the uppermost irrigating ditch, all is brown as on a +high-road; while all below is of as bright a green as verdigris, from the beds +of alfarfa, a kind of clover. We proceeded to Los Hornos, another mining +district, where the principal hill was drilled with holes, like a great +ants’-nest. The Chilian miners are a peculiar race of men in their +habits. Living for weeks together in the most desolate spots, when they descend +to the villages on feast-days there is no excess of extravagance into which +they do not run. They sometimes gain a considerable sum, and then, like sailors +with prize-money, they try how soon they can contrive to squander it. They +drink excessively, buy quantities of clothes, and in a few days return +penniless to their miserable abodes, there to work harder +<a name="page363"></a> +than beasts of burden. This thoughtlessness, as with sailors, is evidently the +result of a similar manner of life. Their daily food is found them, and they +acquire no habits of carefulness; moreover, temptation and the means of +yielding to it are placed in their power at the same time. On the other hand, +in Cornwall, and some other parts of England, where the system of selling part +of the vein is followed, the miners, from being obliged to act and think for +themselves, are a singularly intelligent and well-conducted set of men. +</p> + +<p>The dress of the Chilian miner is peculiar and rather +picturesque. He wears a very long shirt of some dark-coloured +baize, with a leathern apron; the whole being fastened round his +waist by a bright-coloured sash. His trousers are very broad, and +his small cap of scarlet cloth is made to fit the head closely. We +met a party of these miners in full costume, carrying the body of +one of their companions to be buried. They marched at a very quick +trot, four men supporting the corpse. One set having run as hard as +they could for about two hundred yards, were relieved by four +others, who had previously dashed on ahead on horseback. Thus they +proceeded, encouraging each other by wild cries: altogether the +scene formed a most strange funeral.</p> + +<p>We continued travelling northward in a zigzag line; sometimes +stopping a day to geologise. The country was so thinly inhabited, +and the track so obscure, that we often had difficulty in finding +our way. On the 12th I stayed at some mines. The ore in this case +was not considered particularly good, but from being abundant it +was supposed the mine would sell for about thirty or forty thousand +dollars (that is, 6000 or 8000 pounds sterling); yet it had been +bought by one of the English Associations for an ounce of gold +(£3 : 8s). The ore is yellow pyrites, which, as I have +already remarked, before the arrival of the English was not +supposed to contain a particle of copper. On a scale of profits +nearly as great as in the above instance, piles of cinders, +abounding with minute globules of metallic copper, were purchased; +yet with these advantages, the mining associations, as is well +known, contrived to lose immense sums of money. The folly of the +greater number of the commissioners and shareholders amounted to +infatuation;—a thousand pounds per annum given in some +<a name="page364"></a> +cases to entertain the Chilian authorities; libraries of +well-bound geological books; miners brought out for particular +metals, as tin, which are not found in Chile; contracts to supply +the miners with milk, in parts where there are no cows; machinery, +where it could not possibly be used; and a hundred similar +arrangements, bore witness to our absurdity, and to this day afford +amusement to the natives. Yet there can be no doubt, that the same +capital well employed in these mines would have yielded an immense +return: a confidential man of business, a practical miner and +assayer, would have been all that was required.</p> + +<p> +Captain Head has described the wonderful load which the “Apires,” +truly beasts of burden, carry up from the deepest mines. I confess I thought +the account exaggerated; so that I was glad to take an opportunity of weighing +one of the loads, which I picked out by hazard. It required considerable +exertion on my part, when standing directly over it, to lift it from the +ground. The load was considered under weight when found to be 197 pounds. The +apire had carried this up eighty perpendicular yards,—part of the way by +a steep passage, but the greater part up notched poles, placed in a zigzag line +up the shaft. According to the general regulation, the apire is not allowed to +halt for breath, except the mine is six hundred feet deep. The average load is +considered as rather more than 200 pounds, and I have been assured that one of +300 pounds (twenty-two stone and a half) by way of a trial has been brought up +from the deepest mine! At this time the apires were bringing up the usual load +twelve times in the day; that is 2400 pounds from eighty yards deep; and they +were employed in the intervals in breaking and picking ore. +</p> + +<p>These men, excepting from accidents, are healthy, and appear +cheerful. Their bodies are not very muscular. They rarely eat meat +once a week, and never oftener, and then only the hard dry charqui. +Although with a knowledge that the labour was voluntary, it was +nevertheless quite revolting to see the state in which they reached +the mouth of the mine; their bodies bent forward, leaning with +their arms on the steps, their legs bowed, their muscles quivering, +the perspiration streaming from their faces over their breasts, +their nostrils distended, the corners of their mouth forcibly drawn +back, and the expulsion of their +<a name="page365"></a> +breath most laborious. Each time they draw their breath they +utter an articulate cry of “ay-ay,” which ends in a sound rising +from deep in the chest, but shrill like the note of a fife. After +staggering to the pile of ore, they emptied the “carpacho;” in two +or three seconds recovering their breath, they wiped the sweat from +their brows, and apparently quite fresh descended the mine again at +a quick pace. This appears to me a wonderful instance of the amount +of labour which habit, for it can be nothing else, will enable a +man to endure.</p> + +<p>In the evening, talking with the <i>mayor-domo</i> of these +mines about the number of foreigners now scattered over the whole +country, he told me that, though quite a young man, he remembers +when he was a boy at school at Coquimbo, a holiday being given to +see the captain of an English ship, who was brought to the city to +speak to the governor. He believes that nothing would have induced +any boy in the school, himself included, to have gone close to the +Englishman; so deeply had they been impressed with an idea of the +heresy, contamination, and evil to be derived from contact with +such a person. To this day they relate the atrocious actions of the +bucaniers; and especially of one man, who took away the figure of +the Virgin Mary, and returned the year after for that of St. +Joseph, saying it was a pity the lady should not have a husband. I +heard also of an old lady who, at a dinner at Coquimbo, remarked +how wonderfully strange it was that she should have lived to dine +in the same room with an Englishman; for she remembered as a girl, +that twice, at the mere cry of “Los Ingleses,” every soul, carrying +what valuables they could, had taken to the mountains.</p> + +<p> +14<i>th.</i>—We reached Coquimbo, where we stayed a few days. The town is +remarkable for nothing but its extreme quietness. It is said to contain from +6000 to 8000 inhabitants. On the morning of the 17th it rained lightly, the +first time this year, for about five hours. The farmers, who plant corn near +the sea-coast where the atmosphere is more humid, taking advantage of this +shower, would break up the ground; after a second they would put the seed in; +and if a third shower should fall, they would reap a good harvest in the +spring. It was interesting to watch the effect of this trifling amount of +moisture. Twelve hours afterwards the ground appeared as dry as ever; yet after +an interval of ten days all the hills were faintly tinged with green +<a name="page366"></a> +patches; the grass being sparingly scattered in hair-like fibres a full inch in +length. Before this shower every part of the surface was bare as on a +high-road. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl73.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl73.jpg" width="290" height="244" alt="Coquimbo, Chile" /> +</div> + +<p>In the evening, Captain Fitz Roy and myself were dining with Mr. +Edwards, an English resident well known for his hospitality by all +who have visited Coquimbo, when a sharp earthquake happened. I +heard the forecoming rumble, but from the screams of the ladies, +the running of the servants, and the rush of several of the +gentlemen to the doorway, I could not distinguish the motion. Some +of the women afterwards were crying with terror, and one gentleman +said he should not be able to sleep all night, or if he did, it +would only be to dream of falling houses. The father of this person +had lately lost all his property at Talcahuano, and he himself had +only just escaped a falling roof at Valparaiso in 1822. He +mentioned a curious coincidence which then happened: he was playing +at cards, when a German, one of the party, got up, and said he +would never sit in a room in these countries with the door shut, +as, owing to his having done so, he had nearly lost his life at +Copiapó. +<a name="page367"></a> +Accordingly he opened the door; and no sooner had he done this, than +he cried out, “Here it comes again!” and the famous shock +commenced. The whole party escaped. The danger in an earthquake is +not from the time lost in opening the door, but from the chance of +its becoming jammed by the movement of the walls.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to be much surprised at the fear which natives +and old residents, though some of them known to be men of great +command of mind, so generally experience during earthquakes. I +think, however, this excess of panic may be partly attributed to a +want of habit in governing their fear, as it is not a feeling they +are ashamed of. Indeed, the natives do not like to see a person +indifferent. I heard of two Englishmen who, sleeping in the open +air during a smart shock, knowing that there was no danger, did not +rise. The natives cried out indignantly, “Look at those heretics, +they do not even get out of their beds!”</p> + +<p class="p2"> +I spent some days in examining the step-formed terraces of shingle, first +noticed by Captain B. Hall, and believed by Mr. Lyell to have been formed by +the sea during the gradual rising of the land. This certainly is the true +explanation, for I found numerous shells of existing species on these terraces. +Five narrow, gently sloping, fringe-like terraces rise one behind the other, +and where best developed are formed of shingle: they front the bay, and sweep +up both sides of the valley. At Guasco, north of Coquimbo, the phenomenon is +displayed on a much grander scale, so as to strike with surprise even some of +the inhabitants. The terraces are there much broader, and may be called plains, +in some parts there are six of them, but generally only five; they run up the +valley for thirty-seven miles from the coast. These step-formed terraces or +fringes closely resemble those in the valley of S. Cruz, and, except in being +on a smaller scale, those great ones along the whole coast-line of Patagonia. +They have undoubtedly been formed by the denuding power of the sea, during long +periods of rest in the gradual elevation of the continent. +</p> + +<p>Shells of many existing species not only lie on the surface of +the terraces at Coquimbo (to a height of 250 feet), but are +embedded in a friable calcareous rock, which in some places is +<a name="page368"></a> +as much as between twenty and thirty feet in thickness, but is +of little extent. These modern beds rest on an ancient tertiary +formation containing shells, apparently all extinct. Although I +examined so many hundred miles of coast on the Pacific, as well as +Atlantic side of the continent, I found no regular strata +containing sea-shells of recent species, excepting at this place, +and at a few points northward on the road to Guasco. This fact +appears to me highly remarkable; for the explanation generally +given by geologists, of the absence in any district of stratified +fossiliferous deposits of a given period, namely, that the surface +then existed as dry land, is not here applicable; for we know from +the shells strewed on the surface and embedded in loose sand or +mould, that the land for thousands of miles along both coasts has +lately been submerged. The explanation, no doubt, must be sought in +the fact, that the whole southern part of the continent has been +for a long time slowly rising; and therefore that all matter +deposited along shore in shallow water must have been soon brought +up and slowly exposed to the wearing action of the sea-beach; and +it is only in comparatively shallow water that the greater number +of marine organic beings can flourish, and in such water it is +obviously impossible that strata of any great thickness can +accumulate. To show the vast power of the wearing action of +sea-beaches, we need only appeal to the great cliffs along the +present coast of Patagonia, and to the escarpments or ancient +sea-cliffs at different levels, one above another, on that same +line of coast.</p> + +<p>The old underlying tertiary formation at Coquimbo appears to be +of about the same age with several deposits on the coast of Chile +(of which that of Navedad is the principal one), and with the great +formation of Patagonia. Both at Navedad and in Patagonia there is +evidence, that since the shells (a list of which has been seen by +Professor E. Forbes) there intombed were living, there has been a +subsidence of several hundred feet, as well as an ensuing +elevation. It may naturally be asked how it comes that although no +extensive fossiliferous deposits of the recent period, nor of any +period intermediate between it and the ancient tertiary epoch, have +been preserved on either side of the continent, yet that at this +ancient tertiary epoch, sedimentary matter containing fossil +remains should have been deposited and preserved at different +points in north and south +<a name="page369"></a> +lines, over a space of 1100 miles on the shores of the Pacific, +and of at least 1350 miles on the shores of the Atlantic, and in an +east and west line of 700 miles across the widest part of the +continent? I believe the explanation is not difficult, and that it +is perhaps applicable to nearly analogous facts observed in other +quarters of the world. Considering the enormous power of denudation +which the sea possesses, as shown by numberless facts, it is not +probable that a sedimentary deposit, when being upraised, could +pass through the ordeal of the beach, so as to be preserved in +sufficient masses to last to a distant period, without it were +originally of wide extent and of considerable thickness: now it is +impossible on a moderately shallow bottom, which alone is +favourable to most living creatures, that a thick and widely +extended covering of sediment could be spread out, without the +bottom sank down to receive the successive layers. This seems to +have actually taken place at about the same period in southern +Patagonia and Chile, though these places are a thousand miles +apart. Hence, if prolonged movements of approximately +contemporaneous subsidence are generally widely extensive, as I am +strongly inclined to believe from my examination of the Coral Reefs +of the great oceans—or if, confining our view to South +America, the subsiding movements have been coextensive with those +of elevation, by which, within the same period of existing shells, +the shores of Peru, Chile, Tierra del Fuego, Patagonia, and La +Plata have been upraised—then we can see that at the same +time, at far distant points, circumstances would have been +favourable to the formation of fossiliferous deposits, of wide +extent and of considerable thickness; and such deposits, +consequently, would have a good chance of resisting the wear and +tear of successive beach-lines, and of lasting to a future +epoch.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>May</i> 21<i>st.</i>—I set out in company with Don Jose Edwards to the +silver-mine of Arqueros, and thence up the valley of Coquimbo. Passing through +a mountainous country, we reached by nightfall the mines belonging to Mr. +Edwards. I enjoyed my night’s rest here from a reason which will not be +fully appreciated in England, namely, the absence of fleas! The rooms in +Coquimbo swarm with them; but they will not +<a name="page370"></a> +live here at the height of only three or four thousand feet: it can scarcely be +the trifling diminution of temperature, but some other cause which destroys +these troublesome insects at this place. The mines are now in a bad state, +though they formerly yielded about 2000 pounds in weight of silver a year. It +has been said that “a person with a copper-mine will gain; with silver he +may gain; but with gold he is sure to lose.” This is not true: all the +large Chilian fortunes have been made by mines of the more precious metals. A +short time since an English physician returned to England from Copiapó, taking +with him the profits of one share in a silver-mine, which amounted to about +24,000 pounds sterling. No doubt a copper-mine with care is a sure game, +whereas the other is gambling, or rather taking a ticket in a lottery. The +owners lose great quantities of rich ores; for no precautions can prevent +robberies. I heard of a gentleman laying a bet with another, that one of his +men should rob him before his face. The ore when brought out of the mine is +broken into pieces, and the useless stone thrown on one side. A couple of the +miners who were thus employed, pitched, as if by accident, two fragments away +at the same moment, and then cried out for a joke “Let us see which rolls +furthest.” The owner, who was standing by, bet a cigar with his friend on +the race. The miner by this means watched the very point amongst the rubbish +where the stone lay. In the evening he picked it up and carried it to his +master, showing him a rich mass of silver-ore, and saying, “This was the +stone on which you won a cigar by its rolling so far.” +</p> + +<p> +<i>May</i> 23<i>rd.</i>—We descended into the fertile valley of Coquimbo, +and followed it till we reached an Hacienda belonging to a relation of Don +Jose, where we stayed the next day. I then rode one day’s journey +farther, to see what were declared to be some petrified shells and beans, which +latter turned out to be small quartz pebbles. We passed through several small +villages; and the valley was beautifully cultivated, and the whole scenery very +grand. We were here near the main Cordillera, and the surrounding hills were +lofty. In all parts of Northern Chile fruit trees produce much more abundantly +at a considerable height near the Andes than in the lower country. The figs and +grapes of this district are +<a name="page371"></a> +famous for their excellence, and are cultivated to a great extent. This valley +is, perhaps, the most productive one north of Quillota. I believe it contains, +including Coquimbo, 25,000 inhabitants. The next day I returned to the +Hacienda, and thence, together with Don Jose, to Coquimbo. +</p> + +<p> +<i>June</i> 2<i>nd.</i>—We set out for the valley of Guasco, following +the coast-road, which was considered rather less desert than the other. Our +first day’s ride was to a solitary house, called Yerba Buena, where there +was pasture for our horses. The shower mentioned as having fallen a fortnight +ago, only reached about half-way to Guasco; we had, therefore, in the first +part of our journey a most faint tinge of green, which soon faded quite away. +Even where brightest, it was scarcely sufficient to remind one of the fresh +turf and budding flowers of the spring of other countries. While travelling +through these deserts one feels like a prisoner shut up in a gloomy court, who +longs to see something green and to smell a moist atmosphere. +</p> + +<p> +<i>June</i> 3<i>rd.</i>—Yerba Buena to Carizal. During the first part of +the day we crossed a mountainous rocky desert, and afterwards a long deep sandy +plain, strewed with broken sea-shells. There was very little water, and that +little saline: the whole country, from the coast to the Cordillera, is an +uninhabited desert. I saw traces only of one living animal in abundance, +namely, the shells of a Bulimus, which were collected together in extraordinary +numbers on the driest spots. In the spring one humble little plant sends out a +few leaves, and on these the snails feed. As they are seen only very early in +the morning, when the ground is slightly damp with dew, the Guasos believe that +they are bred from it. I have observed in other places that extremely dry and +sterile districts, where the soil is calcareous, are extraordinarily favourable +to land-shells. At Carizal there were a few cottages, some brackish water, and +a trace of cultivation: but it was with difficulty that we purchased a little +corn and straw for our horses. +</p> + +<p> +4<i>th.</i>—Carizal to Sauce. We continued to ride over desert plains, +tenanted by large herds of guanaco. We crossed also the valley of Chañeral; +which, although the most fertile one between Guasco and Coquimbo, is very +narrow, and produces so little pasture that we could not purchase any for our +horses. At Sauce we found a very civil old gentleman, superintending +<a name="page372"></a> +a copper-smelting furnace. As an especial favour, he allowed me to purchase at +a high price an armful of dirty straw, which was all the poor horses had for +supper after their long day’s journey. Few smelting-furnaces are now at +work in any part of Chile; it is found more profitable, on account of the +extreme scarcity of firewood, and from the Chilian method of reduction being so +unskilful, to ship the ore for Swansea. The next day we crossed some mountains +to Freyrina, in the valley of Guasco. During each day’s ride farther +northward, the vegetation became more and more scanty; even the great +chandelier-like cactus was here replaced by a different and much smaller +species. During the winter months, both in Northern Chile and in Peru, a +uniform bank of clouds hangs, at no great height, over the Pacific. From the +mountains we had a very striking view of this white and brilliant aërial field, +which sent arms up the valleys, leaving islands and promontories in the same +manner as the sea does in the Chonos archipelago and in Tierra del Fuego. +</p> + +<p>We stayed two days at Freyrina. In the valley of Guasco there +are four small towns. At the mouth there is the port, a spot +entirely desert, and without any water in the immediate +neighbourhood. Five leagues higher up stands Freyrina, a long +straggling village, with decent whitewashed houses. Again, ten +leagues further up Ballenar is situated, and above this Guasco +Alto, a horticultural village, famous for its dried fruit. On a +clear day the view up the valley is very fine; the straight opening +terminates in the far-distant snowy Cordillera; on each side an +infinity of crossing lines are blended together in a beautiful +haze. The foreground is singular from the number of parallel and +step-formed terraces; and the included strip of green valley, with +its willow-bushes, is contrasted on both hands with the naked +hills. That the surrounding country was most barren will be readily +believed, when it is known that a shower of rain had not fallen +during the last thirteen months. The inhabitants heard with the +greatest envy of the rain at Coquimbo; from the appearance of the +sky they had hopes of equally good fortune, which, a fortnight +afterwards, were realised. I was at Copiapó at the time; and +there the people, with equal envy, talked of the abundant rain at +Guasco. After two or three very dry years, perhaps with not more +than one shower during the +<a name="page373"></a> +whole time, a rainy year generally follows; and this does more +harm than even the drought. The rivers swell, and cover with gravel +and sand the narrow strips of ground which alone are fit for +cultivation. The floods also injure the irrigating ditches. Great +devastation had thus been caused three years ago.</p> + +<p> +<i>June</i> 8<i>th.</i>—We rode on to Ballenar, which takes its name from +Ballenagh in Ireland, the birthplace of the family of O’Higgins, who, +under the Spanish government, were presidents and generals in Chile. As the +rocky mountains on each hand were concealed by clouds, the terrace-like plains +gave to the valley an appearance like that of Santa Cruz in Patagonia. After +spending one day at Ballenar I set out, on the 10th, for the upper part of the +valley of Copiapó. We rode all day over an uninteresting country. I am tired of +repeating the epithets barren and sterile. These words, however, as commonly +used, are comparative; I have always applied them to the plains of Patagonia, +which can boast of spiny bushes and some tufts of grass; and this is absolute +fertility, as compared with Northern Chile. Here again, there are not many +spaces of two hundred yards square, where some little bush, cactus or lichen, +may not be discovered by careful examination; and in the soil seeds lie dormant +ready to spring up during the first rainy winter. In Peru real deserts occur +over wide tracts of country. In the evening we arrived at a valley in which the +bed of the streamlet was damp: following it up, we came to tolerably good +water. During the night the stream, from not being evaporated and absorbed so +quickly, flows a league lower down than during the day. Sticks were plentiful +for firewood, so that it was a good place of bivouac for us; but for the poor +animals there was not a mouthful to eat. +</p> + +<p> +<i>June</i> 11<i>th.</i>—We rode without stopping for twelve hours till +we reached an old smelting-furnace, where there was water and firewood; but our +horses again had nothing to eat, being shut up in an old courtyard. The line of +road was hilly, and the distant views interesting from the varied colours of +the bare mountains. It was almost a pity to see the sun shining constantly over +so useless a country; such splendid weather ought to have brightened fields and +pretty gardens. The next day we reached the valley of Copiapó. I was heartily +glad of it; for the whole journey was a continued source of anxiety; +<a name="page374"></a> +it was most disagreeable to hear, whilst eating our own suppers, our horses +gnawing the posts to which they were tied, and to have no means of relieving +their hunger. To all appearance, however, the animals were quite fresh; and no +one could have told that they had eaten nothing for the last fifty-five hours. +</p> + +<p>I had a letter of introduction to Mr. Bingley, who received me +very kindly at the Hacienda of Potrero Seco. This estate is between +twenty and thirty miles long, but very narrow, being generally only +two fields wide, one on each side the river. In some parts the +estate is of no width, that is to say, the land cannot be +irrigated, and therefore is valueless, like the surrounding rocky +desert. The small quantity of cultivated land in the whole line of +valley does not so much depend on inequalities of level, and +consequent unfitness for irrigation, as on the small supply of +water. The river this year was remarkably full: here, high up the +valley, it reached to the horse’s belly, and was about fifteen +yards wide, and rapid; lower down it becomes smaller and smaller, +and is generally quite lost, as happened during one period of +thirty years, so that not a drop entered the sea. The inhabitants +watch a storm over the Cordillera with great interest; as one good +fall of snow provides them with water for the ensuing year. This is +of infinitely more consequence than rain in the lower country. +Rain, as often as it falls, which is about once in every two or +three years, is a great advantage, because the cattle and mules can +for some time afterwards find a little pasture in the mountains. +But without snow on the Andes, desolation extends throughout the +valley. It is on record that three times nearly all the inhabitants +have been obliged to emigrate to the south. This year there was +plenty of water, and every man irrigated his ground as much as he +chose; but it has frequently been necessary to post soldiers at the +sluices, to see that each estate took only its proper allowance +during so many hours in the week. The valley is said to contain +12,000 souls, but its produce is sufficient only for three months +in the year; the rest of the supply being drawn from Valparaiso and +the south. Before the discovery of the famous silver-mines of +Chanuncillo, Copiapó was in a rapid state of decay; but now +it is in a very thriving condition; and the town, which was +completely overthrown by an earthquake, has been rebuilt.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page375"></a> +The valley of Copiapó, forming a mere ribbon of green in +a desert, runs in a very southerly direction; so that it is of +considerable length to its source in the Cordillera. The valleys of +Guasco and Copiapó may both be considered as long narrow +islands, separated from the rest of Chile by deserts of rock +instead of by salt water. Northward of these, there is one other +very miserable valley, called Paposo, which contains about two +hundred souls; and then there extends the real desert of +Atacama—a barrier far worse than the most turbulent ocean. +After staying a few days at Potrero Seco, I proceeded up the valley +to the house of Don Benito Cruz, to whom I had a letter of +introduction. I found him most hospitable; indeed it is impossible +to bear too strong testimony to the kindness with which travellers +are received in almost every part of South America. The next day I +hired some mules to take me by the ravine of Jolquera into the +central Cordillera. On the second night the weather seemed to +foretell a storm of snow or rain, and whilst lying in our beds we +felt a trifling shock of an earthquake.</p> + +<p> +The connexion between earthquakes and the weather has been often disputed: it +appears to me to be a point of great interest, which is little understood. +Humboldt has remarked in one part of the <i>Personal Narrative,</i><a +href="#fn-16.1" name="fnref-16.1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> that it would be difficult +for any person who had long resided in New Andalusia, or in Lower Peru, to deny +that there exists some connection between these phenomena: in another part, +however, he seems to think the connexion fanciful. At Guayaquil it is said that +a heavy shower in the dry season is invariably followed by an earthquake. In +Northern Chile, from the extreme infrequency of rain, or even of weather +foreboding rain, the probability of accidental coincidences becomes very small; +yet the inhabitants are here most firmly convinced of some connexion between +the state of the atmosphere and of the trembling of the ground: I was much +struck by this when mentioning to some people at Copiapó that there had been a +sharp shock at Coquimbo: they +<a name="page376"></a> +immediately cried out, “How fortunate! there will be plenty of pasture +there this year.” To their minds an earthquake foretold rain as surely as +rain foretold abundant pasture. Certainly it did so happen that on the very day +of the earthquake that shower of rain fell which I have described as in ten +days’ time producing a thin sprinkling of grass. At other times rain has +followed earthquakes at a period of the year when it is a far greater prodigy +than the earthquake itself: this happened after the shock of November 1822, and +again in 1829 at Valparaiso; also after that of September 1833, at Tacna. A +person must be somewhat habituated to the climate of these countries to +perceive the extreme improbability of rain falling at such seasons, except as a +consequence of some law quite unconnected with the ordinary course of the +weather. In the cases of great volcanic eruptions, as that of Coseguina, where +torrents of rain fell at a time of the year most unusual for it, and +“almost unprecedented in Central America,” it is not difficult to +understand that the volumes of vapour and clouds of ashes might have disturbed +the atmospheric equilibrium. Humboldt extends this view to the case of +earthquakes unaccompanied by eruptions; but I can hardly conceive it possible +that the small quantity of aëriform fluids which then escape from the fissured +ground can produce such remarkable effects. There appears much probability in +the view first proposed by Mr. P. Scrope, that when the barometer is low, and +when rain might naturally be expected to fall, the diminished pressure of the +atmosphere over a wide extent of country might well determine the precise day +on which the earth, already stretched to the utmost by the subterranean forces, +should yield, crack, and consequently tremble. It is, however, doubtful how far +this idea will explain the circumstance of torrents of rain falling in the dry +season during several days, after an earthquake unaccompanied by an eruption; +such cases seem to bespeak some more intimate connexion between the atmospheric +and subterranean regions. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-16.1"></a> <a href="#fnref-16.1">[1]</a> +Vol. iv, p. 11 and vol. ii, p. 217. For the remarks on Guayaquil see +Silliman’s <i>Journ.</i> vol. xxiv, p. 384. For those on Tacna by Mr. +Hamilton see <i>Trans. of British Association,</i> 1840. For those on Coseguina +see Mr. Caldcleugh in <i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1835. In the former edition I +collected several references on the coincidences between sudden falls in the +barometer and earthquakes; and between earthquakes and meteors.</p> + +<p>Finding little of interest in this part of the ravine, we +retraced our steps to the house of Don Benito, where I stayed two +days collecting fossil shells and wood. Great prostrate silicified +trunks of trees, embedded in a conglomerate, were +<a name="page377"></a> +extraordinarily numerous. I measured one which was fifteen feet +in circumference: how surprising it is that every atom of the woody +matter in this great cylinder should have been removed and replaced +by silex so perfectly that each vessel and pore is preserved! These +trees flourished at about the period of our lower chalk; they all +belonged to the fir-tribe. It was amusing to hear the inhabitants +discussing the nature of the fossil shells which I collected, +almost in the same terms as were used a century ago in +Europe,—namely, whether or not they had been thus “born by +nature.” My geological examination of the country generally created +a good deal of surprise amongst the Chilenos: it was long before +they could be convinced that I was not hunting for mines. This was +sometimes troublesome: I found the most ready way of explaining my +employment was to ask them how it was that they themselves were not +curious concerning earthquakes and volcanos?—why some springs +were hot and others cold?—why there were mountains in Chile, +and not a hill in La Plata? These bare questions at once satisfied +and silenced the greater number; some, however (like a few in +England who are a century behindhand), thought that all such +inquiries were useless and impious; and that it was quite +sufficient that God had thus made the mountains.</p> + +<p>An order had recently been issued that all stray dogs should be +killed, and we saw many lying dead on the road. A great number had +lately gone mad, and several men had been bitten and had died in +consequence. On several occasions hydrophobia has prevailed in this +valley. It is remarkable thus to find so strange and dreadful a +disease appearing time after time in the same isolated spot. It has +been remarked that certain villages in England are in like manner +much more subject to this visitation than others. Dr. Unanùe +states that hydrophobia was first known in South America in 1803: +this statement is corroborated by Azara and Ulloa having never +heard of it in their time. Dr. Unanùe says that it broke out +in Central America, and slowly travelled southward. It reached +Arequipa in 1807; and it is said that some men there, who had not +been bitten, were affected, as were some negroes, who had eaten a +bullock which had died of hydrophobia. At Ica forty-two people thus +miserably perished. +<a name="page378"></a> +The disease came on between twelve and ninety days after the +bite; and in those cases where it did come on, death ensued +invariably within five days. After 1808 a long interval ensued +without any cases. On inquiry, I did not hear of hydrophobia in Van +Diemen’s Land, or in Australia; and Burchell says that during the +five years he was at the Cape of Good Hope, he never heard of an +instance of it. Webster asserts that at the Azores hydrophobia has +never occurred; and the same assertion has been made with respect +to Mauritius and St. Helena.<a href="#fn-16.2" name="fnref-16.2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> +In so strange a disease some information might possibly be gained by +considering the circumstances under which it originates in distant climates; +for it is improbable that a dog already bitten should have been brought to +these distant countries.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-16.2"></a> <a href="#fnref-16.2">[2]</a> +<i>Observa. sobre el clima de Lima,</i> p. 67.—Azara’s +<i>Travels,</i> vol. i, p. 381.—Ulloa’s <i>Voyage,</i> vol. ii, p. +28.—Burchell’s <i>Travels,</i> vol. ii, p. +524.—Webster’s <i>Description of the Azores,</i> p. +124.—<i>Voyage à l’Isle de France par un Officier du Roi,</i> tome +i, p. 248.—<i>Description of St. Helena,</i> p. 123.</p> + +<p>At night a stranger arrived at the house of Don Benito and asked +permission to sleep there. He said he had been wandering about the +mountains for seventeen days, having lost his way. He started from +Guasco, and being accustomed to travelling in the Cordillera, did +not expect any difficulty in following the track to Copiapó; +but he soon became involved in a labyrinth of mountains whence he +could not escape. Some of his mules had fallen over precipices and +he had been in great distress. His chief difficulty arose from not +knowing where to find water in the lower country, so that he was +obliged to keep bordering the central ranges.</p> + +<p>We returned down the valley, and on the 22nd reached the town of +Copiapó. The lower part of the valley is broad, forming a +fine plain like that of Quillota. The town covers a considerable +space of ground, each house possessing a garden: but it is an +uncomfortable place, and the dwellings are poorly furnished. Every +one seems bent on the one object of making money, and then +migrating as quickly as possible. All the inhabitants are more or +less directly concerned with mines; and mines and ores are the sole +subjects of conversation. Necessaries of all sorts are extremely +dear; as the distance from the town to the port is eighteen +leagues, and the land +<a name="page379"></a> +carriage very expensive. A fowl costs five or six shillings; +meat is nearly as dear as in England; firewood, or rather sticks, +are brought on donkeys from a distance of two and three days’ +journey within the Cordillera; and pasturage for animals is a +shilling a day: all this for South America is wonderfully +exorbitant. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>June</i> 26<i>th.</i>—I hired a guide and eight mules to take me into +the Cordillera by a different line from my last excursion. As the country was +utterly desert, we took a cargo and a half of barley mixed with chopped straw. +About two leagues above the town a broad valley called the +“Despoblado,” or uninhabited, branches off from that one by which +we had arrived. Although a valley of the grandest dimensions, and leading to a +pass across the Cordillera, yet it is completely dry, excepting perhaps for a +few days during some very rainy winter. The sides of the crumbling mountains +were furrowed by scarcely any ravines; and the bottom of the main valley, +filled with shingle, was smooth and nearly level. No considerable torrent could +ever have flowed down this bed of shingle; for if it had, a great cliff-bounded +channel, as in all the southern valleys, would assuredly have been formed. I +feel little doubt that this valley, as well as those mentioned by travellers in +Peru, were left in the state we now see them by the waves of the sea, as the +land slowly rose. I observed in one place where the Despoblado was joined by a +ravine (which in almost any other chain would have been called a grand valley), +that its bed, though composed merely of sand and gravel, was higher than that +of its tributary. A mere rivulet of water, in the course of an hour, would have +cut a channel for itself; but it was evident that ages had passed away, and no +such rivulet had drained this great tributary. It was curious to behold the +machinery, if such a term may be used, for the drainage, all, with the last +trifling exception, perfect, yet without any signs of action. Every one must +have remarked how mud-banks, left by the retiring tide, imitate in miniature a +country with hill and dale; and here we have the original model in rock, formed +as the continent rose during the secular retirement of the ocean, instead of +during the ebbing and flowing of the tides. If a shower of rain falls on the +<a name="page380"></a> +mud-bank, when left dry, it deepens the already-formed shallow lines of +excavation; and so it is with the rain of successive centuries on the bank of +rock and soil, which we call a continent. +</p> + +<p>We rode on after it was dark, till we reached a side ravine with +a small well, called “Agua amarga.” The water deserved its name, +for besides being saline it was most offensively putrid and bitter; +so that we could not force ourselves to drink either tea or +maté. I suppose the distance from the river of +Copiapó to this spot was at least twenty-five or thirty +English miles; in the whole space there was not a single drop of +water, the country deserving the name of desert in the strictest +sense. Yet about half-way we passed some old Indian ruins near +Punta Gorda: I noticed also in front of some of the valleys which +branch off from the Despoblado, two piles of stones placed a little +way apart, and directed so as to point up the mouths of these small +valleys. My companions knew nothing about them, and only answered +my queries by their imperturbable “quien sabe?”</p> + +<p>I observed Indian ruins in several parts of the Cordillera: the +most perfect which I saw were the Ruinas de Tambillos in the +Uspallata Pass. Small square rooms were there huddled together in +separate groups: some of the doorways were yet standing; they were +formed by a cross slab of stone only about three feet high. Ulloa +has remarked on the lowness of the doors in the ancient Peruvian +dwellings. These houses, when perfect, must have been capable of +containing a considerable number of persons. Tradition says that +they were used as halting-places for the Incas, when they crossed +the mountains. Traces of Indian habitations have been discovered in +many other parts, where it does not appear probable that they were +used as mere resting-places, but yet where the land is as utterly +unfit for any kind of cultivation as it is near the Tambillos or at +the Incas Bridge, or in the Portillo Pass, at all which places I +saw ruins. In the ravine of Jajuel, near Aconcagua, where there is +no pass, I heard of remains of houses situated at a great height, +where it is extremely cold and sterile. At first I imagined that +these buildings had been places of refuge, built by the Indians on +the first arrival of the Spaniards; but I have since been inclined +to speculate on the probability of a small change of climate.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page381"></a> +In this northern part of Chile, within the Cordillera, old +Indian houses are said to be especially numerous: by digging +amongst the ruins, bits of woollen articles, instruments of +precious metals, and heads of Indian corn, are not unfrequently +discovered: an arrow-head made of agate, and of precisely the same +form with those now used in Tierra del Fuego, was given me. I am +aware that the Peruvian Indians now frequently inhabit most lofty +and bleak situations; but at Copiapó I was assured by men +who had spent their lives in travelling through the Andes, that +there were very many (<i>muchisimas</i>) buildings at heights so +great as almost to border on the perpetual snow, and in parts where +there exist no passes, and where the land produces absolutely +nothing, and what is still more extraordinary, where there is no +water. Nevertheless it is the opinion of the people of the country +(although they are much puzzled by the circumstance), that, from +the appearance of the houses, the Indians must have used them as +places of residence. In this valley, at Punta Gorda, the remains +consisted of seven or eight square little rooms, which were of a +similar form with those at Tambillos, but built chiefly of mud, +which the present inhabitants cannot, either here or, according to +Ulloa, in Peru, imitate in durability. They were situated in the +most conspicuous and defenceless position, at the bottom of the +flat broad valley. There was no water nearer than three or four +leagues, and that only in very small quantity, and bad: the soil +was absolutely sterile; I looked in vain even for a lichen adhering +to the rocks. At the present day, with the advantage of beasts of +burden, a mine, unless it were very rich, could scarcely be worked +here with profit. Yet the Indians formerly chose it as a place of +residence! If at the present time two or three showers of rain were +to fall annually, instead of one, as now is the case, during as +many years, a small rill of water would probably be formed in this +great valley; and then, by irrigation (which was formerly so well +understood by the Indians), the soil would easily be rendered +sufficiently productive to support a few families.</p> + +<p>I have convincing proofs that this part of the continent of +South America has been elevated near the coast at least from 400 to +500, and in some parts from 1000 to 1300 feet, since the epoch of +existing shells; and farther inland the rise possibly +<a name="page382"></a> +may have been greater. As the peculiarly arid character of the +climate is evidently a consequence of the height of the Cordillera, +we may feel almost sure that before the later elevations, the +atmosphere could not have been so completely drained of its +moisture as it now is; and as the rise has been gradual, so would +have been the change in climate. On this notion of a change of +climate since the buildings were inhabited, the ruins must be of +extreme antiquity, but I do not think their preservation under the +Chilian climate any great difficulty. We must also admit on this +notion (and this perhaps is a greater difficulty) that man has +inhabited South America for an immensely long period, inasmuch as +any change of climate effected by the elevation of the land must +have been extremely gradual. At Valparaiso, within the last 220 +years, the rise has been somewhat less than 19 feet: at Lima a +sea-beach has certainly been upheaved from 80 to 90 feet, within +the Indio-human period: but such small elevations could have had +little power in deflecting the moisture-bringing atmospheric +currents. Dr. Lund, however, found human skeletons in the caves of +Brazil, the appearance of which induced him to believe that the +Indian race has existed during a vast lapse of time in South +America.</p> + +<p>When at Lima, I conversed on these subjects<a href="#fn-16.3" name="fnref-16.3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> +with Mr. Gill, a civil engineer, who had seen much of the interior country. He +told me that a conjecture of a change of climate had sometimes crossed his +mind; but that he thought that the greater portion of land, now incapable of +cultivation, but covered with Indian ruins, had been reduced to this state by +the water-conduits, which the Indians formerly constructed on so wonderful a +scale, having been injured by neglect and by subterranean movements. I may here +mention that the Peruvians actually carried their irrigating streams in tunnels +through hills of solid rock. Mr. Gill told me he had been employed +professionally to examine one: he found the passage low, narrow, crooked, and +not of uniform breadth, but of very considerable length. Is it not most +wonderful that men should +<a name="page383"></a> +have attempted such operations, without the use of iron or +gunpowder? Mr. Gill also mentioned to me a most interesting, and, +as far as I am aware, quite unparalleled case, of a subterranean +disturbance having changed the drainage of a country. Travelling +from Casma to Huaraz (not very far distant from Lima), he found a +plain covered with ruins and marks of ancient cultivation but now +quite barren. Near it was the dry course of a considerable river, +whence the water for irrigation had formerly been conducted. There +was nothing in the appearance of the watercourse to indicate that +the river had not flowed there a few years previously; in some +parts, beds of sand and gravel were spread out; in others, the +solid rock had been worn into a broad channel, which in one spot +was about 40 yards in breadth and 8 feet deep. It is self-evident +that a person following up the course of a stream will always +ascend at a greater or less inclination: Mr. Gill, therefore, was +much astonished, when walking up the bed of this ancient river, to +find himself suddenly going down hill. He imagined that the +downward slope had a fall of about 40 or 50 feet perpendicular. We +here have unequivocal evidence that a ridge had been uplifted right +across the old bed of a stream. From the moment the river-course +was thus arched, the water must necessarily have been thrown back, +and a new channel formed. From that moment, also, the neighbouring +plain must have lost its fertilising stream, and become a +desert.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-16.3"></a> <a href="#fnref-16.3">[3]</a> +Temple, in his travels through Upper Peru, or Bolivia, in going from Potosi to +Oruro, says “I saw many Indian villages or dwellings in ruins, up even to +the very tops of the mountains, attesting a former population where now all is +desolate.” He makes similar remarks in another place; but I cannot tell +whether this desolation has been caused by a want of population, or by an +altered condition of the land.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>June</i> 27<i>th.</i>—We set out early in the morning, and by mid-day +reached the ravine of Paypote, where there is a tiny rill of water, with a +little vegetation, and even a few algarroba trees, a kind of mimosa. From +having firewood, a smelting-furnace had formerly been built here: we found a +solitary man in charge of it, whose sole employment was hunting guanacos. At +night it froze sharply; but having plenty of wood for our fire, we kept +ourselves warm. +</p> + +<p> +<i>June</i> 28<i>th.</i>—We continued gradually ascending, and the valley +now changed into a ravine. During the day we saw several guanacos, and the +track of the closely-allied species, the Vicuña: this latter animal is +pre-eminently alpine in its habits; it seldom descends much below the limit of +perpetual snow, and therefore haunts even a more lofty and sterile situation +than the guanaco. +<a name="page384"></a> +The only other animal which we saw in any number was a small fox: I suppose +this animal preys on the mice and other small rodents which, as long as there +is the least vegetation, subsist in considerable numbers in very desert places. +In Patagonia, even on the borders of the salinas, where a drop of fresh water +can never be found, excepting dew, these little animals swarm. Next to lizards, +mice appear to be able to support existence on the smallest and driest portions +of the earth—even on islets in the midst of great oceans. +</p> + +<p>The scene on all sides showed desolation, brightened and made +palpable by a clear, unclouded sky. For a time such scenery is +sublime, but this feeling cannot last, and then it becomes +uninteresting. We bivouacked at the foot of the “primera linea,” or +the first line of the partition of the waters. The streams, +however, on the east side do not flow to the Atlantic, but into an +elevated district, in the middle of which there is a large salina, +or salt lake;—thus forming a little Caspian Sea at the +height, perhaps, of ten thousand feet. Where we slept, there were +some considerable patches of snow, but they do not remain +throughout the year. The winds in these lofty regions obey very +regular laws; every day a fresh breeze blows up the valley, and at +night, an hour or two after sunset, the air from the cold regions +above descends as through a funnel. This night it blew a gale of +wind, and the temperature must have been considerably below the +freezing-point, for water in a vessel soon became a block of ice. +No clothes seemed to oppose any obstacle to the air; I suffered +very much from the cold, so that I could not sleep, and in the +morning rose with my body quite dull and benumbed.</p> + +<p>In the Cordillera farther southward people lose their lives from +snow-storms; here, it sometimes happens from another cause. My +guide, when a boy of fourteen years old, was passing the Cordillera +with a party in the month of May; and while in the central parts, a +furious gale of wind arose, so that the men could hardly cling on +their mules, and stones were flying along the ground. The day was +cloudless, and not a speck of snow fell, but the temperature was +low. It is probable that the thermometer would not have stood very +many degrees below the freezing-point, but the effect on their +bodies, ill protected by clothing, must have been in proportion to +the rapidity of the current of cold air. The gale lasted for more +than a day; the +<a name="page385"></a> +men began to lose their strength, and the mules would not move +onwards. My guide’s brother tried to return, but he perished, and +his body was found two years afterwards, lying by the side of his +mule near the road, with the bridle still in his hand. Two other +men in the party lost their fingers and toes; and out of two +hundred mules and thirty cows, only fourteen mules escaped alive. +Many years ago the whole of a large party are supposed to have +perished from a similar cause, but their bodies to this day have +never been discovered. The union of a cloudless sky, low +temperature, and a furious gale of wind, must be, I should think, +in all parts of the world an unusual occurrence.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>June</i> 29<i>th.</i>—We gladly travelled down the valley to our +former night’s lodging, and thence to near the Agua amarga. On July 1st +we reached the valley of Copiapó. The smell of the fresh clover was quite +delightful, after the scentless air of the dry sterile Despoblado. Whilst +staying in the town I heard an account from several of the inhabitants, of a +hill in the neighbourhood which they called “El +Bramador,”—the roarer or bellower. I did not at the time pay +sufficient attention to the account; but, as far as I understood, the hill was +covered by sand, and the noise was produced only when people, by ascending it, +put the sand in motion. The same circumstances are described in detail on the +authority of Seetzen and Ehrenberg,<a href="#fn-16.4" +name="fnref-16.4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> as the cause of the sounds which have been +heard by many travellers on Mount Sinai near the Red Sea. One person with whom +I conversed had himself heard the noise: he described it as very surprising; +and he distinctly stated that, although he could not understand how it was +caused, yet it was necessary to set the sand rolling down the acclivity. A +horse walking over dry and coarse sand causes a peculiar chirping noise from +the friction of the particles; a circumstance which I several times noticed on +the coast of Brazil. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-16.4"></a> <a href="#fnref-16.4">[4]</a> +<i>Edinburgh Phil. Journ.</i> Jan. 1830, p. 74; and April 1830, p 258. Also +Daubeny on Volcanoes, p. 438; and <i>Bengal Journ.</i> vol. vii, p. 324.</p> + +<p> +Three days afterwards I heard of the <i>Beagle’s</i> arrival at the Port, +distant eighteen leagues from the town. There is very little land cultivated +down the valley; its wide expanse supports a wretched wiry grass, which even +the donkeys can hardly eat. +<a name="page386"></a> +This poorness of the vegetation is owing to the quantity of saline matter with +which the soil is impregnated. The Port consists of an assemblage of miserable +little hovels, situated at the foot of a sterile plain. At present, as the +river contains water enough to reach the sea, the inhabitants enjoy the +advantage of having fresh water within a mile and a half. On the beach there +were large piles of merchandise, and the little place had an air of activity. +In the evening I gave my adios, with a hearty good-will, to my companion +Mariano Gonzales, with whom I had ridden so many leagues in Chile. The next +morning the <i>Beagle</i> sailed for Iquique. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>July</i> 12<i>th.</i>—We anchored in the port of Iquique, in latitude +20° 12′, on the coast of Peru. The town contains about a thousand +inhabitants, and stands on a little plain of sand at the foot of a great wall +of rock, 2000 feet in height, here forming the coast. The whole is utterly +desert. A light shower of rain falls only once in very many years; and the +ravines consequently are filled with detritus, and the mountainsides covered by +piles of fine white sand, even to a height of a thousand feet. During this +season of the year a heavy bank of clouds, stretched over the ocean, seldom +rises above the wall of rocks on the coast. The aspect of the place was most +gloomy; the little port, with its few vessels, and small group of wretched +houses, seemed overwhelmed and out of all proportion with the rest of the +scene. +</p> + +<p>The inhabitants live like persons on board a ship: every +necessary comes from a distance: water is brought in boats from +Pisagua, about forty miles northward, and is sold at the rate of +nine reals (4s. 6d.) an eighteen-gallon cask: I bought a +wine-bottle full for threepence. In like manner firewood, and of +course every article of food, is imported. Very few animals can be +maintained in such a place: on the ensuing morning I hired with +difficulty, at the price of four pounds sterling, two mules and a +guide to take me to the nitrate of soda works. These are at present +the support of Iquique. This salt was first exported in 1830: in +one year an amount in value of one hundred thousand pounds sterling +was sent to France and England. It is principally used as a manure +and in the manufacture of nitric acid: owing to its deliquescent +property +<a name="page387"></a> +it will not serve for gunpowder. Formerly there were two +exceedingly rich silver-mines in this neighbourhood, but their +produce is now very small.</p> + +<p> +Our arrival in the offing caused some little apprehension. Peru was in a state +of anarchy; and each party having demanded a contribution, the poor town of +Iquique was in tribulation, thinking the evil hour was come. The people had +also their domestic troubles; a short time before, three French carpenters had +broken open, during the same night, the two churches, and stolen all the plate: +one of the robbers, however, subsequently confessed, and the plate was +recovered. The convicts were sent to Arequipa, which, though the capital of +this province, is two hundred leagues distant; the government there thought it +a pity to punish such useful workmen who could make all sorts of furniture; and +accordingly liberated them. Things being in this state, the churches were again +broken open, but this time the plate was not recovered. The inhabitants became +dreadfully enraged, and declaring that none but heretics would thus “eat +God Almighty,” proceeded to torture some Englishmen, with the intention +of afterwards shooting them. At last the authorities interfered, and peace was +established. +</p> + +<p> +13<i>th.</i>—In the morning I started for the saltpetre-works, a distance +of fourteen leagues. Having ascended the steep coast-mountains by a zigzag +sandy track, we soon came in view of the mines of Guantajaya and St. Rosa. +These two small villages are placed at the very mouths of the mines; and being +perched up on hills, they had a still more unnatural and desolate appearance +than the town of Iquique. We did not reach the saltpetre works till after +sunset, having ridden all day across an undulating country, a complete and +utter desert. The road was strewed with the bones and dried skins of many +beasts of burden which had perished on it from fatigue. Excepting the Vultur +aura, which preys on the carcasses, I saw neither bird, quadruped, reptile, nor +insect. On the coast-mountains, at the height of about 2000 feet, where during +this season the clouds generally hang, a very few cacti were growing in the +clefts of rock; and the loose sand was strewed over with a lichen, which lies +on the surface quite unattached. This plant belongs to the genus Cladonia, and +somewhat resembles the +<a name="page388"></a> +reindeer lichen. In some parts it was in sufficient quantity to tinge the sand, +as seen from a distance, of a pale yellowish colour. Farther inland, during the +whole ride of fourteen leagues, I saw only one other vegetable production, and +that was a most minute yellow lichen, growing on the bones of the dead mules. +This was the first true desert which I had seen: the effect on me was not +impressive; but I believe this was owing to my having become gradually +accustomed to such scenes, as I rode northward from Valparaiso, through +Coquimbo, to Copiapó. The appearance of the country was remarkable, from being +covered by a thick crust of common salt, and of a stratified saliferous +alluvium, which seems to have been deposited as the land slowly rose above the +level of the sea. The salt is white, very hard, and compact: it occurs in +water-worn nodules projecting from the agglutinated sand, and is associated +with much gypsum. The appearance of this superficial mass very closely +resembled that of a country after snow, before the last dirty patches are +thawed. The existence of this crust of a soluble substance over the whole face +of the country shows how extraordinarily dry the climate must have been for a +long period. +</p> + +<p>At night I slept at the house of the owner of one of the +saltpetre mines. The country is here as unproductive as near the +coast; but water, having rather a bitter and brackish taste, can be +procured by digging wells. The well at this house was thirty-six +yards deep: as scarcely any rain falls, it is evident the water is +not thus derived; indeed if it were, it could not fail to be as +salt as brine, for the whole surrounding country is incrusted with +various saline substances. We must therefore conclude that it +percolates under ground from the Cordillera, though distant many +leagues. In that direction there are a few small villages, where +the inhabitants, having more water, are enabled to irrigate a +little land, and raise hay, on which the mules and asses, employed +in carrying the saltpetre, are fed. The nitrate of soda was now +selling at the ship’s side at fourteen shillings per hundred +pounds: the chief expense is its transport to the sea-coast. The +mine consists of a hard stratum, between two and three feet thick, +of the nitrate mingled with a little of the sulphate of soda and a +good deal of common salt. It lies close beneath the surface, and +follows for a length of +<a name="page389"></a> +one hundred and fifty miles the margin of a grand basin or +plain; this, from its outline, manifestly must once have been a +lake, or more probably an inland arm of the sea, as may be inferred +from the presence of iodic salts in the saline stratum. The surface +of the plain is 3300 feet above the Pacific. