1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
812
813
814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
854
855
856
857
858
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900
901
902
903
904
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
912
913
914
915
916
917
918
919
920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
928
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960
961
962
963
964
965
966
967
968
969
970
971
972
973
974
975
976
977
978
979
980
981
982
983
984
985
986
987
988
989
990
991
992
993
994
995
996
997
998
999
1000
1001
1002
1003
1004
1005
1006
1007
1008
1009
1010
1011
1012
1013
1014
1015
1016
1017
1018
1019
1020
1021
1022
1023
1024
1025
1026
1027
1028
1029
1030
1031
1032
1033
1034
1035
1036
1037
1038
1039
1040
1041
1042
1043
1044
1045
1046
1047
1048
1049
1050
1051
1052
1053
1054
1055
1056
1057
1058
1059
1060
1061
1062
1063
1064
1065
1066
1067
1068
1069
1070
1071
1072
1073
1074
1075
1076
1077
1078
1079
1080
1081
1082
1083
1084
1085
1086
1087
1088
1089
1090
1091
1092
1093
1094
1095
1096
1097
1098
1099
1100
1101
1102
1103
1104
1105
1106
1107
1108
1109
1110
1111
1112
1113
1114
1115
1116
1117
1118
1119
1120
1121
1122
1123
1124
1125
1126
1127
1128
1129
1130
1131
1132
1133
1134
1135
1136
1137
1138
1139
1140
1141
1142
1143
1144
1145
1146
1147
1148
1149
1150
1151
1152
1153
1154
1155
1156
1157
1158
1159
1160
1161
1162
1163
1164
1165
1166
1167
1168
1169
1170
1171
1172
1173
1174
1175
1176
1177
1178
1179
1180
1181
1182
1183
1184
1185
1186
1187
1188
1189
1190
1191
1192
1193
1194
1195
1196
1197
1198
1199
1200
1201
1202
1203
1204
1205
1206
1207
1208
1209
1210
1211
1212
1213
1214
1215
1216
1217
1218
1219
1220
1221
1222
1223
1224
1225
1226
1227
1228
1229
1230
1231
1232
1233
1234
1235
1236
1237
1238
1239
1240
1241
1242
1243
1244
1245
1246
1247
1248
1249
1250
1251
1252
1253
1254
1255
1256
1257
1258
1259
1260
1261
1262
1263
1264
1265
1266
1267
1268
1269
1270
1271
1272
1273
1274
1275
1276
1277
1278
1279
1280
1281
1282
1283
1284
1285
1286
1287
1288
1289
1290
1291
1292
1293
1294
1295
1296
1297
1298
1299
1300
1301
1302
1303
1304
1305
1306
1307
1308
1309
1310
1311
1312
1313
1314
1315
1316
1317
1318
1319
1320
1321
1322
1323
1324
1325
1326
1327
1328
1329
1330
1331
1332
1333
1334
1335
1336
1337
1338
1339
1340
1341
1342
1343
1344
1345
1346
1347
1348
1349
1350
1351
1352
1353
1354
1355
1356
1357
1358
1359
1360
1361
1362
1363
1364
1365
1366
1367
1368
1369
1370
1371
1372
1373
1374
1375
1376
1377
1378
1379
1380
1381
1382
1383
1384
1385
1386
1387
1388
1389
1390
1391
1392
1393
1394
1395
1396
1397
1398
1399
1400
1401
1402
1403
1404
1405
1406
1407
1408
1409
1410
1411
1412
1413
1414
1415
1416
1417
1418
1419
1420
1421
1422
1423
1424
1425
1426
1427
1428
1429
1430
1431
1432
1433
1434
1435
1436
1437
1438
1439
1440
1441
1442
1443
1444
1445
1446
1447
1448
1449
1450
1451
1452
1453
1454
1455
1456
1457
1458
1459
1460
1461
1462
1463
1464
1465
1466
1467
1468
1469
1470
1471
1472
1473
1474
1475
1476
1477
1478
1479
1480
1481
1482
1483
1484
1485
1486
1487
1488
1489
1490
1491
1492
1493
1494
1495
1496
1497
1498
1499
1500
1501
1502
1503
1504
1505
1506
1507
1508
1509
1510
1511
1512
1513
1514
1515
1516
1517
1518
1519
1520
1521
1522
1523
1524
1525
1526
1527
1528
1529
1530
1531
1532
1533
1534
1535
1536
1537
1538
1539
1540
1541
1542
1543
1544
1545
1546
1547
1548
1549
1550
1551
1552
1553
1554
1555
1556
1557
1558
1559
1560
1561
1562
1563
1564
1565
1566
1567
1568
1569
1570
1571
1572
1573
1574
1575
1576
1577
1578
1579
1580
1581
1582
1583
1584
1585
1586
1587
1588
1589
1590
1591
1592
1593
1594
1595
1596
1597
1598
1599
1600
1601
1602
1603
1604
1605
1606
1607
1608
1609
1610
1611
1612
1613
1614
1615
1616
1617
1618
1619
1620
1621
1622
1623
1624
1625
1626
1627
1628
1629
1630
1631
1632
1633
1634
1635
1636
1637
1638
1639
1640
1641
1642
1643
1644
1645
1646
1647
1648
1649
1650
1651
1652
1653
1654
1655
1656
1657
1658
1659
1660
1661
1662
1663
1664
1665
1666
1667
1668
1669
1670
1671
1672
1673
1674
1675
1676
1677
1678
1679
1680
1681
1682
1683
1684
1685
1686
1687
1688
1689
1690
1691
1692
1693
1694
1695
1696
1697
1698
1699
1700
1701
1702
1703
1704
1705
1706
1707
1708
1709
1710
1711
1712
1713
1714
1715
1716
1717
1718
1719
1720
1721
1722
1723
1724
1725
1726
1727
1728
1729
1730
1731
1732
1733
1734
1735
1736
1737
1738
1739
1740
1741
1742
1743
1744
1745
1746
1747
1748
1749
1750
1751
1752
1753
1754
1755
1756
1757
1758
1759
1760
1761
1762
1763
1764
1765
1766
1767
1768
1769
1770
1771
1772
1773
1774
1775
1776
1777
1778
1779
1780
1781
1782
1783
1784
1785
1786
1787
1788
1789
1790
1791
1792
1793
1794
1795
1796
1797
1798
1799
1800
1801
1802
1803
1804
1805
1806
1807
1808
1809
1810
1811
1812
1813
1814
1815
1816
1817
1818
1819
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
1845
1846
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855
1856
1857
1858
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
2031
2032
2033
2034
2035
2036
2037
2038
2039
2040
2041
2042
2043
2044
2045
2046
2047
2048
2049
2050
2051
2052
2053
2054
2055
2056
2057
2058
2059
2060
2061
2062
2063
2064
2065
2066
2067
2068
2069
2070
2071
2072
2073
2074
2075
2076
2077
2078
2079
2080
2081
2082
2083
2084
2085
2086
2087
2088
2089
2090
2091
2092
2093
2094
2095
2096
2097
2098
2099
2100
2101
2102
2103
2104
2105
2106
2107
2108
2109
2110
2111
2112
2113
2114
2115
2116
2117
2118
2119
2120
2121
2122
2123
2124
2125
2126
2127
2128
2129
2130
2131
2132
2133
2134
2135
2136
2137
2138
2139
2140
2141
2142
2143
2144
2145
2146
2147
2148
2149
2150
2151
2152
2153
2154
2155
2156
2157
2158
2159
2160
2161
2162
2163
2164
2165
2166
2167
2168
2169
2170
2171
2172
2173
2174
2175
2176
2177
2178
2179
2180
2181
2182
2183
2184
2185
2186
2187
2188
2189
2190
2191
2192
2193
2194
2195
2196
2197
2198
2199
2200
2201
2202
2203
2204
2205
2206
2207
2208
2209
2210
2211
2212
2213
2214
2215
2216
2217
2218
2219
2220
2221
2222
2223
2224
2225
2226
2227
2228
2229
2230
2231
2232
2233
2234
2235
2236
2237
2238
2239
2240
2241
2242
2243
2244
2245
2246
2247
2248
2249
2250
2251
2252
2253
2254
2255
2256
2257
2258
2259
2260
2261
2262
2263
2264
2265
2266
2267
2268
2269
2270
2271
2272
2273
2274
2275
2276
2277
2278
2279
2280
2281
2282
2283
2284
2285
2286
2287
2288
2289
2290
2291
2292
2293
2294
2295
2296
2297
2298
2299
2300
2301
2302
2303
2304
2305
2306
2307
2308
2309
2310
2311
2312
2313
2314
2315
2316
2317
2318
2319
2320
2321
2322
2323
2324
2325
2326
2327
2328
2329
2330
2331
2332
2333
2334
2335
2336
2337
2338
2339
2340
2341
2342
2343
2344
2345
2346
2347
2348
2349
2350
2351
2352
2353
2354
2355
2356
2357
2358
2359
2360
2361
2362
2363
2364
2365
2366
2367
2368
2369
2370
2371
2372
2373
2374
2375
2376
2377
2378
2379
2380
2381
2382
2383
2384
2385
2386
2387
2388
2389
2390
2391
2392
2393
2394
2395
2396
2397
2398
2399
2400
2401
2402
2403
2404
2405
2406
2407
2408
2409
2410
2411
2412
2413
2414
2415
2416
2417
2418
2419
2420
2421
2422
2423
2424
2425
2426
2427
2428
2429
2430
2431
2432
2433
2434
2435
2436
2437
2438
2439
2440
2441
2442
2443
2444
2445
2446
2447
2448
2449
2450
2451
2452
2453
2454
2455
2456
2457
2458
2459
2460
2461
2462
2463
2464
2465
2466
2467
2468
2469
2470
2471
2472
2473
2474
2475
2476
2477
2478
2479
2480
2481
2482
2483
2484
2485
2486
2487
2488
2489
2490
2491
2492
2493
2494
2495
2496
2497
2498
2499
2500
2501
2502
2503
2504
2505
2506
2507
2508
2509
2510
2511
2512
2513
2514
2515
2516
2517
2518
2519
2520
2521
2522
2523
2524
2525
2526
2527
2528
2529
2530
2531
2532
2533
2534
2535
2536
2537
2538
2539
2540
2541
2542
2543
2544
2545
2546
2547
2548
2549
2550
2551
2552
2553
2554
2555
2556
2557
2558
2559
2560
2561
2562
2563
2564
2565
2566
2567
2568
2569
2570
2571
2572
2573
2574
2575
2576
2577
2578
2579
2580
2581
2582
2583
2584
2585
2586
2587
2588
2589
2590
2591
2592
2593
2594
2595
2596
2597
2598
2599
2600
2601
2602
2603
2604
2605
2606
2607
2608
2609
2610
2611
2612
2613
2614
2615
2616
2617
2618
2619
2620
2621
2622
2623
2624
2625
2626
2627
2628
2629
2630
2631
2632
2633
2634
2635
2636
2637
2638
2639
2640
2641
2642
2643
2644
2645
2646
2647
2648
2649
2650
2651
2652
2653
2654
2655
2656
2657
2658
2659
2660
2661
2662
2663
2664
2665
2666
2667
2668
2669
2670
2671
2672
2673
2674
2675
2676
2677
2678
2679
2680
2681
2682
2683
2684
2685
2686
2687
2688
2689
2690
2691
2692
2693
2694
2695
2696
2697
2698
2699
2700
2701
2702
2703
2704
2705
2706
2707
2708
2709
2710
2711
2712
2713
2714
2715
2716
2717
2718
2719
2720
2721
2722
2723
2724
2725
2726
2727
2728
2729
2730
2731
2732
2733
2734
2735
2736
2737
2738
2739
2740
2741
2742
2743
2744
2745
2746
2747
2748
2749
2750
2751
2752
2753
2754
2755
2756
2757
2758
2759
2760
2761
2762
2763
2764
2765
2766
2767
2768
2769
2770
2771
2772
2773
2774
2775
2776
2777
2778
2779
2780
2781
2782
2783
2784
2785
2786
2787
2788
2789
2790
2791
2792
2793
2794
2795
2796
2797
2798
2799
2800
2801
2802
2803
2804
2805
2806
2807
2808
2809
2810
2811
2812
2813
2814
2815
2816
2817
2818
2819
2820
2821
2822
2823
2824
2825
2826
2827
2828
2829
2830
2831
2832
2833
2834
2835
2836
2837
2838
2839
2840
2841
2842
2843
2844
2845
2846
2847
2848
2849
2850
2851
2852
2853
2854
2855
2856
2857
2858
2859
2860
2861
2862
2863
2864
2865
2866
2867
2868
2869
2870
2871
2872
2873
2874
2875
2876
2877
2878
2879
2880
2881
2882
2883
2884
2885
2886
2887
2888
2889
2890
2891
2892
2893
2894
2895
2896
2897
2898
2899
2900
2901
2902
2903
2904
2905
2906
2907
2908
2909
2910
2911
2912
2913
2914
2915
2916
2917
2918
2919
2920
2921
2922
2923
2924
2925
2926
2927
2928
2929
2930
2931
2932
2933
2934
2935
2936
2937
2938
2939
2940
2941
2942
2943
2944
2945
2946
2947
2948
2949
2950
2951
2952
2953
2954
2955
2956
2957
2958
2959
2960
2961
2962
2963
2964
2965
2966
2967
2968
2969
2970
2971
2972
2973
2974
2975
2976
2977
2978
2979
2980
2981
2982
2983
2984
2985
2986
2987
2988
2989
2990
2991
2992
2993
2994
2995
2996
2997
2998
2999
3000
3001
3002
3003
3004
3005
3006
3007
3008
3009
3010
3011
3012
3013
3014
3015
3016
3017
3018
3019
3020
3021
3022
3023
3024
3025
3026
3027
3028
3029
3030
3031
3032
3033
3034
3035
3036
3037
3038
3039
3040
3041
3042
3043
3044
3045
3046
3047
3048
3049
3050
3051
3052
3053
3054
3055
3056
3057
3058
3059
3060
3061
3062
3063
3064
3065
3066
3067
3068
3069
3070
3071
3072
3073
3074
3075
3076
3077
3078
3079
3080
3081
3082
3083
3084
3085
3086
3087
3088
3089
3090
3091
3092
3093
3094
3095
3096
3097
3098
3099
3100
3101
3102
3103
3104
3105
3106
3107
3108
3109
3110
3111
3112
3113
3114
3115
3116
3117
3118
3119
3120
3121
3122
3123
3124
3125
3126
3127
3128
3129
3130
3131
3132
3133
3134
3135
3136
3137
3138
3139
3140
3141
3142
3143
3144
3145
3146
3147
3148
3149
3150
3151
3152
3153
3154
3155
3156
3157
3158
3159
3160
3161
3162
3163
3164
3165
3166
3167
3168
3169
3170
3171
3172
3173
3174
3175
3176
3177
3178
3179
3180
3181
3182
3183
3184
3185
3186
3187
3188
3189
3190
3191
3192
3193
3194
3195
3196
3197
3198
3199
3200
3201
3202
3203
3204
3205
3206
3207
3208
3209
3210
3211
3212
3213
3214
3215
3216
3217
3218
3219
3220
3221
3222
3223
3224
3225
3226
3227
3228
3229
3230
3231
3232
3233
3234
3235
3236
3237
3238
3239
3240
3241
3242
3243
3244
3245
3246
3247
3248
3249
3250
3251
3252
3253
3254
3255
3256
3257
3258
3259
3260
3261
3262
3263
3264
3265
3266
3267
3268
3269
3270
3271
3272
3273
3274
3275
3276
3277
3278
3279
3280
3281
3282
3283
3284
3285
3286
3287
3288
3289
3290
3291
3292
3293
3294
3295
3296
3297
3298
3299
3300
3301
3302
3303
3304
3305
3306
3307
3308
3309
3310
3311
3312
3313
3314
3315
3316
3317
3318
3319
3320
3321
3322
3323
3324
3325
3326
3327
3328
3329
3330
3331
3332
3333
3334
3335
3336
3337
3338
3339
3340
3341
3342
3343
3344
3345
3346
3347
3348
3349
3350
3351
3352
3353
3354
3355
3356
3357
3358
3359
3360
3361
3362
3363
3364
3365
3366
3367
3368
3369
3370
3371
3372
3373
3374
3375
3376
3377
3378
3379
3380
3381
3382
3383
3384
3385
3386
3387
3388
3389
3390
3391
3392
3393
3394
3395
3396
3397
3398
3399
3400
3401
3402
3403
3404
3405
3406
3407
3408
3409
3410
3411
3412
3413
3414
3415
3416
3417
3418
3419
3420
3421
3422
3423
3424
3425
3426
3427
3428
3429
3430
3431
3432
3433
3434
3435
3436
3437
3438
3439
3440
3441
3442
3443
3444
3445
3446
3447
3448
3449
3450
3451
3452
3453
3454
3455
3456
3457
3458
3459
3460
3461
3462
3463
3464
3465
3466
3467
3468
3469
3470
3471
3472
3473
3474
3475
3476
3477
3478
3479
3480
3481
3482
3483
3484
3485
3486
3487
3488
3489
3490
3491
3492
3493
3494
3495
3496
3497
3498
3499
3500
3501
3502
3503
3504
3505
3506
3507
3508
3509
3510
3511
3512
3513
3514
3515
3516
3517
3518
3519
3520
3521
3522
3523
3524
3525
3526
3527
3528
3529
3530
3531
3532
3533
3534
3535
3536
3537
3538
3539
3540
3541
3542
3543
3544
3545
3546
3547
3548
3549
3550
3551
3552
3553
3554
3555
3556
3557
3558
3559
3560
3561
3562
3563
3564
3565
3566
3567
3568
3569
3570
3571
3572
3573
3574
3575
3576
3577
3578
3579
3580
3581
3582
3583
3584
3585
3586
3587
3588
3589
3590
3591
3592
3593
3594
3595
3596
3597
3598
3599
3600
3601
3602
3603
3604
3605
3606
3607
3608
3609
3610
3611
3612
3613
3614
3615
3616
3617
3618
3619
3620
3621
3622
3623
3624
3625
3626
3627
3628
3629
3630
3631
3632
3633
3634
3635
3636
3637
3638
3639
3640
3641
3642
3643
3644
3645
3646
3647
3648
3649
3650
3651
3652
3653
3654
3655
3656
3657
3658
3659
3660
3661
3662
3663
3664
3665
3666
3667
3668
3669
3670
3671
3672
3673
3674
3675
3676
3677
3678
3679
3680
3681
3682
3683
3684
3685
3686
3687
3688
3689
3690
3691
3692
3693
3694
3695
3696
3697
3698
3699
3700
3701
3702
3703
3704
3705
3706
3707
3708
3709
3710
3711
3712
3713
3714
3715
3716
3717
3718
3719
3720
3721
3722
3723
3724
3725
3726
3727
3728
3729
3730
3731
3732
3733
3734
3735
3736
3737
3738
3739
3740
3741
3742
3743
3744
3745
3746
3747
3748
3749
3750
3751
3752
3753
3754
3755
3756
3757
3758
3759
3760
3761
3762
3763
3764
3765
3766
3767
3768
3769
3770
3771
3772
3773
3774
3775
3776
3777
3778
3779
3780
3781
3782
3783
3784
3785
3786
3787
3788
3789
3790
3791
3792
3793
3794
3795
3796
3797
3798
3799
3800
3801
3802
3803
3804
3805
3806
3807
3808
3809
3810
3811
3812
3813
3814
3815
3816
3817
3818
3819
3820
3821
3822
3823
3824
3825
3826
3827
3828
3829
3830
3831
3832
3833
3834
3835
3836
3837
3838
3839
3840
3841
3842
3843
3844
3845
3846
3847
3848
3849
3850
3851
3852
3853
3854
3855
3856
3857
3858
3859
3860
3861
3862
3863
3864
3865
3866
3867
3868
3869
3870
3871
3872
3873
3874
3875
3876
3877
3878
3879
3880
3881
3882
3883
3884
3885
3886
3887
3888
3889
3890
3891
3892
3893
3894
3895
3896
3897
3898
3899
3900
3901
3902
3903
3904
3905
3906
3907
3908
3909
3910
3911
3912
3913
3914
3915
3916
3917
3918
3919
3920
3921
3922
3923
3924
3925
3926
3927
3928
3929
3930
3931
3932
3933
3934
3935
3936
3937
3938
3939
3940
3941
3942
3943
3944
3945
3946
3947
3948
3949
3950
3951
3952
3953
3954
3955
3956
3957
3958
3959
3960
3961
3962
3963
3964
3965
3966
3967
3968
3969
3970
3971
3972
3973
3974
3975
3976
3977
3978
3979
3980
3981
3982
3983
3984
3985
3986
3987
3988
3989
3990
3991
3992
3993
3994
3995
3996
3997
3998
3999
4000
4001
4002
4003
4004
4005
4006
4007
4008
4009
4010
4011
4012
4013
4014
4015
4016
4017
4018
4019
4020
4021
4022
4023
4024
4025
4026
4027
4028
4029
4030
4031
4032
4033
4034
4035
4036
4037
4038
4039
4040
4041
4042
4043
4044
4045
4046
4047
4048
4049
4050
4051
4052
4053
4054
4055
4056
4057
4058
4059
4060
4061
4062
4063
4064
4065
4066
4067
4068
4069
4070
4071
4072
4073
4074
4075
4076
4077
4078
4079
4080
4081
4082
4083
4084
4085
4086
4087
4088
4089
4090
4091
4092
4093
4094
4095
4096
4097
4098
4099
4100
4101
4102
4103
4104
4105
4106
4107
4108
4109
4110
4111
4112
4113
4114
4115
4116
4117
4118
4119
4120
4121
4122
4123
4124
4125
4126
4127
4128
4129
4130
4131
4132
4133
4134
4135
4136
4137
4138
4139
4140
4141
4142
4143
4144
4145
4146
4147
4148
4149
4150
4151
4152
4153
4154
4155
4156
4157
4158
4159
4160
4161
4162
4163
4164
4165
4166
4167
4168
4169
4170
4171
4172
4173
4174
4175
4176
4177
4178
4179
4180
4181
4182
4183
4184
4185
4186
4187
4188
4189
4190
4191
4192
4193
4194
4195
4196
4197
4198
4199
4200
4201
4202
4203
4204
4205
4206
4207
4208
4209
4210
4211
4212
4213
4214
4215
4216
4217
4218
4219
4220
4221
4222
4223
4224
4225
4226
4227
4228
4229
4230
4231
4232
4233
4234
4235
4236
4237
4238
4239
4240
4241
4242
4243
4244
4245
4246
4247
4248
4249
4250
4251
4252
4253
4254
4255
4256
4257
4258
4259
4260
4261
4262
4263
4264
4265
4266
4267
4268
4269
4270
4271
4272
4273
4274
4275
4276
4277
4278
4279
4280
4281
4282
4283
4284
4285
4286
4287
4288
4289
4290
4291
4292
4293
4294
4295
4296
4297
4298
4299
4300
4301
4302
4303
4304
4305
4306
4307
4308
4309
4310
4311
4312
4313
4314
4315
4316
4317
4318
4319
4320
4321
4322
4323
4324
4325
4326
4327
4328
4329
4330
4331
4332
4333
4334
4335
4336
4337
4338
4339
4340
4341
4342
4343
4344
4345
4346
4347
4348
4349
4350
4351
4352
4353
4354
4355
4356
4357
4358
4359
4360
4361
4362
4363
4364
4365
4366
4367
4368
4369
4370
4371
4372
4373
4374
4375
4376
4377
4378
4379
4380
4381
4382
4383
4384
4385
4386
4387
4388
4389
4390
4391
4392
4393
4394
4395
4396
4397
4398
4399
4400
4401
4402
4403
4404
4405
4406
4407
4408
4409
4410
4411
4412
4413
4414
4415
4416
4417
4418
4419
4420
4421
4422
4423
4424
4425
4426
4427
4428
4429
4430
4431
4432
4433
4434
4435
4436
4437
4438
4439
4440
4441
4442
4443
4444
4445
4446
4447
4448
4449
4450
4451
4452
4453
4454
4455
4456
4457
4458
4459
4460
4461
4462
4463
4464
4465
4466
4467
4468
4469
4470
4471
4472
4473
4474
4475
4476
4477
4478
4479
4480
4481
4482
4483
4484
4485
4486
4487
4488
4489
4490
4491
4492
4493
4494
4495
4496
4497
4498
4499
4500
4501
4502
4503
4504
4505
4506
4507
4508
4509
4510
4511
4512
4513
4514
4515
4516
4517
4518
4519
4520
4521
4522
4523
4524
4525
4526
4527
4528
4529
4530
4531
4532
4533
4534
4535
4536
4537
4538
4539
4540
4541
4542
4543
4544
4545
4546
4547
4548
4549
4550
4551
4552
4553
4554
4555
4556
4557
4558
4559
4560
4561
4562
4563
4564
4565
4566
4567
4568
4569
4570
4571
4572
4573
4574
4575
4576
4577
4578
4579
4580
4581
4582
4583
4584
4585
4586
4587
4588
4589
4590
4591
4592
4593
4594
4595
4596
4597
4598
4599
4600
4601
4602
4603
4604
4605
4606
4607
4608
4609
4610
4611
4612
4613
4614
4615
4616
4617
4618
4619
4620
4621
4622
4623
4624
4625
4626
4627
4628
4629
4630
4631
4632
4633
4634
4635
4636
4637
4638
4639
4640
4641
4642
4643
4644
4645
4646
4647
4648
4649
4650
4651
4652
4653
4654
4655
4656
4657
4658
4659
4660
4661
4662
4663
4664
4665
4666
4667
4668
4669
4670
4671
4672
4673
4674
4675
4676
4677
4678
4679
4680
4681
4682
4683
4684
4685
4686
4687
4688
4689
4690
4691
4692
4693
4694
4695
4696
4697
4698
4699
4700
4701
4702
4703
4704
4705
4706
4707
4708
4709
4710
4711
4712
4713
4714
4715
4716
4717
4718
4719
4720
4721
4722
4723
4724
4725
4726
4727
4728
4729
4730
4731
4732
4733
4734
4735
4736
4737
4738
4739
4740
4741
4742
4743
4744
4745
4746
4747
4748
4749
4750
4751
4752
4753
4754
4755
4756
4757
4758
4759
4760
4761
4762
4763
4764
4765
4766
4767
4768
4769
4770
4771
4772
4773
4774
4775
4776
4777
4778
4779
4780
4781
4782
4783
4784
4785
4786
4787
4788
4789
4790
4791
4792
4793
4794
4795
4796
4797
4798
4799
4800
4801
4802
4803
4804
4805
4806
4807
4808
4809
4810
4811
4812
4813
4814
4815
4816
4817
4818
4819
4820
4821
4822
4823
4824
4825
4826
4827
4828
4829
4830
4831
4832
4833
4834
4835
4836
4837
4838
4839
4840
4841
4842
4843
4844
4845
4846
4847
4848
4849
4850
4851
4852
4853
4854
4855
4856
4857
4858
4859
4860
4861
4862
4863
4864
4865
4866
4867
4868
4869
4870
4871
4872
4873
4874
4875
4876
4877
4878
4879
4880
4881
4882
4883
4884
4885
4886
4887
4888
4889
4890
4891
4892
4893
4894
4895
4896
4897
4898
4899
4900
4901
4902
4903
4904
4905
4906
4907
4908
4909
4910
4911
4912
4913
4914
4915
4916
4917
4918
4919
4920
4921
4922
4923
4924
4925
4926
4927
4928
4929
4930
4931
4932
4933
4934
4935
4936
4937
4938
4939
4940
4941
4942
4943
4944
4945
4946
4947
4948
4949
4950
4951
4952
4953
4954
4955
4956
4957
4958
4959
4960
4961
4962
4963
4964
4965
4966
4967
4968
4969
4970
4971
4972
4973
4974
4975
4976
4977
4978
4979
4980
4981
4982
4983
4984
4985
4986
4987
4988
4989
4990
4991
4992
4993
4994
4995
4996
4997
4998
4999
5000
5001
5002
5003
5004
5005
5006
5007
5008
5009
5010
5011
5012
5013
5014
5015
5016
5017
5018
5019
5020
5021
5022
5023
5024
5025
5026
5027
5028
5029
5030
5031
5032
5033
5034
5035
5036
5037
5038
5039
5040
5041
5042
5043
5044
5045
5046
5047
5048
5049
5050
5051
5052
5053
5054
5055
5056
5057
5058
5059
5060
5061
5062
5063
5064
5065
5066
5067
5068
5069
5070
5071
5072
5073
5074
5075
5076
5077
5078
5079
5080
5081
5082
5083
5084
5085
5086
5087
5088
5089
5090
5091
5092
5093
5094
5095
5096
5097
5098
5099
5100
5101
5102
5103
5104
5105
5106
5107
5108
5109
5110
5111
5112
5113
5114
5115
5116
5117
5118
5119
5120
5121
5122
5123
5124
5125
5126
5127
5128
5129
5130
5131
5132
5133
5134
5135
5136
5137
5138
5139
5140
5141
5142
5143
5144
5145
5146
5147
5148
5149
5150
5151
5152
5153
5154
5155
5156
5157
5158
5159
5160
5161
5162
5163
5164
5165
5166
5167
5168
5169
5170
5171
5172
5173
5174
5175
5176
5177
5178
5179
5180
5181
5182
5183
5184
5185
5186
5187
5188
5189
5190
5191
5192
5193
5194
5195
5196
5197
5198
5199
5200
5201
5202
5203
5204
5205
5206
5207
5208
5209
5210
5211
5212
5213
5214
5215
5216
5217
5218
5219
5220
5221
5222
5223
5224
5225
5226
5227
5228
5229
5230
5231
5232
5233
5234
5235
5236
5237
5238
5239
5240
5241
5242
5243
5244
5245
5246
5247
5248
5249
5250
5251
5252
5253
5254
5255
5256
5257
5258
5259
5260
5261
5262
5263
5264
5265
5266
5267
5268
5269
5270
5271
5272
5273
5274
5275
5276
5277
5278
5279
5280
5281
5282
5283
5284
5285
5286
5287
5288
5289
5290
5291
5292
5293
5294
5295
5296
5297
5298
5299
5300
5301
5302
5303
5304
5305
5306
5307
5308
5309
5310
5311
5312
5313
5314
5315
5316
5317
5318
5319
5320
5321
5322
5323
5324
5325
5326
5327
5328
5329
5330
5331
5332
5333
5334
5335
5336
5337
5338
5339
5340
5341
5342
5343
5344
5345
5346
5347
5348
5349
5350
5351
5352
5353
5354
5355
5356
5357
5358
5359
5360
5361
5362
5363
5364
5365
5366
5367
5368
5369
5370
5371
5372
5373
5374
5375
5376
5377
5378
5379
5380
5381
5382
5383
5384
5385
5386
5387
5388
5389
5390
5391
5392
5393
5394
5395
5396
5397
5398
5399
5400
5401
5402
5403
5404
5405
5406
5407
5408
5409
5410
5411
5412
5413
5414
5415
5416
5417
5418
5419
5420
5421
5422
5423
5424
5425
5426
5427
5428
5429
5430
5431
5432
5433
5434
5435
5436
5437
5438
5439
5440
5441
5442
5443
5444
5445
5446
5447
5448
5449
5450
5451
5452
5453
5454
5455
5456
5457
5458
5459
5460
5461
5462
5463
5464
5465
5466
5467
5468
5469
5470
5471
5472
5473
5474
5475
5476
5477
5478
5479
5480
5481
5482
5483
5484
5485
5486
5487
5488
5489
5490
5491
5492
5493
5494
5495
5496
5497
5498
5499
5500
5501
5502
5503
5504
5505
5506
5507
5508
5509
5510
5511
5512
5513
5514
5515
5516
5517
5518
5519
5520
5521
5522
5523
5524
5525
5526
5527
5528
5529
5530
5531
5532
5533
5534
5535
5536
5537
5538
5539
5540
5541
5542
5543
5544
5545
5546
5547
5548
5549
5550
5551
5552
5553
5554
5555
5556
5557
5558
5559
5560
5561
5562
5563
5564
5565
5566
5567
5568
5569
5570
5571
5572
5573
5574
5575
5576
5577
5578
5579
5580
5581
5582
5583
5584
5585
5586
5587
5588
5589
5590
5591
5592
5593
5594
5595
5596
5597
5598
5599
5600
5601
5602
5603
5604
5605
5606
5607
5608
5609
5610
5611
5612
5613
5614
5615
5616
5617
5618
5619
5620
5621
5622
5623
5624
5625
5626
5627
5628
5629
5630
5631
5632
5633
5634
5635
5636
5637
5638
5639
5640
5641
5642
5643
5644
5645
5646
5647
5648
5649
5650
5651
5652
5653
5654
5655
5656
5657
5658
5659
5660
5661
5662
5663
5664
5665
5666
5667
5668
5669
5670
5671
5672
5673
5674
5675
5676
5677
5678
5679
5680
5681
5682
5683
5684
5685
5686
5687
5688
5689
5690
5691
5692
5693
5694
5695
5696
5697
5698
5699
5700
5701
5702
5703
5704
5705
5706
5707
5708
5709
5710
5711
5712
5713
5714
5715
5716
5717
5718
5719
5720
5721
5722
5723
5724
5725
5726
5727
5728
5729
5730
5731
5732
5733
5734
5735
5736
5737
5738
5739
5740
5741
5742
5743
5744
5745
5746
5747
5748
5749
5750
5751
5752
5753
5754
5755
5756
5757
5758
5759
5760
5761
5762
5763
5764
5765
5766
5767
5768
5769
5770
5771
5772
5773
5774
5775
5776
5777
5778
5779
5780
5781
5782
5783
5784
5785
5786
5787
5788
5789
5790
5791
5792
5793
5794
5795
5796
5797
5798
5799
5800
5801
5802
5803
5804
5805
5806
5807
5808
5809
5810
5811
5812
5813
5814
5815
5816
5817
5818
5819
5820
5821
5822
5823
5824
5825
5826
5827
5828
5829
5830
5831
5832
5833
5834
5835
5836
5837
5838
5839
5840
5841
5842
5843
5844
5845
5846
5847
5848
5849
5850
5851
5852
5853
5854
5855
5856
5857
5858
5859
5860
5861
5862
5863
5864
5865
5866
5867
5868
5869
5870
5871
5872
5873
5874
5875
5876
5877
5878
5879
5880
5881
5882
5883
5884
5885
5886
5887
5888
5889
5890
5891
5892
5893
5894
5895
5896
5897
5898
5899
5900
5901
5902
5903
5904
5905
5906
5907
5908
5909
5910
5911
5912
5913
5914
5915
5916
5917
5918
5919
5920
5921
5922
5923
5924
5925
5926
5927
5928
5929
5930
5931
5932
5933
5934
5935
5936
5937
5938
5939
5940
5941
5942
5943
5944
5945
5946
5947
5948
5949
5950
5951
5952
5953
5954
5955
5956
5957
5958
5959
5960
5961
5962
5963
5964
5965
5966
5967
5968
5969
5970
5971
5972
5973
5974
5975
5976
5977
5978
5979
5980
5981
5982
5983
5984
5985
5986
5987
5988
5989
5990
5991
5992
5993
5994
5995
5996
5997
5998
5999
6000
6001
6002
6003
6004
6005
6006
6007
6008
6009
6010
6011
6012
6013
6014
6015
6016
6017
6018
6019
6020
6021
6022
6023
6024
6025
6026
6027
6028
6029
6030
6031
6032
6033
6034
6035
6036
6037
6038
6039
6040
6041
6042
6043
6044
6045
6046
6047
6048
6049
6050
6051
6052
6053
6054
6055
6056
6057
6058
6059
6060
6061
6062
6063
6064
6065
6066
6067
6068
6069
6070
6071
6072
6073
6074
6075
6076
6077
6078
6079
6080
6081
6082
6083
6084
6085
6086
6087
6088
6089
6090
6091
6092
6093
6094
6095
6096
6097
6098
6099
6100
6101
6102
6103
6104
6105
6106
6107
6108
6109
6110
6111
6112
6113
6114
6115
6116
6117
6118
6119
6120
6121
6122
6123
6124
6125
6126
6127
6128
6129
6130
6131
6132
6133
6134
6135
6136
6137
6138
6139
6140
6141
6142
6143
6144
6145
6146
6147
6148
6149
6150
6151
6152
6153
6154
6155
6156
6157
6158
6159
6160
6161
6162
6163
6164
6165
6166
6167
6168
6169
6170
6171
6172
6173
6174
6175
6176
6177
6178
6179
6180
6181
6182
6183
6184
6185
6186
6187
6188
6189
6190
6191
6192
6193
6194
6195
6196
6197
6198
6199
6200
6201
6202
6203
6204
6205
6206
6207
6208
6209
6210
6211
6212
6213
6214
6215
6216
6217
6218
6219
6220
6221
6222
6223
6224
6225
6226
6227
6228
6229
6230
6231
6232
6233
6234
6235
6236
6237
6238
6239
6240
6241
6242
6243
6244
6245
6246
6247
6248
6249
6250
6251
6252
6253
6254
6255
6256
6257
6258
6259
6260
6261
6262
6263
6264
6265
6266
6267
6268
6269
6270
6271
6272
6273
6274
6275
6276
6277
6278
6279
6280
6281
6282
6283
6284
6285
6286
6287
6288
6289
6290
6291
6292
6293
6294
6295
6296
6297
6298
6299
6300
6301
6302
6303
6304
6305
6306
6307
6308
6309
6310
6311
6312
6313
6314
6315
6316
6317
6318
6319
6320
6321
6322
6323
6324
6325
6326
6327
6328
6329
6330
6331
6332
6333
6334
6335
6336
6337
6338
6339
6340
6341
6342
6343
6344
6345
6346
6347
6348
6349
6350
6351
6352
6353
6354
6355
6356
6357
6358
6359
6360
6361
6362
6363
6364
6365
6366
6367
6368
6369
6370
6371
6372
6373
6374
6375
6376
6377
6378
6379
6380
6381
6382
6383
6384
6385
6386
6387
6388
6389
6390
6391
6392
6393
6394
6395
6396
6397
6398
6399
6400
6401
6402
6403
6404
6405
6406
6407
6408
6409
6410
6411
6412
6413
6414
6415
6416
6417
6418
6419
6420
6421
6422
6423
6424
6425
6426
6427
6428
6429
6430
6431
6432
6433
6434
6435
6436
6437
6438
6439
6440
6441
6442
6443
6444
6445
6446
6447
6448
6449
6450
6451
6452
6453
6454
6455
6456
6457
6458
6459
6460
6461
6462
6463
6464
6465
6466
6467
6468
6469
6470
6471
6472
6473
6474
6475
6476
6477
6478
6479
6480
6481
6482
6483
6484
6485
6486
6487
6488
6489
6490
6491
6492
6493
6494
6495
6496
6497
6498
6499
6500
6501
6502
6503
6504
6505
6506
6507
6508
6509
6510
6511
6512
6513
6514
6515
6516
6517
6518
6519
6520
6521
6522
6523
6524
6525
6526
6527
6528
6529
6530
6531
6532
6533
6534
6535
6536
6537
6538
6539
6540
6541
6542
6543
6544
6545
6546
6547
6548
6549
6550
6551
6552
6553
6554
6555
6556
6557
6558
6559
6560
6561
6562
6563
6564
6565
6566
6567
6568
6569
6570
6571
6572
6573
6574
6575
6576
6577
6578
6579
6580
6581
6582
6583
6584
6585
6586
6587
6588
6589
6590
6591
6592
6593
6594
6595
6596
6597
6598
6599
6600
6601
6602
6603
6604
6605
6606
6607
6608
6609
6610
6611
6612
6613
6614
6615
6616
6617
6618
6619
6620
6621
6622
6623
6624
6625
6626
6627
6628
6629
6630
6631
6632
6633
6634
6635
6636
6637
6638
6639
6640
6641
6642
6643
6644
6645
6646
6647
6648
6649
6650
6651
6652
6653
6654
6655
6656
6657
6658
6659
6660
6661
6662
6663
6664
6665
6666
6667
6668
6669
6670
6671
6672
6673
6674
6675
6676
6677
6678
6679
6680
6681
6682
6683
6684
6685
6686
6687
6688
6689
6690
6691
6692
6693
6694
6695
6696
6697
6698
6699
6700
6701
6702
6703
6704
6705
6706
6707
6708
6709
6710
6711
6712
6713
6714
6715
6716
6717
6718
6719
6720
6721
6722
6723
6724
6725
6726
6727
6728
6729
6730
6731
6732
6733
6734
6735
6736
6737
6738
6739
6740
6741
6742
6743
6744
6745
6746
6747
6748
6749
6750
6751
6752
6753
6754
6755
6756
6757
6758
6759
6760
6761
6762
6763
6764
6765
6766
6767
6768
6769
6770
6771
6772
6773
6774
6775
6776
6777
6778
6779
6780
6781
6782
6783
6784
6785
6786
6787
6788
6789
6790
6791
6792
6793
6794
6795
6796
6797
6798
6799
6800
6801
6802
6803
6804
6805
6806
6807
6808
6809
6810
6811
6812
6813
6814
6815
6816
6817
6818
6819
6820
6821
6822
6823
6824
6825
6826
6827
6828
6829
6830
6831
6832
6833
6834
6835
6836
6837
6838
6839
6840
6841
6842
6843
6844
6845
6846
6847
6848
6849
6850
6851
6852
6853
6854
6855
6856
6857
6858
6859
6860
6861
6862
6863
6864
6865
6866
6867
6868
6869
6870
6871
6872
6873
6874
6875
6876
6877
6878
6879
6880
6881
6882
6883
6884
6885
6886
6887
6888
6889
6890
6891
6892
6893
6894
6895
6896
6897
6898
6899
6900
6901
6902
6903
6904
6905
6906
6907
6908
6909
6910
6911
6912
6913
6914
6915
6916
6917
6918
6919
6920
6921
6922
6923
6924
6925
6926
6927
6928
6929
6930
6931
6932
6933
6934
6935
6936
6937
6938
6939
6940
6941
6942
6943
6944
6945
6946
6947
6948
6949
6950
6951
6952
6953
6954
6955
6956
6957
6958
6959
6960
6961
6962
6963
6964
6965
6966
6967
6968
6969
6970
6971
6972
6973
6974
6975
6976
6977
6978
6979
6980
6981
6982
6983
6984
6985
6986
6987
6988
6989
6990
6991
6992
6993
6994
6995
6996
6997
6998
6999
7000
7001
7002
7003
7004
7005
7006
7007
7008
7009
7010
7011
7012
7013
7014
7015
7016
7017
7018
7019
7020
7021
7022
7023
7024
7025
7026
7027
7028
7029
7030
7031
7032
7033
7034
7035
7036
7037
7038
7039
7040
7041
7042
7043
7044
7045
7046
7047
7048
7049
7050
7051
7052
7053
7054
7055
7056
7057
7058
7059
7060
7061
7062
7063
7064
7065
7066
7067
7068
7069
7070
7071
7072
7073
7074
7075
7076
7077
7078
7079
7080
7081
7082
7083
7084
7085
7086
7087
7088
7089
7090
7091
7092
7093
7094
7095
7096
7097
7098
7099
7100
7101
7102
7103
7104
7105
7106
7107
7108
7109
7110
7111
7112
7113
7114
7115
7116
7117
7118
7119
7120
7121
7122
7123
7124
7125
7126
7127
7128
7129
7130
7131
7132
7133
7134
7135
7136
7137
7138
7139
7140
7141
7142
7143
7144
7145
7146
7147
7148
7149
7150
7151
7152
7153
7154
7155
7156
7157
7158
7159
7160
7161
7162
7163
7164
7165
7166
7167
7168
7169
7170
7171
7172
7173
7174
7175
7176
7177
7178
7179
7180
7181
7182
7183
7184
7185
7186
7187
7188
7189
7190
7191
7192
7193
7194
7195
7196
7197
7198
7199
7200
7201
7202
7203
7204
7205
7206
7207
7208
7209
7210
7211
7212
7213
7214
7215
7216
7217
7218
7219
7220
7221
7222
7223
7224
7225
7226
7227
7228
7229
7230
7231
7232
7233
7234
7235
7236
7237
7238
7239
7240
7241
7242
7243
7244
7245
7246
7247
7248
7249
7250
7251
7252
7253
7254
7255
7256
7257
7258
7259
7260
7261
7262
7263
7264
7265
7266
7267
7268
7269
7270
7271
7272
7273
7274
7275
7276
7277
7278
7279
7280
7281
7282
7283
7284
7285
7286
7287
7288
7289
7290
7291
7292
7293
7294
7295
7296
7297
7298
7299
7300
7301
7302
7303
7304
7305
7306
7307
7308
7309
7310
7311
7312
7313
7314
7315
7316
7317
7318
7319
7320
7321
7322
7323
7324
7325
7326
7327
7328
7329
7330
7331
7332
7333
7334
7335
7336
7337
7338
7339
7340
7341
7342
7343
7344
7345
7346
7347
7348
7349
7350
7351
7352
7353
7354
7355
7356
7357
7358
7359
7360
7361
7362
7363
7364
7365
7366
7367
7368
7369
7370
7371
7372
7373
7374
7375
7376
7377
7378
7379
7380
7381
7382
7383
7384
7385
7386
7387
7388
7389
7390
7391
7392
7393
7394
7395
7396
7397
7398
7399
7400
7401
7402
7403
7404
7405
7406
7407
7408
7409
7410
7411
7412
7413
7414
7415
7416
7417
7418
7419
7420
7421
7422
7423
7424
7425
7426
7427
7428
7429
7430
7431
7432
7433
7434
7435
7436
7437
7438
7439
7440
7441
7442
7443
7444
7445
7446
7447
7448
7449
7450
7451
7452
7453
7454
7455
7456
7457
7458
7459
7460
7461
7462
7463
7464
7465
7466
7467
7468
7469
7470
7471
7472
7473
7474
7475
7476
7477
7478
7479
7480
7481
7482
7483
7484
7485
7486
7487
7488
7489
7490
7491
7492
7493
7494
7495
7496
7497
7498
7499
7500
7501
7502
7503
7504
7505
7506
7507
7508
7509
7510
7511
7512
7513
7514
7515
7516
7517
7518
7519
7520
7521
7522
7523
7524
7525
7526
7527
7528
7529
7530
7531
7532
7533
7534
7535
7536
7537
7538
7539
7540
7541
7542
7543
7544
7545
7546
7547
7548
7549
7550
7551
7552
7553
7554
7555
7556
7557
7558
7559
7560
7561
7562
7563
7564
7565
7566
7567
7568
7569
7570
7571
7572
7573
7574
7575
7576
7577
7578
7579
7580
7581
7582
7583
7584
7585
7586
7587
7588
7589
7590
7591
7592
7593
7594
7595
7596
7597
7598
7599
7600
7601
7602
7603
7604
7605
7606
7607
7608
7609
7610
7611
7612
7613
7614
7615
7616
7617
7618
7619
7620
7621
7622
7623
7624
7625
7626
7627
7628
7629
7630
7631
7632
7633
7634
7635
7636
7637
7638
7639
7640
7641
7642
7643
7644
7645
7646
7647
7648
7649
7650
7651
7652
7653
7654
7655
7656
7657
7658
7659
7660
7661
7662
7663
7664
7665
7666
7667
7668
7669
7670
7671
7672
7673
7674
7675
7676
7677
7678
7679
7680
7681
7682
7683
7684
7685
7686
7687
7688
7689
7690
7691
7692
7693
7694
7695
7696
7697
7698
7699
7700
7701
7702
7703
7704
7705
7706
7707
7708
7709
7710
7711
7712
7713
7714
7715
7716
7717
7718
7719
7720
7721
7722
7723
7724
7725
7726
7727
7728
7729
7730
7731
7732
7733
7734
7735
7736
7737
7738
7739
7740
7741
7742
7743
7744
7745
7746
7747
7748
7749
7750
7751
7752
7753
7754
7755
7756
7757
7758
7759
7760
7761
7762
7763
7764
7765
7766
7767
7768
7769
7770
7771
7772
7773
7774
7775
7776
7777
7778
7779
7780
7781
7782
7783
7784
7785
7786
7787
7788
7789
7790
7791
7792
7793
7794
7795
7796
7797
7798
7799
7800
7801
7802
7803
7804
7805
7806
7807
7808
7809
7810
7811
7812
7813
7814
7815
7816
7817
7818
7819
7820
7821
7822
7823
7824
7825
7826
7827
7828
7829
7830
7831
7832
7833
7834
7835
7836
7837
7838
7839
7840
7841
7842
7843
7844
7845
7846
7847
7848
7849
7850
7851
7852
7853
7854
7855
7856
7857
7858
7859
7860
7861
7862
7863
7864
7865
7866
7867
7868
7869
7870
7871
7872
7873
7874
7875
7876
7877
7878
7879
7880
7881
7882
7883
7884
7885
7886
7887
7888
7889
7890
7891
7892
7893
7894
7895
7896
7897
7898
7899
7900
7901
7902
7903
7904
7905
7906
7907
7908
7909
7910
7911
7912
7913
7914
7915
7916
7917
7918
7919
7920
7921
7922
7923
7924
7925
7926
7927
7928
7929
7930
7931
7932
7933
7934
7935
7936
7937
7938
7939
7940
7941
7942
7943
7944
7945
7946
7947
7948
7949
7950
7951
7952
7953
7954
7955
7956
7957
7958
7959
7960
7961
7962
7963
7964
7965
7966
7967
7968
7969
7970
7971
7972
7973
7974
7975
7976
7977
7978
7979
7980
7981
7982
7983
7984
7985
7986
7987
7988
7989
7990
7991
7992
7993
7994
7995
7996
7997
7998
7999
8000
8001
8002
8003
8004
8005
8006
8007
8008
8009
8010
8011
8012
8013
8014
8015
8016
8017
8018
8019
8020
8021
8022
8023
8024
8025
8026
8027
8028
8029
8030
8031
8032
8033
8034
8035
8036
8037
8038
8039
8040
8041
8042
8043
8044
8045
8046
8047
8048
8049
8050
8051
8052
8053
8054
8055
8056
8057
8058
8059
8060
8061
8062
8063
8064
8065
8066
8067
8068
8069
8070
8071
8072
8073
8074
8075
8076
8077
8078
8079
8080
8081
8082
8083
8084
8085
8086
8087
8088
8089
8090
8091
8092
8093
8094
8095
8096
8097
8098
8099
8100
8101
8102
8103
8104
8105
8106
8107
8108
8109
8110
8111
8112
8113
8114
8115
8116
8117
8118
8119
8120
8121
8122
8123
8124
8125
8126
8127
8128
8129
8130
8131
8132
8133
8134
8135
8136
8137
8138
8139
8140
8141
8142
8143
8144
8145
8146
8147
8148
8149
8150
8151
8152
8153
8154
8155
8156
8157
8158
8159
8160
8161
8162
8163
8164
8165
8166
8167
8168
8169
8170
8171
8172
8173
8174
8175
8176
8177
8178
8179
8180
8181
8182
8183
8184
8185
8186
8187
8188
8189
8190
8191
8192
8193
8194
8195
8196
8197
8198
8199
8200
8201
8202
8203
8204
8205
8206
8207
8208
8209
8210
8211
8212
8213
8214
8215
8216
8217
8218
8219
8220
8221
8222
8223
8224
8225
8226
8227
8228
8229
8230
8231
8232
8233
8234
8235
8236
8237
8238
8239
8240
8241
8242
8243
8244
8245
8246
8247
8248
8249
8250
8251
8252
8253
8254
8255
8256
8257
8258
8259
8260
8261
8262
8263
8264
8265
8266
8267
8268
8269
8270
8271
8272
8273
8274
8275
8276
8277
8278
8279
8280
8281
8282
8283
8284
8285
8286
8287
8288
8289
8290
8291
8292
8293
8294
8295
8296
8297
8298
8299
8300
8301
8302
8303
8304
8305
8306
8307
8308
8309
8310
8311
8312
8313
8314
8315
8316
8317
8318
8319
8320
8321
8322
8323
8324
8325
8326
8327
8328
8329
8330
8331
8332
8333
8334
8335
8336
8337
8338
8339
8340
8341
8342
8343
8344
8345
8346
8347
8348
8349
8350
8351
8352
8353
8354
8355
8356
8357
8358
8359
8360
8361
8362
8363
8364
8365
8366
8367
8368
8369
8370
8371
8372
8373
8374
8375
8376
8377
8378
8379
8380
8381
8382
8383
8384
8385
8386
8387
8388
8389
8390
8391
8392
8393
8394
8395
8396
8397
8398
8399
8400
8401
8402
8403
8404
8405
8406
8407
8408
8409
8410
8411
8412
8413
8414
8415
8416
8417
8418
8419
8420
8421
8422
8423
8424
8425
8426
8427
8428
8429
8430
8431
8432
8433
8434
8435
8436
8437
8438
8439
8440
8441
8442
8443
8444
8445
8446
8447
8448
8449
8450
8451
8452
8453
8454
8455
8456
8457
8458
8459
8460
8461
8462
8463
8464
8465
8466
8467
8468
8469
8470
8471
8472
8473
8474
8475
8476
8477
8478
8479
8480
8481
8482
8483
8484
8485
8486
8487
8488
8489
8490
8491
8492
8493
8494
8495
8496
8497
8498
8499
8500
8501
8502
8503
8504
8505
8506
8507
8508
8509
8510
8511
8512
8513
8514
8515
8516
8517
8518
8519
8520
8521
8522
8523
8524
8525
8526
8527
8528
8529
8530
8531
8532
8533
8534
8535
8536
8537
8538
8539
8540
8541
8542
8543
8544
8545
8546
8547
8548
8549
8550
8551
8552
8553
8554
8555
8556
8557
8558
8559
8560
8561
8562
8563
8564
8565
8566
8567
8568
8569
8570
8571
8572
8573
8574
8575
8576
8577
8578
8579
8580
8581
8582
8583
8584
8585
8586
8587
8588
8589
8590
8591
8592
8593
8594
8595
8596
8597
8598
8599
8600
8601
8602
8603
8604
8605
8606
8607
8608
8609
8610
8611
8612
8613
8614
8615
8616
8617
8618
8619
8620
8621
8622
8623
8624
8625
8626
8627
8628
8629
8630
8631
8632
8633
8634
8635
8636
8637
8638
8639
8640
8641
8642
8643
8644
8645
8646
8647
8648
8649
8650
8651
8652
8653
8654
8655
8656
8657
8658
8659
8660
8661
8662
8663
8664
8665
8666
8667
8668
8669
8670
8671
8672
8673
8674
8675
8676
8677
8678
8679
8680
8681
8682
8683
8684
8685
8686
8687
8688
8689
8690
8691
8692
8693
8694
8695
8696
8697
8698
8699
8700
8701
8702
8703
8704
8705
8706
8707
8708
8709
8710
8711
8712
8713
8714
8715
8716
8717
8718
8719
8720
8721
8722
8723
8724
8725
8726
8727
8728
8729
8730
8731
8732
8733
8734
8735
8736
8737
8738
8739
8740
8741
8742
8743
8744
8745
8746
8747
8748
8749
8750
8751
8752
8753
8754
8755
8756
8757
8758
8759
8760
8761
8762
8763
8764
8765
8766
8767
8768
8769
8770
8771
8772
8773
8774
8775
8776
8777
8778
8779
8780
8781
8782
8783
8784
8785
8786
8787
8788
8789
8790
8791
8792
8793
8794
8795
8796
8797
8798
8799
8800
8801
8802
8803
8804
8805
8806
8807
8808
8809
8810
8811
8812
8813
8814
8815
8816
8817
8818
8819
8820
8821
8822
8823
8824
8825
8826
8827
8828
8829
8830
8831
8832
8833
8834
8835
8836
8837
8838
8839
8840
8841
8842
8843
8844
8845
8846
8847
8848
8849
8850
8851
8852
8853
8854
8855
8856
8857
8858
8859
8860
8861
8862
8863
8864
8865
8866
8867
8868
8869
8870
8871
8872
8873
8874
8875
8876
8877
8878
8879
8880
8881
8882
8883
8884
8885
8886
8887
8888
8889
8890
8891
8892
8893
8894
8895
8896
8897
8898
8899
8900
8901
8902
8903
8904
8905
8906
8907
8908
8909
8910
8911
8912
8913
8914
8915
8916
8917
8918
8919
8920
8921
8922
8923
8924
8925
8926
8927
8928
8929
8930
8931
8932
8933
8934
8935
8936
8937
8938
8939
8940
8941
8942
8943
8944
8945
8946
8947
8948
8949
8950
8951
8952
8953
8954
8955
8956
8957
8958
8959
8960
8961
8962
8963
8964
8965
8966
8967
8968
8969
8970
8971
8972
8973
8974
8975
8976
8977
8978
8979
8980
8981
8982
8983
8984
8985
8986
8987
8988
8989
8990
8991
8992
8993
8994
8995
8996
8997
8998
8999
9000
9001
9002
9003
9004
9005
9006
9007
9008
9009
9010
9011
9012
9013
9014
9015
9016
9017
9018
9019
9020
9021
9022
9023
9024
9025
9026
9027
9028
9029
9030
9031
9032
9033
9034
9035
9036
9037
9038
9039
9040
9041
9042
9043
9044
9045
9046
9047
9048
9049
9050
9051
9052
9053
9054
9055
9056
9057
9058
9059
9060
9061
9062
9063
9064
9065
9066
9067
9068
9069
9070
9071
9072
9073
9074
9075
9076
9077
9078
9079
9080
9081
9082
9083
9084
9085
9086
9087
9088
9089
9090
9091
9092
9093
9094
9095
9096
9097
9098
9099
9100
9101
9102
9103
9104
9105
9106
9107
9108
9109
9110
9111
9112
9113
9114
9115
9116
9117
9118
9119
9120
9121
9122
9123
9124
9125
9126
9127
9128
9129
9130
9131
9132
9133
9134
9135
9136
9137
9138
9139
9140
9141
9142
9143
9144
9145
9146
9147
9148
9149
9150
9151
9152
9153
9154
9155
9156
9157
9158
9159
9160
9161
9162
9163
9164
9165
9166
9167
9168
9169
9170
9171
9172
9173
9174
9175
9176
9177
9178
9179
9180
9181
9182
9183
9184
9185
9186
9187
9188
9189
9190
9191
9192
9193
9194
9195
9196
9197
9198
9199
9200
9201
9202
9203
9204
9205
9206
9207
9208
9209
9210
9211
9212
9213
9214
9215
9216
9217
9218
9219
9220
9221
9222
9223
9224
9225
9226
9227
9228
9229
9230
9231
9232
9233
9234
9235
9236
9237
9238
9239
9240
9241
9242
9243
9244
9245
9246
9247
9248
9249
9250
9251
9252
9253
9254
9255
9256
9257
9258
9259
9260
9261
9262
9263
9264
9265
9266
9267
9268
9269
9270
9271
9272
9273
9274
9275
9276
9277
9278
9279
9280
9281
9282
9283
9284
9285
9286
9287
9288
9289
9290
9291
9292
9293
9294
9295
9296
9297
9298
9299
9300
9301
9302
9303
9304
9305
9306
9307
9308
9309
9310
9311
9312
9313
9314
9315
9316
9317
9318
9319
9320
9321
9322
9323
9324
9325
9326
9327
9328
9329
9330
9331
9332
9333
9334
9335
9336
9337
9338
9339
9340
9341
9342
9343
9344
9345
9346
9347
9348
9349
9350
9351
9352
9353
9354
9355
9356
9357
9358
9359
9360
9361
9362
9363
9364
9365
9366
9367
9368
9369
9370
9371
9372
9373
9374
9375
9376
9377
9378
9379
9380
9381
9382
9383
9384
9385
9386
9387
9388
9389
9390
9391
9392
9393
9394
9395
9396
9397
9398
9399
9400
9401
9402
9403
9404
9405
9406
9407
9408
9409
9410
9411
9412
9413
9414
9415
9416
9417
9418
9419
9420
9421
9422
9423
9424
9425
9426
9427
9428
9429
9430
9431
9432
9433
9434
9435
9436
9437
9438
9439
9440
9441
9442
9443
9444
9445
9446
9447
9448
9449
9450
9451
9452
9453
9454
9455
9456
9457
9458
9459
9460
9461
9462
9463
9464
9465
9466
9467
9468
9469
9470
9471
9472
9473
9474
9475
9476
9477
9478
9479
9480
9481
9482
9483
9484
9485
9486
9487
9488
9489
9490
9491
9492
9493
9494
9495
9496
9497
9498
9499
9500
9501
9502
9503
9504
9505
9506
9507
9508
9509
9510
9511
9512
9513
9514
9515
9516
9517
9518
9519
9520
9521
9522
9523
9524
9525
9526
9527
9528
9529
9530
9531
9532
9533
9534
9535
9536
9537
9538
9539
9540
9541
9542
9543
9544
9545
9546
9547
9548
9549
9550
9551
9552
9553
9554
9555
9556
9557
9558
9559
9560
9561
9562
9563
9564
9565
9566
9567
9568
9569
9570
9571
9572
9573
9574
9575
9576
9577
9578
9579
9580
9581
9582
9583
9584
9585
9586
9587
9588
9589
9590
9591
9592
9593
9594
9595
9596
9597
9598
9599
9600
9601
9602
9603
9604
9605
9606
9607
9608
9609
9610
9611
9612
9613
9614
9615
9616
9617
9618
9619
9620
9621
9622
9623
9624
9625
9626
9627
9628
9629
9630
9631
9632
9633
9634
9635
9636
9637
9638
9639
9640
9641
9642
9643
9644
9645
9646
9647
9648
9649
9650
9651
9652
9653
9654
9655
9656
9657
9658
9659
9660
9661
9662
9663
9664
9665
9666
9667
9668
9669
9670
9671
9672
9673
9674
9675
9676
9677
9678
9679
9680
9681
9682
9683
9684
9685
9686
9687
9688
9689
9690
9691
9692
9693
9694
9695
9696
9697
9698
9699
9700
9701
9702
9703
9704
9705
9706
9707
9708
9709
9710
9711
9712
9713
9714
9715
9716
9717
9718
9719
9720
9721
9722
9723
9724
9725
9726
9727
9728
9729
9730
9731
9732
9733
9734
9735
9736
9737
9738
9739
9740
9741
9742
9743
9744
9745
9746
9747
9748
9749
9750
9751
9752
9753
9754
9755
9756
9757
9758
9759
9760
9761
9762
9763
9764
9765
9766
9767
9768
9769
9770
9771
9772
9773
9774
9775
9776
9777
9778
9779
9780
9781
9782
9783
9784
9785
9786
9787
9788
9789
9790
9791
9792
9793
9794
9795
9796
9797
9798
9799
9800
9801
9802
9803
9804
9805
9806
9807
9808
9809
9810
9811
9812
9813
9814
9815
9816
9817
9818
9819
9820
9821
9822
9823
9824
9825
9826
9827
9828
9829
9830
9831
9832
9833
9834
9835
9836
9837
9838
9839
9840
9841
9842
9843
9844
9845
9846
9847
9848
9849
9850
9851
9852
9853
9854
9855
9856
9857
9858
9859
9860
9861
9862
9863
9864
9865
9866
9867
9868
9869
9870
9871
9872
9873
9874
9875
9876
9877
9878
9879
9880
9881
9882
9883
9884
9885
9886
9887
9888
9889
9890
9891
9892
9893
9894
9895
9896
9897
9898
9899
9900
9901
9902
9903
9904
9905
9906
9907
9908
9909
9910
9911
9912
9913
9914
9915
9916
9917
9918
9919
9920
9921
9922
9923
9924
9925
9926
9927
9928
9929
9930
9931
9932
9933
9934
9935
9936
9937
9938
9939
9940
9941
9942
9943
9944
9945
9946
9947
9948
9949
9950
9951
9952
9953
9954
9955
9956
9957
9958
9959
9960
9961
9962
9963
9964
9965
9966
9967
9968
9969
9970
9971
9972
9973
9974
9975
9976
9977
9978
9979
9980
9981
9982
9983
9984
9985
9986
9987
9988
9989
9990
9991
9992
9993
9994
9995
9996
9997
9998
9999
10000
10001
10002
10003
10004
10005
10006
10007
10008
10009
10010
10011
10012
10013
10014
10015
10016
10017
10018
10019
10020
10021
10022
10023
10024
10025
10026
10027
10028
10029
10030
10031
10032
10033
10034
10035
10036
10037
10038
10039
10040
10041
10042
10043
10044
10045
10046
10047
10048
10049
10050
10051
10052
10053
10054
10055
10056
10057
10058
10059
10060
10061
10062
10063
10064
10065
10066
10067
10068
10069
10070
10071
10072
10073
10074
10075
10076
10077
10078
10079
10080
10081
10082
10083
10084
10085
10086
10087
10088
10089
10090
10091
10092
10093
10094
10095
10096
10097
10098
10099
10100
10101
10102
10103
10104
10105
10106
10107
10108
10109
10110
10111
10112
10113
10114
10115
10116
10117
10118
10119
10120
10121
10122
10123
10124
10125
10126
10127
10128
10129
10130
10131
10132
10133
10134
10135
10136
10137
10138
10139
10140
10141
10142
10143
10144
10145
10146
10147
10148
10149
10150
10151
10152
10153
10154
10155
10156
10157
10158
10159
10160
10161
10162
10163
10164
10165
10166
10167
10168
10169
10170
10171
10172
10173
10174
10175
10176
10177
10178
10179
10180
10181
10182
10183
10184
10185
10186
10187
10188
10189
10190
10191
10192
10193
10194
10195
10196
10197
10198
10199
10200
10201
10202
10203
10204
10205
10206
10207
10208
10209
10210
10211
10212
10213
10214
10215
10216
10217
10218
10219
10220
10221
10222
10223
10224
10225
10226
10227
10228
10229
10230
10231
10232
10233
10234
10235
10236
10237
10238
10239
10240
10241
10242
10243
10244
10245
10246
10247
10248
10249
10250
10251
10252
10253
10254
10255
10256
10257
10258
10259
10260
10261
10262
10263
10264
10265
10266
10267
10268
10269
10270
10271
10272
10273
10274
10275
10276
10277
10278
10279
10280
10281
10282
10283
10284
10285
10286
10287
10288
10289
10290
10291
10292
10293
10294
10295
10296
10297
10298
10299
10300
10301
10302
10303
10304
10305
10306
10307
10308
10309
10310
10311
10312
10313
10314
10315
10316
10317
10318
10319
10320
10321
10322
10323
10324
10325
10326
10327
10328
10329
10330
10331
10332
10333
10334
10335
10336
10337
10338
10339
10340
10341
10342
10343
10344
10345
10346
10347
10348
10349
10350
10351
10352
10353
10354
10355
10356
10357
10358
10359
10360
10361
10362
10363
10364
10365
10366
10367
10368
10369
10370
10371
10372
10373
10374
10375
10376
10377
10378
10379
10380
10381
10382
10383
10384
10385
10386
10387
10388
10389
10390
10391
10392
10393
10394
10395
10396
10397
10398
10399
10400
10401
10402
10403
10404
10405
10406
10407
10408
10409
10410
10411
10412
10413
10414
10415
10416
10417
10418
10419
10420
10421
10422
10423
10424
10425
10426
10427
10428
10429
10430
10431
10432
10433
10434
10435
10436
10437
10438
10439
10440
10441
10442
10443
10444
10445
10446
10447
10448
10449
10450
10451
10452
10453
10454
10455
10456
10457
10458
10459
10460
10461
10462
10463
10464
10465
10466
10467
10468
10469
10470
10471
10472
10473
10474
10475
10476
10477
10478
10479
10480
10481
10482
10483
10484
10485
10486
10487
10488
10489
10490
10491
10492
10493
10494
10495
10496
10497
10498
10499
10500
10501
10502
10503
10504
10505
10506
10507
10508
10509
10510
10511
10512
10513
10514
10515
10516
10517
10518
10519
10520
10521
10522
10523
10524
10525
10526
10527
10528
10529
10530
10531
10532
10533
10534
10535
10536
10537
10538
10539
10540
10541
10542
10543
10544
10545
10546
10547
10548
10549
10550
10551
10552
10553
10554
10555
10556
10557
10558
10559
10560
10561
10562
10563
10564
10565
10566
10567
10568
10569
10570
10571
10572
10573
10574
10575
10576
10577
10578
10579
10580
10581
10582
10583
10584
10585
10586
10587
10588
10589
10590
10591
10592
10593
10594
10595
10596
10597
10598
10599
10600
10601
10602
10603
10604
10605
10606
10607
10608
10609
10610
10611
10612
10613
10614
10615
10616
10617
10618
10619
10620
10621
10622
10623
10624
10625
10626
10627
10628
10629
10630
10631
10632
10633
10634
10635
10636
10637
10638
10639
10640
10641
10642
10643
10644
10645
10646
10647
10648
10649
10650
10651
10652
10653
10654
10655
10656
10657
10658
10659
10660
10661
10662
10663
10664
10665
10666
10667
10668
10669
10670
10671
10672
10673
10674
10675
10676
10677
10678
10679
10680
10681
10682
10683
10684
10685
10686
10687
10688
10689
10690
10691
10692
10693
10694
10695
10696
10697
10698
10699
10700
10701
10702
10703
10704
10705
10706
10707
10708
10709
10710
10711
10712
10713
10714
10715
10716
10717
10718
10719
10720
10721
10722
10723
10724
10725
10726
10727
10728
10729
10730
10731
10732
10733
10734
10735
10736
10737
10738
10739
10740
10741
10742
10743
10744
10745
10746
10747
10748
10749
10750
10751
10752
10753
10754
10755
10756
10757
10758
10759
10760
10761
10762
10763
10764
10765
10766
10767
10768
10769
10770
10771
10772
10773
10774
10775
10776
10777
10778
10779
10780
10781
10782
10783
10784
10785
10786
10787
10788
10789
10790
10791
10792
10793
10794
10795
10796
10797
10798
10799
10800
10801
10802
10803
10804
10805
10806
10807
10808
10809
10810
10811
10812
10813
10814
10815
10816
10817
10818
10819
10820
10821
10822
10823
10824
10825
10826
10827
10828
10829
10830
10831
10832
10833
10834
10835
10836
10837
10838
10839
10840
10841
10842
10843
10844
10845
10846
10847
10848
10849
10850
10851
10852
10853
10854
10855
10856
10857
10858
10859
10860
10861
10862
10863
10864
10865
10866
10867
10868
10869
10870
10871
10872
10873
10874
10875
10876
10877
10878
10879
10880
10881
10882
10883
10884
10885
10886
10887
10888
10889
10890
10891
10892
10893
10894
10895
10896
10897
10898
10899
10900
10901
10902
10903
10904
10905
10906
10907
10908
10909
10910
10911
10912
10913
10914
10915
10916
10917
10918
10919
10920
10921
10922
10923
10924
10925
10926
10927
10928
10929
10930
10931
10932
10933
10934
10935
10936
10937
10938
10939
10940
10941
10942
10943
10944
10945
10946
10947
10948
10949
10950
10951
10952
10953
10954
10955
10956
10957
10958
10959
10960
10961
10962
10963
10964
10965
10966
10967
10968
10969
10970
10971
10972
10973
10974
10975
10976
10977
10978
10979
10980
10981
10982
10983
10984
10985
10986
10987
10988
10989
10990
10991
10992
10993
10994
10995
10996
10997
10998
10999
11000
11001
11002
11003
11004
11005
11006
11007
11008
11009
11010
11011
11012
11013
11014
11015
11016
11017
11018
11019
11020
11021
11022
11023
11024
11025
11026
11027
11028
11029
11030
11031
11032
11033
11034
11035
11036
11037
11038
11039
11040
11041
11042
11043
11044
11045
11046
11047
11048
11049
11050
|
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
<title>
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Finger Prints, by Francis Galton.
</title>
<style type="text/css">
p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em;}
body {margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%;}
.pagenum {position: absolute; left: 92%; font-size: smaller; text-align: right; font-style: normal;}
h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {text-align: center; clear: both;}
hr {width: 33%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;}
table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;}
.btbl {border-top: solid black 1px; border-bottom: solid black 1px; border-left: solid black 1px;}
.btb {border-top: solid black 1px; border-bottom: solid black 1px;}
.btbr {border-top: solid black 1px; border-bottom: solid black 1px; border-right: solid black 1px;}
.btr {border-top: solid black 1px; border-right: solid black 1px;}
.btbr2 {border-top: solid black 1px; border-bottom: solid black 1px; border-right: solid black 1px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;}
.bb {border-bottom: solid black 1px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;}
.bt {border-top: solid black 1px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;}
.btr {border-top: solid black 1px; border-right: solid black 1px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;}
.btl {border-top: solid black 1px; border-left: solid black 1px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;}
.br {border-right: solid black 1px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;}
.blr {border-left: solid black 1px; border-right: solid black 1px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;}
.bl {border-left: solid black 1px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;}
.bbl {border-bottom: solid black 1px; border-left: solid black 1px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;}
.bbr {border-bottom: solid black 1px; border-right: solid black 1px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;}
.btbl {border-bottom: solid black 1px; border-bottom: solid black 1px; border-left: solid black 1px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;}
.btlr {border-top: solid black 1px; border-left: solid black 1px; border-right: solid black 1px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;}
.bblr {border-bottom: solid black 1px; border-left: solid black 1px; border-right: solid black 1px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;}
.btblr {border-top: solid black 1px; border-bottom: solid black 1px; border-left: solid black 1px; border-right: solid black 1px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;}
.borbold {border: solid black 2px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;}
.btdoubr {border-top: double; border-right: solid black 1px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;}
.btdoubl {border-top: double; border-left: solid black 1px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;}
.btrdoub {border-top: solid black 1px; border-right: double; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;}
.bbrdoub {border-bottom: solid black 1px; border-right: double; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;}
.brdoub {border-right: double; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;}
.btlrdoub {border-top: solid black 1px; border-left: solid black 1px; border-right: double; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;}
.botbor {border-bottom: solid black 1px;}
.dent {text-indent: 1em;}
.dent2 {padding-left: 0.5em;}
.giant {font-size: 200%}
.huge {font-size: 150%}
.large {font-size: 125%}
.blockquot {margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;}
.note {margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%;}
.index {margin-left: 20%;}
.right {text-align: right;}
.center {text-align: center;}
.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;}
.smcaplc {text-transform: lowercase; font-variant: small-caps;}
.figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;}
.figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;}
a:link {color:#0000ff; text-decoration:none}
a:visited {color:#6633cc; text-decoration:none}
.spacer {padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;}
.spacer2 {padding-left: 2.5em; padding-right: 2.5em;}
.spacer3 {padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em;}
ins.correction {text-decoration:none; border-bottom: thin solid gray;}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<pre>
The Project Gutenberg EBook of Finger Prints, by Francis Galton
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
Title: Finger Prints
Author: Francis Galton
Release Date: August 5, 2011 [EBook #36979]
Language: English
Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FINGER PRINTS ***
Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
generously made available by The Internet Archive.)
</pre>
<p class="center"><span class="giant">FINGER PRINTS</span></p>
<p> </p><p> </p>
<p class="center"><span class="huge">FINGER PRINTS</span></p>
<p> </p>
<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/title.jpg" alt="FINGER PRINTS OF THE AUTHOR" /></div>
<p> </p>
<p class="center"><small>BY</small></p>
<p class="center"><span class="large">FRANCIS GALTON, F.R.S., <small>ETC.</small></span></p>
<p> </p>
<p class="center">London<br />
MACMILLAN AND CO.<br />
AND NEW YORK<br />
1892</p>
<p class="center"><i>All rights reserved</i></p>
<p> </p><p> </p>
<hr style="width: 50%;" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td> </td><td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a></td></tr>
<tr><td><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Distinction between creases and ridges</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Origin of the inquiry</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Summaries of the subsequent chapters</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_3">3-21</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Viz. of ii., <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</span>
<span class="spacer2">iii., <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</span>
<span class="spacer">iv., <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent"><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="spacer2"> v., <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</span>
vi., <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;
<span class="spacer2"> vii., <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> <span class="spacer2">viii., <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</span>
<span style="margin-left: -.5em;">ix., <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</span>
<span class="spacer2"> x., <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="spacer2"> xi., <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</span>
<span style="margin-left: -.5em;">xii., <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</span>
<span class="spacer2">xiii., <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a></td></tr>
<tr><td><span class="smcap">Previous Use of Finger Prints</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Superstition of personal contact</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Rude hand-prints</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Seals to documents</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Chinese finger marks</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">The <i>tipsahi</i> of Bengal</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Nail-marks on Assyrian bricks</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Nail-mark on Chinese coins</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Ridges and cheiromancy—China, Japan, and by negroes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Modern usage—Bewick, Fauld, Tabor, and G. Thompson</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Their official use by Sir W. J. Herschel</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr>
<tr><td> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a></td></tr>
<tr><td><span class="smcap">Methods of Printing</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Impression on polished glass or razor</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">The two contrasted methods of printing</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">General remarks on printing from reliefs—ink; low relief of ridges; layer of ink; drying due to oxidisation</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32-34</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Apparatus at my own laboratory—slab; roller; benzole (or equivalent); funnel; ink; cards</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_35">35-38</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Method of its manipulation</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_38">38-40</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Pocket apparatus</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Rollers and their manufacture</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Other parts of the apparatus</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Folders—long serviceable if air be excluded</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Lithography</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Water colours and dyes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Sir W. Herschel’s official instructions</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Printing as from engraved plates—Prof. Ray Lankester; Dr. L. Robinson</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Methods of Dr. Forgeot</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Smoke prints—mica; adhesive paper, by licking with tongue</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_47">47-48</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Plumbago; whitening</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Casts—sealing-wax; dentist’s wax; gutta-percha; undried varnish; collodion</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49-51</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Photographs</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Prints on glass and mica for lantern</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Enlargements—photographic, by camera lucida, pantagraph</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_52">52-53</a></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a></td></tr>
<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Ridges and their Uses</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">General character of the ridges</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span>Systems on the palm—principal ones; small interpolated systems</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54"><ins class="correction" title="original: 45">54</ins>-55</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Cheiromantic creases—their directions; do not strictly correspond with those of ridges</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_56">56-57</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Ridges on the soles of the feet</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Pores</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Development:—embryology; subsequent growth; disintegration by age, by injuries</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_58">58-59</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Evolution</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Apparent use as regards pressure—theoretic; experiment with compass points</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_60">60-61</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Apparent use as regards rubbing—thrill thereby occasioned</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_62">62-63</a></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a></td></tr>
<tr><td><span class="smcap">Patterns: their Outlines and Cores</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">My earlier failures in classifying prints; their causes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_64">64-66</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">The triangular plots</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Outlines of patterns—eight sets of ten digits given as examples</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_69">69-70</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Supplies of ridges to pattern</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Letters that read alike when reversed</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Magnifying glasses, spectacles, etc.</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Rolled impressions, their importance</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Standard patterns, cores, and their nomenclature</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_74">74-77</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Direction of twist, nomenclature</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Arches, loops, whorls</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Transitional cases</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">The nine genera</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Measurements—by ridge-intervals; by aid of bearings like compass</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_82">82-84</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Purkenje—his <i>Commentatio</i> and a translation of it in part</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84-88</a></td></tr>
<tr><td> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a></td></tr>
<tr><td><span class="smcap">Persistence</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Evidence available</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">About thirty-five points of reference in each print</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Photo-enlargement; orientation; tracing axes of ridges</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90-91</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Ambiguities in minutiæ</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">V. H. Hd. as child and boy, a solitary change in one of the minutiæ</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Eight couplets from other persons</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">One from Sir W. G.</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Summary of 389 comparisons</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Ball of a thumb</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Results as to persistence</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a></td></tr>
<tr><td><span class="smcap">Evidential Value</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Method of rough comparison</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Chance against guessing a pattern</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Number of independent elements in a print—squares respectively of one, six, and five ridge-intervals in side</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101-103</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Interpolation, three methods of</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_103">103-105</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Local accidents inside square</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Uncertainties outside it</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Compound results</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Effect of failure in one, two, or more prints</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Final conclusions—Jezebel</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_112">112-113</a></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a></td></tr>
<tr><td><span class="smcap">Peculiarities of the Digits</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Frequency per cent of arches, loops, and whorls generally, and on the several digits</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_114">114-115</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span>Characteristic groups of digits</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_116">116-118</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Relationships between the digits</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Centesimal scale of relationship</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_124">124-126</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Digits of same and of different names</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a></td></tr>
<tr><td><span class="smcap">Methods of Indexing</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Use of an index</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Method of few conspicuous differences in many fingers</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Specimen index</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Order in which the digits are noted</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Examples of indexing</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Effect of regarding slopes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Number of index-heads required for 100 sets in each of twelve different methods</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_136">136-138</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent"><i>i</i> and <i>o</i> in forefingers only</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">List of commonest index-headings</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Number of headings to 100 sets, according to the digits that are noted</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Transitional cases; sub-classifications</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_143">143-144</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Symbols for patterns</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Storing cards</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Number of entries under each head when only the first three fingers are noted</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a></td></tr>
<tr><td><span class="smcap">Personal Identification</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Printers and photographers</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Use of means of identification to honest persons; in regard to criminals</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_148">148-149</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Major Ferris, Mr. Tabor, N. Borneo</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_149">149-153</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Best digits for registration purposes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span>Registration of criminals—M. Bertillon</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Details of <i>Bertillonage</i>; success attributed to it; a theoretic error</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_155">155-158</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Verification on a small scale</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_158">158-162</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Experiences in the United States</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Body marks; teeth</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_165">165-166</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Value of finger prints for search in a register</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Identification by comparison</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Remarks by M. Herbette</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a></td></tr>
<tr><td><span class="smcap">Heredity</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Different opinions</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Larger meaning of heredity</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Connection between filial and fraternal relationships</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Fraternity, a faulty word but the best available</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">A and B brothers</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Test case of calculated randoms</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Fraternities by double A. L. W. events</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">The C. standard patterns</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Limitation of couplets in large fraternities</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Test of accurate classification</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Fraternities by double C. events</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Centesimal scale applied</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Twins</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Children of like-patterned parents</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Simple filial relationship</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Influences of father and mother</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a></td></tr>
<tr><td><span class="smcap">Races and Classes</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Data for races</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span>Racial differences are statistical only</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Calculations by Mr. F. H. Collins</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Hebrew peculiarities</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Negro peculiarities, questionable</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Data for different classes in temperament, faculty, etc., and results</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">M. Féré</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a></td></tr>
<tr><td><span class="smcap">Genera</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Type, meaning of</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Law of frequency of error</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Discussion of three elements in the loops on either thumb</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_200">200-207</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Proportions of typical loops</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">The patterns are transmitted under conditions of panmixia, yet do not blend</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Their genera are not due to selection; inference</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="dent">Sports; variations</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td></tr></table>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></p>
<p> </p><p> </p>
<hr style="width: 50%;" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p>
<h2>DESCRIPTION OF THE TABLES</h2>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td><td>Summary of evidence in favour of finger marks being persistent</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td><td>Interpolation of ridges</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">I.</td><td>Percentage frequency of Arches, Loops, and Whorls on the
different digits, as observed in the 5000 digits of 500 different persons</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">II.</td><td>Distribution of the A. L. W. patterns on the corresponding digits
of the two hands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">III.</td><td>Percentage frequency of Arches on the digits of the two hands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">IV.</td><td>Percentage frequency of Loops on the digits of the two hands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">V.</td><td>Percentage frequency of Whorls on the digits of the two hands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">VI<i>a</i>.</td><td>Percentage of cases in which the same class of pattern occurs
in the same digits of the two hands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">VI<i>b</i>.</td><td>Percentage of cases in which the same class of pattern occurs
in various couplets of different digits</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">VII.</td><td>Couplets of fingers of different names in the same and in the opposite hands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">VIII.</td><td>Measures of relationship between the digits on a centesimal scale</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">IX.</td><td>Index to 100 sets of finger prints</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">X.</td><td>Number of different index-heads in 100 sets, according to the number of digits noted</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XI.</td><td>Number of entries under the same heads in 100 sets</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XII.</td><td>Index-headings under which more than 1 per cent of the sets were registered in 500 sets</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XIII.</td><td>Percentage of entries falling under a single head in 100, 300, and 500 sets</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XIV.</td><td>Number of different index-headings in 100 sets, according to the number of fingers in each set, and to the method of indexing</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XV.</td><td>Number of entries in 500 sets, each of the fore, middle, and ring-fingers only</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td></tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span>XVI.</td><td>Number of cases of various anthropometric data
that severally fell in the three classes of large, medium, and small, when certain<br />limiting values were adopted</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XVII.</td><td>Distribution of 500 sets of measures, each set consisting of five elements, into classes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XVIII.</td><td>Number of the above sets that fell under the same headings</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XIX.</td><td>Further analysis of the two headings that contained the most numerous entries</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XX.</td><td>Observed random couplets</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XXI.</td><td>Calculated random couplets</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XXII.</td><td>Observed fraternal couplets</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XXIII.</td><td>Fraternal couplets—random, observed, and utmost feasible</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XXIV.</td><td>Three fingers of right hand in 150 fraternal couplets</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XXV.</td><td>Three fingers of right hand in 150 fraternal couplets—random and observed</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XXVI.</td><td>Three fingers of right hand in 150 fraternal couplets—resemblance measured on centesimal scale</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XXVII.</td><td>Twins</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XXVIII.</td><td>Children of like-patterned parents</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XXIX.</td><td>Paternal and maternal influence</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XXX.</td><td>Different races, percentage frequency of arches in fore-finger</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XXXI.</td><td>Distribution of number of ridges in AH, and of other measures in loops</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XXXII.</td><td>Ordinates to their schemes of distribution</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XXXIII.</td><td>Comparison of the above with calculated values</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">XXXIV.</td><td>Proportions of a typical loop on the right and left thumbs respectively</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td></tr></table>
<p> </p><p> </p>
<hr style="width: 50%;" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span></p>
<h2>DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES</h2>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="right">I.—</td>
<td>Fig. 1. Chinese coin with the symbol of the nail-mark of the Empress Wen-teh</td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td>
<td>Fig. 2. Order on a camp sutler by Mr. Gilbert Thompson, who used his finger print for the same purpose as the scroll-work in
cheques, viz. to ensure the detection of erasures</td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="right">II.—</td>
<td>Fig. 3. Form of card used at my anthropometric laboratory for finger prints. It shows the places where they are severally impressed,
whether dabbed or rolled (<a href="#Page_40">p. 40</a>), and the hole by which they are secured in their box</td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td>
<td>Fig. 4. Small printing roller, used in the pocket apparatus, actual size. It may be covered either with india-rubber tubing or with roller composition</td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="right">III.—</td>
<td>Fig. 5. Diagram of the chief peculiarities of ridges, called here <i>minutiæ</i> (the scale is about eight times the natural size)</td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td>
<td>Fig. 6. The systems of ridges and the creases in the palm, indicated respectively by continuous and by dotted lines. Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5 show
variations in the boundaries of the systems of ridges, and places where smaller systems are sometimes interpolated</td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="right">IV.—</td>
<td>Fig. 7. The effects of scars and cuts on the ridges: <i>a</i> is the result of a deep ulcer; <i>b</i> the finger of a tailor (temporarily) scarred by
the needle; <i>c</i> the result of a deep cut</td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td>
<td>Fig. 8. Formation of the interspace: filled in (3) by a loop; in (4) by a scroll. The triangular plot or plots are indicated. In (1) there is
no interspace, but a succession of arches are formed, gradually flattening into straight lines</td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="right">V.—</td>
<td>Fig. 9. Specimens of rolled thumb prints, of the natural size, in which the patterns have been outlined, <a href="#Page_69">p. 69</a>, and on which lines
have been drawn for orientation and charting</td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="right">VI.—</td>
<td>Fig. 10. Specimens of the outlines of the patterns on the ten digits of eight different persons, not selected but taken as they came.
Its object is to give a general idea of the degree of their variety. The supply of ridges from the <i>inner</i> (or thumb side) are coloured blue, those
from the <i>outer</i> are red (the scale is of the natural size)</td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span>VII.—</td>
<td>Fig. 11. Standard patterns of Arches, together with some transitional forms, all with their names below</td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td>
<td>Fig. 12. As above, with respect to Loops</td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="right">VIII.—</td>
<td>Fig. 13. As above, with respect to Whorls</td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td>
<td>Fig. 14. Cores to Loops, which may consist either of single lines, here called <i>rods</i>, or of a recurved line or <i>staple</i>, while the ridges that
immediately envelops them is called an <i>envelope</i></td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td>
<td>Fig. 15. Cores to Whorls</td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td></tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="right">IX.—</td>
<td>Fig. 15. Transitional patterns, enlarged three times, between Arches and either Loops or Whorls</td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="right">X.—</td>
<td>Fig. 16. Transitional patterns, as above, but between Loops and Whorls</td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="right">XI.—</td>
<td>Fig. 17. Diagram showing the nine genera formed by the corresponding combinations of the two letters by which they are expressed, each being <i>i</i>,
<i>j</i>, or <i>o</i> as the case may be. The first two diagrams are Arches, and not strictly patterns at all, but may with some justice be symbolised by <i>jj</i></td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td>
<td>Fig. 18. Ambiguities in minutiæ, showing that certain details in them are not to be trusted, while others are</td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="right">XII.—</td>
<td>Fig. 19. The illustrations to Purkenje’s <i>Commentatio</i>. They are photo-lithographed from the original, which is not clearly printed</td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="right">XIII.—</td>
<td>Fig. 20. Enlarged impressions of the same two fingers of V. H. Hd., first when a child of 2½, and subsequently when a boy of 15 years of age. The lower pair are
interesting from containing the unique case of failure of exact coincidence yet observed. It is marked A. The numerals indicate the correspondences</td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="right">XIV.—</td>
<td>Fig. 21. Contains portions on an enlarged scale of eight couplets of finger prints, the first print in each couplet having been taken many
years before the second, as shown by the attached dates. The points of correspondence in each couplet are indicated by similar numerals</td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr>
<tr><td valign="top" align="right">XV.—</td>
<td>Fig. 22. The fore-finger of Sir W. J. Herschel as printed on two occasions, many years apart (enlarged scale). The numerals are here
inserted on a plan that has the merit of clearness, but some of the lineations are thereby sacrificed</td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td>
<td>Fig. 23. Shows the periods of life over which the evidence of identity extends in Figs 20-22. [By an oversight, not perceived until too late
for remedy, the bottom line begins at æt. 62 instead of 67]</td>
<td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr></table>
<p> </p><p> </p>
<hr style="width: 50%;" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
<p class="center"><span class="large">INTRODUCTION</span></p>
<p>The palms of the hands and the soles of the feet are covered with two
totally distinct classes of marks. The most conspicuous are the creases or
folds of the skin which interest the followers of palmistry, but which are
no more significant to others than the creases in old clothes; they show
the lines of most frequent flexure, and nothing more. The least
conspicuous marks, but the most numerous by far, are the so-called
papillary ridges; they form the subject of the present book. If they had
been only twice as large as they are, they would have attracted general
attention and been commented on from the earliest times. Had Dean Swift
known and thought of them, when writing about the Brobdingnags, whom he
constructs on a scale twelve times as great as our own, he would certainly
have made Gulliver express horror at the ribbed fingers of the giants who
handled him. The ridges on their palms would have been as broad as the
thongs of our coach-whips.</p>
<p>Let no one despise the ridges on account of their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> smallness, for they are
in some respects the most important of all anthropological data. We shall
see that they form patterns, considerable in size and of a curious variety
of shape, whose boundaries can be firmly outlined, and which are little
worlds in themselves. They have the unique merit of retaining all their
peculiarities unchanged throughout life, and afford in consequence an
incomparably surer criterion of identity than any other bodily feature.