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +19<i>th.</i>—We anchored in the Bay of Callao, the seaport of Lima, the +capital of Peru. We stayed here six weeks, but from the troubled state of +public affairs I saw very little of the country. During our whole visit the +climate was far from being so delightful as it is generally represented. A dull +heavy bank of clouds constantly hung over the land, so that during the first +sixteen days I had only one view of the Cordillera behind Lima. These +mountains, seen in stages, one above the other, through openings in the clouds, +had a very grand appearance. It is almost become a proverb, that rain never +falls in the lower part of Peru. Yet this can hardly be considered correct; for +during almost every day of our visit there was a thick drizzling mist, which +was sufficient to make the streets muddy and one’s clothes damp: this the +people are pleased to call Peruvian dew. That much rain does not fall is very +certain, for the houses are covered only with flat roofs made of hardened mud; +and on the mole ship-loads of wheat were piled up, being thus left for weeks +together without any shelter. +</p> + +<p>I cannot say I liked the very little I saw of Peru: in summer, +however, it is said that the climate is much pleasanter. In all +seasons, both inhabitants and foreigners suffer from severe attacks +of ague. This disease is common on the whole coast of Peru, but is +unknown in the interior. The attacks of illness which arise from +miasma never fail to appear most mysterious. So difficult is it to +judge from the aspect of a country, whether or not it is healthy, +that if a person had been told to choose within the tropics a +situation appearing favourable for health, very probably he would +have named this coast. The plain round the outskirts of Callao is +sparingly covered with a coarse grass, and in some parts there are +a few stagnant, though very small, pools of water. The miasma, in +all probability, arises from these: for the town of Arica was +similarly circumstanced, and its healthiness was much improved +<a name="page390"></a> +by the drainage of some little pools. Miasma is not always +produced by a luxuriant vegetation with an ardent climate; for many +parts of Brazil, even where there are marshes and a rank +vegetation, are much more healthy than this sterile coast of Peru. +The densest forests in a temperate climate, as in Chiloe, do not +seem in the slightest degree to affect the healthy condition of the +atmosphere.</p> + +<p>The island of St. Jago, at the Cape de Verds, offers another +strongly-marked instance of a country, which any one would have +expected to find most healthy, being very much the contrary. I have +described the bare and open plains as supporting, during a few +weeks after the rainy season, a thin vegetation, which directly +withers away and dries up: at this period the air appears to become +quite poisonous; both natives and foreigners often being affected +with violent fevers. On the other hand, the Galapagos Archipelago, +in the Pacific, with a similar soil, and periodically subject to +the same process of vegetation, is perfectly healthy. Humboldt has +observed that “under the torrid zone, the smallest marshes are the +most dangerous, being surrounded, as at Vera Cruz and Carthagena, +with an arid and sandy soil, which raises the temperature of the +ambient air.”<a href="#fn-16.5" name="fnref-16.5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> +On the coast of Peru, however, the temperature is not hot to any excessive +degree; and perhaps in consequence the intermittent fevers are not of the most +malignant order. In all unhealthy countries the greatest risk is run by +sleeping on shore. Is this owing to the state of the body during sleep, or to a +greater abundance of miasma at such times? It appears certain that those who +stay on board a vessel, though anchored at only a short distance from the +coast, generally suffer less than those actually on shore. On the other hand, I +have heard of one remarkable case where a fever broke out among the crew of a +man-of-war some hundred miles off the coast of Africa, and at the same time one +of those fearful periods<a href="#fn-16.6" name="fnref-16.6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> +of death commenced at Sierra Leone.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-16.5"></a> <a href="#fnref-16.5">[5]</a> +<i>Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain,</i> vol. iv, p. 199. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-16.6"></a> <a href="#fnref-16.6">[6]</a> +A similar interesting case is recorded in the <i>Madras Medical Quart. +Journ.</i> 1839, p. 340. Dr. Ferguson in his admirable Paper (see 9th vol. of +<i>Edinburgh Royal Trans.</i>), shows clearly that the poison is generated in +the drying process; and hence that dry hot countries are often the most +unhealthy.</p> + +<p>No state in South America, since the declaration of +<a name="page391"></a> +independence, has suffered more from anarchy than Peru. At the +time of our visit there were four chiefs in arms contending for +supremacy in the government: if one succeeded in becoming for a +time very powerful, the others coalesced against him; but no sooner +were they victorious than they were again hostile to each other. +The other day, at the Anniversary of the Independence, high mass +was performed, the President partaking of the sacrament: during the +<i>Te Deum laudamus,</i> instead of each regiment displaying the +Peruvian flag, a black one with death’s head was unfurled. Imagine +a government under which such a scene could be ordered, on such an +occasion, to be typical of their determination of fighting to +death! This state of affairs happened at a time very unfortunately +for me, as I was precluded from taking any excursions much beyond +the limits of the town. The barren island of San Lorenzo, which +forms the harbour, was nearly the only place where one could walk +securely. The upper part, which is upwards of 1000 feet in height, +during this season of the year (winter), comes within the lower +limit of the clouds; and in consequence an abundant cryptogamic +vegetation and a few flowers cover the summit. On the hills near +Lima, at a height but little greater, the ground is carpeted with +moss, and beds of beautiful yellow lilies, called Amancaes. This +indicates a very much greater degree of humidity than at a +corresponding height at Iquique. Proceeding northward of Lima, the +climate becomes damper, till on the banks of the Guayaquil, nearly +under the equator, we find the most luxuriant forests. The change, +however, from the sterile coast of Peru to that fertile land is +described as taking place rather abruptly in the latitude of Cape +Blanco, two degrees south of Guayaquil.</p> + +<p>Callao is a filthy, ill-built, small seaport. The inhabitants, +both here and at Lima, present every imaginable shade of mixture, +between European, Negro, and Indian blood. They appear a depraved, +drunken set of people. The atmosphere is loaded with foul smells, +and that peculiar one, which may be perceived in almost every town +within the tropics, was here very strong. The fortress, which +withstood Lord Cochrane’s long siege, has an imposing appearance. +But the President, during our stay, sold the brass guns, and +proceeded to dismantle parts of it. The reason assigned was, that +he had not an +<a name="page392"></a> +officer to whom he could trust so important a charge. He himself +had good reason for thinking so, as he had obtained the +presidentship by rebelling while in charge of this same fortress. +After we left South America, he paid the penalty in the usual +manner, by being conquered, taken prisoner, and shot.</p> + +<p>Lima stands on a plain in a valley, formed during the gradual +retreat of the sea. It is seven miles from Callao, and is elevated +500 feet above it; but from the slope being very gradual, the road +appears absolutely level; so that when at Lima it is difficult to +believe one has ascended even one hundred feet: Humboldt has +remarked on this singularly deceptive case. Steep barren hills rise +like islands from the plain, which is divided, by straight +mud-walls, into large green fields. In these scarcely a tree grows +excepting a few willows, and an occasional clump of bananas and of +oranges. The city of Lima is now in a wretched state of decay: the +streets are nearly unpaved; and heaps of filth are piled up in all +directions, where the black gallinazos, tame as poultry, pick up +bits of carrion. The houses have generally an upper story, built, +on account of the earthquakes, of plastered woodwork; but some of +the old ones, which are now used by several families, are immensely +large, and would rival in suites of apartments the most magnificent +in any place. Lima, the City of the Kings, must formerly have been +a splendid town. The extraordinary number of churches gives it, +even at the present day, a peculiar and striking character, +especially when viewed from a short distance.</p> + +<p>One day I went out with some merchants to hunt in the immediate +vicinity of the city. Our sport was very poor; but I had an +opportunity of seeing the ruins of one of the ancient Indian +villages, with its mound like a natural hill in the centre. The +remains of houses, enclosures, irrigating streams, and burial +mounds, scattered over this plain, cannot fail to give one a high +idea of the condition and number of the ancient population. When +their earthenware, woollen clothes, utensils of elegant forms cut +out of the hardest rocks, tools of copper, ornaments of precious +stones, palaces, and hydraulic works, are considered, it is +impossible not to respect the considerable advance made by them in +the arts of civilisation. The burial +<a name="page393"></a> +mounds, called Huacas, are really stupendous; although in some +places they appear to be natural hills encased and modelled.</p> + +<p>There is also another and very different class of ruins which +possesses some interest, namely, those of old Callao, overwhelmed +by the great earthquake of 1746, and its accompanying wave. The +destruction must have been more complete even than at Talcahuano. +Quantities of shingle almost conceal the foundations of the walls, +and vast masses of brickwork appear to have been whirled about like +pebbles by the retiring waves. It has been stated that the land +subsided during this memorable shock: I could not discover any +proof of this; yet it seems far from improbable, for the form of +the coast must certainly have undergone some change since the +foundation of the old town; as no people in their senses would +willingly have chosen for their building place the narrow spit of +shingle on which the ruins now stand. Since our voyage, M. Tschudi +has come to the conclusion, by the comparison of old and modern +maps, that the coast both north and south of Lima has certainly +subsided.</p> + +<p>On the island of San Lorenzo there are very satisfactory proofs +of elevation within the recent period; this of course is not +opposed to the belief of a small sinking of the ground having +subsequently taken place. The side of this island fronting the Bay +of Callao is worn into three obscure terraces, the lower one of +which is covered by a bed a mile in length, almost wholly composed +of shells of eighteen species, now living in the adjoining sea. The +height of this bed is eighty-five feet. Many of the shells are +deeply corroded, and have a much older and more decayed appearance +than those at the height of 500 or 600 feet on the coast of Chile. +These shells are associated with much common salt, a little +sulphate of lime (both probably left by the evaporation of the +spray, as the land slowly rose), together with sulphate of soda and +muriate of lime. They rest on fragments of the underlying +sandstone, and are covered by a few inches thick of detritus. The +shells higher up on this terrace could be traced scaling off in +flakes, and falling into an impalpable powder; and on an upper +terrace, at the height of 170 feet, and likewise at some +considerably higher points, I found a layer of saline powder of +<a name="page394"></a> +exactly similar appearance, and lying in the same relative +position. I have no doubt that this upper layer originally existed +as a bed of shells, like that on the eighty-five-feet ledge; but it +does not now contain even a trace of organic structure. The powder +has been analysed for me by Mr. T. Reeks; it consists of sulphates +and muriates both of lime and soda, with very little carbonate of +lime. It is known that common salt and carbonate of lime left in a +mass for some time together partly decompose each other; though +this does not happen with small quantities in solution. As the +half-decomposed shells in the lower parts are associated with much +common salt, together with some of the saline substances composing +the upper saline layer, and as these shells are corroded and +decayed in a remarkable manner, I strongly suspect that this double +decomposition has here taken place. The resultant salts, however, +ought to be carbonate of soda and muriate of lime, the latter is +present, but not the carbonate of soda. Hence I am led to imagine +that by some unexplained means the carbonate of soda becomes +changed into the sulphate. It is obvious that the saline layer +could not have been preserved in any country in which abundant rain +occasionally fell: on the other hand this very circumstance, which +at first sight appears so highly favourable to the long +preservation of exposed shells, has probably been the indirect +means, through the common salt not having been washed away, of +their decomposition and early decay.</p> + +<p>I was much interested by finding on the terrace, at the height +of eighty-five feet, <i>embedded</i> amidst the shells and much +sea-drifted rubbish, some bits of cotton thread, plaited rush, and +the head of a stalk of Indian corn: I compared these relics with +similar ones taken out of the Huacas, or old Peruvian tombs, and +found them identical in appearance. On the mainland in front of San +Lorenzo, near Bellavista, there is an extensive and level plain +about a hundred feet high, of which the lower part is formed of +alternating layers of sand and impure clay, together with some +gravel, and the surface, to the depth of from three to six feet, of +a reddish loam, containing a few scattered sea-shells and numerous +small fragments of coarse red earthenware, more abundant at certain +spots than at others. At first I was inclined to believe that this +superficial +<a name="page395"></a> +bed, from its wide extent and smoothness, must have been +deposited beneath the sea; but I afterwards found in one spot that +it lay on an artificial floor of round stones. It seems, therefore, +most probable that at a period when the land stood at a lower level +there was a plain very similar to that now surrounding Callao, +which, being protected by a shingle beach, is raised but very +little above the level of the sea. On this plain, with its +underlying red-clay beds, I imagine that the Indians manufactured +their earthen vessels; and that, during some violent earthquake, +the sea broke over the beach, and converted the plain into a +temporary lake, as happened round Callao in 1713 and 1746. The +water would then have deposited mud containing fragments of pottery +from the kilns, more abundant at some spots than at others, and +shells from the sea. This bed with fossil earthenware stands at +about the same height with the shells on the lower terrace of San +Lorenzo, in which the cotton-thread and other relics were embedded. +Hence we may safely conclude that within the Indo-human period +there has been an elevation, as before alluded to, of more than +eighty-five feet; for some little elevation must have been lost by +the coast having subsided since the old maps were engraved. At +Valparaiso, although in the 220 years before our visit the +elevation cannot have exceeded nineteen feet, yet subsequently to +1817 there has been a rise, partly insensible and partly by a start +during the shock of 1822, of ten or eleven feet. The antiquity of +the Indo-human race here, judging by the eighty-five feet rise of +the land since the relics were embedded, is the more remarkable, as +on the coast of Patagonia, when the land stood about the same +number of feet lower, the Macrauchenia was a living beast; but as +the Patagonian coast is some way distant from the Cordillera, the +rising there may have been slower than here. At Bahia Blanca the +elevation has been only a few feet since the numerous gigantic +quadrupeds were there entombed; and, according to the generally +received opinion, when these extinct animals were living man did +not exist. But the rising of that part of the coast of Patagonia is +perhaps no way connected with the Cordillera, but rather with a +line of old volcanic rocks in Banda Oriental, so that it may have +been infinitely slower than on the shores of Peru. All these +<a name="page396"></a> +speculations, however, must be vague; for who will pretend to +say that there may not have been several periods of subsidence, +intercalated between the movements of elevation? for we know that +along the whole coast of Patagonia there have certainly been many +and long pauses in the upward action of the elevatory forces.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl74.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl74.jpg" width="293" height="186" alt="Huacas, Peruvian pottery" /> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl75.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl75.jpg" width="285" height="262" alt="Testudo Abingdonii, Galapagos Islands" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="page397"></a><a name="chxvii"></a>Chapter XVII<br/> +<br/> +GALAPAGOS ARCHIPELAGO</h2> + +<p class="letter">The whole group volcanic—Number of +craters—Leafless bushes—Colony at Charles +Island—James Island—Salt-lake in crater—Natural +history of the group—Ornithology, curious +finches—Reptiles—Great tortoises, habits +of—Marine Lizard, feeds on Sea-weed—Terrestrial Lizard, +burrowing habits, herbivorous—Importance of reptiles in the +Archipelago—Fish, shells, insects—Botany—American +type of organisation—Differences in the species or races on +different islands—Tameness of the birds—Fear of man an +acquired instinct.</p> + +<p> +<i>September</i> 15<i>th.</i>—This archipelago consists of ten principal +islands, of which five exceed the others in size. They are situated under the +Equator, and between five and six hundred miles westward of the coast of +America. They are all formed of volcanic rocks; a few fragments of granite +curiously glazed and altered by the heat can hardly be considered as an +<a name="page398"></a> +exception. Some of the craters surmounting the larger islands are of immense +size, and they rise to a height of between three and four thousand feet. Their +flanks are studded by innumerable smaller orifices. I scarcely hesitate to +affirm that there must be in the whole archipelago at least two thousand +craters. These consist either of lava and scoriæ, or of finely-stratified, +sandstone-like tuff. Most of the latter are beautifully symmetrical; they owe +their origin to eruptions of volcanic mud without any lava: it is a remarkable +circumstance that every one of the twenty-eight tuff-craters which were +examined had their southern sides either much lower than the other sides, or +quite broken down and removed. As all these craters apparently have been formed +when standing in the sea, and as the waves from the trade wind and the swell +from the open Pacific here unite their forces on the southern coasts of all the +islands, this singular uniformity in the broken state of the craters, composed +of the soft and yielding tuff, is easily explained. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl76.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl76.jpg" width="377" height="370" alt="Galapagos Archipelago" /> +</div> + +<p>Considering that these islands are placed directly under the +equator, the climate is far from being excessively hot; this seems +chiefly caused by the singularly low temperature of the +<a name="page399"></a> +surrounding water, brought here by the great southern Polar +current. Excepting during one short season very little rain falls, +and even then it is irregular; but the clouds generally hang low. +Hence, whilst the lower parts of the islands are very sterile, the +upper parts, at a height of a thousand feet and upwards, possess a +damp climate and a tolerably luxuriant vegetation. This is +especially the case on the windward sides of the islands, which +first receive and condense the moisture from the atmosphere.</p> + +<p>In the morning (17th) we landed on Chatham Island, which, like +the others, rises with a tame and rounded outline, broken here and +there by scattered hillocks, the remains of former craters. Nothing +could be less inviting than the first appearance. A broken field of +black basaltic lava, thrown into the most rugged waves, and crossed +by great fissures, is everywhere covered by stunted, sunburnt +brushwood, which shows little signs of life. The dry and parched +surface, being heated by the noonday sun, gave to the air a close +and sultry feeling, like that from a stove: we fancied even that +the bushes smelt unpleasantly. Although I diligently tried to +collect as many plants as possible, I succeeded in getting very +few; and such wretched-looking little weeds would have better +become an arctic than an equatorial Flora. The brushwood appears, +from a short distance, as leafless as our trees during winter; and +it was some time before I discovered that not only almost every +plant was now in full leaf, but that the greater number were in +flower. The commonest bush is one of the Euphorbiaceæ: an +acacia and a great odd-looking cactus are the only trees which +afford any shade. After the season of heavy rains, the islands are +said to appear for a short time partially green. The volcanic +island of Fernando Noronha, placed in many respects under nearly +similar conditions, is the only other country where I have seen a +vegetation at all like this of the Galapagos Islands.</p> + +<p>The <i>Beagle</i> sailed round Chatham Island, and anchored in +several bays. One night I slept on shore on a part of the island +where black truncated cones were extraordinarily numerous: from one +small eminence I counted sixty of them, all surmounted by craters +more or less perfect. The greater number consisted merely of a ring +of red scoriæ or slags cemented together: and their height +above the plain of lava +<a name="page400"></a> +was not more than from fifty to a hundred feet: none had been +very lately active. The entire surface of this part of the island +seems to have been permeated, like a sieve, by the subterranean +vapours: here and there the lava, whilst soft, has been blown into +great bubbles; and in other parts, the tops of caverns similarly +formed have fallen in, leaving circular pits with steep sides. From +the regular form of the many craters, they gave to the country an +artificial appearance, which vividly reminded me of those parts of +Staffordshire where the great iron-foundries are most numerous. The +day was glowing hot, and the scrambling over the rough surface and +through the intricate thickets was very fatiguing; but I was well +repaid by the strange Cyclopean scene. As I was walking along I met +two large tortoises, each of which must have weighed at least two +hundred pounds: one was eating a piece of cactus, and as I +approached, it stared at me and slowly walked away; the other gave +a deep hiss, and drew in its head. These huge reptiles, surrounded +by the black lava, the leafless shrubs, and large cacti, seemed to +my fancy like some antediluvian animals. The few dull-coloured +birds cared no more for me than they did for the great +tortoises.</p> + +<p> +23<i>rd.</i>—The <i>Beagle</i> proceeded to Charles Island. This +archipelago has long been frequented, first by the Bucaniers, and latterly by +whalers, but it is only within the last six years that a small colony has been +established here. The inhabitants are between two and three hundred in number; +they are nearly all people of colour, who have been banished for political +crimes from the Republic of the Equator, of which Quito is the capital. The +settlement is placed about four and a half miles inland, and at a height +probably of a thousand feet. In the first part of the road we passed through +leafless thickets, as in Chatham Island. Higher up the woods gradually became +greener; and as soon as we crossed the ridge of the island we were cooled by a +fine southerly breeze, and our sight refreshed by a green and thriving +vegetation. In this upper region coarse grasses and ferns abound; but there are +no tree-ferns: I saw nowhere any member of the Palm family, which is the more +singular, as 360 miles northward, Cocos Island takes its name from the number +of cocoa-nuts. The houses are irregularly scattered over a flat space of +ground, +<a name="page401"></a> +which is cultivated with sweet potatoes and bananas. It will not easily be +imagined how pleasant the sight of black mud was to us, after having been so +long accustomed to the parched soil of Peru and Northern Chile. The +inhabitants, although complaining of poverty, obtain, without much trouble, the +means of subsistence. In the woods there are many wild pigs and goats; but the +staple article of animal food is supplied by the tortoises. Their numbers have +of course been greatly reduced in this island, but the people yet count on two +days’ hunting giving them food for the rest of the week. It is said that +formerly single vessels have taken away as many as seven hundred, and that the +ship’s company of a frigate some years since brought down in one day two +hundred tortoises to the beach. +</p> + +<p> +<i>September</i> 29<i>th.</i>—We doubled the south-west extremity of +Albemarle Island, and the next day were nearly becalmed between it and +Narborough Island. Both are covered with immense deluges of black naked lava, +which have flowed either over the rims of the great caldrons, like pitch over +the rim of a pot in which it has been boiled, or have burst forth from smaller +orifices on the flanks; in their descent they have spread over miles of the +sea-coast. On both of these islands eruptions are known to have taken place; +and in Albemarle we saw a small jet of smoke curling from the summit of one of +the great craters. In the evening we anchored in Bank’s Cove, in +Albemarle Island. The next morning I went out walking. To the south of the +broken tuff-crater, in which the <i>Beagle</i> was anchored, there was another +beautifully symmetrical one of an elliptic form; its longer axis was a little +less than a mile, and its depth about 500 feet. At its bottom there was a +shallow lake, in the middle of which a tiny crater formed an islet. The day was +overpoweringly hot, and the lake looked clear and blue: I hurried down the +cindery slope, and, choked with dust, eagerly tasted the water—but, to my +sorrow, I found it salt as brine. +</p> + +<p>The rocks on the coast abounded with great black lizards, +between three and four feet long; and on the hills, an ugly +yellowish-brown species was equally common. We saw many of this +latter kind, some clumsily running out of the way, and others +shuffling into their burrows. I shall presently describe +<a name="page402"></a> +in more detail the habits of both these reptiles. The whole of +this northern part of Albemarle Island is miserably sterile.</p> + +<p> +<i>October</i> 8<i>th.</i>—We arrived at James Island: this island, as +well as Charles Island, were long since thus named after our kings of the +Stuart line. Mr. Bynoe, myself, and our servants were left here for a week, +with provisions and a tent, whilst the <i>Beagle</i> went for water. We found +here a party of Spaniards who had been sent from Charles Island to dry fish and +to salt tortoise-meat. About six miles inland and at the height of nearly 2000 +feet, a hovel had been built in which two men lived, who were employed in +catching tortoises, whilst the others were fishing on the coast. I paid this +party two visits, and slept there one night. As in the other islands, the lower +region was covered by nearly leafless bushes, but the trees were here of a +larger growth than elsewhere, several being two feet and some even two feet +nine inches in diameter. The upper region, being kept damp by the clouds, +supports a green and flourishing vegetation. So damp was the ground, that there +were large beds of a coarse cyperus, in which great numbers of a very small +water-rail lived and bred. While staying in this upper region, we lived +entirely upon tortoise-meat: the breast-plate roasted (as the Gauchos do carne +con cuero), with the flesh on it, is very good; and the young tortoises make +excellent soup; but otherwise the meat to my taste is indifferent. +</p> + +<p>One day we accompanied a party of the Spaniards in their +whale-boat to a salina, or lake from which salt is procured. After +landing we had a very rough walk over a rugged field of recent +lava, which has almost surrounded a tuff-crater at the bottom of +which the salt-lake lies. The water is only three or four inches +deep and rests on a layer of beautifully crystallised, white salt. +The lake is quite circular, and is fringed with a border of bright +green succulent plants; the almost precipitous walls of the crater +are clothed with wood, so that the scene was altogether both +picturesque and curious. A few years since the sailors belonging to +a sealing-vessel murdered their captain in this quiet spot; and we +saw his skull lying among the bushes.</p> + +<p>During the greater part of our stay of a week the sky was +cloudless, and if the trade-wind failed for an hour the heat +<a name="page403"></a> +became very oppressive. On two days the thermometer within the +tent stood for some hours at 93°; but in the open air, in the +wind and sun, at only 85°. The sand was extremely hot; the +thermometer placed in some of a brown colour immediately rose to +137°, and how much above that it would have risen I do not know +for it was not graduated any higher. The black sand felt much +hotter, so that even in thick boots it was quite disagreeable to +walk over it.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +The natural history of these islands is eminently curious, and well deserves +attention. Most of the organic productions are aboriginal creations found +nowhere else; there is even a difference between the inhabitants of the +different islands; yet all show a marked relationship with those of America, +though separated from that continent by an open space of ocean, between 500 and +600 miles in width. The archipelago is a little world within itself, or rather +a satellite attached to America, whence it has derived a few stray colonists, +and has received the general character of its indigenous productions. +Considering the small size of these islands, we feel the more astonished at the +number of their aboriginal beings, and at their confined range. Seeing every +height crowned with its crater, and the boundaries of most of the lava-streams +still distinct, we are led to believe that within a period geologically recent +the unbroken ocean was here spread out. Hence, both in space and time, we seem +to be brought somewhat near to that great fact—that mystery of +mysteries—the first appearance of new beings on this earth. +</p> + +<p>Of terrestrial mammals there is only one which must be +considered as indigenous, namely a mouse (Mus Galapagoensis) and +this is confined, as far as I could ascertain, to Chatham Island, +the most easterly island of the group. It belongs, as I am informed +by Mr. Waterhouse, to a division of the family of mice +characteristic of America. At James Island there is a rat +sufficiently distinct from the common kind to have been named and +described by Mr. Waterhouse; but as it belongs to the old-world +division of the family, and as this island has been frequented by +ships for the last hundred and fifty years, I can hardly doubt that +this rat is merely a variety produced by the new and peculiar +climate, food, and soil, to which it has +<a name="page404"></a> +been subjected. Although no one has a right to speculate without +distinct facts, yet even with respect to the Chatham Island mouse, +it should be borne in mind that it may possibly be an American +species imported here; for I have seen, in a most unfrequented part +of the Pampas, a native mouse living in the roof of a newly built +hovel, and therefore its transportation in a vessel is not +improbable: analogous facts have been observed by Dr. Richardson in +North America.</p> + +<p> +Of land-birds I obtained twenty-six kinds, all peculiar to the group and found +nowhere else, with the exception of one lark-like finch from North America +(Dolichonyx oryzivorus) which ranges on that continent as far north as 54°, +and generally frequents marshes. The other twenty-five birds consist, firstly, +of a hawk, curiously intermediate in structure between a Buzzard and the +American group of carrion-feeding Polybori; and with these latter birds it +agrees most closely in every habit and even tone of voice. Secondly there are +two owls, representing the short-eared and white barn-owls of Europe. Thirdly a +wren, three tyrant-flycatchers (two of them species of Pyrocephalus, one or +both of which would be ranked by some ornithologists as only varieties), and a +dove—all analogous to, but distinct from, American species. Fourthly a +swallow, which though differing from the Progne purpurea of both Americas, only +in being rather duller coloured, smaller, and slenderer, is considered by Mr. +Gould as specifically distinct. Fifthly there are three species of +mocking-thrush—a form highly characteristic of America. The remaining +land-birds form a most singular group of finches, related to each other in the +structure of their beaks, short tails, form of body and plumage: there are +thirteen species which Mr. Gould has divided into four sub-groups. All these +species are peculiar to this archipelago; and so is the whole group, with the +exception of one species of the sub-group Cactornis, lately brought from Bow +Island, in the Low Archipelago. Of Cactornis the two species may be often seen +climbing about the flowers of the great cactus-trees; but all the other species +of this group of finches, mingled together in flocks, feed on the dry and +sterile ground of the lower districts. The males of all, or certainly of the +greater number, are jet black; and the females (with perhaps one or two +exceptions) are brown. The +<a name="page405"></a> +most curious fact is the perfect gradation in the size of the beaks in the +different species of Geospiza, from one as large as that of a hawfinch to that +of a chaffinch, and (if Mr. Gould is right in including his sub-group, +Certhidea, in the main group) even to that of a warbler. The largest beak in +the genus Geospiza is shown above in Fig. 1, and the smallest in Fig. 3; but +instead of there being only one intermediate species, with a beak of the size +shown in Fig. 2, there are no less than six species with insensibly graduated +beaks. The beak of the sub-group Certhidea, is shown in Fig. 4. The beak of +Cactornis is somewhat like that of a starling, and that of the fourth +sub-group, Camarhynchus, is slightly parrot-shaped. Seeing this gradation and +diversity of structure in one small, intimately related group of birds, one +might really fancy that from an original paucity of birds in this archipelago, +one species had been taken and modified for different ends. In a like manner it +might be fancied that a bird, originally a buzzard, had been induced here to +undertake the office of the carrion-feeding Polybori of the American continent. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl77.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl77.jpg" width="250" height="236" alt="Finches from Galapagos Archipelago" /> +</div> + +<p>Of waders and water-birds I was able to get only eleven kinds, +and of these only three (including a rail confined to the damp +summits of the islands) are new species. Considering +<a name="page406"></a> +the wandering habits of the gulls, I was surprised to find that +the species inhabiting these islands is peculiar, but allied to one +from the southern parts of South America. The far greater +peculiarity of the land-birds, namely, twenty-five out of +twenty-six being new species, or at least new races, compared with +the waders and web-footed birds, is in accordance with the greater +range which these latter orders have in all parts of the world. We +shall hereafter see this law of aquatic forms, whether marine or +fresh water, being less peculiar at any given point of the earth’s +surface than the terrestrial forms of the same classes, strikingly +illustrated in the shells, and in a lesser degree in the insects of +this archipelago.</p> + +<p>Two of the waders are rather smaller than the same species +brought from other places: the swallow is also smaller, though it +is doubtful whether or not it is distinct from its analogue. The +two owls, the two tyrant-flycatchers (Pyrocephalus) and the dove, +are also smaller than the analogous but distinct species, to which +they are most nearly related; on the other hand, the gull is rather +larger. The two owls, the swallow, all three species of +mocking-thrush, the dove in its separate colours though not in its +whole plumage, the Totanus, and the gull, are likewise duskier +coloured than their analogous species; and in the case of the +mocking-thrush and Totanus, than any other species of the two +genera. With the exception of a wren with a fine yellow breast, and +of a tyrant-flycatcher with a scarlet tuft and breast, none of the +birds are brilliantly coloured, as might have been expected in an +equatorial district. Hence it would appear probable that the same +causes which here make the immigrants of some species smaller, make +most of the peculiar Galapageian species also smaller, as well as +very generally more dusky coloured. All the plants have a wretched, +weedy appearance, and I did not see one beautiful flower. The +insects, again, are small-sized and dull coloured, and, as Mr. +Waterhouse informs me, there is nothing in their general appearance +which would have led him to imagine that they had come from under +the equator.<a href="#fn-17.1" name="fnref-17.1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> +The birds, plants, +<a name="page407"></a> +and insects have a desert character, and are not more +brilliantly coloured than those from southern Patagonia; we may, +therefore, conclude that the usual gaudy colouring of the +intertropical productions is not related either to the heat or +light of those zones, but to some other cause, perhaps to the +conditions of existence being generally favourable to life.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-17.1"></a> <a href="#fnref-17.1">[1]</a> +The progress of research has shown that some of these birds, which were then +thought to be confined to the islands, occur on the American continent. The +eminent ornithologist, Mr. Sclater, informs me that this is the case with the +Strix punctatissima and Pyrocephalus nanus; and probably with the Otus +galapagoensis and Zenaida galapagoensis: so that the number of endemic birds is +reduced to twenty-three, or probably to twenty-one. Mr. Sclater thinks that one +or two of these endemic forms should be ranked rather as varieties than +species, which always seemed to me probable.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +We will now turn to the order of reptiles, which gives the most striking +character to the zoology of these islands. The species are not numerous, but +the numbers of individuals of each species are extraordinarily great. There is +one small lizard belonging to a South American genus, and two species (and +probably more) of the Amblyrhynchus—a genus confined to the Galapagos +Islands. There is one snake which is numerous; it is identical, as I am +informed by M. Bibron, with the Psammophis Temminckii from Chile.<a +href="#fn-17.2" name="fnref-17.2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> Of sea-turtle I believe +there are more than one species, and of tortoises there are, as we shall +presently show, two or three species or races. Of toads and frogs there are +none: I was surprised at this, considering how well suited for them the +temperate and damp upper woods appeared to be. It recalled to my mind the +remark made by Bory St. Vincent,<a href="#fn-17.3" +name="fnref-17.3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> namely, that none of this family are found +on any of the volcanic islands in the great oceans. As far as I can ascertain +from various works, this seems to hold good throughout the Pacific, and even in +the large islands of the Sandwich archipelago. Mauritius offers an apparent +exception, where I saw the Rana Mascariensis in abundance: this frog is said +now to inhabit the Seychelles, Madagascar, and Bourbon; but on the other hand, +Du Bois, in his voyage in 1669, states that there were no reptiles in Bourbon +except tortoises; and the Officier du Roi asserts that before 1768 it had been +attempted, without success, to +<a name="page408"></a> +introduce frogs into Mauritius—I presume for the purpose of eating: hence +it may be well doubted whether this frog is an aboriginal of these islands. The +absence of the frog family in the oceanic islands is the more remarkable, when +contrasted with the case of lizards, which swarm on most of the smallest +islands. May this difference not be caused by the greater facility with which +the eggs of lizards, protected by calcareous shells, might be transported +through salt-water, than could the slimy spawn of frogs? +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-17.2"></a> <a href="#fnref-17.2">[2]</a> +This is stated by Dr. Günther (<i>Zoolog. Soc.</i> Jan. 24th, 1859) to be a +peculiar species, not known to inhabit any other country. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-17.3"></a> <a href="#fnref-17.3">[3]</a> +<i>Voyage aux Quatres Iles d’Afrique.</i> With respect to the Sandwich +Islands see Tyerman and Bennett’s <i>Journal</i>, vol. i, p. 434. For +Mauritius see <i>Voyage par un Officier,</i> etc., Part i, p. 170. There are no +frogs in the Canary Islands (Webb et Berthelot <i>Hist. Nat. des Iles +Canaries.</i> I saw none at St. Jago in the Cape de Verds. There are none at +St. Helena.</p> + +<p>I will first describe the habits of the tortoise (Testudo nigra, +formerly called Indica), which has been so frequently alluded to. +These animals are found, I believe, on all the islands of the +Archipelago; certainly on the greater number. They frequent in +preference the high damp parts, but they likewise live in the lower +and arid districts. I have already shown, from the numbers which +have been caught in a single day, how very numerous they must be. +Some grow to an immense size: Mr. Lawson, an Englishman, and +vice-governor of the colony, told us that he had seen several so +large that it required six or eight men to lift them from the +ground; and that some had afforded as much as two hundred pounds of +meat. The old males are the largest, the females rarely growing to +so great a size: the male can readily be distinguished from the +female by the greater length of its tail. The tortoises which live +on those islands where there is no water, or in the lower and arid +parts of the others, feed chiefly on the succulent cactus. Those +which frequent the higher and damp regions eat the leaves of +various trees, a kind of berry (called guayavita) which is acid and +austere, and likewise a pale green filamentous lichen (Usnera +plicata), that hangs from the boughs of the trees.</p> + +<p>The tortoise is very fond of water, drinking large quantities, +and wallowing in the mud. The larger islands alone possess springs, +and these are always situated towards the central parts, and at a +considerable height. The tortoises, therefore, which frequent the +lower districts, when thirsty, are obliged to travel from a long +distance. Hence broad and well-beaten paths branch off in every +direction from the wells down to the sea-coast; and the Spaniards, +by following them up, first discovered the watering-places. When I +landed at Chatham Island, I could not imagine what animal travelled +so methodically along +<a name="page409"></a> +well-chosen tracks. Near the springs it was a curious spectacle +to behold many of these huge creatures, one set eagerly travelling +onwards with outstretched necks, and another set returning, after +having drunk their fill. When the tortoise arrives at the spring, +quite regardless of any spectator, he buries his head in the water +above his eyes, and greedily swallows great mouthfuls, at the rate +of about ten in a minute. The inhabitants say each animal stays +three or four days in the neighbourhood of the water, and then +returns to the lower country; but they differed respecting the +frequency of these visits. The animal probably regulates them +according to the nature of the food on which it has lived. It is, +however, certain that tortoises can subsist even on those islands +where there is no other water than what falls during a few rainy +days in the year.</p> + +<p>I believe it is well ascertained that the bladder of the frog +acts as a reservoir for the moisture necessary to its existence: +such seems to be the case with the tortoise. For some time after a +visit to the springs, their urinary bladders are distended with +fluid, which is said gradually to decrease in volume, and to become +less pure. The inhabitants, when walking in the lower district, and +overcome with thirst, often take advantage of this circumstance, +and drink the contents of the bladder if full: in one I saw killed, +the fluid was quite limpid, and had only a very slightly bitter +taste. The inhabitants, however, always first drink the water in +the pericardium, which is described as being best.</p> + +<p>The tortoises, when purposely moving towards any point, travel +by night and day and arrive at their journey’s end much sooner than +would be expected. The inhabitants, from observing marked +individuals, consider that they travel a distance of about eight +miles in two or three days. One large tortoise, which I watched, +walked at the rate of sixty yards in ten minutes, that is 360 yards +in the hour, or four miles a day,—allowing a little time for +it to eat on the road. During the breeding season, when the male +and female are together, the male utters a hoarse roar or +bellowing, which, it is said, can be heard at the distance of more +than a hundred yards. The female never uses her voice, and the male +only at these times; so that when the people hear this noise, they +know that the two are +<a name="page410"></a> +together. They were at this time (October) laying their eggs. +The female, where the soil is sandy, deposits them together, and +covers them up with sand; but where the ground is rocky she drops +them indiscriminately in any hole: Mr. Bynoe found seven placed in +a fissure. The egg is white and spherical; one which I measured was +seven inches and three-eighths in circumference, and therefore +larger than a hen’s egg. The young tortoises, as soon as they are +hatched, fall a prey in great numbers to the carrion-feeding +buzzard. The old ones seem generally to die from accidents, as from +falling down precipices: at least, several of the inhabitants told +me that they never found one dead without some evident cause.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants believe that these animals are absolutely deaf; +certainly they do not overhear a person walking close behind them. +I was always amused when overtaking one of these great monsters, as +it was quietly pacing along, to see how suddenly, the instant I +passed, it would draw in its head and legs, and uttering a deep +hiss fall to the ground with a heavy sound, as if struck dead. I +frequently got on their backs, and then giving a few raps on the +hinder part of their shells, they would rise up and walk +away;—but I found it very difficult to keep my balance. The +flesh of this animal is largely employed, both fresh and salted; +and a beautifully clear oil is prepared from the fat. When a +tortoise is caught, the man makes a slit in the skin near its tail, +so as to see inside its body, whether the fat under the dorsal +plate is thick. If it is not, the animal is liberated; and it is +said to recover soon from this strange operation. In order to +secure the tortoises, it is not sufficient to turn them like +turtle, for they are often able to get on their legs again.</p> + +<p>There can be little doubt that this tortoise is an aboriginal +inhabitant of the Galapagos; for it is found on all, or nearly all, +the islands, even on some of the smaller ones where there is no +water; had it been an imported species this would hardly have been +the case in a group which has been so little frequented. Moreover, +the old Bucaniers found this tortoise in greater numbers even than +at present: Wood and Rogers also, in 1708, say that it is the +opinion of the Spaniards that it is found nowhere else in this +quarter of the world. It is now widely distributed; but it may be +questioned whether it is in +<a name="page411"></a> +any other place an aboriginal. The bones of a tortoise at +Mauritius, associated with those of the extinct Dodo, have +generally been considered as belonging to this tortoise; if this +had been so, undoubtedly it must have been there indigenous; but M. +Bibron informs me that he believes that it was distinct, as the +species now living there certainly is.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl78.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl78.jpg" width="229" height="154" alt="Amblyrhynchus Cristatus" /> +</div> + +<p>The Amblyrhynchus, a remarkable genus of lizards, is confined to +this archipelago; there are two species, resembling each other in +general form, one being terrestrial and the other aquatic. This +latter species (A. cristatus) was first characterised by Mr. Bell, +who well foresaw, from its short, broad head, and strong claws of +equal length, that its habits of life would turn out very peculiar, +and different from those of its nearest ally, the Iguana. It is +extremely common on all the islands throughout the group, and lives +exclusively on the rocky sea-beaches, being never found, at least I +never saw one, even ten yards in-shore. It is a hideous-looking +creature, of a dirty black colour, stupid, and sluggish in its +movements. The usual length of a full-grown one is about a yard, +but there are some even four feet long; a large one weighed twenty +pounds: on the island of Albemarle they seem to grow to a greater +size than elsewhere. Their tails are flattened sideways, and all +four feet partially webbed. They are occasionally seen some hundred +yards from the shore, swimming about; and Captain Collnett, in his +Voyage says, “They go to sea in herds a-fishing, and sun themselves +on the rocks; and may be called alligators in miniature.” It must +not, however, be supposed that they live on fish. When in the water +this lizard swims with perfect ease and quickness, by a serpentine +movement of +<a name="page412"></a> +its body and flattened tail—the legs being motionless and +closely collapsed on its sides. A seaman on board sank one, with a +heavy weight attached to it, thinking thus to kill it directly; but +when, an hour afterwards, he drew up the line, it was quite active. +Their limbs and strong claws are admirably adapted for crawling +over the rugged and fissured masses of lava which everywhere form +the coast. In such situations a group of six or seven of these +hideous reptiles may oftentimes be seen on the black rocks, a few +feet above the surf, basking in the sun with outstretched legs.</p> + +<p>I opened the stomachs of several, and found them largely +distended with minced sea-weed (Ulvæ), which grows in thin +foliaceous expansions of a bright green or a dull red colour. I do +not recollect having observed this sea-weed in any quantity on the +tidal rocks; and I have reason to believe it grows at the bottom of +the sea, at some little distance from the coast. If such be the +case, the object of these animals occasionally going out to sea is +explained. The stomach contained nothing but the sea-weed. Mr. +Bynoe, however, found a piece of a crab in one; but this might have +got in accidentally, in the same manner as I have seen a +caterpillar, in the midst of some lichen, in the paunch of a +tortoise. The intestines were large, as in other herbivorous +animals. The nature of this lizard’s food, as well as the structure +of its tail and feet, and the fact of its having been seen +voluntarily swimming out at sea, absolutely prove its aquatic +habits; yet there is in this respect one strange anomaly, namely, +that when frightened it will not enter the water. Hence it is easy +to drive these lizards down to any little point overhanging the +sea, where they will sooner allow a person to catch hold of their +tails than jump into the water. They do not seem to have any notion +of biting; but when much frightened they squirt a drop of fluid +from each nostril. I threw one several times as far as I could, +into a deep pool left by the retiring tide; but it invariably +returned in a direct line to the spot where I stood. It swam near +the bottom, with a very graceful and rapid movement, and +occasionally aided itself over the uneven ground with its feet. As +soon as it arrived near the edge, but still being under water, it +tried to conceal itself in the tufts of sea-weed, or it entered +some crevice. As soon as it thought +<a name="page413"></a> +the danger was past, it crawled out on the dry rocks, and +shuffled away as quickly as it could. I several times caught this +same lizard, by driving it down to a point, and though possessed of +such perfect powers of diving and swimming, nothing would induce it +to enter the water; and as often as I threw it in, it returned in +the manner above described. Perhaps this singular piece of apparent +stupidity may be accounted for by the circumstance that this +reptile has no enemy whatever on shore, whereas at sea it must +often fall a prey to the numerous sharks. Hence, probably, urged by +a fixed and hereditary instinct that the shore is its place of +safety, whatever the emergency may be, it there takes refuge.</p> + +<p>During our visit (in October) I saw extremely few small +individuals of this species, and none I should think under a year +old. From this circumstance it seems probable that the breeding +season had not then commenced. I asked several of the inhabitants +if they knew where it laid its eggs: they said that they knew +nothing of its propagation, although well acquainted with the eggs +of the land kind—a fact, considering how very common this +lizard is, not a little extraordinary.</p> + +<p>We will now turn to the terrestrial species (A. Demarlii), with +a round tail, and toes without webs. This lizard, instead of being +found like the other on all the islands, is confined to the central +part of the archipelago, namely to Albemarle, James, Barrington, +and Indefatigable islands. To the southward, in Charles, Hood, and +Chatham Islands, and to the northward, in Towers, Bindloes, and +Abingdon, I neither saw nor heard of any. It would appear as if it +had been created in the centre of the archipelago, and thence had +been dispersed only to a certain distance. Some of these lizards +inhabit the high and damp parts of the islands, but they are much +more numerous in the lower and sterile districts near the coast. I +cannot give a more forcible proof of their numbers, than by stating +that when we were left at James Island, we could not for some time +find a spot free from their burrows on which to pitch our single +tent. Like their brothers the sea-kind, they are ugly animals, of a +yellowish orange beneath, and of a brownish-red colour above: from +their low facial angle they have a singularly stupid appearance. +They are, perhaps, of a rather less size than the marine species; +but several of them +<a name="page414"></a> +weighed between ten and fifteen pounds. In their movements they +are lazy and half torpid. When not frightened, they slowly crawl +along with their tails and bellies dragging on the ground. They +often stop, and doze for a minute or two, with closed eyes and hind +legs spread out on the parched soil.</p> + +<p>They inhabit burrows which they sometimes make between fragments +of lava, but more generally on level patches of the soft +sandstone-like tuff. The holes do not appear to be very deep, and +they enter the ground at a small angle; so that when walking over +these lizard-warrens, the soil is constantly giving way, much to +the annoyance of the tired walker. This animal, when making its +burrow, works alternately the opposite sides of its body. One front +leg for a short time scratches up the soil, and throws it towards +the hind foot, which is well placed so as to heave it beyond the +mouth of the hole. That side of the body being tired, the other +takes up the task, and so on alternately. I watched one for a long +time, till half its body was buried; I then walked up and pulled it +by the tail; at this it was greatly astonished, and soon shuffled +up to see what was the matter; and then stared me in the face, as +much as to say, “What made you pull my tail?”</p> + +<p>They feed by day, and do not wander far from their burrows; if +frightened, they rush to them with a most awkward gait. Except when +running down hill, they cannot move very fast, apparently from the +lateral position of their legs. They are not at all timorous: when +attentively watching any one, they curl their tails, and, raising +themselves on their front legs, nod their heads vertically, with a +quick movement, and try to look very fierce; but in reality they +are not at all so: if one just stamps on the ground, down go their +tails, and off they shuffle as quickly as they can. I have +frequently observed small fly-eating lizards, when watching +anything, nod their heads in precisely the same manner; but I do +not at all know for what purpose. If this Amblyrhynchus is held and +plagued with a stick, it will bite it very severely; but I caught +many by the tail, and they never tried to bite me. If two are +placed on the ground and held together, they will fight, and bite +each other till blood is drawn.</p> + +<p>The individuals, and they are the greater number, which inhabit +the lower country, can scarcely taste a drop of water +<a name="page415"></a> +throughout the year; but they consume much of the succulent +cactus, the branches of which are occasionally broken off by the +wind. I several times threw a piece to two or three of them when +together; and it was amusing enough to see them trying to seize and +carry it away in their mouths, like so many hungry dogs with a +bone. They eat very deliberately, but do not chew their food. The +little birds are aware how harmless these creatures are: I have +seen one of the thick-billed finches picking at one end of a piece +of cactus (which is much relished by all the animals of the lower +region), whilst a lizard was eating at the other end; and +afterwards the little bird with the utmost indifference hopped on +the back of the reptile.</p> + +<p>I opened the stomachs of several, and found them full of +vegetable fibres and leaves of different trees, especially of an +acacia. In the upper region they live chiefly on the acid and +astringent berries of the guayavita, under which trees I have seen +these lizards and the huge tortoises feeding together. To obtain +the acacia-leaves they crawl up the low stunted trees; and it is +not uncommon to see a pair quietly browsing, whilst seated on a +branch several feet above the ground. These lizards, when cooked, +yield a white meat, which is liked by those whose stomachs soar +above all prejudices. Humboldt has remarked that in intertropical +South America all lizards which inhabit dry regions are esteemed +delicacies for the table. The inhabitants state that those which +inhabit the upper damp parts drink water, but that the others do +not, like the tortoises, travel up for it from the lower sterile +country. At the time of our visit, the females had within their +bodies numerous, large, elongated eggs, which they lay in their +burrows: the inhabitants seek them for food.</p> + +<p>These two species of Amblyrhynchus agree, as I have already +stated, in their general structure, and in many of their habits. +Neither have that rapid movement, so characteristic of the genera +Lacerta and Iguana. They are both herbivorous, although the kind of +vegetation on which they feed is so very different. Mr. Bell has +given the name to the genus from the shortness of the snout: +indeed, the form of the mouth may almost be compared to that of the +tortoise: one is led to suppose that this is an adaptation to their +herbivorous appetites. It is very interesting thus to find a +well-characterised genus, +<a name="page416"></a> +having its marine and terrestrial species, belonging to so +confined a portion of the world. The aquatic species is by far the +most remarkable, because it is the only existing lizard which lives +on marine vegetable productions. As I at first observed, these +islands are not so remarkable for the number of the species of +reptiles, as for that of the individuals, when we remember the +well-beaten paths made by the thousands of huge tortoises—the +many turtles—the great warrens of the terrestrial +Amblyrhynchus—and the groups of the marine species basking on +the coast-rocks of every island—we must admit that there is +no other quarter of the world where this Order replaces the +herbivorous mammalia in so extraordinary a manner. The geologist on +hearing this will probably refer back in his mind to the Secondary +epochs, when lizards, some herbivorous, some carnivorous, and of +dimensions comparable only with our existing whales, swarmed on the +land and in the sea. It is, therefore, worthy of his observation +that this archipelago, instead of possessing a humid climate and +rank vegetation, cannot be considered otherwise than extremely +arid, and, for an equatorial region, remarkably temperate.</p> + +<p>To finish with the zoology: the fifteen kinds of sea-fish which +I procured here are all new species; they belong to twelve genera, +all widely distributed, with the exception of Prionotus, of which +the four previously known species live on the eastern side of +America. Of land-shells I collected sixteen kinds (and two marked +varieties) of which, with the exception of one Helix found at +Tahiti, all are peculiar to this archipelago: a single fresh-water +shell (Paludina) is common to Tahiti and Van Diemen’s Land. Mr. +Cuming, before our voyage, procured here ninety species of +sea-shells, and this does not include several species not yet +specifically examined, of Trochus, Turbo, Monodonta, and Nassa. He +has been kind enough to give me the following interesting results: +of the ninety shells, no less than forty-seven are unknown +elsewhere—a wonderful fact, considering how widely +distributed sea-shells generally are. Of the forty-three shells +found in other parts of the world, twenty-five inhabit the western +coast of America, and of these eight are distinguishable as +varieties; the remaining eighteen (including one variety) were +found by Mr. Cuming in the Low Archipelago, and some of them also +at the Philippines. This fact of shells +<a name="page417"></a> +from islands in the central parts of the Pacific occurring here, +deserves notice, for not one single sea-shell is known to be common +to the islands of that ocean and to the west coast of America. The +space of open sea running north and south off the west coast +separates two quite distinct conchological provinces; but at the +Galapagos Archipelago we have a halting-place, where many new forms +have been created, and whither these two great conchological +provinces have each sent several colonists. The American province +has also sent here representative species; for there is a +Galapageian species of Monoceros, a genus only found on the west +coast of America; and there are Galapageian species of Fissurella +and Cancellaria, genera common on the west coast, but not found (as +I am informed by Mr. Cuming) in the central islands of the Pacific. +On the other hand, there are Galapageian species of Oniscia and +Stylifer, genera common to the West Indies and to the Chinese and +Indian seas, but not found either on the west coast of America or +in the central Pacific. I may here add, that after the comparison +by Messrs. Cuming and Hinds of about 2000 shells from the eastern +and western coasts of America, only one single shell was found in +common, namely, the Purpura patula, which inhabits the West Indies, +the coast of Panama, and the Galapagos. We have, therefore, in this +quarter of the world, three great conchological sea-provinces, +quite distinct, though surprisingly near each other, being +separated by long north and south spaces either of land or of open +sea.</p> + +<p>I took great pains in collecting the insects, but excepting +Tierra del Fuego, I never saw in this respect so poor a country. +Even in the upper and damp region I procured very few, excepting +some minute Diptera and Hymenoptera, mostly of common mundane +forms. As before remarked, the insects, for a tropical region, are +of very small size and dull colours. Of beetles I collected +twenty-five species (excluding a Dermestes and Corynetes imported +wherever a ship touches); of these, two belong to the +Harpalidæ, two to the Hydrophilidæ, nine to three +families of the Heteromera, and the remaining twelve to as many +different families. This circumstance of insects (and I may add +plants), where few in number, belonging to many different families, +is, I believe, very general. Mr. Waterhouse, who has +published<a href="#fn-17.4" name="fnref-17.4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> +<a name="page418"></a> +an account of the insects of this archipelago, and to whom I am +indebted for the above details, informs me that there are several +new genera; and that of the genera not new, one or two are +American, and the rest of mundane distribution. With the exception +of a wood-feeding Apate, and of one or probably two water-beetles +from the American continent, all the species appear to be new.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-17.4"></a> <a href="#fnref-17.4">[4]</a> +<i>Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,</i> vol. xvi, p. 19.</p> + +<p>The botany of this group is fully as interesting as the zoology. +Dr. J. Hooker will soon publish in the “Linnean Transactions” a +full account of the Flora, and I am much indebted to him for the +following details. Of flowering plants there are, as far as at +present is known, 185 species, and 40 cryptogamic species, making +together 225; of this number I was fortunate enough to bring home +193. Of the flowering plants, 100 are new species, and are probably +confined to this archipelago. Dr. Hooker conceives that, of the +plants not so confined, at least 10 species found near the +cultivated ground at Charles Island have been imported. It is, I +think, surprising that more American species have not been +introduced naturally, considering that the distance is only between +500 and 600 miles from the continent, and that (according to +Collnet, page 58) drift-wood, bamboos, canes, and the nuts of a +palm, are often washed on the south-eastern shores. The proportion +of 100 flowering plants out of 185 (or 175 excluding the imported +weeds) being new, is sufficient, I conceive, to make the Galapagos +Archipelago a distinct botanical province; but this Flora is not +nearly so peculiar as that of St. Helena, nor, as I am informed by +Dr. Hooker, of Juan Fernandez. The peculiarity of the Galapageian +Flora is best shown in certain families;—thus there are 21 +species of Compositæ, of which 20 are peculiar to this +archipelago; these belong to twelve genera, and of these genera no +less than ten are confined to the archipelago! Dr. Hooker informs +me that the Flora has an undoubted Western American character; nor +can he detect in it any affinity with that of the Pacific. If, +therefore, we except the eighteen marine, the one fresh-water, and +one land-shell, which have apparently come here as colonists from +the central islands of the Pacific, and likewise the one distinct +Pacific species of the Galapageian group of finches, we see that +this archipelago, though standing in the Pacific Ocean, is +zoologically part of America.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page419"></a> +If this character were owing merely to immigrants from America, +there would be little remarkable in it; but we see that a vast +majority of all the land animals, and that more than half of the +flowering plants, are aboriginal productions. It was most striking +to be surrounded by new birds, new reptiles, new shells, new +insects, new plants, and yet by innumerable trifling details of +structure, and even by the tones of voice and plumage of the birds, +to have the temperate plains of Patagonia, or the hot dry deserts +of Northern Chile, vividly brought before my eyes. Why, on these +small points of land, which within a late geological period must +have been covered by the ocean, which are formed of basaltic lava, +and therefore differ in geological character from the American +continent, and which are placed under a peculiar climate,—why +were their aboriginal inhabitants, associated, I may add, in +different proportions both in kind and number from those on the +continent, and therefore acting on each other in a different +manner—why were they created on American types of +organisation? It is probable that the islands of the Cape de Verd +group resemble, in all their physical conditions, far more closely +the Galapagos Islands than these latter physically resemble the +coast of America, yet the aboriginal inhabitants of the two groups +are totally unlike; those of the Cape de Verd Islands bearing the +impress of Africa, as the inhabitants of the Galapagos Archipelago +are stamped with that of America.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +I have not as yet noticed by far the most remarkable feature in the natural +history of this archipelago; it is, that the different islands to a +considerable extent are inhabited by a different set of beings. My attention +was first called to this fact by the Vice-Governor, Mr. Lawson, declaring that +the tortoises differed from the different islands, and that he could with +certainty tell from which island any one was brought. I did not for some time +pay sufficient attention to this statement, and I had already partially mingled +together the collections from two of the islands. I never dreamed that islands, +about 50 or 60 miles apart, and most of them in sight of each other, formed of +precisely the same rocks, placed under a quite similar climate, rising to a +nearly equal height, would have been differently tenanted; but we shall soon +see that this is +<a name="page420"></a> +the case. It is the fate of most voyagers, no sooner to discover what is most +interesting in any locality, than they are hurried from it; but I ought, +perhaps, to be thankful that I obtained sufficient materials to establish this +most remarkable fact in the distribution of organic beings. +</p> + +<p>The inhabitants, as I have said, state that they can distinguish +the tortoises from the different islands; and that they differ not +only in size, but in other characters. Captain Porter has +described<a href="#fn-17.5" name="fnref-17.5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> +those from Charles and from the nearest island to it, namely, Hood Island, as +having their shells in front thick and turned up like a Spanish saddle, whilst +the tortoises from James Island are rounder, blacker, and have a better taste +when cooked. M. Bibron, moreover, informs me that he has seen what he considers +two distinct species of tortoise from the Galapagos, but he does not know from +which islands. The specimens that I brought from three islands were young ones: +and probably owing to this cause neither Mr. Gray nor myself could find in them +any specific differences. I have remarked that the marine Amblyrhynchus was +larger at Albemarle Island than elsewhere; and M. Bibron informs me that he has +seen two distinct aquatic species of this genus; so that the different islands +probably have their representative species or races of the Amblyrhynchus, as +well as of the tortoise. My attention was first thoroughly aroused by comparing +together the numerous specimens, shot by myself and several other parties on +board, of the mocking-thrushes, when, to my astonishment, I discovered that all +those from Charles Island belonged to one species (Mimus trifasciatus) all from +Albemarle Island to M. parvulus; and all from James and Chatham Islands +(between which two other islands are situated, as connecting links) belonged to +M. melanotis. These two latter species are closely allied, and would by some +ornithologists be considered as only well-marked races or varieties; but the +Mimus trifasciatus is very distinct. Unfortunately most of the specimens of the +finch tribe were mingled together; but I have strong reasons to suspect that +some of the species of the sub-group Geospiza are confined to separate islands. +If the different islands have their representatives of Geospiza, it may help to +explain the singularly +<a name="page421"></a> +large number of the species of this sub-group in this one small +archipelago, and as a probable consequence of their numbers, the +perfectly graduated series in the size of their beaks. Two species +of the sub-group Cactornis, and two of the Camarhynchus, were +procured in the archipelago; and of the numerous specimens of these +two sub-groups shot by four collectors at James Island, all were +found to belong to one species of each; whereas the numerous +specimens shot either on Chatham or Charles Island (for the two +sets were mingled together) all belonged to the two other species: +hence we may feel almost sure that these islands possess their +representative species of these two sub-groups. In land-shells this +law of distribution does not appear to hold good. In my very small +collection of insects, Mr. Waterhouse remarks that of those which +were ticketed with their locality, not one was common to any two of +the islands.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-17.5"></a> <a href="#fnref-17.5">[5]</a> +<i>Voyage in the U.S. ship Essex,</i> vol. i, p. 215.</p> + +<p> +If we now turn to the Flora, we shall find the aboriginal plants of the +different islands wonderfully different. I give all the following results on +the high authority of my friend Dr. J. Hooker. I may premise that I +indiscriminately collected everything in flower on the different islands, and +fortunately kept my collections separate. Too much confidence, however, must +not be placed in the proportional results, as the small collections brought +home by some other naturalists though in some respects confirming the results, +plainly show that much remains to be done in the botany of this group: the +Leguminosæ, moreover, have as yet been only approximately worked out:— +</p> + +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" style="margin-top: 2em; +margin-bottom: 2em;" summary="Number of flora species found on four islands, +the Galapagos Archipelago, and other parts of the world"> + +<tr> +<td valign="middle" align="center"><small>Name<br/> +of<br/> +Island</small></td> +<td valign="middle" align="center"><small>Total<br/> +No. of<br/> +Species</small></td> +<td valign="middle" align="center"><small>No. of<br/> +Species found<br/> +in other<br/> +parts of<br/> +the world</small></td> +<td valign="middle" align="center"><small>No. of<br/> +Species<br/> +confined<br/> +to the<br/> +Galapagos<br/> +Archipelago</small></td> +<td valign="middle" align="center"><small>No.<br/> +confined<br/> +to the one<br/> +Island</small></td> +<td valign="middle" align="center"><small>No. of Species<br/> +confined to the<br/> +Galapagos<br/> +Archipelago,<br/> +but found on<br/> +more than the<br/> +one Island</small></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top" align="left">James Island<br/> +Albermarle Island<br/> +Chatham Island<br/> +Charles Island</td> +<td valign="top" align="center">71<br/> +46<br/> +32<br/> +68</td> +<td valign="top" align="center">33<br/> +18<br/> +16<br/> +39<br/> +<small>(or 29, if the<br/> +probably<br/> +imported plants<br/> +be subtracted)</small></td> +<td valign="top" align="center">38<br/> +26<br/> +16<br/> +29</td> +<td valign="top" align="center">30<br/> +22<br/> +12<br/> +21</td> +<td valign="top" align="center">8<br/> +4<br/> +4<br/> +8</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<p> +<a name="page422"></a> +Hence we have the truly wonderful fact, that in James Island, of +the thirty-eight Galapageian plants, or those found in no other +part of the world, thirty are exclusively confined to this one +island; and in Albemarle Island, of the twenty-six aboriginal +Galapageian plants, twenty-two are confined to this one island, +that is, only four are at present known to grow in the other +islands of the archipelago; and so on, as shown in the above table, +with the plants from Chatham and Charles Islands. This fact will, +perhaps, be rendered even more striking, by giving a few +illustrations:—thus, Scalesia, a remarkable arborescent genus +of the Compositæ, is confined to the archipelago: it has six +species: one from Chatham, one from Albemarle, one from Charles +Island, two from James Island, and the sixth from one of the three +latter islands, but it is not known from which: not one of these +six species grows on any two islands. Again, Euphorbia, a mundane +or widely distributed genus, has here eight species, of which seven +are confined to the archipelago, and not one found on any two +islands: Acalypha and Borreria, both mundane genera, have +respectively six and seven species, none of which have the same +species on two islands, with the exception of one Borreria, which +does occur on two islands. The species of the Compositæ are +particularly local; and Dr. Hooker has furnished me with several +other most striking illustrations of the difference of the species +on the different islands. He remarks that this law of distribution +holds good both with those genera confined to the archipelago, and +those distributed in other quarters of the world: in like manner we +have seen that the different islands have their proper species of +the mundane genus of tortoise, and of the widely distributed +American genus of the mocking-thrush, as well as of two of the +Galapageian sub-groups of finches, and almost certainly of the +Galapageian genus Amblyrhynchus.</p> + +<p>The distribution of the tenants of this archipelago would not be +nearly so wonderful, if, for instance, one island had a +mocking-thrush, and a second island some other quite distinct +genus;—if one island had its genus of lizard, and a second +island another distinct genus, or none whatever;—or if the +different islands were inhabited, not by representative species of +the same genera of plants, but by totally different +<a name="page423"></a> +genera, as does to a certain extent hold good; for, to give one +instance, a large berry-bearing tree at James Island has no +representative species in Charles Island. But it is the +circumstance that several of the islands possess their own species +of the tortoise, mocking-thrush, finches, and numerous plants, +these species having the same general habits, occupying analogous +situations, and obviously filling the same place in the natural +economy of this archipelago, that strikes me with wonder. It may be +suspected that some of these representative species, at least in +the case of the tortoise and of some of the birds, may hereafter +prove to be only well-marked races; but this would be of equally +great interest to the philosophical naturalist. I have said that +most of the islands are in sight of each other: I may specify that +Charles Island is fifty miles from the nearest part of Chatham +Island, and thirty-three miles from the nearest part of Albemarle +Island. Chatham Island is sixty miles from the nearest part of +James Island, but there are two intermediate islands between them +which were not visited by me. James Island is only ten miles from +the nearest part of Albemarle Island, but the two points where the +collections were made are thirty-two miles apart. I must repeat, +that neither the nature of the soil, nor height of the land, nor +the climate, nor the general character of the associated beings, +and therefore their action one on another, can differ much in the +different islands. If there be any sensible difference in their +climates, it must be between the windward group (namely, Charles +and Chatham Islands), and that to leeward; but there seems to be no +corresponding difference in the productions of these two halves of +the archipelago.</p> + +<p>The only light which I can throw on this remarkable difference +in the inhabitants of the different islands is that very strong +currents of the sea running in a westerly and W.N.W. direction must +separate, as far as transportal by the sea is concerned, the +southern islands from the northern ones; and between these northern +islands a strong N.W. current was observed, which must effectually +separate James and Albemarle Islands. As the archipelago is free to +a most remarkable degree from gales of wind, neither the birds, +insects, nor lighter seeds, would be blown from island to island. +And lastly, the profound depth of the ocean between the islands, +and their +<a name="page424"></a> +apparently recent (in a geological sense) volcanic origin, +render it highly unlikely that they were ever united; and this, +probably, is a far more important consideration than any other with +respect to the geographical distribution of their inhabitants. +Reviewing the facts here given, one is astonished at the amount of +creative force, if such an expression may be used, displayed on +these small, barren, and rocky islands; and still more so, at its +diverse yet analogous action on points so near each other. I have +said that the Galapagos Archipelago might be called a satellite +attached to America, but it should rather be called a group of +satellites, physically similar, organically distinct, yet +intimately related to each other, and all related in a marked +though much lesser degree, to the great American continent.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +I will conclude my description of the natural history of these islands by +giving an account of the extreme tameness of the birds. +</p> + +<p>This disposition is common to all the terrestrial species; +namely, to the mocking-thrushes, the finches, wrens, +tyrant-flycatchers, the dove, and carrion-buzzard. All of them +often approached sufficiently near to be killed with a switch, and +sometimes, as I myself tried, with a cap or hat. A gun is here +almost superfluous; for with the muzzle I pushed a hawk off the +branch of a tree. One day, whilst lying down, a mocking-thrush +alighted on the edge of a pitcher, made of the shell of a tortoise, +which I held in my hand, and began very quietly to sip the water; +it allowed me to lift it from the ground whilst seated on the +vessel: I often tried, and very nearly succeeded, in catching these +birds by their legs. Formerly the birds appear to have been even +tamer than at present. Cowley (in the year 1684) says that the +“Turtledoves were so tame, that they would often alight on our hats +and arms, so as that we could take them alive: they not fearing +man, until such time as some of our company did fire at them, +whereby they were rendered more shy.” Dampier also, in the same +year, says that a man in a morning’s walk might kill six or seven +dozen of these doves. At present, although certainly very tame, +they do not alight on people’s arms, nor do they suffer themselves +to be killed in such large +<a name="page425"></a> +numbers. It is surprising that they have not become wilder; for +these islands during the last hundred and fifty years have been +frequently visited by bucaniers and whalers; and the sailors, +wandering through the wood in search of tortoises, always take +cruel delight in knocking down the little birds.</p> + +<p>These birds, although now still more persecuted, do not readily +become wild: in Charles Island, which had then been colonised about +six years, I saw a boy sitting by a well with a switch in his hand, +with which he killed the doves and finches as they came to drink. +He had already procured a little heap of them for his dinner, and +he said that he had constantly been in the habit of waiting by this +well for the same purpose. It would appear that the birds of this +archipelago, not having as yet learnt that man is a more dangerous +animal than the tortoise or the Amblyrhynchus, disregard him, in +the same manner as in England shy birds, such as magpies, disregard +the cows and horses grazing in our fields.</p> + +<p>The Falkland Islands offer a second instance of birds with a +similar disposition. The extraordinary tameness of the little +Opetiorhynchus has been remarked by Pernety, Lesson, and other +voyagers. It is not, however, peculiar to that bird: the Polyborus, +snipe, upland and lowland goose, thrush, bunting, and even some +true hawks, are all more or less tame. As the birds are so tame +there, where foxes, hawks, and owls occur, we may infer that the +absence of all rapacious animals at the Galapagos is not the cause +of their tameness here. The upland geese at the Falklands show, by +the precaution they take in building on the islets, that they are +aware of their danger from the foxes; but they are not by this +rendered wild towards man. This tameness of the birds, especially +of the waterfowl, is strongly contrasted with the habits of the +same species in Tierra del Fuego, where for ages past they have +been persecuted by the wild inhabitants. In the Falklands, the +sportsman may sometimes kill more of the upland geese in one day +than he can carry home; whereas in Tierra del Fuego it is nearly as +difficult to kill one as it is in England to shoot the common wild +goose.</p> + +<p>In the time of Pernety (1763) all the birds there appear to have +been much tamer than at present; he states that the Opetiorhynchus +would almost perch on his finger; and that +<a name="page426"></a> +with a wand he killed ten in half an hour. At that period the +birds must have been about as tame as they now are at the +Galapagos. They appear to have learnt caution more slowly at these +latter islands than at the Falklands, where they have had +proportionate means of experience; for besides frequent visits from +vessels, those islands have been at intervals colonised during the +entire period. Even formerly, when all the birds were so tame, it +was impossible by Pernety’s account to kill the black-necked +swan—a bird of passage, which probably brought with it the +wisdom learnt in foreign countries.</p> + +<p>I may add that, according to Du Bois, all the birds at Bourbon +in 1571-72, with the exception of the flamingoes and geese, were so +extremely tame, that they could be caught by the hand, or killed in +any number with a stick. Again, at Tristan d’Acunha in the +Atlantic, Carmichael<a href="#fn-17.6" name="fnref-17.6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> +states that the only two land-birds, a thrush and a bunting, were “so +tame as to suffer themselves to be caught with a hand-net.” From these +several facts we may, I think, conclude, first, that the wildness of birds with +regard to man is a particular instinct directed against <i>him</i>, and not +dependent upon any general degree of caution arising from other sources of +danger; secondly, that it is not acquired by individual birds in a short time, +even when much persecuted; but that in the course of successive generations it +becomes hereditary. With domesticated animals we are accustomed to see new +mental habits or instincts acquired and rendered hereditary; but with animals +in a state of nature it must always be most difficult to discover instances of +acquired hereditary knowledge. In regard to the wildness of birds towards man, +there is no way of accounting for it, except as an inherited habit: +comparatively few young birds, in any one year, have been injured by man in +England, yet almost all, even nestlings, are afraid of him; many individuals, +on the other hand, both at the Galapagos and at the Falklands, have +<a name="page427"></a> +been pursued and injured by man, but yet have not learned a +salutary dread of him. We may infer from these facts, what havoc +the introduction of any new beast of prey must cause in a country, +before the instincts of the indigenous inhabitants have become +adapted to the stranger’s craft or power.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-17.6"></a> <a href="#fnref-17.6">[6]</a> +<i>Linn. Trans.</i> vol. xii, p. 496. The most anomalous fact on this subject +which I have met with is the wildness of the small birds in the Arctic parts of +North America (as described by Richardson <i>Fauna Bor.</i> vol. ii, p. 332), +where they are said never to be persecuted. This case is the more strange, +because it is asserted that some of the same species in their winter-quarters +in the United States are tame. There is much, as Dr. Richardson well remarks, +utterly inexplicable connected with the different degrees of shyness and care +with which birds conceal their nests. How strange it is that the English +wood-pigeon, generally so wild a bird, should very frequently rear its young in +shrubberies close to houses!</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl79.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl79.jpg" width="300" height="242" alt="Opuntia Galapageia" /> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl80.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl80.jpg" width="322" height="239" alt="Ava or kava (Macropiper Methysticum), Tahiti" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="page428"></a><a name="chxviii"></a>Chapter XVIII<br/> +<br/> +TAHITI AND NEW ZEALAND</h2> + +<p class="letter">Pass through the Low +Archipelago—Tahiti—Aspect—Vegetation on the +mountains—View of Eimeo—Excursion into the +interior—Profound ravines—Succession of +waterfalls—Number of wild useful plants—Temperance of +the inhabitants—Their moral state—Parliament +convened—New Zealand—Bay of +islands—Hippahs—Excursion to Waimate—Missionary +establishment—English weeds now run +wild—Waiomio—Funeral of a New Zealand woman—Sail +for Australia.</p> + +<p> +<i>October</i> 20<i>th.</i>—The survey of the Galapagos Archipelago being +concluded, we steered towards Tahiti and commenced our long passage of 3200 +miles. In the course of a few days we sailed out of the gloomy and clouded +ocean-district which extends during the winter far from the coast of South +America. We then enjoyed bright and clear weather, while running pleasantly +along at the rate of 150 or 160 miles a day before the steady trade-wind. The +temperature in this more central part of the Pacific is higher than near the +American shore. The +<a name="page429"></a> +thermometer in the poop cabin, by night and day, ranged between 80° and +83°, which feels very pleasant; but with one degree or two higher, the heat +becomes oppressive. We passed through the Low or Dangerous Archipelago, and saw +several of those most curious rings of coral land, just rising above the +water’s edge, which have been called Lagoon Islands. A long and +brilliantly-white beach is capped by a margin of green vegetation; and the +strip, looking either way, rapidly narrows away in the distance, and sinks +beneath the horizon. From the mast-head a wide expanse of smooth water can be +seen within the ring. These low hollow coral islands bear no proportion to the +vast ocean out of which they abruptly rise; and it seems wonderful that such +weak invaders are not overwhelmed by the all-powerful and never-tiring waves of +that great sea, miscalled the Pacific. +</p> + +<p> +<i>November</i> 15<i>th.</i>—At daylight, Tahiti, an island which must +for ever remain classical to the voyager in the South Sea, was in view. At a +distance the appearance was not attractive. The luxuriant vegetation of the +lower part could not yet be seen, and as the clouds rolled past, the wildest +and most precipitous peaks showed themselves towards the centre of the island. +As soon as we anchored in Matavai Bay, we were surrounded by canoes. This was +our Sunday, but the Monday of Tahiti: if the case had been reversed, we should +not have received a single visit; for the injunction not to launch a canoe on +the Sabbath is rigidly obeyed. After dinner we landed to enjoy all the delights +produced by the first impressions of a new country, and that country the +charming Tahiti. A crowd of men, women, and children, was collected on the +memorable Point Venus, ready to receive us with laughing, merry faces. They +marshalled us towards the house of Mr. Wilson, the missionary of the district, +who met us on the road, and gave us a very friendly reception. After sitting a +short time in his house, we separated to walk about, but returned there in the +evening. +</p> + +<p>The land capable of cultivation is scarcely in any part more +than a fringe of low alluvial soil, accumulated round the base of +the mountains, and protected from the waves of the sea by a coral +reef, which encircles the entire line of coast. Within the reef +there is an expanse of smooth water, like that of a lake, where +<a name="page430"></a> +the canoes of the natives can ply with safety and where ships +anchor. The low land which comes down to the beach of coral-sand is +covered by the most beautiful productions of the intertropical +regions. In the midst of bananas, orange, cocoa-nut, and +bread-fruit trees, spots are cleared where yams, sweet potatoes, +the sugar-cane, and pine-apples are cultivated. Even the brushwood +is an imported fruit-tree, namely, the guava, which from its +abundance has become as noxious as a weed. In Brazil I have often +admired the varied beauty of the bananas, palms, and orange-trees +contrasted together; and here we also have the bread-fruit, +conspicuous from its large, glossy, and deeply digitated leaf. It +is admirable to behold groves of a tree, sending forth its branches +with the vigour of an English oak, loaded with large and most +nutritious fruit. However seldom the usefulness of an object can +account for the pleasure of beholding it, in the case of these +beautiful woods, the knowledge of their high productiveness no +doubt enters largely into the feeling of admiration. The little +winding paths, cool from the surrounding shade, led to the +scattered houses; the owners of which everywhere gave us a cheerful +and most hospitable reception.</p> + +<p>I was pleased with nothing so much as with the inhabitants. +There is a mildness in the expression of their countenances which +at once banishes the idea of a savage; and an intelligence which +shows that they are advancing in civilisation. The common people, +when working, keep the upper part of their bodies quite naked; and +it is then that the Tahitians are seen to advantage. They are very +tall, broad-shouldered, athletic, and well-proportioned. It has +been remarked that it requires little habit to make a dark skin +more pleasing and natural to the eye of a European than his own +colour. A white man bathing by the side of a Tahitian was like a +plant bleached by the gardener’s art compared with a fine dark +green one growing vigorously in the open fields. Most of the men +are tattooed, and the ornaments follow the curvature of the body so +gracefully that they have a very elegant effect. One common +pattern, varying in its details, is somewhat like the crown of a +palm-tree. It springs from the central line of the back, and +gracefully curls round both sides. The simile may be a fanciful +one, but I thought the body of a man thus ornamented +<a name="page431"></a> +was like the trunk of a noble tree embraced by a delicate +creeper.</p> + +<p>Many of the elder people had their feet covered with small +figures, so placed as to resemble a sock. This fashion, however, is +partly gone by, and has been succeeded by others. Here, although +fashion is far from immutable, every one must abide by that +prevailing in his youth. An old man has thus his age for ever +stamped on his body, and he cannot assume the airs of a young +dandy. The women are tattooed in the same manner as the men, and +very commonly on their fingers. One unbecoming fashion is now +almost universal: namely, shaving the hair from the upper part of +the head, in a circular form, so as to leave only an outer ring. +The missionaries have tried to persuade the people to change this +habit; but it is the fashion, and that is a sufficient answer at +Tahiti, as well as at Paris. I was much disappointed in the +personal appearance of the women: they are far inferior in every +respect to the men. The custom of wearing a white or scarlet flower +in the back of the head, or through a small hole in each ear, is +pretty. A crown of woven cocoa-nut leaves is also worn as a shade +for the eyes. The women appear to be in greater want of some +becoming costume even than the men.</p> + +<p>Nearly all the natives understand a little English—that +is, they know the names of common things; and by the aid of this, +together with signs, a lame sort of conversation could be carried +on. In returning in the evening to the boat, we stopped to witness +a very pretty scene. Numbers of children were playing on the beach, +and had lighted bonfires which illumined the placid sea and +surrounding trees; others, in circles, were singing Tahitian +verses. We seated ourselves on the sand, and joined their party. +The songs were impromptu, and I believe related to our arrival: one +little girl sang a line, which the rest took up in parts, forming a +very pretty chorus. The whole scene made us unequivocally aware +that we were seated on the shores of an island in the far-famed +South Sea.</p> + +<p> +17<i>th.</i>—This day is reckoned in the log-book as Tuesday the 17th, +instead of Monday the 16th, owing to our, so far, successful chase of the sun. +Before breakfast the ship was hemmed in by a flotilla of canoes; and when the +natives were allowed to come on board, I suppose there could not have +<a name="page432"></a> +been less than two hundred. It was the opinion of every one that it would have +been difficult to have picked out an equal number from any other nation, who +would have given so little trouble. Everybody brought something for sale: +shells were the main article of trade. The Tahitians now fully understand the +value of money, and prefer it to old clothes or other articles. The various +coins, however, of English and Spanish denomination puzzle them, and they never +seemed to think the small silver quite secure until changed into dollars. Some +of the chiefs have accumulated considerable sums of money. One chief, not long +since, offered 800 dollars (about £160 sterling) for a small vessel; and +frequently they purchase whale-boats and horses at the rate of from 50 to 100 +dollars. +</p> + +<p>After breakfast I went on shore, and ascended the nearest slope +to a height of between two and three thousand feet. The outer +mountains are smooth and conical, but steep; and the old volcanic +rocks, of which they are formed, have been cut through by many +profound ravines, diverging from the central broken parts of the +island to the coast. Having crossed the narrow low girt of +inhabited and fertile land, I followed a smooth steep ridge between +two of the deep ravines. The vegetation was singular, consisting +almost exclusively of small dwarf ferns, mingled, higher up, with +coarse grass; it was not very dissimilar from that on some of the +Welsh hills, and this so close above the orchard of tropical plants +on the coast was very surprising. At the highest point which I +reached trees again appeared. Of the three zones of comparative +luxuriance, the lower one owes its moisture, and therefore +fertility, to its flatness; for, being scarcely raised above the +level of the sea, the water from the higher land drains away +slowly. The intermediate zone does not, like the upper one, reach +into a damp and cloudy atmosphere, and therefore remains sterile. +The woods in the upper zone are very pretty, tree-ferns replacing +the cocoa-nuts on the coast. It must not, however, be supposed that +these woods at all equal in splendour the forests of Brazil. The +vast number of productions, which characterise a continent, cannot +be expected to occur in an island.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl81.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl81.jpg" width="452" height="300" alt="Eimeo and Barrier-Reef" /> +</div> + +<p>From the highest point which I attained there was a good view of +the distant island of Eimeo, dependent on the same +<a name="page433"></a> +sovereign with Tahiti. On the lofty and broken pinnacles white +massive clouds were piled up, which formed an island in the blue +sky, as Eimeo itself did in the blue ocean. The island, with the +exception of one small gateway, is completely encircled by a reef. +At this distance, a narrow but well-defined brilliantly white line +was alone visible, where the waves first encountered the wall of +coral. The mountains rose abruptly out of the glassy expanse of the +lagoon, included within this narrow white line, outside which the +heaving waters of the ocean were dark-coloured. The view was +striking: it may aptly be compared to a framed engraving, where the +frame represents the breakers, the marginal paper the smooth +lagoon, and the drawing the island itself. When in the evening I +descended from the mountain, a man, whom I had pleased with a +trifling gift, met me, bringing with him hot roasted bananas, a +pine-apple, and cocoa-nuts. After walking under a burning sun, I do +not know anything more delicious than the milk of a young +cocoa-nut. Pine-apples are here so abundant that the people eat +them in the same wasteful manner as we might turnips. They are of +an excellent flavour—perhaps even better than those +cultivated in England; and this I believe is the highest compliment +which can be paid to any fruit. Before going on board, Mr. Wilson +interpreted for me to the Tahitian who had paid me so adroit an +attention, that I wanted him and another man to accompany me on a +short excursion into the mountains.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +18<i>th.</i>—In the morning I came on shore early, bringing with me some +provisions in a bag, and two blankets for myself and servant. These were lashed +to each end of a long pole, which was alternately carried by my Tahitian +companions on their shoulders. These men are accustomed thus to carry, for a +whole day, as much as fifty pounds at each end of their poles. I told my guides +to provide themselves with food and clothing; but they said that there was +plenty of food in the mountains, and for clothing, that their skins were +sufficient. Our line of march was the valley of Tia-auru, down which a river +flows into the sea by Point Venus. This is one of the principal streams in the +island, and its source lies at the base of the loftiest central pinnacles, +which rise to a height of about +<a name="page434"></a> +7000 feet. The whole island is so mountainous that the only way to penetrate +into the interior is to follow up the valleys. Our road, at first, lay through +woods which bordered each side of the river; and the glimpses of the lofty +central peaks, seen as through an avenue, with here and there a waving +cocoa-nut tree on one side, were extremely picturesque. The valley soon began +to narrow, and the sides to grow lofty and more precipitous. After having +walked between three and four hours, we found the width of the ravine scarcely +exceeded that of the bed of the stream. On each hand the walls were nearly +vertical; yet from the soft nature of the volcanic strata, trees and a rank +vegetation sprung from every projecting ledge. These precipices must have been +some thousand feet high; and the whole formed a mountain gorge far more +magnificent than anything which I had ever before beheld. Until the mid-day sun +stood vertically over the ravine, the air felt cool and damp, but now it became +very sultry. Shaded by a ledge of rock, beneath a façade of columnar lava, we +ate our dinner. My guides had already procured a dish of small fish and +fresh-water prawns. They carried with them a small net stretched on a hoop; and +where the water was deep and in eddies, they dived, and like otters, with their +eyes open followed the fish into holes and corners, and thus caught them. +</p> + +<p>The Tahitians have the dexterity of amphibious animals in the +water. An anecdote mentioned by Ellis shows how much they feel at +home in this element. When a horse was landing for Pomarre in 1817, +the slings broke, and it fell into the water; immediately the +natives jumped overboard, and by their cries and vain efforts at +assistance almost drowned it. As soon, however, as it reached the +shore, the whole population took to flight, and tried to hide +themselves from the man-carrying pig, as they christened the +horse.</p> + +<p>A little higher up, the river divided itself into three little +streams. The two northern ones were impracticable, owing to a +succession of waterfalls which descended from the jagged summit of +the highest mountain; the other to all appearance was equally +inaccessible, but we managed to ascend it by a most extraordinary +road. The sides of the valley were here nearly precipitous; but, as +frequently happens with stratified rocks, small ledges projected, +which were thickly covered by +<a name="page435"></a> +wild bananas, liliaceous plants, and other luxuriant productions +of the tropics. The Tahitians, by climbing amongst these ledges, +searching for fruit, had discovered a track by which the whole +precipice could be scaled. The first ascent from the valley was +very dangerous; for it was necessary to pass a steeply inclined +face of naked rock by the aid of ropes which we brought with us. +How any person discovered that this formidable spot was the only +point where the side of the mountain was practicable, I cannot +imagine. We then cautiously walked along one of the ledges till we +came to one of the three streams. This ledge formed a flat spot +above which a beautiful cascade, some hundred feet in height, +poured down its waters, and beneath, another high cascade fell into +the main stream in the valley below. From this cool and shady +recess we made a circuit to avoid the overhanging waterfall. As +before, we followed little projecting ledges, the danger being +partly concealed by the thickness of the vegetation. In passing +from one of the ledges to another there was a vertical wall of +rock. One of the Tahitians, a fine active man, placed the trunk of +a tree against this, climbed up it, and then by the aid of crevices +reached the summit. He fixed the ropes to a projecting point, and +lowered them for our dog and luggage, and then we clambered up +ourselves. Beneath the ledge on which the dead tree was placed, the +precipice must have been five or six hundred feet deep; and if the +abyss had not been partly concealed by the overhanging ferns and +lilies my head would have turned giddy, and nothing should have +induced me to have attempted it. We continued to ascend, sometimes +along ledges, and sometimes along knife-edged ridges, having on +each hand profound ravines. In the Cordillera I have seen mountains +on a far grander scale, but for abruptness nothing at all +comparable with this. In the evening we reached a flat little spot +on the banks of the same stream which we had continued to follow, +and which descends in a chain of waterfalls: here we bivouacked for +the night. On each side of the ravine there were great beds of the +mountain-banana, covered with ripe fruit. Many of these plants were +from twenty to twenty-five feet high, and from three to four in +circumference. By the aid of strips of bark for rope, the stems of +bamboos for rafters, and the large leaf of +<a name="page436"></a> +the banana for a thatch, the Tahitians in a few minutes built us +an excellent house; and with withered leaves made a soft bed.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl82.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl82.jpg" width="272" height="450" alt="Fatahua Fall, Tahiti" /> +</div> + +<p>They then proceeded to make a fire, and cook our evening meal. A +light was procured by rubbing a blunt pointed stick in a groove +made in another, as if with intention of deepening it, until by the +friction the dust became ignited. A peculiarly white and very light +wood (the Hibiscus tiliaceus) is alone used for this purpose: it is +the same which serves for poles to carry any burden, and for the +floating out-riggers to their canoes. The fire was produced in a +few seconds: but to a person who does not understand the art, it +requires, as I found, the greatest exertion; but at last, to my +great pride, I succeeded in igniting the dust. The Gaucho in the +Pampas uses a different method: taking an elastic stick about +eighteen inches long, he presses one end on his breast, and the +other pointed end into a hole in a piece of wood, and then rapidly +turns the curved part like a carpenter’s centre-bit. The Tahitians +having made a small fire of sticks, placed a score of stones of +about the size of cricket-balls, on the burning wood. In about ten +minutes the sticks were consumed, and the stones hot. They had +previously folded up in small parcels of leaves, pieces of beef, +fish, ripe and unripe bananas, and the tops of the wild arum. These +green parcels were laid in a layer between two layers of the hot +stones, and the whole then covered up with earth, so that no smoke +or steam could escape. In about a quarter of an hour the whole was +most deliciously cooked. The choice green parcels were now laid on +a cloth of banana leaves, and with a cocoa-nut shell we drank the +cool water of the running stream; and thus we enjoyed our rustic +meal.</p> + +<p>I could not look on the surrounding plants without admiration. +On every side were forests of bananas; the fruit of which, though +serving for food in various ways, lay in heaps decaying on the +ground. In front of us there was an extensive brake of wild +sugar-cane; and the stream was shaded by the dark green knotted +stem of the Ava,—so famous in former days for its powerful +intoxicating effects. I chewed a piece, and found that it had an +acrid and unpleasant taste, which would have induced any one at +once to have pronounced it poisonous. Thanks to the missionaries, +this plant now thrives +<a name="page437"></a> +only in these deep ravines, innocuous to every one. Close by I +saw the wild arum, the roots of which, when well baked, are good to +eat, and the young leaves better than spinach. There was the wild +yam, and a liliaceous plant called Ti, which grows in abundance, +and has a soft brown root, in shape and size like a huge log of +wood: this served us for dessert, for it is as sweet as treacle, +and with a pleasant taste. There were, moreover, several other wild +fruits, and useful vegetables. The little stream, besides its cool +water, produced eels and crayfish. I did indeed admire this scene, +when I compared it with an uncultivated one in the temperate zones. +I felt the force of the remark that man, at least savage man, with +his reasoning powers only partly developed, is the child of the +tropics.</p> + +<p>As the evening drew to a close, I strolled beneath the gloomy +shade of the bananas up the course of the stream. My walk was soon +brought to a close by coming to a waterfall between two and three +hundred feet high; and again above this there was another. I +mention all these waterfalls in this one brook to give a general +idea of the inclination of the land. In the little recess where the +water fell, it did not appear that a breath of wind had ever blown. +The thin edges of the great leaves of the banana, damp with spray, +were unbroken, instead of being, as is so generally the case, split +into a thousand shreds. From our position, almost suspended on the +mountain-side, there were glimpses into the depths of the +neighbouring valleys; and the lofty points of the central +mountains, towering up within sixty degrees of the zenith, hid half +the evening sky. Thus seated, it was a sublime spectacle to watch +the shades of night gradually obscuring the last and highest +pinnacles.</p> + +<p>Before we laid ourselves down to sleep, the elder Tahitian fell +on his knees, and with closed eyes repeated a long prayer in his +native tongue. He prayed as a Christian should do, with fitting +reverence, and without the fear of ridicule or any ostentation of +piety. At our meals neither of the men would taste food, without +saying beforehand a short grace. Those travellers who think that a +Tahitian prays only when the eyes of the missionary are fixed on +him, should have slept with us that night on the mountain-side. +Before morning it rained +<a name="page438"></a> +very heavily; but the good thatch of banana-leaves kept us +dry.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl83.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl83.jpg" width="170" height="284" alt="[Illustration]" /> +</div> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>November</i> 19<i>th.</i>—At daylight my friends, after their morning +prayer, prepared an excellent breakfast in the same manner as in the evening. +They themselves certainly partook of it largely; indeed I never saw any men eat +near so much. I suppose such enormously capacious stomachs must be the effect +of a large part of their diet consisting of fruit and vegetables which contain, +in a given bulk, a comparatively small portion of nutriment. Unwittingly, I was +the means of my companions breaking, as I afterwards learned, one of their own +laws and resolutions: I took with me a flask of spirits, which they could not +refuse to partake of; but as often as they drank a little, they put their +fingers before their mouths, and uttered the word “Missionary.” +About two years ago, although the use of the ava was prevented, drunkenness +from the introduction of spirits became very prevalent. The missionaries +prevailed on a few good men who saw that their country was rapidly going to +ruin, to join with them in a Temperance Society. From good sense or shame, all +the chiefs and the queen were at last persuaded to join. Immediately a law was +passed that no spirits should be allowed to be introduced into the island, and +that he who sold and he who bought the forbidden article should be punished by +a fine. With remarkable justice, a +<a name="page439"></a> +certain period was allowed for stock in hand to be sold, before the law came +into effect. But when it did, a general search was made, in which even the +houses of the missionaries were not exempted, and all the ava (as the natives +call all ardent spirits) was poured on the ground. When one reflects on the +effect of intemperance on the aborigines of the two Americas, I think it will +be acknowledged that every well-wisher of Tahiti owes no common debt of +gratitude to the missionaries. As long as the little island of St. Helena +remained under the government of the East India Company, spirits, owing to the +great injury they had produced, were not allowed to be imported; but wine was +supplied from the Cape of Good Hope. It is rather a striking, and not very +gratifying fact, that in the same year that spirits were allowed to be sold in +St. Helena, their use was banished from Tahiti by the free will of the people. +</p> + +<p>After breakfast we proceeded on our journey. As my object was +merely to see a little of the interior scenery, we returned by +another track, which descended into the main valley lower down. For +some distance we wound, by a most intricate path, along the side of +the mountain which formed the valley. In the less precipitous parts +we passed through extensive groves of the wild banana. The +Tahitians, with their naked, tattooed bodies, their heads +ornamented with flowers, and seen in the dark shade of these +groves, would have formed a fine picture of man inhabiting some +primeval land. In our descent we followed the line of ridges; these +were exceedingly narrow, and for considerable lengths steep as a +ladder; but all clothed with vegetation. The extreme care necessary +in poising each step rendered the walk fatiguing. I did not cease +to wonder at these ravines and precipices: when viewing the country +from one of the knife-edged ridges, the point of support was so +small that the effect was nearly the same as it must be from a +balloon. In this descent we had occasion to use the ropes only +once, at the point where we entered the main valley. We slept under +the same ledge of rock where we had dined the day before: the night +was fine, but from the depth and narrowness of the gorge, +profoundly dark.</p> + +<p>Before actually seeing this country, I found it difficult to +understand two facts mentioned by Ellis; namely, that after +<a name="page440"></a> +the murderous battles of former times, the survivors on the +conquered side retired into the mountains, where a handful of men +could resist a multitude. Certainly half a dozen men, at the spot +where the Tahitian reared the old tree, could easily have repulsed +thousands. Secondly, that after the introduction of Christianity, +there were wild men who lived in the mountains, and whose retreats +were unknown to the more civilised inhabitants.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>November</i> 20<i>th.</i>—In the morning we started early, and reached +Matavai at noon. On the road we met a large party of noble athletic men, going +for wild bananas. I found that the ship, on account of the difficulty in +watering, had moved to the harbour of Papawa, to which place I immediately +walked. This is a very pretty spot. The cove is surrounded by reefs, and the +water as smooth as in a lake. The cultivated ground, with its beautiful +productions, interspersed with cottages, comes close down to the water’s +edge. +</p> + +<p>From the varying accounts which I had read before reaching these +islands, I was very anxious to form, from my own observation, a +judgment of their moral state,—although such judgment would +necessarily be very imperfect. First impressions at all times very +much depend on one’s previously acquired ideas. My notions were +drawn from Ellis’s <i>Polynesian Researches</i>—an admirable +and most interesting work, but naturally looking at everything +under a favourable point of view, from Beechey’s <i>Voyage;</i> and +from that of Kotzebue, which is strongly adverse to the whole +missionary system. He who compares these three accounts will, I +think, form a tolerably accurate conception of the present state of +Tahiti. One of my impressions, which I took from the two last +authorities, was decidedly incorrect; namely, that the Tahitians +had become a gloomy race, and lived in fear of the missionaries. Of +the latter feeling I saw no trace, unless, indeed, fear and respect +be confounded under one name. Instead of discontent being a common +feeling, it would be difficult in Europe to pick out of a crowd +half so many merry and happy faces. The prohibition of the flute +and dancing is inveighed against as wrong and foolish;—the +more than presbyterian manner of keeping the Sabbath is looked at +in a similar light. On +<a name="page441"></a> +these points I will not pretend to offer any opinion, in +opposition to men who have resided as many years as I was days on +the island.</p> + +<p>On the whole, it appears to me that the morality and religion of +the inhabitants are highly creditable. There are many who attack, +even more acrimoniously than Kotzebue, both the missionaries, their +system, and the effects produced by it. Such reasoners never +compare the present state with that of the island only twenty years +ago; nor even with that of Europe at this day; but they compare it +with the high standard of Gospel perfection. They expect the +missionaries to effect that which the Apostles themselves failed to +do. Inasmuch as the condition of the people falls short of this +high standard, blame is attached to the missionary, instead of +credit for that which he has effected. They forget, or will not +remember, that human sacrifices, and the power of an idolatrous +priesthood—a system of profligacy unparalleled in any other +part of the world—infanticide a consequence of that +system—bloody wars, where the conquerors spared neither women +nor children—that all these have been abolished; and that +dishonesty, intemperance, and licentiousness have been greatly +reduced by the introduction of Christianity. In a voyager to forget +these things is base ingratitude; for should he chance to be at the +point of shipwreck on some unknown coast, he will most devoutly +pray that the lesson of the missionary may have extended thus +far.</p> + +<p>In point of morality, the virtue of the women, it has been often +said, is most open to exception. But before they are blamed too +severely, it will be well distinctly to call to mind the scenes +described by Captain Cook and Mr. Banks, in which the grandmothers +and mothers of the present race played a part. Those who are most +severe, should consider how much of the morality of the women in +Europe is owing to the system early impressed by mothers on their +daughters, and how much in each individual case to the precepts of +religion. But it is useless to argue against such +reasoners;—I believe that, disappointed in not finding the +field of licentiousness quite so open as formerly, they will not +give credit to a morality which they do not wish to practise, or to +a religion which they undervalue, if not despise.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page442"></a> +<i>Sunday</i> 22<i>nd.