They may be made to throw welcome light on some of the most interesting
biological questions of the day, such as heredity, symmetry, correlation,
and the nature of genera and species. A representation of their lineations
is easily secured in a self-recorded form, by inking the fingers in the
way that will be explained, and pressing them on paper. There is no
prejudice to be overcome in procuring these most trustworthy sign-manuals,
no vanity to be pacified, no untruths to be guarded against.</p>
<p>My attention was first drawn to the ridges in 1888 when preparing a
lecture on Personal Identification for the Royal Institution, which had
for its principal object an account of the anthropometric method of
Bertillon, then newly introduced into the prison administration of France.
Wishing to treat the subject generally, and having a vague knowledge of
the value sometimes assigned to finger marks, I made inquiries, and was
surprised to find, both how much had been done, and how much there
remained to do, before establishing their theoretical value and practical
utility.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>Enough was then seen to show that the subject was of real importance, and
I resolved to investigate it; all the more so, as the modern processes of
photographic printing would enable the evidence of such results as might
be arrived at, to be presented to the reader on an enlarged and easily
legible form, and in a trustworthy shape. Those that are put forward in
the following pages, admit of considerable extension and improvement, and
it is only the fact that an account of them seems useful, which causes me
to delay no further before submitting what has thus far been attained, to
the criticism of others.</p>
<p>I have already published the following memoirs upon this subject:</p>
<div class="blockquot"><p>1. “Personal Identification.” <i>Journal Royal Inst.</i> 25th May 1888, and
<i>Nature</i>, 28th June 1888.</p>
<p>2. “Patterns in Thumb and Finger Marks.” <i>Phil. Trans. Royal Society</i>,
vol. clxxxii. (1891) b. pp. 1-23. [This almost wholly referred to
thumb marks.]</p>
<p>3. “Method of Indexing Finger Marks.” <i>Proc. Royal Society</i>, vol.
xlix. (1891).</p>
<p>4. “Identification by Finger Tips.” <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, August 1891.</p></div>
<p>This first and introductory chapter contains a brief and orderly summary
of the contents of those that follow.</p>
<p>The second chapter treats of the previous employment of finger prints
among various nations, which has been almost wholly confined to making
daubs, without paying any regard to the delicate lineations with which
this book is alone concerned. Their object was partly superstitious and
partly ceremonial; superstitious, so far as a personal contact between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
the finger and the document was supposed to be of mysterious efficacy:
ceremonial, as a formal act whose due performance in the presence of
others could be attested. A few scattered instances are mentioned of
persons who had made finger prints with enough care to show their
lineations, and who had studied them; some few of these had used them as
signatures. Attention is especially drawn to Sir William Herschel, who
brought the method of finger prints into regular official employment when
he was “Collector” or chief administrator of the Hooghly district in
Bengal, and my large indebtedness to him is expressed in this chapter and
in other places.</p>
<p>In the third chapter various methods of making good prints from the
fingers are described at length, and more especially that which I have now
adopted on a somewhat large scale, at my anthropometric laboratory, which,
through the kindness of the authorities of South Kensington, is at present
lodged in the galleries of their Science Collections. There, the ten
digits of both hands of all the persons who come to be measured, are
impressed with clearness and rapidity, and a very large collection of
prints is steadily accumulating, each set being, as we shall see, a
sign-manual that differentiates the person who made it, throughout the
whole of his life, from all the rest of mankind.</p>
<p>Descriptions are also given of various methods of enlarging a finger print
to a convenient size, when it is desired to examine it closely.
Photography is the readiest of all; on the other hand the prism (as in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> a
camera lucida) has merits of its own, and so has an enlarging pantagraph,
when it is furnished with a small microscope and cross wires to serve as a
pointer.</p>
<p>In the fourth chapter the character and purpose of the ridges, whose
lineations appear in the finger print, are discussed. They have been the
topic of a considerable amount of careful physiological study in late
years, by writers who have investigated their development in early periods
of unborn life, as well as their evolutionary history. They are perfectly
defined in the monkeys, but appear in a much less advanced stage in other
mammalia. Their courses run somewhat independently of the lines of
flexure. They are studded with pores, which are the open mouths of ducts
proceeding from the somewhat deeply-seated glands which secrete
perspiration, so one of their functions is to facilitate the riddance of
that excretion. The ridges increase in height as the skin is thickened by
hard usage, until callosities begin to be formed, which may altogether
hide them. But the way in which they assist the touch and may tend to
neutralise the dulling effect of a thick protective skin, is still
somewhat obscure. They certainly seem to help in the discrimination of the
character of surfaces that are variously rubbed between the fingers.</p>
<p>These preliminary topics having been disposed of, we are free in the fifth
chapter to enter upon the direct course of our inquiry, beginning with a
discussion of the various patterns formed by the lineations. It will be
shown how systems of parallel ridges sweep in bold curves across the
palmar surface<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> of the hand, and how, whenever the boundaries of two
systems diverge, the interspace is filled up by a compact little system of
its own, variously curved or whorled, having a fictitious resemblance to
an eddy between two currents. An interspace of this kind is found in the
bulb of each finger. The ridges run in parallel lines across the finger,
up to its last joint, beyond which the insertion of the finger-nail causes
a compression of the ridges on either side; their intermediate courses are
in consequence so much broadened out that they commonly separate, and form
two systems with an interspace between them. The independent patterns that
appear in this interspace upon the bulbs of the fingers, are those with
which this book is chiefly concerned.</p>
<p>At first sight, the maze formed by the minute lineations is bewildering,
but it is shown that every interspace can be surely outlined, and when
this is done, the character of the pattern it encloses, starts
conspicuously into view. Examples are given to show how the outlining is
performed, and others in which the outlines alone are taken into
consideration. The cores of the patterns are also characteristic, and are
described separately. It is they alone that have attracted the notice of
previous inquirers. The outlines fall for the most part into nine distinct
genera, defined by the relative directions of the divergent ridges that
enclose them. The upper pair (those that run towards the finger-tip) may
unite, or one or other of them may surmount the other, thus making three
possibilities. There are three similar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> possibilities in respect to the
lower pair; so, as any one of the first group may be combined with any one
of the second, there are 3 × 3, or nine possibilities in all. The practice
of somewhat rolling the finger when printing from it, is necessary in
order to impress enough of its surface to ensure that the points at which
the boundaries of the pattern begin to diverge, shall be always included.</p>
<p>Plates are given of the principal varieties of patterns, having regard
only to their more fundamental differences, and names are attached for the
convenience of description; specimens are also given of the outlines of
the patterns in all the ten digits of eight different persons, taken at
hazard, to afford a first idea of the character of the material to be
dealt with. Another and less minute system of classification under three
heads is then described, which is very useful for rough preliminary
purposes, and of which frequent use is made further on. It is into Arches,
Loops, and Whorls. In the Arches, there is no pattern strictly speaking,
for there is no interspace; the need for it being avoided by a successive
and regular broadening out of the ridges as they cross the bulb of the
finger. In Loops, the interspace is filled with a system of ridges that
bends back upon itself, and in which no one ridge turns through a complete
circle. Whorls contain all cases in which at least one ridge turns through
a complete circle, and they include certain double patterns which have a
whorled appearance. The transitional cases are few; they are fully
described, pictured, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> classified. One great advantage of the rude
A. L. W. system is that it can be applied, with little risk of error, to
impressions that are smudged or imperfect; it is therefore very useful so
far as it goes. Thus it can be easily applied to my own finger prints on
the title-page, made as they are from digits that are creased and
roughened by seventy years of life, and whose impressions have been
closely clipped in order to fit them into a limited space.</p>
<p>A third method of classification is determined by the origin of the ridges
which supply the interspace, whether it be from the thumb side or the
little-finger side; in other words, from the Inner or the Outer side.</p>
<p>Lastly, a translation from the Latin is given of the famous Thesis or
<i>Commentatio</i> of Purkenje, delivered at the University of Breslau in 1823,
together with his illustrations. It is a very rare pamphlet, and has the
great merit of having first drawn attention to the patterns and attempted
to classify them.</p>
<p>In the sixth chapter we reach the question of Persistence: whether or no
the patterns are so durable as to afford a sure basis for identification.
The answer was different from what had been expected. So far as the
proportions of the patterns go, they are <i>not</i> absolutely fixed, even in
the adult, inasmuch as they change with the shape of the finger. If the
finger is plumped out or emaciated, or variously deformed by usage, gout,
or age, the proportions of the pattern will vary also. Two prints of the
same finger, one taken before and the other after an interval of many
years,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> cannot be expected to be as closely alike as two prints similarly
made from the same woodcut. They are far from satisfying the shrewd test
of the stereoscope, which shows if there has been an alteration even of a
letter in two otherwise duplicate pages of print. The measurements vary at
different periods, even in the adult, just as much if not more than his
height, span, and the lengths of his several limbs. On the other hand, the
numerous bifurcations, origins, islands, and enclosures in the ridges that
compose the pattern, are proved to be <i>almost beyond change</i>. A comparison
is made between the pattern on a finger, and one on a piece of lace; the
latter may be stretched or shrunk as a whole, but the threads of which it
is made retain their respective peculiarities. The evidence on which these
conclusions are founded is considerable, and almost wholly derived from
the collections made by Sir W. Herschel, who most kindly placed them at my
disposal. They refer to one or more fingers, and in a few instances to the
whole hand, of fifteen different persons. The intervals before and after
which the prints were taken, amount in some cases to thirty years. Some of
them reach from babyhood to boyhood, some from childhood to youth, some
from youth to advanced middle age, one from middle life to incipient old
age. These four stages nearly include the whole of the ordinary life of
man. I have compared altogether some 700 points of reference in these
couplets of impressions, and only found a single instance of discordance,
in which a ridge that was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> cleft in a child became united in later years.
Photographic enlargements are given in illustration, which include between
them a total of 157 pairs of points of reference, all bearing distinctive
numerals to facilitate comparison and to prove their unchangeableness.
Reference is made to another illustrated publication of mine, which raises
the total number of points compared to 389, all of which were successful,
with the single exception above mentioned. The fact of an almost complete
persistence in the peculiarities of the ridges from birth to death, may
now be considered as determined. They existed before birth, and they
persist after death, until effaced by decomposition.</p>
<p>In the seventh chapter an attempt is made to appraise the evidential value
of finger prints by the common laws of Probability, paying great heed not
to treat variations that are really correlated, as if they were
independent. An artifice is used by which the number of portions is
determined, into which a print may be divided, in each of which the purely
local conditions introduce so much uncertainty, that a guess derived from
a knowledge of the outside conditions is as likely as not to be wrong. A
square of six ridge-intervals in the side was shown by three different
sets of experiments to be larger than required; one of four
ridge-intervals in the side was too small, but one of five ridge-intervals
appeared to be closely correct. A six-ridge interval square was, however,
at first adopted, in order to gain assurance that the error should be on
the safe side. As<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> an ordinary finger print contains about twenty-four of
these squares, the uncertainty in respect to the entire contents of the
pattern <i>due to this cause alone</i>, is expressed by a fraction of which the
numerator is 1, and the denominator is 2 multiplied into itself
twenty-four times, which amounts to a number so large that it requires
eight figures to express it.</p>
<p>A further attempt was made to roughly appraise the neglected uncertainties
relating to the outside conditions, but large as they are, they seem much
inferior in their joint effect to the magnitude of that just discussed.</p>
<p>Next it was found possible, by the use of another artifice, to obtain some
idea of the evidential value of identity when two prints agree in all but
one, two, three, or any other number of particulars. This was done by
using the five ridge-interval squares, of which thirty-five may be
considered to go into a single finger print, being about the same as the
number of the bifurcations, origins, and other points of comparison. The
accidental similarity in their numbers enables us to treat them roughly as
equivalent. On this basis the well-known method of binomial calculation is
easily applied, with the general result that, notwithstanding a failure of
evidence in a few points, as to the identity of two sets of prints, each,
say, of three fingers, amply enough evidence would be supplied by the
remainder to prevent any doubt that the two sets of prints were made by
the same person. When a close correspondence exists in respect to all the
ten digits, the thoroughness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> of the differentiation of each man from all
the rest of the human species is multiplied to an extent far beyond the
capacity of human imagination. There can be no doubt that the evidential
value of identity afforded by prints of two or three of the fingers, is so
great as to render it superfluous to seek confirmation from other sources.</p>
<p>The eighth chapter deals with the frequency with which the several kinds
of patterns appear on the different digits of the same person, severally
and in connection. The subject is a curious one, and the inquiry
establishes unexpected relationships and distinctions between different
fingers and between the two hands, to whose origin there is at present no
clue. The relationships are themselves connected in the following
way;—calling any two digits on one of the hands by the letters A and B
respectively, and the digit on the other hand, that corresponds to B, by
the symbol B1, then the kinship between A and B1 is identical, in a
statistical sense, with the kinship between A and B.</p>
<p>The chief novelty in this chapter is an attempt to classify nearness of
relationship upon a centesimal scale, in which the number of
correspondences due to mere chance counts as 0°, and complete identity as
100°. It seems reasonable to adopt the scale with only slight reservation,
when the average numbers of the Arches, Loops, and Whorls are respectively
the same in the two kinds of digit which are compared together; but when
they differ greatly, there are no means free from objection, of
determining the 100°<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> division of the scale; so the results, if noted at
all, are subject to grave doubt.</p>
<p>Applying this scale, it appears that digits on opposite hands, which bear
the same name, are more nearly related together than digits bearing
different names, in about the proportion of three to two. It seems also,
that of all the digits, none are so nearly related as the middle finger to
the two adjacent ones.</p>
<p>In the ninth chapter, various methods of indexing are discussed and
proposed, by which a set of finger prints may be so described by a few
letters, that it can be easily searched for and found in any large
collection, just as the name of a person is found in a directory. The
procedure adopted, is to apply the Arch-Loop-Whorl classification to all
ten digits, describing each digit in the order in which it is taken, by
the letter <i>a</i>, <i>l</i>, or <i>w</i>, as the case may be, and arranging the results
in alphabetical sequence. The downward direction of the slopes of loops on
the fore-fingers is also taken into account, whether it be towards the
Inner or the Outer side, thus replacing L on the fore-finger by either <i>i</i>
or <i>o</i>.</p>
<p>Many alternative methods are examined, including both the recognition and
the non-recognition of all sloped patterns. Also the gain in
differentiation, when all the ten digits are catalogued, instead of only a
few of them. There is so much correlation between the different fingers,
and so much peculiarity in each, that theoretical notions of the value of
different methods of classification are of little worth; it is only by
actual trial that the best can be determined.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> Whatever plan of index be
adopted, many patterns must fall under some few headings and few or no
patterns under others, the former class resembling in that respect the
Smiths, Browns, and other common names that occur in directories. The
general value of the index much depends on the facility with which these
frequent forms can be broken up by sub-classification, the rarer forms
being easily dealt with. This branch of the subject has, however, been but
lightly touched, under the belief that experience with larger collections
than my own, was necessary before it could be treated thoroughly; means
are, however, indicated for breaking up the large battalions, which have
answered well thus far, and seem to admit of considerable extension. Thus,
the number of ridges in a loop (which is by far the commonest pattern) on
any particular finger, at the part of the impression where the ridges are
cut by the axis of the loop, is a fairly definite and effective datum as
well as a simple one; so also is the character of its inmost lineation, or
core.</p>
<p>In the tenth chapter we come to a practical result of the inquiry, namely,
its possible use as a means of differentiating a man from his fellows. In
civil as well as in criminal cases, the need of some such system is shown
to be greatly felt in many of our dependencies; where the features of
natives are distinguished with difficulty; where there is but little
variety of surnames; where there are strong motives for prevarication,
especially connected with land-tenure and pensions, and a proverbial
prevalence of unveracity.</p>
<p>It is also shown that the value to honest men of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> sure means of
identifying themselves is not so small among civilised nations even in
peace time, as to be disregarded, certainly not in times of war and of
strict passports. But the value to honest men is always great of being
able to identify offenders, whether they be merely deserters or formerly
convicted criminals, and the method of finger prints is shown to be
applicable to that purpose. For aid in searching the registers of a
criminal intelligence bureau, its proper rank is probably a secondary one;
the primary being some form of the already established Bertillon
anthropometric method. Whatever power the latter gives of successfully
searching registers, that power would be multiplied many hundredfold by
the inclusion of finger prints, because their peculiarities are entirely
unconnected with other personal characteristics, as we shall see further
on. A brief account is given in this chapter of the Bertillon system, and
an attempt is made on a small scale to verify its performance, by
analysing five hundred sets of measures made at my own laboratory. These,
combined with the quoted experiences in attempting to identify deserters
in the United States, allow a high value to this method, though not so
high as has been claimed for it, and show the importance of supplementary
means. But whenever two suspected duplicates of measurements, bodily
marks, photographs and finger prints have to be compared, the lineations
of the finger prints would give an incomparably more trustworthy answer to
the question, whether or no the suspicion of their referring to the same
person was justified, than all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> the rest put together. Besides this, while
measurements and photographs are serviceable only for adults, and even
then under restrictions, the finger prints are available throughout life.
It seems difficult to believe, now that their variety and persistence have
been proved, the means of classifying them worked out, and the method of
rapidly obtaining clear finger prints largely practised at my laboratory
and elsewhere, that our criminal administration can long neglect the use
of such a powerful auxiliary. It requires no higher skill and judgment to
make, register, and hunt out finger prints, than is to be found in
abundance among ordinary clerks. Of course some practice is required
before facility can be gained in reading and recognising them, but not a
few persons of whom I have knowledge, have interested themselves in doing
so, and found no difficulty.</p>
<p>The eleventh chapter treats of Heredity, and affirmatively answers the
question whether patterns are transmissible by descent. The inquiry proved
more troublesome than was expected, on account of the great variety in
patterns and the consequent rarity with which the same pattern, other than
the common Loop, can be expected to appear in relatives. The available
data having been attacked both by the Arch-Loop-Whorl method, and by a
much more elaborate system of classification—described and figured as the
C system, the resemblances between children of either sex, of the same
parents (or more briefly “fraternal” resemblances, as they are here
called, for want<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> of a better term), have been tabulated and discussed. A
batch of twins have also been analysed. Then cases have been treated in
which both parents had the same pattern on corresponding fingers; this
pattern was compared with the pattern on the corresponding finger of the
child. In these and other ways, results were obtained, all testifying to
the conspicuous effect of heredity, and giving results that can be
measured on the centesimal scale already described. But though the
qualitative results are clear, the quantitative are as yet not well
defined, and that part of the inquiry must lie over until a future time,
when I shall have more data and when certain foreseen improvements in the
method of work may perhaps be carried out. There is a decided appearance,
first observed by Mr. F. Howard Collins, of whom I shall again have to
speak, of the influence of the mother being stronger than that of the
father, in transmitting these patterns.</p>
<p>In the twelfth chapter we come to a branch of the subject of which I had
great expectations, that have been falsified, namely, their use in
indicating Race and Temperament. I thought that any hereditary
peculiarities would almost of necessity vary in different races, and that
so fundamental and enduring a feature as the finger markings must in some
way be correlated with temperament.</p>
<p>The races I have chiefly examined are English, most of whom were of the
upper and middle classes; the others chiefly from London board schools;
Welsh, from the purest Welsh-speaking districts of South<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> Wales; Jews from
the large London schools, and Negroes from the territories of the Royal
Niger Company. I have also a collection of Basque prints taken at Cambo,
some twenty miles inland from Biarritz, which, although small, is large
enough to warrant a provisional conclusion. As a first and only an
approximately correct description, the English, Welsh, Jews, Negroes, and
Basques, may all be spoken of as identical in the character of their
finger prints; the same familiar patterns appearing in all of them with
much the same degrees of frequency, the differences between groups of
different races being not larger than those that occasionally occur
between groups of the same race. The Jews have, however, a decidedly
larger proportion of Whorled patterns than other races, and I should have
been tempted to make an assertion about a peculiarity in the Negroes, had
not one of their groups differed greatly from the rest. The task of
examination has been laborious thus far, but it would be much more so to
arrive with correctness at a second and closer approximation to the truth.
It is doubtful at present whether it is worth while to pursue the subject,
except in the case of the Hill tribes of India and a few other peculiarly
diverse races, for the chance of discovering some characteristic and
perhaps a more monkey-like pattern.</p>
<p>Considerable collections of prints of persons belonging to different
classes have been analysed, such as students in science, and students in
arts; farm labourers; men of much culture; and the lowest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> idiots in the
London district (who are all sent to Darenth Asylum), but I do not, still
as a first approximation, find any decided difference between their finger
prints. The ridges of artists are certainly not more delicate and close
than those of men of quite another stamp.</p>
<p>In Chapter XIII. the question is discussed and answered affirmatively, of
the right of the nine fundamentally differing patterns to be considered as
different genera; also of their more characteristic varieties to rank as
different genera, or species, as the case may be. The chief test applied,
respected the frequency with which the various Loops that occurred on the
thumbs, were found to differ, in successive degrees of difference, from
the central form of all of them; it was found to accord with the
requirements of the well-known law of Frequency of Error, proving the
existence of a central type, from which the departures were, in common
phraseology, accidental. Now all the evidence in the last chapter concurs
in showing that no sensible amount of correlation exists between any of
the patterns on the one hand, and any of the bodily faculties or
characteristics on the other. It would be absurd therefore to assert that
in the struggle for existence, a person with, say, a loop on his right
middle finger has a better chance of survival, or a better chance of early
marriage, than one with an arch. Consequently genera and species are here
seen to be formed without the slightest aid from either Natural or Sexual
Selection, and these finger<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> patterns are apparently the only peculiarity
in which Panmixia, or the effect of promiscuous marriages, admits of being
studied on a large scale. The result of Panmixia in finger markings,
corroborates the arguments I have used in <i>Natural Inheritance</i> and
elsewhere, to show that “organic stability” is the primary factor by which
the distinctions between genera are maintained; consequently, the progress
of evolution is not a smooth and uniform progression, but one that
proceeds by jerks, through successive “sports” (as they are called), some
of them implying considerable organic changes, and each in its turn being
favoured by Natural Selection.</p>
<p>The same word “variation” has been indiscriminately applied to two very
different conceptions, which ought to be clearly distinguished; the one is
that of the “sports” just alluded to, which are changes in the position of
organic stability, and may, through the aid of Natural Selection, become
fresh steps in the onward course of evolution; the other is that of the
Variations proper, which are merely strained conditions of a stable form
of organisation, and not in any way an overthrow of them. Sports do not
blend freely together; variations proper do so. Natural Selection acts
upon variations proper, just as it does upon sports, by preserving the
best to become parents, and eliminating the worst, but its action upon
mere variations can, as I conceive, be of no permanent value to evolution,
because there is a constant tendency in the offspring to “regress” towards
the parental type. The amount and results<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> of this tendency have been
fully established in <i>Natural Inheritance</i>. It is there shown, that after
a certain departure from the central typical form has been reached in any
race, a further departure becomes impossible without the aid of these
sports. In the successive generations of such a population, the average
tendency of filial regression towards the racial centre must at length
counterbalance the effects of filial dispersion; consequently the best of
the produce cannot advance beyond the level already attained by the
parents, the rest falling short of it in various degrees.</p>
<hr style="width: 25%;" />
<p>In concluding these introductory remarks, I have to perform the grateful
duty of acknowledging my indebtedness to Mr. F. Howard Collins, who
materially helped me during the past year. He undertook the numerous and
tedious tabulations upon which the chapters on Heredity, and on Races and
Classes, are founded, and he thoroughly revised nearly the whole of my
MS., to the great advantage of the reader of this book.</p>
<p> </p><p> </p>
<hr style="width: 50%;" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
<p class="center"><span class="large">PREVIOUS USE OF FINGER PRINTS</span></p>
<p>The employment of impressions of the hand or fingers to serve as
sign-manuals will probably be found in every nation of importance, but the
significance attached to them differs. It ranges from a mere superstition
that personal contact is important, up to the conviction of which this
book will furnish assurance, that when they are properly made, they are
incomparably the most sure and unchanging of all forms of signature. The
existence of the superstitious basis is easily noted in children and the
uneducated; it occupies a prominent place in the witchcrafts of
barbarians. The modern witness who swears on the Bible, is made to hold it
and afterwards to kiss it; he who signs a document, touches a seal or
wafer, and declares that “this is my act and deed.” Students of the
primitive customs of mankind find abundant instances of the belief, that
personal contact communicates some mysterious essence from the thing
touched to the person who touches it, and <i>vice versa</i>; but it is
unnecessary here to enter further into these elementary human reasonings,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
which are fully described and discussed by various well-known writers.</p>
<p>The next grade of significance attached to an impression resembles that
which commends itself to the mind of a hunter who is practised in
tracking. He notices whether a footprint he happens to light upon, is
larger or smaller, broader or narrower, or otherwise differs from the
average, in any special peculiarity; he thence draws his inferences as to
the individual who made it. So, when a chief presses his hand smeared with
blood or grime, upon a clean surface, a mark is left in some degree
characteristic of him. It may be that of a broad stumpy hand, or of a long
thin one; it may be large or small; it may even show lines corresponding
to the principal creases of the palm. Such hand prints have been made and
repeated in many semi-civilised nations, and have even been impressed in
vermilion on their State documents, as formerly by the sovereign of Japan.
Though mere smudges, they serve in a slight degree to individualise the
signer, while they are more or less clothed with the superstitious
attributes of personal contact. So far as I can learn, no higher form of
finger printing than this has ever existed, in regular and well-understood
use, in any barbarous or semi-civilised nation. The ridges dealt with in
this book could not be seen at all in such rude prints, much less could
they be utilised as strictly distinctive features. It is possible that
when impressions of the fingers have been made in wax, and used as seals
to documents, they may sometimes have been subjected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> to minute scrutiny;
but no account has yet reached me of trials in any of their courts of law,
about disputed signatures, in which the identity of the party who was said
to have signed with his finger print, had been established or disproved by
comparing it with a print made by him then and there. The reader need be
troubled with only a few examples, taken out of a considerable collection
of extracts from books and letters, in which prints, or rather daubs of
the above kind, are mentioned.</p>
<p>A good instance of their small real value may be seen in the <i>Trans. China
Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society</i>, Part 1, 1847, published at
Hong-Kong, which contains a paper on “Land Tenure in China,” by T. Meadows
Taylor, with a deed concerning a sale of land, in facsimile, and its
translation: this ends, “The mother and the son, the sellers, have in the
presence of all the parties, received the price of the land in full,
amounting to sixty-four taels and five mace, in perfect dollars weighed in
scales. <i>Impression of the finger of the mother, of the maiden name of
Chin.</i>” The impression, as it appears in the woodcut, is roundish in
outline, and was therefore made by the tip and not the bulb of the finger.
Its surface is somewhat mottled, but there is no trace of any ridges.</p>
<p>The native clerks of Bengal give the name of <i>tipsahi</i> to the mark
impressed by illiterate persons who, refusing to make either a <b>X</b> or their
caste-mark, dip their finger into the ink-pot and touch the document. The
tipsahi is not supposed to individualise the signer, it is merely a
personal ceremony performed in the presence of witnesses.</p>
<p><a name="plate1" id="plate1"></a> </p>
<p class="note">PLATE 1.</p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span></p>
<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig1.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p class="center">Chinese Coin, Tang Dynasty, about 618 <span class="smcaplc">A.D.</span>,<br />with nail mark of the Empress Wen-teh, figured in relief.</p>
<p> </p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span></p>
<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig2.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p class="center">Order on a Camp Sutler, by the officer of a surveying party in New Mexico. 1882.</p>
<p> </p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>Many impressions of fingers are found on ancient pottery, as on Roman
tiles; indeed the Latin word <i>palmatus</i> is said to mean an impression in
soft clay, such as a mark upon a wall, stamped by a blow with the palm.
Nail-marks are used ornamentally by potters of various nations. They exist
on Assyrian bricks as signatures; for instance, in the Assyrian room of
the British Museum, on the west side of the case C 43, one of these bricks
contains a notice of sale and is prefaced by words that were translated
for me thus: “Nail-mark of Nabu-sum-usur, the seller of the field, (used)
like his seal.” A somewhat amusing incident affected the design of the
Chinese money during the great Tang dynasty, about 618 <span class="smcaplc">A.D.</span> A new and
important issue of coinage was to be introduced, and the Secretary of the
Censors himself moulded the design in wax, and humbly submitted it to the
Empress Wen-teh for approval. She, through maladroitness, dug the end of
her enormously long finger-nail into its face, marking it deeply as with a
carpenter’s gouge. The poor Secretary of the Censors, Ngeu-yang-siun, who
deserves honour from professional courtiers, suppressing such sentiments
as he must have felt when his work was mauled, accepted the nail-mark of
the Empress as an interesting supplement to the design; he changed it into
a crescent in relief, and the new coins were stamped accordingly. (See
<i>Coins and Medals</i>, edited by Stanley Lane Poole, 1885, p.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> 221.) A
drawing of one of these is given in <a href="#plate1">Plate 1</a>, Fig. 1.</p>
<p>The European practitioners of palmistry and cheiromancy do not seem to
have paid particular attention to the ridges with which we are concerned.
A correspondent of the American Journal <i>Science</i>, viii. 166, states,
however, that the Chinese class the striæ at the ends of the fingers into
“pots” when arranged in a coil, and into “hooks.” They are also regarded
by the cheiromantists in Japan. A curious account has reached me of
negroes in the United States who, laying great stress on the possession of
finger prints in wax or dough for witchcraft purposes, are also said to
examine their striæ.</p>
<p>Leaving Purkenje to be spoken of in a later chapter, because he deals
chiefly with classification, the first well-known person who appears to
have studied the lineations of the ridges as a means of identification,
was Bewick, who made an impression of his own thumb on a block of wood and
engraved it, as well as an impression of a finger. They were used as
fanciful designs for his illustrated books. Occasional instances of
careful study may also be noted, such as that of Mr. Fauld (<i>Nature</i>,
xxii. p. 605, Oct. 28, 1880), who seems to have taken much pains, and that
of Mr. Tabor, the eminent photographer of San Francisco, who, noticing the
lineations of a print that he had accidentally made with his own inked
finger upon a blotting-paper, experimented further, and finally proposed
the method of finger prints for the registration of Chinese, whose
identification<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> has always been a difficulty, and was giving a great deal
of trouble at that particular time; but his proposal dropped through.
Again Mr. Gilbert Thompson, an American geologist, when on Government duty
in 1882 in the wild parts of New Mexico, paid the members of his party by
order of the camp sutler. To guard against forgery he signed his name
across the impression made by his finger upon the order, after first
pressing it on his office pad. He was good enough to send me the duplicate
of one of these cheques made out in favour of a man who bore the ominous
name of “Lying Bob” (<a href="#plate1">Plate 1</a>, Fig. 2). The impression took the place of
the scroll work on an ordinary cheque; it was in violet aniline ink, and
looked decidedly pretty. From time to time sporadic instances like these
are met with, but none are comparable in importance to the regular and
official employment made of finger prints by Sir William Herschel, during
more than a quarter of a century in Bengal. I was exceedingly obliged to
him for much valuable information when first commencing this study, and
have been almost wholly indebted to his kindness for the materials used in
this book for proving the persistence of the lineations throughout life.</p>
<p>Sir William Herschel has presented me with one of the two original
“Contracts” in Bengali, dated 1858, which suggested to his mind the idea
of using this method of identification. It was so difficult to obtain
credence to the signatures of the natives, that he thought he would use
the signature of the hand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> itself, chiefly with the intention of
frightening the man who made it from afterwards denying his formal act;
however, the impression proved so good that Sir W. Herschel became
convinced that the same method might be further utilised. He finally
introduced the use of finger prints in several departments at Hooghly in
1877, after seventeen years’ experience of the value of the evidence they
afforded. A too brief account of his work was given by him in <i>Nature</i>,
xxiii. p. 23 (Nov. 25, 1880). He mentions there that he had been taking
finger marks as sign-manuals for more than twenty years, and had
introduced them for practical purposes in several ways in India with
marked benefit. They rendered attempts to repudiate signatures quite
hopeless. Finger prints were taken of Pensioners to prevent their
personation by others after their death; they were used in the office for
Registration of Deeds, and at a gaol where each prisoner had to sign with
his finger. By comparing the prints of persons then living, with their
prints taken twenty years previously, he considered he had proved that the
lapse of at least that period made no change sufficient to affect the
utility of the plan. He informs me that he submitted, in 1877, a report in
semi-official form to the Inspector-General of Gaols, asking to be allowed
to extend the process; but no result followed. In 1881, at the request of
the Governor of the gaol at Greenwich (Sydney), he sent a description of
the method, but no further steps appear to have been taken there.</p>
<p>If the use of finger prints ever becomes of general<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> importance, Sir
William Herschel must be regarded as the first who devised a feasible
method for regular use, and afterwards officially adopted it. His method
of printing for those purposes will be found in the next chapter.</p>
<p> </p><p> </p>
<hr style="width: 50%;" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
<p class="center"><span class="large">METHODS OF PRINTING</span></p>
<p>It will be the aim of this chapter to show how to make really good and
permanent impressions of the fingers. It is very easy to do so when the
principles of the art are understood and practised, but difficult
otherwise.</p>
<p>One example of the ease of making good, but not permanent impressions, is
found, and should be tried, by pressing the bulb of a finger against
well-polished glass, or against the highly-polished blade of a razor. The
finger must be <i>very slightly</i> oiled, as by passing it through the hair;
if it be moist, dry it with a handkerchief before the oiling. Then press
the bulb of the finger on the glass or razor, as the case may be, and a
beautiful impression will be left. The hardness of the glass or steel
prevents its surface from rising into the furrows under the pressure of
the ridges, while the layer of oil which covers the bottom of the furrows
is too thin to reach down to the glass or steel; consequently the ridges
alone are printed. There is no capillary or other action to spread the
oil, so the impression<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> remains distinct. A merely moist and not oily
finger leaves a similar mark, but it soon evaporates.</p>
<p>This simple method is often convenient for quickly noting the character of
a finger pattern. The impression may be made on a window-pane, a
watch-glass, or even an eye-glass, if nothing better is at hand. The
impression is not seen to its fullest advantage except by means of a
single small source of bright light. The glass or steel has to be so
inclined as just <i>not</i> to reflect the light into the eye. That part of the
light which falls on the oily impression is not so sharply reflected from
it as from the surface of the glass or steel. Consequently some stray
beams of the light which is scattered from the oil, reach the eye, while
all of the light reflected from the highly-polished glass or steel passes
in another direction and is unseen. The result is a brilliantly luminous
impression on a dark background. The impression ceases to be visible when
the glass or steel is not well polished, and itself scatters the light,
like the oil.</p>
<p>There are two diametrically opposed methods of printing, each being the
complement of the other. The method used in ordinary printing, is to ink
the projecting surfaces only, leaving the depressed parts clean. The other
method, used in printing from engraved plates, is to ink the whole
surface, and then to clean the ink from the projecting parts, leaving the
depressions only filled with it. Either of these two courses can be
adopted in taking finger prints, but not the two together, for when they
are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> combined in equal degrees the result must be a plain black blot.</p>
<p>The following explanations will be almost entirely confined to the first
method, namely, that of ordinary printing, as the second method has so far
not given equally good results.</p>
<p>The ink used may be either printer’s ink or water colour, but for
producing the best work, rapidly and on a large scale, the method of
printer’s ink seems in every respect preferable. However, water colour
suffices for some purposes, and as there is so much convenience in a pad,
drenched with dye, such as is commonly used for hand stamps, and which is
always ready for use, many may prefer it. The processes with printer’s ink
will be described first.</p>
<p>The relief formed by the ridges is low. In the fingers of very young
children, and of some ladies whose hands are rarely submitted to rough
usage, the ridges are exceptionally faint; their crests hardly rise above
the furrows, yet it is the crests only that are to be inked. Consequently
the layer of ink on the slab or pad on which the finger is pressed for the
purpose of blackening it, must be <i>very thin</i>. Its thickness must be less
than half the elevation of the ridges, for when the finger is pressed
down, the crests displace the ink immediately below them, and drives it
upwards into the furrows which would otherwise be choked with it.</p>
<p>It is no violent misuse of metaphor to compare the ridges to the crests of
mountain ranges, and the depth of the blackening that they ought to
receive,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> to that of the newly-fallen snow upon the mountaintops in the
early autumn, when it powders them from above downwards to a
sharply-defined level. The most desirable blackening of the fingers
corresponds to a snowfall which covers all the higher passes, but descends
no lower.</p>
<p>With a finger so inked it is scarcely possible to fail in making a good
imprint; the heaviest pressure cannot spoil it. The first desideratum is,
then, to cover the slab by means of which the finger is to be blackened,
with an extremely thin layer of ink.</p>
<p>This cannot be accomplished with printer’s ink unless the slab is very
clean, the ink somewhat fluid, and the roller that is used to spread it,
in good condition. When a plate of glass is used for the slab, it is easy,
by holding the inked slab between the eye and the light, to judge of the
correct amount of inking. It should appear by no means black, but of a
somewhat light brown.</p>
<p>The thickness of ink transferred by the finger to the paper is much less
than that which lay upon the slab. The ink adheres to the slab as well as
to the finger; when they are separated, only a portion of the ink is
removed by the finger. Again, when the inked finger is pressed on the
paper, only a portion of the ink that was on the finger is transferred to
the paper. Owing to this double reduction, it seldom happens that a clear
impression is at the same time black. An ideally perfect material for
blackening would lie loosely on the slab like dust, it would cling very
lightly to the finger, but adhere firmly to the paper.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>The last preliminary to be noticed is the slowness with which the
printer’s ink hardens on the slab, and the rapidity with which it dries on
paper. While serviceable for hours in the former case, in the latter it
will be dry in a very few seconds. The drying or hardening of this oily
ink has nothing whatever to do with the loss of moisture in the ordinary
sense of the word, that is to say, of the loss of the contained water: it
is wholly due to oxidisation of the oil. An extremely thin oxidised film
soon forms on the surface of the layer on the slab, and this shields the
lower-lying portions of the layer from the air, and retards further
oxidisation. But paper is very unlike a polished slab; it is a fine felt,
full of minute interstices. When a printed period (.) is placed under the
microscope it looks like a drop of tar in the middle of a clean
bird’s-nest. The ink is minutely divided among the interstices of the
paper, and a large surface being thereby exposed to the air, it oxidises
at once, while a print from the finger upon glass will not dry for two or
three days. One effect of oxidisation is to give a granulated appearance
to the ink on rollers which have been allowed to get dirty. This
granulation leaves clots on the slab which are fatal to good work:
whenever they are seen, the roller must be cleaned at once.</p>
<p>The best ink for finger printing is not the best for ordinary printing. It
is important to a commercial printer that his ink should dry rapidly on
the paper, and he does not want a particularly thin layer of it;
consequently, he prefers ink that contains various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> drying materials, such
as litharge, which easily part with their oxygen. In finger prints this
rapid drying is unnecessary, and the drying materials do harm by making
the ink too stiff. The most serviceable ink for our purpose is made of any
pure “drying” oil (or oil that oxidises rapidly), mixed with lampblack and
very little else. I get mine in small collapsible tubes, each holding
about a quarter of an ounce, from Messrs. Reeve & Sons, 113 Cheapside,
London, W.C. Some thousands of fingers may be printed from the contents of
one of these little tubes.</p>
<p>Let us now pass on to descriptions of printing apparatus. First, of that
in regular use at my anthropometric laboratory at South Kensington, which
has acted perfectly for three years; then of a similar but small apparatus
convenient to carry about or send abroad, and of temporary arrangements in
case any part of it may fail. Then lithographic printing will be noticed.
In all these cases some kind of printer’s ink has to be used. Next, smoke
prints will be described, which at times are very serviceable; after this
the methods of water colours and aniline dyes; then casts of various
kinds; last of all, enlargements.</p>
<p><i>Laboratory apparatus.</i>—Mine consists of: 1, slab; 2, roller; 3, bottle
of benzole (paraffin, turpentine, or solution of washing soda); 4, a
funnel, with blotting-paper to act as a filter; 5, printer’s ink; 6, rags
and duster; 7, a small glass dish; 8, cards to print on.</p>
<p>The <i>Slab</i> is a sheet of polished copper, 10½ inches by 7, and about
<span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>⁄<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">16</span> inch thick, mounted on a solid board ¾ inch thick, with projecting
ears for ease of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> handling. The whole weighs 2½ lbs. Each day it is
cleaned with the benzole and left bright. [A slab of more than double the
length and less than half the width might, as my assistant thinks, answer
better.]</p>
<p>The <i>Roller</i> is an ordinary small-sized printer’s roller, 6 inches long
and 3 in diameter, obtained from Messrs. Harrild, 25 Farringdon Street,
London. Mine remained in good condition for quite a year and a half. When
it is worn the maker exchanges it for a new one at a trifling cost. A good
roller is of the highest importance; it affords the only means of
spreading ink evenly and thinly, and with quickness and precision, over a
large surface. The ingenuity of printers during more than four centuries
in all civilised nations, has been directed to invent the most suitable
composition for rollers, with the result that particular mixtures of glue,
treacle, etc., are now in general use, the proportions between the
ingredients differing according to the temperature at which the roller is
intended to be used. The roller, like the slab, is cleansed with benzole
every day (a very rapid process) and then put out of the reach of dust.
Its clean surface is smooth and shining.</p>
<p>The <i>Benzole</i> is kept in a pint bottle. Sometimes paraffin or turpentine
has been used instead; washing soda does not smell, but it dissolves the
ink more slowly. They are otherwise nearly equally effective in cleansing
the rollers and fingers. When dirty, the benzole can be rudely filtered
and used again.</p>
<p>The <i>Funnel</i> holds blotting-paper for filtering the benzole. Where much
printing is going on, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>consequent washing of hands, it is worth while
to use a filter, as it saves a little daily expense, though benzole is
very cheap, and a few drops of it will clean a large surface.</p>
<p>The <i>Ink</i> has already been spoken of. The more fluid it is the better, so
long as it does not “run.” A thick ink cannot be so thinned by adding
turpentine, etc., as to make it equal to ink that was originally fluid.
The variety of oils used in making ink, and of the added materials, is
endless. For our purpose, any oil that dries and does not spread, such as
boiled or burnt linseed oil, mixed with lampblack, is almost all that is
wanted. The burnt oil is the thicker of the two, and dries the faster.
Unfortunately the two terms, burnt and boiled linseed oil, have no
definite meaning in the trade, boiling or burning not being the simple
processes these words express, but including an admixture of drying
materials, which differ with each manufacturer; moreover, there are two,
if not three, fundamentally distinct qualities of linseed, in respect to
the oil extracted from it. The ink used in the laboratory and described
above, answers all requirements. Many other inks have suited less well;
less even than that which can be made, in a very homely way, with a little
soot off a plate that had been smoked over a candle, mixed with such
boiled linseed oil as can be bought at unpretentious oil and colour shops,
its only fault being a tendency to run.</p>
<p><i>Rags</i>, and a comparatively clean duster, are wanted for cleaning the slab
and roller, without scratching them.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>The small <i>Glass Dish</i> holds the benzole, into which the inked fingers are
dipped before wiping them with the duster. Soap and water complete the
preliminary cleansing.</p>
<p><i>Cards</i>, lying flat, and being more easily manipulated than paper, are now
used at the laboratory for receiving the impressions. They are of rather
large size, 11½ × 5 inches, to enable the prints of the ten digits to
be taken on the same card in two rather different ways (see <a href="#plate2">Plate 2</a>, Fig.
3), and to afford space for writing notes. The cards must have a smooth
and yet slightly absorbent surface. If too highly glazed they cease to
absorb, and more ink will remain on the fingers and less be transferred
from them to the paper. A little trial soon determines the best specimen
from among a few likely alternatives. “Correspondence cards” are suitable
for taking prints of not more than three fingers, and are occasionally
employed in the laboratory. Paper books and pads were tried, but their
surfaces are inferior to cards in flatness, and their use is now
abandoned.</p>
<p>The cards should be <i>very</i> white, because, if a photographic enlargement
should at any time be desired, a slight tint on the card will be an
impediment to making a photograph that shall be as sharp in its lines as
an engraving, it being recollected that the cleanest prints are brown, and
therefore not many shades darker than the tints of ordinary cards.</p>
<p>The method of printing at the laboratory is to squeeze a drop or so of ink
on to the slab, and to work it thoroughly with the roller until a thin and
even<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> layer is spread, just as is done by printers, from one of whom a
beginner might well purchase a lesson. The thickness of the layer of ink
is tested from time to time by taking a print of a finger, and comparing
its clearness and blackness with that of a standard print, hung up for the
purpose close at hand. If too much ink has been put on the slab, some of
it must be cleaned off, and the slab rolled afresh with what remains on it
and on the roller. But this fault should seldom be committed; little ink
should be put on at first, and more added little by little, until the
required result is attained.</p>
<p>The right hand of the subject, which should be quite passive, is taken by
the operator, and the bulbs of his four fingers laid flat on the inked
slab and pressed gently but firmly on it by the flattened hand of the
operator. Then the inked fingers are laid flat upon the upper part of the
right-hand side of the card (<a href="#plate2">Plate 2</a>, Fig. 3), and pressed down gently and
firmly, just as before, by the flattened hand of the operator. This
completes the process for one set of prints of the four fingers of the
right hand. Then the bulb of the thumb is slightly <i>rolled</i> on the inked
slab, and again on the lower part of the card, which gives a more extended
but not quite so sharp an impression. Each of the four fingers of the same
hand, in succession, is similarly rolled and impressed. This completes the
process for the second set of prints of the digits of the right hand. Then
the left hand is treated in the same way.</p>
<p>The result is indicated by the diagram, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> shows on what parts of the
card the impressions fall. Thus each of the four fingers is impressed
twice, once above with a simple dab, and once below with a rolled
impression, but each thumb is only impressed once; the thumbs being more
troublesome to print from than fingers. Besides, the cards would have to
be made even larger than they are, if two impressions of each thumb had to
be included. It takes from two and a half to three minutes to obtain the
eighteen impressions that are made on each card.</p>
<p>The <i>pocket apparatus</i> is similar to one originally made and used by Sir
William J. Herschel (see <a href="#plate3">Plate 3</a>, Fig. 4, in which the roller and its
bearings are drawn of the same size as those I use). A small cylinder of
hard wood, or of brass tube, say 1¾ inch long, and ½ or ¾ inch in
diameter, has a pin firmly driven into each end to serve as an axle. A
piece of tightly-fitting india-rubber tubing is drawn over the cylinder.
The cylinder, thus coated with a soft smooth compressible material, turns
on its axle in two brackets, each secured by screws, as shown in <a href="#plate2">Plate 2</a>,
Fig. 4, to a board (say 6 × 2½ × ¼ inch) that serves as handle. This
makes a very fair and durable roller; it can be used in the heat and damp
of the tropics, and is none the worse for a wetting, but it is by no means
so good for delicate work as a cylinder covered with roller composition.
These are not at all difficult to make; I have cast them for myself. The
mould is a piece of brass tube, polished inside. A thick disc, with a
central hole for the lower pin of the cylinder, fits smoothly into the
lower end of the mould, and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> ring with a thin bar across it, fits over
the other end, the upper pin of the cylinder entering a hole in the middle
of the bar; thus the cylinder is firmly held in the right position. After
slightly oiling the inside of the mould, warming it, inserting the disc
and cylinder, and fitting on the ring, the melted composition is poured in
on either side of the bar. As it contracts on cooling, rather more must be
poured in than at first appears necessary. Finally the roller is pushed
out of the mould by a wooden ramrod, applied to the bottom of the disc.
The composition must be melted like glue, in a vessel surrounded by hot
water, which should never be allowed to boil; otherwise it will be spoilt.
Harrild’s best composition is more than twice the cost of that ordinarily
used, and is expensive for large rollers, but for these miniature ones the
cost is unimportant. The mould with which my first roller was made, was an
old pewter squirt with the nozzle cut off; its piston served the double
purpose of disc and ramrod.</p>
<p>The <i>Slab</i> is a piece of thick plate glass, of the same length and width
as the handle to the roller, so they pack up easily together; its edges
are ground to save the fingers and roller alike from being cut. (Porcelain
takes the ink better than glass, but is not to be commonly found in the
shops, of a convenient shape and size; a glazed tile makes a capital
slab.) A collapsible tube of printer’s ink, a few rags, and a phial of
washing soda, complete the equipment (benzole may spoil india-rubber).
When using the apparatus, spread a newspaper on the table to prevent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
accident, have other pieces of newspaper ready to clean the roller, and to
remove any surplus of ink from it by the simple process of rolling it on
the paper. Take care that the washing soda is in such a position that it
cannot be upset and ruin the polish of the table. With these precautions,
the apparatus may be used with cleanliness even in a drawing-room. The
roller is of course laid on its back when not in use.</p>
<p>My assistant has taken good prints of the three first fingers of the right
hands of more than 300 school children, say 1000 fingers, in a few hours
during the same day, by this apparatus. Hawksley, 357 Oxford Street, W.,
sells a neatly fitted-up box with all the necessary apparatus.</p>
<p><i>Rougher arrangements.</i>—A small ball made by tying chamois leather round
soft rags, may be used in the absence of a roller. The fingers are inked
from the ball, over which the ink has been evenly distributed, by dabbing
it many times against a slab or plate. This method gives good results, but
is slow; it would be intolerably tedious to employ it on a large scale, on
all ten digits of many persons.</p>
<p>It is often desirable to obtain finger prints from persons at a distance,
who could not be expected to trouble themselves to acquire the art of
printing for the purpose of making a single finger print. On these
occasions I send folding-cases to them, each consisting of two pieces of
thin copper sheeting, fastened side by side to a slip of pasteboard, by
bending the edges of the copper over it. The pasteboard is half cut
through at the back, along the space between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> the copper sheets, so that
it can be folded like a reply post-card, the copper sheets being thus
brought face to face, but prevented from touching by the margin of an
interposed card, out of which the middle has been cut away. The two pieces
of copper being inked and folded up, may then be sent by post. On arrival
the ink is fresh, and the folders can be used as ordinary inked slabs.
(See also Smoke Printing, page 47.)</p>
<p>The fluidity of even a very thin layer of ink seems to be retained for an
indefinite time if the air is excluded to prevent oxidisation. I made
experiments, and found that if pieces of glass (photographic quarter
plates) be inked, and placed face to face, separated only by narrow paper
margins, and then wrapped up without other precaution, they will remain
good for a year and a half.</p>
<p>A slight film of oxidisation on the surface of the ink is a merit, not a
harm; it is cleaner to work with and gives a blacker print, because the
ink clings less tenaciously to the finger, consequently more of it is
transferred to the paper.</p>
<p>If a blackened plate becomes dry, and is re-inked without first being
cleaned, the new ink will rob the old of some of its oxygen and it will
become dry in a day or even less.</p>
<p><i>Lithography.</i>—Prints may be made on “transfer-paper,” and thence
transferred to stone. It is better not to impress the fingers directly
upon the stone, as the print from the stone would be reversed as compared
with the original impression, and mistakes are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> likely to arise in
consequence. The print is re-reversed, or put right, by impressing the
fingers on transfer-paper. It might sometimes be desirable to obtain
rapidly a large number of impressions of the finger prints of a suspected
person. In this case lithography would be easier, quicker, and cheaper
than photography.</p>
<p><i>Water Colours and Dyes.</i>—The pads most commonly used with office stamps
are made of variously prepared gelatine, covered with fine silk to protect
the surface, and saturated with an aniline dye. If the surface be touched,
the finger is inked, and if the circumstances are all favourable, a good
print may be made, but there is much liability to blot. The pad remains
ready for use during many days without any attention, fresh ink being
added at long intervals. The advantage of a dye over an ordinary water
colour is, that it percolates the silk without any of its colour being
kept back; while a solution of lampblack or Indian ink, consisting of
particles of soot suspended in water, leaves all its black particles
behind when it is carefully filtered; only clear water then passes
through.</p>
<p>A serviceable pad may be made out of a few thicknesses of cloth or felt
with fine silk or cambric stretched over it. The ink should be of a slowly
drying sort, made, possibly, of ordinary ink, with the admixture of brown
sugar, honey, glycerine or the like, to bring it to a proper consistence.</p>
<p>Mr. Gilbert Thompson’s results by this process have already been
mentioned. A similar process was employed for the Bengal finger prints by
Sir W.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> Herschel, who sent me the following account: “As to the printing
of the fingers themselves, no doubt practice makes perfect. But I took no
pains with my native officials, some dozen or so of whom learnt to do it
quite well enough for all practical purposes from Bengali written
instructions, and using nothing but a kind of lampblack ink made by the
native orderly for use with the office seal.” A batch of these
impressions, which he was so good as to send me, are all clear, and in
most cases very good indeed. It would be easier to employ this method in a
very damp climate than in England, where a very thin layer of lampblack is
apt to dry too quickly on the fingers.</p>
<p><i>Printing as from Engraved Plates.</i>—Professor Ray Lankester kindly sent
me his method of taking prints with water colours. “You take a watery
brushful or two of the paint and rub it over the hands, rubbing one hand
against the other until they feel sticky. A <i>thin</i> paper (tissue is best)
placed on an oval cushion the shape of the hand, should be ready, and the
hand pressed not too firmly on to it. I enclose a rough sample, done
without a cushion. You require a cushion for the hollow of the hand, and
the paint must be rubbed by the two hands until they feel sticky, not
watery.” This is the process of printing from engravings, the ink being
removed from the ridges, and lying in the furrows. Blood can be used in
the same way.</p>
<p>The following is extracted from an article by Dr. Louis Robinson in the
<i>Nineteenth Century</i>, May 1892, p. 303:—</p>
<p class="blockquot"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>“I found that direct prints of the infant’s feet on paper would answer
much better [than photography]. After trying various methods I found
that the best results could be got by covering the foot by means of a
soft stencil brush with a composition of lampblack, soap, syrup, and
blue-black ink; wiping it gently from heel to toe with a
smoothly-folded silk handkerchief to remove the superfluous pigment,
and then applying a moderately flexible paper, supported on a soft
pad, direct to the foot.”</p>
<p>A curious method with paper and ordinary writing ink, lately contrived by
Dr. Forgeot, is analogous to lithography. He has described in one of the
many interesting pamphlets published by the “Laboratoire d’Anthropologie
Criminelle” of Lyon (<i>Stenheil</i>, 2 Rue Casimir-Delavigne, Paris), his new
process of rendering visible the previously invisible details of such
faint finger prints as thieves may have left on anything they have
handled, the object being to show how evidence may sometimes be obtained
for their identification. It is well known that pressure of the hand on
the polished surface of glass or metal leaves a latent image very
difficult to destroy, and which may be rendered visible by suitable
applications, but few probably have suspected that this may be the case,
to a considerable degree, with ordinary paper. Dr. Forgeot has shown that
if a slightly greasy hand, such for example as a hand that has just been
passed through the hair, be pressed on clean paper, and if common ink be
afterwards brushed lightly over the paper, it will refuse to lie thickly
on the greasy parts, and that the result will be a very fair picture of
the minute markings on the fingers. He has even used<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> these productions as
negatives, and printed good photographs from them. He has also sent me a
photographic print made from a piece of glass which had been exposed to
the vapour of hydrofluoric acid, after having been touched by a greasy
hand. I have made many trials of his method with considerable success. It
affords a way of obtaining serviceable impressions in the absence of
better means. Dr. Forgeot’s pamphlet describes other methods of a
generally similar kind, which he has found to be less good than the above.</p>
<p><i>Smoke Printing.</i>—When other apparatus is not at hand, a method of
obtaining very clear impressions is to smoke a plate over a lighted
candle, to press the finger on the blackened surface, and then on an
adhesive one. The following details must, however, be borne in mind: the
plate must not be smoked too much, for the same reason that a slab must
not be inked too much; and the adhesive surface must be only slightly
damped, not wetted, or the impression will be blurred. A crockery plate is
better than glass or metal, as the soot does not adhere to it so tightly,
and it is less liable to crack. Professor Bowditch finds mica (which is
sold at photographic stores in small sheets) to be the best material.
Certainly the smoke comes wholly off the mica on to the parts of the
finger that touch it, and a beautiful negative is left behind, which can
be utilised in the camera better than glass that has been similarly
treated; but it does not serve so well for a plate that is intended to be
kept ready for use in a pocket-book, its softness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> rendering it too liable
to be scratched. I prefer to keep a slip of very thin copper sheeting in
my pocket-book, with which, and with the gummed back of a postage stamp,
or even the gummed fringe to a sheet of stamps, impressions can easily be
taken. The thin copper quickly cools, and a wax match supplies enough
smoke. The folders spoken of (<a href="#Page_42">p. 42</a>) may be smoked instead of being inked,
and are in some cases preferable to carry in the pocket or to send by
post, being so easy to smoke afresh. Luggage labels that are thickly
gummed at the back furnish a good adhesive surface. The fault of gummed
paper lies in the difficulty of damping it without its curling up. The
gummed paper sold by stationers is usually thinner than luggage labels,
and still more difficult to keep flat. Paste rubbed in a very thin layer
over a card makes a surface that holds soot firmly, and one that will not
stick to other surfaces if accidentally moistened. Glue, isinglass, size,
and mucilage, are all suitable. It was my fortune as a boy to receive
rudimentary lessons in drawing from a humble and rather grotesque master.
He confided to me the discovery, which he claimed as his own, that pencil
drawings could be fixed by licking them; and as I write these words, the
image of his broad swab-like tongue performing the operation, and of his
proud eyes gleaming over the drawing he was operating on, come vividly to
remembrance. This reminiscence led me to try whether licking a piece of
paper would give it a sufficiently adhesive surface. It did so. Nay, it
led me a step further, for I took two pieces of paper and licked both.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
The dry side of the one was held over the candle as an equivalent to a
plate for collecting soot, being saved by the moisture at the back from
igniting (it had to be licked two or three times during the process), and
the impression was made on the other bit of paper. An ingenious person
determined to succeed in obtaining the record of a finger impression, can
hardly fail altogether under any ordinary circumstances.</p>
<p>Physiologists who are familiar with the revolving cylinder covered with
highly-glazed paper, which is smoked, and then used for the purpose of
recording the delicate movements of a tracer, will have noticed the beauty
of the impression sometimes left by a finger that had accidentally touched
it. They are also well versed in the art of varnishing such impressions to
preserve them in a durable form.</p>
<p>A cake of blacklead (plumbago), such as is sold for blackening grates,
when rubbed on paper leaves a powdery surface that readily blackens the
fingers, and shows the ridges distinctly. A small part of the black comes
off when the fingers are pressed on sticky paper, but I find it difficult
to ensure good prints. The cakes are convenient to carry and cleanly to
handle. Whitening, and still more, whitening mixed with size, may be used
in the same way, but it gathers in the furrows, not on the ridges.</p>
<p><i>Casts</i> give undoubtedly the most exact representation of the ridges, but
they are difficult and unsatisfactory to examine, puzzling the eye by
showing too conspicuously the variation of their heights,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> whereas we only
want to know their courses. Again, as casts must be of a uniform colour,
the finer lines are indistinctly seen except in a particular light.
Lastly, they are both cumbrous to preserve and easily broken.</p>
<p>A sealing-wax impression is the simplest and best kind of cast, and the
finger need not be burnt in making it. The plan is to make a considerable
pool of flaming sealing-wax, stirring it well with the still unmelted
piece of the stick, while it is burning. Then blow out the flame and wait
a little, until the upper layer has cooled. Sealing-wax that has been well
aflame takes a long time to harden thoroughly after it has parted with
nearly all its heat. By selecting the proper moment after blowing out the
flame, the wax will be cool enough for the finger to press it without
discomfort, and it will still be sufficiently soft to take a sharp
impression. Dentist’s wax, which is far less brittle, is easily worked,
and takes impressions that are nearly as sharp as those of sealing-wax; it
has to be well heated and kneaded, then plunged for a moment in cold water
to chill the surface, and immediately impressed. Gutta-percha can also be
used. The most delicate of all impressions is that left upon a thick clot
of varnish, which has been exposed to the air long enough for a thin film
to have formed over it. The impression is transient, but lingers
sufficiently to be easily photographed. It happened, oddly enough, that a
few days after I had noticed this effect, and had been experimenting upon
it, I heard an interesting memoir “On the Minute Structure of Striped
Muscle, with special allusion to a new<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> method of investigation by means
of ‘Impressions’ stamped in Collodion,” submitted to the Royal Society by
Dr. John Berry Haycraft, in which an analogous method was used to obtain
impressions of delicate microscopic structures.</p>
<p><i>Photographs</i> are valuable in themselves, and the negatives serve for
subsequent <i>enlargements</i>. They are unquestionably accurate, and the
labour of making them being mechanical, may be delegated. If the print be
in printer’s ink on white paper, the process is straightforward, first of
obtaining a negative and afterwards photo-prints from it. The importance
of the paper or card used to receive the finger print being quite white,
has already been pointed out. An imprint on white crockery-ware is
beautifully clear. Some of the photographs may be advantageously printed
by the ferro-prussiate process. The paper used for it does not curl when
dry, its texture is good for writing on, and the blue colour of the print
makes handwriting clearly legible, whether it be in ink or in pencil.</p>
<p>Prints on glass have great merits for use as lantern slides, but it must
be recollected that they may take some days to dry, and that when dry the
ink can be only too easily detached from them by water, which insinuates
itself between the dry ink and the glass. Of course they could be
varnished, if the trouble and cost were no objection, and so preserved.
The negative print left on an inked slab, after the finger has touched it,
is sometimes very clear, that on smoked glass better, and on smoked mica
the clearest of all.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> These have merely to be placed in the enlarging
camera, where the negative image thrown on argento-bromide paper will
yield a positive print. (See <a href="#Page_90">p. 90</a>.)</p>
<p>I have made, by hand, many enlargements with a prism (camera lucida), but
it is difficult to enlarge more than five times by means of it. So much
shade is cast by the head that the prism can hardly be used at a less
distance than 3 inches from the print, or one quarter the distance (12
inches) at which a book is usually read, while the paper on which the
drawing is made cannot well be more than 15 inches below the prism; so it
makes an enlargement of <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>4 × 15</sup></span>⁄<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">12</span> or five-fold. This is a very
convenient method of analysing a pattern, since the lines follow only the
axes of the ridges, as in <a href="#plate3">Plate 3</a>, Fig. 5. The prism and attached
apparatus may be kept permanently mounted, ready for use at any time,
without the trouble of any adjustment.</p>
<p>An enlarging pantagraph has also been of frequent use to me, in which the
cross-wires of a low-power microscope took the place of the pointer. It
has many merits, but its action was not equally free in all directions;
the enlarged traces were consequently jagged, and required subsequent
smoothing.</p>
<p>All hand-made enlargements are tedious to produce, as the total length of
lineations to be followed is considerable. In a single finger print made
by dabbing down the finger, their actual length amounts to about 18
inches; therefore in a five-fold enlargement of the entire print the
pencil has to be carefully directed over five times that distance, or more
than 7 feet.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>Large copies of tracings made on transparent paper, either by the Camera
Lucida or by the Pantagraph, are easily printed by the ferro-prussiate
photographic process mentioned above, in the same way that plans are
copied by engineers.</p>
<p> </p><p> </p>
<hr style="width: 50%;" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
<p class="center"><span class="large">THE RIDGES AND THEIR USES</span></p>
<p>The palmar surface of the hands and the soles of the feet, both in men and
monkeys, are covered with minute ridges that bear a superficial
resemblance to those made on sand by wind or flowing water. They form
systems which run in bold sweeps, though the courses of the individual
ridges are less regular. Each ridge (<a href="#plate3">Plate 3</a>, Fig. 5) is characterised by
numerous minute peculiarities, called <i>Minutiæ</i> in this book, here
dividing into two, and there uniting with another (<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>), or it may
divide and almost immediately reunite, enclosing a small circular or
elliptical space (<i>c</i>); at other times its beginning or end is markedly
independent (<i>d</i>, <i>e</i>); lastly, the ridge may be so short as to form a
small island (<i>f</i>).</p>
<p>Whenever an interspace is left between the boundaries of different systems
of ridges, it is filled by a small system of its own, which will have some
characteristic shape, and be called a <i>pattern</i> in this book.</p>
<p><a name="plate3" id="plate3"></a> </p>
<p class="note">PLATE 3.</p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span></p>
<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig5.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p class="center">Characteristic peculiarities in Ridges<br />(about 8 times the natural size).</p>
<p> </p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span></p>
<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig6.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p class="center">Systems of Ridges, and the Creases in the Palm.</p>
<p> </p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>There are three particularly well-marked systems of ridges in the palm of
the hand marked in <a href="#plate3">Plate 3</a>, Fig. 6, <small>1</small>, as Th, AB, and BC. The system Th
is that which runs over the ball of the thumb and adjacent parts of the
palm. It is bounded by the line <i>a</i> which starts from the middle of the
palm close to the wrist, and sweeps thence round the ball of the thumb to
the edge of the palm on the side of the thumb, which it reaches about half
an inch, more or less, below the base of the fore-finger. The system AB is
bounded towards the thumb by the above line <i>a</i>, and towards the little
finger by the line <i>b</i>; the latter starts from about the middle of the
little-finger side of the palm, and emerges on the opposite side just
below the fore-finger. Consequently, every ridge that wholly crosses the
palm is found in AB. The system BC is bounded thumbwards by the line <i>b</i>,
until that line arrives at a point immediately below the axis of the
fore-finger; there the boundary of BC leaves the line <i>b</i>, and skirts the
base of the fore-finger until it reaches the interval which separates the
fore and middle fingers. The upper boundary of BC is the line <i>c</i>, which
leaves the little-finger side of the palm at a small distance below the
base of the little finger, and terminates between the fore and middle
fingers. Other systems are found between <i>c</i> and the middle, ring, and
little fingers; they are somewhat more variable than those just described,
as will be seen by comparing the five different palms shown in Fig. 6.</p>
<p>An interesting example of the interpolation of a small and independent
system occurs frequently in the middle of one or other of the systems AB
or BC, at the place where the space covered by the systems<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> of ridges
begins to broaden out very rapidly. There are two ways in which the
necessary supply of ridges makes its appearance, the one is by a series of
successive embranchments (Fig. 6, <small>1</small>), the other is by the insertion of
an independent system, as shown in <small>4</small>, <small>5</small>. Another example of an
interpolated system, but of rarer occurrence, is found in the system Th,
on the ball of the thumb, as seen in <small>2</small>.</p>
<p>Far more definite in position, and complex in lineation, are the small
independent systems which appear on the bulbs of the thumb and fingers.
They are more instructive to study, more easy to classify, and will alone
be discussed in this book.</p>
<p>In the diagram of the hand, Fig. 6, <small>1</small>, the three chief cheiromantic
creases are indicated by dots, but are not numbered. They are made (1) by
the flexure of the thumb, (2) of the four fingers simultaneously, and (3)
of the middle, ring, and little fingers simultaneously, while the
fore-finger remains extended. There is no exact accordance between the
courses of the creases and those of the adjacent ridges, less still do the
former agree with the boundaries of the systems. The accordance is closest
between the crease (1) and the ridges in Th; nevertheless that crease does
not agree with the line <i>a</i>, but usually lies considerably within it. The
crease (2) cuts the ridges on either side, at an angle of about 30
degrees. The crease (3) is usually parallel to the ridges between which it
runs, but is often far from accordant with the line <i>c</i>. The creases at
the various joints of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> thumb and fingers cut the ridges at small
angles, say, very roughly, of 15 degrees.</p>
<p>The supposition is therefore untenable that the courses of the ridges are
wholly determined by the flexures. It appears, however, that the courses
of the ridges and those of the lines of flexure may be in part, but in
part only, due to the action of the same causes.</p>
<p>The fact of the creases of the hand being strongly marked in the
newly-born child, has been considered by some to testify to the archaic
and therefore important character of their origin. The crumpled condition
of the hand of the infant, during some months before its birth, seems to
me, however, quite sufficient to account for the creases.</p>
<p>I possess a few specimens of hand prints of persons taken when children,
and again, after an interval of several years: they show a general
accordance in respect to the creases, but not sufficiently close for
identification.</p>
<p>The ridges on the feet and toes are less complex than those on the hands
and digits, and are less serviceable for present purposes, though equally
interesting to physiologists. Having given but little attention to them
myself, they will not be again referred to.</p>
<hr style="width: 25%;" />
<p>The ridges are studded with minute pores which are the open mouths of the
ducts of the somewhat deeply-seated glands, whose office is to secrete
perspiration: <a href="#plate10">Plate 10</a>, <i>n</i>, is a good example of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> them. The distance
between adjacent pores on the same ridge is, roughly speaking, about half
that which separates the ridges. The lines of a pattern are such as an
artist would draw, if dots had been made on a sheet of paper in positions
corresponding to the several pores, and he endeavoured to connect them by
evenly flowing curves; it would be difficult to draw a pattern under these
conditions, and within definite boundaries, that cannot be matched in a
living hand.</p>
<p>The embryological development of the ridges has been studied by many, but
more especially by Dr. A. Kollmann,<a name='fna_1' id='fna_1' href='#f_1'><small>[1]</small></a> whose careful investigations and
bibliography should be consulted by physiologists interested in the
subject. He conceives the ridges to be formed through lateral pressures
between nascent structures.</p>
<p><a name="plate4" id="plate4"></a> </p>
<p class="note">PLATE 4.</p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span></p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">SCARS and CUTS, and their Effects on the Ridges.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig7a.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer3"> </span></td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig7b.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer3"> </span></td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig7c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><i>a</i><br />Effect of an Ulcer.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>b</i><br />Finger of a Tailor.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>c</i><br />Effect of a Cut.</td></tr></table>
<p> </p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span></p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">FORMATION OF INTERSPACE and Examples of the Enclosed Patterns.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td class="btbl" align="center"><img src="images/fig8a.jpg" alt="" /></td><td class="btb"><span class="spacer3"> </span></td>
<td class="btb"><img src="images/fig8b.jpg" alt="" /></td><td class="btb"><span class="spacer3"> </span></td>
<td class="btb"><img src="images/fig8c.jpg" alt="" /></td><td class="btb"><span class="spacer3"> </span></td>
<td class="btbr"><img src="images/fig8d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center">1</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">2</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">3</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">4</td></tr></table>
<p> </p>
<p>The ridges are said to be first discernible in the fourth month of
fœtal life, and fully formed by the sixth. In babies and children the
delicacy of the ridges is proportionate to the smallness of their stature.
They grow simultaneously with the general growth of the body, and continue
to be sharply defined until old age has set in, when an incipient
disintegration of the texture of the skin spoils, and may largely
obliterate them, as in the finger prints on the title-page. They develop
most in hands that do a moderate amount of work, and they are strongly
developed in the foot, which has the hard work of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>supporting the weight
of the body. They are, as already mentioned, but faintly developed in the
hands of ladies, rendered delicate by the continual use of gloves and lack
of manual labour, and in idiots of the lowest type who are incapable of
labouring at all. When the skin becomes thin, the ridges simultaneously
subside in height. They are obliterated by the callosities formed on the
hands of labourers and artisans in many trades, by the constant pressure
of their peculiar tools. The ridges on the side of the left fore-finger of
tailors and seamstresses are often temporarily destroyed by the needle; an
instance of this is given in <a href="#plate4">Plate 4</a>, Fig. 7, <i>b</i>. Injuries, when they are
sufficiently severe to leave permanent scars, destroy the ridges to that
extent. If a piece of flesh is sliced off, or if an ulcer has eaten so
deeply as to obliterate the perspiratory glands, a white cicatrix, without
pores or ridges, is the result (Fig. 7, <i>a</i>). Lesser injuries are not
permanent. My assistant happened to burn his finger rather sharply; the
daily prints he took of it, illustrated the progress of healing in an
interesting manner; finally the ridges were wholly restored. A deep clean
cut leaves a permanent thin mark across the ridges (Fig. 7, <i>c</i>),
sometimes without any accompanying puckering; but there is often a
displacement of the ridges on both sides of it, exactly like a “fault” in
stratified rocks. A cut, or other injury that is not a clean incision,
leaves a scar with puckerings on all sides, as in Fig. 7, <i>a</i>, making the
ridges at that part undecipherable, even if it does not wholly obliterate
them.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>The latest and best investigations on the evolution of the ridges have
been made by Dr. H. Klaatsch.<a name='fna_2' id='fna_2' href='#f_2'><small>[2]</small></a> He shows that the earliest appearance in
the Mammalia of structures analogous to ridges is one in which small
eminences occur on the ball of the foot, through which the sweat glands
issue in no particular order. The arrangement of the papillæ into rows,
and the accompanying orderly arrangement of the sweat glands, is a
subsequent stage in evolution. The prehensile tail of the Howling Monkey
serves as a fifth hand, and the naked concave part of the tail, with which
it grasps and holds on to boughs, is furnished with ridges arranged
transversely in beautiful order. The numerous drawings of the hands of
monkeys by Allix<a name='fna_3' id='fna_3' href='#f_3'><small>[3]</small></a> may be referred to with advantage.</p>
<p>The uses of the ridges are primarily, as I suppose, to raise the mouths of
the ducts, so that the excretions which they pour out may the more easily
be got rid of; and secondarily, in some obscure way, to assist the sense
of touch. They are said to be moulded upon the subcutaneous papillæ in
such a manner that the ultimate organs of touch, namely, the Pacinian
bodies, etc.—into the variety of which it is unnecessary here to
enter—are more closely congregated under the bases of the ridges than
under the furrows, and it is easy, on those grounds, to make reasonable
guesses how the ridges may assist the sense of touch. They must
concentrate pressures,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> that would otherwise be spread over the surface
generally, upon the parts which are most richly supplied with the
terminations of nerves. By their means it would become possible to
neutralise the otherwise dulling effect of a thick protective epidermis.
Their existence in transverse ridges on the inner surface of the
prehensile tails of monkeys admits of easy justification from this point
of view. The ridges so disposed cannot prevent the tail from curling, and
they must add materially to its sensitiveness. They seem to produce the
latter effect on the hands of man, for, as the epidermis thickens under
use within moderate limits, so the prominence of the ridges increases.</p>
<p>Supposing the ultimate organs of the sense of touch to be really
congregated more thickly under the ridges than under the furrows—on which
there has been some question—the power of tactile discrimination would
depend very much on the closeness of the ridges. The well-known experiment
with the two points of a pair of compasses, is exactly suited to test the
truth of this. It consists in determining the smallest distance apart, of
the two points, at which their simultaneous pressure conveys the sensation
of a double prick. Those persons in whom the ridge-interval was short
might be expected to perceive the double sensation, while others whose
ridge-interval was wide would only perceive a single one, the distance
apart of the compass points, and the parts touched by them, being the same
in both cases. I was very glad to avail myself of the kind offer of Mr.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
E. B. Titchener to make an adequate course of experiments at Professor
Wundt’s psycho-physical laboratory at Leipzig, to decide this question. He
had the advantage there of being able to operate on fellow-students who
were themselves skilled in such lines of investigation, so while his own
experience was a considerable safeguard against errors of method, that
safety was reinforced by the fact that his experiments were conducted
under the watchful eyes of competent and critical friends. The result of
the enquiry was decisive. It was proved to demonstration that the fineness
or coarseness of the ridges in different persons had no effect whatever on
the delicacy of their tactile discrimination. Moreover, it made no
difference in the results, whether one or both points of the compass
rested on the ridges or in the furrows.</p>
<p>The width of the ridge-interval is certainly no test of the relative power
of discrimination of the different parts of the same hand, because, while
the ridge-interval is nearly uniform over the whole of the palmar surface,
the least distance between the compass points that gives the sensation of
doubleness is more than four times greater when they are applied to some
parts of the palm than when they are applied to the bulbs of the fingers.</p>
<p>The ridges may subserve another purpose in the act of touch, namely, that
of enabling the character of surfaces to be perceived by the act of
rubbing them with the fingers. We all of us perform this, as it were,
intuitively. It is interesting to ask a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> person who is ignorant of the
real intention, to shut his eyes and to ascertain as well as he can by the
sense of touch alone, the material of which any object is made that is
afterwards put into his hands. He will be observed to explore it very
carefully by rubbing its surface in many directions, and with many degrees
of pressure. The ridges engage themselves with the roughness of the
surface, and greatly help in calling forth the required sensation, which
is that of a thrill; usually faint, but always to be perceived when the
sensation is analysed, and which becomes very distinct when the
indentations are at equal distances apart, as in a file or in velvet. A
thrill is analogous to a musical note, and the characteristics to the
sense of touch, of different surfaces when they are rubbed by the fingers,
may be compared to different qualities of sound or noise. There are,
however, no pure over-tones in the case of touch, as there are in nearly
all sounds.</p>
<p> </p><p> </p>
<hr style="width: 50%;" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
<p class="center"><span class="large">PATTERNS: THEIR OUTLINES AND CORES</span></p>
<p>The patterns on the thumb and fingers were first discussed at length by
Purkenje in 1823, in a University Thesis or <i>Commentatio</i>. I have
translated the part that chiefly concerns us, and appended it to this
chapter together with his corresponding illustrations. Subsequent writers
have adopted his standard types, diminishing or adding to their number as
the case may be, and guided as he had been, by the superficial appearance
of the lineations.</p>
<p>In my earlier trials some three years ago, an attempt at classification
was made upon that same principle, when the experience gained was
instructive. It had seemed best to limit them to the prints of a single
digit, and the thumb was selected. I collected enough specimens to fill
fourteen sheets, containing in the aggregate 504 prints of right thumbs,
arranged in six lines and six columns (6 × 6 × 14 = 504), and another set
of fourteen sheets containing the corresponding left thumbs. Then, for the
greater convenience of study these sheets were photographed, and
enlargements upon paper to about<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> two and a half times the natural size
made from the negatives. The enlargements of the right thumb prints were
reversed, in order to make them comparable on equal terms with those of
the left. The sheets were then cut up into rectangles about the size of
small playing-cards, each of which contained a single print, and the
register number in my catalogue was entered on its back, together with the
letters L. for left, or R.R. for reversed right, as the case might be.</p>
<p>On trying to sort them according to Purkenje’s standards, I failed
completely, and many analogous plans were attempted without success. Next
I endeavoured to sort the patterns into groups so that the central pattern
of each group should differ by a unit of “equally discernible difference”
from the central patterns of the adjacent groups, proposing to adopt those
central patterns as standards of reference. After tedious re-sortings,
some sixty standards were provisionally selected, and the whole laid by
for a few days. On returning to the work with a fresh mind, it was painful
to find how greatly my judgment had changed in the interim, and how faulty
a classification that seemed tolerably good a week before, looked then.
Moreover, I suffered the shame and humiliation of discovering that the
identity of certain duplicates had been overlooked, and that one print had
been mistaken for another. Repeated trials of the same kind made it
certain that finality would never be reached by the path hitherto
pursued.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>On considering the causes of these doubts and blunders, different
influences were found to produce them, any one of which was sufficient by
itself to give rise to serious uncertainty. A complex pattern is capable
of suggesting various readings, as the figuring on a wall-paper may
suggest a variety of forms and faces to those who have such fancies. The
number of illusive renderings of prints taken from the same finger, is
greatly increased by such trifles as the relative breadths of their
respective lineations and the differences in their depths of tint. The
ridges themselves are soft in substance, and of various heights, so that a
small difference in the pressure applied, or in the quantity of ink used,
may considerably affect the width of the lines and the darkness of
portions of the print. Certain ridges may thereby catch the attention at
one time, though not at others, and give a bias to some false conception
of the pattern. Again, it seldom happens that different impressions of the
same digit are printed from exactly the same part of it, consequently the
portion of the pattern that supplies the dominant character will often be
quite different in the two prints. Hence the eye is apt to be deceived
when it is guided merely by the general appearance. A third cause of error
is still more serious; it is that patterns, especially those of a spiral
form, may be apparently similar, yet fundamentally unlike, the unaided eye
being frequently unable to analyse them and to discern real differences.
Besides all this, the judgment is distracted by the mere size of the
pattern, which catches the attention at once,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> and by other secondary
matters such as the number of turns in the whorled patterns, and the
relative dimensions of their different parts. The first need to be
satisfied, before it could become possible to base the classification upon
a more sure foundation than that of general appearance, was to establish a
well-defined point or points of reference in the patterns. This was done
by utilising the centres of the one or two triangular plots (see <a href="#plate4">Plate 4</a>,
Fig. 8, <small>2</small>, <small>3</small>, <small>4</small>) which are found in the great majority of patterns,
and whose existence was pointed out by Purkenje, but not their more remote
cause, which is as follows:</p>
<p>The ridges, as was shown in the diagram (<a href="#plate3">Plate 3</a>) of the palm of the hand,
run athwart the fingers in rudely parallel lines up to the last joint, and
if it were not for the finger-nail, would apparently continue parallel up
to the extreme finger-tip. But the presence of the nail disturbs their
parallelism and squeezes them downwards on both sides of the finger. (See
Fig. 8, <small>2</small>.) Consequently, the ridges that run close to the tip are
greatly arched, those that successively follow are gradually less arched
until, in some cases, all signs of the arch disappear at about the level
of the first joint (Fig. 8, <small>1</small>). Usually, however, this gradual
transition from an arch to a straight line fails to be carried out,
causing a break in the orderly sequence, and a consequent interspace (Fig.
8, <small>2</small>). The topmost boundary of the interspace is formed by the lowermost
arch, and its lowermost boundary by the topmost straight ridge. But an
equally large number of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> ducts exist within the interspace, as are to be
found in adjacent areas of equal size, whose mouths require to be
supported and connected. This is effected by the interpolation of an
independent system of ridges arranged in loops (Fig. 8, <small>3</small>; also <a href="#plate5">Plate 5</a>,
Fig. 9, <i>a</i>, <i>f</i>), or in scrolls (Fig. 8, <small>4</small>; also Fig. 9, <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>), and
this interpolated system forms the “pattern.” Now the existence of an
interspace implies the divergence of two previously adjacent ridges (Fig.
8, <small>2</small>), in order to embrace it. Just in front of the place where the
divergence begins, and before the sweep of the pattern is reached, there
are usually one or more very short cross-ridges. Their effect is to
complete the enclosure of the minute triangular plot in question. Where
there is a plot on both sides of the finger, the line that connects them
(Fig. 8, <small>4</small>) serves as a base line whereby the pattern may be oriented,
and the position of any point roughly charted. Where there is a plot on
only one side of the finger (Fig. 8, <small>3</small>), the pattern has almost
necessarily an axis, which serves for orientation, and the pattern can
still be charted, though on a different principle, by dropping a
perpendicular from the plot on to the axis, in the way there shown.</p>
<p>These plots form corner-stones to my system of outlining and subsequent
classification; it is therefore extremely important that a sufficient area
of the finger should be printed to include them. This can always be done
by slightly <i>rolling</i> the finger (<a href="#Page_39">p. 39</a>), the result being, in the
language of map-makers, a cylindrical projection of the finger (see <a href="#plate5">Plate
5</a>, Fig. 9, <i>a-h</i>). Large as these impressions look, they are of the
natural size, taken from ordinary thumbs.</p>
<p><a name="plate5" id="plate5"></a> </p>
<p class="note">PLATE 5.</p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span></p>
<p class="center">EXAMPLES OF OUTLINED PATTERNS</p>
<p class="center">(The Specimens are rolled impressions of natural size).</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig9a.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer3"> </span></td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig9e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><i>a</i></td><td> </td><td align="center"><i>e</i></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig9b.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer3"> </span></td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig9f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><i>b</i></td><td> </td><td align="center"><i>f</i></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig9c.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer3"> </span></td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig9g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><i>c</i></td><td> </td><td align="center"><i>g</i></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig9d.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer3"> </span></td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig9h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><i>d</i></td><td> </td><td align="center"><i>h</i></td></tr></table>
<p> </p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span><i>The outlines.</i>—The next step is to give a clear and definite shape to
the pattern by drawing its outline (Fig. 9). Take a fine pen, pencil, or
paint brush, and follow in succession each of the two diverging ridges
that start from either plot. The course of each ridge must be followed
with scrupulous conscientiousness, marking it with a clean line as far as
it can be traced. If the ridge bifurcates, always follow the branch that
trends towards the middle of the pattern. If it stops short, let the
outline stop short also, and recommence on a fresh ridge, choosing that
which to the best of the judgment prolongs the course of the one that
stopped. These outlines have an extraordinary effect in making finger
markings intelligible to an untrained eye. What seemed before to be a
vague and bewildering maze of lineations over which the glance wandered
distractedly, seeking in vain for a point on which to fix itself, now
suddenly assumes the shape of a sharply-defined figure. Whatever
difficulties may arise in classifying these figures, they are as nothing
compared to those experienced in attempting to classify unoutlined
patterns, the outlines giving a precision to their general features which
was wanting before.</p>
<p>After a pattern has been treated in this way, there is no further occasion
to pore minutely into the finger print, in order to classify it correctly,
for the bold firm curves of the outline are even more distinct than the
largest capital letters in the title-page of a book.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>A fair idea of the way in which the patterns are distributed, is given by
<a href="#plate6">Plate 6</a>. Eight persons were taken in the order in which they happened to
present themselves, and <a href="#plate6">Plate 6</a> shows the result. For greater clearness,
colour has been employed to distinguish between the ridges that are
supplied from the inner and outer sides of the hand respectively. The
words right and left <i>must be avoided</i> in speaking of patterns, for the
two hands are symmetrically disposed, only in a reversed sense. The right
hand does not look like a left hand, but like the reflection of a left
hand in a looking-glass, and <i>vice versa</i>. The phrases we shall employ
will be the <i>Inner</i> and the <i>Outer</i>; or thumb-side and little-finger side
(terms which were unfortunately misplaced in my memoir in the <i>Phil.
Trans.</i> 1891).</p>
<p>There need be no difficulty in remembering the meaning of these terms, if
we bear in mind that the great toes are undoubtedly innermost; that if we
walked on all fours as children do, and as our remote ancestors probably
did, the thumbs also would be innermost, as is the case when the two hands
are impressed side by side on paper. Inner and outer are better than
thumb-side and little-finger side, because the latter cannot be applied to
the thumbs and little fingers themselves. The anatomical words radial and
ulnar referring to the two bones of the fore-arm, are not in popular use,
and they might be similarly inappropriate, for it would sound oddly to
speak of the radial side of the radius.</p>
<p><a name="plate6" id="plate6"></a> </p>
<p class="note">PLATE 6.</p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span></p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">OUTLINES of the Patterns of the Digits of Eight Persons, taken at random.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td colspan="6" align="center"><span class="smcap">Left Hand.</span></td>
<td colspan="5" align="center"><span class="smcap">Right Hand.</span></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td><td align="center">Little finger.</td>
<td align="center">Ring finger.</td>
<td align="center">Middle finger.</td>
<td align="center">Fore finger.</td>
<td align="center">Thumb.</td>
<td align="center">Little finger.</td>
<td align="center">Ring finger.</td>
<td align="center">Middle finger.</td>
<td align="center">Fore finger.</td>
<td align="center">Thumb.</td></tr>
<tr><td> </td><td colspan="5" align="center"><img src="images/fig10left.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td colspan="5" align="center"><img src="images/fig10right.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
<p> </p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>The two plots just described will therefore be henceforth designated as
the Inner and the Outer plots respectively, and symbolised by the letters
I and O.</p>
<p>The system of ridges in Fig. 10 that comes from the inner side “I” are
coloured blue; those from the outer “O” are coloured red. The employment
of colour instead of variously stippled surfaces is of conspicuous
advantage to the great majority of persons, though unhappily nearly
useless to about one man in every twenty-five, who is constitutionally
colour-blind.</p>
<p>It may be convenient when marking finger prints with letters for
reference, to use those that look alike, both in a direct and in a
reversed aspect, as they may require to be read either way. The print is a
reversed picture of the pattern upon the digit that made it. The pattern
on one hand is, as already said, a reversed picture of a similar pattern
as it shows on the other. In the various processes by which prints are
multiplied, the patterns may be reversed and re-reversed. Thus, if a
finger is impressed on a lithographic stone, the impressions from that
stone are reversals of the impression made by the same finger upon paper.
If made on transfer paper and thence transferred to stone, there is a
re-reversal. There are even more varied possibilities when photography is
employed. It is worth recollecting that there are twelve capital letters
in the English alphabet which, if printed in block type, are unaffected by
being reversed. They are <b>A.H.I.M.O.T.U.V.W.X.Y.Z.</b> Some symbols do the
same,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> such as, * + - = :. These and the letters <b>H.O.I.X.</b> have the
further peculiarity of appearing unaltered when upside down.</p>
<p><i>Lenses.</i>—As a rule, only a small magnifying power is needed for drawing
outlines, sufficient to allow the eye to be brought within six inches of
the paper, for it is only at that short distance that the <i>minutiæ</i> of a
full-sized finger print begin to be clearly discerned. Persons with normal
sight, during their childhood and boy- or girlhood, are able to read as
closely as this without using a lens, the range in adjustment of the focus
of the eye being then large. But as age advances the range contracts, and
an elderly person with otherwise normal eyesight requires glasses to read
a book even at twelve inches from his eye. I now require much optical aid;
when reading a book, spectacles of 12-inch focus are necessary; and when
studying a finger print, 12-inch eye-glasses in addition, the double power
enabling me to see clearly at a distance of only six inches. Perhaps the
most convenient focus for a lens in ordinary use is 3 inches. It should be
mounted at the end of a long arm that can easily be pushed in any
direction, sideways, backwards, forwards, and up or down. It is
undesirable to use a higher power than this unless it is necessary,
because the field of view becomes narrowed to an inconvenient degree, and
the nearer the head is to the paper, the darker is the shadow that it
casts; there is also insufficient room for the use of a pencil.</p>
<p>Every now and then a closer inspection is wanted;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> for which purpose a
doublet of ½-inch focus, standing on three slim legs, answers well.</p>
<p>For studying the markings on the fingers themselves, a small folding lens,
sold at opticians’ shops under the name of a “linen tester,” is very
convenient. It is so called because it was originally constructed for the
purpose of counting the number of threads in a given space, in a sample of
linen. It is equally well adapted for counting the number of ridges in a
given space.</p>
<hr style="width: 25%;" />
<p>Whoever desires to occupy himself with finger prints, ought to give much
time and practice to drawing outlines of different impressions of the same
digits. His own ten fingers, and those of a few friends, will furnish the
necessary variety of material on which to work. He should not rest
satisfied until he has gained an assurance that all patterns possess
definite figures, which may be latent but are potentially present, and
that the ridges form something more than a nondescript congeries of
ramifications and twists. He should continue to practise until he finds
that the same ridges have been so nearly followed in duplicate
impressions, that even in difficult cases his work will rarely vary more
than a single ridge-interval.</p>
<p>When the triangular plot happens not to be visible, owing to the print
failing to include it, which is often the case when the finger is not
rolled, as is well shown in the prints of my own ten digits on the
title-page, the trend of the ridges so far as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> they are seen, usually
enables a practised eye to roughly estimate its true position. By means of
this guidance an approximate, but fairly correct, outline can be drawn.