</i>—The harbour of Papiéte, where the queen +resides, may be considered as the capital of the island: it is also the seat of +government, and the chief resort of shipping. Captain Fitz Roy took a party +there this day to hear divine service, first in the Tahitian language, and +afterwards in our own. Mr. Pritchard, the leading missionary in the island, +performed the service. The chapel consisted of a large airy framework of wood; +and it was filled to excess by tidy, clean people, of all ages and both sexes. +I was rather disappointed in the apparent degree of attention; but I believe my +expectations were raised too high. At all events the appearance was quite equal +to that in a country church in England. The singing of the hymns was decidedly +very pleasing, but the language from the pulpit, although fluently delivered, +did not sound well: a constant repetition of words, like “<i>tata ta, +mata mai,</i>” rendered it monotonous. After English service, a party +returned on foot to Matavai. It was a pleasant walk, sometimes along the +sea-beach and sometimes under the shade of the many beautiful trees. +</p> + +<p>About two years ago, a small vessel under English colours was +plundered by some of the inhabitants of the Low Islands, which were +then under the dominion of the Queen of Tahiti. It was believed +that the perpetrators were instigated to this act by some +indiscreet laws issued by her majesty. The British government +demanded compensation; which was acceded to, and a sum of nearly +three thousand dollars was agreed to be paid on the first of last +September. The Commodore at Lima ordered Captain Fitz Roy to +inquire concerning this debt, and to demand satisfaction if it were +not paid. Captain Fitz Roy accordingly requested an interview with +the Queen Pomarre, since famous from the ill-treatment she has +received from the French; and a parliament was held to consider the +question, at which all the principal chiefs of the island and the +queen were assembled. I will not attempt to describe what took +place, after the interesting account given by Captain Fitz Roy. The +money, it appeared, had not been paid; perhaps the alleged reasons +were rather equivocal; but otherwise I cannot sufficiently express +our general surprise at the extreme good sense, the reasoning +powers, moderation, candour, and prompt resolution, which were +displayed on all sides. I believe we all left the +<a name="page443"></a> +meeting with a very different opinion of the Tahitians from what +we entertained when we entered. The chiefs and people resolved to +subscribe and complete the sum which was wanting; Captain Fitz Roy +urged that it was hard that their private property should be +sacrificed for the crimes of distant islanders. They replied that +they were grateful for his consideration, but that Pomarre was +their Queen, and that they were determined to help her in this her +difficulty. This resolution and its prompt execution, for a book +was opened early the next morning, made a perfect conclusion to +this very remarkable scene of loyalty and good feeling.</p> + +<p>After the main discussion was ended, several of the chiefs took +the opportunity of asking Captain Fitz Roy many intelligent +questions on international customs and laws, relating to the +treatment of ships and foreigners. On some points, as soon as the +decision was made, the law was issued verbally on the spot. This +Tahitian parliament lasted for several hours; and when it was over +Captain Fitz Roy invited Queen Pomarre to pay the <i>Beagle</i> a +visit.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>November</i> 25<i>th.</i>—In the evening four boats were sent for her +majesty; the ship was dressed with flags, and the yards manned on her coming on +board. She was accompanied by most of the chiefs. The behaviour of all was very +proper: they begged for nothing, and seemed much pleased with Captain Fitz +Roy’s presents. The Queen is a large awkward woman, without any beauty, +grace or dignity. She has only one royal attribute: a perfect immovability of +expression under all circumstances, and that rather a sullen one. The rockets +were most admired, and a deep “Oh!” could be heard from the shore, +all round the dark bay, after each explosion. The sailors’ songs were +also much admired; and the queen said she thought that one of the most +boisterous ones certainly could not be a hymn! The royal party did not return +on shore till past midnight. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +26<i>th.</i>—In the evening, with a gentle land-breeze, a course was +steered for New Zealand; and as the sun set, we had a farewell view of the +mountains of Tahiti—the island to which every voyager has offered up his +tribute of admiration. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="page444"></a> +<i>December</i> 19<i>th.</i>—In the evening we saw in the distance New +Zealand. We may now consider that we have nearly crossed the Pacific. It is +necessary to sail over this great ocean to comprehend its immensity. Moving +quickly onwards for weeks together, we meet with nothing but the same blue, +profoundly deep, ocean. Even within the archipelagoes, the islands are mere +specks, and far distant one from the other. Accustomed to look at maps drawn on +a small scale, where dots, shading, and names are crowded together, we do not +rightly judge how infinitely small the proportion of dry land is to the water +of this vast expanse. The meridian of the Antipodes has likewise been passed; +and now every league, it made us happy to think, was one league nearer to +England. These Antipodes call to one’s mind old recollections of childish +doubt and wonder. Only the other day I looked forward to this airy barrier as a +definite point in our voyage homewards; but now I find it, and all such +resting-places for the imagination, are like shadows, which a man moving +onwards cannot catch. A gale of wind lasting for some days has lately given us +full leisure to measure the future stages in our homeward voyage, and to wish +most earnestly for its termination. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>December</i> 21<i>st.</i>—Early in the morning we entered the Bay of +Islands, and being becalmed for some hours near the mouth, we did not reach the +anchorage till the middle of the day. The country is hilly, with a smooth +outline, and is deeply intersected by numerous arms of the sea extending from +the bay. The surface appears from a distance as if clothed with coarse pasture, +but this in truth is nothing but fern. On the more distant hills, as well as in +parts of the valleys, there is a good deal of woodland. The general tint of the +landscape is not a bright green; and it resembles the country a short distance +to the south of Concepcion in Chile. In several parts of the bay little +villages of square tidy-looking houses are scattered close down to the +water’s edge. Three whaling-ships were lying at anchor, and a canoe every +now and then crossed from shore to shore; with these exceptions, an air of +extreme quietness reigned over the whole district. Only a single canoe came +alongside. This, and the aspect of the whole scene, +<a name="page445"></a> +afforded a remarkable, and not very pleasing contrast, with our joyful and +boisterous welcome at Tahiti. +</p> + +<p>In the afternoon we went on shore to one of the larger groups of +houses, which yet hardly deserves the title of a village. Its name +is Pahia: it is the residence of the missionaries; and there are no +native residents except servants and labourers. In the vicinity of +the Bay of Islands the number of Englishmen, including their +families, amounts to between two and three hundred. All the +cottages, many of which are whitewashed and look very neat, are the +property of the English. The hovels of the natives are so +diminutive and paltry that they can scarcely be perceived from a +distance. At Pahia it was quite pleasing to behold the English +flowers in the gardens before the houses; there were roses of +several kinds, honeysuckle, jasmine, stocks, and whole hedges of +sweetbriar.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>December</i> 22<i>nd.</i>—In the morning I went out walking; but I +soon found that the country was very impracticable. All the hills are thickly +covered with tall fern, together with a low bush which grows like a cypress; +and very little ground has been cleared or cultivated. I then tried the +sea-beach; but proceeding towards either hand, my walk was soon stopped by +salt-water creeks and deep brooks. The communication between the inhabitants of +the different parts of the bay is (as in Chiloe) almost entirely kept up by +boats. I was surprised to find that almost every hill which I ascended had been +at some former time more or less fortified. The summits were cut into steps or +successive terraces, and frequently they had been protected by deep trenches. I +afterwards observed that the principal hills inland in like manner showed an +artificial outline. These are the Pas, so frequently mentioned by Captain Cook +under the name of “hippah;” the difference of sound being owing to +the prefixed article. +</p> + +<p>That the Pas had formerly been much used was evident from the +piles of shells, and the pits in which, as I was informed, sweet +potatoes used to be kept as a reserve. As there was no water on +these hills, the defenders could never have anticipated a long +siege, but only a hurried attack for plunder, against which the +successive terraces would have +<a name="page446"></a> +afforded good protection. The general introduction of firearms +has changed the whole system of warfare; and an exposed situation +on the top of a hill is now worse than useless. The Pas in +consequence are, at the present day, always built on a level piece +of ground. They consist of a double stockade of thick and tall +posts, placed in a zigzag line, so that every part can be flanked. +Within the stockade a mound of earth is thrown up, behind which the +defenders can rest in safety, or use their firearms over it. On the +level of the ground little archways sometimes pass through this +breastwork, by which means the defenders can crawl out to the +stockade and reconnoitre their enemies. The Reverend W. Williams, +who gave me this account, added that in one Pas he had noticed +spurs or buttresses projecting on the inner and protected side of +the mound of earth. On asking the chief the use of them, he +replied, that if two or three of his men were shot their neighbours +would not see the bodies, and so be discouraged.</p> + +<p>These Pas are considered by the New Zealanders as very perfect +means of defence: for the attacking force is never so well +disciplined as to rush in a body to the stockade, cut it down, and +effect their entry. When a tribe goes to war, the chief cannot +order one party to go here and another there; but every man fights +in the manner which best pleases himself; and to each separate +individual to approach a stockade defended by firearms must appear +certain death. I should think a more warlike race of inhabitants +could not be found in any part of the world than the New +Zealanders. Their conduct on first seeing a ship, as described by +Captain Cook, strongly illustrates this: the act of throwing +volleys of stones at so great and novel an object, and their +defiance of “Come on shore and we will kill and eat you all,” shows +uncommon boldness. This warlike spirit is evident in many of their +customs, and even in their smallest actions. If a New Zealander is +struck, although but in joke, the blow must be returned; and of +this I saw an instance with one of our officers.</p> + +<p>At the present day, from the progress of civilisation, there is +much less warfare, except among some of the southern tribes. I +heard a characteristic anecdote of what took place some time ago in +the south. A missionary found a chief and his tribe in +<a name="page447"></a> +preparation for war;—their muskets clean and bright, and +their ammunition ready. He reasoned long on the inutility of the +war, and the little provocation which had been given for it. The +chief was much shaken in his resolution, and seemed in doubt: but +at length it occurred to him that a barrel of his gunpowder was in +a bad state, and that it would not keep much longer. This was +brought forward as an unanswerable argument for the necessity of +immediately declaring war: the idea of allowing so much good +gunpowder to spoil was not to be thought of; and this settled the +point. I was told by the missionaries that in the life of Shongi, +the chief who visited England, the love of war was the one and +lasting spring of every action. The tribe in which he was a +principal chief had at one time been much oppressed by another +tribe from the Thames River. A solemn oath was taken by the men +that when their boys should grow up, and they should be powerful +enough, they would never forget or forgive these injuries. To +fulfil this oath appears to have been Shongi’s chief motive for +going to England; and when there it was his sole object. Presents +were valued only as they could be converted into arms; of the arts, +those alone interested him which were connected with the +manufacture of arms. When at Sydney, Shongi, by a strange +coincidence, met the hostile chief of the Thames River at the house +of Mr. Marsden: their conduct was civil to each other; but Shongi +told him that when again in New Zealand he would never cease to +carry war into his country. The challenge was accepted; and Shongi +on his return fulfilled the threat to the utmost letter. The tribe +on the Thames River was utterly overthrown, and the chief to whom +the challenge had been given was himself killed. Shongi, although +harbouring such deep feelings of hatred and revenge, is described +as having been a good-natured person.</p> + +<p>In the evening I went with Captain Fitz Roy and Mr. Baker, one +of the missionaries, to pay a visit to Kororadika: we wandered +about the village, and saw and conversed with many of the people, +both men, women, and children. Looking at the New Zealander, one +naturally compares him with the Tahitian; both belonging to the +same family of mankind. The comparison, however, tells heavily +against the New Zealander. He may, perhaps be superior in energy, +but in +<a name="page448"></a> +every other respect his character is of a much lower order. One +glance at their respective expressions brings conviction to the +mind that one is a savage, the other a civilised man. It would be +vain to seek in the whole of New Zealand a person with the face and +mien of the old Tahitian chief Utamme. No doubt the extraordinary +manner in which tattooing is here practised gives a disagreeable +expression to their countenances. The complicated but symmetrical +figures covering the whole face puzzle and mislead an unaccustomed +eye: it is moreover probable that the deep incisions, by destroying +the play of the superficial muscles, give an air of rigid +inflexibility. But, besides this, there is a twinkling in the eye +which cannot indicate anything but cunning and ferocity. Their +figures are tall and bulky; but not comparable in elegance with +those of the working-classes in Tahiti.</p> + +<p>Both their persons and houses are filthily dirty and offensive: +the idea of washing either their bodies or their clothes never +seems to enter their heads. I saw a chief, who was wearing a shirt +black and matted with filth, and when asked how it came to be so +dirty, he replied, with surprise, “Do not you see it is an old +one?” Some of the men have shirts; but the common dress is one or +two large blankets, generally black with dirt, which are thrown +over their shoulders in a very inconvenient and awkward fashion. A +few of the principal chiefs have decent suits of English clothes; +but these are only worn on great occasions.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>December</i> 23<i>rd.</i>—At a place called Waimate, about fifteen +miles from the Bay of Islands, and midway between the eastern and western +coasts, the missionaries have purchased some land for agricultural purposes. I +had been introduced to the Reverend W. Williams, who, upon my expressing a +wish, invited me to pay him a visit there. Mr. Bushby, the British resident, +offered to take me in his boat by a creek, where I should see a pretty +waterfall, and by which means my walk would be shortened. He likewise procured +for me a guide. Upon asking a neighbouring chief to recommend a man, the chief +himself offered to go; but his ignorance of the value of money was so complete, +that at first he asked how many pounds I would give him, but afterwards was +well contented +<a name="page449"></a> +with two dollars. When I showed the chief a very small bundle which I wanted +carried, it became absolutely necessary for him to take a slave. These feelings +of pride are beginning to wear away; but formerly a leading man would sooner +have died than undergone the indignity of carrying the smallest burden. My +companion was a light active man, dressed in a dirty blanket, and with his face +completely tattooed. He had formerly been a great warrior. He appeared to be on +very cordial terms with Mr. Bushby; but at various times they had quarrelled +violently. Mr. Bushby remarked that a little quiet irony would frequently +silence any one of these natives in their most blustering moments. This chief +has come and harangued Mr. Bushby in a hectoring manner, saying, “A great +chief, a great man, a friend of mine, has come to pay me a visit—you must +give him something good to eat, some fine presents, etc.” Mr. Bushby has +allowed him to finish his discourse, and then has quietly replied by some +answer such as, “What else shall your slave do for you?” The man +would then instantly, with a very comical expression, cease his braggadocio. +</p> + +<p>Some time ago Mr. Bushby suffered a far more serious attack. A +chief and a party of men tried to break into his house in the +middle of the night, and not finding this so easy, commenced a +brisk firing with their muskets. Mr. Bushby was slightly wounded, +but the party was at length driven away. Shortly afterwards it was +discovered who was the aggressor; and a general meeting of the +chiefs was convened to consider the case. It was considered by the +New Zealanders as very atrocious, inasmuch as it was a night +attack, and that Mrs. Bushby was lying ill in the house: this +latter circumstance, much to their honour, being considered in all +cases as a protection. The chiefs agreed to confiscate the land of +the aggressor to the King of England. The whole proceeding, +however, in thus trying and punishing a chief was entirely without +precedent. The aggressor, moreover, lost caste in the estimation of +his equals; and this was considered by the British as of more +consequence than the confiscation of his land.</p> + +<p>As the boat was shoving off, a second chief stepped into her, +who only wanted the amusement of the passage up and down the creek. +I never saw a more horrid and ferocious +<a name="page450"></a> +expression than this man had. It immediately struck me I had +somewhere seen his likeness: it will be found in Retzch’s outlines +to Schiller’s ballad of Fridolin, where two men are pushing Robert +into the burning iron furnace. It is the man who has his arm on +Robert’s breast. Physiognomy here spoke the truth; this chief had +been a notorious murderer, and was an arrant coward to boot. At the +point where the boat landed, Mr. Bushby accompanied me a few +hundred yards on the road: I could not help admiring the cool +impudence of the hoary old villain, whom we left lying in the boat, +when he shouted to Mr. Bushby, “Do not you stay long, I shall be +tired of waiting here.”</p> + +<p>We now commenced our walk. The road lay along a well-beaten +path, bordered on each side by the tall fern which covers the whole +country. After travelling some miles we came to a little country +village, where a few hovels were collected together, and some +patches of ground cultivated with potatoes. The introduction of the +potato has been the most essential benefit to the island; it is now +much more used than any native vegetable. New Zealand is favoured +by one great natural advantage; namely, that the inhabitants can +never perish from famine. The whole country abounds with fern: and +the roots of this plant, if not very palatable, yet contain much +nutriment. A native can always subsist on these, and on the +shell-fish which are abundant on all parts of the sea-coast. The +villages are chiefly conspicuous by the platforms which are raised +on four posts ten or twelve feet above the ground, and on which the +produce of the fields is kept secure from all accidents.</p> + +<p>On coming near one of the huts I was much amused by seeing in +due form the ceremony of rubbing, or, as it ought to be called, +pressing noses. The women, on our first approach, began uttering +something in a most dolorous voice; they then squatted themselves +down and held up their faces; my companion standing over them, one +after another, placed the bridge of his nose at right angles to +theirs, and commenced pressing. This lasted rather longer than a +cordial shake of the hand with us, and as we vary the force of the +grasp of the hand in shaking, so do they in pressing. During the +process they uttered comfortable little grunts, very much in the +same manner as two pigs do, when rubbing against each other. I +noticed that the +<a name="page451"></a> +slave would press noses with any one he met, indifferently +either before or after his master the chief. Although among these +savages the chief has absolute power of life and death over his +slave, yet there is an entire absence of ceremony between them. Mr. +Burchell has remarked the same thing in Southern Africa with the +rude Bachapins. Where civilisation has arrived at a certain point, +complex formalities soon arise between the different grades of +society: thus at Tahiti all were formerly obliged to uncover +themselves as low as the waist in presence of the king.</p> + +<p> +The ceremony of pressing noses having been duly completed with all present, we +seated ourselves in a circle in the front of one of the hovels, and rested +there half an hour. All the hovels have nearly the same form and dimensions, +and all agree in being filthily dirty. They resemble a cow-shed with one end +open, but having a partition a little way within, with a square hole in it, +making a small gloomy chamber. In this the inhabitants keep all their property, +and when the weather is cold they sleep there. They eat, however, and pass +their time in the open part in front. My guides having finished their pipes, we +continued our walk. The path led through the same undulating country, the whole +uniformly clothed as before with fern. On our right hand we had a serpentine +river, the banks of which were fringed with trees, and here and there on the +hill-sides there was a clump of wood. The whole scene, in spite of its green +colour, had rather a desolate aspect. The sight of so much fern impresses the +mind with an idea of sterility: this, however, is not correct; for wherever the +fern grows thick and breast-high, the land by tillage becomes productive. Some +of the residents think that all this extensive open country originally was +covered with forests, and that it has been cleared by fire. It is said, that by +digging in the barest spots, lumps of the kind of resin which flows from the +kauri pine are frequently found. The natives had an evident motive in clearing +the country; for the fern, formerly a staple article of food, flourishes only +in the open cleared tracks. The almost entire absence of associated grasses, +which forms so remarkable a feature in the vegetation of this island, may +perhaps be accounted for by the land having been aboriginally covered with +forest-trees. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="page452"></a> +The soil is volcanic; in several parts we passed over slaggy +lavas, and craters could clearly be distinguished on several of the +neighbouring hills. Although the scenery is nowhere beautiful, and +only occasionally pretty, I enjoyed my walk. I should have enjoyed +it more, if my companion, the chief, had not possessed +extraordinary conversational powers. I knew only three words: +“good,” “bad,” and “yes:” and with these I answered all his +remarks, without of course having understood one word he said. +This, however, was quite sufficient: I was a good listener, an +agreeable person, and he never ceased talking to me.</p> + +<p>At length we reached Waimate. After having passed over so many +miles of an uninhabited useless country, the sudden appearance of +an English farm-house, and its well-dressed fields, placed there as +if by an enchanter’s wand, was exceedingly pleasant. Mr. Williams +not being at home, I received in Mr. Davies’s house a cordial +welcome. After drinking tea with his family party, we took a stroll +about the farm. At Waimate there are three large houses, where the +missionary gentlemen, Messrs. Williams, Davies, and Clarke, reside; +and near them are the huts of the native labourers. On an adjoining +slope fine crops of barley and wheat were standing in full ear; and +in another part fields of potatoes and clover. But I cannot attempt +to describe all I saw; there were large gardens, with every fruit +and vegetable which England produces; and many belonging to a +warmer clime. I may instance asparagus, kidney beans, cucumbers, +rhubarb, apples, pears, figs, peaches, apricots, grapes, olives, +gooseberries, currants, hops, gorse for fences, and English oaks; +also many kinds of flowers. Around the farmyard there were stables, +a thrashing-barn with its winnowing machine, a blacksmith’s forge, +and on the ground ploughshares and other tools: in the middle was +that happy mixture of pigs and poultry, lying comfortably together, +as in every English farmyard. At the distance of a few hundred +yards, where the water of a little rill had been dammed up into a +pool, there was a large and substantial water-mill.</p> + +<p>All this is very surprising when it is considered that five +years ago nothing but the fern flourished here. Moreover, native +workmanship, taught by the missionaries, has effected +<a name="page453"></a> +this change;—the lesson of the missionary is the +enchanter’s wand. The house had been built, the windows framed, the +fields ploughed, and even the trees grafted, by the New Zealander. +At the mill a New Zealander was seen powdered white with flower, +like his brother miller in England. When I looked at this whole +scene I thought it admirable. It was not merely that England was +brought vividly before my mind; yet, as the evening drew to a +close, the domestic sounds, the fields of corn, the distant +undulating country with its trees, might well have been mistaken +for our fatherland: nor was it the triumphant feeling at seeing +what Englishmen could effect, but rather the high hopes thus +inspired for the future progress of this fine island.</p> + +<p>Several young men, redeemed by the missionaries from slavery, +were employed on the farm. They were dressed in a shirt, jacket, +and trousers, and had a respectable appearance. Judging from one +trifling anecdote, I should think they must be honest. When walking +in the fields, a young labourer came up to Mr. Davies and gave him +a knife and gimlet, saying that he had found them on the road, and +did not know to whom they belonged! These young men and boys +appeared very merry and good-humoured. In the evening I saw a party +of them at cricket: when I thought of the austerity of which the +missionaries have been accused, I was amused by observing one of +their own sons taking an active part in the game. A more decided +and pleasing change was manifested in the young women, who acted as +servants within the houses. Their clean, tidy, and healthy +appearance, like that of the dairy-maids in England, formed a +wonderful contrast with the women of the filthy hovels in +Kororadika. The wives of the missionaries tried to persuade them +not to be tattooed; but a famous operator having arrived from the +south, they said, “We really must just have a few lines on our +lips; else when we grow old, our lips will shrivel, and we shall be +so very ugly.” There is not nearly so much tattooing as formerly; +but as it is a badge of distinction between the chief and the +slave, it will probably long be practised. So soon does any train +of ideas become habitual, that the missionaries told me that even +in their eyes a plain face looked mean, and not like that of a New +Zealand gentleman.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page454"></a> +Late in the evening I went to Mr. Williams’s house, where I +passed the night. I found there a large party of children, +collected together for Christmas Day, and all sitting round a table +at tea. I never saw a nicer or more merry group; and to think that +this was in the centre of the land of cannibalism, murder, and all +atrocious crimes! The cordiality and happiness so plainly pictured +in the faces of the little circle appeared equally felt by the +older persons of the mission.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>December</i> 24<i>th.</i>—In the morning prayers were read in the +native tongue to the whole family. After breakfast I rambled about the gardens +and farm. This was a market-day, when the natives of the surrounding hamlets +bring their potatoes, Indian corn, or pigs, to exchange for blankets, tobacco, +and sometimes, through the persuasions of the missionaries, for soap. Mr. +Davies’s eldest son, who manages a farm of his own, is the man of +business in the market. The children of the missionaries, who came while young +to the island, understand the language better than their parents, and can get +anything more readily done by the natives. +</p> + +<p>A little before noon Messrs. Williams and Davies walked with me +to part of a neighbouring forest, to show me the famous kauri pine. +I measured one of these noble trees, and found it thirty-one feet +in circumference above the roots. There was another close by, which +I did not see, thirty-three feet; and I heard of one no less than +forty feet. These trees are remarkable for their smooth cylindrical +boles, which run up to a height of sixty, and even ninety feet, +with a nearly equal diameter, and without a single branch. The +crown of branches at the summit is out of all proportion small to +the trunk; and the leaves are likewise small compared with the +branches. The forest was here almost composed of the kauri; and the +largest trees, from the parallelism of their sides, stood up like +gigantic columns of wood. The timber of the kauri is the most +valuable production of the island; moreover, a quantity of resin +oozes from the bark, which is sold at a penny a pound to the +Americans, but its use was then unknown. Some of the New Zealand +forests must be impenetrable to an extraordinary degree. Mr. +Matthews informed me that one forest only thirty-four miles in +width, and separating two inhabited +<a name="page455"></a> +districts, had only lately, for the first time, been crossed. He +and another missionary, each with a party of about fifty men, +undertook to open a road, but it cost them more than a fortnight’s +labour! In the woods I saw very few birds. With regard to animals, +it is a most remarkable fact, that so large an island, extending +over more than 700 miles in latitude, and in many parts ninety +broad, with varied stations, a fine climate, and land of all +heights, from 14,000 feet downwards, with the exception of a small +rat, did not possess one indigenous animal. The several species of +that gigantic genus of birds, the Deinornis, seem here to have +replaced mammiferous quadrupeds, in the same manner as the reptiles +still do at the Galapagos Archipelago. It is said that the common +Norway rat, in the short space of two years, annihilated in this +northern end of the island the New Zealand species. In many places +I noticed several sorts of weeds, which, like the rats, I was +forced to own as countrymen. A leek has overrun whole districts, +and will prove very troublesome, but it was imported as a favour by +a French vessel. The common dock is also widely disseminated, and +will, I fear, for ever remain a proof of the rascality of an +Englishman who sold the seeds for those of the tobacco plant.</p> + +<p>On returning from our pleasant walk to the house, I dined with +Mr. Williams; and then, a horse being lent me, I returned to the +Bay of Islands. I took leave of the missionaries with thankfulness +for their kind welcome, and with feelings of high respect for their +gentlemanlike, useful, and upright characters. I think it would be +difficult to find a body of men better adapted for the high office +which they fulfil.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Christmas Day.</i>—In a few more days the fourth year of our absence +from England will be completed. Our first Christmas Day was spent at Plymouth, +the second at St. Martin’s Cove near Cape Horn; the third at Port Desire +in Patagonia; the fourth at anchor in a wild harbour in the peninsula of Tres +Montes, this fifth here, and the next, I trust in Providence, will be in +England. We attended divine service in the chapel of Pahia; part of the service +being read in English, and part in the native language. Whilst at New Zealand +we did not hear of any recent acts of cannibalism; but +<a name="page456"></a> +Mr. Stokes found burnt human bones strewed round a fireplace on a small island +near the anchorage; but these remains of a comfortable banquet might have been +lying there for several years. It is probable that the moral state of the +people will rapidly improve. Mr. Bushby mentioned one pleasing anecdote as a +proof of the sincerity of some, at least, of those who profess Christianity. +One of his young men left him, who had been accustomed to read prayers to the +rest of the servants. Some weeks afterwards, happening to pass late in the +evening by an outhouse, he saw and heard one of his men reading the Bible with +difficulty by the light of the fire, to the others. After this the party knelt +and prayed: in their prayers they mentioned Mr. Bushby and his family, and the +missionaries, each separately in his respective district. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>December</i> 26<i>th.</i>—Mr. Bushby offered to take Mr. Sulivan and +myself in his boat some miles up the river to Cawa-Cawa, and proposed +afterwards to walk on to the village of Waiomio, where there are some curious +rocks. Following one of the arms of the bay we enjoyed a pleasant row, and +passed through pretty scenery, until we came to a village, beyond which the +boat could not pass. From this place a chief and a party of men volunteered to +walk with us to Waiomio, a distance of four miles. The chief was at this time +rather notorious from having lately hung one of his wives and a slave for +adultery. When one of the missionaries remonstrated with him he seemed +surprised, and said he thought he was exactly following the English method. Old +Shongi, who happened to be in England during the Queen’s trial, expressed +great disapprobation at the whole proceeding: he said he had five wives, and he +would rather cut off all their heads than be so much troubled about one. +Leaving this village, we crossed over to another, seated on a hill-side at a +little distance. The daughter of a chief, who was still a heathen, had died +there five days before. The hovel in which she had expired had been burnt to +the ground: her body, being enclosed between two small canoes, was placed +upright on the ground, and protected by an enclosure bearing wooden images of +their gods, and the whole was painted bright red, so as to be conspicuous from +afar. Her gown was fastened to the coffin, and her hair being cut off was cast +at +<a name="page457"></a> +its foot. The relatives of the family had torn the flesh of their arms, bodies, +and faces, so that they were covered with clotted blood; and the old women +looked most filthy, disgusting objects. On the following day some of the +officers visited this place, and found the women still howling and cutting +themselves. +</p> + +<p>We continued our walk, and soon reached Waiomio. Here there are +some singular masses of limestone resembling ruined castles. These +rocks have long served for burial places, and in consequence are +held too sacred to be approached. One of the young men, however, +cried out, “Let us all be brave,” and ran on ahead; but when within +a hundred yards, the whole party thought better of it, and stopped +short. With perfect indifference, however, they allowed us to +examine the whole place. At this village we rested some hours, +during which time there was a long discussion with Mr. Bushby, +concerning the right of sale of certain lands. One old man, who +appeared a perfect genealogist, illustrated the successive +possessors by bits of stick driven into the ground. Before leaving +the houses a little basketful of roasted sweet potatoes was given +to each of our party; and we all, according to the custom, carried +them away to eat on the road. I noticed that among the women +employed in cooking, there was a man-slave: it must be a +humiliating thing for a man in this warlike country to be employed +in doing that which is considered as the lowest woman’s work. +Slaves are not allowed to go to war; but this perhaps can hardly be +considered as a hardship. I heard of one poor wretch who, during +hostilities, ran away to the opposite party; being met by two men, +he was immediately seized; but as they could not agree to whom he +should belong, each stood over him with a stone hatchet, and seemed +determined that the other at least should not take him away alive. +The poor man, almost dead with fright, was only saved by the +address of a chief’s wife. We afterwards enjoyed a pleasant walk +back to the boat, but did not reach the ship till late in the +evening.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>December</i> 30<i>th.</i>—In the afternoon we stood out of the Bay of +Islands, on our course to Sydney. I believe we were all glad to leave New +Zealand. It is not a pleasant place. +<a name="page458"></a> +Amongst the natives there is absent that charming simplicity which is found in +Tahiti; and the greater part of the English are the very refuse of society. +Neither is the country itself attractive. I look back but to one bright spot, +and that is Waimate, with its Christian inhabitants. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl84.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl84.jpg" width="296" height="250" alt="Hippah, New Zealand" /> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl85.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl85.jpg" width="300" height="200" alt="Sydney, 1835" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="page459"></a><a name="chxix"></a>Chapter XIX<br/> +<br/> +AUSTRALIA</h2> + +<p class="letter">Sydney—Excursion to Bathurst—Aspect of +the woods—Party of natives—Gradual extinction of the +aborigines—Infection generated by associated men in +health—Blue Mountains—View of the grand gulf-like +valleys—Their origin and formation—Bathurst, general +civility of the lower orders—State of society—Van +Diemen’s Land—Hobart Town—Aborigines all +banished—Mount Wellington—King George’s +Sound—Cheerless aspect of the country—Bald Head, +calcareous casts of branches of trees—Party of +natives—Leave Australia.</p> + +<p> +<i>January</i> 12<i>th</i>, 1836.—Early in the morning a light air +carried us towards the entrance of Port Jackson. Instead of beholding a verdant +country, interspersed with fine houses, a straight line of yellowish cliff +brought to our minds the coast of Patagonia. A solitary lighthouse, built of +white stone, alone told us that we were near a great and populous city. Having +entered the harbour, it appears fine and spacious, with cliff-formed shores of +horizontally stratified sandstone. The nearly level country is covered with +thin scrubby trees, bespeaking the curse of sterility. Proceeding farther +inland, the country improves: beautiful villas and nice cottages are here and +there scattered +<a name="page460"></a> +along the beach. In the distance stone houses, two and three stories high, and +windmills standing on the edge of a bank, pointed out to us the neighbourhood +of the capital of Australia. +</p> + +<p>At last we anchored within Sydney Cove. We found the little +basin occupied by many large ships, and surrounded by warehouses. +In the evening I walked through the town, and returned full of +admiration at the whole scene. It is a most magnificent testimony +to the power of the British nation. Here, in a less promising +country, scores of years have done many more times more than an +equal number of centuries have effected in South America. My first +feeling was to congratulate myself that I was born an Englishman. +Upon seeing more of the town afterwards, perhaps my admiration fell +a little; but yet it is a fine town. The streets are regular, +broad, clean, and kept in excellent order; the houses are of a good +size, and the shops well furnished. It may be faithfully compared +to the large suburbs which stretch out from London and a few other +great towns in England; but not even near London or Birmingham is +there an appearance of such rapid growth. The number of large +houses and other buildings just finished was truly surprising; +nevertheless, every one complained of the high rents and difficulty +in procuring a house. Coming from South America, where in the towns +every man of property is known, no one thing surprised me more than +not being able to ascertain at once to whom this or that carriage +belonged.</p> + +<p>I hired a man and two horses to take me to Bathurst, a village +about one hundred and twenty miles in the interior, and the centre +of a great pastoral district. By this means I hoped to gain a +general idea of the appearance of the country. On the morning of +the 16th (January) I set out on my excursion. The first stage took +us to Paramatta, a small country town, next to Sydney in +importance. The roads were excellent, and made upon the MacAdam +principle, whinstone having been brought for the purpose from the +distance of several miles. In all respects there was a close +resemblance to England: perhaps the alehouses here were more +numerous. The iron gangs, or parties of convicts who have committed +here some offence, appeared the least like England: they were +working in chains, under the charge of sentries with loaded +<a name="page461"></a> +arms. The power which the government possesses, by means of +forced labour, of at once opening good roads throughout the +country, has been, I believe, one main cause of the early +prosperity of this colony. I slept at night at a very comfortable +inn at Emu ferry, thirty-five miles from Sydney, and near the +ascent of the Blue Mountains. This line of road is the most +frequented, and has been the longest inhabited of any in the +colony. The whole land is enclosed with high railings, for the +farmers have not succeeded in rearing hedges. There are many +substantial houses and good cottages scattered about; but although +considerable pieces of land are under cultivation, the greater part +yet remains as when first discovered.</p> + +<p>The extreme uniformity of the vegetation is the most remarkable +feature in the landscape of the greater part of New South Wales. +Everywhere we have an open woodland, the ground being partially +covered with a very thin pasture, with little appearance of +verdure. The trees nearly all belong to one family, and mostly have +their leaves placed in a vertical, instead of as in Europe, in a +nearly horizontal position: the foliage is scanty, and of a +peculiar pale green tint, without any gloss. Hence the woods appear +light and shadowless: this, although a loss of comfort to the +traveller under the scorching rays of summer, is of importance to +the farmer, as it allows grass to grow where it otherwise would +not. The leaves are not shed periodically: this character appears +common to the entire southern hemisphere, namely, South America, +Australia, and the Cape of Good Hope. The inhabitants of this +hemisphere, and of the intertropical regions, thus lose perhaps one +of the most glorious, though to our eyes common, spectacles in the +world—the first bursting into full foliage of the leafless +tree. They may, however, say that we pay dearly for this by having +the land covered with mere naked skeletons for so many months. This +is too true; but our senses thus acquire a keen relish for the +exquisite green of the spring, which the eyes of those living +within the tropics, sated during the long year with the gorgeous +productions of those glowing climates, can never experience. The +greater number of the trees, with the exception of some of the +Blue-gums, do not attain a large size; but they grow tall and +tolerably straight, and stand well apart. The bark of some of the +Eucalypti falls annually, or +<a name="page462"></a> +hangs dead in long shreds which swing about with the wind, and +give to the woods a desolate and untidy appearance. I cannot +imagine a more complete contrast, in every respect, than between +the forests of Valdivia or Chiloe, and the woods of Australia.</p> + +<p>At sunset, a party of a score of the black aborigines passed by, +each carrying, in their accustomed manner, a bundle of spears and +other weapons. By giving a leading young man a shilling, they were +easily detained, and threw their spears for my amusement. They were +all partly clothed, and several could speak a little English: their +countenances were good-humoured and pleasant, and they appeared far +from being such utterly degraded beings as they have usually been +represented. In their own arts they are admirable. A cap being +fixed at thirty yards distance, they transfixed it with a spear, +delivered by the throwing-stick with the rapidity of an arrow from +the bow of a practised archer. In tracking animals or men they show +most wonderful sagacity; and I heard of several of their remarks +which manifested considerable acuteness. They will not, however, +cultivate the ground, or build houses and remain stationary, or +even take the trouble of tending a flock of sheep when given to +them. On the whole they appear to me to stand some few degrees +higher in the scale of civilisation than the Fuegians.</p> + +<p>It is very curious thus to see in the midst of a civilised +people, a set of harmless savages wandering about without knowing +where they shall sleep at night, and gaining their livelihood by +hunting in the woods. As the white man has travelled onwards, he +has spread over the country belonging to several tribes. These, +although thus enclosed by one common people, keep up their ancient +distinctions, and sometimes go to war with each other. In an +engagement which took place lately, the two parties most singularly +chose the centre of the village of Bathurst for the field of +battle. This was of service to the defeated side, for the runaway +warriors took refuge in the barracks.</p> + +<p>The number of aborigines is rapidly decreasing. In my whole +ride, with the exception of some boys brought up by Englishmen, I +saw only one other party. This decrease, no doubt, must be partly +owing to the introduction of spirits, to +<a name="page463"></a> +European diseases (even the milder ones of which, such as the +measles,<a href="#fn-19.1" name="fnref-19.1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> +prove very destructive), and to the gradual extinction of the wild animals. It +is said that numbers of their children invariably perish in very early infancy +from the effects of their wandering life; and as the difficulty of procuring +food increases, so must their wandering habits increase; and hence the +population, without any apparent deaths from famine, is repressed in a manner +extremely sudden compared to what happens in civilised countries, where the +father, though in adding to his labour he may injure himself, does not destroy +his offspring.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-19.1"></a> <a href="#fnref-19.1">[1]</a> +It is remarkable how the same disease is modified in different climates. At the +little island of St. Helena the introduction of scarlet-fever is dreaded as a +plague. In some countries foreigners and natives are as differently affected by +certain contagious disorders as if they had been different animals; of which +fact some instances have occurred in Chile; and, according to Humboldt, in +Mexico (<i>Polit. Essay, New Spain,</i> vol. iv.) +</p> + +<p>Besides these several evident causes of destruction, there +appears to be some more mysterious agency generally at work. +Wherever the European has trod, death seems to pursue the +aboriginal. We may look to the wide extent of the Americas, +Polynesia, the Cape of Good Hope, and Australia, and we find the +same result. Nor is it the white man alone that thus acts the +destroyer; the Polynesian of Malay extraction has in parts of the +East Indian archipelago thus driven before him the dark-coloured +native. The varieties of man seem to act on each other in the same +way as different species of animals—the stronger always +extirpating the weaker. It was melancholy at New Zealand to hear +the fine energetic natives saying that they knew the land was +doomed to pass from their children. Every one has heard of the +inexplicable reduction of the population in the beautiful and +healthy island of Tahiti since the date of Captain Cook’s voyages: +although in that case we might have expected that it would have +been increased; for infanticide, which formerly prevailed to so +extraordinary a degree, has ceased, profligacy has greatly +diminished, and the murderous wars become less frequent.</p> + +<p>The Reverend J. Williams, in his interesting +work,<a href="#fn-19.2" name="fnref-19.2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> +says that the first intercourse between natives and Europeans “is +invariably attended with the introduction of fever, dysentery, +<a name="page464"></a> +or some other disease which carries off numbers of the people.” +Again he affirms “It is certainly a fact, which cannot be +controverted, that most of the diseases which have raged in the +islands during my residence there have been introduced by +ships;<a href="#fn-19.3" name="fnref-19.3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> +and what renders this fact remarkable is that there might be no appearance of +disease among the crew of the ship which conveyed this destructive +importation.” This statement is not quite so extraordinary as it at first +appears; for several cases are on record of the most malignant fevers having +broken out, although the parties themselves, who were the cause, were not +affected. In the early part of the reign of George III, a prisoner who had been +confined in a dungeon was taken in a coach with four constables before a +magistrate; and although the man himself was not ill, the four constables died +from a short putrid fever; but the contagion extended to no others. From these +facts it would almost appear as if the effluvium of one set of men shut up for +some time together was poisonous when inhaled by others; and possibly more so, +if the men be of different races. Mysterious as this circumstance appears to +be, it is not more surprising than that the body of one’s +fellow-creature, directly after death, and before putrefaction has commenced, +should often be of so deleterious a quality that the mere puncture from an +instrument used in its dissection should prove fatal.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-19.2"></a> <a href="#fnref-19.2">[2]</a> +<i>Narrative of Missionary Enterprise,</i> p. 282.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-19.3"></a> <a href="#fnref-19.3">[3]</a> +Captain Beechey (chap. iv, vol. i.) states that the inhabitants of Pitcairn +Island are firmly convinced that after the arrival of every ship they suffer +cutaneous and other disorders. Captain Beechey attributes this to the change of +diet during the time of the visit. Dr. Macculloch (<i>Western Isles,</i> vol. +ii, p. 32) says, “It is asserted, that on the arrival of a stranger (at +St. Kilda) all the inhabitants, in the common phraseology, catch a cold.” +Dr. Macculloch considers the whole case, although often previously affirmed, as +ludicrous. He adds, however, that “the question was put by us to the +inhabitants who unanimously agreed in the story.” In Vancouver’s +<i>Voyage</i> there is a somewhat similar statement with respect to Otaheite. +Dr. Dieffenbach, in a note to his translation of this Journal, states that the +same fact is universally believed by the inhabitants of the Chatham Islands and +in parts of New Zealand. It is impossible that such a belief should have become +universal in the northern hemisphere, at the Antipodes, and in the Pacific, +without some good foundation. Humboldt (<i>Polit. Essay on King. of New +Spain,</i> vol. iv.) says that the great epidemics at Panama and Callao are +“marked” by the arrival of ships from Chile, because the people +from that temperate region first experience the fatal effects of the torrid +zones. I may add that I have heard it stated in Shropshire that sheep which +have been imported from vessels, although themselves in a healthy condition, if +placed in the same fold with others, frequently produce sickness in the flock. +</p> + +<p> +17<i>th.</i>—Early in the morning we passed the Nepean in a +<a name="page465"></a> +ferry-boat. The river, although at this spot both broad and deep, had a very +small body of running water. Having crossed a low piece of land on the opposite +side, we reached the slope of the Blue Mountains. The ascent is not steep, the +road having been cut with much care on the side of a sandstone cliff. On the +summit an almost level plain extends, which, rising imperceptibly to the +westward, at last attains a height of more than 3000 feet. From so grand a +title as Blue Mountains, and from their absolute altitude, I expected to have +seen a bold chain of mountains crossing the country; but instead of this, a +sloping plain presents merely an inconsiderable front to the low land near the +coast. From this first slope the view of the extensive woodland to the east was +striking, and the surrounding trees grew bold and lofty. But when once on the +sandstone platform, the scenery becomes exceedingly monotonous; each side of +the road is bordered by scrubby trees of the never-failing Eucalyptus family; +and with the exception of two or three small inns, there are no houses or +cultivated land; the road, moreover, is solitary; the most frequent object +being a bullock-waggon, piled up with bales of wool. +</p> + +<p>In the middle of the day we baited our horses at a little inn, +called the Weatherboard. The country here is elevated 2800 feet +above the sea. About a mile and a half from this place there is a +view exceedingly well worth visiting. Following down a little +valley and its tiny rill of water, an immense gulf unexpectedly +opens through the trees which border the pathway, at the depth of +perhaps 1500 feet. Walking on a few yards, one stands on the brink +of a vast precipice, and below one sees a grand bay or gulf, for I +know not what other name to give it, thickly covered with forest. +The point of view is situated as if at the head of a bay, the line +of cliff diverging on each side, and showing headland behind +headland, as on a bold sea-coast. These cliffs are composed of +horizontal strata of whitish sandstone; and are so absolutely +vertical, that in many places a person standing on the edge and +throwing down a stone, can see it strike the trees in the abyss +below. So unbroken is the line of cliff that in order to reach the +foot of the waterfall formed by this little stream, it is said to +be necessary to go sixteen miles round. About five miles distant in +front another line of cliff extends, which thus appears completely +to encircle +<a name="page466"></a> +the valley; and hence the name of bay is justified, as applied +to this grand amphitheatrical depression. If we imagine a winding +harbour, with its deep water surrounded by bold cliff-like shores, +to be laid dry, and a forest to spring up on its sandy bottom, we +should then have the appearance and structure here exhibited. This +kind of view was to me quite novel, and extremely magnificent.</p> + +<p>In the evening we reached the Blackheath. The sandstone plateau +has here attained the height of 3400 feet; and is covered, as +before, with the same scrubby woods. From the road there were +occasional glimpses into a profound valley of the same character as +the one described; but from the steepness and depth of its sides, +the bottom was scarcely ever to be seen. The Blackheath is a very +comfortable inn, kept by an old soldier; and it reminded me of the +small inns in North Wales.</p> + +<p> +18<i>th.</i>—Very early in the morning I walked about three miles to see +Govett’s Leap: a view of a similar character with that near the +Weatherboard, but perhaps even more stupendous. So early in the day the gulf +was filled with a thin blue haze, which, although destroying the general effect +of the view, added to the apparent depth at which the forest was stretched out +beneath our feet. These valleys, which so long presented an insuperable barrier +to the attempts of the most enterprising of the colonists to reach the +interior, are most remarkable. Great armlike bays, expanding at their upper +ends, often branch from the main valleys and penetrate the sandstone platform; +on the other hand, the platform often sends promontories into the valleys, and +even leaves in them great, almost insulated, masses. To descend into some of +these valleys, it is necessary to go round twenty miles; and into others, the +surveyors have only lately penetrated, and the colonists have not yet been able +to drive in their cattle. But the most remarkable feature in their structure +is, that although several miles wide at their heads, they generally contract +towards their mouths to such a degree as to become impassable. The +Surveyor-General, Sir T. Mitchell,<a href="#fn-19.4" +name="fnref-19.4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> endeavoured in vain, first walking and +then by crawling between the great fallen fragments of sandstone, to +<a name="page467"></a> +ascend through the gorge by which the river Grose joins the Nepean; yet the +valley of the Grose in its upper part, as I saw, forms a magnificent level +basin some miles in width, and is on all sides surrounded by cliffs, the +summits of which are believed to be nowhere less than 3000 feet above the level +of the sea. When cattle are driven into the valley of the Wolgan by a path +(which I descended), partly natural and partly made by the owner of the land, +they cannot escape; for this valley is in every other part surrounded by +perpendicular cliffs, and eight miles lower down it contracts from an average +width of half a mile, to a mere chasm, impassable to man or beast. Sir T. +Mitchell states that the great valley of the Cox river with all its branches, +contracts, where it unites with the Nepean, into a gorge 2200 yards in width, +and about 1000 feet in depth. Other similar cases might have been added. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-19.4"></a> <a href="#fnref-19.4">[4]</a> +<i>Travels in Australia,</i> vol. i, p. 154. I must express my obligation to +Sir T. Mitchell for several interesting personal communications on the subject +of these great valleys of New South Wales.</p> + +<p>The first impression on seeing the correspondence of the +horizontal strata on each side of these valleys and great +amphitheatrical depressions, is that they have been hollowed out, +like other valleys, by the action of water; but when one reflects +on the enormous amount of stone which on this view must have been +removed through mere gorges or chasms, one is led to ask whether +these spaces may not have subsided. But considering the form of the +irregularly branching valleys, and of the narrow promontories +projecting into them from the platforms, we are compelled to +abandon this notion. To attribute these hollows to the present +alluvial action would be preposterous; nor does the drainage from +the summit-level always fall, as I remarked near the Weatherboard, +into the head of these valleys, but into one side of their baylike +recesses. Some of the inhabitants remarked to me that they never +viewed one of those baylike recesses, with the headlands receding +on both hands, without being struck with their resemblance to a +bold sea-coast. This is certainly the case; moreover, on the +present coast of New South Wales, the numerous fine, +widely-branching harbours, which are generally connected with the +sea by a narrow mouth worn through the sandstone coast-cliffs, +varying from one mile in width to a quarter of a mile, present a +likeness, though on a miniature scale, to the great valleys of the +interior. But then immediately occurs the startling difficulty, why +has the sea worn out these +<a name="page468"></a> +great though circumscribed depressions on a wide platform, and +left mere gorges at the openings, through which the whole vast +amount of triturated matter must have been carried away? The only +light I can throw upon this enigma is by remarking that banks of +the most irregular forms appear to be now forming in some seas, as +in parts of the West Indies and in the Red Sea, and that their +sides are exceedingly steep. Such banks, I have been led to +suppose, have been formed by sediment heaped by strong currents on +an irregular bottom. That in some cases the sea, instead of +spreading out sediment in a uniform sheet, heaps it round submarine +rocks and islands, it is hardly possible to doubt, after examining +the charts of the West Indies; and that the waves have power to +form high and precipitous cliffs, even in land-locked harbours, I +have noticed in many parts of South America. To apply these ideas +to the sandstone platforms of New South Wales, I imagine that the +strata were heaped by the action of strong currents, and of the +undulations of an open sea, on an irregular bottom; and that the +valley-like spaces thus left unfilled had their steeply sloping +flanks worn into cliffs during a slow elevation of the land; the +worn-down sandstone being removed, either at the time when the +narrow gorges were cut by the retreating sea, or subsequently by +alluvial action.