When the habit of judging patterns by their outlines has become familiar,
the eye will trace them for itself without caring to draw them, and will
prefer an unoutlined pattern to work upon, but even then it is essential
now and then to follow the outline with a fine point, say that of a
penknife or a dry pen.</p>
<p>In selecting standard forms of patterns for the convenience of
description, we must be content to disregard a great many of the more
obvious characteristics. For instance, the size of generally similar
patterns in Fig. 10 will be found to vary greatly, but the words large,
medium, or small may be applied to any pattern, so there is no necessity
to draw a standard outline for each size. Similarly as regards the inwards
or outwards slope of patterns, it is needless to print here a separate
standard outline for either slope, and equally unnecessary to print
outlines in duplicate, with reversed titles, for the right and left hands
respectively. The phrase “a simple spiral” conveys a well-defined general
idea, but there are four concrete forms of it (see bottom row of <a href="#plate11">Plate 11</a>,
Fig. 17, <i>oj</i>, <i>jo</i>, <i>ij</i>, <i>ji</i>) which admit of being verbally
distinguished. Again the internal proportions of any pattern, say those of
simple spirals, may vary greatly without affecting the fact of their being
simple spirals. They may be wide or narrow at their mouths, they may be
twisted up into a point (<a href="#plate8">Plate 8</a>, Fig. 14, <small>52</small>), or they may run in broad
curls of uniform width (Fig. 14, <small>51</small>, <small>54</small>). Perhaps the best general
rule in selecting standard outlines, is to limit them to such as cannot be
turned into any other by viewing them in an altered aspect, as upside down
or from the back, or by magnifying or deforming them, whether it be
through stretching, shrinking, or puckering any part of them. Subject to
this general rule and to further and more particular descriptions, the
sets (<a href="#plate7">Plates 7</a> and <a href="#plate8">8</a>, Figs. 11, 12, 13) will be found to give considerable
help in naming the usual patterns.</p>
<p><a name="plate7" id="plate7"></a> </p>
<p class="note">PLATE 7.</p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span><br />ARCHES.</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td align="center" class="btlr" colspan="3"><img src="images/fig11a.jpg" alt="" /><br />1<br />Plain Arch.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr" colspan="3"><img src="images/fig11b.jpg" alt="" /><br />2<br />Forked Arch.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr" colspan="3"><img src="images/fig11c.jpg" alt="" /><br />3<br />Tented Arch.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr" colspan="3"><img src="images/fig11d.jpg" alt="" /><br />4<br />(<i>See</i> Loops, 12.)</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btblr" colspan="4"><img src="images/fig11e.jpg" alt="" /><br />5<br />(<i>See</i> Whorls, 22.)</td>
<td align="center" class="btbr" colspan="4"><img src="images/fig11f.jpg" alt="" /><br />6<br />Arch with Ring.</td>
<td align="center" class="btbr" colspan="4"><img src="images/fig11g.jpg" alt="" /><br />7<br />(<i>See</i> Whorls, 24.)</td></tr></table>
<p> </p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span><br />LOOPS.</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><img src="images/fig12a.jpg" alt="" /><br />8<br />(<i>See</i> Arches, 2.)</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig12b.jpg" alt="" /><br />9<br />Nascent Loop.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig12c.jpg" alt="" /><br />10<br />Plain Loop.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig12d.jpg" alt="" /><br />11<br />Invaded Loop.</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><img src="images/fig12e.jpg" alt="" /><br />12<br />Tented Loop.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig12f.jpg" alt="" /><br />13<br />Crested Loop.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig12g.jpg" alt="" /><br />14<br />Eyeletted Loop.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig12h.jpg" alt="" /><br />15<br />(<i>See</i> Whorls, 21.).</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btblr"><img src="images/fig12i.jpg" alt="" /><br />16<br />Twined Loop.</td>
<td align="center" class="btbr"><img src="images/fig12j.jpg" alt="" /><br />17<br />Loop with nascent curl.</td>
<td align="center" class="btbr"><img src="images/fig12k.jpg" alt="" /><br />18<br />(<i>See</i> Whorls, 21.)</td>
<td align="center" class="btbr"><img src="images/fig12l.jpg" alt="" /><br />19<br />(<i>See</i> Whorls, 22.)</td></tr></table>
<p> </p>
<p><a name="plate8" id="plate8"></a> </p>
<p class="note">PLATE 8.</p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span><br />WHORLS.</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><img src="images/fig13a.jpg" alt="" /><br />20<br />Small Spiral in Loop.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig13b.jpg" alt="" /><br />21<br />Spiral in Loop.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig13c.jpg" alt="" /><br />22<br />Circlet in Loop.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig13d.jpg" alt="" /><br />23<br />Ring in Loop.</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><img src="images/fig13e.jpg" alt="" /><br />24<br />Rings.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig13f.jpg" alt="" /><br />25<br />Ellipses.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig13g.jpg" alt="" /><br />26<br />Spiro-rings.</td>
<td class="btr"> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btblr"><img src="images/fig13h.jpg" alt="" /><br />27<br />Simple Spiral.</td>
<td align="center" class="btbr"><img src="images/fig13i.jpg" alt="" /><br />28<br />Nascent Duplex Spiral.</td>
<td align="center" class="btbr"><img src="images/fig13j.jpg" alt="" /><br />29<br />Duplex Spiral.</td>
<td align="center" class="btbr"><img src="images/fig13k.jpg" alt="" /><br />30<br />Banded Duplex Spiral.</td></tr></table>
<p> </p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span><br /><span class="smcap">CORES to LOOPS.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td colspan="12">Rods:—their envelopes are indicated by dots.</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.31.jpg" alt="" /><br />31<br />Single.</td><td><span class="spacer3"> </span></td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.32.jpg" alt="" /><br />32<br />Eyed.</td><td><span class="spacer3"> </span></td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.33.jpg" alt="" /><br />33<br />Double.</td><td><span class="spacer3"> </span></td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.34.jpg" alt="" /><br />34<br />Multiple.</td><td><span class="spacer3"> </span></td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.35.jpg" alt="" /><br />35<br />Monkey.</td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="12">Staples:—their envelopes are indicated by dots.</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.36.jpg" alt="" /><br />36<br />Plain.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.37.jpg" alt="" /><br />37<br />¼ parted.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.38.jpg" alt="" /><br />38<br />½ parted.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.39.jpg" alt="" /><br />39<br />¾ parted.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.40.jpg" alt="" /><br />40<br />Tuning fork.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.41.jpg" alt="" /><br />41<br />Single eyed.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.42.jpg" alt="" /><br />42<br />Double eyed.</td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="12">Envelopes whether to Rods or Staples:—here staples only are dotted.</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.43.jpg" alt="" /><br />43<br />Plain.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.44.jpg" alt="" /><br />44<br />¼ parted.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.45.jpg" alt="" /><br />45<br />½ parted.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.46.jpg" alt="" /><br />46<br />¾ parted.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.47.jpg" alt="" /><br />47<br />Single eyed.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.48.jpg" alt="" /><br />48<br />Double eyed.</td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" colspan="13"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span><br /><span class="smcap">CORES to WHORLS.</span></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.49.jpg" alt="" /><br />49<br />Circles.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.50.jpg" alt="" /><br />50<br />Ellipses.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.51.jpg" alt="" /><br />51<br />Spiral.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.52.jpg" alt="" /><br />52<br />Twist.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.53.jpg" alt="" /><br />53<br />Plait.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.54.jpg" alt="" /><br />54<br />Deep Spiral.</td></tr></table>
<p> </p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>It will be observed that they are grouped under the three principal heads
of Arches, Loops, and Whorls, and that under each of these heads some
analogous patterns as <small>4</small>, <small>5</small>, <small>7</small>, <small>8</small>, etc., are introduced and
underlined with the word “see” so and so, and thus noted as really
belonging to one of the other heads. This is done to indicate the
character of the transitional cases that unite respectively the Arches
with the Loops, the Arches with the Whorls, and the Loops with the Whorls.
More will follow in respect to these. The “tented arch” (<small>3</small>) is extremely
rare on the thumb; I do not remember ever to have seen it there,
consequently it did not appear in the plate of patterns in the <i>Phil.
Trans.</i> which referred to thumbs. On the other hand, the “banded duplex
spiral” (<small>30</small>) is common in the thumb, but rare elsewhere. There are some
compound patterns, especially the “spiral in loop” (<small>21</small>) and the “circlet
in loop” (<small>22</small>), which are as much loops as whorls; but are reckoned as
whorls.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> The “twinned loop” (<small>16</small>) is of more frequent occurrence than
would be supposed from the examination of <i>dabbed</i> impressions, as the
only part of the outer loop then in view resembles outside arches; it is
due to a double separation of the ridges (<a href="#plate4">Plate 4</a>, Fig. 8), and a
consequent double interspace. The “crested loop” (<small>13</small>) may sometimes be
regarded as an incipient form of a “duplex spiral” (<small>29</small>).</p>
<p>The reader may also refer to <a href="#plate16">Plate 16</a>, which contains what is there called
the C set of standard patterns. They were arranged and used for a special
purpose, as described in <a href="#CHAPTER_XI">Chapter XI.</a> They refer to impressions of the
right hand.</p>
<p>As a variety of Cores, differing in shape and size, may be found within
each of the outlines, it is advisable to describe them separately. <a href="#plate8">Plate
8</a>, Fig. 14 shows a series of the cores of loops, in which the innermost
lineations may be either straight or curved back; in the one case they are
here called rods (<small>31</small> to <small>35</small>); in the other (<small>36</small> to <small>42</small>), staples. The
first of the ridges that envelops the core, whether the core be a rod,
many rods, or a staple, is also shown and named (<small>43</small> to <small>48</small>). None of
the descriptions are intended to apply to more than the <i>very end</i> of the
core, say, from the tip downwards to a distance equal to two average
ridge-intervals in length. If more of the core be taken into account, the
many varieties in their lower parts begin to make description confusing.
In respect to the “parted” staples and envelopes, and those that are
single-eyed, the description may further mention the side on which the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
parting or the eye occurs, whether it be the Inner or the Outer.</p>
<p>At the bottom of Fig. 14, <small>49-54</small>, is given a series of rings, spirals,
and plaits, in which nearly all the clearly distinguishable varieties are
included, no regard being paid to the direction of the twist or to the
number of turns. <small>49</small> is a set of concentric circles, <small>50</small> of ellipses:
they are rarely so in a strict sense throughout the pattern, usually
breaking away into a more or less spiriform arrangement as in <small>51</small>. A
curious optical effect is connected with the circular forms, which becomes
almost annoying when many specimens are examined in succession. They seem
to be cones standing bodily out from the paper. This singular appearance
becomes still more marked when they are viewed with only one eye; no
stereoscopic guidance then correcting the illusion of their being contour
lines.</p>
<p>Another curious effect is seen in <small>53</small>, which has the appearance of a
plait or overlap; two systems of ridges that roll together, end bluntly,
the end of the one system running right into a hollow curve of the other,
and there stopping short; it seems, at the first glance, to run beneath
it, as if it were a plait. This mode of ending forms a singular contrast
to that shown in <small>51</small> and <small>52</small>, where the ridges twist themselves into a
point. <small>54</small> is a deep spiral, sometimes having a large core filled with
upright and nearly parallel lines; occasionally they are bulbous, and
resemble the commoner “monkey” type, see <small>35</small>.</p>
<p>When the direction of twist is described, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> language must be
unambiguous: the following are the rules I adopt. The course of the ridge
is always followed <i>towards</i> the <i>centre</i> of the pattern, and not away
from it. Again, the direction of its course when so followed is specified
at the place where it attains its <i>highest</i> point, or that nearest to the
finger-tip; its course at that point must needs be horizontal, and
therefore directed either towards the inner or the outer side.</p>
<p>The amount of twist has a strong tendency to coincide with either one,
two, three, four, or more half-turns, and not to stop short in
intermediate positions. Here are indications of some unknown fundamental
law, analogous apparently to that which causes Loops to be by far the
commonest pattern.</p>
<hr style="width: 25%;" />
<p>The classification into Arches, Loops, and Whorls is based on the degree
of curvature of the ridges, and enables almost any pattern to be sorted
under one or other of those three heads. There are a few ambiguous
patterns, and others which are nondescript, but the former are uncommon
and the latter rare; as these exceptions give little real inconvenience,
the classification works easily and well.</p>
<p>Arches are formed when the ridges run from one side to the other of the
bulb of the digit without making any backward turn or twist. Loops, when
there is a single backward turn, but no twist. Whorls, when there is a
turn through at least one complete circle; they are also considered to
include all duplex spirals.</p>
<p><a name="plate9" id="plate9"></a> </p>
<p class="note">PLATE 9.</p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span></p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">TRANSITIONAL PATTERNS—Arches and Loops</span> (enlarged three times).</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig15a.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>a</i></td>
<td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig15b.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>b</i></td>
<td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig15c.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>c</i></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig15d.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>d</i></td>
<td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig15e.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>e</i></td>
<td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig15f.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>f</i></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig15g.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>g</i></td>
<td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig15h.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>h</i></td>
<td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig15i.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>i</i></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/fig15j.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>j</i></td>
<td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/fig15k.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>k</i></td></tr></table>
<p> </p>
<p><a name="plate10" id="plate10"></a> </p>
<p class="note">PLATE 10.</p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">FIG. 16.</span></p>
<p class="center">TRANSITIONAL PATTERNS—<span class="smcap">Loops and Whorls</span> (enlarged three times).</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/fig16l.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>l</i></td>
<td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/fig16m.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>m</i></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig16n.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>n</i></td>
<td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig16o.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>o</i></td>
<td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig16p.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>p</i></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/fig16q.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>q</i></td>
<td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/fig16r.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>r</i></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig16s.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>s</i></td>
<td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig16t.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>t</i></td>
<td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig16u.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>u</i></td></tr></table>
<p> </p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>The chief theoretical objection to this threefold system of classification
lies in the existence of certain compound patterns, by far the most common
of which are Whorls enclosed within Loops (<a href="#plate7">Plates 7</a>, <a href="#plate8">8</a>, Fig. 12, <small>15</small>,
<small>18</small>, <small>19</small>, and Fig. 13, <small>20-23</small>). They are as much Loops as Whorls, and
properly ought to be relegated to a fourth class. I have not done so, but
called them Whorls, for a practical reason which is cogent. In an
imperfect impression, such as is made by merely dabbing the inked finger
upon paper, the enveloping loop is often too incompletely printed to
enable its existence to be surely ascertained, especially when the
enclosed whorl is so large (Fig. 13, <small>23</small>) that there are only one or two
enveloping ridges to represent the loop. On the other hand, the whorled
character of the core can hardly fail to be recognised. The practical
difficulties lie almost wholly in rightly classifying a few transitional
forms, diagrammatically and roughly expressed in Fig. 11, <small>4</small>, <small>5</small>, and
Fig. 12, <small>8</small>, <small>18</small>, <small>19</small>, with the words “see” so and so written below,
and of which actual examples are given on an enlarged scale in <a href="#plate9">Plates 9</a>
and <a href="#plate10">10</a>, Figs. 15 and 16. Here Fig. 15, <i>a</i> is an undoubted arch, and <i>c</i>
an undoubted nascent loop; but <i>b</i> is transitional between them, though
nearer to a loop than an arch, <i>d</i> may be thought transitional in the same
way, but it has an incipient curl which becomes marked in <i>e</i>, while it
has grown into a decided whorl in <i>f</i>; <i>d</i> should also be compared with
<i>j</i>, which is in some sense a stage towards <i>k</i>. <i>g</i> is a nascent
tented-arch, fully developed in <i>i</i>, where the pattern as a whole has a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
slight slope, but is otherwise fairly symmetrical. In <i>h</i> there is some
want of symmetry, and a tendency to the formation of a loop on the right
side (refer back to <a href="#plate7">Plate 7</a>, Fig. 11, <small>4</small>, and Fig. 12, <small>12</small>); it is a
transitional case between a tented arch and a loop, with most resemblance
to the latter. <a href="#plate10">Plate 10</a>, Fig. 16 illustrates eyed patterns; here <i>l</i> and
<i>m</i> are parts of decided loops; <i>p</i>, <i>q</i>, and <i>r</i> are decided whorls, but
<i>n</i> is transitional, inclining towards a loop, and <i>o</i> is transitional,
inclining towards a whorl. <i>s</i> is a nascent form of an invaded loop, and
is nearly related to <i>l</i>; <i>t</i> and <i>u</i> are decidedly invaded loops.</p>
<p>The Arch-Loop-Whorl, or, more briefly, the A. L. W. system of
classification, while in some degree artificial, is very serviceable for
preliminary statistics, such as are needed to obtain a broad view of the
distribution of the various patterns. A minute subdivision under numerous
heads would necessitate a proportional and somewhat overwhelming amount of
statistical labour. Fifty-four different standard varieties are by no
means an extravagant number, but to treat fifty-four as thoroughly as
three would require eighteen times as much material and labour. Effort is
economised by obtaining broad results from a discussion of the A. L. W.
classes, afterwards verifying or extending them by special inquiries into
a few of the further subdivisions.</p>
<p><a name="plate11" id="plate11"></a> </p>
<p class="note">PLATE 11.</p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span></p>
<p class="center">ORIGIN OF SUPPLY OF RIDGES TO PATTERNS OF PRINTS OF RIGHT HAND.</p>
<p class="center">Of the two letters in the left upper corner of each compartment, the first refers to the source of upper boundary of the pattern,<br />the second to the lower boundary.
For patterns on the prints of left hands, <i>Ii</i> and <i>Oo</i> must be interchanged.</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" class="btlrdoub"><span class="smcap">Arches</span></td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" class="btrdoub"><span class="smcap">Rings</span></td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" class="btr"><span class="smcap">Duplex Spirals</span></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" class="btlrdoub">from both sides</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" class="btrdoub">from neither side</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" class="btr">from both sides</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" align="center" class="btlrdoub"><i>I</i> and <i>O</i> both absent</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" align="center" class="btrdoub"><i>I</i> and <i>O</i> both present</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" class="btr">upper supply from</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btr"><i>I</i> side</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><i>O</i> side</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr"><i>jj</i></td>
<td class="btrdoub"><i>jj</i></td>
<td colspan="2" class="btrdoub"><i>jj</i></td>
<td class="btr"><i>oi</i></td>
<td class="btr"><i>io</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr" align="center"><img src="images/fig17a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="bbrdoub" align="center"><img src="images/fig17b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td colspan="2" class="bbrdoub" align="center"><i>I</i> <img src="images/fig17c.jpg" alt="" /> <i>O</i></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><img src="images/fig17d.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><img src="images/fig17e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" colspan="6"><br /></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" class="btlrdoub"><span class="smcap">Spirals</span></td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" class="btrdoub"><span class="smcap">Loops</span></td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" class="btr"><span class="smcap">Spirals</span></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" class="btlrdoub">from <i>I</i> side</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">from <i>I</i> side</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">from <i>O</i> side</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" class="btr">from <i>O</i> side</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btlr">above</td>
<td align="center" class="btrdoub">below</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><i>I</i> absent</td>
<td align="center" class="btrdoub"><i>O</i> absent</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">above</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">below</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr"><i>oj</i></td>
<td class="btrdoub"><i>jo</i></td>
<td class="btr"><i>oo</i></td>
<td class="btrdoub"><i>ii</i></td>
<td class="btr"><i>ij</i></td>
<td class="btr"><i>ji</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr" align="center"><img src="images/fig17f.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="bbrdoub" align="center"><img src="images/fig17g.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><img src="images/fig17h.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="bbrdoub" align="center"><img src="images/fig17i.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><img src="images/fig17j.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><img src="images/fig17k.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
</table>
<p> </p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span></p>
<p class="center">Ambiguities in prints of the Minutiæ.</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig18a.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>a</i></td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig18b.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>b</i></td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig18c.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>c</i></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig18d.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>d</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig18e.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>e</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig18f.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>f</i></td></tr></table>
<p> </p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>The divergent ridges that bound any simple pattern admit of nine, and only
nine, distinct variations in the first part of their course. The bounding
ridge that has attained the summit of any such pattern must have arrived
either from the Inner plot (I), the Outer plot (O), or from both.
Similarly as regards the bounding ridge that lies at the lowest point of
the pattern. Any one of the three former events may occur in connection
with any of the three latter events, so they afford in all 3 × 3, or nine
possible combinations. It is convenient to distinguish them by easily
intelligible symbols. Thus, let <i>i</i> signify a bounding line which starts
from the point I, whether it proceeds to the summit or to the base of the
pattern; let <i>o</i> be a line that similarly proceeds from O, and let <i>u</i> be
a line that unites the two plots I and O, either by summit or by base.
Again, let two symbols be used, of which the first shall always refer to
the summit, and the second to the base of the pattern. Then the nine
possible cases are—<i>uu</i>, <i>ui</i>, <i>uo</i>; <i>iu</i>, <i>ii</i>, <i>io</i>; <i>ou</i>, <i>oi</i>, <i>oo</i>.
The case of the arches is peculiar, but they may be fairly classed under
the symbol <i>uu</i>.</p>
<p>This easy method of classification has much power. For example, the four
possible kinds of simple spirals (see the 1st, 2nd, and the 5th and 6th
diagrams in the lowest row of <a href="#plate11">Plate 11</a>, Fig. 17) are wholly determined by
the letters <i>oj</i>, <i>jo</i>, <i>ij</i>, <i>ji</i> respectively. The two forms of duplex
spirals are similarly determined by <i>oi</i> and <i>io</i> (see 4th and 5th
diagrams in the upper row of Fig. 17), the two slopes of loops by <i>oo</i> and
<i>ii</i> (3rd and 4th in the lower row). It also shows very distinctly the
sources whence the streams of ridges proceed that feed the pattern, which
itself affords another basis for classification.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> The resource against
uncertainty in respect to ambiguous or difficult patterns is to compile a
dictionary of them, with the heads under which it is advisable that they
should severally be classed. It would load these pages too heavily to give
such a dictionary here. Moreover, it ought to be revised by many
experienced eyes, and the time is hardly ripe for this; when it is, it
would be no difficult task, out of the large number of prints of separate
fingers which for instance I possess (some 15,000), to make an adequate
selection, to enlarge them photographically, and finally to print the
results in pairs, the one untouched, the other outlined and classified.</p>
<p>It may be asked why ridges are followed and not furrows, the furrow being
the real boundary between two systems. The reply is, that the ridges are
the easiest to trace; and, as the error through following the ridges
cannot exceed one-half of a ridge-interval, I have been content to
disregard it. I began by tracing furrows, but preferred the ridges after
trial.</p>
<p><i>Measurements.</i>—It has been already shown that when both plots are
present (<a href="#plate4">Plate 4</a>, Fig. 8, <small>4</small>), they form the termini of a base line, from
which any part of the pattern may be triangulated, as surveyors would say.
Also, that when only one plot exists (<small>3</small>), and the pattern has an axis
(which it necessarily has in all ordinary <i>ii</i> and <i>oo</i> cases), a
perpendicular can be let fall upon that axis, whose intersection with it
will serve as a second point of reference. But our methods must not be too
refined. The centres of the plots are not determinable with real
exactness,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> and repeated prints from so soft a substance as flesh are
often somewhat dissimilar, the one being more or less broadened out than
the other, owing to unequal pressure. It is therefore well to use such
other more convenient points of reference as the particular pattern may
present. In loops, the intersection of the axis with the summit of the
innermost bend, whether it be a staple or the envelope to a rod (Fig. 14,
second and third rows of diagrams), is a well-defined position. In
spirals, the centre of the pattern is fairly well defined; also a
perpendicular erected from the middle of the base to the outline above and
below (Fig. 8, <small>4</small>) is precise and convenient.</p>
<p>In prints of adults, measurements may be made in absolute units of length,
as in fractions of an inch, or else in millimetres. An average
ridge-interval makes, however, a better unit, being independent of growth;
it is strictly necessary to adopt it in prints made by children, if
present measurements are hereafter to be compared with future ones. The
simplest plan of determining and employing this unit is to count the
number of ridges to the nearest half-ridge, within the space of one-tenth
of an inch, measured along the axis of the finger at and about the point
where it cuts the <i>summit</i> of the outline; then, having already prepared
scales suitable for the various likely numbers, to make the measurements
with the appropriate scale. Thus, if five ridges were crossed by the axis
at that part, in the space of one-tenth of an inch, each unit of the scale
to be used would be one-fiftieth of an inch; if there were four ridges,
each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> unit of the scale would be one-fortieth of an inch; if six ridges
one-sixtieth, and so forth. There is no theoretical or practical
difficulty, only rough indications being required.</p>
<p>It is unnecessary to describe in detail how the bearings of any point may
be expressed after the fashion of compass bearings, the direction I-O
taking the place of East-West, the uppermost direction that of North, and
the lowermost of South. Little more is practically wanted than to be able
to describe roughly the position of some remarkable feature in the print,
as of an island or an enclosure. A ridge that is characterised by these or
any other marked peculiarity is easily identified by the above means, and
it thereupon serves as an exact basis for the description of other
features.</p>
<p class="center"><br /><i>Purkenje’s “Commentatio.”</i></p>
<p>Reference has already been made to Purkenje, who has the honour of being
the person who first described the inner scrolls (as distinguished from
the outlines of the patterns) formed by the ridges. He did so in a
University Thesis delivered at Breslau in 1823, entitled <i>Commentatio de
examine physiologico organi visus et systematis cutanei</i> (a physiological
examination of the visual organ and of the cutaneous system). The thesis
is an ill-printed small 8vo pamphlet of fifty-eight pages, written in a
form of Latin that is difficult to translate accurately into free English.
It is, however, of great historical interest and reputation, having been
referred to by nearly all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> subsequent writers, some of whom there is
reason to suspect never saw it, but contented themselves with quoting a
very small portion at second-hand. No copy of the pamphlet existed in any
public medical library in England, nor in any private one so far as I
could learn; neither could I get a sight of it at some important
continental libraries. One copy was known of it in America. The very
zealous Librarian of the Royal College of Surgeons was so good as to take
much pains at my instance, to procure one: his zeal was happily and
unexpectedly rewarded by success, and the copy is now securely lodged in
the library of the College.</p>
<p class="center"><br /><i>The Title</i></p>
<p>Commentatio de Examine physiologico organi visus et systematis cutanei
quam pro loco in gratioso medicorum ordine rite obtinendo die Dec. 22,
1823. H.X.L.C. publice defendit Johannes Evangelista Purkenje, Med.
doctor, Phys. et Path. Professor publicus ordinarius des. Assumto socio
Guilielmo Kraus Medicinae studioso.</p>
<p class="center"><br /><i>Translation</i>, p. 42.</p>
<div class="blockquot"><p>“Our attention is next engaged by the wonderful arrangement and
curving of the minute furrows connected with the organ of touch<a name='fna_4' id='fna_4' href='#f_4'><small>[4]</small></a> on
the inner surfaces of the hand and foot,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> especially on the last
phalanx of each finger. Some general account of them is always to be
found in every manual of physiology and anatomy, but in an organ of
such importance as the human hand, used as it is for very varied
movements, and especially serviceable to the sense of touch, no
research, however minute, can fail in yielding some gratifying
addition to our knowledge of that organ. After numberless
observations, I have thus far met with nine principal varieties of
curvature according to which the tactile furrows are disposed upon the
inner surface of the last phalanx of the fingers. I will describe them
concisely, and refer to the diagrams for further explanation (see
<a href="#plate12">Plate 12</a>, Fig. 19).</p>
<p>1. <i>Transverse flexures.</i>—The minute furrows starting from the bend
of the joint, run from one side of the phalanx to the other; at first
transversely in nearly straight lines, then by degrees they become
more and more curved towards the middle, until at last they are bent
into arches that are almost concentric with the circumference of the
finger.</p>
<p>2. <i>Central Longitudinal Stria.</i>—This configuration is nearly the
same as in 1, the only difference being that a perpendicular stria is
enclosed within the transverse furrows, as if it were a nucleus.</p>
<p>3. <i>Oblique Stria.</i>—A solitary line runs from one or other of the two
sides of the finger, passing obliquely between the transverse curves
in 1, and ending near the middle.</p>
<p>4. <i>Oblique Sinus.</i>—If this oblique line recurves towards the side
from which it started, and is accompanied by several others, all
recurved in the same way, the result is an oblique sinus, more or less
upright, or horizontal, as the case may be. A junction at its base, of
minute lines proceeding from either of its sides, forms a triangle.
This distribution of the furrows, in which an oblique sinus is found,
is by far the most common, and it may be considered as a special
characteristic of man; the furrows that are packed in longitudinal
rows are, on the other hand, peculiar to monkeys. The vertex of the
oblique sinus is generally inclined towards the radial side of the
hand, but it must be observed that the contrary is more frequently the
case in the fore-finger, the vertex there tending towards the ulnar
side. Scarcely any other configuration is to be found on the toes. The
ring finger, too, is often marked with one of the more intricate kinds
of pattern, while the remaining fingers have either the oblique sinus
or one of the other simpler forms.</p></div>
<p><a name="plate12" id="plate12"></a> </p>
<p class="note">PLATE 12.</p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span></p>
<p class="center">THE STANDARD PATTERNS OF PURKENJE.</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_top1.jpg" alt="" /><br />1</td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_top2.jpg" alt="" /><br />2</td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_top3.jpg" alt="" /><br />3</td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_top4.jpg" alt="" /><br />4</td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_top5.jpg" alt="" /><br />5</td></tr></table>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_top6.jpg" alt="" /><br />6</td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_top7.jpg" alt="" /><br />7</td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_top8.jpg" alt="" /><br />8</td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_top9.jpg" alt="" /><br />9</td></tr></table>
<p> </p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The Cores of the above Patterns.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_bottom1.jpg" alt="" /><br />1</td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_bottom2.jpg" alt="" /><br />2</td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_bottom3.jpg" alt="" /><br />3</td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_bottom4.jpg" alt="" /><br />4</td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_bottom5.jpg" alt="" /><br />5</td></tr></table>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_bottom6.jpg" alt="" /><br />6</td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_bottom7.jpg" alt="" /><br />7</td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_bottom8.jpg" alt="" /><br />8</td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_bottom9.jpg" alt="" /><br />9</td></tr></table>
<p> </p>
<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>5. <i>Almond.</i>—Here
the oblique sinus, as already described, encloses an almond-shaped figure, blunt above, pointed below, and formed of
concentric furrows.</p>
<p>6. <i>Spiral.</i>—When the transverse flexures described in 1 do not pass
gradually from straight lines into curves, but assume that form
suddenly with a more rapid divergence, a semicircular space is
necessarily created, which stands upon the straight and horizontal
lines below, as it were upon a base. This space is filled by a spiral
either of a simple or composite form. The term ‘simple’ spiral is to
be understood in the usual geometric sense. I call the spiral
‘composite’ when it is made up of several lines proceeding from the
same centre, or of lines branching at intervals and twisted upon
themselves. At either side, where the spiral is contiguous to the
place at which the straight and curved lines begin to diverge, in
order to enclose it, two triangles are formed, just like the single
one that is formed at the side of the oblique sinus.</p>
<p>7. <i>Ellipse</i>, or <i>Elliptical Whorl</i>.—The semicircular space described
in 6 is here filled with concentric ellipses enclosing a short single
line in their middle.</p>
<p>8. <i>Circle</i>, or <i>Circular Whorl</i>.—Here a single point takes the place
of the short line mentioned in 7. It is surrounded by a number of
concentric circles reaching to the ridges that bound the semicircular
space.</p>
<p>9. <i>Double Whorl.</i>—One portion of the transverse lines runs forward
with a bend and recurves upon itself with a half turn, and is embraced
by another portion which proceeds from the other side in the same way.
This produces a doubly twisted figure which is rarely met with except
on the thumb, fore, and ring fingers. The ends of the curved portions
may be variously inclined; they may be nearly perpendicular, of
various degrees of obliquity, or nearly horizontal.</p>
<p>In all of the forms 6, 7, 8, and 9, triangles may be seen at the
points where the divergence begins between the transverse <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>and the
arched lines, and at both sides. On the remaining phalanges, the
transverse lines proceed diagonally, and are straight or only slightly
curved.”</p></div>
<p>(He then proceeds to speak of the palm of the hand in men and in
monkeys.)</p>
<p> </p><p> </p>
<hr style="width: 50%;" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
<p class="center"><span class="large">PERSISTENCE</span></p>
<p>The evidence that the minutiæ persist throughout life is derived from the
scrutiny and comparison of various duplicate impressions, one of each pair
having been made many years ago, the other recently. Those which I have
studied more or less exhaustively are derived from the digits of fifteen
different persons. In some cases repeated impressions of one finger only
were available; in most cases of two fingers; in some of an entire hand.
Altogether the whole or part of repeated impressions of between twenty and
thirty different digits have been studied. I am indebted to Sir W. J.
Herschel for almost all these valuable data, without which it would have
been impossible to carry on the inquiry. The only other prints are those
of Sir W. G——, who, from curiosity, took impressions of his own fingers
in sealing-wax in 1874, and fortunately happened to preserve them. He was
good enough to make others for me last year, from which photographic
prints were made. The following table gives an analysis of the above data.
It would be well worth while to hunt up and take the present finger
prints<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> of such of the Hindoos as may now be alive, whose impressions were
taken in India by Sir W. J. Herschel, and are still preserved. Many years
must elapse before my own large collection of finger prints will be
available for the purpose of testing persistence during long periods.</p>
<p>The pattern in every distinct finger print, even though it be only a
dabbed impression, contains on a rough average thirty-five different
points of reference, in addition to its general peculiarities of outline
and core. They consist of forkings, beginnings or ends of ridges, islands,
and enclosures. These minute details are by no means peculiar to the
pattern itself, but are distributed with almost equal abundance throughout
the whole palmar surface. In order to make an exhaustive comparison of two
impressions they ought to be photographically enlarged to a size not
smaller than those shown in <a href="#plate15">Plate 15</a>. Two negatives of impressions can
thus be taken side by side on an ordinary quarter-plate, and any number of
photographic prints made from them; but, for still more comfortable
working, a further enlargement is desirable, say by the prism, <a href="#Page_52">p. 52</a>. Some
of the prints may be made on ferro-prussiate paper, as already mentioned
<a href="#Page_51">pp. 51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>; they are more convenient by far than prints made by the silver
or by the platinum process.</p>
<p>Having placed the enlarged prints side by side, two or three conspicuous
and convenient points of reference, whether islands, enclosures, or
particularly distinct bifurcations, should be identified and marked. By
their help, the position of the prints should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> readjusted, so that they
shall be oriented exactly alike. From each point of reference, in
succession, the spines of the ridges are then to be followed with a fine
pencil, in the two prints alternately, neatly marking each new point of
comparison with a numeral in coloured ink (<a href="#plate13">Plate 13</a>). When both of the
prints are good and clear, this is rapidly done; wherever the impressions
are faulty, there may be many ambiguities requiring patience to unravel.
At first I was timid, and proceeded too hesitatingly when one of the
impressions was indistinct, making short alternate traces. Afterwards on
gaining confidence, I traced boldly, starting from any well-defined point
of reference and not stopping until there were reasonable grounds for
hesitation, and found it easy in this way to trace the unions between
opposite and incompletely printed ends of ridges, and to disentangle many
bad impressions.</p>
<p>An exact correspondence between the <i>details</i> of two minutiæ is of
secondary importance. Thus, the commonest point of reference is a
bifurcation; now the neck or point of divergence of a new ridge is apt to
be a little low, and sometimes fails to take the ink; hence a new ridge
may appear in one of the prints to have an independent origin, and in the
other to be a branch. The <i>apparent</i> origin is therefore of little
importance, the main fact to be attended to is that a new ridge comes into
existence at a particular point; <i>how</i> it came into existence is a
secondary matter. Similarly, an apparently broken ridge may in reality be
due to an imperfectly printed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> enclosure; and an island in one print may
appear as part of an enclosure in the other. Moreover, this variation in
details may be the effect not only of imperfect inking or printing, but of
disintegration due to old age, which renders the impressions of the ridges
ragged and broken, as in my own finger prints on the title-page.</p>
<p><a href="#plate11">Plate 11</a>, Fig. 18 explains the nature of the apparent discrepancies better
than a verbal description. In <i>a</i> a new ridge appears to be suddenly
intruded between two adjacent ones, which have separated to make room for
it; but a second print, taken from the same finger, may have the
appearance of either <i>b</i> or <i>c</i>, showing that the new ridge is in reality
a fork of one or other of them, the low connecting neck having failed to
leave an impression. The second line of examples shows how an enclosure
which is clearly defined in <i>d</i> may give rise to the appearance of broken
continuity shown in <i>e</i>, and how a distinct island <i>f</i> in one of the
prints may be the remnant of an enclosure which is shown in the other.
These remarks are offered as a caution against attaching undue importance
to disaccord in the details of the minutiæ that are found in the same
place in different prints. Usually, however, the distinction between a
fork and the beginning of a new ridge is clear enough; the islands and
enclosures are also mostly well marked.</p>
<p><a name="plate13" id="plate13"></a> </p>
<p class="note">PLATE 13.</p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span></p>
<p class="center">V. H. H-D æt. 2½ in 1877, and again as a boy in Nov. 1890.</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><img src="images/fig20a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig20b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">1r 1887<span class="spacer"> </span>V. H. H-d</td>
<td class="br">1r 1890<span class="spacer"> </span>V. H. H-d</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><img src="images/fig20c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig20d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">3r 1887<span class="spacer"> </span>V. H. H-d</td>
<td class="bbr">3r 1890<span class="spacer"> </span>V. H. H-d</td></tr></table>
<p> </p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span><a href="#plate13">Plate 13</a> gives impressions taken from the fingers of a child of 2½
years in 1877, and again in 1890, when a boy of 15. They are enlarged
photographically to the same size, and are therefore on different scales.
The impressions from the baby-hand are not sharp, but sufficiently
distinct for comparison. Every bifurcation, and beginning or ending of a
ridge, common to the two impressions, is marked with a numeral in blue
ink. There is only one island in the present instance, and that is in the
upper pair of prints; it is clearly seen in the right hand print, lying to
the left of the inscribed number 13, but the badness of the left hand
print makes it hardly decipherable, so it is not numbered. There are a
total of twenty-six good points of comparison common to the upper pair of
prints; there are forty-three points in the lower pair, forty-two of which
appear in both, leaving a single point of disagreement; it is marked A on
the fifth ridge counting from the top. Here a bifurcated ridge in the baby
is filled up in the boy. This one exception, small though it be, is in my
experience unique. The total result of the two pairs of prints is to
afford sixty-eight successes and one failure. The student will find it
well worth his while to study these and the following prints step by step,
to satisfy himself of the extraordinarily exact coincidences between the
two members of either of the pairs. Of course the patterns generally must
be the same, if the ridges composing them are exactly alike, and the most
cursory glance shows them to be so.</p>
<p><a name="plate14" id="plate14"></a> </p>
<p class="note">PLATE 14.</p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><img src="images/fig21a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21b.jpg" alt="" /></td><td class="btr"> </td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">1881<span class="spacer"> </span>1 AEEH</td>
<td class="btr">1r<span class="spacer"> </span>1890</td><td class="btr"> </td>
<td class="btr">1862<span class="spacer"> </span>5 FKH</td>
<td class="btr">1r<span class="spacer"> </span>1888</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><img src="images/fig21e.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21f.jpg" alt="" /></td><td class="btr"> </td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21g.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">1881<span class="spacer"> </span>2 AEEH</td>
<td class="btr">3r<span class="spacer"> </span>1890</td><td class="btr"> </td>
<td class="btr">1859<span class="spacer"> </span>6 RFH</td>
<td class="btr">2r<span class="spacer"> </span>1890</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><img src="images/fig21i.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21j.jpg" alt="" /></td><td class="btr"> </td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21k.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21l.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">1862<span class="spacer"> </span>3 NHT</td>
<td class="btr"><span class="spacer"> </span>1890</td><td class="btr"> </td>
<td class="btr">1860<span class="spacer"> </span>7 WJH</td>
<td class="btr">thumb<span class="spacer"> </span>1890</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><img src="images/fig21m.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21n.jpg" alt="" /></td><td class="btr"> </td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21o.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21p.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="btblr">1862<span class="spacer"> </span>4 NHT</td>
<td class="btbr2">2r<span class="spacer"> </span>1890</td><td class="btbr2"> </td>
<td class="btbr2">1859<span class="spacer"> </span>8 WJH</td>
<td class="btbr2">3r<span class="spacer"> </span>1890</td></tr></table>
<p> </p>
<p><a href="#plate14">Plate 14</a>, Fig. 21 contains rather less than a quarter of each of eight
pairs that were published in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> the <i>Phil. Trans.</i> memoir above alluded to.
They were there enlarged photographically to twice their natural size,
which was hardly enough, as it did not allow sufficient space for
inserting the necessary reference numbers. Consequently they have been
again considerably enlarged, so much so that it is impossible to put more
than a portion of each on the page. However, what is given suffices. The
omitted portions may be studied in the memoir. The cases of <small>1</small> and <small>2</small>
are prints of different fingers of the same individual, first as a child 8
years old, and then as a boy of 17. They have been enlarged on the same
scale but not to the same size; so the print of the child includes a
larger proportion of the original impression than that of the boy. It is
therefore only a part of the child’s print which is comparable with that
of the boy. The remaining six cases refer to four different men, belonging
to three quite different families, although their surnames happen to have
the same initial, H. They were adults when the first print was made, and
from 26 to 31 years older on the second occasion. There is an exact
agreement throughout between the two members of each of the eight several
couplets.</p>
<p>In the pair 2. A. E. H. Hl., there is an interesting dot at the point <small>4</small>
(being an island it deserved to have had two numbers, one for the
beginning and one for the end). Small as it is, it persists; its growth in
size corresponding to the growth of the child in stature.</p>
<p><a name="plate15" id="plate15"></a> </p>
<p class="note">PLATE 15.</p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span></p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">RIGHT FOREFINGER of Sir W. J. H.</span> in 1860 and in 1888.</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig22a.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td>
<td align="center"><img src="images/fig22b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
<p> </p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span></p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">DISTRIBUTION of the PERIODS of LIFE</span>,<br />to which the evidence of persistency refers.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig23.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p> </p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>For the sake of those who are deficient in the colour sense and therefore
hardly able, if at all, to distinguish even the blue numerals in Figs. 20,
21, I give an eleventh example, <a href="#plate15">Plate 15</a>, Fig. 22, printed all in black.
The numerals are here very legible, but space for their insertion had to
be obtained by sacrificing some of the lineations. It is the right
fore-finger of Sir W. Herschel and has been already published twice; first
in the account of my lecture at the Royal Institution, and secondly, in
its present conspicuous form, in my paper in the <i>Nineteenth Century</i>. The
number of years that elapsed between the two impressions is thirty-one,
and the prints contain twenty-four points of comparison, all of which will
be seen to agree. I also possess a later print than this, taken in 1890
from the same finger, which tells the same tale.</p>
<p>The final result of the prints in these pages is that they give
photographic enlargements of the whole or portions of eleven couplets
belonging to six different persons, who are members of five unrelated
families, and which contain between them 158 points of comparison, of
which only one failed. Adding the portions of the prints that are omitted
here, but which will be found in the <i>Phil. Trans.</i>, the material that I
have thus far published contains 389 points of comparison, of which one
failed. The details are given in the annexed table:—</p>
<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btlr" align="center">Order in<br />the Figs.</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Initials.</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Digit of<br />right hand.</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Age at<br />date of<br />first print.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Dates of<br />the two<br />prints.</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Years<br />elapsed<br />between<br />the two<br />prints.</td>
<td colspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Total points of<br />agreement in</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btr">1st. 2nd.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Figs. 20<br />and 21.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Figs. 20, 22,<br />and in<br /><i>Ph. Trans.</i></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20</span></td>
<td class="btr"> </td>
<td class="btr"> </td>
<td class="btr"> </td>
<td class="btr"> </td>
<td class="btr"> </td>
<td class="btr"> </td>
<td class="btr"> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">1.</td>
<td class="br">V. H. Hd.</td>
<td class="br">Fore</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">2½</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">1877-90</td>
<td align="center" class="br">13</td>
<td align="center" class="br">26</td>
<td align="center" class="br">26</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">2.</td>
<td class="br">V. H. Hd.</td>
<td class="br">Ring</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">2½</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">1877-90</td>
<td align="center" class="br">13</td>
<td align="center" class="br">42</td>
<td align="center" class="br">42</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21</span></td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">1.</td>
<td class="br">A. E. H. Hl.</td>
<td class="br">Fore</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">1881-90</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">11</td>
<td align="center" class="br">33</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">2.</td>
<td class="br">A. E. H. Hl.</td>
<td class="br">Ring</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">1881-90</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">36</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">3.</td>
<td class="br">N. H. Tn.</td>
<td class="br">Fore</td>
<td align="center" class="br">28</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1862-90</td>
<td align="center" class="br">28</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">27</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">4.</td>
<td class="br">N. H. Tn.</td>
<td class="br">Middle</td>
<td align="center" class="br">28</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1862-90</td>
<td align="center" class="br">28</td>
<td align="center" class="br">10</td>
<td align="center" class="br">36</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">5.</td>
<td class="br">F. K. Ht.</td>
<td class="br">Fore</td>
<td align="center" class="br">28</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1862-88</td>
<td align="center" class="br">26</td>
<td align="center" class="br">12</td>
<td align="center" class="br">55</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">6.</td>
<td class="br">R. F. Hn.</td>
<td class="br">Middle</td>
<td align="center" class="br">31</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1859-90</td>
<td align="center" class="br">31</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">27</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">7.</td>
<td class="br">W. J. Hl.</td>
<td class="br">Thumb</td>
<td align="center" class="br">30</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1860-90</td>
<td align="center" class="br">30</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">50</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">8.</td>
<td class="br">W. J. Hl.</td>
<td class="br">Ring</td>
<td align="center" class="br">31</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1859-90</td>
<td align="center" class="br">31</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">32</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22</span></td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">1.</td>
<td class="br">W. J. Hl.</td>
<td class="br">Fore</td>
<td align="center" class="br">31</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1859-90</td>
<td align="center" class="br">31</td>
<td align="center" class="br">24</td>
<td align="center" class="br">24</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="6" align="center" class="btlr"><span style="margin-left: 16em;">Total points of agreement</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">157</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">388</span></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="6" align="right" class="bblr">Do.<span class="spacer"> </span>of disagreement</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr></table>
<p><br />It is difficult to give a just estimate of the number of points of
comparison that I have studied in other couplets of prints, because they
were not examined as exhaustively as in these. There were no less than one
hundred and eleven of them in the ball of the thumb of the child V. H.
Hd., besides twenty-five in the imperfect prints of his middle and little
fingers; these alone raise the total of 389 to 525. I must on the whole
have looked for more than 700 points of comparison, and have found
agreement in every single case that was examined, except the one already
mentioned in Fig. 20, of a ridge that was split in the child, but had
closed up some few years later.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>The prints in the two plates cover the intervals from childhood to
boyhood, from boyhood to early manhood, from manhood to about the age of
60, and another set—that of Sir W. G.—covers the interval from 67 to 80.
This is clearly expressed by the diagram (<a href="#plate15">Plate 15</a>, Fig. 23). As there is
no sign, except in one case, of change during any one of these four
intervals, which together almost wholly cover the ordinary life of man, we
are justified in inferring that between birth and death there is
absolutely no change in, say, 699 out of 700 of the numerous
characteristics in the markings of the fingers of the same person, such as
can be impressed by them whenever it is desirable to do so. Neither can
there be any change after death, up to the time when the skin perishes
through decomposition; for example, the marks on the fingers of many
Egyptian mummies, and on the paws of stuffed monkeys, still remain
legible. Very good evidence and careful inquiry is thus seen to justify
the popular idea of the persistence of finger markings, that has hitherto
been too rashly jumped at, and which wrongly ascribed the persistence to
the general appearance of the pattern, rather than to the minutiæ it
contains. There appear to be no external bodily characteristics, other
than deep scars and tattoo marks, comparable in their persistence to these
markings, whether they be on the finger, on other parts of the palmar
surface of the hand, or on the sole of the foot. At the same time they are
out of all proportion more numerous than any other measurable features;
about thirty-five of them are situated on the bulb of each of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> ten
digits, in addition to more than 100 on the ball of the thumb, which has
not one-fifth of the superficies of the rest of the palmar surface. The
total number of points suitable for comparison on the two hands must
therefore be not less than one thousand and nearer to two; an estimate
which I verified by a rough count on my own hand; similarly in respect to
the feet. The dimensions of the limbs and body alter in the course of
growth and decay; the colour, quantity, and quality of the hair, the tint
and quality of the skin, the number and set of the teeth, the expression
of the features, the gestures, the handwriting, even the eye-colour,
change after many years. There seems no persistence in the visible parts
of the body, except in these minute and hitherto too much disregarded
ridges.</p>
<p>It must be emphasised that it is in the minutiæ, and <i>not</i> in the measured
dimensions of any portion of the pattern, that this remarkable persistence
is observed, not even if the measurements be made in units of a
ridge-interval. The pattern grows simultaneously with the finger, and its
proportions vary with its fatness, leanness, usage, gouty deformation, or
age. But, though the pattern as a whole may become considerably altered in
length or breadth, the number of ridges, their embranchments, and other
minutiæ remain unchanged. So it is with the pattern on a piece of lace.
The piece as a whole may be stretched in this way, or shrunk in that, and
its outline altogether altered; nevertheless every one of the component
threads, and every knot in every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> thread, can easily be traced and
identified in both. Therefore, in speaking of the persistence of the marks
on the finger, the phrase must be taken to apply principally to the
minutiæ, and to the general character of the pattern; not to the measure
of its length, breadth, or other diameter; these being no more constant
than the stature, or any other of the ordinary anthropometric data.</p>
<p> </p><p> </p>
<hr style="width: 50%;" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
<p class="center"><span class="large">EVIDENTIAL VALUE</span></p>
<p>The object of this chapter is to give an approximate numerical idea of the
value of finger prints as a means of Personal Identification. Though the
estimates that will be made are professedly and obviously far below the
truth, they are amply sufficient to prove that the evidence afforded by
finger prints may be trusted in a most remarkable degree.</p>
<p>Our problem is this: given two finger prints, which are alike in their
minutiæ, what is the chance that they were made by different persons?</p>
<p>The first attempt at comparing two finger prints would be directed to a
rough general examination of their respective patterns. If they do not
agree in being arches, loops, or whorls, there can be no doubt that the
prints are those of different fingers, neither can there be doubt when
they are distinct forms of the same general class. But to agree thus far
goes only a short way towards establishing identity, for the number of
patterns that are promptly distinguishable from one another is not large.
My earlier inquiries showed this, when endeavouring to sort the prints<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> of
1000 thumbs into groups that differed each from the rest by an “equally
discernible” interval. While the attempt, as already mentioned, was not
successful in its main object, it showed that nearly all the collection
could be sorted into 100 groups, in each of which the prints had a fairly
near resemblance. Moreover, twelve or fifteen of the groups referred to
different varieties of the loop; and as two-thirds of all the prints are
loops, two-thirds of the 1000 specimens fell into twelve or fifteen
groups. The chance that an unseen pattern is some particular variety of
loop, is therefore compounded of 2 to 3 against its being a loop at all,
and of 1 to 12 or 15, as the case may be, against its being the specified
kind of loop. This makes an adverse chance of only 2 to 36, or to 45, say
as 2 to 40, or as 1 to 20. This very rude calculation suffices to show
that on the average, no great reliance can be placed on a general
resemblance in the appearance of two finger prints, as a proof that they
were made by the same finger, though the obvious disagreement of two
prints is conclusive evidence that they were made by different fingers.</p>
<p>When we proceed to a much more careful comparison, and collate
successively the numerous minutiæ, their coincidence throughout would be
an evidence of identity, whose value we will now try to appraise.</p>
<p>Let us first consider the question, how far may the minutiæ, or groups of
them, be treated as <i>independent</i> variables?</p>
<p>Suppose that a tiny square of paper of only one average ridge-interval in
the side, be cut out and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> dropped at random on a finger print; it will
mask from view a minute portion of one, or possibly of two ridges. There
can be little doubt that what was hidden could be correctly interpolated
by simply joining the ends of the ridge or ridges that were interrupted.
It is true, the paper might possibly have fallen exactly upon, and hidden,
a minute island or enclosure, and that our reconstruction would have
failed in consequence, but such an accident is improbable in a high
degree, and may be almost ignored.</p>
<p>Repeating the process with a much larger square of paper, say of twelve
ridge-intervals in the side, the improbability of correctly reconstructing
the masked portion will have immensely increased. The number of ridges
that enter the square on any one side will perhaps, as often as not,
differ from the number which emerge from the opposite side; and when they
are the same, it does not at all follow that they would be continuous each
to each, for in so large a space forks and junctions are sure to occur
between some, and it is impossible to know which, of the ridges.
Consequently, there must exist a certain size of square with more than one
and less than twelve ridge-intervals in the side, which will mask so much
of the print, that it will be an even chance whether the hidden portion
can, on the average, be rightly reconstructed or not. The size of that
square must now be considered.</p>
<p>If the reader will refer to <a href="#plate14">Plate 14</a>, in which there are eight much
enlarged photographs of portions of different finger prints, he will
observe that the length of each of the portions exceeds the breadth in
the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> proportion of 3 to 2. Consequently, by drawing one line down the
middle and two lines across, each portion may be divided into six squares.
Moreover, it will be noticed that the side of each of these squares has a
length of about six ridge-intervals. I cut out squares of paper of this
size, and throwing one of them at random on any one of the eight portions,
succeeded almost as frequently as not in drawing lines on its back which
comparison afterwards showed to have followed the true course of the
ridges. The provisional estimate that a length of six ridge-intervals
approximated to but exceeded that of the side of the desired square,
proved to be correct by the following more exact observations, and by
three different methods.</p>
<p>I. The first set of tests to verify this estimate were made upon
photographic enlargements of various thumb prints, to double their natural
size. A six-ridge-interval square of paper was damped and laid at random
on the print, the core of the pattern, which was too complex in many cases
to serve as an average test, being alone avoided. The prints being on
ordinary albuminised paper, which is slightly adherent when moistened, the
patch stuck temporarily wherever it was placed and pressed down. Next, a
sheet of tracing-paper, which we will call No. 1, was laid over all, and
the margin of the square patch was traced upon it, together with the
course of the surrounding ridges up to that margin. Then I interpolated on
the tracing-paper what seemed to be the most likely course of those ridges
which were hidden<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> by the square. No. 1 was then removed, and a second
sheet, No. 2, was laid on, and the margin of the patch was outlined on it
as before, together with the ridges leading up to it. Next, a corner only
of No. 2 was raised, the square patch was whisked away from underneath,
the corner was replaced, the sheet was flattened down, and the actual
courses of the ridges within the already marked outline were traced in.
Thus there were two tracings of the margin of the square, of which No. 1
contained the ridges as I had interpolated them, No. 2 as they really
were, and it was easy to compare the two. The results are given in the
first column of the following table:—</p>
<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Interpolation of Ridges in a six-ridge-interval Square.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td class="btlr" align="center">Result.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Double<br />Enlargements.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Six-fold scale<br />with prism.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Twenty-fold<br />scale with<br />chequer-work.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Total.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">Right</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">12</td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center">27</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">Wrong</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">20</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">12</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">16</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">48</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">Total</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">32</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">20</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">23</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">75</td></tr></table>
<p><br />II. In the second method the tracing-papers were discarded, and the prism
of a camera lucida used. It threw an image three times the size of the
photo-enlargement, upon a card, and there it was traced. The same general
principle was adopted as in the first method, but the results being on a
larger scale, and drawn on stout paper, were more satisfactory and
convenient. They are given in the second column of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> the table. In this and
the foregoing methods two different portions of the same print were
sometimes dealt with, for it was a little more convenient and seemed as
good a way of obtaining average results as that of always using portions
of different finger prints. The total number of fifty-two trials, by one
or other of the two methods, were made from about forty different prints.
(I am not sure of the exact number.)</p>
<p>The results in each of the two methods were sometimes quite right,
sometimes quite wrong, sometimes neither one nor the other. The latter
depended on the individual judgment as to which class it belonged, and
might be battled over with more or less show of reason by advocates on
opposite sides. Equally dividing these intermediate cases between “right”
and “wrong,” the results were obtained as shown. In one, and only one, of
the cases, the most reasonable interpretation had not been given, and the
result had been wrong when it ought to have been right. The purely
personal error was therefore disregarded, and the result entered as
“right.”</p>
<p>III. A third attempt was made by a different method, upon the lineations
of a finger print drawn on about a twenty-fold scale. It had first been
enlarged four times by photography, and from this enlargement the axes of
the ridges had been drawn with a five-fold enlarging pantagraph. The aim
now was to reconstruct the entire finger print by two successive and
independent acts of interpolation. A sheet of transparent tracing-paper
was ruled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> into six-ridge-interval squares, and every one of its alternate
squares was rendered opaque by pasting white paper upon it, giving it the
appearance of a chess-board. When this chequer-work was laid on the print,
exactly one half of the six-ridge squares were masked by the opaque
squares, while the ridges running up to them could be seen. They were not
quite so visible as if each opaque square had been wholly detached from
its neighbours, instead of touching them at the extreme corners, still the
loss of information thereby occasioned was small, and not worth laying
stress upon. It is easily understood that when the chequer-work was moved
parallel to itself, through the space of one square, whether upwards or
downwards, or to the right or left, the parts that were previously masked
became visible, and those that were visible became masked. The object was
to interpolate the ridges in every opaque square under one of these
conditions, then to do the same for the remaining squares under the other
condition, and finally, by combining the results, to obtain a complete
scheme of the ridges wholly by interpolation. This was easily done by
using two sheets of tracing-paper, laid in succession over the
chequer-work, whose position on the print had been changed meanwhile, and
afterwards tracing the lineations that were drawn on one of the two sheets
upon the vacant squares of the other. The results are given in the third
column of the table.</p>
<p>The three methods give roughly similar results, and we may therefore
accept the ratios of their totals,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> which is 27 to 75, or say 1 to 3, as
representing the chance that the reconstruction of any six-ridge-interval
square would be correct under the given conditions. On reckoning the
chance as 1 to 2, which will be done at first, it is obvious that the
error, whatever it may be, is on the safe side. A closer equality in the
chance that the ridges in a square might run in the observed way or in
some other way, would result from taking a square of five ridge-intervals
in the side. I believe this to be very closely the right size. A
four-ridge-interval square is certainly too small.</p>
<p>When the reconstructed squares were wrong, they had none the less a
natural appearance. This was especially seen, and on a large scale, in the
result of the method by chequer-work, in which the lineations of an entire
print were constructed by guess. Being so familiar with the run of these
ridges in finger prints, I can speak with confidence on this. My
assumption is, that any one of these reconstructions represents lineations
that might have occurred in Nature, in association with the conditions
outside the square, just as well as the lineations of the actual finger
print. The courses of the ridges in each square are subject to
uncertainties, due to petty <i>local</i> incidents, to which the conditions
outside the square give no sure indication. They appear to be in great
part determined by the particular disposition of each one or more of the
half hundred or so sweat-glands which the square contains. The ridges
rarely run in evenly flowing lines, but may be compared to footways across
a broken country, which, while they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> follow a general direction, are
continually deflected by such trifles as a tuft of grass, a stone, or a
puddle. Even if the number of ridges emerging from a six-ridge-interval
square equals the number of those which enter, it does not follow that
they run across in parallel lines, for there is plenty of room for any one
of the ridges to end, and another to bifurcate. It is impossible,
therefore, to know beforehand in which, if in any of the ridges, these
peculiarities will be found. When the number of entering and issuing
ridges is unequal, the difficulty is increased. There may, moreover, be
islands or enclosures in any particular part of the square. It therefore
seems right to look upon the squares as independent variables, in the
sense that when the surrounding conditions are alone taken into account,
the ridges within their limits may either run in the observed way or in a
different way, the chance of these two contrasted events being taken (for
safety’s sake) as approximately equal.</p>
<p>In comparing finger prints which are alike in their general pattern, it
may well happen that the proportions of the patterns differ; one may be
that of a slender boy, the other that of a man whose fingers have been
broadened or deformed by ill-usage. It is therefore requisite to imagine
that only one of the prints is divided into exact squares, and to suppose
that a reticulation has been drawn over the other, in which each mesh
included the corresponding parts of the former print. Frequent trials have
shown that there is no practical difficulty in actually doing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> this, and
it is the only way of making a fair comparison between the two.</p>
<p>These six-ridge-interval squares may thus be regarded as independent
units, each of which is equally liable to fall into one or other of two
alternative classes, when the surrounding conditions are alone known. The
inevitable consequence from this datum is that the chance of an exact
correspondence between two different finger prints, in each of the
six-ridge-interval squares into which they may be divided, and which are
about 24 in number, is at least as 1 to 2 multiplied into itself 24 times
(usually written 2<sup>24</sup>), that is as 1 to about ten thousand millions. But
we must not forget that the six-ridge square was taken in order to ensure
under-estimation, a five-ridge square would have been preferable, so the
adverse chances would in reality be enormously greater still.</p>
<p>It is hateful to blunder in calculations of adverse chances, by
overlooking correlations between variables, and to falsely assume them
independent, with the result that inflated estimates are made which
require to be proportionately reduced. Here, however, there seems to be
little room for such an error.</p>
<p>We must next combine the above enormously unfavourable chance, which we
will call <i>a</i>, with the other chances of not guessing correctly beforehand
the surrounding conditions under which <i>a</i> was calculated. These latter
are divisible into <i>b</i> and <i>c</i>; the chance <i>b</i> is that of not guessing
correctly the general course of the ridges adjacent to each square, and
<i>c</i> that of not guessing rightly the number of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> ridges that enter and
issue from the square. The chance <i>b</i> has already been discussed, with the
result that it might be taken as 1 to 20 for two-thirds of all the
patterns. It would be higher for the remainder, and very high indeed for
some few of them, but as it is advisable always to underestimate, it may
be taken as 1 to 20; or, to obtain the convenience of dealing only with
values of 2 multiplied into itself, the still lower ratio of 1 to 2<sup>4</sup>,
that is as 1 to 16. As to the remaining chance <i>c</i> with which <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>
have to be compounded, namely, that of guessing aright the number of
ridges that enter and leave each side of a particular square, I can offer
no careful observations. The number of the ridges would for the most part
vary between five and seven, and those in the different squares are
certainly not quite independent of one another. We have already arrived at
such large figures that it is surplusage to heap up more of them,
therefore, let us say, as a mere nominal sum much below the real figure,
that the chance against guessing each and every one of these data
correctly is as 1 to 250, or say 1 to 2<sup>8</sup> (= 256).</p>
<p>The result is, that the chance of lineations, constructed by the
imagination according to strictly natural forms, which shall be found to
resemble those of a single finger print in all their minutiæ, is less than
1 to 2<sup>24</sup> × 2<sup>4</sup> × 2<sup>8</sup>, or 1 to 2<sup>36</sup>, or 1 to about sixty-four thousand
millions. The inference is, that as the number of the human race is
reckoned at about sixteen thousand millions, it is a smaller chance than 1
to 4 that the print of a <i>single</i> finger of any given<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> person would be
exactly like that of the same finger of any other member of the human
race.</p>
<p>When two fingers of each of the two persons are compared, and found to
have the same minutiæ, the improbability of 1 to 2<sup>36</sup> becomes squared,
and reaches a figure altogether beyond the range of the imagination; when
three fingers, it is cubed, and so on.</p>
<p>A single instance has shown that the minutiæ are <i>not</i> invariably
permanent throughout life, but that one or more of them may possibly
change. They may also be destroyed by wounds, and more or less
disintegrated by hard work, disease, or age. Ambiguities will thus arise
in their interpretation, one person asserting a resemblance in respect to
a particular feature, while another asserts dissimilarity. It is therefore
of interest to know how far a conceded resemblance in the great majority
of the minutiæ combined with some doubt as to the remainder, will tell in
favour of identity. It will now be convenient to change our datum from a
six-ridge to a five-ridge square of which about thirty-five are contained
in a single print, 35 × 5<sup>2</sup> or 35 × 25 being much the same as 24 × 6<sup>2</sup>
or 24 × 36. The reason for the change is that this number of thirty-five
happens to be the same as that of the minutiæ. We shall therefore not be
acting unfairly if, with reservation, and for the sake of obtaining some
result, however rough, we consider the thirty-five minutiæ themselves as
so many independent variables, and accept the chance now as 1 to 2<sup>35</sup>.</p>
<p>This has to be multiplied, as before, into the factor of 2<sup>4</sup> × 2<sup>8</sup>
(which may still be considered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> appropriate, though it is too small),
making the total of adverse chances 1 to 2<sup>47</sup>. Upon such a basis, the
calculation is simple. There would on the average be 47 instances, out of
the total 2<sup>47</sup> combinations, of similarity in all but one particular;
<span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>47 × 46</sup></span>⁄<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">1 × 2</span> in all but two;
<span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>47 × 46 × 45</sup></span>⁄<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">1 × 2 × 3</span>
in all but three, and so on according to the well-known binomial expansion. Taking for
convenience the powers of 2 to which these values approximate, or rather
with the view of not overestimating, let us take the power of 2 that falls
short of each of them; these may be reckoned as respectively equal to
2<sup>6</sup>, 2<sup>10</sup>, 2<sup>14</sup>, 2<sup>18</sup>, etc. Hence the roughly approximate chances of
resemblance in all particulars are as 2<sup>47</sup> to 1; in all particulars but
one, as 2<sup>47-6</sup>, or 2<sup>41</sup> to 1; in all but two, as 2<sup>37</sup> to 1; in all but
three, as 2<sup>33</sup> to 1; in all but four, as 2<sup>29</sup> to 1. Even 2<sup>29</sup> is so
large as to require a row of nine figures to express it. Hence a few
instances of dissimilarity in the two prints of a single finger, still
leave untouched an enormously large residue of evidence in favour of
identity, and when two, three, or more fingers in the two persons agree to
that extent, the strength of the evidence rises by squares, cubes, etc.,
far above the level of that amount of probability which begins to rank as
certainty.</p>
<p>Whatever reductions a legitimate criticism may make in the numerical
results arrived at in this chapter, bearing in mind the occasional
ambiguities pictured in Fig. 18, the broad fact remains, that a complete
or nearly complete accordance between two prints of a single finger, and
vastly more so between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> the prints of two or more fingers, affords
evidence requiring no corroboration, that the persons from whom they were
made are the same. Let it also be remembered, that this evidence is
applicable not only to adults, but can establish the identity of the same
person at any stage of his life between babyhood and old age, and for some
time after his death.</p>
<hr style="width: 25%;" />
<p>We read of the dead body of Jezebel being devoured by the dogs of Jezreel,
so that no man might say, “This is Jezebel,” and that the dogs left only
her skull, the palms of her hands, and the soles of her feet; but the
palms of the hands and the soles of the feet are the very remains by which
a corpse might be most surely identified, if impressions of them, made
during life, were available.</p>
<p> </p><p> </p>
<hr style="width: 50%;" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
<p class="center"><span class="large">PECULIARITIES OF THE DIGITS</span></p>
<p>The data used in this chapter are the prints of 5000 different digits,
namely, the ten digits of 500 different persons; each digit can thus be
treated, both separately and in combination, in 500 cases. Five hundred
cannot be called a large number, but it suffices for approximate results;
the percentages that it yields may, for instance, be expected to be
trustworthy, more often than not, within two units.</p>
<p>When preparing the tables for this chapter, I gave a more liberal
interpretation to the word “Arch” than subsequently. At first, every
pattern between a Forked-Arch and a Nascent-Loop (<a href="#plate7">Plate 7</a>) was rated as an
Arch; afterwards they were rated as Loops.</p>
<p>The relative frequency of the three several classes in the 5000 digits was
as follows:—</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td>Arches</td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td><td align="right">6·5</td><td>per cent.</td></tr>
<tr><td>Loops</td><td> </td><td align="right">67·5</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
<tr><td>Whorls</td><td> </td><td align="right" class="botbor">26·0</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
<tr><td> </td><td>Total</td><td align="right">100·0</td></tr></table>
<p>From this it appears, that on the average out of every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> 15 or 16 digits,
one has an arch; out of every 3 digits, two have loops; out of every 4
digits, one has a whorl.</p>
<p>This coarse statistical treatment leaves an inadequate impression, each
digit and each hand having its own peculiarity, as we shall see in the
following table:—</p>
<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table I.</span></p>
<p class="center"><i>Percentage frequency of Arches, Loops, and Whorls on the different digits,<br />from observations of the 5000 digits of 500 persons.</i></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btlr" align="center">Digit.</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" class="btrdoub"><span class="smcap">Right Hand.</span></td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" class="btr"><span class="smcap">Left Hand.</span></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btr">Arch.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">Loop.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">Whorl.</td>
<td align="center" class="btrdoub">Total.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">Arch.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">Loop.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">Whorl.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">Total.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">Thumb</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">53</span></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">44</span></td>
<td align="center" class="btrdoub">100</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">65</span></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">30</span></td>
<td align="center" class="btr">100</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Fore-finger</td>
<td align="center" class="br">17</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">53</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">30</span></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">100</td>
<td align="center" class="br">17</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">55</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">28</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">100</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Middle do.</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">78</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">15</span></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">100</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">76</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">16</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">100</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Ring do.</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">53</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">45</span></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">100</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">66</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">31</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">100</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">Little do.</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">86</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">13</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bbrdoub">100</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">90</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">8</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">100</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr" align="center">Total</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">30</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">323</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">147</td>
<td align="center" class="bbrdoub">500</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">35</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">352</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">113</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">500</td></tr></table>
<p><br />The percentage of arches on the various digits varies from 1 to 17; of
loops, from 53 to 90; of whorls, from 13 to 45, consequently the
statistics of the digits must be separated, and not massed
indiscriminately.</p>
<p>Are the A. L. W. patterns distributed in the same way upon the
corresponding digits of the two hands? The answer from the last table is
distinct and curious, and will be best appreciated on rearranging the
entries as follows:—</p>
<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table II.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btlr" align="center">Digit.</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" class="btrdoub"><span class="smcap">Arches.</span></td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" class="btrdoub"><span class="smcap">Loops.</span></td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" class="btr"><span class="smcap">Whorls.</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Right.</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">Left.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Right.</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">Left.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Right.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Left.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">Fore-finger</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">17</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">17</td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">53</span></td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">53</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">30</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">28</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Middle do.</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">78</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">76</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">15</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">16</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Little do.</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">86</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">90</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">13</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">8</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="brdoub"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="brdoub"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Thumb</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">53</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">65</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">44</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">30</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">Ring do.</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="bbrdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">53</span></td>
<td class="bbrdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">66</span></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">45</span></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">31</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">Total 1000</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">30</td>
<td class="bbrdoub" align="center">35</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">323</td>
<td class="bbrdoub" align="center">350</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">147</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">113</td></tr></table>
<p><br />The digits are seen to fall into two well-marked groups; the one including
the fore, middle, and little fingers, the other including the thumb and
ring-finger. As regards the first group, the frequency with which any
pattern occurs in any named digit is statistically the same, whether that
digit be on the right or on the left hand; as regards the second group,
the frequency differs greatly in the two hands. But though in the first
group the two fore-fingers, the two middle, and the two little fingers of
the right hand are severally circumstanced alike in the frequency with
which their various patterns occur, the difference between the frequency
of the patterns on a fore, a middle, and a little finger, respectively, is
very great.</p>
<p>In the second group, though the thumbs on opposite hands do not resemble
each other in the statistical frequency of the A. L. W. patterns, nor do
the ring-fingers, there is a great resemblance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> between the respective
frequencies in the thumbs and ring-fingers; for instance, the Whorls on
either of these fingers on the left hand are only two-thirds as common as
those on the right. The figures in each line and in each column are
consistent throughout in expressing these curious differences, which must
therefore be accepted as facts, and not as statistical accidents, whatever
may be their explanation.</p>
<p>One of the most noticeable peculiarities in Table I. is the much greater
frequency of Arches on the fore-fingers than on any other of the four
digits. It amounts to 17 per cent on the fore-fingers, while on the thumbs
and on the remaining fingers the frequency diminishes (Table III.) in a
ratio that roughly accords with the distance of each digit from the
fore-finger.</p>
<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table III.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td colspan="6" class="btlr" align="center"><i>Percentage frequency of Arches.</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr" align="center">Hand.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Thumb.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Fore-finger.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Middle finger.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Ring-finger.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Little finger.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">Right</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">3</td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><i>17</i></td>
<td class="btr" align="center">7</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">2</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">1</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">Left</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">5</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><i>17</i></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">8</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">3</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">4</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">Mean</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">4</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><i>17</i></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">7·5</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">2·5</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">2·5</td></tr></table>
<p><br />The frequency of Loops (Table IV.) has two maxima; the principal one is on
the little finger, the secondary on the middle finger.</p>
<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table IV.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td colspan="6" class="btlr" align="center"><i>Percentage frequency of Loops.</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr" align="center">Hand.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Thumb.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Fore-finger.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Middle finger.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Ring-finger.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Little finger.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">Right</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">53</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">53</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">78</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">66</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">86</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">Left</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">65</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">55</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">76</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">53</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">90</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">Mean</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">59</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">54</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">77</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">59·5</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">88</td></tr></table>
<p><br />Whorls (Table V.) are most common on the thumb and the ring-finger, most
rare on the middle and little fingers.</p>
<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table V.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td colspan="6" class="btlr" align="center"><i>Percentage frequency of Whorls.</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr" align="center">Hand.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Thumb.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Fore-finger.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Middle finger.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Ring-finger.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Little finger.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">Right</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">44</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">30</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">15</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">45</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">13</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">Left</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">30</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">28</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">16</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">31</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">Mean</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">37</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">29</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">15·5</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">38</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">10·5</td></tr></table>
<p><br />The fore-finger is peculiar in the frequency with which the direction of
the slopes of its loops differs from that which is by far the most common
in all other digits. A loop <i>must</i> have a slope, being caused by the
disposition of the ridges into the form of a pocket, opening downwards to
one or other side of the finger. If it opens towards the inner or thumb
side of the hand, it will be called an inner slope;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> if towards the outer
or little-finger side, it will be called an outer slope. In all digits,
except the fore-fingers, the inner slope is much the more rare of the two;
but in the fore-fingers the inner slope appears two-thirds as frequently
as the outer slope. Out of the percentage of 53 loops of the one or other
kind on the right fore-finger, 21 of them have an inner and 32 an outer
slope; out of the percentage of 55 loops on the left fore-finger, 21 have
inner and 34 have outer slopes. These subdivisions 21-21 and 32-34
corroborate the strong statistical similarity that was observed to exist
between the frequency of the several patterns on the right and left
fore-fingers; a condition which was also found to characterise the middle
and little fingers.</p>
<p>It is strange that Purkenje considers the “inner” slope on the fore-finger
to be more frequent than the “outer” (<a href="#Page_86">p. 86</a>, <small>4</small>). My nomenclature differs
from his, but there is no doubt as to the disagreement in meaning. The
facts to be adduced hereafter make it most improbable that the persons
observed were racially unlike in this particular.</p>
<p>The tendencies of digits to resemble one another will now be considered in
their various combinations. They will be taken two at a time, in order to
learn the frequency with which both members of the various couplets are
affected by the same A. L. W. class of pattern. Every combination will be
discussed, except those into which the little finger enters. These are
omitted, because the overwhelming frequency of loops in the little fingers
would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> make the results of comparatively little interest, while their
insertion would greatly increase the size of the table.</p>
<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table</span> VI<i>a</i>.</p>
<p class="center"><i>Percentage of cases in which the same class of pattern<br />occurs in the</i> same digits <i>of the two hands</i>.</p>
<p class="center">(From observation of 5000 digits of 500 persons.)</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td colspan="2" class="btlr" align="center">Couplets of Digits.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Arches.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Loops.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Whorls</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Total.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btl">The two</td><td class="btr">thumbs</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">2</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">48</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">24</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">74</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl" align="center">"</td><td class="br">fore-fingers</td>
<td class="br" align="center">9</td>
<td class="br" align="center">38</td>
<td class="br" align="center">20</td>
<td class="br" align="center">67</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl" align="center">"</td><td class="br">middle fingers</td>
<td class="br" align="center">3</td>
<td class="br" align="center">65</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">77</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bbl" align="center">"</td><td class="bbr">ring-fingers</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">2</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">46</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">26</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">74</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="5" class="bbl"><span style="margin-left: 6em;">Mean of the Totals</span></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">72</td></tr></table>
<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table</span> VI<i>b</i>.</p>
<p class="center"><i>Percentage of cases in which the same class of pattern<br />occurs in various couplets of</i> different digits.</p>
<p class="center">(From 500 persons as above.)</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btlr" align="center">Couplets of Digits.</td>
<td colspan="4" class="btrdoub" align="center"><span class="smcap">Of Same Hands.</span></td>
<td colspan="4" class="btr" align="center"><span class="smcap">Of Opposite Hands.</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Arch.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Loops.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Whorls</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">Total.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Arch.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Loops.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Whorls</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Total.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">Thumb and fore-finger</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">2</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">35</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">16</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">53</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">2</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">33</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">15</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">50</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Thumb and middle finger</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">48</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">58</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">47</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">56</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Thumb and ring-finger</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">40</td>
<td class="br" align="center">20</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">61</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">38</td>
<td class="br" align="center">18</td>
<td class="br" align="center">57</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Fore and middle finger</td>
<td class="br" align="center">5</td>
<td class="br" align="center">48</td>
<td class="br" align="center">12</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">65</td>
<td class="br" align="center">5</td>
<td class="br" align="center">46</td>
<td class="br" align="center">11</td>
<td class="br" align="center">62</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Fore and ring-finger</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">35</td>
<td class="br" align="center">17</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">54</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">35</td>
<td class="br" align="center">17</td>
<td class="br" align="center">54</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">Middle and ring-finger</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">2</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">50</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">13</td>
<td class="bbrdoub" align="center">65</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">2</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">50</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">12</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">64</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4" class="bbl"><span style="margin-left: 6em;">Means of the Totals</span></td>
<td class="bbrdoub" align="center">59</td>
<td colspan="3" class="bb"> </td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">57</td></tr></table>
<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>A striking feature in this last table is the close similarity between
corresponding entries relating to the same and to the opposite hands.
There are eighteen sets to be compared; namely, six couplets of different
names, in each of which the frequency of three different classes of
patterns is discussed. The eighteen pairs of corresponding couplets are
closely alike in every instance. It is worth while to rearrange the
figures as below, for the greater convenience of observing their
resemblances.</p>
<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table VII.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btlr" align="center">Couplet.</td>
<td colspan="2" class="btrdoub" align="center">Arches in</td>
<td colspan="2" class="btrdoub" align="center">Loops in</td>
<td colspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Whorls in</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Same<br />hand.</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">Opposite<br />hand.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Same<br />hand.</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">Opposite<br />hand.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Same<br />hand.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Opposite<br />hand.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">Thumb and fore-finger</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">2</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">2</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">35</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">33</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">16</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">15</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Thumb and middle finger</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">48</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">47</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Thumb and ring-finger</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">40</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">38</td>
<td class="br" align="center">20</td>
<td class="br" align="center">18</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Fore and middle finger</td>
<td class="br" align="center">5</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">5</td>
<td class="br" align="center">48</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">46</td>
<td class="br" align="center">12</td>
<td class="br" align="center">11</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Fore and ring-finger</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">35</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">35</td>
<td class="br" align="center">17</td>
<td class="br" align="center">17</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">Middle and ring-finger</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">2</td>
<td class="bbrdoub" align="center">2</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">50</td>
<td class="bbrdoub" align="center">50</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">13</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">12</td></tr></table>
<p><br />The agreement in the above entries is so curiously close as to have
excited grave suspicion that it was due to some absurd blunder, by which
the same figures were made inadvertently to do duty twice over, but
subsequent checking disclosed no error.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> Though the unanimity of the
results is wonderful, they are fairly arrived at, and leave no doubt that
the relationship of any one particular digit, whether thumb, fore, middle,
ring or little finger, to any other particular digit, is the same, whether
the two digits are on the same or on opposite hands. It would be a most
interesting subject of statistical inquiry to ascertain whether the
distribution of malformations, or of the various forms of skin disease
among the digits, corroborates this unexpected and remarkable result. I am
sorry to have no means of undertaking it, being assured on good authority
that no adequate collection of the necessary data has yet been published.</p>
<p>It might be hastily inferred from the statistical identity of the
connection between, say, the right thumb and each of the two fore-fingers,
that the patterns on the two fore-fingers ought always to be alike,
whether arch, loop, or whorl. If X, it may be said, is identical both with
Y and with Z, then Y and Z must be identical with one another. But the
statement of the problem is wrong; X is not identical with Y and Z, but
only bears an identical amount of statistical resemblance to each of them;
so this reasoning is inadmissible. The character of the pattern on any
digit is determined by causes of whose precise nature we are ignorant; but
we may rest assured that they are numerous and variable, and that their
variations are in large part independent of one another. We can in
imagination divide them into groups, calling those that are common to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
thumb and the fore-finger of either hand, and to those couplets
exclusively, the A causes; those that are common to the two thumbs and to
these exclusively, the B causes; and similarly those common to the two
fore-fingers exclusively, the C causes.</p>
<p>Then the sum of the variable causes determining the class of pattern in
the four several digits now in question are these:—</p>
<p> </p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td>Right thumb</td>
<td>A + B + an</td>
<td>unclassed</td><td>residue</td><td>called</td>
<td>X(<sub>1</sub>)</td></tr>
<tr><td>Left thumb</td>
<td>A + B +</td>
<td class="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td>
<td>X(<sub>2</sub>)</td></tr>
<tr><td>Right fore-finger</td>
<td>A + C +</td>
<td class="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td>
<td>Z(<sub>1</sub>)</td></tr>
<tr><td>Left fore-finger</td>
<td>A + C +</td>
<td class="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td>
<td>Z(<sub>2</sub>)</td></tr></table>
<p><br />The nearness of relationship between the two thumbs is sufficiently
indicated by a fraction that expresses the proportion between all the
causes common to the two thumbs exclusively, and the totality of the
causes by which the A. L. W. class of the patterns of the thumbs is
determined, that is to say, by</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td class="botbor" align="center">A + B</td>
<td rowspan="2"><span class="spacer"> </span></td><td rowspan="2" valign="middle">(1).</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center">A + B + X(<sub>1</sub>) + X(<sub>2</sub>)</td></tr></table>
<p><br />Similarly, the nearness of the relationship between the two fore-fingers by</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td class="botbor" align="center">A + C</td>
<td rowspan="2"><span class="spacer"> </span></td><td rowspan="2" valign="middle">(2).</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center">A + C + Z(<sub>1</sub>) + Z(<sub>2</sub>)</td></tr></table>
<p><br />And that between a thumb and a fore-finger by</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td class="botbor" align="center">A</td>
<td rowspan="2"><span class="spacer"> </span></td><td rowspan="2" valign="middle">(3).</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center">A + B + C + X(<sub>1</sub>) (or X(<sub>2</sub>)) + Z(<sub>1</sub>) (or Z(<sub>2</sub>))</td></tr></table>
<p><br />The fractions (1) and (2) being both greater than (3), it follows that the
relationships between the two thumbs, or between the two fore-fingers, are
closer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> than that between the thumb and either fore-finger; at the same
time it is clear that neither of the two former relationships is so close
as to reach identity. Similarly as regards the other couplets of digits.
The tabular entries fully confirm this deduction, for, without going now
into further details, it will be seen from the “Mean of the Totals” at the
bottom line of Table VI<i>b</i> that the average percentage of cases in which
two different digits have the same class of patterns, whether they be on
the same or on opposite hands, is 59 or 57 (say 58), while the average
percentage of cases in which right and left digits bearing the same name
have the same class of pattern (Table VI<i>a</i>) is 72. This is barely
two-thirds of the 100 which would imply identity. At the same time, the 72
considerably exceeds the 58.</p>
<p>Let us now endeavour to measure the relationships between the various
couplets of digits on a well-defined centesimal scale, first recalling the
fundamental principles of the connection that subsists between
relationships of all kinds, whether between digits, or between kinsmen, or
between any of those numerous varieties of related events with which
statisticians deal.</p>
<p>Relationships are all due to the joint action of two groups of variable
causes, the one common to both of the related objects, the other special
to each, as in the case just discussed. Using an analogous nomenclature to
that already employed, the peculiarity of one of the two objects is due to
an aggregate of variable causes that we may call C+X, and that of the
other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> to C+Z, in which C are the causes common to both, and X and Z the
special ones. In exact proportion as X and Z diminish, and C becomes of
overpowering effect, so does the closeness of the relationship increase.
When X and Z both disappear, the result is identity of character. On the
other hand, when C disappears, all relationship ceases, and the variations
of the two objects are strictly independent. The simplest case is that in
which X and Z are equal, and <i>in this</i>, it becomes easy to devise a scale
in which 0° shall stand for no relationship, and 100° for identity, and
upon which the intermediate degrees of relationship may be marked at their
proper value. Upon this assumption, but with some misgiving, I will
attempt to subject the digits to this form of measurement. It will save
time first to work out an example, and then, after gaining in that way, a
clearer understanding of what the process is, to discuss its defects. Let
us select for our example the case that brings out these defects in the
most conspicuous manner, as follows:—</p>
<p>Table V. tells us that the percentage of whorls in the right ring-finger
is 45, and in the left ring-finger 31. Table VI<i>a</i> tells us that the
percentage of the double event of a whorl occurring on both the
ring-fingers of the same person is 26. It is required to express the
relationship between the right and left ring-fingers on a centesimal
scale, in which 0° shall stand for no relationship at all, and 100° for
the closest possible relationship.</p>
<p>If no relationship should exist, there would <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>nevertheless be a certain
percentage of instances, due to pure chance, of the double event of whorls
occurring in both ring-fingers, and it is easy to calculate their
frequency from the above data. The number of possible combinations of 100
right ring-fingers with 100 left ones is 100 × 100, and of these 45 × 31
would be double events as above (call these for brevity “double whorls”).
Consequently the chance of a double whorl in any single couplet is
<span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>45 × 31</sup></span>⁄<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">100 × 100</span>,
and their average frequency in 100 couplets,—in other
words, their average percentage is <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>45 × 31</sup></span>⁄<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">100</span>
= 13·95, say 14. If, then, the observed percentage of double whorls should be only 14, it would be a
proof that the A. L. W. classes of patterns on the right and left
ring-fingers were quite independent; so their relationship, as expressed
on the centesimal scale, would be 0°. There could never be less than 14
double whorls under the given conditions, except through some statistical
irregularity.</p>
<p>Now consider the opposite extreme of the closest possible relationship,
subject however, and this is the weak point, to the paramount condition
that the average frequencies of the A. L. W. classes may be taken as
<i>pre-established</i>. As there are 45 per cent of whorls on the right
ring-finger, and only 31 on the left, the tendency to form double whorls,
however stringent it may be, can only be satisfied in 31 cases. There
remains a superfluity of 14 per cent cases in the right ring-finger which
perforce must have for their partners either arches or loops. Hence the
percentage of frequency that indicates the closest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> feasible relationship
under the pre-established conditions, would be 31.</p>
<p>The range of all possible relationships in respect to whorls, would
consequently lie between a percentage frequency of the minimum 14 and the
maximum 31, while the observed frequency is of the intermediate value of
26. Subtracting the 14 from these three values, we have the series of 0,
12, 17. These terms can be converted into their equivalents in a
centesimal scale that reaches from 0° to 100° instead of from 0° to 17°,
by the ordinary rule of three, 12:<i>x</i>::17:100; <i>x</i>=70 or 71, whence the
value <i>x</i> of the observed relationship on the centesimal scale would be
70° or 71°, neglecting decimals.</p>
<p>This method of obtaining the value of 100° is open to grave objection in
the present example. We have no right to consider that the 45 per cent of
whorls on the right ring-finger, and the 31 on the left, can be due to
pre-established conditions, which would exercise a paramount effect even
though the whorls were due entirely to causes common to both fingers.
There is some self-contradiction in such a supposition. Neither are we at
liberty to assume that the respective effects of the special causes X and
Z are equal in average amount; if they were, the percentage of whorls on
the right and on the left finger would invariably be equal.</p>
<p>In this particular example the difficulty of determining correctly the
scale value of 100° is exceptionally great; elsewhere, the percentages of
frequency in the two members of each couplet are more alike. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> the two
fore-fingers, and again in the two middle fingers, they are closely alike.