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +Soon after leaving the Blackheath we descended from the sandstone platform by +the pass of Mount Victoria. To effect this pass an enormous quantity of stone +has been cut through; the design and its manner of execution being worthy of +any line of road in England. We now entered upon a country less elevated by +nearly a thousand feet, and consisting of granite. With the change of rock the +vegetation improved; the trees were both finer and stood farther apart; and the +pasture between them was a little greener and more plentiful. At Hassan’s +Walls I left the high-road, and made a short detour to a farm called +Walerawang; to the superintendent of which I had a letter of introduction from +the owner in Sydney. Mr. Browne had the kindness to ask me to stay the ensuing +day, which I had much pleasure in doing. This place offers an example of one of +the large farming, or rather sheep-grazing, establishments of the colony. +Cattle and horses are, however, +<a name="page469"></a> +in this case rather more numerous than usual, owing to some of the valleys +being swampy and producing a coarser pasture. Two or three flat pieces of +ground near the house were cleared and cultivated with corn, which the +harvest-men were now reaping: but no more wheat is sown than sufficient for the +annual support of the labourers employed on the establishment. The usual number +of assigned convict-servants here is about forty, but at the present time there +were rather more. Although the farm was well stocked with every necessary, +there was an apparent absence of comfort; and not one single woman resided +here. The sunset of a fine day will generally cast an air of happy contentment +on any scene; but here, at this retired farmhouse, the brightest tints on the +surrounding woods could not make me forget that forty hardened, profligate men +were ceasing from their daily labours, like the slaves from Africa, yet without +their holy claim for compassion. +</p> + +<p>Early on the next morning Mr. Archer, the joint superintendent, +had the kindness to take me out kangaroo-hunting. We continued +riding the greater part of the day, but had very bad sport, not +seeing a kangaroo, or even a wild dog. The greyhounds pursued a +kangaroo rat into a hollow tree, out of which we dragged it: it is +an animal as large as a rabbit, but with the figure of a kangaroo. +A few years since this country abounded with wild animals; but now +the emu is banished to a long distance, and the kangaroo is become +scarce; to both the English greyhound has been highly destructive. +It may be long before these animals are altogether exterminated, +but their doom is fixed. The aborigines are always anxious to +borrow the dogs from the farmhouses: the use of them, the offal +when an animal is killed, and some milk from the cows, are the +peace-offerings of the settlers, who push farther and farther +towards the interior. The thoughtless aboriginal, blinded by these +trifling advantages, is delighted at the approach of the white man, +who seems predestined to inherit the country of his children.</p> + +<p>Although having poor sport, we enjoyed a pleasant ride. The +woodland is generally so open that a person on horseback can gallop +through it. It is traversed by a few flat-bottomed valleys, which +are green and free from trees: in such spots the scenery was pretty +like that of a park. In the whole +<a name="page470"></a> +country I scarcely saw a place without the marks of a fire; +whether these had been more or less recent—whether the stumps +were more or less black, was the greatest change which varied the +uniformity so wearisome to the traveller’s eye. In these woods +there are not many birds; I saw, however, some large flocks of the +white cockatoo feeding in a corn-field, and a few most beautiful +parrots; crows like our jackdaws were not uncommon, and another +bird something like the magpie. In the dusk of the evening I took a +stroll along a chain of ponds, which in this dry country +represented the course of a river, and had the good fortune to see +several of the famous Ornithorhynchus paradoxus. They were diving +and playing about the surface of the water, but showed so little of +their bodies that they might easily have been mistaken for +water-rats. Mr. Browne shot one: certainly it is a most +extraordinary animal; a stuffed specimen does not at all give a +good idea of the appearance of the head and beak when fresh; the +latter becoming hard and +contracted.<a href="#fn-19.5" name="fnref-19.5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-19.5"></a> <a href="#fnref-19.5">[5]</a> +I was interested by finding here the hollow conical pitfall of the lion-ant, or +some other insect: first a fly fell down the treacherous slope and immediately +disappeared; then came a large but unwary ant; its struggles to escape being +very violent, those curious little jets of sand, described by Kirby and Spence +(<i>Entomol.</i> vol. i, p. 425) as being flirted by the insect’s tail, +were promptly directed against the expected victim. But the ant enjoyed a +better fate than the fly and escaped the fatal jaws which lay concealed at the +base of the conical hollow. This Australian pitfall was only about half the +size of that made by the European lion-ant.</p> + +<p> +20<i>th.</i>—A long day’s ride to Bathurst. Before joining the high +road we followed a mere path through the forest; and the country, with the +exception of a few squatters’ huts, was very solitary. We experienced +this day the sirocco-like wind of Australia, which comes from the parched +deserts of the interior. Clouds of dust were travelling in every direction; and +the wind felt as if it had passed over a fire. I afterwards heard that the +thermometer out of doors had stood at 119°, and in a closed room at +96°. In the afternoon we came in view of the downs of Bathurst. These +undulating but nearly smooth plains are very remarkable in this country, from +being absolutely destitute of trees. They support only a thin brown pasture. We +rode some miles over this country, and then reached the township of Bathurst, +seated in the middle of what may be called either a very broad valley, or +narrow plain. I was told at Sydney not to form too bad an opinion of +<a name="page471"></a> +Australia by judging of the country from the roadside, nor too good a one from +Bathurst; in this latter respect I did not feel myself in the least danger of +being prejudiced. The season, it must be owned, had been one of great drought, +and the country did not wear a favourable aspect; although I understand it was +incomparably worse two or three months before. The secret of the rapidly +growing prosperity of Bathurst is that the brown pasture which appears to the +stranger’s eye so wretched is excellent for sheep-grazing. The town +stands at the height of 2200 feet above the sea, on the banks of the Macquarie: +this is one of the rivers flowing into the vast and scarcely known interior. +The line of watershed which divides the inland streams from those on the coast, +has a height of about 3000 feet, and runs in a north and south direction at the +distance of from eighty to a hundred miles from the seaside. The Macquarie +figures in the map as a respectable river, and it is the largest of those +draining this part of the watershed; yet to my surprise I found it a mere chain +of ponds, separated from each other by spaces almost dry. Generally a small +stream is running; and sometimes there are high and impetuous floods. Scanty as +the supply of the water is throughout this district, it becomes still scantier +further inland. +</p> + +<p> +22<i>nd.</i>—I commenced my return and followed a new road called +Lockyer’s Line along which the country is rather more hilly and +picturesque. This was a long day’s ride; and the house where I wished to +sleep was some way off the road, and not easily found. I met on this occasion, +and indeed on all others, a very general and ready civility among the lower +orders, which, when one considers what they are, and what they have been, would +scarcely have been expected. The farm where I passed the night was owned by two +young men who had only lately come out, and were beginning a settler’s +life. The total want of almost every comfort was not very attractive; but +future and certain prosperity was before their eyes, and that not far distant. +</p> + +<p>The next day we passed through large tracts of country in +flames, volumes of smoke sweeping across the road. Before noon we +joined our former road and ascended Mount Victoria. I slept at the +Weatherboard, and before dark took another +<a name="page472"></a> +walk to the amphitheatre. On the road to Sydney I spent a very +pleasant evening with Captain King at Dunheved; and thus ended my +little excursion in the colony of New South Wales.</p> + +<p>Before arriving here the three things which interested me most +were—the state of society amongst the higher classes, the +condition of the convicts, and the degree of attraction sufficient +to induce persons to emigrate. Of course, after so very short a +visit, one’s opinion is worth scarcely anything; but it is as +difficult not to form some opinion, as it is to form a correct +judgment. On the whole, from what I heard, more than from what I +saw, I was disappointed in the state of society. The whole +community is rancorously divided into parties on almost every +subject. Among those who, from their station in life, ought to be +the best, many live in such open profligacy that respectable people +cannot associate with them. There is much jealousy between the +children of the rich emancipist and the free settlers, the former +being pleased to consider honest men as interlopers. The whole +population, poor and rich, are bent on acquiring wealth: amongst +the higher orders, wool and sheep-grazing form the constant subject +of conversation. There are many serious drawbacks to the comforts +of a family, the chief of which, perhaps, is being surrounded by +convict servants. How thoroughly odious to every feeling, to be +waited on by a man who the day before, perhaps, was flogged, from +your representation, for some trifling misdemeanour. The female +servants are of course much worse: hence children learn the vilest +expressions, and it is fortunate if not equally vile ideas.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, the capital of a person, without any trouble +on his part, produces him treble interest to what it will in +England; and with care he is sure to grow rich. The luxuries of +life are in abundance, and very little dearer than in England, and +most articles of food are cheaper. The climate is splendid, and +perfectly healthy; but to my mind its charms are lost by the +uninviting aspect of the country. Settlers possess a great +advantage in finding their sons of service when very young. At the +age of from sixteen to twenty they frequently take charge of +distant farming stations. This, however, must happen at the expense +of their boys associating entirely with +<a name="page473"></a> +convict servants. I am not aware that the tone of society has +assumed any peculiar character; but with such habits, and without +intellectual pursuits, it can hardly fail to deteriorate. My +opinion is such that nothing but rather sharp necessity should +compel me to emigrate.</p> + +<p>The rapid prosperity and future prospects of this colony are to +me, not understanding these subjects, very puzzling. The two main +exports are wool and whale-oil, and to both of these productions +there is a limit. The country is totally unfit for canals, +therefore there is a not very distant point beyond which the +land-carriage of wool will not repay the expense of shearing and +tending sheep. Pasture everywhere is so thin that settlers have +already pushed far into the interior; moreover, the country farther +inland becomes extremely poor. Agriculture, on account of the +droughts, can never succeed on an extended scale: therefore, so far +as I can see, Australia must ultimately depend upon being the +centre of commerce for the southern hemisphere and perhaps on her +future manufactories. Possessing coal, she always has the moving +power at hand. From the habitable country extending along the +coast, and from her English extraction, she is sure to be a +maritime nation. I formerly imagined that Australia would rise to +be as grand and powerful a country as North America, but now it +appears to me that such future grandeur is rather +problematical.</p> + +<p>With respect to the state of the convicts, I had still fewer +opportunities of judging than on other points. The first question +is, whether their condition is at all one of punishment: no one +will maintain that it is a very severe one. This, however, I +suppose, is of little consequence as long as it continues to be an +object of dread to criminals at home. The corporeal wants of the +convicts are tolerably well supplied: their prospect of future +liberty and comfort is not distant, and, after good conduct, +certain. A “ticket of leave,” which, as long as a man keeps clear +of suspicion as well as of crime, makes him free within a certain +district, is given upon good conduct, after years proportional to +the length of the sentence; yet with all this, and overlooking the +previous imprisonment and wretched passage out, I believe the years +of assignment are passed away with discontent and unhappiness. As +an intelligent man remarked to me, the convicts know no +pleasure +<a name="page474"></a> +beyond sensuality, and in this they are not gratified. The +enormous bribe which Government possesses in offering free pardons, +together with the deep horror of the secluded penal settlements, +destroys confidence between the convicts, and so prevents crime. As +to a sense of shame, such a feeling does not appear to be known, +and of this I witnessed some very singular proofs. Though it is a +curious fact, I was universally told that the character of the +convict population is one of arrant cowardice; not unfrequently +some become desperate, and quite indifferent as to life, yet a plan +requiring cool or continued courage is seldom put into execution. +The worst feature in the whole case is that although there exists +what may be called a legal reform, and comparatively little is +committed which the law can touch, yet that any moral reform should +take place appears to be quite out of the question. I was assured +by well-informed people that a man who should try to improve, could +not while living with other assigned servants;—his life would +be one of intolerable misery and persecution. Nor must the +contamination of the convict-ships and prisons, both here and in +England, be forgotten. On the whole, as a place of punishment, the +object is scarcely gained; as a real system of reform it has +failed, as perhaps would every other plan; but as a means of making +men outwardly honest,—of converting vagabonds, most useless +in one hemisphere, into active citizens of another, and thus giving +birth to a new and splendid country—a grand centre of +civilisation—it has succeeded to a degree perhaps +unparalleled in history.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +30<i>th.</i>—The <i>Beagle</i> sailed for Hobart Town in Van +Diemen’s Land. On the 5th of February, after a six days’ passage, +of which the first part was fine, and the latter very cold and squally, we +entered the mouth of Storm Bay; the weather justified this awful name. The bay +should rather be called an estuary, for it receives at its head the waters of +the Derwent. Near the mouth there are some extensive basaltic platforms; but +higher up the land becomes mountainous, and is covered by a light wood. The +lower parts of the hills which skirt the bay are cleared; and the bright yellow +fields of corn, and dark green ones of potatoes, appear very luxuriant. Late in +the evening we anchored in the snug cove +<a name="page475"></a> +on the shores of which stands the capital of Tasmania. The first aspect of the +place was very inferior to that of Sydney; the latter might be called a city, +this is only a town. It stands at the base of Mount Wellington, a mountain 3100 +feet high, but of little picturesque beauty; from this source, however, it +receives a good supply of water. Round the cove there are some fine warehouses +and on one side a small fort. Coming from the Spanish settlements, where such +magnificent care has generally been paid to the fortifications, the means of +defence in these colonies appeared very contemptible. Comparing the town with +Sydney, I was chiefly struck with the comparative fewness of the large houses, +either built or building. Hobart Town, from the census of 1835, contained +13,826 inhabitants, and the whole of Tasmania 36,505. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl86.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl86.jpg" width="299" height="190" alt="Hobart Town and Mount Wellington" /> +</div> + +<p> +All the aborigines have been removed to an island in Bass’s Straits, so +that Van Diemen’s Land enjoys the great advantage of being free from a +native population. This most cruel step seems to have been quite unavoidable, +as the only means of stopping a fearful succession of robberies, burnings, and +murders, committed by the blacks; and which sooner or later would have ended in +their utter destruction. I fear there is no doubt that this train of evil and +its consequences originated in the infamous conduct of some of our countrymen. +Thirty years +<a name="page476"></a> +is a short period in which to have banished the last aboriginal from his native +island,—and that island nearly as large as Ireland. The correspondence on +this subject which took place between the government at home and that of Van +Diemen’s Land, is very interesting. Although numbers of natives were shot +and taken prisoners in the skirmishing, which was going on at intervals for +several years, nothing seems fully to have impressed them with the idea of our +overwhelming power, until the whole island, in 1830, was put under martial law, +and by proclamation the whole population commanded to assist in one great +attempt to secure the entire race. The plan adopted was nearly similar to that +of the great hunting-matches in India: a line was formed reaching across the +island, with the intention of driving the natives into a <i>cul-de-sac</i> on +Tasman’s peninsula. The attempt failed; the natives, having tied up their +dogs, stole during one night through the lines. This is far from surprising, +when their practised senses and usual manner of crawling after wild animals is +considered. I have been assured that they can conceal themselves on almost bare +ground, in a manner which until witnessed is scarcely credible; their dusky +bodies being easily mistaken for the blackened stumps which are scattered all +over the country. I was told of a trial between a party of Englishmen and a +native, who was to stand in full view on the side of a bare hill; if the +Englishmen closed their eyes for less than a minute, he would squat down, and +then they were never able to distinguish him from the surrounding stumps. But +to return to the hunting-match; the natives understanding this kind of warfare, +were terribly alarmed, for they at once perceived the power and numbers of the +whites. Shortly afterwards a party of thirteen belonging to two tribes came in; +and, conscious of their unprotected condition, delivered themselves up in +despair. Subsequently by the intrepid exertions of Mr. Robinson, an active and +benevolent man, who fearlessly visited by himself the most hostile of the +natives, the whole were induced to act in a similar manner. They were then +removed to an island, where food and clothes were provided them. Count +Strzelecki states,<a href="#fn-19.6" name="fnref-19.6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> that +“at the epoch of their deportation in 1835, the number of natives +amounted to 210. In 1842, that is after +<a name="page477"></a> +the interval of seven years, they mustered only fifty-four individuals; and, +while each family of the interior of New South Wales, uncontaminated by contact +with the whites, swarms with children, those of Flinders’ Island had +during eight years an accession of only fourteen in number!” +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-19.6"></a> <a href="#fnref-19.6">[6]</a> +<i>Physical Description of New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land,</i> p. +354.</p> + +<p>The <i>Beagle</i> stayed here ten days, and in this time I made +several pleasant little excursions, chiefly with the object of +examining the geological structure of the immediate neighbourhood. +The main points of interest consist, first in some highly +fossiliferous strata belonging to the Devonian or Carboniferous +period; secondly, in proofs of a late small rise of the land; and +lastly, in a solitary and superficial patch of yellowish limestone +or travertin, which contains numerous impressions of leaves of +trees, together with land-shells, not now existing. It is not +improbable that this one small quarry includes the only remaining +record of the vegetation of Van Diemen’s Land during one former +epoch.</p> + +<p>The climate here is damper than in New South Wales, and hence +the land is more fertile. Agriculture flourishes; the cultivated +fields look well, and the gardens abound with thriving vegetables +and fruit-trees. Some of the farmhouses, situated in retired spots, +had a very attractive appearance. The general aspect of the +vegetation is similar to that of Australia; perhaps it is a little +more green and cheerful; and the pasture between the trees rather +more abundant. One day I took a long walk on the side of the bay +opposite to the town: I crossed in a steamboat, two of which are +constantly plying backwards and forwards. The machinery of one of +these vessels was entirely manufactured in this colony, which, from +its very foundation, then numbered only three and thirty years! +Another day I ascended Mount Wellington; I took with me a guide, +for I failed in a first attempt, from the thickness of the wood. +Our guide, however, was a stupid fellow, and conducted us to the +southern and damp side of the mountain, where the vegetation was +very luxuriant; and where the labour of the ascent, from the number +of rotten trunks, was almost as great as on a mountain in Tierra +del Fuego or in Chiloe. It cost us five and a half hours of hard +climbing before we reached the summit. In many parts the Eucalypti +grew to a great size and composed a noble forest. In some of the +dampest ravines tree-ferns +<a name="page478"></a> +flourished in an extraordinary manner; I saw one which must have +been at least twenty feet high to the base of the fronds, and was +in girth exactly six feet. The fronds, forming the most elegant +parasols, produced a gloomy shade, like that of the first hour of +night. The summit of the mountain is broad and flat and is composed +of huge angular masses of naked greenstone. Its elevation is 3100 +feet above the level of the sea. The day was splendidly clear, and +we enjoyed a most extensive view; to the north, the country +appeared a mass of wooded mountains, of about the same height with +that on which we were standing, and with an equally tame outline: +to the south the broken land and water, forming many intricate +bays, was mapped with clearness before us. After staying some hours +on the summit we found a better way to descend, but did not reach +the <i>Beagle</i> till eight o’clock, after a severe day’s +work.</p> + +<p> +<i>February</i> 7<i>th.</i>—The <i>Beagle</i> sailed from Tasmania, and, +on the 6th of the ensuing month, reached King George’s Sound, situated +close to the south-west corner of Australia. We stayed there eight days; and we +did not during our voyage pass a more dull and uninteresting time. The country, +viewed from an eminence, appears a woody plain, with here and there rounded and +partly bare hills of granite protruding. One day I went out with a party, in +hopes of seeing a kangaroo-hunt, and walked over a good many miles of country. +Everywhere we found the soil sandy, and very poor; it supported either a coarse +vegetation of thin, low brushwood and wiry grass, or a forest of stunted trees. +The scenery resembled that of the high sandstone platform of the Blue +Mountains; the Casuarina (a tree somewhat resembling a Scotch fir) is, however, +here in greater number, and the Eucalyptus in rather less. In the open parts +there were many grass-trees,—a plant which, in appearance, has some +affinity with the palm; but, instead of being surmounted by a crown of noble +fronds, it can boast merely of a tuft of very coarse grass-like leaves. The +general bright green colour of the brushwood and other plants, viewed from a +distance, seemed to promise fertility. A single walk, however, was enough to +dispel such an illusion; and he who thinks with me will never wish to walk +again in so uninviting a country. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="page479"></a> +One day I accompanied Captain Fitz Roy to Bald Head, the place +mentioned by so many navigators, where some imagined that they saw +corals, and others that they saw petrified trees, standing in the +position in which they had grown. According to our view, the beds +have been formed by the wind having heaped up fine sand, composed +of minute rounded particles of shells and corals, during which +process branches and roots of trees, together with many +land-shells, became enclosed. The whole then became consolidated by +the percolation of calcareous matter; and the cylindrical cavities +left by the decaying of the wood were thus also filled up with a +hard pseudo-stalactitical stone. The weather is now wearing away +the softer parts, and in consequence the hard casts of the roots +and branches of the trees project above the surface, and, in a +singularly deceptive manner, resemble the stumps of a dead +thicket.</p> + +<p>A large tribe of natives, called the White Cockatoo men happened +to pay the settlement a visit while we were there. These men, as +well as those of the tribe belonging to King George’s Sound, being +tempted by the offer of some tubs of rice and sugar, were persuaded +to hold a “corrobery,” or great dancing-party. As soon as it grew +dark, small fires were lighted, and the men commenced their toilet, +which consisted in painting themselves white in spots and lines. As +soon as all was ready, large fires were kept blazing, round which +the women and children were collected as spectators; the Cockatoo +and King George’s men formed two distinct parties, and generally +danced in answer to each other. The dancing consisted in their +running either sideways or in Indian file into an open space, and +stamping the ground with great force as they marched together. +Their heavy footsteps were accompanied by a kind of grunt, by +beating their clubs and spears together, and by various other +gesticulations, such as extending their arms and wriggling their +bodies. It was a most rude, barbarous scene, and, to our ideas, +without any sort of meaning; but we observed that the black women +and children watched it with the greatest pleasure. Perhaps these +dances originally represented actions, such as wars and victories; +there was one called the Emu dance, in which each man extended his +arm in a bent manner, like the neck of that bird. In another +dance, +<a name="page480"></a> +one man imitated the movements of a kangaroo grazing in the +woods, whilst a second crawled up and pretended to spear him. When +both tribes mingled in the dance, the ground trembled with the +heaviness of their steps, and the air resounded with their wild +cries. Every one appeared in high spirits, and the group of nearly +naked figures, viewed by the light of the blazing fires, all moving +in hideous harmony, formed a perfect display of a festival amongst +the lowest barbarians. In Tierra del Fuego we have beheld many +curious scenes in savage life, but never, I think, one where the +natives were in such high spirits, and so perfectly at their ease. +After the dancing was over the whole party formed a great circle on +the ground, and the boiled rice and sugar was distributed, to the +delight of all.</p> + +<p>After several tedious delays from clouded weather, on the 14th +of March we gladly stood out of King George’s Sound on our course +to Keeling Island. Farewell, Australia! you are a rising child, and +doubtless some day will reign a great princess in the South; but +you are too great and ambitious for affection, yet not great enough +for respect. I leave your shores without sorrow or regret.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl87.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl87.jpg" width="285" height="247" alt="Australian group of weapons and throwing sticks" /> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl88.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl88.jpg" width="293" height="209" alt="Inside an atoll, Keeling Island" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="page481"></a><a name="chxx"></a>Chapter XX<br/> +<br/> +KEELING ISLAND:—CORAL FORMATIONS</h2> + +<p class="letter">Keeling Island—Singular +appearance—Scanty Flora—Transport of seeds—Birds +and insects—Ebbing and flowing springs—Fields of dead +coral—Stones transported in the roots of trees—Great +crab—Stinging corals—Coral-eating fish—Coral +formations—Lagoon islands or atolls—Depth at which +reef-building corals can live—Vast areas interspersed with +low coral islands—Subsidence of their +foundations—Barrier reefs—Fringing +reefs—Conversion of fringing-reefs into barrier-reefs, and +into atolls—Evidence of changes in level—Breaches in +barrier-reefs—Maldiva atolls; their peculiar +structure—Dead and submerged reefs—Areas of subsidence +and elevation—Distribution of volcanoes—Subsidence slow +and vast in amount.</p> + +<p> +<i>April</i> 1<i>st.</i>—We arrived in view of the Keeling or Cocos +Islands, situated in the Indian Ocean, and about six hundred miles distant from +the coast of Sumatra. This is one of the lagoon-islands (or atolls) of coral +formation similar to those in the Low Archipelago which we passed near. When +the ship was in the channel at the entrance, Mr. Liesk, an English resident, +came off in his boat. The history of the inhabitants of this place, in as few +words as possible, is as follows. About nine +<a name="page482"></a> +years ago, Mr. Hare, a worthless character, brought from the East Indian +archipelago a number of Malay slaves, which now, including children, amount to +more than a hundred. Shortly afterwards Captain Ross, who had before visited +these islands in his merchant-ship, arrived from England, bringing with him his +family and goods for settlement: along with him came Mr. Liesk, who had been a +mate in his vessel. The Malay slaves soon ran away from the islet on which Mr. +Hare was settled, and joined Captain Ross’s party. Mr. Hare upon this was +ultimately obliged to leave the place. +</p> + +<p>The Malays are now nominally in a state of freedom, and +certainly are so as far as regards their personal treatment; but in +most other points they are considered as slaves. From their +discontented state, from the repeated removals from islet to islet, +and perhaps also from a little mismanagement, things are not very +prosperous. The island has no domestic quadruped excepting the pig, +and the main vegetable production is the cocoa-nut. The whole +prosperity of the place depends on this tree; the only exports +being oil from the nut, and the nuts themselves, which are taken to +Singapore and Mauritius, where they are chiefly used, when grated, +in making curries. On the cocoa-nut, also, the pigs, which are +loaded with fat, almost entirely subsist, as do the ducks and +poultry. Even a huge land-crab is furnished by nature with the +means to open and feed on this most useful production.</p> + +<p>The ring-formed reef of the lagoon-island is surmounted in the +greater part of its length by linear islets. On the northern or +leeward side there is an opening through which vessels can pass to +the anchorage within. On entering, the scene was very curious and +rather pretty; its beauty, however, entirely depended on the +brilliancy of the surrounding colours. The shallow, clear, and +still water of the lagoon, resting in its greater part on white +sand, is, when illumined by a vertical sun, of the most vivid +green. This brilliant expanse, several miles in width, is on all +sides divided, either by a line of snow-white breakers from the +dark heaving waters of the ocean, or from the blue vault of heaven +by the strips of land, crowned by the level tops of the cocoa-nut +trees. As a white cloud here and there affords a pleasing contrast +with the azure sky, so in the lagoon bands of living coral darken +the emerald green water.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page483"></a> +The next morning after anchoring I went on shore on Direction +Island. The strip of dry land is only a few hundred yards in width; +on the lagoon side there is a white calcareous beach, the radiation +from which under this sultry climate was very oppressive; and on +the outer coast a solid broad flat of coral-rock served to break +the violence of the open sea. Excepting near the lagoon, where +there is some sand, the land is entirely composed of rounded +fragments of coral. In such a loose, dry, stony soil, the climate +of the intertropical regions alone could produce a vigorous +vegetation. On some of the smaller islets nothing could be more +elegant than the manner in which the young and full-grown cocoa-nut +trees, without destroying each other’s symmetry, were mingled into +one wood. A beach of glittering white sand formed a border to these +fairy spots.</p> + +<p>I will now give a sketch of the natural history of these +islands, which, from its very paucity, possesses a peculiar +interest. The cocoa-nut tree, at first glance, seems to compose the +whole wood; there are however, five or six other trees. One of +these grows to a very large size, but, from the extreme softness of +its wood, is useless; another sort affords excellent timber for +ship-building. Besides the trees the number of plants is +exceedingly limited and consists of insignificant weeds. In my +collection, which includes, I believe, nearly the perfect Flora, +there are twenty species without reckoning a moss, lichen, and +fungus. To this number two trees must be added; one of which was +not in flower, and the other I only heard of. The latter is a +solitary tree of its kind, and grows near the beach, where, without +doubt, the one seed was thrown up by the waves. A Guilandina also +grows on only one of the islets. I do not include in the above list +the sugar-cane, banana, some other vegetables, fruit-trees, and +imported grasses. As the islands consist entirely of coral, and at +one time must have existed as mere water-washed reefs, all their +terrestrial productions must have been transported here by the +waves of the sea. In accordance with this, the Florula has quite +the character of a refuge for the destitute: Professor Henslow +informs me that of the twenty species nineteen belong to different +genera, and these again to no less than sixteen +families!<a href="#fn-20.1" name="fnref-20.1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-20.1"></a> <a href="#fnref-20.1">[1]</a> +These plants are described in the <i>Annals of Nat. Hist.</i> vol. i. 1838, p. +337.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page484"></a> +In Holman’s<a href="#fn-20.2" name="fnref-20.2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> +<i>Travels</i> an account is given, on the authority of Mr. A. S. Keating, who +resided twelve months on these islands, of the various seeds and other bodies +which have been known to have been washed on shore. “Seeds and plants +from Sumatra and Java have been driven up by the surf on the windward side of +the islands. Among them have been found the Kimiri, native of Sumatra and the +peninsula of Malacca; the cocoa-nut of Balci, known by its shape and size; the +Dadass, which is planted by the Malays with the pepper-vine, the latter +entwining round its trunk, and supporting itself by the prickles on its stem; +the soap-tree; the castor-oil plant; trunks of the sago palm; and various kinds +of seeds unknown to the Malays settled on the islands. These are all supposed +to have been driven by the N.W. monsoon to the coast of New Holland, and thence +to these islands by the S.E. trade-wind. Large masses of Java teak and Yellow +wood have also been found, besides immense trees of red and white cedar, and +the blue gum-wood of New Holland, in a perfectly sound condition. All the hardy +seeds, such as creepers, retain their germinating power, but the softer kinds, +among which is the mangostin, are destroyed in the passage. Fishing-canoes, +apparently from Java, have at times been washed on shore.” It is +interesting thus to discover how numerous the seeds are, which, coming from +several countries, are drifted over the wide ocean. Professor Henslow tells me +he believes that nearly all the plants which I brought from these islands are +common littoral species in the East Indian archipelago. From the direction, +however, of the winds and currents, it seems scarcely possible that they could +have come here in a direct line. If, as suggested with much probability by Mr. +Keating, they were first carried towards the coast of New Holland, and thence +drifted back together with the productions of that country, the seeds, before +germinating, must have travelled between 1800 and 2400 miles.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-20.2"></a> <a href="#fnref-20.2">[2]</a> +Holman’s <i>Travels</i>, vol. iv, p. 378. +</p> + +<p>Chamisso,<a href="#fn-20.3" name="fnref-20.3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> +when describing the Radack Archipelago, situated in the western part of the +Pacific, states that “the sea brings to these islands the seeds and +fruits of many trees, most of which have yet not grown here. The greater part +of these seeds +<a name="page485"></a> +appear to have not yet lost the capability of growing.” It is +also said that palms and bamboos from somewhere in the torrid zone, +and trunks of northern firs, are washed on shore; these firs must +have come from an immense distance. These facts are highly +interesting. It cannot be doubted that, if there were land-birds to +pick up the seeds when first cast on shore, and a soil better +adapted for their growth than the loose blocks of coral, the most +isolated of the lagoon islands would in time possess a far more +abundant Flora than they now have.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-20.3"></a> <a href="#fnref-20.3">[3]</a> +Kotzebue’s <i>First Voyage</i>, vol. iii, p. 155.</p> + +<p>The list of land animals is even poorer than that of the plants. +Some of the islets are inhabited by rats, which were brought in a +ship from the Mauritius, wrecked here. These rats are considered by +Mr. Waterhouse as identical with the English kind, but they are +smaller, and more brightly coloured. There are no true land-birds, +for a snipe and a rail (Rallus Phillippensis), though living +entirely in the dry herbage, belong to the order of Waders. Birds +of this order are said to occur on several of the small low islands +in the Pacific. At Ascension, where there is no land-bird, a rail +(Porphyrio simplex) was shot near the summit of the mountain, and +it was evidently a solitary straggler. At Tristan d’Acunha, where, +according to Carmichael, there are only two land-birds, there is a +coot. From these facts I believe that the waders, after the +innumerable web-footed species, are generally the first colonists +of small isolated islands. I may add that whenever I noticed birds, +not of oceanic species, very far out at sea, they always belonged +to this order; and hence they would naturally become the earliest +colonists of any remote point of land.</p> + +<p>Of reptiles I saw only one small lizard. Of insects I took pains +to collect every kind. Exclusive of spiders, which were numerous, +there were thirteen species.<a href="#fn-20.4" name="fnref-20.4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> +Of these one only was a beetle. A small ant swarmed by thousands under the +loose dry blocks of coral, and was the only true insect which was abundant. +Although the productions of the land are thus scanty, if we look to the waters +of the surrounding sea the number of organic beings is indeed infinite. +Chamisso has +<a name="page486"></a> +described<a href="#fn-20.5" name="fnref-20.5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> +the natural history of a lagoon-island in the Radack Archipelago; and it is +remarkable how closely its inhabitants, in number and kind, resemble those of +Keeling Island. There is one lizard and two waders, namely, a snipe and curlew. +Of plants there are nineteen species, including a fern; and some of these are +the same with those growing here, though on a spot so immensely remote, and in +a different ocean.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-20.4"></a> <a href="#fnref-20.4">[4]</a> +The thirteen species belong to the following orders:—In the +<i>Coleoptera</i>, a minute Elater; <i>Orthoptera</i>, a Gryllus and a Blatta; +<i>Hemiptera</i>, one species; <i>Homoptera</i>, two; <i>Neuroptera</i>, a +Chrysopa; <i>Hymenoptera</i>, two ants; <i>Lepidoptera nocturna</i>, a Diopæa, +and a Pterophorus (?); <i>Diptera</i>, two species.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-20.5"></a> <a href="#fnref-20.5">[5]</a> +Kotzebue’s <i>First Voyage</i>, vol. iii, p. 222. +</p> + +<p>The long strips of land, forming the linear islets, have been +raised only to that height to which the surf can throw fragments of +coral, and the wind heap up calcareous sand. The solid flat of +coral rock on the outside, by its breadth, breaks the first +violence of the waves, which otherwise, in a day, would sweep away +these islets and all their productions. The ocean and the land seem +here struggling for mastery: although terra firma has obtained a +footing, the denizens of the water think their claim at least +equally good. In every part one meets hermit crabs of more than one +species,<a href="#fn-20.6" name="fnref-20.6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> +carrying on their backs the shells which they have stolen from the neighbouring +beach. Overhead numerous gannets, frigate-birds, and terns, rest on the trees; +and the wood, from the many nests and from the smell of the atmosphere, might +be called a sea-rookery. The gannets, sitting on their rude nests, gaze at one +with a stupid yet angry air. The noddies, as their name expresses, are silly +little creatures. But there is one charming bird: it is a small, snow-white +tern, which smoothly hovers at the distance of a few feet above one’s +head, its large black eye scanning, with quiet curiosity, your expression. +Little imagination is required to fancy that so light and delicate a body must +be tenanted by some wandering fairy spirit.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-20.6"></a> <a href="#fnref-20.6">[6]</a> +The large claws or pincers of some of these crabs are most beautifully adapted, +when drawn back, to form an operculum to the shell, nearly as perfect as the +proper one originally belonging to the molluscous animal. I was assured, and as +far as my observations went I found it so, that certain species of the +hermit-crab always use certain species of shells.</p> + +<p> +<i>Sunday, April</i> 3<i>rd.</i>—After service I accompanied Captain Fitz +Roy to the settlement, situated at the distance of some miles, on the point of +an islet thickly covered with tall cocoa-nut trees. Captain Ross and Mr. Liesk +live in a large barn-like house open at both ends, and lined with mats made of +woven bark. The houses of the Malays are arranged along +<a name="page487"></a> +the shore of the lagoon. The whole place had rather a desolate aspect, for +there were no gardens to show the signs of care and cultivation. The natives +belong to different islands in the East Indian archipelago, but all speak the +same language: we saw the inhabitants of Borneo, Celebes, Java, and Sumatra. In +colour they resemble the Tahitians, from whom they do not widely differ in +features. Some of the women, however, show a good deal of the Chinese +character. I liked both their general expressions and the sound of their +voices. They appeared poor, and their houses were destitute of furniture; but +it was evident from the plumpness of the little children, that cocoa-nuts and +turtle afford no bad sustenance. +</p> + +<p>On this island the wells are situated from which ships obtain +water. At first sight it appears not a little remarkable that the +fresh water should regularly ebb and flow with the tides; and it +has even been imagined that sand has the power of filtering the +salt from the sea-water. These ebbing wells are common on some of +the low islands in the West Indies. The compressed sand, or porous +coral rock, is permeated like a sponge with the salt water, but the +rain which falls on the surface must sink to the level of the +surrounding sea, and must accumulate there, displacing an equal +bulk of the salt water. As the water in the lower part of the great +sponge-like coral mass rises and falls with the tides, so will the +water near the surface; and this will keep fresh, if the mass be +sufficiently compact to prevent much mechanical admixture; but +where the land consists of great loose blocks of coral with open +interstices, if a well be dug, the water, as I have seen, is +brackish.</p> + +<p>After dinner we stayed to see a curious half superstitious scene +acted by the Malay women. A large wooden spoon dressed in garments, +and which had been carried to the grave of a dead man, they pretend +becomes inspired at the full of the moon, and will dance and jump +about. After the proper preparations, the spoon, held by two women, +became convulsed, and danced in good time to the song of the +surrounding children and women. It was a most foolish spectacle; +but Mr. Liesk maintained that many of the Malays believed in its +spiritual movements. The dance did not commence till the +<a name="page488"></a> +moon had risen, and it was well worth remaining to behold her +bright orb so quietly shining through the long arms of the +cocoa-nut trees as they waved in the evening breeze. These scenes +of the tropics are in themselves so delicious that they almost +equal those dearer ones at home, to which we are bound by each best +feeling of the mind.</p> + +<p>The next day I employed myself in examining the very +interesting, yet simple structure and origin of these islands. The +water being unusually smooth, I waded over the outer flat of dead +rock as far as the living mounds of coral, on which the swell of +the open sea breaks. In some of the gullies and hollows there were +beautiful green and other coloured fishes, and the form and tints +of many of the zoophytes were admirable. It is excusable to grow +enthusiastic over the infinite numbers of organic beings with which +the sea of the tropics, so prodigal of life, teems; yet I must +confess I think those naturalists who have described, in well-known +words, the submarine grottoes decked with a thousand beauties, have +indulged in rather exuberant language.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>April</i> 6<i>th.</i>—I accompanied Captain Fitz Roy to an island at +the head of the lagoon: the channel was exceedingly intricate, winding through +fields of delicately branched corals. We saw several turtle and two boats were +then employed in catching them. The water was so clear and shallow, that +although at first a turtle quickly dives out of sight, yet in a canoe or boat +under sail the pursuers after no very long chase come up to it. A man standing +ready in the bow at this moment dashes through the water upon the +turtle’s back; then clinging with both hands by the shell of its neck, he +is carried away till the animal becomes exhausted and is secured. It was quite +an interesting chase to see the two boats thus doubling about, and the men +dashing head foremost into the water trying to seize their prey. Captain +Moresby informs me that in the Chagos archipelago in this same ocean, the +natives, by a horrible process, take the shell from the back of the living +turtle. “It is covered with burning charcoal, which causes the outer +shell to curl upwards, it is then forced off with a knife, and before it +becomes cold flattened between boards. After this barbarous process the animal +is suffered to regain its native +<a name="page489"></a> +element, where, after a certain time, a new shell is formed; it is, however, +too thin to be of any service, and the animal always appears languishing and +sickly.” +</p> + +<p>When we arrived at the head of the lagoon we crossed a narrow +islet and found a great surf breaking on the windward coast. I can +hardly explain the reason, but there is to my mind much grandeur in +the view of the outer shores of these lagoon-islands. There is a +simplicity in the barrier-like beach, the margin of green bushes +and tall cocoa-nuts, the solid flat of dead coral-rock, strewed +here and there with great loose fragments, and the line of furious +breakers, all rounding away towards either hand. The ocean throwing +its waters over the broad reef appears an invincible, all-powerful +enemy; yet we see it resisted, and even conquered, by means which +at first seem most weak and inefficient. It is not that the ocean +spares the rock of coral; the great fragments scattered over the +reef, and heaped on the beach, whence the tall cocoa-nut springs, +plainly bespeak the unrelenting power of the waves. Nor are any +periods of repose granted. The long swell caused by the gentle but +steady action of the trade-wind, always blowing in one direction +over a wide area, causes breakers, almost equalling in force those +during a gale of wind in the temperate regions, and which never +cease to rage. It is impossible to behold these waves without +feeling a conviction that an island, though built of the hardest +rock, let it be porphyry, granite, or quartz, would ultimately +yield and be demolished by such an irresistible power. Yet these +low, insignificant coral-islets stand and are victorious: for here +another power, as an antagonist, takes part in the contest. The +organic forces separate the atoms of carbonate of lime, one by one, +from the foaming breakers, and unite them into a symmetrical +structure. Let the hurricane tear up its thousand huge fragments; +yet what will that tell against the accumulated labour of myriads +of architects at work night and day, month after month? Thus do we +see the soft and gelatinous body of a polypus, through the agency +of the vital laws, conquering the great mechanical power of the +waves of an ocean which neither the art of man nor the inanimate +works of nature could successfully resist.</p> + +<p>We did not return on board till late in the evening, for we +<a name="page490"></a> +stayed a long time in the lagoon, examining the fields of coral +and the gigantic shells of the chama, into which, if a man were to +put his hand, he would not, as long as the animal lived, be able to +withdraw it. Near the head of the lagoon I was much surprised to +find a wide area, considerably more than a mile square, covered +with a forest of delicately branching corals, which, though +standing upright, were all dead and rotten. At first I was quite at +a loss to understand the cause; afterwards it occurred to me that +it was owing to the following rather curious combination of +circumstances. It should, however, first be stated, that corals are +not able to survive even a short exposure in the air to the sun’s +rays, so that their upward limit of growth is determined by that of +lowest water at spring tides. It appears, from some old charts, +that the long island to windward was formerly separated by wide +channels into several islets; this fact is likewise indicated by +the trees being younger on these portions. Under the former +condition of the reef, a strong breeze, by throwing more water over +the barrier, would tend to raise the level of the lagoon. Now it +acts in a directly contrary manner; for the water within the lagoon +not only is not increased by currents from the outside, but is +itself blown outwards by the force of the wind. Hence it is +observed that the tide near the head of the lagoon does not rise so +high during a strong breeze as it does when it is calm. This +difference of level, although no doubt very small, has, I believe, +caused the death of those coral-groves, which under the former and +more open condition of the outer reef had attained the utmost +possible limit of upward growth.</p> + +<p>A few miles north of Keeling there is another small atoll, the +lagoon of which is nearly filled up with coral-mud. Captain Ross +found embedded in the conglomerate on the outer coast a +well-rounded fragment of greenstone, rather larger than a man’s +head: he and the men with him were so much surprised at this, that +they brought it away and preserved it as a curiosity. The +occurrence of this one stone, where every other particle of matter +is calcareous, certainly is very puzzling. The island has scarcely +ever been visited, nor is it probable that a ship had been wrecked +there. From the absence of any better explanation, I came to the +conclusion that it must have come entangled in the roots of some +large tree: when, +<a name="page491"></a> +however, I considered the great distance from the nearest land, the +combination of chances against a stone thus being entangled, the +tree washed into the sea, floated so far, then landed safely, and +the stone finally so embedded as to allow of its discovery, I was +almost afraid of imagining a means of transport apparently so +improbable. It was therefore with great interest that I found +Chamisso, the justly distinguished naturalist who accompanied +Kotzebue, stating that the inhabitants of the Radack Archipelago, a +group of lagoon islands in the midst of the Pacific, obtained +stones for sharpening their instruments by searching the roots of +trees which are cast upon the beach. It will be evident that this +must have happened several times, since laws have been established +that such stones belong to the chief, and a punishment is inflicted +on any one who attempts to steal them. When the isolated position +of these small islands in the midst of a vast ocean—their +great distance from any land excepting that of coral formation, +attested by the value which the inhabitants, who are such bold +navigators, attach to a stone of any +kind,<a href="#fn-20.7" name="fnref-20.7"><sup>[7]</sup></a>—and +the slowness of the currents of the open sea, are all considered, +the occurrence of pebbles thus transported does appear wonderful. +Stones may often be thus carried; and if the island on which they +are stranded is constructed of any other substance besides coral, +they would scarcely attract attention, and their origin at least +would never be guessed. Moreover, this agency may long escape +discovery from the probability of trees, especially those loaded +with stones, floating beneath the surface. In the channels of +Tierra del Fuego large quantities of drift timber are cast upon the +beach, yet it is extremely rare to meet a tree swimming on the +water. These facts may possibly throw light on single stones, +whether angular or rounded, occasionally found embedded in fine +sedimentary masses.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-20.7"></a> <a href="#fnref-20.7">[7]</a> +Some natives carried by Kotzebue to Kamtschatka collected stones to take back +to their country.</p> + +<p>During another day I visited West Islet, on which the vegetation +was perhaps more luxuriant than on any other. The cocoa-nut trees +generally grow separate, but here the young ones flourished beneath +their tall parents, and formed with their long and curved fronds +the most shady arbours. Those alone who have tried it know how +delicious it is to be +<a name="page492"></a> +seated in such shade, and drink the cool pleasant fluid of the +cocoa-nut. In this island there is a large bay-like space, composed +of the finest white sand: it is quite level and is only covered by +the tide at high water; from this large bay smaller creeks +penetrate the surrounding woods. To see a field of glittering white +sand representing water, with the cocoa-nut trees extending their +tall and waving trunks round the margin, formed a singular and very +pretty view.</p> + +<p>I have before alluded to a crab which lives on the cocoa-nuts; +it is very common on all parts of the dry land, and grows to a +monstrous size: it is closely allied or identical with the Birgos +latro. The front pair of legs terminate in very strong and heavy +pincers, and the last pair are fitted with others weaker and much +narrower. It would at first be thought quite impossible for a crab +to open a strong cocoa-nut covered with the husk; but Mr. Liesk +assures me that he has repeatedly seen this effected. The crab +begins by tearing the husk, fibre by fibre, and always from that +end under which the three eye-holes are situated; when this is +completed, the crab commences hammering with its heavy claws on one +of the eye-holes till an opening is made. Then turning round its +body, by the aid of its posterior and narrow pair of pincers it +extracts the white albuminous substance. I think this is as curious +a case of instinct as ever I heard of, and likewise of adaptation +in structure between two objects apparently so remote from each +other in the scheme of nature as a crab and a cocoa-nut tree. The +Birgos is diurnal in its habits; but every night it is said to pay +a visit to the sea, no doubt for the purpose of moistening its +branchiæ. The young are likewise hatched, and live for some +time, on the coast. These crabs inhabit deep burrows, which they +hollow out beneath the roots of trees; and where they accumulate +surprising quantities of the picked fibres of the cocoa-nut husk, +on which they rest as on a bed. The Malays sometimes take advantage +of this, and collect the fibrous mass to use as junk. These crabs +are very good to eat; moreover, under the tail of the larger ones +there is a mass of fat, which, when melted, sometimes yields as +much as a quart-bottleful of limpid oil. It has been stated by some +authors that the Birgos crawls up the cocoa-nut trees for the +purpose of stealing the nuts: I very much doubt the +<a name="page493"></a> +possibility of this; but with the Pandanus<a href="#fn-20.8" name="fnref-20.8"><sup>[8]</sup></a> +the task would be very much easier. I was told by Mr. Liesk that on these +islands the Birgos lives only on the nuts which have fallen to the ground.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-20.8"></a> <a href="#fnref-20.8">[8]</a> +See <i>Proceedings of the Zoological Society,</i> 1832, p. 17. +</p> + +<p>Captain Moresby informs me that this crab inhabits the Chagos +and Seychelle groups, but not the neighbouring Maldiva archipelago. +It formerly abounded at Mauritius, but only a few small ones are +now found there. In the Pacific this species, or one with closely +allied habits, is said<a href="#fn-20.9" name="fnref-20.9"><sup>[9]</sup></a> +to inhabit a single coral island north of the Society group. To show the +wonderful strength of the front pair of pincers, I may mention that Captain +Moresby confined one in a strong tin box, which had held biscuits, the lid +being secured with wire; but the crab turned down the edges and escaped. In +turning down the edges it actually punched many small holes quite through the +tin!</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-20.9"></a> <a href="#fnref-20.9">[9]</a> +Tyerman and Bennett, <i>Voyage,</i> etc., vol. ii, p. 33.</p> + +<p>I was a good deal surprised by finding two species of coral of +the genus Millepora (M. complanata and alcicornis), possessed of +the power of stinging. The stony branches or plates, when taken +fresh from the water, have a harsh feel and are not slimy, although +possessing a strong and disagreeable smell. The stinging property +seems to vary in different specimens: when a piece was pressed or +rubbed on the tender skin of the face or arm, a pricking sensation +was usually caused, which came on after the interval of a second, +and lasted only for a few minutes. One day, however, by merely +touching my face with one of the branches, pain was instantaneously +caused; it increased as usual after a few seconds, and remaining +sharp for some minutes, was perceptible for half an hour +afterwards. The sensation was as bad as that from a nettle, but +more like that caused by the Physalia or Portuguese man-of-war. +Little red spots were produced on the tender skin of the arm, which +appeared as if they would have formed watery pustules, but did not. +M. Quoy mentions this case of the Millepora; and I have heard of +stinging corals in the West Indies. Many marine animals seem to +have this power of stinging: besides the Portuguese man-of-war, +many jelly-fish, and the Aplysia or sea-slug of the Cape de Verd +Islands, it is stated in the <i>Voyage</i> +<a name="page494"></a> +<i>of the Astrolabe</i> that an Actinia or sea-anemone, as well +as a flexible coralline allied to Sertularia, both possess this +means of offence or defence. In the East Indian sea a stinging +sea-weed is said to be found.</p> + +<p>Two species of fish, of the genus Scarus, which are common here, +exclusively feed on coral: both are coloured of a splendid +bluish-green, one living invariably in the lagoon, and the other +amongst the outer breakers. Mr. Liesk assured us that he had +repeatedly seen whole shoals grazing with their strong bony jaws on +the tops of the coral branches: I opened the intestines of several +and found them distended with yellowish calcareous sandy mud. The +slimy disgusting Holuthuriæ (allied to our star-fish), which +the Chinese gourmands are so fond of, also feed largely, as I am +informed by Dr. Allan, on corals; and the bony apparatus within +their bodies seems well adapted for this end. These +holuthuriæ, the fish, the numerous burrowing shells, and +nereidous worms, which perforate every block of dead coral, must be +very efficient agents in producing the fine white mud which lies at +the bottom and on the shores of the lagoon. A portion, however, of +this mud, which when wet resembled pounded chalk, was found by +Professor Ehrenberg to be partly composed of siliceous-shielded +infusoria.</p> + +<p> +<i>April</i> 12<i>th.</i>—In the morning we stood out of the lagoon on +our passage to the Isle of France. I am glad we have visited these islands: +such formations surely rank high amongst the wonderful objects of this world. +Captain Fitz Roy found no bottom with a line 7200 feet in length, at the +distance of only 2200 yards from the shore; hence this island forms a lofty +submarine mountain, with sides steeper even than those of the most abrupt +volcanic cone. The saucer-shaped summit is nearly ten miles across; and every +single atom,<a href="#fn-20.10" name="fnref-20.10"><sup>[10]</sup></a> from the +least particle to the largest fragment of rock, in this great pile, which +however is small compared with very many other lagoon islands, bears the stamp +of having been subjected to organic arrangement. We feel surprise when +travellers tell us of the vast dimensions of the Pyramids and other great +ruins, but how utterly insignificant are the greatest of these, when compared +<a name="page495"></a> +to these mountains of stone accumulated by the agency of various minute and +tender animals! This is a wonder which does not at first strike the eye of the +body, but, after reflection, the eye of reason. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-20.10"></a> <a href="#fnref-20.10">[10]</a> +I exclude, of course, some soil which has been imported here in vessels from +Malacca and Java, and likewise some small fragments of pumice, drifted here by +the waves. The one block of greenstone, moreover, on the northern island must +be excepted.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl89.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl89.jpg" width="272" height="135" alt="Whitsunday Island" /> +</div> + +<p class="p2"> +I will now give a very brief account of the three great classes of coral-reefs; +namely, Atolls, Barrier, and Fringing Reefs, and will explain my views<a +href="#fn-20.11" name="fnref-20.11"><sup>[11]</sup></a> on their formation. +Almost every voyager who has crossed the Pacific has expressed his unbounded +astonishment at the lagoon islands, or as I shall for the future call them by +their Indian name of atolls, and has attempted some explanation. Even as long +ago as the year 1605, Pyrard de Laval well exclaimed, “C’est une +merveille de voir chacun de ces atollons, environné d’un grand banc de +pierre tout autour, n’y ayant point d’artifice humain.” The +accompanying sketch of Whitsunday Island in the Pacific, copied from Captain +Beechey’s admirable <i>Voyage</i>, gives but a faint idea of the singular +aspect of an atoll: it is one of the smallest size, and has its narrow islets +united together in a ring. The immensity of the ocean, the fury of the +breakers, contrasted with the lowness of the land and the smoothness of the +bright green water within the lagoon, can hardly be imagined without having +been seen. +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-20.11"></a> <a href="#fnref-20.11">[11]</a> +These were first read before the Geological Society in May 1837 and have since +been developed in a separate volume on the <i>Structure and Distribution of +Coral Reefs.</i></p> + +<p>The earlier voyagers fancied that the coral-building animals +instinctively built up their great circles to afford themselves +protection in the inner parts; but so far is this from the +truth +<a name="page496"></a> +that those massive kinds, to whose growth on the exposed outer +shores the very existence of the reef depends, cannot live within +the lagoon, where other delicately-branching kinds flourish. +Moreover, on this view, many species of distinct genera and +families are supposed to combine for one end; and of such a +combination, not a single instance can be found in the whole of +nature. The theory that has been most generally received is that +atolls are based on submarine craters; but when we consider the +form and size of some, the number, proximity, and relative +positions of others, this idea loses its plausible character: thus +Suadiva atoll is 44 geographical miles in diameter in one line, by +34 miles in another line; Rimsky is 54 by 20 miles across, and it +has a strangely sinuous margin; Bow atoll is 30 miles long, and on +an average only 6 in width; Menchicoff atoll consists of three +atolls united or tied together. This theory, moreover, is totally +inapplicable to the northern Maldiva atolls in the Indian Ocean +(one of which is 88 miles in length, and between 10 and 20 in +breadth), for they are not bounded like ordinary atolls by narrow +reefs, but by a vast number of separate little atolls; other little +atolls rising out of the great central lagoon-like spaces. A third +and better theory was advanced by Chamisso, who thought that from +the corals growing more vigorously where exposed to the open sea, +as undoubtedly is the case, the outer edges would grow up from the +general foundation before any other part, and that this would +account for the ring or cup-shaped structure. But we shall +immediately see, that in this, as well as in the crater-theory, a +most important consideration has been overlooked, namely, on what +have the reef-building corals, which cannot live at a great depth, +based their massive structures?</p> + +<p>Numerous soundings were carefully taken by Captain Fitz Roy on +the steep outside of Keeling atoll, and it was found that within +ten fathoms the prepared tallow at the bottom of the lead +invariably came up marked with the impressions of living corals, +but as perfectly clean as if it had been dropped on a carpet of +turf; as the depth increased, the impressions became less numerous, +but the adhering particles of sand more and more numerous, until at +last it was evident that the bottom consisted of a smooth sandy +layer; to carry on the analogy of the turf, the blades of grass +grew thinner and thinner, till at +<a name="page497"></a> +last the soil was so sterile that nothing sprang from it. From +these observations, confirmed by many others, it may be safely +inferred that the utmost depth at which corals can construct reefs +is between 20 and 30 fathoms. Now there are enormous areas in the +Pacific and Indian Oceans in which every single island is of coral +formation, and is raised only to that height to which the waves can +throw up fragments, and the winds pile up sand. Thus the Radack +group of atolls is an irregular square, 520 miles long and 240 +broad; the Low Archipelago is elliptic-formed, 840 miles in its +longer, and 420 in its shorter axis: there are other small groups +and single low islands between these two archipelagoes, making a +linear space of ocean actually more than 4000 miles in length, in +which not one single island rises above the specified height. +Again, in the Indian Ocean there is a space of ocean 1500 miles in +length, including three archipelagoes, in which every island is low +and of coral formation. From the fact of the reef-building corals +not living at great depths, it is absolutely certain that +throughout these vast areas, wherever there is now an atoll, a +foundation must have originally existed within a depth of from 20 +to 30 fathoms from the surface. It is improbable in the highest +degree that broad, lofty, isolated, steep-sided banks of sediment, +arranged in groups and lines hundreds of leagues in length, could +have been deposited in the central and profoundest parts of the +Pacific and Indian Oceans, at an immense distance from any +continent, and where the water is perfectly limpid. It is equally +improbable that the elevatory forces should have uplifted +throughout the above vast areas, innumerable great rocky banks +within 20 to 30 fathoms, or 120 to 180 feet, of the surface of the +sea, and not one single point above that level; for where on the +whole face of the globe can we find a single chain of mountains, +even a few hundred miles in length, with their many summits rising +within a few feet of a given level, and not one pinnacle above it? +If then the foundations, whence the atoll-building corals sprang, +were not formed of sediment, and if they were not lifted up to the +required level, they must of necessity have subsided into it; and +this at once solves the difficulty. For as mountain after mountain, +and island after island, slowly sank beneath the water, fresh bases +would be successively afforded for the growth +<a name="page498"></a> +of the corals. It is impossible here to enter into all the +necessary details, but I venture to defy<a href="#fn-20.12" name="fnref-20.12"><sup>[12]</sup></a> +any one to explain in any other manner how it is possible that numerous islands +should be distributed throughout vast areas—all the islands being +low—all being built of corals, absolutely requiring a foundation within a +limited depth from the surface.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-20.12"></a> <a href="#fnref-20.12">[12]</a> +It is remarkable that Mr. Lyell, even in the first edition of his <i>Principles +of Geology,</i> inferred that the amount of subsidence in the Pacific must have +exceeded that of elevation, from the area of land being very small relatively +to the agents there tending to form it, namely, the growth of coral and +volcanic action. +</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl90.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl90.jpg" width="264" height="139" alt="Barrier-reef, Bolabola" /> +</div> + +<p>Before explaining how atoll-formed reefs acquire their peculiar +structure, we must turn to the second great class, namely, +Barrier-reefs. These either extend in straight lines in front of +the shores of a continent or of a large island, or they encircle +smaller islands; in both cases, being separated from the land by a +broad and rather deep channel of water, analogous to the lagoon +within an atoll. It is remarkable how little attention has been +paid to encircling barrier-reefs; yet they are truly wonderful +structures. The accompanying sketch represents part of the barrier +encircling the island of Bolabola in the Pacific, as seen from one +of the central peaks. In this instance the whole line of reef has +been converted into land; but usually a snow-white line of great +breakers, with only here and there a single low islet crowned with +cocoa-nut trees, divides the dark heaving waters of the ocean from +the light green expanse of the lagoon-channel. And the quiet waters +of this channel generally bathe a fringe of low alluvial soil, +loaded with the most beautiful productions of the tropics, and +lying at the foot of the wild, abrupt, central mountains.</p> + +<p> +<a name="page499"></a> +Encircling barrier-reefs are of all sizes, from three miles to +no less than forty-four miles in diameter; and that which fronts +one side, and encircles both ends, of New Caledonia, is 400 miles +long. Each reef includes one, two, or several rocky islands of +various heights; and in one instance, even as many as twelve +separate islands. The reef runs at a greater or less distance from +the included land; in the Society Archipelago generally from one to +three or four miles; but at Hogoleu the reef is 20 miles on the +southern side, and 14 miles on the opposite or northern side, from +the included islands. The depth within the lagoon-channel also +varies much; from 10 to 30 fathoms may be taken as an average; but +at Vanikoro there are spaces no less than 56 fathoms or 336 feet +deep. Internally the reef either slopes gently into the +lagoon-channel, or ends in a perpendicular wall sometimes between +two and three hundred feet under water in height: externally the +reef rises, like an atoll, with extreme abruptness out of the +profound depths of the ocean. What can be more singular than these +structures? We see an island, which may be compared to a castle +situated on the summit of a lofty submarine mountain, protected by +a great wall of coral-rock, always steep externally and sometimes +internally, with a broad level summit, here and there breached by +narrow gateways, through which the largest ships can enter the wide +and deep encircling moat.</p> + +<p>As far as the actual reef of coral is concerned, there is not +the smallest difference in general size, outline, grouping, and +even in quite trifling details of structure, between a barrier and +an atoll. The geographer Balbi has well remarked that an encircled +island is an atoll with high land rising out of its lagoon; remove +the land from within, and a perfect atoll is left.</p> + +<p>But what has caused these reefs to spring up at such great +distances from the shores of the included islands? It cannot be +that the corals will not grow close to the land; for the shores +within the lagoon-channel, when not surrounded by alluvial soil, +are often fringed by living reefs; and we shall presently see that +there is a whole class, which I have called Fringing-reefs from +their close attachment to the shores both of continents and of +islands. Again, on what have the +<a name="page500"></a> +reef-building corals, which cannot live at great depths, based their +encircling structures? This is a great apparent difficulty, +analogous to that in the case of atolls, which has generally been +overlooked. It will be perceived more clearly by inspecting the +following sections which are real ones, taken in north and south +lines, through the islands with their barrier-reefs, of Vanikoro, +Gambier, and Maurua; and they are laid down, both vertically and +horizontally, on the same scale of a quarter of an inch to a +mile.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl91.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl91.jpg" width="320" height="224" alt="Sections of barrier-reefs" /> +</div> + +<p>It should be observed that the sections might have been taken in +any direction through these islands, or through many other +encircled islands, and the general features would have been the +same. Now bearing in mind that reef-building coral cannot live at a +greater depth than from 20 to 30 fathoms, and that the scale is so +small that the plummets on the right hand show a depth of 200 +fathoms, on what are these barrier-reefs based? Are we to suppose +that each island is surrounded by a collar-like submarine ledge of +rock, or by a great bank of sediment, ending abruptly where the +reef ends? If the sea had formerly eaten deeply into the islands, +before they were protected by the reefs, thus having left a shallow +ledge round them under water, the present shores would have been +invariably bounded by great precipices; but this is most rarely the +case. Moreover, on this notion, it is not possible to explain +<a name="page501"></a> +why the corals should have sprung up, like a wall, from the +extreme outer margin of the ledge, often leaving a broad space of +water within, too deep for the growth of corals. The accumulation +of a wide bank of sediment all round these islands, and generally +widest where the included islands are smallest, is highly +improbable, considering their exposed positions in the central and +deepest parts of the ocean. In the case of the barrier-reef of New +Caledonia, which extends for 150 miles beyond the northern point of +the island, in the same straight line with which it fronts the west +coast, it is hardly possible to believe that a bank of sediment +could thus have been straightly deposited in front of a lofty +island, and so far beyond its termination in the open sea. Finally, +if we look to other oceanic islands of about the same height and of +similar geological constitution, but not encircled by coral-reefs, +we may in vain search for so trifling a circumambient depth as 30 +fathoms, except quite near to their shores; for usually land that +rises abruptly out of water, as do most of the encircled and +non-encircled oceanic islands, plunges abruptly under it. On what +then, I repeat, are these barrier reefs based? Why, with their wide +and deep moat-like channels, do they stand so far from the included +land? We shall soon see how easily these difficulties +disappear.</p> + +<p>We come now to our third class of Fringing-reefs, which will +require a very short notice. Where the land slopes abruptly under +water, these reefs are only a few yards in width, forming a mere +ribbon or fringe round the shores: where the land slopes gently +under the water the reef extends farther, sometimes even as much as +a mile from the land; but in such cases the soundings outside the +reef always show that the submarine prolongation of the land is +gently inclined. In fact the reefs extend only to that distance +from the shore at which a foundation within the requisite depth +from 20 to 30 fathoms is found. As far as the actual reef is +concerned, there is no essential difference between it and that +forming a barrier or an atoll: it is, however, generally of less +width, and consequently few islets have been formed on it. From the +corals growing more vigorously on the outside, and from the noxious +effect of the sediment washed inwards, the outer edge of the reef +is the highest part, and between it and the land +<a name="page502"></a> +there is generally a shallow sandy channel a few feet in depth. +Where banks of sediment have accumulated near to the surface, as in +parts of the West Indies, they sometimes become fringed with +corals, and hence in some degree resemble lagoon-islands or atolls, +in the same manner as fringing-reefs, surrounding gently sloping +islands, in some degree resemble barrier-reefs.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl92.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl92.jpg" width="309" height="206" alt="Section of coral-reef" /> +</div> + +<p>No theory on the formation of coral-reefs can be considered +satisfactory which does not include the three great classes. We +have seen that we are driven to believe in the subsidence of those +vast areas, interspersed with low islands, of which not one rises +above the height to which the wind and waves can throw up matter, +and yet are constructed by animals requiring a foundation, and that +foundation to lie at no great depth. Let us then take an island +surrounded by fringing-reefs, which offer no difficulty in their +structure; and let this island with its reef, represented by the +unbroken lines in Plate 96, slowly subside. Now as the island sinks +down, either a few feet at a time or quite insensibly, we may +safely infer, from what is known of the conditions favourable to +the growth of coral, that the living masses, bathed by the surf on +the margin of the reef, will soon regain the surface. The water, +however, will encroach little by little on the shore, the island +becoming lower and smaller, and the space between the inner edge of +the reef and the beach proportionally broader. A section of the +reef and island in this state, after a subsidence of several +hundred feet, is given by the dotted lines. Coral islets are +supposed to have been formed on the reef; and a ship is anchored in +the +<a name="page503"></a> +lagoon-channel. This channel will be more or less deep, according to +the rate of subsidence, to the amount of sediment accumulated in +it, and to the growth of the delicately branched corals which can +live there. The section in this state resembles in every respect +one drawn through an encircled island: in fact, it is a real +section (on the scale of .517 of an inch to a mile) through +Bolabola in the Pacific. We can now at once see why encircling +barrier-reefs stand so far from the shores which they front. We can +also perceive that a line drawn perpendicularly down from the outer +edge of the new reef, to the foundation of solid rock beneath the +old fringing-reef, will exceed by as many feet as there have been +feet of subsidence, that small limit of depth at which the +effective corals can live:—the little architects having built +up their great wall-like mass, as the whole sank down, upon a basis +formed of other corals and their consolidated fragments. Thus the +difficulty on this head, which appeared so great, disappears.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl93.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl93.jpg" width="304" height="217" alt="Section of coral-reef" /> +</div> + +<p>If, instead of an island, we had taken the shore of a continent +fringed with reefs, and had imagined it to have subsided, a great +straight barrier, like that of Australia or New Caledonia, +separated from the land by a wide and deep channel, would evidently +have been the result.</p> + +<p>Let us take our new encircling barrier-reef, of which the +section is now represented by unbroken lines, and which, as I have +said, is a real section through Bolabola, and let it go on +subsiding. As the barrier-reef slowly sinks down, the corals +<a name="page504"></a> +will go on vigorously growing upwards; but as the island sinks, +the water will gain inch by inch on the shore—the separate +mountains first forming separate islands within one great +reef—and finally, the last and highest pinnacle disappearing. +The instant this takes place, a perfect atoll is formed: I have +said, remove the high land from within an encircling barrier-reef, +and an atoll is left, and the land has been removed. We can now +perceive how it comes that atolls, having sprung from encircling +barrier-reefs, resemble them in general size, form, in the manner +in which they are grouped together, and in their arrangement in +single or double lines; for they may be called rude outline charts +of the sunken islands over which they stand. We can further see how +it arises that the atolls in the Pacific and Indian Oceans extend +in lines parallel to the generally prevailing strike of the high +islands and great coast-lines of those oceans. I venture, +therefore, to affirm that on the theory of the upward growth of the +corals during the sinking of the land,<a href="#fn-20.13" name="fnref-20.13"><sup>[13]</sup></a> +all the leading features in those wonderful structures, the lagoon-islands or +atolls, which have so long excited the attention of voyagers, as well as in the +no less wonderful barrier-reefs, whether encircling small islands or stretching +for hundreds of miles along the shores of a continent, are simply +explained.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-20.13"></a> <a href="#fnref-20.13">[13]</a> +It has been highly satisfactory to me to find the following passage in a +pamphlet by Mr. Couthouy, one of the naturalists in the great Antarctic +Expedition of the United States:—“Having personally examined a +large number of coral-islands, and resided eight months among the volcanic +class having shore and partially encircling reefs, I may be permitted to state +that my own observations have impressed a conviction of the correctness of the +theory of Mr. Darwin.” The naturalists, however, of this expedition +differ with me on some points respecting coral formations.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl94.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl94.jpg" width="466" height="313" alt="Bolabola Island" /> +</div> + +<p>It may be asked whether I can offer any direct evidence of the +subsidence of barrier-reefs or atolls; but it must be borne in mind +how difficult it must ever be to detect a movement, the tendency of +which is to hide under water the part affected. Nevertheless, at +Keeling atoll I observed on all sides of the lagoon old cocoa-nut +trees undermined and falling; and in one place the foundation-posts +of a shed, which the inhabitants asserted had stood seven years +before just above high-water mark, but now was daily washed by +every tide; on inquiry I found that three earthquakes, one of them +severe, had been felt here during the last ten years. At +Vanikoro +<a name="page505"></a> +the lagoon-channel is remarkably deep, scarcely any alluvial +soil has accumulated at the foot of the lofty included mountains, +and remarkably few islets have been formed by the heaping of +fragments and sand on the wall-like barrier reef; these facts, and +some analogous ones, led me to believe that this island must lately +have subsided and the reef grown upwards: here again earthquakes +are frequent and very severe. In the Society Archipelago, on the +other hand, where the lagoon-channels are almost choked up, where +much low alluvial land has accumulated, and where in some cases +long islets have been formed on the barrier-reefs—facts all +showing that the islands have not very lately subsided—only +feeble shocks are most rarely felt. In these coral formations, +where the land and water seem struggling for mastery, it must be +ever difficult to decide between the effects of a change in the set +of the tides and of a slight subsidence: that many of these reefs +and atolls are subject to changes of some kind is certain; on some +atolls the islets appear to have increased greatly within a late +period; on others they have been partially or wholly washed away. +The inhabitants of parts of the Maldiva Archipelago know the date +of the first formation of some islets; in other parts the corals +are now flourishing on water-washed reefs, where holes made for +graves attest the former existence of inhabited land. It is +difficult to believe in frequent changes in the tidal currents of +an open ocean; whereas we have in the earthquakes recorded by the +natives on some atolls, and in the great fissures observed on other +atolls, plain evidence of changes and disturbances in progress in +the subterranean regions.</p> + +<p>It is evident, on our theory, that coasts merely fringed by +reefs cannot have subsided to any perceptible amount; and therefore +they must, since the growth of their corals, either have remained +stationary or have been upheaved. Now it is remarkable how +generally it can be shown, by the presence of upraised organic +remains, that the fringed islands have been elevated: and so far, +this is indirect evidence in favour of our theory. I was +particularly struck with this fact, when I found, to my +surprise, +<a name="page506"></a> +that the descriptions given by MM. Quoy and Gaimard were +applicable, not to reefs in general as implied by them, but only to +those of the fringing class; my surprise, however, ceased when I +afterwards found that, by a strange chance, all the several islands +visited by these eminent naturalists could be shown by their own +statements to have been elevated within a recent geological +era.</p> + +<p>Not only the grand features in the structure of barrier-reefs +and of atolls, and of their likeness to each other in form, size, +and other characters, are explained on the theory of +subsidence—which theory we are independently forced to admit +in the very areas in question, from the necessity of finding bases +for the corals within the requisite depth—but many details in +structure and exceptional cases can thus also be simply explained. +I will give only a few instances. In barrier-reefs it has long been +remarked with surprise that the passages through the reef exactly +face valleys in the included land, even in cases where the reef is +separated from the land by a lagoon-channel so wide and so much +deeper than the actual passage itself, that it seems hardly +possible that the very small quantity of water or sediment brought +down could injure the corals on the reef. Now, every reef of the +fringing class is breached by a narrow gateway in front of the +smallest rivulet, even if dry during the greater part of the year, +for the mud, sand, or gravel occasionally washed down kills the +corals on which it is deposited. Consequently, when an island thus +fringed subsides, though most of the narrow gateways will probably +become closed by the outward and upward growth of the corals, yet +any that are not closed (and some must always be kept open by the +sediment and impure water flowing out of the lagoon-channel) will +still continue to front exactly the upper parts of those valleys at +the mouths of which the original basal fringing-reef was +breached.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl95.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl95.jpg" width="270" height="334" alt="Corals" /> +</div> + +<p>We can easily see how an island fronted only on one side, or on +one side with one end or both ends encircled by barrier-reefs, +might after long-continued subsidence be converted either into a +single wall-like reef, or into an atoll with a great straight spur +projecting from it, or into two or three atolls tied together by +straight reefs—all of which exceptional cases actually occur. +As the reef-building corals require food, are preyed upon by other +animals, are killed by sediment, cannot adhere to a loose bottom, +and may be easily carried down to a depth whence they cannot spring +up again, we need feel no +<a name="page507"></a> +surprise at the reefs both of atolls and barriers becoming in +parts imperfect. The great barrier of New Caledonia is thus +imperfect and broken in many parts; hence, after long subsidence, +this great reef would not produce one great atoll 400 miles in +length, but a chain or archipelago of atolls, of very nearly the +same dimensions with those in the Maldiva Archipelago. Moreover, in +an atoll once breached on opposite sides, from the likelihood of +the oceanic and tidal currents passing straight through the +breaches, it is extremely improbable that the corals, especially +during continued subsidence, would ever be able again to unite the +rim; if they did not, as the whole sank downwards, one atoll would +be divided into two or more. In the Maldiva Archipelago there are +distinct atolls so related to each other in position, and separated +by channels either unfathomable or very deep (the channel between +Ross and Ari atolls is 150 fathoms, and that between the north and +south Nillandoo atolls is 200 fathoms in depth), that it is +impossible to look at a map of them without believing that they +were once more intimately related. And in this same archipelago, +Mahlos-Mahdoo atoll is divided by a bifurcating channel from 100 to +132 fathoms in depth, in such a manner that it is scarcely possible +to say whether it ought strictly to be +<a name="page508"></a> +called three separate atolls, or one great atoll not yet finally +divided.</p> + +<p>I will not enter on many more details; but I must remark that +the curious structure of the northern Maldiva atolls receives +(taking into consideration the free entrance of the sea through +their broken margins) a simple explanation in the upward and +outward growth of the corals, originally based both on small +detached reefs in their lagoons, such as occur in common atolls, +and on broken portions of the linear marginal reef, such as bounds +every atoll of the ordinary form. I cannot refrain from once again +remarking on the singularity of these complex structures—a +great sandy and generally concave disk rises abruptly from the +unfathomable ocean, with its central expanse studded and its edge +symmetrically bordered with oval basins of coral-rock just lipping +the surface of the sea, sometimes clothed with vegetation, and each +containing a lake of clear water!</p> + +<p>One more point in detail: as in the two neighbouring +archipelagoes corals flourish in one and not in the other, and as +so many conditions before enumerated must affect their existence, +it would be an inexplicable fact if, during the changes to which +earth, air, and water are subjected, the reef-building corals were +to keep alive for perpetuity on any one spot or area. And as by our +theory the areas including atolls and barrier-reefs are subsiding, +we ought occasionally to find reefs both dead and submerged. In all +reefs, owing to the sediment being washed out of the lagoon or +lagoon-channel to leeward, that side is least favourable to the +long-continued vigorous growth of the corals; hence dead portions +of reef not unfrequently occur on the leeward side; and these, +though still retaining their proper wall-like form, are now in +several instances sunk several fathoms beneath the surface. The +Chagos group appears from some cause, possibly from the subsidence +having been too rapid, at present to be much less favourably +circumstanced for the growth of reefs than formerly: one atoll has +a portion of its marginal reef, nine miles in length, dead and +submerged; a second has only a few quite small living points which +rise to the surface, a third and fourth are entirely dead and +submerged; a fifth is a mere wreck, with its structure almost +obliterated. It is remarkable that in all these cases the dead +reefs and portions of reef +<a name="page509"></a> +lie at nearly the same depth, namely, from six to eight fathoms +beneath the surface, as if they had been carried down by one +uniform movement. One of these “half-drowned atolls,” so called by +Captain Moresby (to whom I am indebted for much invaluable +information), is of vast size, namely, ninety nautical miles across +in one direction, and seventy miles in another line; and is in many +respects eminently curious. As by our theory it follows that new +atolls will generally be formed in each new area of subsidence, two +weighty objections might have been raised, namely, that atolls must +be increasing indefinitely in number; and secondly, that in old +areas of subsidence each separate atoll must be increasing +indefinitely in thickness, if proofs of their occasional +destruction could not have been adduced. Thus have we traced the +history of these great rings of coral-rock, from their first origin +through their normal changes, and through the occasional accidents +of their existence, to their death and final obliteration.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +In my volume on <i>Coral Formations</i> I have published a map, in which I have +coloured all the atolls dark-blue, the barrier-reefs pale-blue, and the +fringing reefs red. These latter reefs have been formed whilst the land has +been stationary, or, as appears from the frequent presence of upraised organic +remains, whilst it has been slowly rising: atolls and barrier-reefs, on the +other hand, have grown up during the directly opposite movement of subsidence, +which movement must have been very gradual, and in the case of atolls so vast +in amount as to have buried every mountain-summit over wide ocean-spaces. Now +in this map we see that the reefs tinted pale and dark-blue, which have been +produced by the same order of movement, as a general rule manifestly stand near +each other. Again we see that the areas with the two blue tints are of wide +extent; and that they lie separate from extensive lines of coast coloured red, +both of which circumstances might naturally have been inferred, on the theory +of the nature of the reefs having been governed by the nature of the +earth’s movement. It deserves notice that in more than one instance where +single red and blue circles approach near each other, I can show that there +have been oscillations of level; for in such cases the red or fringed +<a name="page510"></a> +circles consist of atolls, originally by our theory formed during subsidence, +but subsequently upheaved; and on the other hand, some of the pale-blue or +encircled islands are composed of coral-rock, which must have been uplifted to +its present height before that subsidence took place, during which the existing +barrier-reefs grew upwards. +</p> + +<p>Authors have noticed with surprise that although atolls are the +commonest coral-structures throughout some enormous oceanic tracts, +they are entirely absent in other seas, as in the West Indies: we +can now at once perceive the cause, for where there has not been +subsidence, atolls cannot have been formed; and in the case of the +West Indies and parts of the East Indies, these tracts are known to +have been rising within the recent period. The larger areas, +coloured red and blue, are all elongated; and between the two +colours there is a degree of rude alternation, as if the rising of +one had balanced the sinking of the other. Taking into +consideration the proofs of recent elevation both on the fringed +coasts and on some others (for instance, in South America) where +there are no reefs, we are led to conclude that the great +continents are for the most part rising areas: and from the nature +of the coral-reefs, that the central parts of the great oceans are +sinking areas. The East Indian Archipelago, the most broken land in +the world, is in most parts an area of elevation, but surrounded +and penetrated, probably in more lines than one, by narrow areas of +subsidence.</p> + +<p>I have marked with vermilion spots all the many known active +volcanos within the limits of this same map. Their entire absence +from every one of the great subsiding areas, coloured either pale +or dark blue, is most striking; and not less so is the coincidence +of the chief volcanic chains with the parts coloured red, which we +are led to conclude have either long remained stationary, or more +generally have been recently upraised. Although a few of the +vermilion spots occur within no great distance of single circles +tinted blue, yet not one single active volcano is situated within +several hundred miles of an archipelago, or even small group of +atolls. It is, therefore, a striking fact that in the Friendly +Archipelago, which consists of a group of atolls upheaved and since +partially worn down, two volcanos, and perhaps more, are +historically +<a name="page511"></a> +known to have been in action. On the other hand, although most +of the islands in the Pacific which are encircled by barrier-reefs +are of volcanic origin, often with the remnants of craters still +distinguishable, not one of them is known to have ever been in +eruption. Hence in these cases it would appear that volcanos burst +forth into action and become extinguished on the same spots, +accordingly as elevatory or subsiding movements prevail there. +Numberless facts could be adduced to prove that upraised organic +remains are common wherever there are active volcanos; but until it +could be shown that in areas of subsidence volcanos were either +absent or inactive, the inference, however probable in itself, that +their distribution depended on the rising or falling of the earth’s +surface, would have been hazardous. But now, I think, we may freely +admit this important deduction.</p> + +<p>Taking a final view of the map, and bearing in mind the +statements made with respect to the upraised organic remains, we +must feel astonished at the vastness of the areas which have +suffered changes in level either downwards or upwards, within a +period not geologically remote. It would appear also that the +elevatory and subsiding movements follow nearly the same laws. +Throughout the spaces interspersed with atolls, where not a single +peak of high land has been left above the level of the sea, the +sinking must have been immense in amount. The sinking, moreover, +whether continuous, or recurrent with intervals sufficiently long +for the corals again to bring up their living edifices to the +surface, must necessarily have been extremely slow. This conclusion +is probably the most important one which can be deduced from the +study of coral formations;—and it is one which it is +difficult to imagine how otherwise could ever have been arrived at. +Nor can I quite pass over the probability of the former existence +of large archipelagoes of lofty islands, where now only rings of +coral-rock scarcely break the open expanse of the sea, throwing +some light on the distribution of the inhabitants of the other high +islands, now left standing so immensely remote from each other in +the midst of the great oceans. The reef-constructing corals have +indeed reared and preserved wonderful memorials of the subterranean +oscillations of level; we see in each barrier-reef a proof that the +land has +<a name="page512"></a> +there subsided, and in each atoll a monument over an island now +lost. We may thus, like unto a geologist who had lived his ten +thousand years and kept a record of the passing changes, gain some +insight into the great system by which the surface of this globe +has been broken up, and land and water interchanged.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl96.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl96.jpg" width="257" height="298" alt="Birgos Latro, Keeling Island" /> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl97.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl97.jpg" width="294" height="196" alt="St. Louis, Mauritius" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="page513"></a><a name="chxxi"></a>Chapter XXI<br/> +<br/> +MAURITIUS TO ENGLAND</h2> + +<p class="letter">Mauritius, beautiful appearance of—Great +crateriform ring of mountains—Hindoos—St. +Helena—History of the changes in the vegetation—Cause +of the extinction of land-shells—Ascension—Variation in +the imported rats—Volcanic bombs—Beds of +infusoria—Bahia, Brazil—Splendour of tropical +scenery—Pernambuco—Singular +reef—Slavery—Return to England—Retrospect on our +voyage.</p> + +<p> +<i>April</i> 29<i>th.</i>—In the morning we passed round the northern end +of Mauritius, or the Isle of France. From this point of view the aspect of the +island equalled the expectations raised by the many well-known descriptions of +its beautiful scenery. The sloping plain of the Pamplemousses, interspersed +with houses, and coloured by the large fields of sugar-cane of a bright green, +composed the foreground. The brilliancy of the green was the more remarkable +because it is a colour which generally is conspicuous only from a very short +distance. Towards the centre of the island groups of wooded mountains rose out +of this highly cultivated plain; their summits, as so commonly happens with +ancient volcanic rocks, being jagged +<a name="page514"></a> +into the sharpest points. Masses of white clouds were collected around these +pinnacles, as if for the sake of pleasing the stranger’s eye. The whole +island, with its sloping border and central mountains, was adorned with an air +of perfect elegance: the scenery, if I may use such an expression, appeared to +the sight harmonious. +</p> + +<p>I spent the greater part of the next day in walking about the +town and visiting different people. The town is of considerable +size, and is said to contain 20,000 inhabitants; the streets are +very clean and regular. Although the island has been so many years +under the English government, the general character of the place is +quite French: Englishmen speak to their servants in French, and the +shops are all French; indeed I should think that Calais or Boulogne +was much more Anglified. There is a very pretty little theatre in +which operas are excellently performed. We were also surprised at +seeing large booksellers’ shops, with well-stored +shelves;—music and reading bespeak our approach to the old +world of civilisation; for in truth both Australia and America are +new worlds.</p> + +<p>The various races of men walking in the streets afford the most +interesting spectacle in Port Louis. Convicts from India are +banished here for life; at present there are about 800, and they +are employed in various public works. Before seeing these people, I +had no idea that the inhabitants of India were such noble-looking +figures. Their skin is extremely dark, and many of the older men +had large mustaches and beards of a snow-white colour; this, +together with the fire of their expression, gave them quite an +imposing aspect. The greater number had been banished for murder +and the worst crimes; others for causes which can scarcely be +considered as moral faults, such as for not obeying, from +superstitious motives, the English laws. These men are generally +quiet and well-conducted; from their outward conduct, their +cleanliness and faithful observance of their strange religious +rites, it was impossible to look at them with the same eyes as on +our wretched convicts in New South Wales.</p> + +<p> +<i>May</i> 1<i>st.</i>—Sunday. I took a quiet walk along the sea-coast to +the north of the town. The plain in this part is quite uncultivated; it +consists of a field of black lava, smoothed over with coarse grass and bushes, +the latter being chiefly Mimosas. +<a name="page515"></a> +The scenery may be described as intermediate in character between that of the +Galapagos and of Tahiti; but this will convey a definite idea to very few +persons. It is a very pleasant country, but it has not the charms of Tahiti, or +the grandeur of Brazil. The next day I ascended La Pouce, a mountain so called +from a thumb-like projection, which rises close behind the town to a height of +2,600 feet. The centre of the island consists of a great platform, surrounded +by old broken basaltic mountains, with their strata dipping seawards. The +central platform, formed of comparatively recent streams of lava, is of an oval +shape, thirteen geographical miles across in the line of its shorter axis. The +exterior bounding mountains come into that class of structures called Craters +of Elevation, which are supposed to have been formed not like ordinary craters, +but by a great and sudden upheaval. There appear to me to be insuperable +objections to this view: on the other hand, I can hardly believe, in this and +in some other cases, that these marginal crateriform mountains are merely the +basal remnants of immense volcanos, of which the summits either have been blown +off or swallowed up in subterranean abysses. +</p> + +<p>From our elevated position we enjoyed an excellent view over the +island. The country on this side appears pretty well cultivated, +being divided into fields and studded with farm-houses. I was +however assured that of the whole land not more than half is yet in +a productive state; if such be the case, considering the present +large export of sugar, this island, at some future period when +thickly peopled, will be of great value. Since England has taken +possession of it, a period of only twenty-five years, the export of +sugar is said to have increased seventy-five fold. One great cause +of its prosperity is the excellent state of the roads. In the +neighbouring Isle of Bourbon, which remains under the French +government, the roads are still in the same miserable state as they +were here only a few years ago. Although the French residents must +have largely profited by the increased prosperity of their island, +yet the English government is far from popular.</p> + +<p> +3<i>rd.</i>—In the evening Captain Lloyd, the Surveyor-general, so well +known from his examination of the Isthmus of Panama, invited Mr. Stokes and +myself to his country-house, which is situated on the edge of Wilheim Plains, +and about six miles +<a name="page516"></a> +from the Port. We stayed at this delightful place two days; standing nearly 800 +feet above the sea, the air was cool and fresh, and on every side there were +delightful walks. Close by a grand ravine has been worn to a depth of about 500 +feet through the slightly inclined streams of lava, which have flowed from the +central platform. +</p> + +<p> +5<i>th.</i>—Captain Lloyd took us to the Rivière Noire, which is several +miles to the southward, that I might examine some rocks of elevated coral. We +passed through pleasant gardens, and fine fields of sugar-cane growing amidst +huge blocks of lava. The roads were bordered by hedges of Mimosa, and near many +of the houses there were avenues of the mango. Some of the views where the +peaked hills and the cultivated farms were seen together, were exceedingly +picturesque; and we were constantly tempted to exclaim “How pleasant it +would be to pass one’s life in such quiet abodes!” Captain Lloyd +possessed an elephant, and he sent it half-way with us, that we might enjoy a +ride in true Indian fashion. The circumstance which surprised me most was its +quite noiseless step. This elephant is the only one at present on the island; +but it is said others will be sent for. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>May</i> 9<i>th.</i>—We sailed from Port Louis, and, calling at the +Cape of Good Hope, on the 8th of July we arrived off St. Helena. This island, +the forbidding aspect of which has been so often described, rises abruptly like +a huge black castle from the ocean. Near the town, as if to complete +nature’s defence, small forts and guns fill up every gap in the rugged +rocks. The town runs up a flat and narrow valley; the houses look respectable, +and are interspersed with a very few green trees. When approaching the +anchorage there was one striking view: an irregular castle perched on the +summit of a lofty hill, and surrounded by a few scattered fir-trees, boldly +projected against the sky. +</p> + +<p>The next day I obtained lodgings within a stone’s throw of +Napoleon’s tomb;<a href="#fn-21.1" name="fnref-21.1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> +it was a capital central situation, whence I +<a name="page517"></a> +could make excursions in every direction. During the four days I +stayed here I wandered over the island from morning to night and +examined its geological history. My lodgings were situated at a +height of about 2000 feet; here the weather was cold and +boisterous, with constant showers of rain; and every now and then +the whole scene was veiled in thick clouds.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-21.1"></a> <a href="#fnref-21.1">[1]</a> +After the volumes of eloquence which have poured forth on this subject, it is +dangerous even to mention the tomb. A modern traveller, in twelve lines, +burdens the poor little island with the following titles,—it is a grave, +tomb, pyramid, cemetery, sepulchre, catacomb, sarcophagus, minaret, and +mausoleum!</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl98.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl98.jpg" width="299" height="204" alt="St. Helena" /> +</div> + +<p> +Near the coast the rough lava is quite bare: in the central and higher parts +feldspathic rocks by their decomposition have produced a clayey soil, which, +where not covered by vegetation, is stained in broad bands of many bright +colours. At this season the land, moistened by constant showers, produces a +singularly bright green pasture, which lower and lower down gradually fades +away and at last disappears. In latitude 16°, and at the trifling elevation +of 1500 feet, it is surprising to behold a vegetation possessing a character +decidedly British. The hills are crowned with irregular plantations of Scotch +firs; and the sloping banks are thickly scattered over with thickets of gorse, +covered with its bright yellow flowers. Weeping-willows are common on the banks +of the rivulets, and the hedges are made of the blackberry, producing its +well-known fruit. When we consider that the number of plants now found on the +island is 746, and that out of these fifty-two alone are +<a name="page518"></a> +indigenous species, the rest having been imported, and most of them from +England, we see the reason of the British character of the vegetation. Many of +these English plants appear to flourish better than in their native country; +some also from the opposite quarter of Australia succeed remarkably well. The +many imported species must have destroyed some of the native kinds; and it is +only on the highest and steepest ridges that the indigenous Flora is now +predominant. +</p> + +<p>The English, or rather Welsh character of the scenery, is kept +up by the numerous cottages and small white houses; some buried at +the bottom of the deepest valleys, and others mounted on the crests +of the lofty hills. Some of the views are striking, for instance +that from near Sir W. Doveton’s house, where the bold peak called +Lot is seen over a dark wood of firs, the whole being backed by the +red water-worn mountains of the southern coast. On viewing the +island from an eminence, the first circumstance which strikes one +is the number of the roads and forts: the labour bestowed on the +public works, if one forgets its character as a prison, seems out +of all proportion to its extent or value. There is so little level +or useful land that it seems surprising how so many people, about +5000, can subsist here. The lower orders, or the emancipated +slaves, are, I believe, extremely poor: they complain of the want +of work. From the reduction in the number of public servants, owing +to the island having been given up by the East India Company, and +the consequent emigration of many of the richer people, the poverty +probably will increase. The chief food of the working class is rice +with a little salt meat; as neither of these articles are the +products of the island, but must be purchased with money, the low +wages tell heavily on the poor people. Now that the people are +blessed with freedom, a right which I believe they value fully, it +seems probable that their numbers will quickly increase: if so, +what is to become of the little state of St. Helena?</p> + +<p>My guide was an elderly man who had been a goatherd when a boy, +and knew every step amongst the rocks. He was of a race many times +crossed, and although with a dusky skin, he had not the +disagreeable expression of a mulatto. He was a very civil, quiet +old man, and such appears the character of the greater number of +the lower classes. It was strange to +<a name="page519"></a> +my ears to hear a man, nearly white and respectably dressed, +talking with indifference of the times when he was a slave. With my +companion, who carried our dinners and a horn of water, which is +quite necessary, as all the water in the lower valleys is saline, I +every day took long walks.</p> + +<p>Beneath the upper and central green circle, the wild valleys are +quite desolate and untenanted. Here, to the geologist, there were +scenes of high interest, showing successive changes and complicated +disturbances. According to my views, St. Helena has existed as an +island from a very remote epoch: some obscure proofs, however, of +the elevation of the land are still extant. I believe that the +central and highest peaks form parts of the rim of a great crater, +the southern half of which has been entirely removed by the waves +of the sea: there is, moreover, an external wall of black basaltic +rocks, like the coast-mountains of Mauritius, which are older than +the central volcanic streams. On the higher parts of the island +considerable numbers of a shell, long thought to be a marine +species, occur imbedded in the soil. It proves to be a Cochlogena, +or land-shell of a very peculiar form;<a href="#fn-21.2" name="fnref-21.2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> +with it I found six other kinds; and in another spot an eighth species. It is +remarkable that none of them are now found living. Their extinction has +probably been caused by the entire destruction of the woods, and the consequent +loss of food and shelter, which occurred during the early part of the last +century.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-21.2"></a> <a href="#fnref-21.2">[2]</a> +It deserves notice that all the many specimens of this shell found by me in one +spot differ as a marked variety from another set of specimens procured from a +different spot. +</p> + +<p>The history of the changes which the elevated plains of Longwood +and Deadwood have undergone, as given in General Beatson’s account +of the island, is extremely curious. Both plains, it is said, in +former times were covered with wood, and were therefore called the +Great Wood. So late as the year 1716 there were many trees, but in +1724 the old trees had mostly fallen; and as goats and hogs had +been suffered to range about, all the young trees had been killed. +It appears also from the official records that the trees were +unexpectedly, some years afterwards, succeeded by a wire grass +which spread over the whole surface.<a href="#fn-21.3" name="fnref-21.3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> +General Beatson adds that now this +<a name="page520"></a> +plain “is covered with fine sward, and is become the finest +piece of pasture on the island.” The extent of surface, probably +covered by wood at a former period, is estimated at no less than +two thousand acres; at the present day scarcely a single tree can +be found there. It is also said that in 1709 there were quantities +of dead trees in Sandy Bay; this place is now so utterly desert +that nothing but so well attested an account could have made me +believe that they could ever have grown there. The fact that the +goats and hogs destroyed all the young trees as they sprang up, and +that in the course of time the old ones, which were safe from their +attacks, perished from age, seems clearly made out. Goats were +introduced in the year 1502; eighty-six years afterwards, in the +time of Cavendish, it is known that they were exceedingly numerous. +More than a century afterwards, in 1731, when the evil was complete +and irretrievable, an order was issued that all stray animals +should be destroyed. It is very interesting thus to find that the +arrival of animals at St. Helena in 1501 did not change the whole +aspect of the island, until a period of two hundred and twenty +years had elapsed: for the goats were introduced in 1502, and in +1724 it is said “the old trees had mostly fallen.” There can be +little doubt that this great change in the vegetation affected not +only the land-shells, causing eight species to become extinct, but +likewise a multitude of insects.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-21.3"></a> <a href="#fnref-21.3">[3]</a> +Beatson’s <i>St. Helena</i>. Introductory chapter, p. 4. +</p> + +<p>St. Helena, situated so remote from any continent, in the midst +of a great ocean, and possessing a unique Flora, excites our +curiosity. The eight land-shells, though now extinct, and one +living Succinea, are peculiar species found nowhere else. Mr. +Cuming, however, informs me that an English Helix is common here, +its eggs no doubt having been imported in some of the many +introduced plants. Mr. Cuming collected on the coast sixteen +species of sea-shells, of which seven, as far as he knows, are +confined to this island. Birds and insects,<a href="#fn-21.4" name="fnref-21.4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> +as +<a name="page521"></a> +might have been expected, are very few in number; indeed I +believe all the birds have been introduced within late years. +Partridges and pheasants are tolerably abundant; the island is much +too English not to be subject to strict game-laws. I was told of a +more unjust sacrifice to such ordinances than I ever heard of even +in England. The poor people formerly used to burn a plant which +grows on the coast-rocks, and export the soda from its ashes; but a +peremptory order came out prohibiting this practice, and giving as +a reason that the partridges would have nowhere to build!</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-21.4"></a> <a href="#fnref-21.4">[4]</a> +Among these few insects I was surprised to find a small Aphodius (nov. spec.) +and an Oryctes, both extremely numerous under dung. When the island was +discovered it certainly possessed no quadruped excepting <i>perhaps</i> a +mouse: it becomes, therefore, a difficult point to ascertain, whether these +stercovorous insects have since been imported by accident, or if aborigines, on +what food they formerly subsisted. On the banks of the Plata, where, from the +vast number of cattle and horses, the fine plains of turf are richly manured, +it is vain to seek the many kinds of dung-feeding beetles which occur so +abundantly in Europe. I observed only an Oryctes (the insects of this genus in +Europe generally feed on decayed vegetable matter) and two species of Phanæus, +common in such situations. On the opposite side of the Cordillera in Chiloe +another species of Phanæus is exceedingly abundant, and it buries the dung of +the cattle in large earthen balls beneath the ground. There is reason to +believe that the genus Phanæus, before the introduction of cattle, acted as +scavengers to man. In Europe beetles which find support in the matter which has +already contributed towards the life of other and larger animals, are so +numerous that there must be considerably more than one hundred different +species. Considering this, and observing what a quantity of food of this kind +is lost on the plains of La Plata, I imagined I saw an instance where man had +disturbed that chain by which so many animals are linked together in their +native country. In Van Diemen’s Land, however, I found four species of +Onthophagus, two of Aphodius, and one of a third genus, very abundant under the +dung of cows; yet these latter animals had been then introduced only +thirty-three years. Previous to that time the kangaroo and some other small +animals were the only quadrupeds; and their dung is of a very different quality +from that of their successors introduced by man. In England the greater number +of stercovorous beetles are confined in their appetites; that is, they do not +depend indifferently on any quadruped for the means of subsistence. The change, +therefore, in habits which must have taken place in Van Diemen’s Land is +highly remarkable. I am indebted to the Reverend F. W. Hope, who, I hope, will +permit me to call him my master in Entomology, for giving me the names of the +foregoing insects.</p> + +<p>In my walks I passed more than once over the grassy plain, +bounded by deep valleys, on which Longwood stands. Viewed from a +short distance, it appears like a respectable gentleman’s +country-seat. In front there are a few cultivated fields, and +beyond them the smooth hill of coloured rocks called the Flagstaff, +and the rugged square black mass of the Barn. On the whole the view +was rather bleak and uninteresting. The only inconvenience I +suffered during my walks was from the impetuous winds. One day I +noticed a curious circumstance: standing on the edge of a plain, +terminated by a great cliff of about a thousand feet in depth, I +saw at the distance of a few yards right to windward, some tern, +struggling against a very strong breeze, whilst, where I stood, the +air was quite calm. +<a name="page522"></a> +Approaching close to the brink, where the current seemed to be +deflected upwards from the face of the cliff, I stretched out my +arm, and immediately felt the full force of the wind: an invisible +barrier, two yards in width, separated perfectly calm air from a +strong blast.</p> + +<p> +I so much enjoyed my rambles among the rocks and mountains of St. Helena that I +felt almost sorry on the morning of the 14th to descend to the town. Before +noon I was on board, and the <i>Beagle</i> made sail. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +On the 19th of July we reached Ascension. Those who have beheld a volcanic +island situated under an arid climate will at once be able to picture to +themselves the appearance of Ascension. They will imagine smooth conical hills +of a bright red colour, with their summits generally truncated, rising +separately out of a level surface of black rugged lava. A principal mound in +the centre of the island seems the father of the lesser cones. It is called +Green Hill: its name being taken from the faintest tinge of that colour, which +at this time of the year is barely perceptible from the anchorage. To complete +the desolate scene, the black rocks on the coast are lashed by a wild and +turbulent sea. +</p> + +<p>The settlement is near the beach; it consists of several houses +and barracks placed irregularly, but well built of white freestone. +The only inhabitants are marines, and some negroes liberated from +slave-ships, who are paid and victualled by government. There is +not a private person on the island. Many of the marines appeared +well contented with their situation; they think it better to serve +their one-and-twenty years on shore, let it be what it may, than in +a ship; in this choice, if I were a marine, I should most heartily +agree.