Therefore, in these latter cases, it is not unreasonable to pass over the
objection that X and Z have not been proved to be equal, but we must
accept the results in all other cases with great caution.</p>
<p>When the digits are of different names,—as the thumb and the
fore-finger,—whether the digits be on the same or on opposite hands,
there are two cases to be worked out; namely, such as (1) right thumb and
left fore-finger, and (2) left thumb and right fore-finger. Each accounts
for 50 per cent of the observed cases; therefore the mean of the two
percentages is the correct percentage. The relationships calculated in the
following table do not include arches, except in two instances mentioned
in a subsequent paragraph, as the arches are elsewhere too rare to furnish
useful results.</p>
<p>It did not seem necessary to repeat the calculation for couplets of digits
of different names, situated on opposite hands, as those that were
calculated on closely the same data for similar couplets situated on the
same hands, suffice for both. It is evident from the irregularity in the
run of the figures that the units in the several entries cannot be more
than vaguely approximate. They have, however, been retained, as being
possibly better than nothing at all.</p>
<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table VIII.</span></p>
<p class="center"><i>Approximate Measures of Relationship between the various Digits, on a Centesimal Scale.</i></p>
<p class="center">(0° = no relationship; 100° = the utmost feasible likeness.)</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td class="btlr" colspan="4" align="center">Couplets.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Loops.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Whorls.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Means.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr" colspan="4" align="center"><br /><i>Digits of the same name.</i></td>
<td class="btr" align="center"> </td>
<td class="btr" align="center"> </td>
<td class="btr" align="center"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl">Right</td><td>and</td><td> left</td><td class="br">thumbs</td>
<td class="br" align="center">57</td>
<td class="br" align="center">64</td>
<td class="br" align="center">61</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl" align="center">"</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">"</td>
<td class="br">fore-fingers</td>
<td class="br" align="center">37</td>
<td class="br" align="center">59</td>
<td class="br" align="center">48</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl" align="center">"</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">"</td>
<td class="br">middle fingers</td>
<td class="br" align="center">34</td>
<td class="br" align="center">52</td>
<td class="br" align="center">43</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bbl" align="center">"</td>
<td class="bb"> </td>
<td class="bb" align="center">"</td>
<td class="bbr">ring fingers</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">61</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">70</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">65</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" colspan="4"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Means</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">47°</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">61°</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">54°</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr" colspan="4" align="center"><br /><i>Digits of different names on<br />the same or on opposite hands.</i></td>
<td class="btr" align="center"> </td>
<td class="btr" align="center"> </td>
<td class="btr" align="center"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl" colspan="2">Thumb and</td><td class="br" colspan="2">fore-finger</td>
<td class="br" align="center">19</td>
<td class="br" align="center">29</td>
<td class="br" align="center">24</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl" colspan="2" align="center">"</td><td class="br" colspan="2">middle finger</td>
<td class="br" align="center">19</td>
<td class="br" align="center">34</td>
<td class="br" align="center">27</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl" colspan="2" align="center">"</td><td class="br" colspan="2">ring-finger</td>
<td class="br" align="center">33</td>
<td class="br" align="center">44</td>
<td class="br" align="center">39</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl" colspan="2">Fore and</td><td class="br" colspan="2">middle finger</td>
<td class="br" align="center">52</td>
<td class="br" align="center">68</td>
<td class="br" align="center">60</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl" colspan="2" align="center">"</td><td class="br" colspan="2">ring finger</td>
<td class="br" align="center">13</td>
<td class="br" align="center">34</td>
<td class="br" align="center">23</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bbl" colspan="2">Middle and</td><td class="bbr" colspan="2">ring finger</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">31</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">74</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">52</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr" colspan="4"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Means</span></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">28°</span></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">47°</span></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">37°</span></td></tr></table>
<p><br />The arches were sufficiently numerous in the fore-fingers (17 per cent) to
fully justify the application of this method of calculation. The result
was 43°, which agrees fairly with 48°, the mean of the loops and the
whorls. In the middle finger the frequency of the arches was only half the
above amount and barely suffices for calculation. It gave the result of
38°, which also agrees fairly with 43°, the mean of the loops and the
whorls for that finger.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>Some definite results may be gathered from this table notwithstanding the
irregularity with which the figures run. Its upper and lower halves
clearly belong to different statistical groups, the entries in the former
being almost uniformly larger than those in the latter, in the proportion
of 54° to 37°, say 3 to 2, which roughly represents in numerical terms the
nearer relationship between digits of the same name, as compared to that
between digits of different names. It seems also that of the 6 couplets of
digits bearing different names, the relationship is closest between the
middle finger and the two adjacent ones (60° and 52°, as against 24°, 27°,
39° and 23°). It is further seen in every pair of entries that whorls are
related together more closely than loops. I note this, but cannot explain
it. So far as my statistical inquiries into heredity have hitherto gone,
all peculiarities were found to follow the same law of transmission, none
being more surely inherited than others. If there were a tendency in any
one out of many alternative characters to be more heritable than the rest,
that character would become universally prevalent, in the absence of
restraining influences. But it does not follow that there are no peculiar
restraining influences here, nor that what is true for heredity, should be
true, in all its details, as regards the relationships between the
different digits.</p>
<p> </p><p> </p>
<hr style="width: 50%;" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
<p class="center"><span class="large">METHODS OF INDEXING</span></p>
<p>In this chapter the system of classification by Arches, Loops, and Whorls
described in <a href="#CHAPTER_V">Chapter V.</a> will be used for indexing two, three, six or ten
digits, as the case may be.</p>
<p>An index to each set of finger marks made by the same person, is needful
in almost every kind of inquiry, whether it be for descriptive purposes,
for investigations into race and heredity, or into questions of symmetry
and correlation. It is essential to possess an index to the finger marks
of known criminals before the method of finger prints can be utilised as
an organised means of detection.</p>
<p>The ideal index might be conceived to consist of a considerable number of
compartments, or their equivalents, each bearing a different
index-heading, into which the sets of finger prints of different persons
may be severally sorted, so that all similar sets shall lie in the same
compartment.</p>
<p>The principle of the proposed method of index-headings is, that they
should depend upon a few conspicuous differences of pattern in many
fingers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> and not upon many minute differences in a few fingers. It is
carried into effect by distinguishing the A. L. W. class of pattern on
each digit in succession, by a letter,—<i>a</i> for Arch, <i>l</i> for Loop, <i>w</i>
for Whorl; or else, as an alternative method, to subdivide <i>l</i> by using
<i>i</i> for a loop with an Inner slope, and <i>o</i> for one with an Outer slope,
as the case may be. In this way, the class of pattern in each set of ten
digits is described by a sequence of ten letters, the various combinations
of which are alphabetically arranged and form the different
index-headings. Let us now discuss the best method of carrying out this
principle, by collating the results of alternative methods of applying it.
We have to consider the utility of the <i>i</i> and <i>o</i> as compared to the
simple <i>l</i>, and the gain through taking all ten digits into account,
instead of only some of them.</p>
<p>It will be instructive to print here an actual index to the finger prints
of 100 different persons, who were not in any way selected, but taken as
they came, and to use it as the basis of a considerable portion of the
following remarks, to be checked where necessary, by results derived from
an index to 500 cases, in which these hundred are included.</p>
<p>This index is compiled on the principle shortly to be explained, entitled
the “<i>i</i> and <i>o</i> fore-finger” method.</p>
<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table IX.—Index to 100 Sets of Finger Prints.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btlr" align="center">Order<br />of<br />Entry.</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">A<br />Right.</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">B<br />Left.</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">C<br />Rt.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">D<br />Lt.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bt" align="center">F.M.R.</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">F.M.R.</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">T.L.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">T.L.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="bt" align="center"><i>a a a</i></td>
<td class="bt" align="center"><i>a a a</i></td>
<td class="bt" align="center"><i>a a</i></td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><i>l a</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>a l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>a l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
<td align="center"><i>a a l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>a a l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>a l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>a l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>a a w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>a l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">10</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l w</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">11</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>o l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">12</td>
<td align="center"><i>a a w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>a a l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">13</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>a l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">14</td>
<td align="center"><i>a l a</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>a a a</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l a</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l a</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">15</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l a</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l w</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">16</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>o l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">17</td>
<td align="center"><i>a l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>a a l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>a l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">18</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">19</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">20</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">21</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">22</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">23</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>a l w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">24</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">25</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">26</td>
<td align="center"><i>a l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">27</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>o a l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">28</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>o l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">29</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w w w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">30</td>
<td align="center"><i>a l w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>i l w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">31</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>o a l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">32</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>o l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l w</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">33</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">34</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>o l w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>a l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>a l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">35</td>
<td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>a l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">36</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">37</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">38</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">39</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">40</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>41</td>
<td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">42</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>i w w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">43</td>
<td align="center"><i>i l w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">44</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w w</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">45</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>i l w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w w</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">46</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>i w l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">47</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">48</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w w l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">49</td>
<td align="center"><i>i w w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>a l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">50</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w w w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">51</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">52</td>
<td align="center"><i>o a w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>o l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">53</td>
<td align="center"><i>o l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>o l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">54</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">55</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">56</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">57</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">58</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">59</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">60</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>o l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">61</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">62</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">63</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">64</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">65</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">66</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w a l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">67</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w w w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">68</td>
<td align="center"><i>o l w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>a l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">69</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">70</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">71</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>o l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">72</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">73</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>o l w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">74</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">75</td>
<td align="center"><i>w l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">76</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">77</td>
<td align="center"><i>w l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">78</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">79</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">80</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">81</td>
<td align="center"><i>w l w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>o l w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">82</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>a l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">83</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">84</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w w w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">85</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w w</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">86</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w w</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l w</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">87</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w w</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>w w</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">88</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">89</td>
<td align="center"><i>w w l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">90</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">91</td>
<td align="center"><i>w w w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>o l w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">92</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">93</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">94</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w w l</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l w</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">95</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w w w</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>i l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">96</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">97</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">98</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>w w</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">99</td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">100</span></td>
<td class="bb" align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="bb" align="center"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="bb" align="center"><i>w w</i></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><i>w w</i></td></tr></table>
<p>The sequence in which the digits have been registered is not from the
thumb outwards to the little finger, but, on account of various good
reasons that will be appreciated as we proceed, in the following order.</p>
<p>The ten digits are registered in four groups, which are distinguished in
the Index by the letters A, B, C, D:—</p>
<div class="blockquot"><p>A. <i>First.</i> The fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the <i>right</i> hand
taken in that order.</p>
<p>B. <i>Second.</i> The fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the <i>left</i> hand
taken in that order.</p>
<p>C. <i>Third.</i> The thumb and little finger of the <i>right</i> hand.</p>
<p>D. <i>Fourth.</i> The thumb and little finger of the <i>left</i> hand.</p></div>
<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>Consequently an index-heading will be of the form—</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td align="center">First<br />group.</td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td>
<td align="center">Second<br />group.</td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td>
<td align="center">Third<br />group.</td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td>
<td align="center">Fourth<br />group.</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><i>a a l</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>a a w</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr></table>
<p><br />These index-headings are catalogued in alphabetical order. The method used
in the Index is that which takes note of no slopes, except those of loops
in the fore-finger of either hand. Consequently the index-heading for my
own digits, printed on the title-page, is <i>wlw oll wl wl</i>. Those of the
eight sets in <a href="#plate6">Plate VI.</a> are as follows:—</p>
<p> </p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td align="center"><i>i l w</i></td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td>
<td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td>
<td align="center"><i>w w</i></td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><i>o l w</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>o l w</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><i>o l w</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>o l w</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><i>o l w</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>o l l</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><i>i l w</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>i l w</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><i>i l w</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>i w l</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>w w l</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><i>o l l</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>a a l</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>l l</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>a l</i></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><i>o a a</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>a a a</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>l a</i></td><td> </td>
<td align="center"><i>l a</i></td></tr></table>
<p><br />For convenience of description and reference, the successive entries in
the specimen index have been numbered from 1 to 100, but that is no part
of the system: those figures would be replaced in a real index by names
and addresses.</p>
<p>A preliminary way of obtaining an idea of the differentiating power of an
index is to count the number of the different headings that are required
to classify a specified number of cases. A table is appended which shows
the numbers of the headings in the three alternative methods (1) of noting
slopes of all kinds in all digits, (2) of noting slopes of Loops<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> only and
in the fore-fingers only, and (3) of disregarding the slopes altogether.
Also in each of these three cases taking account of—</p>
<div class="blockquot"><p>(<i>a</i>) All the ten digits;</p>
<p>(<i>b</i>) the fore, middle, and ring-fingers of both hands;</p>
<p>(<i>c</i>) those same three fingers, but of the right hand only;</p>
<p>(<i>d</i>) the fore and middle fingers of the right hand.</p></div>
<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table X.</span></p>
<p class="center"><i>No. of different index-heads in 100 sets of Finger Prints.</i></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btlr" align="center">No. of<br />digits<br />regarded.</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Digits noted.</td>
<td colspan="3" class="btr" align="center">Account taken of</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btr" align="center">All<br />slopes.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><i>i</i> and <i>o</i><br />in fore-fingers.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">No<br />slope.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr"> </td>
<td class="btr"> </td>
<td class="btr"> </td>
<td class="btr"> </td>
<td class="btr"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">10</td>
<td class="br">All the 10 digits</td>
<td class="br" align="center">82</td>
<td class="br" align="center">76</td>
<td class="br" align="center">71</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td class="br">Fore, middle, and ring-fingers of both hands</td>
<td class="br" align="center">65</td>
<td class="br" align="center">50</td>
<td class="br" align="center">43</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="br">Of right hand only</td>
<td class="br" align="center">25</td>
<td class="br" align="center">16</td>
<td class="br" align="center">14</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="br">Fore and middle of right hand only</td>
<td class="br" align="center">12</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr"> </td>
<td class="bbr"> </td>
<td class="bbr"> </td>
<td class="bbr"> </td>
<td class="bbr"> </td></tr></table>
<p><br />The column headed “all slopes” refers to the method first used with
success, and described in my Memoir, already alluded to (<i>Proc. Roy.
Soc.</i>, 1891), accompanied by a specimen index, from which the present one
was derived. There the direction of the slope of every pattern that has
one, is taken into account, and in order to give as much scope as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
possible to the method, the term Arch (I then called it a Primary) was
construed somewhat over-liberally (see <a href="#Page_114">p. 114</a>). It was made to include the
forked-arch Fig. 12 (<small>2</small>), and even the nascent-loop (<small>9</small>), so long as not
more than a single recurved ridge lay within the outline of the pattern;
therefore many of the so-called arches had slopes. It is not necessary to
trouble the reader with the numerical nomenclature that was then used, the
method itself being now obsolete. Full particulars of it are, however,
given in the Memoir.</p>
<p>A somewhat large experience in sorting finger prints in various ways and
repeatedly, made it only too evident that the mental strain and risk of
error caused by taking all slopes into account was considerable. The
judgment became fatigued and the eye puzzled by having to assign opposite
meanings to the same actual direction of a slope in the right and left
hands respectively. There was also a frequent doubt as to the existence of
a slope in large whorls of the spiral- and circlet-in-loop patterns (Fig.
13, <small>21</small>, <small>22</small>) when the impressions had not been rolled. A third
objection is the rarity of the inner slopes in any other digit than the
fore-finger. It acted like a soporific to the judgment not only of myself
but of others, so that when an inner slope did occur it was apt to be
overlooked. The first idea was to discard slopes altogether,
notwithstanding the accompanying loss of index power, but this would be an
unnecessarily trenchant measure. The slope of a loop, though it be on the
fore-finger alone, decidedly merits recognition, for it differentiates
such loops into two not very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> unequal classes. Again, there is little
chance of mistake in noting it, the impression of the thumb on the one
side and those of the remaining fingers on the other, affording easy
guidance to the eye and judgment. These considerations determined the
method I now use exclusively, by which Table IX. was compiled, and to
which the second column of Table X., headed “<i>i</i> and <i>o</i> in fore-fingers,”
refers.</p>
<p>The heading of the third column, “no slope,” explains itself, no account
having been there taken of any slopes whatever, so <i>i</i> and <i>o</i> disappear,
having become merged under <i>l</i>.</p>
<p>The table gives a very favourable impression of the differentiating power
of all these methods of indexing. By the “<i>i</i> and <i>o</i> fore-finger” method,
it requires as many as 76 different index-headings to include the finger
prints of 100 different persons, 195 of 300 persons, and 285 of 500.</p>
<p>The number of entries under each index-heading varies greatly; reference
to the index of 100 sets showing no less than six entries (Nos. 60-65)
under one of them, and four entries (Nos. 18-21 and 37-40) under each of
two others. Thus, although a large portion of the 100 sets are solitary
entries under their several headings, and can be found by a single
reference, the remainder are grouped together like the commoner surnames
in a directory. They are troublesome to distinguish, and cannot be
subdivided at all except by supplementary characteristics, such as the
number of ridges in some specified part of the pattern, or the character
of the cores.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>In other respects the difference of merit between the three methods is
somewhat greater, as is succinctly indicated by the next table.</p>
<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table XI.</span>—<i>In 100 Sets.</i></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btlr" align="center">Number of Entries<br />under the same head.</td>
<td colspan="3" class="btr" align="center">No. of different index-headings.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btr" align="center">All<br />slopes.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><i>i</i> and <i>o</i><br />fore-fingers<br />only.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">No<br />slope.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr" align="center">1</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">71</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">63</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">58</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">10</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">3</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">4</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">5</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">6</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">13</span></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Total</span></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">83</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">76</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">71</td></tr></table>
<p><br />Hence it is evident that the second method of “<i>i-o</i> fore-finger” is
capable of dealing rapidly with 100 cases, but that the method of “no
slope” will give trouble in twelve out of the hundred cases.</p>
<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span></p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XII.</span></p>
<p class="center"><i>Index-headings under which more than 1 per cent of the<br />sets of Finger Prints were registered.</i></p>
<p class="center">(500 sets observed.)</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td colspan="6" align="center" class="btlrdoub"><i>i</i> and <i>o</i> in fore-fingers.</td>
<td colspan="6" align="center" class="btr">No slope.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr" align="center">No.<br />for<br />Reference.</td>
<td class="btr" colspan="4" align="center">Index-heading.</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">Frequency<br />per<br />cent.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">No.<br />for<br />Reference.</td>
<td class="btr" colspan="4" align="center">Index-heading.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Frequency<br />per<br />cent.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="bt"><i>a l l</i></td>
<td class="bt"><i>a l l</i></td>
<td class="bt"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="btr"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">1·2</td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .8em;">I.</span></td>
<td class="bt"><i>a l l</i></td>
<td class="bt"><i>a l l</i></td>
<td class="bt"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="btr"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="btr" align="center">1·2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>a l l</i></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>i l l</i></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">1·6</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">II.</span></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>a l l</i></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>l l l</i></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center">2·2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="bt"><i>i l l</i></td>
<td class="bt"><i>i l l</i></td>
<td class="bt"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="btr"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">2·8</td>
<td rowspan="3" valign="middle" class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .2em;">III.</span></td>
<td rowspan="3" valign="middle" class="bt"><i>l l l</i></td>
<td rowspan="3" valign="middle" class="bt"><i>l l l</i></td>
<td rowspan="3" valign="middle" class="bt"><i>"</i></td>
<td rowspan="3" valign="middle" class="btr"><i>"</i></td>
<td rowspan="3" valign="middle" class="btr" align="center">9·2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>o l l</i></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>i l l</i></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">1·4</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>o l l</i></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>o l l</i></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">4·0</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td class="bt"><i>i l l</i></td>
<td class="bt"><i>o l l</i></td>
<td class="bt"><i>w l</i></td>
<td class="btr"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">1·2</td>
<td rowspan="2" valign="middle" class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">IV.</span></td>
<td rowspan="2" valign="middle" class="bt"><i>l l l</i></td>
<td rowspan="2" valign="middle" class="bt"><i>l l l</i></td>
<td rowspan="2" valign="middle" class="bt"><i>w l</i></td>
<td rowspan="2" valign="middle" class="btr"><i>l l</i></td>
<td rowspan="2" valign="middle" class="btr" align="center">3·2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>o l l</i></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>o l l</i></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">1·4</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="bt"><i>o l l</i></td>
<td class="bt"><i>a l l</i></td>
<td class="bt"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="btr"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">2·2</td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .9em;">V.</span></td>
<td class="bt"><i>l l l</i></td>
<td class="bt"><i>a l l</i></td>
<td class="bt"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="btr"><i>l l</i></td>
<td class="btr" align="center">3·0</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>o l w</i></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>u l l</i></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">2·0</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">VI.</span></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>l l w</i></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>l l l</i></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center">3·0</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">10</td>
<td class="dent2"><i>w l l</i></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>w l l</i></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">1·2</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .2em;">VII.</span></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>w l l</i></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>w l l</i></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br"><i>"</i></td>
<td class="br" align="center">1·2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr" align="center">11</td>
<td class="bb"><i>w w w</i></td>
<td class="bb"><i>w w w</i></td>
<td class="bb"><i>w w</i></td>
<td class="bbr"><i>w w</i></td>
<td class="bbrdoub" align="center">1·4</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">VIII.</td>
<td class="bb"><i>w w w</i></td>
<td class="bb"><i>w w w</i></td>
<td class="bb"><i>w w</i></td>
<td class="bbr"><i>w w</i></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">1·4</td></tr></table>
<div class="blockquot"><p>The headings in the right half of the table include more cases than
the left half, because a combination of two or more cases that
severally contain less than 1 per cent of the finger prints, and are
therefore ignored in the first half of the table, may exceed 1 per
cent and find a place in the second half.</p></div>
<p>The entries in Table XII. are derived from a catalogue of 500 sets, and
include all entries that appeared more than five times; in other words,
whose frequency exceeded 1 per cent. These are the index-headings that
give enough trouble to deserve notice in catalogues of, say, from 500 to
1000 sets.</p>
<p>In the left half of Table XII. all the index-headings are given, under
each of which more than 1 per<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> cent of the sets fell, when the method of
“<i>i</i> and <i>o</i> in fore-fingers” was adopted; also the respective percentage
of the cases that fell under them. In the right half of the table are the
corresponding index-headings, together with the percentages of frequency,
when the “no slope” method is employed. These are distinguished by Roman
numerals. The great advantage of the “<i>i</i> and <i>o</i> fore-finger” method lies
in its power of breaking up certain large groups which are very
troublesome to deal with by the “no slope” method. According to the latter
as many as 9·2 per cent of all the entries fall under the index-heading
marked III., but according to the “<i>i-o</i> fore-finger” method these are
distributed among the headings 3, 4, and 5. The “all slopes” method has
the peculiar merit of breaking up the large group Nos. 11 and VIII. of
“all whorls,” but its importance is not great on that account, as whorls
are distinguishable by their cores, which are less troublesome to observe
than their slopes.</p>
<p>The percentage of all the entries that fall under a single index-heading,
according to the “<i>i-o</i> fore-finger” method, diminishes with the number of
entries at the following rate:—</p>
<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table XIII.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btlr"> </td>
<td class="btr" colspan="3" align="center">Total number of entries.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btr" align="center">100</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">300</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">500</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">Percentage of entries falling under a single head</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">63</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">49·0</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">39·8</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bt"> </td><td class="bt"> </td><td class="bt"> </td><td class="bt"> </td></tr></table>
<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>It may be that every one of the 4<sup>2</sup> × 3<sup>8</sup>, or one hundred and five
thousand possible varieties of index-headings, according to the “<i>i-o</i>
fore-finger” method, may occur in Nature, but there is much probability
that some of them may be so rare that instances of no entry under certain
heads would appear in the register, even of an enormous number of persons.</p>
<hr style="width: 25%;" />
<p>Hitherto we have supposed that prints of the ten fingers have in each case
been indexed. The question now to be considered is the gain through
dealing in each case with all ten digits, instead of following the easier
practice of regarding only a few of them. The following table, drawn up
from the hundred cases by the “all slopes” method, will show its amount.</p>
<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table XIV.</span>—<i>From 100 Sets.</i></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btlr">Digits.</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="btr">No. of<br />digits.</td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" class="btr">No. of different index-headings.</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btr">All<br />slopes.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><i>i</i> and <i>o</i><br />fore-finger.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">No slope.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">Fore and middle of right hand</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td align="center" class="btr">11</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Fore, middle and ring of right hand</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">23</td>
<td align="center" class="br">16</td>
<td align="center" class="br">14</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Fore, middle and ring of both hands</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">65</td>
<td align="center" class="br">50</td>
<td align="center" class="br">45</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">All ten digits</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">10</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">83</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">76</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">73</td></tr></table>
<p><br />The trouble of printing, reading off, and indexing the ten digits, is
practically twice that of dealing with the six fingers; namely, three on
each of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> hands; the thumb being inconvenient to print from, and having
to be printed separately, even for a dabbed impression, while the fingers
of either hand can be dabbed down simultaneously.</p>
<p>For a large collection the ten digit method is certainly the best, as it
breaks up the big battalions; also in case of one or more fingers having
been injured, it gives reserve material to work upon.</p>
<hr style="width: 25%;" />
<p>We now come to the great difficulty in all classifications; that of
transitional cases. What is to be done with those prints which cannot be
certainly classed as Arches, Loops, or Whorls, but which lie between some
two of them? These occur about once in every forty digits, or once in
every four pairs of hands. The roughest way is to put a mark by the side
of the entry to indicate doubt, a better one is to make a mark that shall
express the nature of the peculiarity; thus a particular eyed pattern
(<a href="#plate10">Plate 10</a>, Fig. 16, <i>n</i>) may be transitional between a loop and a whorl;
under whichever of the two it is entered, the mark might be an <i>e</i> to show
that anyhow it is an eye. Then, when it is required to discover whether an
index contains a duplicate of a given specimen in which a transitional
pattern occurs, the two headings between which the doubt lies have to be
searched, and the marked entries will limit the search. Many alternative
ways of marking may be successfully used, but I am not yet prepared to
propose one as being distinctly the best. When there are two of these
marks in the same set, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> seldom happens that more than two references
have to be made, as it is usual for the ambiguity to be of the same kind
in both of the doubtful fingers. If the ambiguities were quite
independent, then two marks would require four references, and three marks
would require nine. There are a few nondescript prints that would fall
under a separate heading, such as Z. Similarly, as regards lost or injured
fingers.</p>
<p>I have tried various methods of sub-classification, and find no difficulty
in any of them, but general rules seem inadvisable; it being best to treat
each large group on its own merits.</p>
<p>One method that I have adopted and described in the <i>Proc. Royal Soc.</i>, is
to sketch in a cursive and symbolic form the patterns of the several
fingers in the order in which they appear in the print, confining myself
to a limited number of symbols, such as might be used for printer’s types.
They sufficed fairly for some thousands of the finger marks upon which
they were tried, but doubtless they could be improved. A little violence
has of course to be used now and then, in fitting some unusual patterns to
some one or other of these few symbols. But we are familiar with such
processes in ordinary spelling, making the same letter do duty for
different sounds, as <i>a</i> in the words <i>as</i>, <i>ale</i>, <i>ask</i>, and <i>all</i>. The
plan of using symbols has many secondary merits. It facilitates a
leisurely revision of first determinations, it affords a pictorial record
of the final judgment that is directly comparable with the print itself,
and it almost wholly checks blunders between inner and outer slopes. A
beginner in finger reading will educate his judgment by habitually using
them at first.</p>
<p><a name="plate2" id="plate2"></a> </p>
<p class="note">PLATE 2.</p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td class="btl" align="center">Dabbed down simultaneously.</td><td class="bt"> </td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Dabbed down simultaneously.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl" align="center"><img src="images/fig3a.jpg" alt="" /></td><td> </td>
<td class="br" align="center"><img src="images/fig3b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl" align="center">Rolled separately.</td><td> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">Rolled separately.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr" align="center" colspan="3"><img src="images/fig3c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center">Left hand.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">Right hand.</td></tr></table>
<p class="center">Form of card used for impressions of the ten digits. 11½ × 5 inches.</p>
<p> </p><p> </p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig4a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center" valign="bottom"><img src="images/fig4c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center">Roller seen from above.</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">Side view.</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig4b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td> </td>
<td valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The outer ring is to be taken</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">as representing either a thin</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">india-rubber tube, or a thick</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">layer of the composition</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">used in printers’ rollers.</span></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center">End view.</td></tr></table>
<p class="center">Roller and its bearings, of a pocket printing apparatus.</p>
<p> </p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>The cores give great assistance in breaking up the very large groups of
all-loops (see Table XII., Nos. 11 and VIII.); so does an entry of the
approximate number of ridges in some selected fingers, that lie between
the core and the upper outline of the loop.</p>
<hr style="width: 25%;" />
<p>The plan I am now using for keeping finger prints in regular order, is
this:—In the principal collection, the prints of each person’s ten digits
are taken on the same large card; the four fingers of either hand being
<i>dabbed</i> down simultaneously above, and all the ten digits <i>rolled</i>
separately below. (<a href="#plate2">Plate 2</a>, Fig. 3.) Each card has a hole three-eighths of
an inch in diameter, punched in the middle near to the bottom edge, and
the cards are kept in trays, which they loosely fit, like the card
catalogues used in many libraries. Each tray holds easily 500 cards, which
are secured by a long stout wire passing like a skewer through the ends of
the box and the holes in the cards. The hinder end of the box is sloped,
so the cards can be tilted back and easily examined; they can be inserted
or removed after withdrawing the wire.</p>
<p>It will be recollected that the leading and therefore the most conspicuous
headings in the index refer to the fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the
right hand, as entered in column A of the Specimen Register (Table IX.)
The variety of these in the “<i>i</i> and <i>o</i> fore-finger” method, of which we
are now speaking, cannot exceed thirty-six, there being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> only four
varieties (<i>a</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>w</i>) in the fore-finger, and three varieties
(<i>a</i>, <i>l</i>, <i>w</i>) in each of the other two; so their maximum number is 4 × 3
× 3 = 36. The actual number of such index-headings in 500 cases, and the
number of entries that fell under each, was found to be as follows:—</p>
<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table XV.</span></p>
<p class="center"><i>No. of entries in 500 cases, under each of the thirty-six possible index-letters<br />
for the fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the right hand by<br />the “i-o fore-finger” method.</i></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td align="center" class="btl"><i>a</i></td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><i>a</i></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><i>a</i></td>
<td align="center" class="btrdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><i>i</i></td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><i>a</i></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><i>a</i></td>
<td align="center" class="btrdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><i>o</i></td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><i>a</i></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><i>a</i></td>
<td align="center" class="btrdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><i>w</i></td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><i>a</i></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><i>a</i></td>
<td align="center" class="btr">—</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td><td> </td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">17</td>
<td> </td><td> </td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td> </td><td> </td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td> </td><td> </td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
<td align="center" class="br">—</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td><td> </td><td align="center" class="br"><i>w</i></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
<td> </td><td> </td><td align="center" class="br"><i>w</i></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">—</td>
<td> </td><td> </td><td align="center" class="br"><i>w</i></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td> </td><td> </td><td align="center" class="br"><i>w</i></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="3" class="blr"> </td>
<td class="brdoub"> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td>
<td class="brdoub"> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td>
<td class="brdoub"> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"><i>a</i></td><td class="dent2"><i>l</i></td><td align="center" class="br"><i>a</i></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>i</i></td><td class="dent2"><i>l</i></td><td align="center" class="br"><i>a</i></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">—</td>
<td class="dent2"><i>o</i></td><td class="dent2"><i>l</i></td><td align="center" class="br"><i>a</i></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="dent2"><i>w</i></td><td class="dent2"><i>l</i></td><td align="center" class="br"><i>a</i></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td><td> </td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">45</td>
<td> </td><td> </td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">54</td>
<td> </td><td> </td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">88</td>
<td> </td><td> </td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
<td align="center" class="br">40</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td><td> </td><td align="center" class="br"><i>w</i></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">11</td>
<td> </td><td> </td><td align="center" class="br"><i>w</i></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">33</td>
<td> </td><td> </td><td align="center" class="br"><i>w</i></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">59</td>
<td> </td><td> </td><td align="center" class="br"><i>w</i></td>
<td align="center" class="br">52</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="3" class="blr"> </td>
<td class="brdoub"> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td>
<td class="brdoub"> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td>
<td class="brdoub"> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"><i>a</i></td><td class="dent2"><i>w</i></td><td align="center" class="br"><i>a</i></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">—</td>
<td class="dent2"><i>i</i></td><td class="dent2"><i>w</i></td><td align="center" class="br"><i>a</i></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">—</td>
<td class="dent2"><i>o</i></td><td class="dent2"><i>w</i></td><td align="center" class="br"><i>a</i></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">—</td>
<td class="dent2"><i>w</i></td><td class="dent2"><i>w</i></td><td align="center" class="br"><i>a</i></td>
<td align="center" class="br">—</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td><td> </td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">—</td>
<td> </td><td> </td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td> </td><td> </td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">—</td>
<td> </td><td> </td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
<td align="center" class="br">10</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bbl"> </td><td class="bb"> </td><td align="center" class="bbr"><i>w</i></td>
<td align="center" class="bbrdoub">—</td>
<td class="bb"> </td><td class="bb"> </td><td align="center" class="bbr"><i>w</i></td>
<td align="center" class="bbrdoub">11</td>
<td class="bb"> </td><td class="bb"> </td><td align="center" class="bbr"><i>w</i></td>
<td align="center" class="bbrdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td class="bb"> </td><td class="bb"> </td><td align="center" class="bbr"><i>w</i></td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">47</td></tr></table>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td><i>a</i> = Arch.<br />
<i>i</i> = Inward-sloped Loop on the fore-finger.<br />
<i>o</i> = Outward-sloped Loop on the fore-finger.<br />
<i>l</i> = Loop of either kind on the middle or ring finger.<br />
<i>w</i> = Whorl.</td></tr></table>
<p>These 500 cases supply no entries at all to eleven of the thirty-six
index-headings, less than five entries (or under 1 per cent) to ten
others, and the supply is distributed very unevenly among the remaining
fifteen. This table makes it easy to calculate beforehand the spaces
required for an index of any specified number of prints, whether they be
on the pages of a Register, or in compartments, or in drawers of movable
cards.</p>
<p> </p><p> </p>
<hr style="width: 50%;" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
<p class="center"><span class="large">PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION</span></p>
<p>We shall speak in this chapter of the aid that finger prints can give to
personal identification, supposing throughout that facilities exist for
taking them well and cheaply, and that more or less practice in reading
them has been acquired by many persons. A few introductory words will show
this supposition to be reasonable. At the present moment any printer, and
there are many printers in every town, would, at a small charge, blacken a
slab and take the prints effectively, after being warned to use very
little ink, as described in <a href="#CHAPTER_III">Chapter III.</a> The occupation of finger printing
would, however, fall more naturally into the hands of photographers, who,
in addition to being found everywhere, are peculiarly well suited to it,
for, taken as a class, they are naturally gifted with manual dexterity and
mechanical ingenuity. Having secured good impressions, they could multiply
them when necessary, and enlarge when desired, while the ticketing and
preservation of the negatives would fall into their usual business
routine. As they already occupy themselves with one means<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> of
identification, a second means of obtaining the same result is allied to
their present work.</p>
<p>Were it the custom for persons about to travel to ask for prints of their
fingers when they were photographed, a familiarity with the peculiarities
of finger prints, and the methods of describing and classifying them,
would become common. Wherever finger prints may be wanted for purposes of
attestation and the like, the fact mentioned by Sir W. Herschel (<a href="#Page_45">p. 45</a>) as
to the readiness with which his native orderlies learnt to take them with
the ink of his office stamp, must not be forgotten.</p>
<p>The remarks about to be made refer to identification generally, and are
not affected by the fact that the complete process may or may not include
the preliminary search of a catalogue; the two stages of search and of
comparison will be treated separately towards the close of the chapter.</p>
<p>In civilised lands, honest citizens rarely need additional means of
identification to their signatures, their photographs, and to personal
introductions. The cases in which other evidence is wanted are chiefly
connected with violent death through accident, murder, or suicide, which
yield the constant and gruesome supply to the Morgue of Paris, and to
corresponding institutions in other large towns, where the bodies of
unknown persons are exposed for identification, often in vain. But when
honest persons travel to distant countries where they have few or no
friends, the need for a means of recognition is more frequently felt. The
risk of death<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> through accident or crime is increased, and the probability
of subsequent identification diminished. There is a possibility not too
remote to be disregarded, especially in times of war, of a harmless person
being arrested by mistake for another man, and being in sore straits to
give satisfactory proof of the error. A signature may be distrusted as a
forgery. There is also some small chance, when he returns to his own
country after a long absence, of finding difficulty in proving who he is.
But in civilised lands and in peaceable times, the chief use of a sure
means of identification is to benefit society by detecting rogues, rather
than to establish the identity of men who are honest. Is this criminal an
old offender? Is this new recruit a deserter? Is this professed pensioner
personating a man who is dead? Is this upstart claimant to property the
true heir, who was believed to have died in foreign lands?</p>
<p>In India and in many of our Colonies the absence of satisfactory means for
identifying persons of other races is seriously felt. The natives are
mostly unable to sign; their features are not readily distinguished by
Europeans; and in too many cases they are characterised by a strange
amount of litigiousness, wiliness, and unveracity. The experience of Sir
W. Herschel, and the way in which he met these unfavourable conditions by
the method of finger prints, has been briefly described in <a href="#Page_27">p. 27</a>. Lately
Major Ferris, of the Indian Staff Corps, happening to visit my laboratory
during my absence, and knowing but little of what Sir W. Herschel had
done, was greatly impressed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> by the possibilities of finger prints. After
acquainting himself with the process, we discussed the subject together,
and he very kindly gave me his views for insertion here. They are as
follow, with a few trifling changes of words:—</p>
<div class="blockquot"><p>“During a period of twenty-three years, eighteen of which have been
passed in the Political Department of the Bombay Government, the great
need of an official system of identification has been constantly
forced on my mind.</p>
<p>“The uniformity in the colour of hair, eyes, and complexion of the
Indian races renders identification far from easy, and the difficulty
of recording the description of an individual, so that he may be
afterwards recognised, is very great. Again, their hand-writing,
whether it be in Persian or Devanagri letters, is devoid of character
and gives but little help towards identification.</p>
<p>“The tenacity with which a native of India cleaves to his ancestral
land, his innate desire to acquire more and more, and the obligation
that accrues to him at birth of safeguarding that which has already
been acquired, amounts to a religion, and passes the comprehension of
the ordinary Western mind. This passion, or religion, coupled with a
natural taste for litigation, brings annually into the Civil Courts an
enormous number of suits affecting land. In a native State at one time
under my political charge, the percentage of suits for the possession
of land in which the title was disputed amounted to no less than 92,
while in 83 per cent of these the writing by which the transfer of
title purported to have been made, was repudiated by the former
title-holder as fraudulent and not executed by him. When it is
remembered that an enormous majority of the landholders whose titles
come into court are absolutely illiterate, and that their execution of
the documents is attested by a mark made by a third party, frequently,
though not always apparently, interested in the transfer, it will be
seen that there is a wide door open to fraud, whether by false
repudiation or by criminal attempt at dispossession.</p>
<p>“It has frequently happened in my experience that a transfer <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>of title
or possession was repudiated; the person purporting to have executed
the transfer asserting that he had no knowledge of it, and never
authorised any one to write, sign, or present it for registration.
This was met by a categorical statement on the part of the beneficiary
and of the attesting witnesses, concerning the time, date, and
circumstances of the execution and registration, that demolished the
simple denial of the man whom it was sought to dispossess. Without
going into the ethics of falsehood among Western and Eastern peoples,
it would be impossible to explain how what is repugnant to the one as
downright lying, is very frequently considered as no more than venial
prevarication by the other. This, however, is too large a subject for
present purposes, but the fact remains that perjury is perpetrated in
Indian Courts to an extent unknown in the United Kingdom.</p>
<p>“The interests of landholders are partially safeguarded by the Act
that requires all documents effecting the transfer of immovable
property to be registered, but it could be explained, though not in
the short space of this letter, how the provisions of the Act can be,
and frequently are, fulfilled in the absence of the principal person,
the executor.</p>
<p>“Enough has been said to show that if some simple but efficient means
could be contrived to identify the person who has executed a bond,
cases of fraud such as these would practically disappear from the
judicial registers. Were the legislature to amend the Registration Act
and require that the original document as well as the copy in the
Registration Book should bear the imprint of one or more fingers of
the parties to the deed, I have little hesitation in saying that not
only would fraud be detected, but that in a short time the facility of
that detection would act as a deterrent for the future. [This was
precisely the experience of Sir W. Herschel.—F.G.] In the majority of
cases, the mere question would be, Is the man A the same person as B,
or is he not? and of that question the finger marks would give
unerring proof. For example, to take the simplest case, A is sued for
possession of some land, the title of which he is stated to have
parted with to another for a consideration. The document and the
Registration Book both bear the imprint of the index finger of the
right hand of A. A <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>repudiates, and a comparison shows that whereas
the finger pattern of A is a whorl, the imprint on the document is a
loop; consequently A did not execute it.</p>
<p>“In the identification of Government pensioners the finger print
method would be very valuable. At one period, I had the payment of
many hundreds of military pensioners. Personation was most difficult
to detect in persons coming from a distance, who had no local
acquaintances, and more especially where the claimants were women. The
marks of identification noted in the pension roll were usually
variations of:—“Hair black—Eyes brown—Complexion wheat
colour—Marks of tattooing on fore-arm”—terms which are equally
appropriate to a large number of the pensioners. The description was
supplemented in some instances, where the pensioner had some
distinguishing mark or scar, but such cases are considerably rarer
than might be supposed, and in women the marks are not infrequently in
such a position as to practically preclude comparison. Here also the
imprint of one or more finger prints on the pension certificate, would
be sufficient to settle any doubt as to identity.</p>
<p>“As a large number of persons pass through the Indian gaols not only
while undergoing terms of imprisonment, but in default of payment of a
fine, it could not but prove of value were the finger prints of one
and all secured. They might assist in identifying persons who have
formerly been convicted, of whom the local police have no knowledge,
and who bear a name that may be the common property of half a hundred
in any small town.”</p></div>
<p>Whatever difficulty may be felt in the identification of Hindoos, is
experienced in at least an equal degree in that of the Chinese residents
in our Colonies and Settlements, who to European eyes are still more alike
than the Hindoos, and in whose names there is still less variety. I have
already referred (<a href="#Page_26">p. 26</a>) to Mr. Tabor, of San Francisco, and his proposal
in respect to the registration of the Chinese. Remarks<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> showing the need
of some satisfactory method of identifying them, have reached me from
various sources. The <i>British North Borneo Herald</i>, August 1, 1888, that
lies before me as I write, alludes to the difficulty of identifying
coolies, either by photographs or measurements, as likely to become
important in the early future of that country.</p>
<p>For purposes of registration, the method of printing to be employed, must
be one that gives little trouble on the one hand, and yields the maximum
of efficiency for that amount of trouble on the other. Sir W. Herschel
impressed simultaneously the fore and middle fingers of the right hand. To
impress simultaneously the fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the right
hand ought, however, to be better, the trouble being no greater, while
three prints are obviously more effective than two, especially for an
off-hand comparison. Moreover, the patterns on the ring-finger are much
more variable than those on the middle finger. Much as rolled impressions
are to be preferred for minute and exhaustive comparisons, they would
probably be inconvenient for purposes of registration or attestation. Each
finger has to be rolled separately, and each separate rolling takes more
time than a dab of all the fingers of one hand simultaneously. Now a
dabbed impression of even two fingers is more useful for registration
purposes than the rolled impression of one; much more is a dabbed
impression of three, especially when the third is the variable
ring-finger. Again, in a simultaneous impression, there is no doubt as to
the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> sequence of the finger prints being correct, but there may be some
occasional bungling when the fingers are printed separately.</p>
<hr style="width: 25%;" />
<p>For most criminal investigations, and for some other purposes also, the
question is not the simple one just considered, namely, “Is A the same
person, or a different person from B?” but the much more difficult problem
of “Who is this unknown person X? Is his name contained in such and such a
register?” We will now consider how this question may be answered.</p>
<p>Registers of criminals are kept in all civilised countries, but in France
they are indexed according to the method of M. Alphonse Bertillon, which
admits of an effective search being made through a large collection. We
shall see how much the differentiating power of the French or of any other
system of indexing might be increased by including finger prints in the
register.</p>
<p>M. Bertillon has described his system in three pamphlets:—</p>
<div class="blockquot"><p>(1) <i>Une application pratique de l’anthropometrie</i>, Extrait des
Annales de Démographie Interne. Paris 1881. (2) <i>Les signalements
anthropometriques</i>, Conference faite au Congrès Penitentiare
International de Rome, Nov. 22, 1885. (3) <i>Sur le fonctionnement du
service des signalements</i>. All the above are published by Masson, 120
Boulevard St. Germain, Paris. To these must be added a very
interesting but anonymous pamphlet, based on official documents, and
which I have reason to know is authorised by M. Bertillon, namely, (4)
<i>L’anthropometrie Judiciare en Paris, en 1889</i>: G. Stenheil, 2 Rue
Casimir-Delavigne, Paris.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>Besides these a substantial volume is forthcoming, which may give a
satisfactory solution to some present uncertainties.</p></div>
<p>The scale on which the service is carried on, is very large. It was begun
in 1883, and by the end of 1887 no less than 60,000 sets of measures were
in hand, but thus far only about one half of the persons arrested in Paris
were measured, owing to the insufficiency of the staff. Arrangements were
then made for its further extension. There are from 100 to 150 prisoners
sentenced each day by the Courts of Law in Paris to more than a few days’
imprisonment, and every one of these is sent to the Dépôt for twenty-four
hours. While there, they are now submitted to <i>Bertillonage</i>, a newly
coined word that has already come into use. This is done in the forenoon,
by three operators and three clerks; six officials in all. About half of
the prisoners are old offenders, of whom a considerable proportion give
their names correctly, as is rapidly verified by an alphabetically
arranged catalogue of cards, each of which contains front and profile
photographs, and measurements. The remainder are examined strictly; their
bodily marks are recorded according to a terse system of a few letters,
and they are variously measured. Each person occupies seven or eight
minutes. They are then photographed. From sixty to seventy-five prisoners
go through this complete process every forenoon. In the afternoon the
officials are engaged in making numerous copies of each set of records,
one of which is sent to Lyon, and another to Marseille, where there are
similar establishments. They also classify<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> the copies of records that are
received from those towns and elsewhere in France, of which from seventy
to one hundred arrive daily. Lastly, they search the Registers for
duplicate sets of measures of those, whether in Paris or in the provinces,
who were suspected of having given false names. The entire staff consists
of ten persons. It is difficult to rightly interpret the figures given in
the pamphlet (4) at pp. 22-24, as they appear to disagree, but as I
understand them, 562 prisoners who gave false names in the year 1890 were
recognised by <i>Bertillonage</i>, and only four other persons were otherwise
discovered to have been convicted previously, who had escaped recognition
by its means.</p>
<p>I had the pleasure of seeing the system in operation in Paris a few years
ago, and was greatly impressed by the deftness of the measuring, and with
the swiftness and success with which the assistants searched for the cards
containing entries similar to the measures of the prisoner then under
examination.</p>
<p>It is stated in the <i>Signalements</i> (p. 12) that the basis of the
classification are the four measurements (1) Head-length, (2)
Head-breadth, (3) Middle-finger-length, (4) Foot-length, their constancy
during adult life nearly always [as stated] holding good. Each of these
four elements severally is considered as belonging to one or other of
three equally numerous classes—small, medium, and large; consequently
there are 3<sup>4</sup> or 81 principal headings, under some one of which the card
of each prisoner is in the first instance sorted. Each of these primary
headings is successively<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> subdivided, on the same general principle of a
three-fold classification, according to other measures that are more or
less subject to uncertainties, namely, the height, the span, the cubit,
the length and breadth of the ear, and the height of the bust. The
eye-colour alone is subjected to seven divisions. The general result is
(pp. 19, 22) that a total of twelve measures are employed, of which eleven
are classed on the three-fold principle, and one on the seven-fold, giving
a final result of 3<sup>11</sup> × 7, or more than a million possible combinations.