</p> + +<p>The next morning I ascended Green Hill, 2840 feet high, and +thence walked across the island to the windward point. A good +cart-road leads from the coast-settlement to the houses, gardens, +and fields, placed near the summit of the central mountain. On the +roadside there are milestones, and likewise cisterns, where each +thirsty passer-by can drink some good water. Similar care is +displayed in each part of the establishment, and especially in the +management of the springs, so that a single drop of water may not +be lost: indeed the whole island +<a name="page523"></a> +may be compared to a huge ship kept in first-rate order. I could +not help, when admiring the active industry which had created such +effects out of such means, at the same time regretting that it had +been wasted on so poor and trifling an end. M. Lesson has remarked +with justice that the English nation would have thought of making +the island of Ascension a productive spot, any other people would +have held it as a mere fortress in the ocean.</p> + +<p>Near this coast nothing grows; farther inland an occasional +green castor-oil plant, and a few grasshoppers, true friends of the +desert, may be met with. Some grass is scattered over the surface +of the central elevated region, and the whole much resembles the +worse parts of the Welsh mountains. But, scanty as the pasture +appears, about six hundred sheep, many goats, a few cows and +horses, all thrive well on it. Of native animals, land-crabs and +rats swarm in numbers. Whether the rat is really indigenous may +well be doubted; there are two varieties as described by Mr. +Waterhouse; one is of a black colour, with fine glossy fur, and +lives on the grassy summit, the other is brown-coloured and less +glossy, with longer hairs, and lives near the settlement on the +coast. Both these varieties are one-third smaller than the common +black rat (M. rattus); and they differ from it both in the colour +and character of their fur, but in no other essential respect. I +can hardly doubt that these rats (like the common mouse, which has +also run wild) have been imported, and, as at the Galapagos, have +varied from the effect of the new conditions to which they have +been exposed: hence the variety on the summit of the island differs +from that on the coast. Of native birds there are none; but the +guinea-fowl, imported from the Cape de Verd Islands, is abundant, +and the common fowl has likewise run wild. Some cats which were +originally turned out to destroy the rats and mice, have increased, +so as to become a great plague. The island is entirely without +trees, in which, and in every other respect, it is very far +inferior to St. Helena.</p> + +<p>One of my excursions took me towards the south-west extremity of +the island. The day was clear and hot, and I saw the island, not +smiling with beauty, but staring with naked hideousness. The lava +streams are covered with hummocks, and are rugged to a degree +which, geologically speaking, is not of easy +<a name="page524"></a> +explanation. The intervening spaces are concealed with layers of +pumice, ashes and volcanic tuff. Whilst passing this end of the +island at sea, I could not imagine what the white patches were with +which the whole plain was mottled; I now found that they were +sea-fowl, sleeping in such full confidence, that even in mid-day a +man could walk up and seize hold of them. These birds were the only +living creatures I saw during the whole day. On the beach a great +surf, although the breeze was light, came tumbling over the broken +lava rocks.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl99.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl99.jpg" width="185" height="210" alt="Cellular formation of volcanic bomb" /> +</div> + +<p> +The geology of this island is in many respects interesting. In several places I +noticed volcanic bombs, that is, masses of lava which have been shot through +the air whilst fluid, and have consequently assumed a spherical or pear-shape. +Not only their external form, but, in several cases, their internal structure +shows in a very curious manner that they have revolved in their aërial course. +The internal structure of one of these bombs, when broken, is represented very +accurately in Plate 103. The central part is coarsely cellular, the cells +decreasing in size towards the exterior; where there is a shell-like case about +the third of an inch in thickness, of compact stone, which again is overlaid by +the outside crust of finely cellular lava. I think there can be little doubt, +first, that the external crust cooled rapidly in the state in which we now see +it; +<a name="page525"></a> +secondly, that the still fluid lava within was packed by the centrifugal force +generated by the revolving of the bomb, against the external cooled crust, and +so produced the solid shell of stone; and lastly, that the centrifugal force, +by relieving the pressure in the more central parts of the bomb, allowed the +heated vapours to expand their cells, thus forming the coarse cellular mass of +the centre. +</p> + +<p>A hill formed of the older series of volcanic rocks, and which +has been incorrectly considered as the crater of a volcano, is +remarkable from its broad, slightly hollowed, and circular summit +having been filled up with many successive layers of ashes and fine +scoriæ. These saucer-shaped layers crop out on the margin, +forming perfect rings of many different colours, giving to the +summit a most fantastic appearance; one of these rings is white and +broad, and resembles a course round which horses have been +exercised; hence the hill has been called the Devil’s Riding +School. I brought away specimens of one of the tufaceous layers of +a pinkish colour and it is a most extraordinary fact that Professor +Ehrenberg<a href="#fn-21.5" name="fnref-21.5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> +finds it almost wholly composed of matter which has been organised; he detects +in it some siliceous-shielded, fresh-water infusoria, and no less than +twenty-five different kinds of the siliceous tissue of plants, chiefly of +grasses. From the absence of all carbonaceous matter, Professor Ehrenberg +believes that these organic bodies have passed through the volcanic fire, and +have been erupted in the state in which we now see them. The appearance of the +layers induced me to believe that they had been deposited under water, though +from the extreme dryness of the climate I was forced to imagine that torrents +of rain had probably fallen during some great eruption, and that thus a +temporary lake had been formed into which the ashes fell. But it may now be +suspected that the lake was not a temporary one. Anyhow we may feel sure that +at some former epoch the climate and productions of Ascension were very +different from what they now are. Where on the face of the earth can we find a +spot on which close investigation will not discover signs of that endless cycle +of change, to which this earth has been, is, and will be subjected?</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-21.5"></a> <a href="#fnref-21.5">[5]</a> +<i>Monats. der König. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin,</i> Vom April 1845. +</p> + +<p>On leaving Ascension, we sailed for Bahia, on the coast of +<a name="page526"></a> +Brazil, in order to complete the chronometrical measurement of +the world. We arrived there on August 1st, and stayed four days, +during which I took several long walks. I was glad to find my +enjoyment in tropical scenery had not decreased from the want of +novelty, even in the slightest degree. The elements of the scenery +are so simple that they are worth mentioning, as a proof on what +trifling circumstances exquisite natural beauty depends.</p> + +<p>The country may be described as a level plain of about three +hundred feet in elevation, which in all parts has been worn into +flat-bottomed valleys. This structure is remarkable in a granitic +land, but is nearly universal in all those softer formations of +which plains are usually composed. The whole surface is covered by +various kinds of stately trees, interspersed with patches of +cultivated ground, out of which houses, convents, and chapels +arise. It must be remembered that within the tropics the wild +luxuriance of nature is not lost even in the vicinity of large +cities: for the natural vegetation of the hedges and hill-sides +overpowers in picturesque effect the artificial labour of man. +Hence, there are only a few spots where the bright red soil affords +a strong contrast with the universal clothing of green. From the +edges of the plain there are distant views either of the ocean, or +of the great Bay with its low-wooded shores, and on which numerous +boats and canoes show their white sails. Excepting from these +points, the scene is extremely limited; following the level +pathways, on each hand, only glimpses into the wooded valleys below +can be obtained. The houses I may add, and especially the sacred +edifices, are built in a peculiar and rather fantastic style of +architecture. They are all whitewashed; so that when illumined by +the brilliant sun of mid-day, and as seen against the pale blue sky +of the horizon, they stand out more like shadows than real +buildings.</p> + +<p>Such are the elements of the scenery, but it is a hopeless +attempt to paint the general effect. Learned naturalists describe +these scenes of the tropics by naming a multitude of objects, and +mentioning some characteristic feature of each. To a learned +traveller this possibly may communicate some definite ideas: but +who else from seeing a plant in an herbarium can imagine its +appearance when growing in its native soil? Who from seeing choice +plants in a hothouse can +<a name="page527"></a> +magnify some into the dimensions of forest trees, and crowd +others into an entangled jungle? Who when examining in the cabinet +of the entomologist the gay exotic butterflies, and singular +cicadas, will associate with these lifeless objects the ceaseless +harsh music of the latter and the lazy flight of the +former,—the sure accompaniments of the still, glowing noonday +of the tropics? It is when the sun has attained its greatest height +that such scenes should be viewed: then the dense splendid foliage +of the mango hides the ground with its darkest shade, whilst the +upper branches are rendered from the profusion of light of the most +brilliant green. In the temperate zones the case is +different—the vegetation there is not so dark or so rich, and +hence the rays of the declining sun, tinged of a red, purple, or +bright yellow colour, add most to the beauties of those climes.</p> + +<p>When quietly walking along the shady pathways, and admiring each +successive view, I wished to find language to express my ideas. +Epithet after epithet was found too weak to convey to those who +have not visited the intertropical regions the sensation of delight +which the mind experiences. I have said that the plants in a +hothouse fail to communicate a just idea of the vegetation, yet I +must recur to it. The land is one great wild, untidy, luxuriant +hothouse, made by Nature for herself, but taken possession of by +man, who has studded it with gay houses and formal gardens. How +great would be the desire in every admirer of nature to behold, if +such were possible, the scenery of another planet! yet to every +person in Europe, it may be truly said, that at the distance of +only a few degrees from his native soil the glories of another +world are opened to him. In my last walk I stopped again and again +to gaze on these beauties, and endeavoured to fix in my mind for +ever an impression which at the time I knew sooner or later must +fail. The form of the orange-tree, the cocoa-nut, the palm, the +mango, the tree-fern, the banana, will remain clear and separate; +but the thousand beauties which unite these into one perfect scene +must fade away: yet they will leave, like a tale heard in +childhood, a picture full of indistinct, but most beautiful +figures.</p> + +<p> +<i>August</i> 6<i>th.</i>—In the afternoon we stood out to sea, with the +intention of making a direct course to the Cape de Verd +<a name="page528"></a> +Islands. Unfavourable winds, however, delayed us, and on the 12th we ran into +Pernambuco,—a large city on the coast of Brazil, in latitude 8° +south. We anchored outside the reef; but in a short time a pilot came on board +and took us into the inner harbour, where we lay close to the town. +</p> + +<p>Pernambuco is built on some narrow and low sand-banks which are +separated from each other by shoal channels of salt water. The +three parts of the town are connected together by two long bridges +built on wooden piles. The town is in all parts disgusting, the +streets being narrow, ill-paved, and filthy; the houses tall and +gloomy. The season of heavy rains had hardly come to an end, and +hence the surrounding country, which is scarcely raised above the +level of the sea, was flooded with water; and I failed in all my +attempts to take long walks.</p> + +<p>The flat swampy land on which Pernambuco stands is surrounded, +at the distance of a few miles, by a semicircle of low hills, or +rather by the edge of a country elevated perhaps two hundred feet +above the sea. The old city of Olinda stands on one extremity of +this range. One day I took a canoe, and proceeded up one of the +channels to visit it; I found the old town from its situation both +sweeter and cleaner than that of Pernambuco. I must here +commemorate what happened for the first time during our nearly five +years’ wandering, namely, having met with a want of politeness; I +was refused in a sullen manner at two different houses, and +obtained with difficulty from a third, permission to pass through +their gardens to an uncultivated hill, for the purpose of viewing +the country. I feel glad that this happened in the land of the +Brazilians, for I bear them no good will—a land also of +slavery, and therefore of moral debasement. A Spaniard would have +felt ashamed at the very thought of refusing such a request, or of +behaving to a stranger with rudeness. The channel by which we went +to and returned from Olinda was bordered on each side by mangroves, +which sprang like a miniature forest out of the greasy mud-banks. +The bright green colour of these bushes always reminded me of the +rank grass in a churchyard: both are nourished by putrid +exhalations; the one speaks of death past, and the other too often +of death to come.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl100.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl100.jpg" width="199" height="100" alt="Cicada Homoptera" /> +</div> + +<p> +<a name="page529"></a> +The most curious object which I saw in this neighbourhood was +the reef that forms the harbour. I doubt whether in the whole world +any other natural structure has so artificial an +appearance.<a href="#fn-21.6" name="fnref-21.6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> +It runs for a length of several miles in an absolutely straight line, parallel +to and not far distant from the shore. It varies in width from thirty to sixty +yards, and its surface is level and smooth; it is composed of +obscurely-stratified hard sandstone. At high water the waves break over it; at +low water its summit is left dry, and it might then be mistaken for a +breakwater erected by Cyclopean workmen. On this coast the currents of the sea +tend to throw up in front of the land long spits and bars of loose sand, and on +one of these part of the town of Pernambuco stands. In former times a long spit +of this nature seems to have become consolidated by the percolation of +calcareous matter, and afterwards to have been gradually upheaved; the outer +and loose parts during this process having been worn away by the action of the +sea, and the solid nucleus left as we now see it. Although night and day the +waves of the open Atlantic, turbid with sediment, are driven against the steep +outside edges of this wall of stone, yet the oldest pilots know of no tradition +of any change in its appearance. This durability is much the most curious fact +in its history: it is due to a tough layer, a few inches thick, of calcareous +matter, wholly formed by the successive growth and death of the small shells of +Serpulæ, together with some few barnacles and nulliporæ. These nulliporæ, which +are hard, very simply-organised sea-plants, play an analogous and important +part in protecting the upper surfaces of coral-reefs, behind and within the +breakers, where +<a name="page530"></a> +the true corals, during the outward growth of the mass, become +killed by exposure to the sun and air. These insignificant organic +beings, especially the Serpulæ, have done good service to the +people of Pernambuco; for without their protective aid the bar of +sandstone would inevitably have been long ago worn away and without +the bar, there would have been no harbour.</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-21.6"></a> <a href="#fnref-21.6">[6]</a> +I have described this Bar in detail in the <i>Lond. and Edin. Phil. Mag.</i> +vol. xix, (1841) p. 257. +</p> + +<p>On the 19th of August we finally left the shores of Brazil. I +thank God, I shall never again visit a slave-country. To this day, +if I hear a distant scream, it recalls with painful vividness my +feelings, when passing a house near Pernambuco, I heard the most +pitiable moans, and could not but suspect that some poor slave was +being tortured, yet knew that I was as powerless as a child even to +remonstrate. I suspected that these moans were from a tortured +slave, for I was told that this was the case in another instance. +Near Rio de Janeiro I lived opposite to an old lady, who kept +screws to crush the fingers of her female slaves. I have stayed in +a house where a young household mulatto, daily and hourly, was +reviled, beaten, and persecuted enough to break the spirit of the +lowest animal. I have seen a little boy, six or seven years old, +struck thrice with a horse-whip (before I could interfere) on his +naked head, for having handed me a glass of water not quite clean; +I saw his father tremble at a mere glance from his master’s eye. +These latter cruelties were witnessed by me in a Spanish colony, in +which it has always been said that slaves are better treated than +by the Portuguese, English, or other European nations. I have seen +at Rio de Janeiro a powerful negro afraid to ward off a blow +directed, as he thought, at his face. I was present when a +kind-hearted man was on the point of separating forever the men, +women, and little children of a large number of families who had +long lived together. I will not even allude to the many +heart-sickening atrocities which I authentically heard +of;—nor would I have mentioned the above revolting details, +had I not met with several people, so blinded by the constitutional +gaiety of the negro as to speak of slavery as a tolerable evil. +Such people have generally visited at the houses of the upper +classes, where the domestic slaves are usually well treated, and +they have not, like myself, lived amongst the lower classes. Such +inquirers will ask +<a name="page531"></a> +slaves about their condition; they forget that the slave must +indeed be dull who does not calculate on the chance of his answer +reaching his master’s ears.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl101.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl101.jpg" width="258" height="214" alt="Homeward bound" /> +</div> + +<p>It is argued that self-interest will prevent excessive cruelty; +as if self-interest protected our domestic animals, which are far +less likely than degraded slaves to stir up the rage of their +savage masters. It is an argument long since protested against with +noble feeling, and strikingly exemplified, by the ever-illustrious +Humboldt. It is often attempted to palliate slavery by comparing +the state of slaves with our poorer countrymen: if the misery of +our poor be caused not by the laws of nature, but by our +institutions, great is our sin; but how this bears on slavery, I +cannot see; as well might the use of the thumb-screw be defended in +one land, by showing that men in another land suffered from some +dreadful disease. Those who look tenderly at the slave owner, and +with a cold heart at the slave, never seem to put themselves into +the position of the latter;—what a cheerless prospect, with +not even a hope of change! picture to yourself the chance, ever +hanging over you, of your wife and your little children—those +objects which nature urges even the slave to call his +own—being torn from you and sold like beasts to the first +bidder! +<a name="page532"></a> +And these deeds are done and palliated by men who profess to +love their neighbours as themselves, who believe in God, and pray +that His Will be done on earth! It makes one’s blood boil, yet +heart tremble, to think that we Englishmen and our American +descendants, with their boastful cry of liberty, have been and are +so guilty; but it is a consolation to reflect, that we at least +have made a greater sacrifice than ever made by any nation, to +expiate our sin.</p> + +<p class="p2"> +On the last day of August we anchored for the second time at Porto Praya in the +Cape de Verd archipelago; thence we proceeded to the Azores, where we stayed +six days. On the 2nd of October we made the shores of England; and at Falmouth +I left the <i>Beagle</i>, having lived on board the good little vessel nearly +five years. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +Our Voyage having come to an end, I will take a short retrospect of the +advantages and disadvantages, the pains and pleasures, of our circumnavigation +of the world. If a person asked my advice, before undertaking a long voyage, my +answer would depend upon his possessing a decided taste for some branch of +knowledge, which could by this means be advanced. No doubt it is a high +satisfaction to behold various countries and the many races of mankind, but the +pleasures gained at the time do not counterbalance the evils. It is necessary +to look forward to a harvest, however distant that may be, when some fruit will +be reaped, some good effected. +</p> + +<p>Many of the losses which must be experienced are obvious; such +as that of the society of every old friend, and of the sight of +those places with which every dearest remembrance is so intimately +connected. These losses, however, are at the time partly relieved +by the exhaustless delight of anticipating the long-wished-for day +of return. If, as poets say, life is a dream, I am sure in a voyage +these are the visions which best serve to pass away the long night. +Other losses, although not at first felt, tell heavily after a +period: these are the want of room, of seclusion, of rest; the +jading feeling of constant hurry; the privation of small luxuries, +the loss of domestic society and even of music and the other +pleasures of imagination. When such trifles are mentioned, it is +evident that the real grievances, +<a name="page533"></a> +excepting from accidents, of a sea-life are at an end. The short +space of sixty years has made an astonishing difference in the +facility of distant navigation. Even in the time of Cook, a man who +left his fireside for such expeditions underwent severe privations. +A yacht now, with every luxury of life, can circumnavigate the +globe. Besides the vast improvements in ships and naval resources, +the whole western shores of America are thrown open, and Australia +has become the capital of a rising continent. How different are the +circumstances to a man shipwrecked at the present day in the +Pacific, to what they were in the time of Cook! Since his voyage a +hemisphere has been added to the civilised world.</p> + +<p>If a person suffer much from sea-sickness, let him weigh it +heavily in the balance. I speak from experience: it is no trifling +evil, cured in a week. If, on the other hand, he take pleasure in +naval tactics, he will assuredly have full scope for his taste. But +it must be borne in mind how large a proportion of the time, during +a long voyage, is spent on the water, as compared with the days in +harbour. And what are the boasted glories of the illimitable ocean? +A tedious waste, a desert of water, as the Arabian calls it. No +doubt there are some delightful scenes. A moonlight night, with the +clear heavens and the dark glittering sea, and the white sails +filled by the soft air of a gently-blowing trade-wind, a dead calm, +with the heaving surface polished like a mirror, and all still +except the occasional flapping of the canvas. It is well once to +behold a squall with its rising arch and coming fury, or the heavy +gale of wind and mountainous waves. I confess, however, my +imagination had painted something more grand, more terrific, in the +full-grown storm. It is an incomparably finer spectacle when beheld +on shore, where the waving trees, the wild flight of the birds, the +dark shadows and bright lights, the rushing of the torrents, all +proclaim the strife of the unloosed elements. At sea the albatross +and little petrel fly as if the storm were their proper sphere, the +water rises and sinks as if fulfilling its usual task, the ship +alone and its inhabitants seem the objects of wrath. On a forlorn +and weather-beaten coast the scene is indeed different, but the +feelings partake more of horror than of wild delight.</p> + +<p>Let us now look at the brighter side of the past time. The +<a name="page534"></a> +pleasure derived from beholding the scenery and the general +aspect of the various countries we have visited has decidedly been +the most constant and highest source of enjoyment. It is probable +that the picturesque beauty of many parts of Europe exceeds +anything which we beheld. But there is a growing pleasure in +comparing the character of the scenery in different countries, +which to a certain degree is distinct from merely admiring its +beauty. It depends chiefly on an acquaintance with the individual +parts of each view; I am strongly induced to believe that as in +music, the person who understands every note will, if he also +possesses a proper taste, more thoroughly enjoy the whole, so he +who examines each part of a fine view may also thoroughly +comprehend the full and combined effect. Hence, a traveller should +be a botanist, for in all views plants form the chief +embellishment. Group masses of naked rock even in the wildest +forms, and they may for a time afford a sublime spectacle, but they +will soon grow monotonous. Paint them with bright and varied +colours, as in Northern Chile, they will become fantastic; clothe +them with vegetation, they must form a decent, if not a beautiful +picture.</p> + +<p>When I say that the scenery of parts of Europe is probably +superior to anything which we beheld, I except, as a class by +itself, that of the intertropical zones. The two classes cannot be +compared together; but I have already often enlarged on the +grandeur of those regions. As the force of impressions generally +depends on preconceived ideas, I may add that mine were taken from +the vivid descriptions in the <i>Personal Narrative</i> of +Humboldt, which far exceed in merit anything else which I have +read. Yet with these high-wrought ideas, my feelings were far from +partaking of a tinge of disappointment on my first and final +landing on the shores of Brazil.</p> + +<p>Among the scenes which are deeply impressed on my mind, none +exceed in sublimity the primeval forests undefaced by the hand of +man; whether those of Brazil, where the powers of Life are +predominant, or those of Tierra del Fuego, where Death and Decay +prevail. Both are temples filled with the varied productions of the +God of Nature:—no one can stand in these solitudes unmoved, +and not feel that there is more in man than the mere breath of his +body. In calling up images of the past, I find that the plains of +Patagonia +<a name="page535"></a> +frequently cross before my eyes; yet these plains are pronounced +by all wretched and useless. They can be described only by negative +characters; without habitations, without water, without trees, +without mountains, they support merely a few dwarf plants. Why, +then, and the case is not peculiar to myself, have these arid +wastes taken so firm a hold on my memory? Why have not the still +more level, the greener and more fertile Pampas, which are +serviceable to mankind, produced an equal impression? I can +scarcely analyse these feelings: but it must be partly owing to the +free scope given to the imagination. The plains of Patagonia are +boundless, for they are scarcely passable, and hence unknown: they +bear the stamp of having lasted, as they are now, for ages, and +there appears no limit to their duration through future time. If, +as the ancients supposed, the flat earth was surrounded by an +impassable breadth of water, or by deserts heated to an intolerable +excess, who would not look at these last boundaries to man’s +knowledge with deep but ill-defined sensations?</p> + +<p>Lastly, of natural scenery, the views from lofty mountains, +though certainly in one sense not beautiful, are very memorable. +When looking down from the highest crest of the Cordillera, the +mind, undisturbed by minute details, was filled with the stupendous +dimensions of the surrounding masses.</p> + +<p>Of individual objects, perhaps nothing is more certain to create +astonishment than the first sight in his native haunt of a +barbarian,—of man in his lowest and most savage state. One’s +mind hurries back over past centuries, and then asks, Could our +progenitors have been men like these?—men, whose very signs +and expressions are less intelligible to us than those of the +domesticated animals; men, who do not possess the instinct of those +animals, nor yet appear to boast of human reason, or at least of +arts consequent on that reason. I do not believe it is possible to +describe or paint the difference between savage and civilised man. +It is the difference between a wild and tame animal: and part of +the interest in beholding a savage is the same which would lead +every one to desire to see the lion in his desert, the tiger +tearing his prey in the jungle, or the rhinoceros wandering over +the wild plains of Africa.</p> + +<p>Among the other most remarkable spectacles which we +<a name="page536"></a> +have beheld, may be ranked the Southern Cross, the cloud of +Magellan, and the other constellations of the southern +hemisphere—the waterspout—the glacier leading its blue +stream of ice, overhanging the sea in a bold precipice—a +lagoon-island raised by the reef-building corals—an active +volcano—and the overwhelming effects of a violent earthquake. +These latter phenomena, perhaps, possess for me a peculiar +interest, from their intimate connexion with the geological +structure of the world. The earthquake, however, must be to every +one a most impressive event: the earth, considered from our +earliest childhood as the type of solidity, has oscillated like a +thin crust beneath our feet; and in seeing the laboured works of +man in a moment overthrown, we feel the insignificance of his +boasted power.</p> + +<p>It has been said that the love of the chase is an inherent +delight in man—a relic of an instinctive passion. If so, I am +sure the pleasure of living in the open air, with the sky for a +roof and the ground for a table, is part of the same feeling; it is +the savage returning to his wild and native habits. I always look +back to our boat cruises, and my land journeys, when through +unfrequented countries, with an extreme delight, which no scenes of +civilisation could have created. I do not doubt that every +traveller must remember the glowing sense of happiness which he +experienced when he first breathed in a foreign clime where the +civilised man had seldom or never trod.</p> + +<p>There are several other sources of enjoyment in a long voyage +which are of a more reasonable nature. The map of the world ceases +to be a blank; it becomes a picture full of the most varied and +animated figures. Each part assumes its proper dimensions: +continents are not looked at in the light of islands, or islands +considered as mere specks, which are, in truth, larger than many +kingdoms of Europe. Africa, or North and South America, are +well-sounding names, and easily pronounced; but it is not until +having sailed for weeks along small portions of their shores, that +one is thoroughly convinced what vast spaces on our immense world +these names imply.</p> + +<p>From seeing the present state, it is impossible not to look +forward with high expectations to the future progress of nearly an +entire hemisphere. The march of improvement, consequent +<a name="page537"></a> +on the introduction of Christianity throughout the South Sea, +probably stands by itself in the records of history. It is the more +striking when we remember that only sixty years since, Cook, whose +excellent judgment none will dispute, could foresee no prospect of +a change. Yet these changes have now been effected by the +philanthropic spirit of the British nation.</p> + +<p>In the same quarter of the globe Australia is rising, or indeed +may be said to have risen, into a grand centre of civilisation, +which, at some not very remote period, will rule as empress over +the southern hemisphere. It is impossible for an Englishman to +behold these distant colonies without a high pride and +satisfaction. To hoist the British flag seems to draw with it as a +certain consequence, wealth, prosperity, and civilisation.</p> + +<p>In conclusion it appears to me that nothing can be more +improving to a young naturalist than a journey in distant +countries. It both sharpens and partly allays that want and +craving, which, as Sir J. Herschel remarks, a man experiences +although every corporeal sense be fully satisfied. The excitement +from the novelty of objects, and the chance of success, stimulate +him to increased activity. Moreover, as a number of isolated facts +soon become uninteresting, the habit of comparison leads to +generalisation. On the other hand, as the traveller stays but a +short time in each place, his descriptions must generally consist +of mere sketches, instead of detailed observations. Hence arises, +as I have found to my cost, a constant tendency to fill up the wide +gaps of knowledge by inaccurate and superficial hypotheses.</p> + +<p>But I have too deeply enjoyed the voyage, not to recommend any +naturalist, although he must not expect to be so fortunate in his +companions as I have been, to take all chances, and to start, on +travels by land if possible, if otherwise, on a long voyage. He may +feel assured he will meet with no difficulties or dangers, +excepting in rare cases, nearly so bad as he beforehand +anticipates. In a moral point of view the effect ought to be to +teach him good-humoured patience, freedom from selfishness, the +habit of acting for himself, and of making the best of every +occurrence. In short, he ought to partake of the characteristic +qualities of most sailors. Travelling ought +<a name="page538"></a> +also to teach him distrust; but at the same time he will +discover how many truly kind-hearted people there are, with whom he +never before had, or ever again will have any further +communication, who yet are ready to offer him the most +disinterested assistance.</p> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="pl102.jpg"></a> +<img src="images/pl102.jpg" width="328" height="231" alt="Ascension. Terns and noddies" /> +</div> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="plates"></a>List of Illustrations</h2> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a href="#frontis.jpg">H.M.S. <i>Beagle</i> in Straits of Magellan. Mt. Sarmiento in the distance.</a> <br/> +<a href="#fullsail.jpg">H.M.S. <i>Beagle</i> under full sail, view from astern.</a><br/> +<a href="#section.jpg">H.M.S. <i>Beagle</i>: Middle section fore and aft, upper deck, 1832.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl1.jpg">Fernando Noronha.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl2.jpg">Incrustation of shelly sand.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl3.jpg">Diodon Maculatus (Distended and Contracted).</a><br/> +<a href="#pl4.jpg">Pelagic Confervæ.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl5.jpg">Catamaran (Bahia).</a><br/> +<a href="#pl6.jpg">Botofogo Bay, Rio Janeiro.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl7.jpg">Vampire Bat (Desmodus D’Orbigny).</a><br/> +<a href="#pl8.jpg">Virgin Forest.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl9.jpg">Cabbage Palm.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl10.jpg">Mandioca or Cassava.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl11.jpg">Rio Janeiro.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl12.jpg">Darwin’s Papilio Feronia, 1833, now called Ageronia feronia, 1889.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl13.jpg">Hydrochærus capybara or Water-hog.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl14.jpg">Recado or Surcingle of Gaucho.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl15.jpg">Halt at a Pulperia on the Pampas.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl16.jpg">El Carmen, or Patagones, Rio Negro.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl17.jpg">Brazilian whips.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl17a.jpg">Brazilian hobbles and spurs.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl18.jpg">Bringing in a prisoner.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl19.jpg">Irregular troops.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl20.jpg">Skinning uji or water serpents.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl21.jpg">Rhea Darwinii (Avestruz Petise).</a><br/> +<a href="#pl22.jpg">Landing at Buenos Ayres.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl23.jpg">Maté pots and bambillio.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl24.jpg">Giant thistle of pampas.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl24.jpg">Cynara Cardunculus or Cardoon.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl25.jpg">Evening camp, Buenos Ayres.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl26.jpg">Rozario.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl27.jpg">Parana River.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl28.jpg">Toxodon Platensis. (Found at Saladillo.)</a><br/> +<a href="#pl29.jpg">Fossil tooth of horse. (From Bahia Blanca.)</a><br/> +<a href="#pl30.jpg">Mylodon.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl31.jpg">Head of Scissor-beak.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl31.jpg">Rhynchops Nigra, or Scissor-beak.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl32.jpg">Buenos Ayres bullock-waggons.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl33.jpg">Fuegians and wigwams.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl34.jpg">Opuntia Darwinii.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl35.jpg">Raised beaches, Patagonia.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl36.jpg">Ladies’ combs, banda oriental.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl37.jpg">Condor (Sarcorhamphus gryphus).</a><br/> +<a href="#pl38.jpg">Basaltic Glen, Santa Cruz.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl39.jpg">Berkeley Sound, Falkland Islands.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl40.jpg">York Minster (Bearing S. 66° east.)</a><br/> +<a href="#pl41.jpg">Cape Horn.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl42.jpg">Cape Horn (another view).</a><br/> +<a href="#pl43.jpg">Bad weather, Magellan Straits.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl44.jpg">Fuegian basket and bone weapons.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl45.jpg">False Horn, Cape Horn.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl46.jpg">Wollaston Island, Tierra del Fuego.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl47.jpg">Patagonians from Cape Gregory.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl48.jpg">Port Famine, Magellan.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl49.jpg">Patagonian Bolas.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl50.jpg">Patagonian Spurs and Pipe.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl51.jpg">Cyttaria Darwinii.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl52.jpg">Eyre Sound.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl53.jpg">Glacier in Gulf of Penas.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl54.jpg">Flora of Magellan.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl55.jpg">Macrocystis Pyrifera, or Magellan Kelp.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl56.jpg">Trochilus Forficatus.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl57.jpg">Hacienda, condor, cactus, etc.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl58.jpg">Chilian miner.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl59.jpg">Cactus (Cereus Peruviana).</a><br/> +<a href="#pl60.jpg">Cordilleras from Santiago de Chile.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl61.jpg">Chilian spurs, stirrup, etc.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl62.jpg">Old Church, Castro, Chiloe.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl63.jpg">Inside Chonos Archipelago.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl64.jpg">Gunnera Scabra, Chiloe.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl65.jpg">Antuco Volcano, near Talcahuano.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl66.jpg">Panoramic view of coast, Chiloe.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl67.jpg">Inside Island of Chiloe. San Carlos.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl68.jpg">Hide Bridge, Santiago de Chile.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl69.jpg">Chilenos.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl70.jpg">South American bit.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl71.jpg">Bridge of the Incas, Uspallata Pass.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl72.jpg">Lima and San Lorenzo.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl73.jpg">Coquimbo, Chile.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl74.jpg">Huacas, Peruvian pottery.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl75.jpg">Testudo Abingdonii, Galapagos Islands.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl76.jpg">Galapagos Archipelago.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl77.jpg">Finches from Galapagos Archipelago.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl78.jpg">Amblyrhynchus Cristatus.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl79.jpg">Opuntia Galapageia.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl80.jpg">Ava or Kava (Macropiper methysticum), Tahiti.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl81.jpg">Eimeo and Barrier-Reef.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl82.jpg">Fatahua Fall, Tahiti.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl83.jpg">Tahitian.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl84.jpg">Hippah, New Zealand.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl85.jpg">Sydney, 1835.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl86.jpg">Hobart Town and Mount Wellington.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl87.jpg">Australian group of weapons and throwing sticks.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl88.jpg">Inside an atoll, Keeling Island.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl89.jpg">Whitsunday Island.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl90.jpg">Barrier-reef, Bolabola.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl91.jpg">Sections of barrier-reefs.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl92.jpg">Section of coral-reef.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl93.jpg">Section of coral-reef.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl94.jpg">Bolabola Island.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl95.jpg">Corals.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl96.jpg">Birgos Latro, Keeling Island.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl97.jpg">St. Louis, Mauritius.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl98.jpg">St. Helena.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl99.jpg">Cellular formation of volcanic bomb.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl100.jpg">Cicada Homoptera.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl101.jpg">Homeward bound.</a><br/> +<a href="#pl102.jpg">Ascension. Terns and noddies.</a> +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="beagind"></a>Index</h2> + +<p class="noindent"> +A<small>BBOTT</small>, Mr., on spiders, <a href="#page36">36</a><br/> +Aborigines banished from Van Diemen’s Land, <a href="#page475">475</a><br/> + of Australia, <a href="#page430">430</a> to 458<br/> +Abrolhos Islands, <a href="#page9">9</a>, <a href="#page14">14</a><br/> +Absence of trees in Pampas, <a href="#page48">48</a><br/> +Aconcagua, volcano of, <a href="#page269">269</a>, +<a href="#page294">294</a>, <a href="#page312">312</a><br/> +Actinia, stinging species, <a href="#page494">494</a><br/> +Africa, Southern part desert, yet supports large animals, +<a href="#page89">89</a><br/> +Ageronia feronia, <a href="#page39">39</a><br/> +Agouti, habits of, <a href="#page72">72</a><br/> +Ague common in Peru, <a href="#page389">389</a><br/> +Albemarle Island, <a href="#page401">401</a>, <a href="#page420">420</a><br/> +Allan, Dr., on Diodon, <a href="#page14">14</a><br/> + on Holuthuriæ, <a href="#page494">494</a><br/> +Alluvium, saliferous, in Peru, <a href="#page367">367</a><br/> + stratified, in Andes, <a href="#page333">333</a><br/> +Amblyrhynchus, <a href="#page401">401</a>, <a href="#page411">411</a><br/> +Anas, species of, <a href="#page210">210</a><br/> +Animalculæ. <i>See</i> Infusoria<br/> +Antarctic islands, <a href="#page263">263</a><br/> +Antipodes, <a href="#page444">444</a><br/> +Ants at Keeling Island, <a href="#page485">485</a><br/> + in Brazil, <a href="#page36">36</a><br/> +Antuco volcano, <a href="#page311">311</a><br/> +Apires, or miners <a href="#page364">364</a><br/> +Aplysia, <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page493">493</a><br/> +Apple-trees, <a href="#page318">318</a><br/> +Aptenodytes demersa, <a href="#page209">209</a><br/> +Araucanian Indians, <a href="#page66">66</a><br/> +Areas of alternate movements in the Pacific and Indian oceans, +<a href="#page480">480</a><br/> +Armadilloes, habits of, <a href="#page110">110</a><br/> + fossil animals allied to, <a href="#page137">137</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a><br/> +Arqueros mines, <a href="#page369">369</a><br/> +Arrow-heads, ancient, <a href="#page109">109</a>, +<a href="#page381">381</a><br/> +Ascension, <a href="#page522">522</a>, <a href="#page538">538</a><br/> +Aspalax, blindness of, <a href="#page53">53</a><br/> +Athene cunicularia, <a href="#page73">73</a>, +<a href="#page132">132</a><br/> +Atolls, <a href="#page490">490</a>, <a href="#page495">495</a><br/> +Attagis, <a href="#page98">98</a><br/> +Atwater, Mr., on the prairies, <a href="#page124">124</a><br/> +Audubon, M., on smelling-power of carrion-hawks, <a href="#page195">195</a><br/> +Australia, <a href="#page459">459</a><br/> +Australian barrier, <a href="#page499">499</a><br/> + group of weapons, <a href="#page480">480</a><br/> +Ava (Macropiper methysticum), <a href="#page428">428</a>, <a href="#page436">436</a><br/> +Azara on spiders, <a href="#page39">39</a><br/> + on rain in La Plata, <a href="#page49">49</a><br/> + on habits of carrion-hawks, <a href="#page58">58</a><br/> + on range of carrion-hawks, <a href="#page60">60</a><br/> + on a thunder-storm, <a href="#page65">65</a><br/> + on ostrich-eggs, <a href="#page95">95</a><br/> + on bows and arrows, <a href="#page110">110</a><br/> + on new plants springing up, <a href="#page125">125</a><br/> + on great droughts, <a href="#page142">142</a><br/> + on hydrophobia, <a href="#page378">378</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +B<small>ACHMAN</small>, Mr., on carrion-hawks, <a href="#page195">195</a><br/> +Bahia Blanca, <a href="#page50">50</a>, <a href="#page70">70</a>, <a href="#page77">77</a> to 110<br/> + fossil tooth of horse from, <a href="#page138">138</a><br/> +Bahia, Brazil, <a href="#page11">11</a><br/> + scenery of, <a href="#page526">526</a><br/> +Bajada, <a href="#page136">136</a><br/> +Balbi on coral reefs, <a href="#page499">499</a><br/> +Bald Head, Australia, <a href="#page479">479</a><br/> +Ballenar, Chile, <a href="#page373">373</a><br/> +Banda Oriental, <a href="#page48">48</a>, <a href="#page152">152</a>, <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page186">186</a><br/> +Banks’s Hill, <a href="#page221">221</a><br/> +Barking-bird, <a href="#page307">307</a><br/> +Barrier-reef, Bolabola, <a href="#page498">498</a><br/> + reefs, sections of, <a href="#page500">500</a><br/> +Basaltic platform of Santa Cruz, <a href="#page182">182</a><br/> +Bathurst, Australia, <a href="#page470">470</a><br/> +Batrachian reptiles, <a href="#page101">101</a><br/> +Bats, vampire, <a href="#page22">22</a>, <a href="#page23">23</a><br/> +Bay of Islands, New Zealand, <a href="#page444">444</a><br/> +Beads, hill of, <a href="#page158">158</a><br/> +Beagle Channel, Tierra del Fuego, <a href="#page230">230</a><br/> +Beech-trees, <a href="#page251">251</a>, <a href="#page292">292</a><br/> +Beetles in brackish water, <a href="#page22">22</a><br/> + on a fungus, <a href="#page32">32</a><br/> + alive in sea, <a href="#page168">168</a><br/> + at St. Julian, <a href="#page180">180</a><br/> + dung-feeders, <a href="#page520">520</a>, +<a href="#page521">521</a><br/> +Behring’s Straits, fossils of, <a href="#page140">140</a><br/> +Bell of Quillota, <a href="#page270">270</a><br/> +Benchuca, <a href="#page352">352</a><br/> +Berkeley Sound, <a href="#page199">199</a>, <a href="#page214">214</a><br/> + Rev. J., on Confervæ, <a href="#page15">15</a><br/> + on Cyttaria, <a href="#page250">250</a><br/> +Berquelo river, <a href="#page158">158</a><br/> +Bibron, M., <a href="#page407">407</a><br/> +Bien te veo, <a href="#page56">56</a><br/> +Birds of the Galapagos Archipelago, <a href="#page405">405</a><br/> + tameness of, <a href="#page424">424</a><br/> +Birgos latro, <a href="#page492">492</a>, <a href="#page512">512</a><br/> +Bizcacha, habits of, <a href="#page73">73</a>, +<a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page273">273</a><br/> +Blackheath, Australia, <a href="#page466">466</a><br/> +Blackwall, Mr., on spiders, <a href="#page171">171</a><br/> +Blindness of tucutuco, <a href="#page53">53</a><br/> +Blue Mountains, <a href="#page465">465</a><br/> +Body, frozen, <a href="#page93">93</a>, <a href="#page263">263</a><br/> +Bolabola, barrier-reef, <a href="#page498">498</a>, +<a href="#page504">504</a><br/> +Bolas, manner of using, <a href="#page46">46</a>, +<a href="#page117">117</a><br/> +Bombs, volcanic, <a href="#page524">524</a><br/> +Bones of the guanaco collected in certain spots, <a href="#page177">177</a><br/> + fire made of, <a href="#page205">205</a><br/> + recent in Pampas, <a href="#page142">142</a><br/> + fossil, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page137">137</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a>, <a href="#page182">182</a><br/> +Bory St. Vincent on frogs, <a href="#page407">407</a><br/> +Boulders, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page262">262</a><br/> +Bramador, El, <a href="#page358">358</a><br/> +Brazil, great area of granite, <a href="#page12">12</a><br/> +Brazilian whips, etc., <a href="#page75">75</a><br/> +Breaches in coral reefs, <a href="#page502">502</a><br/> +Breakwater of seaweed, <a href="#page253">253</a><br/> +Brewster, Sir D., on a calcareous deposit, <a href="#page10">10</a><br/> +Bridge of hide, <a href="#page334">334</a><br/> + of Incas, <a href="#page357">357</a>, <a href="#page380">380</a>, <a href="#page394">394</a><br/> +Buckland, Dr., on fossils, <a href="#page140">140</a><br/> +Buenos Ayres, <a href="#page127">127</a><br/> + trading at, <a href="#page111">111</a><br/> + evening camp, <a href="#page128">128</a><br/> + bullock-waggons, <a href="#page150">150</a><br/> +Buffon on American Animals, <a href="#page183">183</a><br/> +Bug of Pampas, <a href="#page352">352</a><br/> +Buildings, Indian, <a href="#page381">381</a> to +383, <a href="#page394">394</a><br/> +Bulimus on desert places, <a href="#page371">371</a><br/> +Burchell, Mr., on food of quadrupeds, <a href="#page91">91</a><br/> + on ostrich-eggs, <a href="#page95">95</a><br/> + on perforated stones, <a href="#page285">285</a><br/> +Butterflies, flocks of, <a href="#page167">167</a><br/> +Butterfly producing clicking sound, <a href="#page34">34</a><br/> +Button, Jemmy, <a href="#page218">218</a><br/> +Byron’s account of fox of Falklands, <a href="#page204">204</a><br/> + on an Indian killing his child, <a href="#page228">228</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +C<small>ABBAGE PALM</small>, <a href="#page26">26</a><br/> +Cacti, <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page278">278</a>, <a href="#page399">399</a><br/> +Cactornis, <a href="#page405">405</a>, <a href="#page424">424</a><br/> +Cactus, Cereus Peruviana, <a href="#page278">278</a><br/> +Calasoma on wing out at sea, <a href="#page168">168</a><br/> +Calcareous casts of branches and roots of trees at King George’s +Sound, <a href="#page479">479</a><br/> + incrustations on rocks of Ascension, <a href="#page9">9</a><br/> +Callao, <a href="#page389">389</a>, <a href="#page391">391</a><br/> +Calodera, <a href="#page132">132</a><br/> +Calomys bizcacha, <a href="#page130">130</a><br/> +Camarhynchus, <a href="#page405">405</a>, <a href="#page424">424</a><br/> +Camelidæ, fossil animal allied to, <a href="#page182">182</a><br/> +Cancer salinus, <a href="#page69">69</a><br/> +Canis antarcticus, <a href="#page204">204</a><br/> + fulvipes, <a href="#page287">287</a><br/> +Cape Horn, <a href="#page222">222</a>, <a href="#page223">223</a><br/> + False Horn, <a href="#page229">229</a>, <a href="#page243">243</a><br/> + of Good Hope, <a href="#page91">91</a><br/> +Capybara, or carpincho, <a href="#page40">40</a>, +<a href="#page51">51</a>, <a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page307">307</a><br/> + fossil allied to, <a href="#page87">87</a><br/> +Caracara, or Carrancha, <a href="#page57">57</a><br/> +Cardoon, beds of, <a href="#page125">125</a>, +<a href="#page157">157</a><br/> +Carizal, <a href="#page371">371</a><br/> +Carmichael, Capt., <a href="#page426">426</a><br/> +Carrion-hawks, <a href="#page59">59</a>, <a href="#page126">126</a>, <a href="#page195">195</a><br/> +Casarita, <a href="#page99">99</a><br/> +Cassava, <a href="#page23">23</a><br/> +Castro, Chiloe, <a href="#page296">296</a>, +<a href="#page315">315</a><br/> + old church at, <a href="#page291">291</a><br/> +Casuchas, <a href="#page358">358</a><br/> +Catamaran, <a href="#page18">18</a><br/> +Cathartes, <a href="#page60">60</a>, <a href="#page195">195</a><br/> +Cats run wild, <a href="#page123">123</a>, <a href="#page523">523</a><br/> + good to eat, <a href="#page123">123</a><br/> + scratch trees, <a href="#page144">144</a><br/> + cruelty to mice, <a href="#page209">209</a><br/> +Cattle, effects of their grazing on the vegetation, <a href="#page124">124</a><br/> + killed by great droughts, <a href="#page142">142</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a><br/> + know each other, <a href="#page155">155</a><br/> + curious breed of, <a href="#page155">155</a><br/> + waste of, <a href="#page158">158</a><br/> + wild at the Falkland Islands, <a href="#page200">200</a>, <a href="#page203">203</a><br/> +Caucahue, <a href="#page295">295</a><br/> +Cauquenes, hot springs of, <a href="#page281">281</a><br/> +Causes of extinction of species among mammalia, <a href="#page182">182</a><br/> + of discoloured sea, <a href="#page15">15</a><br/> +Cavia Patagonica, <a href="#page72">72</a><br/> +Cawa-Cawa, New Zealand, <a href="#page456">456</a><br/> +Caylen, <a href="#page298">298</a><br/> +Cervus campestris, <a href="#page50">50</a><br/> +Ceryle Americana, <a href="#page147">147</a><br/> +Chacao, Chiloe, <a href="#page293">293</a><br/> +Chagos atolls, <a href="#page508">508</a><br/> +Chalk-like mud, <a href="#page494">494</a><br/> +Chamisso on drifted seeds and trees, <a href="#page484">484</a>, <a href="#page491">491</a><br/> + on coral reefs, <a href="#page496">496</a><br/> +Changes in vegetation of Pampas, <a href="#page126">126</a><br/> + in vegetation of St. Helena, <a href="#page519">519</a><br/> +Charles Island, <a href="#page400">400</a>, +<a href="#page420">420</a><br/> +Chatham Island, <a href="#page399">399</a>, +<a href="#page420">420</a><br/> +Cheese, salt required for, <a href="#page68">68</a><br/> +Cheucau, <a href="#page297">297</a>, <a href="#page307">307</a><br/> +Chile, <a href="#page268">268</a>, <a href="#page271">271</a>, <a href="#page274">274</a><br/> + features of country, <a href="#page270">270</a><br/> +Chilenos, <a href="#page194">194</a>, <a href="#page337">337</a><br/> +Chilian miner, <a href="#page277">277</a><br/> + spurs, stirrup, etc, <a href="#page290">290</a><br/> + vegetation, <a href="#page359">359</a><br/> +Chiloe, <a href="#page291">291</a><br/> + old church at castro, <a href="#page291">291</a><br/> + forests of, and climate, <a href="#page292">292</a><br/> + inhabitants of, <a href="#page292">292</a>, +<a href="#page294">294</a><br/> + roads of, <a href="#page293">293</a>, <a href="#page313">313</a>, <a href="#page314">314</a><br/> + Gunnera scabra, <a href="#page310">310</a><br/> +Chionis alba, <a href="#page98">98</a><br/> +Cholechel, conflict at, <a href="#page109">109</a><br/> +Chonos Archipelago, <a href="#page300">300</a>, +<a href="#page304">304</a><br/> + climate of, <a href="#page292">292</a><br/> + zoology of, <a href="#page306">306</a><br/> + ornithology of, <a href="#page307">307</a><br/> +Chupat, Rio, <a href="#page110">110</a><br/> +Chuzo, <a href="#page66">66</a><br/> +Cicada homoptera, <a href="#page529">529</a><br/> +Cladonia, <a href="#page387">387</a><br/> +Clearness of atmosphere within Andes, in Chile, <a href="#page271">271</a><br/> +Climate of Tierra del Fuego and Falkland Islands, <a href="#page257">257</a><br/> + Antarctic Islands, <a href="#page263">263</a><br/> + change of, in Chile, <a href="#page382">382</a><br/> + Galapagos, <a href="#page397">397</a><br/> +Clouds of vapour after rain, <a href="#page25">25</a><br/> + on Corcovado, <a href="#page30">30</a><br/> + hanging low, <a href="#page389">389</a><br/> + at sea, <a href="#page429">429</a><br/> +Coleoptera in Tropics, <a href="#page35">35</a><br/> + out at sea, <a href="#page168">168</a><br/> + of St. Julian, <a href="#page180">180</a><br/> +Colias edusa, flocks of, <a href="#page168">168</a><br/> +Colnett, Capt., on spawn in sea, <a href="#page17">17</a><br/> + on a marine lizard, <a href="#page411">411</a><br/> + on transport of seeds, <a href="#page418">418</a><br/> +Colonia del Sacramiento, <a href="#page153">153</a><br/> +Colorado, Rio, <a href="#page73">73</a><br/> +Compound animals, <a href="#page211">211</a><br/> +Concepcion, Chile, <a href="#page325">325</a><br/> +Conchalee, <a href="#page362">362</a><br/> +Condor, habits of, <a href="#page193">193</a>, +<a href="#page196">196</a>, <a href="#page287">287</a><br/> + (Sarcorhamphus gryphus), <a href="#page187">187</a><br/> +Confervæ, pelagic, <a href="#page15">15</a><br/> +Conglomerate on the Ventana, <a href="#page113">113</a><br/> + in Cordillera, <a href="#page342">342</a><br/> +Conurus, <a href="#page147">147</a><br/> +Convicts of Mauritius, <a href="#page514">514</a><br/> + condition, in New South Wales, <a href="#page473">473</a><br/> +Cook, Capt., on kelp, <a href="#page253">253</a><br/> +Copiapó, river and valley of, <a href="#page366">366</a>, <a href="#page370">370</a>, <a href="#page375">375</a>, <a href="#page385">385</a><br/> + town of, <a href="#page374">374</a>, <a href="#page378">378</a><br/> +Coquimbo, <a href="#page22">22</a>, <a href="#page365">365</a><br/> +Coral formations, <a href="#page429">429</a>, +<a href="#page502">502</a> to 509<br/> + stinging species of, <a href="#page493">493</a><br/> + reefs, sections of, <a href="#page502">502</a>, +<a href="#page508">508</a><br/> + dead, <a href="#page508">508</a><br/> +Corallines, <a href="#page207">207</a><br/> +Corals, <a href="#page507">507</a><br/> +Corcovado, clouds on, <a href="#page30">30</a><br/> + volcano, <a href="#page304">304</a><br/> +Cordillera, appearance of, <a href="#page269">269</a>, <a href="#page292">292</a>, <a href="#page337">337</a><br/> + different productions on east and west side, <a href="#page345">345</a><br/> + passage of, <a href="#page334">334</a><br/> + structure of valleys, <a href="#page335">335</a><br/> + rivers of, <a href="#page338">338</a><br/> + geology of, <a href="#page339">339</a>, <a href="#page354">354</a>, <a href="#page355">355</a><br/> + valley of Copiapó, <a href="#page385">385</a><br/> + mountains, <a href="#page435">435</a><br/> +Cormorant catching fish, <a href="#page209">209</a><br/> +Corral, where animals are slaughtered at Buenos Ayres, <a href="#page127">127</a><br/> +Corrientes, Cape, <a href="#page168">168</a><br/> +Corrobery, or native Australian dance, <a href="#page479">479</a><br/> +Corunda, <a href="#page135">135</a><br/> +Coseguina, eruption of, <a href="#page312">312</a>, +<a href="#page376">376</a><br/> +Countries, unhealthy, <a href="#page389">389</a><br/> +Couthouy, Mr., on coral-reefs, <a href="#page504">504</a><br/> +Crabberies, <a href="#page83">83</a><br/> +Crabs, hermit species of, <a href="#page486">486</a><br/> + at St. Paul’s, <a href="#page10">10</a><br/> + at Keeling Island, <a href="#page492">492</a><br/> +Craters, number of, at the Galapagos Archipelago, <a href="#page398">398</a><br/> + of Elevation, <a href="#page515">515</a><br/> +Crisia, <a href="#page211">211</a><br/> +Cruelty to animals, <a href="#page162">162</a><br/> +Crustacea, pelagic, <a href="#page171">171</a><br/> +Ctenomys Brasiliensis, <a href="#page52">52</a><br/> + fossil species of, <a href="#page86">86</a><br/> +Cucao, Chiloe, <a href="#page315">315</a><br/> +Cuckoo-like habits of Molothrus, <a href="#page55">55</a><br/> +Cudico, mission at, <a href="#page320">320</a><br/> +Cuentas, Sierra de, <a href="#page158">158</a><br/> +Cufre, <a href="#page153">153</a><br/> +Cumbre of Cordillera, <a href="#page358">358</a><br/> +Cuming, Mr., on shells, <a href="#page416">416</a>, +<a href="#page520">520</a><br/> +Cuttlefish, habits of, <a href="#page7">7</a><br/> +Cuvier on Diodon, <a href="#page14">14</a><br/> +Cynara cardunculus, <a href="#page125">125</a><br/> +Cyttaria Darwinii, <a href="#page250">250</a>, +<a href="#page251">251</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +D<small>ACELO</small> I<small>AGOENSIS</small>, <a href="#page2">2</a><br/> +Dasypus, three species of, <a href="#page100">100</a><br/> +Deer, <a href="#page50">50</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a><br/> +Degradation of tertiary formations, <a href="#page368">368</a><br/> +Deinornis, <a href="#page455">455</a><br/> +Deserts, <a href="#page371">371</a>, <a href="#page384">384</a><br/> +Desmodus, <a href="#page22">22</a><br/> +Despoblado, valley of, <a href="#page379">379</a><br/> +Dieffenbach, Dr., E., <a href="#page2">2</a><br/> + on Auckland Island, <a href="#page259">259</a>, +<a href="#page464">464</a><br/> +Diodon, habits of, <a href="#page13">13</a><br/> +Discoloured sea, <a href="#page15">15</a><br/> +Diseases from miasma, <a href="#page389">389</a>, +<a href="#page464">464</a><br/> +Distribution of mammalia in America, <a href="#page138">138</a><br/> + of animals on opposite sides of Cordillera, <a href="#page348">348</a><br/> + of frogs, <a href="#page407">407</a><br/> + of Fauna of Galapagos, <a href="#page419">419</a><br/> +Dobrizhoffer on ostriches, <a href="#page98">98</a><br/> + on a hail-storm, <a href="#page122">122</a><br/> +Docks, imported, <a href="#page455">455</a><br/> +Dogs, shepherd, <a href="#page159">159</a><br/> +Dolichonyx oryzivorus, <a href="#page404">404</a><br/> +D’Orbigny, Travels in South America, <a href="#page81">81</a>, <a href="#page97">97</a>, <a href="#page125">125</a>, <a href="#page137">137</a>, <a href="#page159">159</a>, <a href="#page177">177</a><br/> +Doris, eggs of, <a href="#page211">211</a><br/> +Dormidor, or horse-tamer, <a href="#page160">160</a><br/> +Doubleday, Mr., on a noise made by a butterfly, <a href="#page34">34</a><br/> +Drigg, lightning tubes at, <a href="#page61">61</a><br/> +Droughts, great, in Pampas, <a href="#page141">141</a><br/> +Dryness of St. Jago, <a href="#page4">4</a><br/> + of winds in Tierra del Fuego, <a href="#page245">245</a><br/> + of air in Cordillera, <a href="#page348">348</a><br/> +Dubois, <a href="#page407">407</a><br/> +Dung-feeding beetles, <a href="#page520">520</a>, +<a href="#page521">521</a><br/> +Dust, falling from atmosphere, <a href="#page5">5</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +E<small>ARTHENWARE</small>, fossil, <a href="#page394">394</a><br/> +Earthquake, accompanied by an elevation of the coast, <a href="#page331">331</a><br/> + accompanied by rain, <a href="#page375">375</a><br/> + at Callao, <a href="#page393">393</a><br/> + at Concepcion, <a href="#page325">325</a><br/> + at Coquimbo, <a href="#page366">366</a><br/> + at Keeling and Vanikoro, and Society Islands, <a href="#page504">504</a><br/> + at Valdivia, <a href="#page322">322</a><br/> + causes of, <a href="#page330">330</a><br/> + effect of, on springs, <a href="#page281">281</a><br/> + on bottom of sea, <a href="#page327">327</a><br/> + effects of, on rocks, <a href="#page274">274</a>, <a href="#page324">324</a><br/> + effects of, on sea, <a href="#page323">323</a>, +<a href="#page324">324</a>, <a href="#page325">325</a><br/> + effects of, on a river-bed, <a href="#page381">381</a><br/> + line of vibration of, <a href="#page328">328</a><br/> + on S.W. coast, <a href="#page260">260</a><br/> + tossing fragments from the ground, <a href="#page208">208</a><br/> + twisting movement of, <a href="#page328">328</a><br/> +Eggs of Doris, <a href="#page211">211</a><br/> +Ehrenberg, Prof., on Atlantic dust, <a href="#page5">5</a><br/> + on infusoria in Pampas, <a href="#page87">87</a>, +<a href="#page137">137</a><br/> + in the open sea, <a href="#page172">172</a><br/> + in Patagonia, <a href="#page180">180</a><br/> + in Fuegian paint, <a href="#page234">234</a><br/> + in coral mud, <a href="#page494">494</a><br/> + in tuff at Ascension, <a href="#page525">525</a><br/> + on phosphorescence of the sea, <a href="#page172">172</a><br/> + on noises from a hill, <a href="#page385">385</a><br/> +Eimeo, island of, <a href="#page432">432</a>; +barrier-reef, <a href="#page433">433</a><br/> +Elater, springing powers of, <a href="#page32">32</a><br/> +Electricity of atmosphere within Andes, <a href="#page348">348</a><br/> +Elephant, weight of, <a href="#page91">91</a><br/> +Elevated shells, <a href="#page89">89</a>, <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href="#page180">180</a>, <a href="#page266">266</a>, <a href="#page313">313</a>, <a href="#page331">331</a>, <a href="#page367">367</a>, <a href="#page393">393</a><br/> +Elevation of coasts of Chile, <a href="#page266">266</a>, <a href="#page313">313</a>, <a href="#page323">323</a>, <a href="#page331">331</a>, <a href="#page355">355</a>, <a href="#page367">367</a>, <a href="#page381">381</a><br/> + Bahia Blanca, <a href="#page87">87</a><br/> + Pampas, <a href="#page137">137</a><br/> + Patagonia, <a href="#page180">180</a>, <a href="#page395">395</a><br/> + mountain-chains, <a href="#page333">333</a><br/> + Cordillera, <a href="#page338">338</a>, <a href="#page343">343</a>, <a href="#page354">354</a><br/> + Peru, <a href="#page393">393</a><br/> + within human period, <a href="#page395">395</a><br/> + fringing-reefs, <a href="#page508">508</a><br/> +Entomology of the Galapagos Archipelago, <a href="#page407">407</a>, <a href="#page418">418</a>, <a href="#page420">420</a><br/> + Brazil, <a href="#page34">34</a><br/> + Patagonia, <a href="#page180">180</a>, <a href="#page349">349</a><br/> + Tierra del Fuego, <a href="#page253">253</a><br/> + Keeling Island, <a href="#page485">485</a><br/> + St. Helena, <a href="#page520">520</a><br/> +Entre Rios, geology of, <a href="#page132">132</a><br/> +Epeira, habits of, <a href="#page37">37</a> to 39<br/> +Erratic blocks, how transported, <a href="#page262">262</a><br/> + absent in intertropical countries, <a href="#page263">263</a><br/> + on plains of Santa Cruz, <a href="#page196">196</a><br/> + of Tierra del Fuego, <a href="#page262">262</a><br/> +Estancia, value of, <a href="#page154">154</a><br/> +Extermination of species and races, <a href="#page183">183</a>, <a href="#page462">462</a>, <a href="#page469">469</a>, <a href="#page476">476</a><br/> +Extinction of shells at St. Helena, <a href="#page520">520</a><br/> + of species, causes of, <a href="#page183">183</a><br/> + of man in New South Wales, <a href="#page462">462</a>, <a href="#page476">476</a><br/> +Eyes of tucutuco and mole, <a href="#page53">53</a><br/> +Eyre Sound, <a href="#page260">260</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +F<small>ALCONER</small>, Dr., on the Sivatherium, <a href="#page155">155</a><br/> + on the Indians, <a href="#page109">109</a><br/> + on rivers in Pampas, <a href="#page112">112</a><br/> + on natural enclosures, <a href="#page122">122</a><br/> +Falkland Islands, <a href="#page199">199</a><br/> + absence of trees at, <a href="#page48">48</a><br/> + carrion-hawks of, <a href="#page57">57</a><br/> + wild cattle and horses of, <a href="#page200">200</a><br/> + fox of, <a href="#page204">204</a><br/> + climate of, <a href="#page257">257</a><br/> + peat of, <a href="#page305">305</a><br/> + tame birds at, <a href="#page424">424</a><br/> +Fat, quantity eaten, <a href="#page123">123</a><br/> +Fatahua fall, <a href="#page436">436</a><br/> +Fear an acquired instinct, <a href="#page426">426</a><br/> +Februa Hoffmanseggi, butterfly, <a href="#page35">35</a><br/> +Fennel run wild, <a href="#page125">125</a><br/> +Ferguson, Dr., on miasma, <a href="#page390">390</a><br/> +Fernando Noronha, <a href="#page2">2</a>, <a href="#page11">11</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a>, <a href="#page399">399</a><br/> +Ferns, tree, <a href="#page259">259</a>, <a href="#page477">477</a><br/> +Fields of dead coral, <a href="#page488">488</a><br/> +Fire, art of making, <a href="#page205">205</a>, +<a href="#page436">436</a><br/> +Fireflies, <a href="#page31">31</a><br/> +Fish emitting harsh sound, <a href="#page144">144</a><br/> + of Galapagos, <a href="#page416">416</a><br/> + eating coral, <a href="#page494">494</a><br/> +Flamingoes, <a href="#page69">69</a><br/> +Fleas, <a href="#page369">369</a><br/> +Floods after droughts, <a href="#page142">142</a><br/> + clear after snow, <a href="#page341">341</a><br/> +Flora of the Galapagos, <a href="#page399">399</a>, +<a href="#page418">418</a>, <a href="#page421">421</a><br/> + of Keeling Island, <a href="#page483">483</a><br/> + of St. Helena, <a href="#page523">523</a><br/> +Flustraceæ, <a href="#page211">211</a><br/> +Forests, absence of, in La Plata, <a href="#page47">47</a><br/> + of Tierra del Fuego, <a href="#page220">220</a>, +<a href="#page250">250</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a><br/> + of Chiloe, <a href="#page250">250</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a>, <a href="#page314">314</a><br/> + of Valdivia, <a href="#page319">319</a>, +<a href="#page322">322</a><br/> + of New Zealand, <a href="#page436">436</a><br/> + of Australia, <a href="#page445">445</a><br/> +Fossil Mammalia, <a href="#page36">36</a>, <a href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page137">137</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a>, <a href="#page182">182</a><br/> + earthenware, <a href="#page394">394</a><br/> +Fox of the Falkland Islands, <a href="#page204">204</a><br/> + of Chiloe, <a href="#page299">299</a><br/> +Freyrina, <a href="#page372">372</a><br/> +Friendly Archipelago, <a href="#page505">505</a><br/> +Fringing reefs, <a href="#page501">501</a><br/> +Frogs, noises of, <a href="#page30">30</a><br/> + bladders of, <a href="#page409">409</a><br/> + and toads, not found on oceanic islands, <a href="#page407">407</a><br/> +Frozen soil, <a href="#page93">93</a>, <a href="#page257">257</a><br/> +Fruit-trees, southern limit of, <a href="#page250">250</a><br/> +Fucus giganteus, <a href="#page254">254</a><br/> +Fuegians, <a href="#page151">151</a>, <a href="#page218">218</a> to 243<br/> + wigwams, <a href="#page151">151</a>, <a href="#page224">224</a><br/> + basket and bone weapons, <a href="#page230">230</a><br/> +Fulgurites, <a href="#page62">62</a><br/> +Fungus, edible, <a href="#page250">250</a><br/> +Furnarius, <a href="#page99">99</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +G<small>ALAPAGOS</small> A<small>RCHIPELAGO</small>, <a href="#page398">398</a><br/> + natural history of, <a href="#page403">403</a><br/> + marked relationship with America, <a href="#page403">403</a><br/> + zoology of, <a href="#page403">403</a>, +<a href="#page419">419</a><br/> + finches from, <a href="#page405">405</a><br/> +Gale of wind, <a href="#page228">228</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a><br/> +Gallegos river, fossil bones at, <a href="#page182">182</a><br/> +Gallinazo, <a href="#page60">60</a><br/> +Gauchos, <a href="#page46">46</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a><br/> + character of, <a href="#page161">161</a><br/> + live on meat, <a href="#page123">123</a><br/> + surcingle of, <a href="#page46">46</a><br/> +Gavia mountain, <a href="#page33">33</a><br/> +Gay, M., on floating islands, <a href="#page283">283</a><br/> + on shells in brackish water, <a href="#page22">22</a><br/> +Geese at the Falkland Islands, <a href="#page210">210</a><br/> +Geographical distribution of American animals, <a href="#page138">138</a>, <a href="#page349">349</a><br/> + of frogs, <a href="#page407">407</a><br/> + of fauna of Galapagos, <a href="#page419">419</a><br/> +Geology of Cordillera, <a href="#page341">341</a>, +<a href="#page355">355</a><br/> + of St. Jago, <a href="#page6">6</a><br/> + of St. Paul, <a href="#page8">8</a><br/> + of Brazil, <a href="#page12">12</a><br/> + of Bahia Blanca, <a href="#page86">86</a><br/> + of Pampas, <a href="#page136">136</a><br/> + of Patagonia, <a href="#page180">180</a>, +<a href="#page190">190</a><br/> +Georgia, climate of, <a href="#page263">263</a><br/> +Geospiza, <a href="#page405">405</a>, <a href="#page420">420</a><br/> +Gill, Mr., on an upheaved river-bed, <a href="#page382">382</a><br/> +Gillies, Dr., on the Cordillera, <a href="#page345">345</a><br/> +Glaciers in Tierra del Fuego, <a href="#page237">237</a>, <a href="#page260">260</a>, <a href="#page261">261</a><br/> + in lat. 46° 40′, <a href="#page260">260</a><br/> + in Cordillera, <a href="#page346">346</a><br/> +Glow-worms, <a href="#page31">31</a><br/> +Goats destructive to vegetation at St. Helena, <a href="#page520">520</a><br/> + bones of, <a href="#page177">177</a><br/> +Goeree Roads, <a href="#page230">230</a><br/> +Goître, <a href="#page336">336</a><br/> +Gold-washing, <a href="#page284">284</a><br/> +Good Success Bay, <a href="#page214">214</a><br/> +Gossamer spider, <a href="#page169">169</a><br/> +Gould, Mr., on the Calodera, <a href="#page132">132</a><br/> + on birds of Galapagos, <a href="#page404">404</a><br/> +Granite mountains, Tres Montes, <a href="#page301">301</a><br/> + of Cordillera, <a href="#page342">342</a><br/> +Graspus, <a href="#page10">10</a><br/> +Gravel, how far transported, <a href="#page113">113</a><br/> + of Patagonia, <a href="#page78">78</a>, <a href="#page180">180</a><br/> +Graves of Indians, <a href="#page179">179</a><br/> +Greenstone, fragments of, <a href="#page274">274</a><br/> +Gregory, Cape, <a href="#page245">245</a><br/> +Gryllus migratorius, <a href="#page352">352</a><br/> +Guanaco, habits of, <a href="#page175">175</a>, +<a href="#page197">197</a><br/> + fossil allied genus, <a href="#page182">182</a><br/> +Guantajaya, mines of, <a href="#page387">387</a><br/> +Guardia del Monte, <a href="#page124">124</a><br/> +Guasco, <a href="#page367">367</a>, <a href="#page371">371</a>, <a href="#page375">375</a><br/> +Guasos of Chile, <a href="#page275">275</a><br/> +Guava imported into Tahiti, <a href="#page430">430</a><br/> +Guinea-fowl, <a href="#page5">5</a>, <a href="#page523">523</a><br/> +Guitron, <a href="#page279">279</a><br/> +Gunnera scabra, <a href="#page298">298</a><br/> +Gypsum, great beds of, <a href="#page342">342</a><br/> + in salt-lake, <a href="#page68">68</a><br/> + in Patagonian tertiary beds, <a href="#page180">180</a><br/> + at Iquique with salt, <a href="#page388">388</a><br/> + at Lima with shells, <a href="#page392">392</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +H<small>ACHETTE</small>, M., on lightning-tubes, <a href="#page62">62</a><br/> +Hacienda, condor, and cactus, <a href="#page271">271</a><br/> +Hail-storm, <a href="#page121">121</a><br/> +Hall, Captain Basil, on terraces of Coquimbo, <a href="#page367">367</a><br/> +Hare, Varying, <a href="#page47">47</a><br/> +Head, Captain, on thistle-beds, <a href="#page125">125</a>, <a href="#page130">130</a><br/> +Height of snow-line on Cordillera, <a href="#page259">259</a><br/> +Henslow, Prof., on potatoes, <a href="#page304">304</a><br/> + on plants of Keeling Island, <a href="#page483">483</a><br/> +Hermit crabs, <a href="#page486">486</a><br/> +Hide bridge, <a href="#page334">334</a><br/> +Hill emitting a noise, <a href="#page385">385</a><br/> +Himantopus, <a href="#page120">120</a><br/> +Hippah, New Zealand, <a href="#page458">458</a><br/> +Hobart Town and Mount Wellington, <a href="#page475">475</a><br/> +Hogoleu barrier-reef, <a href="#page499">499</a><br/> +Holes made by a bird, <a href="#page99">99</a><br/> +Holman on drifted seeds, <a href="#page484">484</a><br/> +Holothuriæ feeding on coral, <a href="#page494">494</a><br/> +Homeward bound, <a href="#page531">531</a><br/> +Hooker, Sir J., on the Cardoon, <a href="#page125">125</a><br/> + Dr. J. D., on the kelp, <a href="#page253">253</a><br/> + on Galapageian plants, <a href="#page418">418</a>, <a href="#page421">421</a><br/> +Horn, Cape, <a href="#page223">223</a><br/> +Horner, Mr., on a calcareous deposit, <a href="#page10">10</a><br/> +Horse, swimming powers of, <a href="#page152">152</a><br/> +Horse, wild at the Falkland Islands, <a href="#page202">202</a><br/> + fossil of extinct species of, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a href="#page138">138</a><br/> +Horse-fly, <a href="#page180">180</a><br/> +Horsemanship of the Gauchos, <a href="#page162">162</a>, <a href="#page206">206</a><br/> +Horses difficult to drive, <a href="#page115">115</a><br/> + drop excrement on paths, <a href="#page125">125</a><br/> + killed by great droughts, <a href="#page141">141</a><br/> + multiplication of, <a href="#page247">247</a><br/> + broken in, <a href="#page160">160</a><br/> +Hot springs of Cauquenes, <a href="#page281">281</a><br/> +Huacas, <a href="#page394">394</a>, <a href="#page396">396</a><br/> +Humboldt on burnished rocks, <a href="#page12">12</a><br/> + on the atmosphere in tropics, <a href="#page33">33</a><br/> + on frozen soil, <a href="#page93">93</a><br/> + on hybernation, <a href="#page102">102</a><br/> + on potatoes, <a href="#page304">304</a><br/> + on earthquakes and rain, <a href="#page375">375</a><br/> + on miasma, <a href="#page390">390</a>, <a href="#page463">463</a><br/> +Humming-birds of Rio de Janeiro, <a href="#page33">33</a><br/> + of Chiloe, <a href="#page289">289</a><br/> +Hurtado, <a href="#page113">113</a><br/> +Hybernation of animals, <a href="#page102">102</a><br/> +Hydrochærus capybara, <a href="#page40">40</a>, <a href="#page51">51</a><br/> +Hydrophobia, <a href="#page377">377</a><br/> +Hyla, <a href="#page30">30</a><br/> +Hymenophallus, <a href="#page34">34</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +I<small>BIS MELANOPS</small>, <a href="#page175">175</a><br/> +Ice, prismatic structure of, <a href="#page347">347</a><br/> +Icebergs, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page237">237</a>, <a href="#page260">260</a> to 267<br/> +Incas’ bridge, <a href="#page357">357</a>, <a href="#page380">380</a>, <a href="#page394">394</a><br/> +Incrustations on coast rocks, <a href="#page9">9</a>, +<a href="#page12">12</a><br/> +Indian fossil remains, <a href="#page395">395</a><br/> +Indians, attacks of, <a href="#page66">66</a>, +<a href="#page80">80</a>, <a href="#page136">136</a><br/> + antiquarian relics of, <a href="#page48">48</a>, +<a href="#page109">109</a><br/> + Araucanian, <a href="#page66">66</a>, <a href="#page321">321</a><br/> + of the Pampas, <a href="#page105">105</a><br/> + decrease in numbers of, <a href="#page108">108</a><br/> + grave of, <a href="#page179">179</a>, <a href="#page198">198</a><br/> + Patagonian, <a href="#page245">245</a><br/> + perforated stones used by, <a href="#page285">285</a><br/> + Valdivian, <a href="#page321">321</a><br/> + powers of tracking, <a href="#page350">350</a><br/> + ruins of houses of, <a href="#page380">380</a>, +<a href="#page384">384</a>, <a href="#page392">392</a><br/> +Infection, <a href="#page463">463</a><br/> +Infusoria in dust in the Atlantic, <a href="#page5">5</a><br/> + in the sea, <a href="#page16">16</a>, <a href="#page168">168</a><br/> + in the Pampas, <a href="#page87">87</a>, <a href="#page137">137</a><br/> + in Patagonia, <a href="#page180">180</a><br/> + in white paint, <a href="#page234">234</a><br/> + in coral mud, <a href="#page494">494</a><br/> + at Ascension, <a href="#page525">525</a><br/> +Insects first colonists of St. Paul’s rocks, <a href="#page10">10</a><br/> + blown out to sea, <a href="#page168">168</a><br/> + of Patagonia, <a href="#page180">180</a>, +<a href="#page349">349</a><br/> + of Tierra del Fuego, <a href="#page253">253</a><br/> + of Galapagos, <a href="#page403">403</a>, +<a href="#page417">417</a>, <a href="#page419">419</a><br/> + of Keeling Island, <a href="#page485">485</a><br/> + of St. Helena, <a href="#page520">520</a><br/> +Instincts of birds, <a href="#page96">96</a>, <a href="#page423">423</a><br/> +Iodine with salt at Iquique, <a href="#page388">388</a><br/> +Iquique, <a href="#page386">386</a><br/> +Iron, oxide of, on rocks, <a href="#page12">12</a><br/> +Irregular troops, <a href="#page85">85</a><br/> +Islands, oceanic, volcanic, <a href="#page8">8</a><br/> + Antarctic, <a href="#page263">263</a><br/> + floating, <a href="#page283">283</a><br/> + Low, <a href="#page429">429</a>, <a href="#page497">497</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +J<small>ACKSON</small>, Col., on frozen snow, <a href="#page347">347</a><br/> +Jaguar, habits of, <a href="#page143">143</a><br/> +Jajuel, mines of, <a href="#page276">276</a><br/> +James Island, <a href="#page402">402</a>, <a href="#page420">420</a><br/> +Jemmy Button, <a href="#page218">218</a>, <a href="#page233">233</a><br/> +Juan Fernandez, volcano of, <a href="#page332">332</a><br/> + flora of, <a href="#page418">418</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +K<small>ANGAROO-HUNTING</small>, <a href="#page469">469</a><br/> +Kater’s Peak, <a href="#page224">224</a><br/> +Kauri pine, <a href="#page454">454</a><br/> +Keeling Island, <a href="#page481">481</a><br/> + inside an atoll, <a href="#page481">481</a><br/> + flora of, <a href="#page483">483</a><br/> + birds of, <a href="#page485">485</a>, <a href="#page486">486</a><br/> + entomology of, <a href="#page486">486</a><br/> + subsidence of, <a href="#page504">504</a><br/> + Birgos latro, <a href="#page512">512</a><br/> +Kelp, or seaweed, <a href="#page253">253</a>, +<a href="#page254">254</a><br/> +Kendall, Lieut., on a frozen body, <a href="#page263">263</a><br/> +Kingfishers, <a href="#page2">2</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a><br/> +King George’s Sound, <a href="#page478">478</a><br/> +Kororadika, <a href="#page447">447</a>, <a href="#page453">453</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +L<small>ABOURERS</small>, condition of, in Chile, <a href="#page285">285</a><br/> +Lagoon-islands, <a href="#page429">429</a>, +<a href="#page482">482</a>, <a href="#page489">489</a>, <a href="#page495">495</a><br/> +Lagostomus, <a href="#page130">130</a><br/> +Lake, brackish, near Rio, <a href="#page22">22</a><br/> + with floating islands, <a href="#page283">283</a><br/> + formed during earthquake, <a href="#page395">395</a><br/> +Lamarck on acquired blindness, <a href="#page53">53</a><br/> +Lampyris, <a href="#page31">31</a><br/> +Lancaster, Capt., on a sea-tree, <a href="#page105">105</a><br/> +Land-shells, <a href="#page371">371</a>, <a href="#page519">519</a>, <a href="#page520">520</a><br/> +Las Minas, <a href="#page43">43</a><br/> +Lazo, <a href="#page46">46</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a>, <a href="#page201">201</a><br/> +Leaves, <a href="#page250">250</a><br/> + fossil, <a href="#page477">477</a><br/> +Leeks in New Zealand, imported, <a href="#page455">455</a><br/> +Lemuy Island, <a href="#page295">295</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a><br/> +Lepus Magellanicus, <a href="#page203">203</a><br/> +Lesson, M., on the scissor-beak, <a href="#page147">147</a><br/> + on rabbit of the Falklands, <a href="#page203">203</a><br/> +Lichen on loose sand, <a href="#page387">387</a><br/> +Lichtenstein on ostriches, <a href="#page96">96</a><br/> +Lightning storms, <a href="#page63">63</a><br/> + tubes, <a href="#page61">61</a><br/> +Lima, <a href="#page389">389</a>, <a href="#page392">392</a><br/> + and San Lorenzo, <a href="#page360">360</a><br/> + elevation of a river near, <a href="#page383">383</a><br/> +Lime, changed by lava into crystalline rock, <a href="#page6">6</a><br/> +Limnæa in brackish water, <a href="#page2">2</a><br/> +Lion-ant, <a href="#page470">470</a><br/> +Lizard, <a href="#page102">102</a><br/> + marine species of, <a href="#page407">407</a><br/> +Lizards, transport of, <a href="#page404">404</a><br/> +Llama or guanaco, habits of, <a href="#page175">175</a><br/> +Locusts, <a href="#page351">351</a><br/> +Longevity of species in Mollusca, <a href="#page87">87</a><br/> +Lorenzo, San, island of, <a href="#page393">393</a><br/> +Low Archipelago, <a href="#page429">429</a>, +<a href="#page497">497</a><br/> +Luciano, story of, <a href="#page117">117</a><br/> +Lumb, Mr., <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a><br/> +Lund, M., on antiquity of man, <a href="#page382">382</a><br/> +Lund and Clausen on fossils of Brazil, <a href="#page138">138</a>, <a href="#page183">183</a><br/> +Luxan, <a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page351">351</a><br/> +Luxuriant vegetation not necessary to support large animals, +<a href="#page89">89</a><br/> +Lycosa, <a href="#page36">36</a><br/> +Lyell, Mr., on terraces of Coquimbo, <a href="#page367">367</a><br/> + on longevity of Mollusca, <a href="#page87">87</a><br/> + on change in vegetation, <a href="#page126">126</a><br/> + on fossil horses’ teeth, <a href="#page137">137</a><br/> + on flocks of butterflies, <a href="#page168">168</a><br/> + on extinct mammals and ice-period, <a href="#page184">184</a><br/> + on stones twisted by earthquakes, <a href="#page329">329</a><br/> + on frozen snow, <a href="#page347">347</a><br/> + on distribution of animals, <a href="#page349">349</a><br/> + on subsidence in the Pacific, <a href="#page498">498</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +M<small>AC</small>C<small>ULLOCH</small> on infection, +<a href="#page464">464</a><br/> +Macquarie river, <a href="#page471">471</a><br/> +Macrauchenia, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a href="#page182">182</a><br/> +Macrocystis, <a href="#page253">253</a><br/> +Madrina, or godmother of a troop of mules, <a href="#page336">336</a><br/> +Magdalen channel, <a href="#page255">255</a><br/> +Magellan, flora of, <a href="#page265">265</a><br/> + H.M.S. <i>Beagle</i> in Straits of, <a href="#frontis.jpg">Beagle</a><br/> + Straits of, <a href="#page229">229</a>, <a href="#page244">244</a><br/> + Port Famine, <a href="#page246">246</a><br/> + kelp of, <a href="#page267">267</a><br/> +Malays, <a href="#page482">482</a><br/> +Malcolmson, Dr., on hail, <a href="#page122">122</a><br/> +Maldiva atolls, <a href="#page496">496</a>, <a href="#page505">505</a>, <a href="#page507">507</a><br/> +Maldonado, <a href="#page41">41</a>, <a href="#page47">47</a>, <a href="#page61">61</a>, <a href="#page65">65</a>, <a href="#page145">145</a><br/> +Mammalia, fossil, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page137">137</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a>, <a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page183">183</a>, <a href="#page395">395</a><br/> +Man, antiquity of, <a href="#page382">382</a><br/> + body frozen, <a href="#page264">264</a><br/> + fossil remains of, <a href="#page395">395</a><br/> + fear of, an acquired instinct, <a href="#page427">427</a><br/> + extinction of races, <a href="#page463">463</a>, +<a href="#page476">476</a><br/> +Mandetiba, <a href="#page20">20</a><br/> +Mandioca or cassava, <a href="#page23">23</a>, +<a href="#page27">27</a><br/> +Mare’s flesh eaten by troops, <a href="#page107">107</a><br/> +Mares killed for their hides, <a href="#page163">163</a><br/> +Mastodon, <a href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page137">137</a><br/> +Maté pots and Bambillio, <a href="#page118">118</a><br/> +Matter, granular, movements in, <a href="#page104">104</a><br/> +Mauritius, <a href="#page513">513</a><br/> +Maypu river, <a href="#page338">338</a><br/> +Megalonyx, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a><br/> +Megatherium, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a href="#page88">88</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a><br/> +Mendoza, <a href="#page352">352</a><br/> + climate of, <a href="#page345">345</a><br/> +Mercedes on the Rio Negro, <a href="#page156">156</a><br/> +Mexico, elevation of, <a href="#page139">139</a><br/> +Miasmata, <a href="#page389">389</a>, <a href="#page463">463</a><br/> +Mice inhabit sterile places, <a href="#page384">384</a><br/> + number of, in America, <a href="#page51">51</a><br/> + how transported, <a href="#page307">307</a>, +<a href="#page404">404</a><br/> + different on opposite sides of Andes, <a href="#page348">348</a><br/> + of the Galapagos, <a href="#page403">403</a><br/> + of Ascension, <a href="#page523">523</a><br/> +Millepora, <a href="#page493">493</a><br/> +Mills for grinding ores, <a href="#page284">284</a><br/> +Mimosæ, <a href="#page26">26</a><br/> +Mimus, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href="#page420">420</a>, <a href="#page424">424</a><br/> +Miners, condition of, <a href="#page277">277</a>, +<a href="#page283">283</a>, <a href="#page362">362</a>, <a href="#page370">370</a><br/> +Mines, <a href="#page277">277</a>, <a href="#page365">365</a>, <a href="#page369">369</a><br/> + how discovered, <a href="#page340">340</a><br/> +Miranda, Commandant, <a href="#page105">105</a><br/> +Missionaries at New Zealand, <a href="#page446">446</a><br/> +Mitchell, Sir T., on valleys of Australia, <a href="#page466">466</a><br/> +Mocking-bird, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href="#page420">420</a>, <a href="#page424">424</a><br/> +Molina omits description of certain birds, <a href="#page289">289</a><br/> +Molothrus, habits of, <a href="#page54">54</a><br/> +Monkeys with prehensile tails, <a href="#page29">29</a><br/> +Monte Video, <a href="#page41">41</a>, <a href="#page151">151</a>, <a href="#page152">152</a><br/> +Moresby, Capt., on a great crab, <a href="#page493">493</a><br/> + on coral-reefs, <a href="#page509">509</a><br/> +Mount Sarmiento, <a href="#page247">247</a>, <a href="#page256">256</a><br/> + Tarn, <a href="#page249">249</a><br/> + Victoria, <a href="#page47">47</a><br/> +Mountains, elevation of, <a href="#page333">333</a><br/> +Movements in granular matter, <a href="#page104">104</a><br/> +Mud, chalk-like, <a href="#page494">494</a><br/> + disturbed by earthquake, <a href="#page328">328</a><br/> +Mules, <a href="#page336">336</a><br/> +Muniz, Signor, on niata cattle, <a href="#page155">155</a><br/> +Murray, Mr., on spiders, <a href="#page170">170</a><br/> +Mylodon, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a href="#page140">140</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a><br/> +Myopotamus Coypus, <a href="#page306">306</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +N<small>ARBOROUGH</small> I<small>SLAND</small>, <a href="#page401">401</a><br/> +Negress with goître, <a href="#page336">336</a><br/> +Negro, Rio, <a href="#page65">65</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a><br/> + lieutenant, <a href="#page78">78</a><br/> +Nepean river, <a href="#page444">444</a><br/> +New Caledonia, reef of, <a href="#page499">499</a>, +<a href="#page501">501</a>, <a href="#page507">507</a><br/> +New Zealand, <a href="#page444">444</a><br/> +Niata cattle, <a href="#page155">155</a><br/> +Noises from a hill, <a href="#page385">385</a><br/> +Noses, ceremony of pressing, <a href="#page451">451</a><br/> +Nothura, <a href="#page47">47</a><br/> +Notopod, crustacean, <a href="#page171">171</a><br/> +Nulliporæ, incrustations like, <a href="#page9">9</a><br/> + protecting reefs, <a href="#page529">529</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +O<small>CTOPUS</small>, habits of, <a href="#page7">7</a><br/> +Oily coating on sea, <a href="#page17">17</a><br/> +Olfersia, <a href="#page10">10</a><br/> +Opetiorhynchus, <a href="#page425">425</a><br/> +Opuntia, <a href="#page278">278</a><br/> + Darwinii, <a href="#page175">175</a><br/> + Galapageia, <a href="#page427">427</a><br/> +Orange-trees self-sown, <a href="#page126">126</a><br/> +Ores, gold, <a href="#page284">284</a><br/> +Ornithology of Galapagos, <a href="#page404">404</a>, <a href="#page420">420</a><br/> +Ornithorhynchus, <a href="#page470">470</a><br/> +Osorno, volcano of, <a href="#page292">292</a>, +<a href="#page294">294</a>, <a href="#page312">312</a><br/> +Ostrich, habits of, <a href="#page44">44</a>, +<a href="#page94">94</a><br/> +Ostrich’s eggs, <a href="#page119">119</a><br/> +Otaheite, <a href="#page429">429</a><br/> +Otter, <a href="#page307">307</a><br/> +Ova in sea, <a href="#page17">17</a><br/> +Oven-bird, <a href="#page99">99</a><br/> +Owen, Capt., on a drought in Africa, <a href="#page141">141</a><br/> + Professor, on the Capybara, <a href="#page51">51</a><br/> + fossil quadrupeds, <a href="#page86">86-89</a>, +<a href="#page137">137</a><br/> + nostrils of the Gallinazo, <a href="#page195">195</a><br/> +Owl of Pampas, <a href="#page73">73</a>, <a href="#page132">132</a><br/> + of Galapagos Islands, <a href="#page406">406</a><br/> +Oxyurus, <a href="#page252">252</a>, <a href="#page308">308</a><br/> +Oysters, gigantic, <a href="#page180">180</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +P<small>AINT</small>, white, <a href="#page234">234</a><br/> +Pallas on Siberia, <a href="#page69">69</a><br/> +Palm-trees in La Plata, <a href="#page48">48</a><br/> + south limit of, <a href="#page260">260</a><br/> + in Chile, <a href="#page272">272</a><br/> +Palms absent at Galapagos, <a href="#page400">400</a><br/> +Pampas, halt at a pulperia on the, <a href="#page64">64</a><br/> + number of embedded remains in, <a href="#page165">165</a><br/> + southern limit of, <a href="#page80">80</a><br/> + changes in, <a href="#page130">130</a><br/> + giant thistle of, <a href="#page125">125</a><br/> + not quite level, <a href="#page134">134</a>, +<a href="#page137">137</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a><br/> + geology of, <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href="#page165">165</a><br/> + view of, from the Andes, <a href="#page348">348</a><br/> +Pan de Azucar, <a href="#page47">47</a><br/> +Papilio feronia, <a href="#page34">34</a>, <a href="#page39">39</a><br/> +Parana, Rio, <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href="#page148">148</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a><br/> + River, <a href="#page133">133</a><br/> + islands in, <a href="#page143">143</a><br/> +Parish, Sir W., on the great drought, <a href="#page142">142</a><br/> +Park, Mungo, on eating salt, <a href="#page116">116</a><br/> +Parrots, <a href="#page147">147</a>, <a href="#page259">259</a><br/> +Partridges, <a href="#page47">47</a><br/> +Pas, fortresss of New Zealand, <a href="#page445">445</a><br/> +Passes in Cordillera, <a href="#page356">356</a><br/> +Pasture altered from grazing of cattle, <a href="#page124">124</a><br/> +Patagones, <a href="#page65">65</a><br/> +Patagonia, geology of, <a href="#page190">190</a>, +<a href="#page349">349</a><br/> + birds of, <a href="#page93">93</a><br/> + zoology of, <a href="#page174">174</a>, +<a href="#page180">180</a>, <a href="#page189">189</a><br/> + raised beaches, <a href="#page182">182</a><br/> +Patagonian bolas, etc, <a href="#page248">248</a>, +<a href="#page249">249</a><br/> +Patagonians, Cape Gregory, <a href="#page245">245</a><br/> +Paypote ravine, <a href="#page383">383</a><br/> +Peach-trees self-sown, <a href="#page126">126</a><br/> +Peat, formation of, <a href="#page305">305</a><br/> +Pebbles perforated, <a href="#page158">158</a>, +<a href="#page285">285</a><br/> + transported in roots of trees, <a href="#page491">491</a><br/> +Pelagic animals in southern ocean, <a href="#page172">172</a><br/> +Penas, glacier in Gulf of, <a href="#page261">261</a><br/> +Penguin, habits of, <a href="#page209">209</a><br/> +Pepsis, habits of, <a href="#page36">36</a><br/> +Pernambuco, reef of, <a href="#page529">529</a><br/> +Pernety on hill of ruins, <a href="#page208">208</a><br/> + on tame birds, <a href="#page425">425</a><br/> +Peru, <a href="#page386">386</a>, <a href="#page396">396</a><br/> + dry valleys of, <a href="#page382">382</a>, +<a href="#page386">386</a><br/> +Peruvian pottery, <a href="#page396">396</a><br/> +Petrels, habits of, <a href="#page309">309</a><br/> +Peuquenes, pass of, <a href="#page341">341</a><br/> +Phonolite at Fernando Noronha, <a href="#page11">11</a><br/> +Phosphorescence of the sea, <a href="#page172">172</a><br/> + of land insects and sea animals, <a href="#page31">31</a><br/> + of a coralline, <a href="#page213">213</a><br/> +Phryniscus, <a href="#page101">101</a><br/> +Pine of New Zealand, <a href="#page454">454</a><br/> +Plains at foot of Andes in Chile, <a href="#page282">282</a>, <a href="#page337">337</a><br/> + almost horizontal near St. Fé, <a href="#page135">135</a><br/> +Planariæ, terrestrial species of, <a href="#page28">28</a><br/> +Plants of the Galapagos, <a href="#page402">402</a>, <a href="#page418">418</a>, <a href="#page421">421</a><br/> + of Keeling island, <a href="#page483">483</a><br/> + of St. Helena, <a href="#page517">517</a><br/> +Plants, fossil, in Australia, <a href="#page477">477</a><br/> +Plata, R., <a href="#page40">40</a><br/> + thunderstorms of, <a href="#page65">65</a><br/> +Plover, long-legged, <a href="#page120">120</a><br/> +Polished rocks, Brazil, <a href="#page12">12</a><br/> +Polyborus chimango, <a href="#page58">58</a>, +<a href="#page209">209</a><br/> + Braziliensis, <a href="#page57">57</a><br/> + Novæ Zelandiæ, <a href="#page59">59</a><br/> +Ponsonby Sound, <a href="#page229">229</a>, <a href="#page233">233</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a>, <a href="#page241">241</a><br/> +Porpoises, <a href="#page40">40</a><br/> +Port Desire, <a href="#page97">97</a>, <a href="#page174">174</a><br/> + river of, <a href="#page112">112</a>, <a href="#page178">178</a><br/> + St. Julian, <a href="#page180">180</a><br/> + Famine, <a href="#page246">246</a>, <a href="#page247">247</a><br/> + Jackson, <a href="#page459">459</a><br/> +Portillo Pass, <a href="#page335">335</a> to 352<br/> +Porto Praya, <a href="#page2">2</a><br/> +Potato, wild, <a href="#page304">304</a><br/> +Potrero Seco, <a href="#page375">375</a><br/> +Prairies, vegetation of, <a href="#page124">124</a><br/> +Prévost, M., on cuckoos, <a href="#page55">55</a><br/> +Priestley, Dr., on lightning-tubes, <a href="#page61">61</a><br/> +Prisoner, bringing in a, <a href="#page84">84</a><br/> +Procellaria gigantea, habits of, <a href="#page309">309</a><br/> +Proctotretus, <a href="#page102">102</a><br/> +Proteus, blindness of, <a href="#page53">53</a><br/> +Protococcus nivalis, <a href="#page345">345</a><br/> +Pteroptochos, two species of, <a href="#page288">288</a><br/> + species of, <a href="#page297">297</a>, +<a href="#page307">307</a><br/> +Puenta del Inca, <a href="#page356">356</a>, <a href="#page380">380</a><br/> +Puffinuria Berardii, <a href="#page309">309</a><br/> +Puffinus cinereus, <a href="#page309">309</a><br/> +Puma, habits of, <a href="#page144">144</a>, +<a href="#page193">193</a>, <a href="#page287">287</a><br/> + flesh of, <a href="#page122">122</a><br/> +Puna, or short respiration, <a href="#page344">344</a><br/> +Punta Alta, Bahia Blanca, <a href="#page83">83</a><br/> + Gorda, <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href="#page380">380</a><br/> + Huantamó, <a href="#page317">317</a><br/> +Pyrophorus luminosus, <a href="#page32">32</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Q<small>UADRUPEDS</small>, fossil, <a href="#page83">83</a>, <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href="#page141">141</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a>, <a href="#page182">182</a><br/> + large, do not require luxuriant vegetation, <a href="#page89">89</a><br/> + weight of, <a href="#page91">91</a><br/> +Quartz of the Ventana, <a href="#page122">122</a><br/> + of Tapalguen, <a href="#page122">122</a><br/> + of Falkland Island, <a href="#page207">207</a><br/> +Quedius, <a href="#page10">10</a><br/> +Quellaypo volcano, <a href="#page312">312</a><br/> +Quilimari, <a href="#page362">362</a><br/> +Quillota, valley of, <a href="#page270">270</a><br/> +Quinchao Island, <a href="#page296">296</a><br/> +Quintero, <a href="#page270">270</a><br/> +Quiriquina Island, <a href="#page324">324</a><br/> +Quoy and Gaimard on stinging corals, <a href="#page493">493</a><br/> + on coral-reefs, <a href="#page505">505</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +R<small>ABBIT</small>, wild, at the Falkland Islands, <a href="#page203">203</a><br/> +Rain at Coquimbo, <a href="#page361">361</a>, +<a href="#page371">371</a>, <a href="#page372">372</a><br/> + at Rio, <a href="#page30">30</a><br/> + effects on vegetation, <a href="#page361">361</a><br/> + and earthquakes, <a href="#page375">375</a><br/> +in Chile, formerly more abundant, <a href="#page381">381</a><br/> + in Peru, <a href="#page389">389</a>, <a href="#page390">390</a><br/> +Rana Mascariensis, <a href="#page407">407</a><br/> +Rat, only aboriginal animal of New Zealand, <a href="#page455">455</a><br/> +Rats at Galapagos, <a href="#page403">403</a><br/> + at Keeling Island, <a href="#page485">485</a><br/> + at Ascension, <a href="#page523">523</a><br/> +Rattlesnake, species with allied habit, <a href="#page100">100</a><br/> +Red snow, <a href="#page345">345</a><br/> +Reduvius, <a href="#page352">352</a><br/> +Reef at Pernambuco of sandstone, <a href="#page529">529</a><br/> +Reefs of coral, <a href="#page495">495</a> to 512<br/> + barrier, <a href="#page498">498</a>, <a href="#page504">504</a><br/> + fringing, <a href="#page501">501</a><br/> +Reeks, Mr., analysis of salt, <a href="#page68">68</a><br/> + bones, <a href="#page164">164</a><br/> + salt and shells, <a href="#page394">394</a><br/> +Remains, human, elevated, <a href="#page394">394</a><br/> +Remedies of the Gauchos, <a href="#page135">135</a><br/> +Rengger on the horse, <a href="#page247">247</a><br/> +Reptiles absent in Tierra del Fuego, <a href="#page252">252</a><br/> + at Galapagos, <a href="#page407">407</a><br/> +Respiration difficult in Andes, <a href="#page344">344</a><br/> +Retrospect, <a href="#page51">51</a><br/> +Revolutions at Buenos Ayres, <a href="#page149">149</a><br/> +Rhea Darwinii (Avestruz Petise), <a href="#page110">110</a><br/> +Rhinoceroses live in desert countries, <a href="#page92">92</a><br/> + frozen, <a href="#page93">93</a>, <a href="#page264">264</a><br/> +Rhynchops nigra, <a href="#page145">145</a>, +<a href="#page146">146</a><br/> +Richardson, Dr., on mice of North America, <a href="#page404">404</a><br/> + on frozen soil, <a href="#page92">92</a>, <a href="#page263">263</a><br/> + on eating fat, <a href="#page123">123</a><br/> + on geographical distribution, <a href="#page139">139</a><br/> + on polished rocks, <a href="#page267">267</a><br/> +Rimsky atoll, <a href="#page496">496</a><br/> +Rio de Janeiro, <a href="#page19">19</a> to 39<br/> + Botofogo Bay, <a href="#page19">19</a><br/> + Plata, <a href="#page40">40</a><br/> + Negro, <a href="#page65">65</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a><br/> + Colorado, <a href="#page73">73</a><br/> + Sauce, <a href="#page112">112</a><br/> + Salado, <a href="#page124">124</a><br/> + S. Cruz, <a href="#page187">187</a><br/> +River-bed, arched, <a href="#page383">383</a><br/> +River-courses dry in America, <a href="#page113">113</a><br/> +Rivers, power of, in wearing channels, <a href="#page191">191</a>, <a href="#page339">339</a><br/> +Rocks burnished with ferruginous matter, <a href="#page12">12</a><br/> +Rodents, number of, in America, <a href="#page51">51</a>, <a href="#page189">189</a><br/> + fossil species of, <a href="#page87">87</a><br/> +Rolor, General, <a href="#page149">149</a><br/> +Rosas, General, <a href="#page73">73</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href="#page149">149</a><br/> +Rozario, <a href="#page129">129</a>, <a href="#page133">133</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a><br/> +Ruins of Callao, <a href="#page391">391</a><br/> + of Indian buildings in Cordillera, <a href="#page380">380</a>, <a href="#page382">382</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +S<small>ALADO</small>, R<small>IO</small>, <a href="#page124">124</a><br/> +Saladillo river, <a href="#page134">134</a><br/> +Salinas at the Galapagos Archipelago, <a href="#page402">402</a><br/> + in Patagonia, <a href="#page66">66</a>, <a href="#page177">177</a><br/> +Saline efflorescences, <a href="#page81">81</a><br/> +Salt with vegetable food, <a href="#page116">116</a><br/> + superficial crust of, <a href="#page388">388</a><br/> + with elevated shells, <a href="#page393">393</a><br/> +Salt-lakes, <a href="#page68">68</a>, <a href="#page177">177</a>, <a href="#page402">402</a><br/> +San Carlos, <a href="#page313">313</a><br/> + Nicolas, <a href="#page133">133</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a><br/> + Felipe, <a href="#page276">276</a><br/> + Pedro, <a href="#page299">299</a><br/> + Pedro, forests of, <a href="#page299">299</a><br/> + Lorenzo Island, <a href="#page393">393</a><br/> +Sand-dunes, <a href="#page78">78</a><br/> +Sand, hot from sun’s rays, at Galapagos Archipelago, <a href="#page403">403</a><br/> + noise from friction of, <a href="#page385">385</a><br/> +Sandstone of New South Wales, <a href="#page465">465</a><br/> + reef of, <a href="#page529">529</a><br/> +Sandwich Archipelago, no frogs at, <a href="#page407">407</a><br/> + Land, <a href="#page263">263</a><br/> +Santa Cruz, river of, <a href="#page187">187</a><br/> +Santiago, Chile, <a href="#page282">282</a><br/> +Sarmiento, Mount, <a href="#page247">247</a>, +<a href="#page256">256</a><br/> +Sauce, Rio, <a href="#page112">112</a>, <a href="#page371">371</a><br/> +Saurophagus sulphureus, <a href="#page55">55</a><br/> +Scarus eating corals, <a href="#page494">494</a><br/> +Scelidotherium, <a href="#page86">86</a><br/> +Scenery of Andes, <a href="#page335">335</a> to +341<br/> +Scissor-beak, habits of, <a href="#page145">145</a>, +<a href="#page146">146</a><br/> +Scissor-tail, <a href="#page147">147</a><br/> +Scoresby, Mr., on effects of snow on rocks, <a href="#page340">340</a><br/> +Scorpions, cannibals, <a href="#page165">165</a><br/> +Scrope, Mr., on earthquakes, <a href="#page376">376</a><br/> +Scytalopus, <a href="#page252">252</a>, <a href="#page308">308</a><br/> +Sea, open, inhabitants of, <a href="#page172">172</a><br/> + phosphorescence of, <a href="#page172">172</a><br/> + explosions in, <a href="#page327">327</a><br/> +Sea-pen, habits of, <a href="#page104">104</a>, +<a href="#page212">212</a><br/> +Seals, number of, <a href="#page303">303</a><br/> +Seaweed, growth of, <a href="#page253">253</a><br/> +Seeds transported by sea, <a href="#page418">418</a>, <a href="#page484">484</a><br/> +Serpulæ, <a href="#page529">529</a><br/> +Sertularia, protecting reef, <a href="#page494">494</a><br/> +Shark killed by Diodon, <a href="#page14">14</a><br/> +Shaw, Dr., on lion’s flesh, <a href="#page122">122</a><br/> +Sheep, infected, <a href="#page464">464</a><br/> +Shelley, lines on Mont Blanc, <a href="#page178">178</a><br/> +Shells, land, in great numbers, <a href="#page368">368</a><br/> + elevated, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a href="#page137">137</a>, <a href="#page180">180</a>, <a href="#page343">343</a>, <a href="#page367">367</a>, <a href="#page395">395</a><br/> + tropical forms of, far south, <a href="#page258">258</a><br/> + fossil, of Cordillera, <a href="#page343">343</a><br/> + decomposition of, with salt, <a href="#page393">393</a><br/> + of Galapagos, <a href="#page416">416</a><br/> + at St. Helena, <a href="#page519">519</a><br/> +Shepherd’s dogs, <a href="#page159">159</a><br/> +Shingle-bed of Patagonia, <a href="#page78">78</a>, +<a href="#page189">189</a><br/> +Shongi, New Zealand chief, <a href="#page447">447</a><br/> +Siberia compared with Patagonia, <a href="#page69">69</a><br/> + zoology of, related to North America, <a href="#page140">140</a><br/> +Siberian animals, how preserved in ice, <a href="#page264">264</a><br/> + food necessary during their existence, <a href="#page93">93</a>, <a href="#page96">96</a><br/> +Sierra de la Ventana, <a href="#page112">112</a><br/> + Tapalguen, <a href="#page119">119</a><br/> +Silicified trees, <a href="#page354">354</a>, +<a href="#page376">376</a><br/> +Silurian formations at Falkland Islands, <a href="#page207">207</a><br/> +Silurus, habits of, <a href="#page144">144</a><br/> +Sivatherium, <a href="#page155">155</a><br/> +Skunks, <a href="#page83">83</a><br/> +Slavery, <a href="#page20">20</a>, <a href="#page25">25</a>, <a href="#page530">530</a><br/> +Smelling power of carrion-hawks, <a href="#page195">195</a><br/> +Smith, Dr. Andrew, on the support of large quadrupeds, <a href="#page88">88</a><br/> + on perforated pebbles, <a href="#page158">158</a><br/> +Snake, venomous, <a href="#page100">100</a><br/> +Snow, effects of, on rocks, <a href="#page340">340</a><br/> + prismatic structure of, <a href="#page347">347</a><br/> + red, <a href="#page345">345</a><br/> +Snow-line on Cordillera, <a href="#page259">259</a>, +<a href="#page358">358</a>, <a href="#page347">347</a><br/> +Socêgo, <a href="#page23">23</a><br/> +Society, state of, in La Plata, <a href="#page42">42</a>, <a href="#page165">165</a><br/> + state of, in Australia, <a href="#page471">471</a>, <a href="#page474">474</a><br/> + Archipelago, <a href="#page440">440</a><br/> + volcanic phenomena at, <a href="#page505">505</a>, <a href="#page510">510</a><br/> +Soda, nitrate of, <a href="#page388">388</a><br/> + sulphate of, <a href="#page81">81</a><br/> +Soil, frozen, <a href="#page92">92</a>, <a href="#page263">263</a><br/> +South American bit, <a href="#page338">338</a><br/> +Spawn on surface of sea, <a href="#page17">17</a><br/> +Species, distribution of, <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href="#page391">391</a><br/> + extinction of, <a href="#page182">182</a><br/> +Spiders, habits of, <a href="#page37">37</a> to +39<br/> + gossamer, <a href="#page169">169</a><br/> + killed by and killing wasps, <a href="#page37">37</a> to 39<br/> + on Keeling Island, <a href="#page485">485</a><br/> + on St. Paul’s, <a href="#page10">10</a><br/> +Spurs of Guaso, <a href="#page275">275</a><br/> +Springs, hot, <a href="#page281">281</a><br/> +Stevenson, Mr., on growth of seaweed, <a href="#page253">253</a><br/> +St. Helena, <a href="#page517">517</a><br/> + Jago, C. Verds, <a href="#page1">1</a><br/> + unhealthiness of, <a href="#page390">390</a><br/> + Paul’s rocks, <a href="#page8">8</a><br/> + Fé, <a href="#page135">135</a><br/> +Maria, elevated, <a href="#page333">333</a>, +<a href="#page338">338</a><br/> + introduction of spirits into, <a href="#page439">439</a><br/> + Louis, Mauritius, <a href="#page513">513</a><br/> +Stinging animals, <a href="#page493">493</a><br/> +Stones perforated, <a href="#page158">158</a>, +<a href="#page285">285</a><br/> + transported in roots, <a href="#page490">490</a><br/> +Storm, <a href="#page223">223</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a><br/> + in Cordillera, <a href="#page338">338</a>, +<a href="#page374">374</a><br/> +Streams of stones at Falkland Islands, <a href="#page207">207</a><br/> +Strongylus, <a href="#page34">34</a><br/> +Struthio rhea, <a href="#page44">44</a>, <a href="#page94">94</a><br/> + Darwinii, <a href="#page97">97</a><br/> +Strzelecki, Count, <a href="#page476">476</a><br/> +Suadiva atoll, <a href="#page496">496</a><br/> +Subsidence of coral-reefs, <a href="#page495">495</a> +to 512<br/> + of Patagonia, <a href="#page180">180</a><br/> + of Cordillera, <a href="#page343">343</a>, +<a href="#page355">355</a><br/> + of Coasts of Chile, <a href="#page354">354</a><br/> + cause of distinctness in Tertiary epochs, <a href="#page367">367</a><br/> + of coast of Peru, <a href="#page379">379</a><br/> + of Keeling Island, <a href="#page496">496</a>, +<a href="#page504">504</a><br/> + of Vanikoro, <a href="#page504">504</a><br/> + of coral-reefs great in amount, <a href="#page509">509</a><br/> +Sulphate of lime, <a href="#page69">69</a>, <a href="#page180">180</a>, <a href="#page386">386</a><br/> + soda with common salt, <a href="#page69">69</a>, +<a href="#page81">81</a>, <a href="#page386">386</a><br/> + soda incrusting the ground, <a href="#page81">81</a><br/> +Swainson, Mr., on cuckoos, <a href="#page54">54</a><br/> +Sydney, <a href="#page459">459</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +T<small>ABANUS</small>, <a href="#page180">180</a><br/> +Tahiti (Otaheite), <a href="#page429">429</a><br/> + three zones of fertility, <a href="#page432">432</a><br/> + Fatahua fall, <a href="#page436">436</a><br/> + Christianity in, <a href="#page437">437</a>, +<a href="#page441">441</a><br/> +Tahitian, <a href="#page438">438</a><br/> +Talcahuano, <a href="#page311">311</a>, <a href="#page324">324</a><br/> +Tambillos, Ruinas de, <a href="#page380">380</a><br/> +Tameness of birds, <a href="#page425">425</a><br/> +Tandeel, pumas at, <a href="#page287">287</a><br/> +Tapacolo and Turco, <a href="#page288">288</a><br/> +Tapalguen, Sierra, flat hills of quartz, <a href="#page122">122</a><br/> +Tarn, Mount, <a href="#page249">249</a><br/> +Tasmania, <a href="#page474">474</a><br/> +Tattooing, <a href="#page430">430</a>, <a href="#page439">439</a><br/> +Temperance of the Tahitians, <a href="#page438">438</a><br/> +Temperature of Tierra del Fuego and Falkland Islands, <a href="#page244">244</a><br/> + of Galapagos, <a href="#page399">399</a>, +<a href="#page403">403</a><br/> +Tercero, Rio, fossils in banks of, <a href="#page134">134</a><br/> +Terraces in valleys of Cordillera, <a href="#page337">337</a><br/> + of Patagonia, <a href="#page181">181</a>, +<a href="#page190">190</a><br/> + of Coquimbo, <a href="#page367">367</a><br/> +Tertiary formations of the Pampas, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href="#page165">165</a><br/> + of Patagonia, <a href="#page180">180</a>, +<a href="#page349">349</a><br/> + in Chile, epochs of, <a href="#page368">368</a><br/> +Teru-tero, habits of, <a href="#page120">120</a><br/> +Testudo, two species of, <a href="#page420">420</a><br/> + Abingdonii, <a href="#page397">397</a><br/> + nigra, habits of, <a href="#page408">408</a><br/> +Theory of lagoon-islands, <a href="#page499">499</a><br/> +Theristicus melanops, <a href="#page175">175</a><br/> +Thistle beds, <a href="#page125">125</a>, <a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a><br/> +Thunder-storms, <a href="#page63">63</a><br/> +Ti, liliaceous plant, <a href="#page437">437</a><br/> +Tierra del Fuego, <a href="#page215">215</a> to +257<br/> + climate and vegetation of, <a href="#page250">250</a>, <a href="#page257">257</a><br/> + zoology of, <a href="#page251">251</a><br/> + entomology of, <a href="#page253">253</a><br/> +Tinamus rufescens, <a href="#page119">119</a><br/> +Tinochorus rumicivorus, <a href="#page98">98</a><br/> +Toad, habits of, <a href="#page101">101</a><br/> + not found in oceanic islands, <a href="#page407">407</a><br/> +Torrents in Cordillera, <a href="#page338">338</a>, +<a href="#page343">343</a><br/> +Tortoise, habits of, <a href="#page408">408</a>, +<a href="#page420">420</a><br/> +Toxodon, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page137">137</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a><br/> +Transparency of air in Andes, <a href="#page358">358</a><br/> + in St. Jago, <a href="#page4">4</a><br/> +Transport of boulders, <a href="#page190">190</a>, +<a href="#page262">262</a><br/> + of fragments of rock on banks of the St. Cruz river, <a href="#page190">190</a><br/> + of seeds, <a href="#page418">418</a>, <a href="#page484">484</a><br/> + of stones in roots of trees, <a href="#page491">491</a><br/> +Travertin with leaves of trees, Van Diemen’s Land, <a href="#page479">479</a><br/> +Tree-ferns, <a href="#page478">478</a><br/> + southern limits of, <a href="#page258">258</a><br/> +Trees, absence of, in Pampas, <a href="#page48">48</a><br/> + time required to rot, <a href="#page322">322</a><br/> + silicified, vertical, <a href="#page376">376</a><br/> + size of, <a href="#page377">377</a><br/> + floating, transport stones, <a href="#page490">490</a><br/> +Tres Montes, <a href="#page301">301</a><br/> +Trichodesmium, <a href="#page15">15</a><br/> +Trigonocephalus, <a href="#page100">100</a><br/> +Tristan d’Acunha, <a href="#page426">426</a>, +<a href="#page485">485</a><br/> +Trochilus forficatus, <a href="#page268">268</a><br/> +Tropical scenery, <a href="#page526">526</a><br/> +Tschudi, M., on subsidence, <a href="#page393">393</a><br/> +Tubes, siliceous, formed by lightning, <a href="#page61">61</a><br/> +Tucutuco, habits of, <a href="#page52">52</a><br/> + fossil species of, <a href="#page87">87</a><br/> +Tuff, craters of, <a href="#page398">398</a><br/> + infusoria in, <a href="#page525">525</a><br/> +Tupungato, volcano of, <a href="#page347">347</a><br/> +Turco, El, <a href="#page288">288</a><br/> +Turkey buzzard, <a href="#page60">60</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a><br/> +Turtle, manner of catching, <a href="#page488">488</a><br/> +Type of organisation in Galapagos Islands, American, <a href="#page423">423</a><br/> +Types of organisation in different countries, constant, <a href="#page182">182</a><br/> +Tyrannus savana, <a href="#page147">147</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +U<small>LLOA</small> on hydrophobia, <a href="#page377">377</a><br/> + on Indian buildings, <a href="#page380">380</a><br/> +Unanùe, Dr., on hydrophobia, <a href="#page377">377</a><br/> +Uruguay, Rio, <a href="#page147">147</a>, <a href="#page152">152</a><br/> + not crossed by the Bizcacha, <a href="#page131">131</a><br/> +Uspallata range and pass, <a href="#page353">353</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +V<small>ACAS</small>, R<small>IO</small>, <a href="#page355">355</a><br/> +Valdivia, <a href="#page318">318</a><br/> + forests of, <a href="#page319">319</a>, <a href="#page322">322</a><br/> +Valley of St. Cruz, how excavated, <a href="#page190">190</a><br/> + dry, at Copiapó, <a href="#page380">380</a><br/> +Valleys, excavation of, in Chile, <a href="#page343">343</a>, <a href="#page383">383</a><br/> + of New South Wales, <a href="#page46">46</a><br/> + in Cordillera, <a href="#page343">343</a><br/> + of Tahiti, <a href="#page437">437</a>, +<a href="#page439">439</a><br/> +Valparaiso, <a href="#page268">268</a>, <a href="#page335">335</a><br/> +Vampire bat, <a href="#page22">22</a>, <a href="#page23">23</a><br/> +Van Diemen’s Land, <a href="#page474">474</a><br/> +Vanellus cayanus, <a href="#page120">120</a><br/> +Vanessa, flocks of, <a href="#page168">168</a><br/> +Vanikoro, <a href="#page500">500</a>, <a href="#page504">504</a><br/> +Vapour from forests, <a href="#page25">25</a><br/> +Vegetation of St. Helena, changes of, <a href="#page519">519</a><br/> + luxuriant, not necessary to support large animals, <a href="#page89">89</a><br/> + on opposite sides of Cordillera, <a href="#page349">349</a><br/> +Ventana, Sierra, <a href="#page71">71</a>, <a href="#page112">112</a><br/> +Verbena melindres, <a href="#page42">42</a><br/> +Vilipilli, <a href="#page315">315</a><br/> +Villa Vicencio, <a href="#page353">353</a><br/> +Villarica volcano, <a href="#page332">332</a><br/> +Virgin forest, <a href="#page25">25</a><br/> +Virgularia Patagonica, <a href="#page104">104</a><br/> +Volcanic bombs, <a href="#page524">524</a><br/> + cellular formation of, <a href="#page524">524</a><br/> + islands, <a href="#page8">8</a><br/> + phenomena, <a href="#page331">331</a><br/> +Volcanoes near Chiloe, <a href="#page294">294</a>, +<a href="#page300">300</a>, <a href="#page312">312</a>, <a href="#page332">332</a><br/> + their presence determined by elevation or subsidence, +<a href="#page496">496</a><br/> +Vultur aura, <a href="#page60">60</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +W<small>ADERS</small>, first colonists of distant islands, +<a href="#page405">405</a><br/> +Waimate, New Zealand, <a href="#page452">452</a><br/> +Waiomio, <a href="#page456">456</a><br/> +Walckenaer on spiders, <a href="#page39">39</a><br/> +Walleechu tree, <a href="#page71">71</a><br/> +Wasps preying on spiders and killed by, <a href="#page37">37</a> to 39<br/> +Water-hog (Hydrochærus capybara), <a href="#page51">51</a><br/> +Water-serpents, <a href="#page103">103</a><br/> +Water sold at Iquique, <a href="#page386">386</a><br/> +Water, fresh, floating on salt, <a href="#page41">41</a>, <a href="#page487">487</a><br/> +Waterhouse, Mr., on Rodents, <a href="#page51">51</a>, <a href="#page485">485</a><br/> + on the niata ox, <a href="#page156">156</a><br/> + on the insects of Tierra del Fuego, <a href="#page253">253</a><br/> + of Galapagos, <a href="#page406">406</a>, +<a href="#page417">417</a><br/> + on the terrestrial mammals of Galapagos, <a href="#page403">403</a><br/> +Waves caused by fall of ice, <a href="#page237">237</a>, <a href="#page260">260</a><br/> + from earthquakes, <a href="#page326">326</a>, +<a href="#page330">330</a><br/> +Weather, connection with earthquakes, <a href="#page375">375</a><br/> +Weatherboard, N.S. Wales, <a href="#page465">465</a><br/> +Weeds in New Zealand, imported, <a href="#page455">455</a><br/> +Weight of large quadrupeds, <a href="#page88">88</a><br/> +Wellington, Mount, <a href="#page477">477</a><br/> +Wells, ebbing and flowing, <a href="#page487">487</a><br/> + at Iquique, <a href="#page388">388</a><br/> +West Indies, banks of sediment, <a href="#page468">468</a><br/> + zoology of, <a href="#page143">143</a><br/> + coral-reefs of, <a href="#page502">502</a>, +<a href="#page510">510</a><br/> +Whales, oil from, <a href="#page17">17</a><br/> + leaping out of water, <a href="#page236">236</a><br/> +White, Mr., on spiders, <a href="#page36">36</a><br/> +Whitsunday Island, <a href="#page495">495</a>, +<a href="#page497">497</a><br/> +Wigwam cove, <a href="#page223">223</a>, <a href="#page228">228</a><br/> +Wigwams of Fuegians, <a href="#page151">151</a>, +<a href="#page224">224</a><br/> +Williams, Rev. Mr., on infectious disorders, <a href="#page452">452</a>, <a href="#page463">463</a><br/> +Winds, dry, in Tierra del Fuego, <a href="#page245">245</a><br/> + at the Cape Verds, <a href="#page3">3</a><br/> + on Cordillera, <a href="#page345">345</a><br/> +cold, on Cordillera, <a href="#page384">384</a><br/> +Winter’s Bark, <a href="#page250">250</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a><br/> +Wolf at the Falklands, <a href="#page204">204</a><br/> +Wollaston Island, <a href="#page224">224</a>, <a href="#page244">244</a><br/> +Wood, Captain, on the Agouti, <a href="#page72">72</a><br/> +Woollya, <a href="#page239">239</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Y<small>AQUIL</small> gold mines, <a href="#page283">283</a><br/> +Yeso, Valle del, <a href="#page341">341</a><br/> +York Minster, <a href="#page215">215</a>, <a href="#page227">227</a>, <a href="#page241">241</a>, <a href="#page294">294</a><br/><br/> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Z<small>ONOTRICHIA</small>, <a href="#page54">54</a><br/> +Zoological provinces of N. and S. America, <a href="#page140">140</a><br/> +Zoology of Galapagos, <a href="#page403">403</a><br/> + of Tierra del Fuego, <a href="#page251">251</a><br/> + of Chonos Islands, <a href="#page306">306</a><br/> + of Keeling Island, <a href="#page485">485</a><br/> + of St. Helena, <a href="#page520">520</a><br/> +Zoophytes, <a href="#page104">104</a>, <a href="#page211">211</a><br/> + at Falkland Islands, <a href="#page210">210</a><br/> +Zorillo, or skunk, <a href="#page83">83</a> +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VOYAGE OF THE BEAGLE ***</div> +<div style='text-align:left'> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will +be renamed. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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