M. Bertillon considers it by no means necessary to stop here, but in his
chapter (p. 22) on the “Infinite Extension of the Classification,” claims
that the method may be indefinitely extended.</p>
<p>The success of the system is considered by many experts to be fully
proved, notwithstanding many apparent objections, one of which is the
difficulty due to transitional cases: a belief in its success has
certainly obtained a firm hold upon the popular imagination in France. Its
general acceptance elsewhere seems to have been delayed in part by a
theoretical error in the published calculations of its efficiency: the
measures of the limbs which are undoubtedly correlated being treated as
independent, and in part by the absence of a sufficiently detailed account
of the practical difficulties experienced in its employment. Thus in the
<i>Application pratique</i>, p. 9: “We are embarrassed what to choose, the
number of human measures which vary independently of each other being
considerable.” In the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span><i>Signalements</i>, p. 19: “It has been shown” (by
assuming this independent variability) “that by seven measurements, 60,000
photographs can be separated into batches of less than ten in each.” (By
the way, even on that assumption, the result is somewhat exaggerated, the
figures having been arrived at by successively taking the higher of the
two nearest round values.) In short, the general tone of these two memoirs
is one of enthusiastic belief in the method, based almost wholly, so far
as is there shown, on questionable <i>theoretic</i> grounds of efficiency.</p>
<p>To learn how far correlation interferes with the regularity of
distribution, causing more entries to be made under some index-heads than
others, as was the case with finger prints, I have classified on the
Bertillon system, 500 sets of measures taken at my laboratory. It was not
practicable to take more than three of the four primary measures, namely,
the head-length, its breadth, and the middle-finger-length. The other
measure, that of foot-length, is not made at my laboratory, as it would
require the shoes to be taken off, which is inconvenient since persons of
all ranks and both sexes are measured there; but this matters little for
the purpose immediately in view. It should, however, be noted that the
head-length and head-breadth have especial importance, being only slightly
correlated, either together or with any other dimension of the body. Many
a small man has a head that is large in one or both directions, while a
small man rarely has a large foot, finger, or cubit, and conversely with
respect to large men.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>The following set of five measures of each of the 500 persons were then
tabulated: (1) head-length; (2) head-breadth; (3) span; (4) body-height,
that is the height of the top of the head from the seat on which the
person sits; (5) middle-finger-length. The measurements were to the
nearest tenth of an inch, but in cases of doubt, half-tenths were recorded
in (1), (2), and (5). With this moderate minuteness of measurement, it was
impossible so to divide the measures as to give better results than the
following, which show that the numbers in the three classes are not as
equal as desirable. But they nevertheless enable us to arrive at an
approximate idea of the irregular character of the distribution.</p>
<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table XVI.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btlr" align="center">Dimensions<br />measured.</td>
<td rowspan="2" colspan="3" class="btr" align="center">Medium<br />measures in<br />inches and<br />tenths.</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" class="btr">Nos. in the three classes respectively.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btr" align="center">-<br />below.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">0<br />medium.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">+<br />above.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center" valign="middle">Total.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">1. Head-length</td>
<td class="bt" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7·5</span></td>
<td class="bt" align="center">to</td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7·7</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center">101</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">191</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">208</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">500</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">2. Head-breadth</td>
<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6·0</span></td>
<td align="center">"</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6·1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">173</td>
<td class="br" align="center">201</td>
<td class="br" align="center">126</td>
<td class="br" align="center">500</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">3. Span</td>
<td align="center">68·0</td>
<td align="center">"</td>
<td class="br" align="center">70·5</td>
<td class="br" align="center">137</td>
<td class="br" align="center">165</td>
<td class="br" align="center">198</td>
<td class="br" align="center">500</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">4. Body-height</td>
<td align="center">35·0</td>
<td align="center">"</td>
<td class="br" align="center">36·0</td>
<td class="br" align="center">139</td>
<td class="br" align="center">168</td>
<td class="br" align="center">193</td>
<td class="br" align="center">500</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">5. Middle-finger</td>
<td class="bb" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4·5</span></td>
<td class="bb" align="center">"</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4·6</span></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">180</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">176</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">144</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">500</td></tr></table>
<p><br />The distribution of the measures is shown in Table XVII.</p>
<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span></p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XVII.</span></p>
<p class="center"><i>Distribution of 500 sets of measures into classes. Each set consists of
five elements;<br />each element is classed as + or above medium class; M, or
mediocre; -, or below medium class.</i></p>
<p class="center">(Total number of classes is 3<sup>5</sup> = 243.)</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td class="btl" align="center" rowspan="3">3<br />Span.</td>
<td class="bt" align="center" rowspan="3">4<br />Body-<br />height.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center" rowspan="3">5<br />Middle-<br />finger.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center" colspan="9">1 Head-length, 2 Head-breadth.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bt">1 2</td>
<td class="bt">1 2</td>
<td class="btr">1 2</td>
<td class="bt">1 2</td>
<td class="bt">1 2</td>
<td class="btr">1 2</td>
<td class="bt">1 2</td>
<td class="bt">1 2</td>
<td class="btr">1 2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bt">- -</td>
<td class="bt">- M</td>
<td class="btr">- +</td>
<td class="bt">M -</td>
<td class="bt">M M</td>
<td class="btr">M +</td>
<td class="bt">+ -</td>
<td class="bt">+ M</td>
<td class="btr">+ +</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btl" align="center">-</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">-</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">-</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">14</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">7</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">4</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">14</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">11</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">5</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">3</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">3</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">M</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td align="center">4</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">4</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">+</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td align="center"> </td>
<td align="center"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">M</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">5</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td>
<td align="center">7</td>
<td align="center">4</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">4</td>
<td class="br" align="center">3</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">M</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">3</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">3</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td align="center">3</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">+</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td align="center"> </td>
<td align="center"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">+</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">M</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">+</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btl" align="center">M</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">-</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">-</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">4</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">-</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">1</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">3</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">4</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">3</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">1</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">2</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">M</td>
<td align="center">3</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">3</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">3</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td align="center">4</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">+</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td align="center"> </td>
<td align="center"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl" align="center">M</td>
<td align="center">M</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">3</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">4</td>
<td align="center">3</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td>
<td align="center">4</td>
<td align="center">4</td>
<td class="br" align="center">3</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">M</td>
<td align="center">5</td>
<td align="center">3</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">7</td>
<td align="center">5</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td align="center">6</td>
<td class="br" align="center">5</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">+</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">4</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td align="center"> </td>
<td align="center"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl" align="center">M</td>
<td align="center">+</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">5</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">M</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">3</td>
<td align="center">3</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">6</td>
<td class="br" align="center">7</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">+</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">3</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btl" align="center">+</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">-</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">-</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">-</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">-</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">1</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">-</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">1</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">-</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">-</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">-</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">-</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">M</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">3</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">+</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td align="center"> </td>
<td align="center"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl" align="center">+</td>
<td align="center">M</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">3</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">M</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">4</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">3</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">4</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">+</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td align="center">4</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">4</td>
<td align="center">6</td>
<td class="br" align="center">3</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td align="center"> </td>
<td align="center"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl" align="center">+</td>
<td align="center">+</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">M</td>
<td align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-</td>
<td align="center">5</td>
<td align="center">10</td>
<td class="br" align="center">3</td>
<td align="center">3</td>
<td align="center">8</td>
<td class="br" align="center">9</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bbl"> </td>
<td class="bb"> </td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">+</td>
<td class="bb" align="center">2</td>
<td class="bb" align="center">2</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">2</td>
<td class="bb" align="center">11</td>
<td class="bb" align="center">10</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">3</td>
<td class="bb" align="center">9</td>
<td class="bb" align="center">24</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">19</td></tr></table>
<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>The frequency with which 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., sets were found to fall under
the same index-heading, is shown in Table XVIII.</p>
<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table XVIII.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td align="center" class="btlr">No. of sets<br />under same<br />index-heading.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">Frequency<br />of its<br />occurrence.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">No. of<br />entries.</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0</span></td>
<td align="center" class="btr">83</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0</span></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">47</td>
<td align="center" class="br">47</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">47</td>
<td align="center" class="br">94</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">25</td>
<td align="center" class="br">75</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">16</td>
<td align="center" class="br">64</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">35</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">18</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">28</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">18</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">10</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">20</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">11</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">22</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">14</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">28</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">19</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">19</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="bblr">24</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">24</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="bbl">Total entries</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">500</span></td></tr></table>
<p><br />No example was found of 83, say of one-third, of the 243 possible
combinations. In one case no less than 24 sets fell under the same head;
in another case 19 did so, and there were two cases in which 14, 11, and
10 severally did the same. Thus, out of 500 sets (see the five bottom
lines in the last column of the above table) no less than 113 sets fell
into four classes, each of which included from 10 to 24 entries.</p>
<p>The 24 sets whose Index-number is + M, + + + admit of being easily
subdivided and rapidly sorted by an expert, into smaller groups, paying
regard to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> considerable differences only, in the head-length and
head-breadth. After doing this, two comparatively large groups remain,
with five cases in each, which require further analysis. They are as
follow, the height and eye-colour being added in each case, and brackets
being so placed as to indicate measures that do not differ to a sufficient
amount to be surely distinguished. No two sets are alike throughout, some
difference of considerable magnitude always occurring to distinguish them.
Nos. 2 and 3 come closest together, and are distinguished by eye-colour
alone.</p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XIX.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td colspan="11" align="center">Five cases of Head-length 8·0, and Head-breadth 6·1.</td></tr>
<tr><td> </td><td> </td>
<td align="center">Span.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">Body.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">Finger.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">Height.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">Eye-colour.</td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">1.</td><td rowspan="3" valign="middle"><span class="giant">{</span></td>
<td align="center">72·4</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">38·0</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">4·8</td><td rowspan="3" valign="middle"><span class="giant">{</span></td>
<td align="center">71·2</td><td rowspan="2" valign="middle"><span class="giant">{</span></td>
<td>br. grey</td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">2.</td>
<td align="center">72·6</td><td rowspan="2" valign="middle"><span class="giant">{</span></td>
<td align="center">37·0</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">4·7</td>
<td align="center">71·4</td>
<td>br. grey</td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">3.</td>
<td align="center">72·7</td>
<td align="center">36·7</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">4·7</td>
<td align="center">71·4</td><td> </td>
<td>blue</td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">4.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">73·9</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">36·4</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">5·0</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">70·7</td><td> </td>
<td>brown</td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">5.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">75·3</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">37·9</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">4·8</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">73·4</td><td> </td>
<td>blue</td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="11" align="center">Five cases of Head-length 7·8, and Head-breadth 6·0.</td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">6.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">70·8</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">37·8</td><td rowspan="3" valign="middle"><span class="giant">{</span></td>
<td align="center">4·7</td><td rowspan="3" valign="middle"><span class="giant">{</span></td>
<td align="center">70·0</td><td> </td>
<td>brown</td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">7.</td><td rowspan="2" valign="middle"><span class="giant">{</span></td>
<td align="center">71·9</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">36·2</td>
<td align="center">4·7</td>
<td align="center">69·3</td><td> </td>
<td>blue</td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">8.</td>
<td align="center">72·4</td><td rowspan="3" valign="middle"><span class="giant">{</span></td>
<td align="center">37·2</td>
<td align="center">4·7</td>
<td align="center">68·4</td><td> </td>
<td>brown</td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">9.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">74·8</td>
<td align="center">37·8</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">5·0</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">73·1</td><td> </td>
<td>blue</td></tr>
<tr><td align="right">10.</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">79·9</td>
<td align="center">37·3</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">5·3</td><td> </td>
<td align="center">75·6</td><td> </td>
<td>blue grey</td></tr></table>
<p>This is satisfactory. It shows that each one of the 500 sets may be
distinguished from all the others by means of only seven elements; for if
it is possible so to subdivide twenty-four entries that come under one
index-heading, we may assume that we could do so in the other cases where
the entries were fewer. The other measures that I possess—strength of
grasp<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> and breathing capacity—are closely correlated with stature and
bulk, while eyesight and reaction-time are uncorrelated, but the latter
are hardly suited to test the further application of the Bertillon method.</p>
<p>It would appear, from these and other data, that a purely anthropometric
classification, irrespective of bodily marks and photographs, would enable
an expert to deal with registers of considerable size.</p>
<p>Bearing in mind that mediocrities differ less from one another than
members of either of the extreme classes, and would therefore be more
difficult to distinguish, it seems probable that with comparatively few
exceptions, <i>at least</i> two thousand adults of the same sex might be
individualised, merely by means of twelve careful measures, on the
Bertillon system, making reasonable allowances for that small change of
proportions that occurs after the lapse of a few years, and for
inaccuracies of measurement. This estimate may be far below the truth, but
more cannot, I think, be safely inferred from the above very limited
experiment.</p>
<p>The system of registration adopted in the American army for tracing
suspected deserters, was described in a memoir contributed to the
“International Congress of Demography,” held in London in 1891. The memoir
has so far been only published in the <i>Abstracts of Papers</i>, p. 233 (Eyre
and Spottiswoode). Its phraseology is unfortunately so curt as sometimes
to be difficult to understand; it runs as follows:—</p>
<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>Personal identity as determined by scars and other body marks by
Colonel Charles R. Greenleaf and Major Charles Smart, Medical
Department, U.S. Army.</p>
<p><br />Desertions from United States army believed to greatly exceed
deserters, owing to repeaters.</p>
<p>Detection of repeaters possible if all body marks of all recruits
recorded, all deserters noted, and all recruits compared with previous
deserters.</p>
<p>In like manner men discharged for cause excluded from re-entry.</p>
<p>Bertillon’s anthropometric method insufficient before courts-martial,
because possible inaccuracies in measurement, and because of allowable
errors.</p>
<p>But identity acknowledged following coincident indelible marks, when
height, age, and hair fairly correspond.</p>
<p>That is, Bertillon’s collateral evidence is practically primary
evidence for such purposes.</p>
<p>There is used for each man an outline figure card giving anterior and
posterior surfaces, divided by dotted lines into regions.</p>
<p>These, showing each permanent mark, are filed alphabetically at the
Surgeon-General’s office, War Department.</p>
<p>As a man goes out for cause, or deserts, his card is placed in a
separate file.</p>
<p>The cards of recruits are compared with the last-mentioned file.</p>
<p>To make this comparison, a register in two volumes is opened, one for
light-eyed and one for dark-eyed men. Each is subdivided into a fair
number of pages, according to height of entrants, and each page is
ruled in columns for body regions. Tattooed and non-tattooed men of
similar height and eyes are entered on opposite pages. Recruits
without tattoos are not compared with deserters with tattoos; but
recruits with tattoos are compared with both classes.</p>
<p>On the register S T B M, etc., are used as abbreviations for scar,
tattoo, birth-mark, mole, etc.</p>
<p>One inch each side of recorded height allowed for variation or
defective measurement.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>When probability of identity appears, the original card is used for
comparison.</p>
<p>Owing to obstacles in inaugurating new system, its practical working
began with 1891, and, to include May 1891 [= 5 months, F.G.], out of
sixty-two cases of suspected fraud sixty-one proved real.</p></div>
<p>There was some interesting discussion, both upon this memoir and on a
verbal communication concerning the French method, that had been made by
M. Jacques Bertillon the statistician, who is a brother of its originator.
It appeared that there was room for doubt whether the anthropometric
method had received a fair trial in America, the measurements being made
by persons not specially trained, whereas in France the establishments,
though small, are thoroughly efficient.</p>
<p>There are almost always moles or birth-marks, serving for identification,
on the body of every one, and a record of these is, as already noted, an
important though subsidiary part of the Bertillon system. Body-marks are
noted in the English registers of criminals, and it is curious how large a
proportion of these men are tattooed and scarred. How far the body-marks
admit of being usefully charted on the American plan, it is difficult to
say, the success of the method being largely dependent on the care with
which they are recorded. The number of persons hitherto dealt with on the
American plan appears not to be very large. As observations of this class
require the person to be undressed, they are unsuitable for popular
purposes of identification, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> the marks have the merit of serving to
identify at all ages, which the measurements of the limbs have not.</p>
<p>It seems strange that no register of this kind, so far as I know, takes
account of the teeth. If a man, on being first registered, is deficient in
certain teeth, they are sure to be absent when he is examined on a future
occasion. He may, and probably will in the meantime, have lost others, but
the fact of his being without specified teeth on the first occasion,
excludes the possibility of his being afterwards mistaken for a man who
still possesses them.</p>
<p>We will now separately summarise the results arrived at, in respect to the
two processes that may both be needed in order to effect an
identification.</p>
<p>First, as regards <i>search in an Index</i>.—Some sets of measures will give
trouble, but the greater proportion can apparently be catalogued with so
much certainty, that if a second set of measures of any individual be
afterwards taken, no tedious search will be needed to hunt out the former
set. Including the bodily marks and photographs, let us rate the Bertillon
method as able to cope with a register of 20,000 adults of the same sex,
with a small and definable, but as yet unknown, average dose of
difficulty, which we will call <i>x</i>.</p>
<p>A catalogue of 500 sets of finger prints easily fulfils the same
conditions. I could lay a fair claim to much more, but am content with
this. Now the finger patterns have been shown to be so independent of
other conditions that they cannot be notably, if at all, correlated with
the bodily measurements or with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> any other feature, not the slightest
trace of any relation between them having yet been found, as will be shown
at <a href="#Page_186">p. 186</a>, and more fully in <a href="#CHAPTER_XII">Chapter XII.</a> For instance, it would be
totally impossible to fail to distinguish between the finger prints of
twins, who in other respects appeared exactly alike. Finger prints may
therefore be treated without the fear of any sensible error, as varying
quite independently of the measures and records in the Bertillon system.
Their inclusion would consequently increase its power fully five-hundred
fold. Suppose one moderate dose of difficulty, <i>x</i>, is enough for dealing
with the measurements, etc., of 20,000 adult persons of the same sex by
the Bertillon method, and a similar dose of difficulty with the finger
prints of 500 persons, then two such doses could deal with a register of
20,000 × 500, or 10,000,000.</p>
<p>We now proceed to consider the second and final process, namely, that of
identification by <i>Comparison</i>. When the data concerning a suspected
person are discovered to bear a general likeness to one of those already
on the register, and a minute comparison shows their finger prints to
agree in all or nearly all particulars, the evidence thereby afforded that
they were made by the same person, far transcends in trustworthiness any
other evidence that can ordinarily be obtained, and vastly exceeds all
that can be derived from any number of ordinary anthropometric data. <i>By
itself it is amply sufficient to convict.</i> <i>Bertillonage</i> can rarely
supply more than grounds for very strong suspicion: the method of finger
prints affords<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> certainty. It is easy, however, to understand that so long
as the peculiarities of finger prints are not generally understood, a
juryman would be cautious in accepting their evidence, but it is to be
hoped that attention will now gradually become drawn to their marvellous
virtues, and that after their value shall have been established in a few
conspicuous cases, it will come to be popularly recognised.</p>
<p>Let us not forget two great and peculiar merits of finger prints; they are
self-signatures, free from all possibility of faults in observation or of
clerical error; and they apply throughout life.</p>
<p>An abstract of the remarks made by M. Herbette, Director of the
Penitentiary Department of the Ministère de l’Intérieur, France, at the
International Penitentiary Congress at Rome, after the communication by M.
Alphonse Bertillon had been read, may fitly follow.</p>
<div class="blockquot"><p>“Proceeding to a more extended view of the subject and praising the
successful efforts of M. Bertillon, M. Herbette pointed out how a
verification of the physical personality, and of the identity of
people of adult age, would fulfil requirements of modern society in an
indisputable manner under very varied conditions.</p>
<p>“If it were a question, for instance, of giving to the inhabitants of
a country, to the soldiers of an army, or to travellers proceeding to
distant lands, notices or personal cards as recognisable signs,
enabling them always to prove who they are; if it were a question of
completing the obligatory records of civil life by perfectly sure
indications, such as would prevent all error, or substitution of
persons; if it were a question of recording the distinctive marks of
an individual in documents, titles or contracts, where his identity
requires to be established for his own interest, for that of third
parties, or for that of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>State,—there the anthropometric system
of identification would find place.</p>
<p>“Should it be a question of a life certificate, of a life assurance,
or of a proof of death, or should it be required to certify the
identity of a person who was insane, severely wounded, or of a dead
body that had been partly destroyed, or so disfigured as to be hardly
recognisable from a sudden or violent death due to crime, accident,
shipwreck, or battle—how great would be the advantage of being able
to trace these characters, unchangeable as they are in each
individual, infinitely variable as between one individual and another,
indelible, at least in part, even in death.</p>
<p>“There is still more cause to be interested in this subject when it is
a question of identifying persons who are living at a great distance,
and after the lapse of a considerable time, when the physiognomy, the
features, and the physical habits may have changed from natural or
artificial causes, and to be able to identify them without taking a
journey and without cost, by the simple exchange of a few lines or
figures that may be sent from one country or continent to another, so
as to give information in America as to who any particular man is, who
has just arrived from France, and to certify whether a certain
traveller found in Rome is the same person who was measured in
Stockholm ten years before.</p>
<p>“In one word, to fix the human personality, to give to each human
being an identity, an individuality that can be depended upon with
certainty, lasting, unchangeable, always recognisable and easily
adduced, this appears to be in the largest sense the aim of the new
method.</p>
<p>“Consequently, it may be said that the extent of the problem, as well
as the importance of its solution, far exceeds the limits of
penitentiary work and the interest, which is however by no means
inconsiderable, that penal action has excited amongst various nations.
These are the motives for giving to the labours of M. Bertillon and to
their practical utilisation the publicity they merit.”</p></div>
<p>These full and clear remarks seem even more applicable to the method of
finger prints than to that of anthropometry.</p>
<p> </p><p> </p>
<hr style="width: 50%;" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2>
<p class="center"><span class="large">HEREDITY</span></p>
<p>Some of those who have written on finger marks affirm that they are
transmissible by descent, others assert the direct contrary, but no
inquiry hitherto appears to justify a definite conclusion.</p>
<p><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">Chapter VIII.</a> shows a close correlation to exist between the patterns on
the several fingers of the same person. Hence we are justified in assuming
that the patterns are partly dependent on constitutional causes, in which
case it would indeed be strange if the general law of heredity failed in
this particular case.</p>
<p>After examining many prints, the frequency with which some peculiar
pattern was found to characterise members of the same family convinced me
of the reality of an hereditary tendency. The question was how to submit
the belief to numerical tests; particular kinships had to be selected, and
methods of discussion devised.</p>
<p>It must here be borne in mind that “Heredity” implies more than its
original meaning of a relationship between parent and child. It includes
that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> which connects children of the same parents, and which I have shown
(<i>Natural Inheritance</i>) to be just twice as close in the case of stature
as that which connects a child and either of its two parents. Moreover,
the closeness of the fraternal and the filial relations are to a great
extent interdependent, for in any population whose faculties remain
<i>statistically</i> the same during successive generations, it has been shown
that a simple algebraical equation must exist, that connects together the
three elements of Filial Relation, Fraternal Relation, and Regression, by
which a knowledge of any two of them determines the value of the third. So
far as Regression may be treated as being constant in value, the Filial
and the Fraternal relations become reciprocally connected. It is not
possible briefly to give an adequate explanation of all this now, or to
show how strictly observations were found to confirm the theory; this has
been fully done in <i>Natural Inheritance</i>, and the conclusions will here be
assumed.</p>
<p>The fraternal relation, besides disclosing more readily than other
kinships the existence or non-existence of heredity, is at the same time
more convenient, because it is easier to obtain examples of brothers and
sisters alone, than with the addition of their father and mother. The
resemblance between those who are twins is also an especially significant
branch of the fraternal relationship. The word “fraternities” will be used
to include the children of both sexes who are born of the same parents; it
being impossible to name the familiar kinship in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> question either in
English, French, Latin, or Greek, without circumlocution or using an
incorrect word, thus affording a striking example of the way in which
abstract thought outruns language, and its expression is hampered by the
inadequacy of language. In this dilemma I prefer to fall upon the second
horn, that of incorrectness of phraseology, subject to the foregoing
explanation and definition.</p>
<p>The first preliminary experiments were made with the help of the
Arch-Loop-Whorl classification, on the same principle as that already
described and utilised in <a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">Chapter VIII.</a>he following addition. Each
of the two members of any couplet of fingers has a distinctive name—for
instance, the couplet may consist of a finger and a thumb: or again, if it
should consist of two fore-fingers, one will be a right fore-finger and
the other a left one, but the two brothers in a couplet of brothers rank
equally as such. The plan was therefore adopted of “ear-marking” the
prints of the first of the two brothers that happened to come to hand,
with an A, and that of the second brother with a B; and so reducing the
questions to the shape:—How often does the pattern on the finger of a B
brother agree with that on the corresponding finger of an A brother? How
often would it occur between two persons who had no family likeness? How
often would it correspond if the kinship between A and B were as close as
it is possible to conceive? Or transposing the questions, and using the
same words as in <a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">Chapter VIII.</a>, what is the relative frequency of (1)
Random occurrences, (2) Observed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> occurrences, (3) Utmost possibilities?
It was shown in that chapter how to find the value of (2) upon a
centesimal scale in which “Randoms” ranked as 0° and “Utmost
possibilities” as 100°.</p>
<p>The method there used of calculating the frequency of the “Random” events
will be accepted without hesitation by all who are acquainted with the
theory and the practice of problems of probability. Still, it is as well
to occasionally submit calculation to test. The following example was sent
to me for that purpose by a friend who, not being mathematically minded,
had demurred somewhat to the possibility of utilising the calculated
“Randoms.”</p>
<p>The prints of 101 (by mistake for 100) couplets of prints of the right
fore-fingers of school children were taken by him from a large collection,
the two members, A and B, being picked out at random and formed into a
couplet. It was found that among the A children there were 22 arches, 50
loops, and 29 whorls, and among the B children 25, 34, and 42
respectively, as is shown by the <i>italic</i> numerals in the last column, and
again in the bottom row of Table XX. The remainder of the table shows the
number of times in which an arch, loop, or whorl of an A child was
associated with an arch, loop, or whorl of a B child.</p>
<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span></p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XX.</span></p>
<p class="center"><i>Observed Random Couplets.</i></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td class="btlr" align="center" rowspan="2">B children.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center" colspan="3">A children.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center" rowspan="2">Totals in<br />B children.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Arches.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Loops.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Whorls.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">Arches</td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center">12</td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>25</i></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Loops</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">18</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>34</i></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">Whorls</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">20</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">13</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>42</i></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">Totals in A children</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><i>22</i></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><i>50</i></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><i>29</i></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">101</td></tr></table>
<p> </p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXI.</span></p>
<p class="center"><i>Calculated Random Couplets.</i></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td class="btlr" align="center" rowspan="2">B children.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center" colspan="3">A children.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center" rowspan="2">Totals in<br />B children.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Arches.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Loops.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Whorls.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">Arches</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">5·00</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">12·50</td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7·25</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>25</i></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Loops</td>
<td class="br" align="center">6·80</td>
<td class="br" align="center">17·00</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9·86</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>34</i></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">Whorls</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">8·40</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">21·00</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">12·18</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>42</i></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">Totals in A children</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><i>22</i></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><i>50</i></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><i>29</i></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">101</td></tr></table>
<p><br />The question, then, was how far calculations from the above data would
correspond with the contents of Table XX. The answer is that it does so
admirably. Multiply each of the italicised A totals into each of the
italicised B totals, and after dividing each result by 101, enter it in
the square at which the column<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> that has the A total at its base, is
intersected by the row that has the B total at its side. We thus obtain
Table XXI.</p>
<p>We will now discuss in order the following relationships: the Fraternal,
first in the ordinary sense, and then in the special case of twins of the
same set; Filial, in the special case in which both parents have the same
particular pattern on the same finger; lastly, the relative influence of
the father and mother in transmitting their patterns.</p>
<p><i>Fraternal relationship.</i>—In 105 fraternities the <i>observed</i> figures were
as in Table XXII.:—</p>
<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table</span> XXII.</p>
<p class="center"><i>Observed Fraternal Couplets.</i></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td class="btlr" align="center" rowspan="2">B children.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center" colspan="3">A children.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center" rowspan="2">Totals in<br />B children.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Arches.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Loops.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Whorls.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">Arches</td>
<td align="center" class="borbold"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center">12</td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>19</i></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Loops</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td align="center" class="borbold">42</td>
<td align="center" class="br">15</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>61</i></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">Whorls</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">14</td>
<td class="borbold" align="center">10</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>25</i></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">Totals in A children</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><i>10</i></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><i>68</i></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><i>27</i></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">105</td></tr></table>
<p><br />The squares that run diagonally from the top at the left, to the bottom at
the right, contain the double<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> events, and it is with these that we are
now concerned. Are the entries in those squares larger or not than the
randoms, calculated as above, viz. the values of 10 × 19, 68 × 61, 27 ×
25, all divided by 105? The calculated Randoms are shown in the first line
of Table XXIII., the third line gives the greatest feasible number of
correspondences which would occur if the kinship were as close as
possible, subject to the reservation explained in <a href="#Page_127">p. 127</a>. As there shown,
the <i>lower</i> of the A and B values is taken in each case, for Arches,
Loops, and Whorls respectively.</p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXIII.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td class="btlr" rowspan="2"> </td>
<td class="btr" align="center" colspan="3">A and B both being</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Arches.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Loops.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Whorls.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">Random</td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1·7</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center">37·6</td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6·2</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Observed</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5·0</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">42·0</td>
<td class="br" align="center">10·0</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">Utmost feasible</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">10·0</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">61·0</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">25·0</td></tr></table>
<p><br />In every instance, the Observed values are seen to exceed the Random.</p>
<p>Many other cases of this description were calculated, all yielding the
same general result, but these results are not as satisfactory as can be
wished, owing to their dilution by inappropriate cases, the A. L. W.
system being somewhat artificial.</p>
<p><a name="plate16" id="plate16"></a> </p>
<p class="note">PLATE 16.</p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24</span></p>
<p class="center">The “C” set of standard patterns, for prints of the Right Hand.</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td align="center" class="btl"> </td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.1.jpg" alt="" /><br />1</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.2.jpg" alt="" /><br />2</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.3.jpg" alt="" /><br />3</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.4.jpg" alt="" /><br />4</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.5.jpg" alt="" /><br />5</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.6.jpg" alt="" /><br />6</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.7.jpg" alt="" /><br />7</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.8.jpg" alt="" /><br />8</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.9.jpg" alt="" /><br />9</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btl"><img src="images/fig24.10.jpg" alt="" /><br />10</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.11.jpg" alt="" /><br />11</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.12.jpg" alt="" /><br />12</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.13.jpg" alt="" /><br />13</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.14.jpg" alt="" /><br />14</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.15.jpg" alt="" /><br />15</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.16.jpg" alt="" /><br />16</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.17.jpg" alt="" /><br />17</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.18.jpg" alt="" /><br />18</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.19.jpg" alt="" /><br />19</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btl"><img src="images/fig24.20.jpg" alt="" /><br />20</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.21.jpg" alt="" /><br />21</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.22.jpg" alt="" /><br />22</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.23.jpg" alt="" /><br />23</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.24.jpg" alt="" /><br />24</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.25.jpg" alt="" /><br />25</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.26.jpg" alt="" /><br />26</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.27.jpg" alt="" /><br />27</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.28.jpg" alt="" /><br />28</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.29.jpg" alt="" /><br />29</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btl"><img src="images/fig24.30.jpg" alt="" /><br />30</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.31.jpg" alt="" /><br />31</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.32.jpg" alt="" /><br />32</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.33.jpg" alt="" /><br />33</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.34.jpg" alt="" /><br />34</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.35.jpg" alt="" /><br />35</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.36.jpg" alt="" /><br />36</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.37.jpg" alt="" /><br />37</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.38.jpg" alt="" /><br />38</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.39.jpg" alt="" /><br />39</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btl"><img src="images/fig24.40.jpg" alt="" /><br />40</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.41.jpg" alt="" /><br />41</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.42.jpg" alt="" /><br />42</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.43.jpg" alt="" /><br />43</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.44.jpg" alt="" /><br />44</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.45.jpg" alt="" /><br />45</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.46.jpg" alt="" /><br />46</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.47.jpg" alt="" /><br />47</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.48.jpg" alt="" /><br />48</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.49.jpg" alt="" /><br />49</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btbl"><img src="images/fig24.50.jpg" alt="" /><br />50</td>
<td align="center" class="btbr"><img src="images/fig24.51.jpg" alt="" /><br />51</td>
<td align="center" class="btb"><img src="images/fig24.52.jpg" alt="" /><br />52</td>
<td align="center" class="btbr"><img src="images/fig24.53.jpg" alt="" /><br />53</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" class="btbr"> </td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" class="btbr"> </td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" class="btbr"> </td></tr></table>
<p> </p>
<p>With the view of obtaining a more satisfactory result the patterns were
subdivided under fifty-three heads, and an experiment was made with the
fore, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>middle, and ring-fingers of 150 fraternal couplets (300
individuals and 900 digits) by Mr. F. Howard Collins, who kindly undertook
the considerable labour of indexing and tabulating them.</p>
<p>The provisional list of standard patterns published in the <i>Phil. Trans.</i>
was not appropriate for this purpose. It related chiefly to thumbs, and
consequently omitted the tented arch; it also referred to the left hand,
but in the following tabulations the right hand has been used; and its
numbering is rather inconvenient. The present set of fifty-three patterns
has faults, and cannot be considered in any way as final, but it was
suitable for our purposes and may be convenient to others; as Mr. Collins
worked wholly by it, it may be distinguished as the “C. set.” The banded
patterns, 24-31, are very rarely found on the fingers, but being common on
the thumb, were retained, on the chance of our requiring the introduction
of thumb patterns into the tabulations. The numerals refer to the patterns
as seen in impressions of the <i>right hand</i> only. [They would be equally
true for the patterns as seen on the <i>fingers themselves</i> of the left
hand.] For impressions of the left hand the numerals up to 7 inclusive
would be the same, but those of all the rest would be changed. These are
arranged in couplets, the one member of the couplet being a reversed
picture of the other, those in each couplet being distinguished by
severally bearing an odd and an even number. Therefore, in impressions of
the left hand, 8 would have to be changed into 9, and 9 into 8; 10 into
11, and 11 into 10; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> so on, up to the end, viz. 52 and 53. The numeral
54 was used to express nondescript patterns.</p>
<p>The finger prints had to be gone through repeatedly, some weeks elapsing
between the inspections, and under conditions which excluded the
possibility of unconscious bias; a subject of frequent communication
between Mr. Collins and myself. Living at a distance apart, it was not
easy at the time they were made, to bring our respective interpretations
of transitional and of some of the other patterns, especially the invaded
loops, into strict accordance, so I prefer to keep his work, in which I
have perfect confidence, independent from my own. Whenever a fraternity
consisted of more than two members, they were divided, according to a
prearranged system, into as many couplets as there were individuals. Thus,
while a fraternity of three individuals furnished all of its three
possible varieties of couplets, (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3), one of four
individuals was not allowed to furnish more than four of its possible
couplets, the two italicised ones being omitted, (1, 2), (1, 3), (<i>1, 4</i>),
(<i>2, 3</i>), (2, 4), (3, 4), and so on. Without this precaution, a single
very large family might exercise a disproportionate and even overwhelming
statistical influence.</p>
<p>It would be essential to exact working, that the mutual relations of the
patterns should be taken into account; for example, suppose an arch to be
found on the fore-finger of one brother and a nascent loop on that of the
other; then, as these patterns are evidently related, their concurrence
ought to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> interpreted as showing some degree of resemblance. However,
it was impossible to take cognizance of partial resemblances, the mutual
relations of the patterns not having, as yet, been determined with
adequate accuracy.</p>
<p>The completed tabulations occupied three large sheets, one for each of the
fingers, ruled crossways into fifty-three vertical columns for the A
brothers, and fifty-three horizontal rows for the B brothers. Thus, if the
register number of the pattern of A was 10, and that of B was 42, then a
mark would be put in the square limited by the ninth and tenth horizontal
lines, and by the forty-first and forty-second vertical ones. The marks
were scattered sparsely over the sheet. Those in each square were then
added up, and finally the numbers in each of the rows and in each of the
columns were severally totalled.</p>
<p>If the number of couplets had been much greater than they are, a test of
the accuracy with which their patterns had been classed under the
appropriate heads, would be found in the frequency with which the same
patterns were registered in the corresponding finger of the A and B
brothers. The A and B groups are strictly homogeneous, consequently the
frequency of their patterns in corresponding fingers ought to be alike.
The success with which this test has been fulfilled in the present case,
is passably good, its exact degree being shown in the following
paragraphs, where the numbers of entries under each head are arranged in
as orderly a manner as the case admits,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> the smaller of the two numbers
being the one that stands first, whether it was an A or a B. All instances
in which there were at least five entries under either A or B, are
included; the rest being disregarded. The result is as follows:—</p>
<div class="blockquot"><p>I. Thirteen cases of more or less congruity between the number of A
and B entries under the same head:—5-7; 5-7; 5-8; 6-8; 7-10; 8-9;
8-12; 9-12; 10-10; 11-13; 12-16; 14-18; 72-73. (This last refers to
loops on the middle finger.)</p>
<p>II. Six cases of more or less incongruity:—1-7; 6-12; 14-20; 14-22;
22-35; 39-50.</p></div>
<p>The three Tables, XXIV., XXV., XXVI., contain the results of the
tabulations and the deductions from them.</p>
<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXIV.</span></p>
<p class="center"><i>Comparison of three Fingers of the Right Hand in 150 Fraternal Couplets.</i></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td class="btlr" align="center" rowspan="3">Index<br />No. of<br />Pattern</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center" colspan="3">Fore-fingers.</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center" colspan="3">Middle fingers.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center" colspan="3">Ring-fingers.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Down<br />columns</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Along<br />lines</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">Double<br />events</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Down<br />columns</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Along<br />lines</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">Double<br />events</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Down<br />columns</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Along<br />lines</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Double<br />events</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btr" align="center">A</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">B</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">A<br />and<br />B</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">A</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">B</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">A<br />and<br />B</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">A</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">B</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">A<br />and<br />B</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center">15</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">12</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">... </td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">... </td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">12</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">13</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">14</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">20</td>
<td class="br" align="center">14</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">15</td>
<td class="br" align="center">16</td>
<td class="br" align="center">12</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">16</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">10</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">17</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">18</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">18</td>
<td class="br" align="center">14</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">19</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">20</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">21</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">22</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">23</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">27</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">32</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">33</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">34</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">35</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">12</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">38</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">39</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">40</td>
<td class="br" align="center">13</td>
<td class="br" align="center">11</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">14</td>
<td class="br" align="center">22</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">41</td>
<td class="br" align="center">12</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">22</td>
<td class="br" align="center">35</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">73</td>
<td class="br" align="center">72</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">35</td>
<td class="br" align="center">39</td>
<td class="br" align="center">50</td>
<td class="br" align="center">16</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">43</td>
<td class="br" align="center">10</td>
<td class="br" align="center">10</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">44</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">45</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">46</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">47</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">48</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">12</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">49</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">52</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr" align="center">53</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
<td class="bbrdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
<td class="bbrdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">...</td></tr></table>
<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXV.</span></p>
<p class="center"><i>Comparison between Random and Observed Events.</i></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" class="btlrdoub">Fore.</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" class="btrdoub">Middle.</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" class="btr">Ring.</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btlr">Random.</td>
<td align="center" class="btrdoub">Observed.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">Random.</td>
<td align="center" class="btrdoub">Observed.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">Random.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">Observed.</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btlr">1·20</td>
<td align="center" class="btrdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0·26</span></td>
<td align="center" class="btrdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0·23</span></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">0·08</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">...</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0·11</span></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0·05</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">...</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">1·28</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0·05</span></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">...</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0·23</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">...</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">0·08</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">...</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0·07</span></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">...</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1·87</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">0·06</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">...</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0·05</span></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">...</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0·08</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">...</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">0·95</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2·05</span></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0·46</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">0·64</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">...</td>
<td align="center" class="br">34·08</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">35</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1·68</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">5·18</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0·16</span></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">...</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0·11</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">...</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">0·67</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"> </td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"> </td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0·06</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">0·32</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"> </td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"> </td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0·72</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">0·08</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">...</td>
<td align="center" class="br"> </td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"> </td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0·48</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">...</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="bblr">0·48</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"> </td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"> </td>
<td align="center" class="br">13·00</td>
<td align="center" class="br">16</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">All others.</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"> </td>
<td align="center" class="br"> </td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"> </td>
<td align="center" class="br"> </td>
<td align="center" class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="bblr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0·29</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bbrdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0·28</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bbrdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0·12</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="bblr">11·31</td>
<td align="center" class="bbrdoub">20</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">37·11</td>
<td align="center" class="bbrdoub">45</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">19·09</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">30</td></tr></table>
<p> </p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXVI.</span></p>
<p class="center"><i>Centesimal Scale (to nearest whole numbers).</i></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td align="center" class="btlr">150 fraternal couplets.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">Random.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">Observed.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">Utmost<br />possibilities.</td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" class="btr">Reduced<br />to lower<br />limit=0.</td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" class="btr">Reduced<br />to upper<br />limit=100.</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"> </td>
<td align="center" class="btr"> </td>
<td align="center" class="btr"> </td>
<td align="center" class="btr"> </td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" class="btr"> </td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" class="btr">Centesimal scale.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">Fore-finger</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">11·31</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">20</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">115</td>
<td align="center" class="bt">0</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
<td align="center" class="btr">104</td>
<td align="center" class="bt">0°</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9°</span></td>
<td align="center" class="btr">100°</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Middle</td>
<td align="center" class="br">37·11</td>
<td align="center" class="br">45</td>
<td align="center" class="br">117</td>
<td align="center">0</td>
<td align="center">10</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">80</span></td>
<td align="center">0°</td>
<td align="center">10°</td>
<td align="center" class="br">100°</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Ring</td>
<td align="center" class="br">19·09</td>
<td align="center" class="br">31</td>
<td align="center" class="br">118</td>
<td align="center">0</td>
<td align="center">12</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">99</span></td>
<td align="center">0°</td>
<td align="center">12°</td>
<td align="center" class="br">100°</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btl" colspan="4"> </td>
<td class="btr" colspan="3">Mean</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">0°</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">10°</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">100°</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btlr">50 additional couplets,</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"> </td>
<td align="center" class="btr"> </td>
<td align="center" class="btr"> </td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" class="btr"> </td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" class="btr"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">Middle finger only</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8·2</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">11</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">22</span></td>
<td align="center">0</td>
<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">14</span></td>
<td align="center">0°</td>
<td align="center">21°</td>
<td align="center" class="br">100°</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btlr">Loops only, and on<br />middle finger only.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"> </td>
<td align="center" class="btr"> </td>
<td align="center" class="btr"> </td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" class="btr"> </td>
<td colspan="3" align="center" class="btr"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">150 couplets</td>
<td align="center" class="br">34·0</td>
<td align="center" class="br">35</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">72</span></td>
<td align="center">0</td>
<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">72</span></td>
<td align="center">0°</td>
<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1¼°</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">100°</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">50 couplets</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6·4</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">14</span></td>
<td class="bb" align="center">0</td>
<td class="bb" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">0·6</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">8</span></td>
<td class="bb" align="center">0°</td>
<td class="bb" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8°</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">100°</td></tr></table>
<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>Table XXIV. contains all the Observed events, and is to be read thus,
beginning at the first entry. Pattern No. 1 occurs on the right
fore-finger fifteen times among the A brothers, and twelve times among the
B brothers; while in four of these cases both brothers have that same
pattern.</p>
<p>Table XXV. compares the Random events with the Observed ones. Every case
in which the calculated expectation is equal to or exceeds 0·05, is
inserted in detail; the remaining group of petty cases are summed together
and their totals entered in the bottom line. For fear of misapprehension
or forgetfulness, one other example of the way in which the Randoms are
calculated will be given here, taking for the purpose the first entry in
Table XXIV. Thus, the number of all the different combinations of the 150
A with the 150 B individuals in the 150 couplets, is 150 × 150. Out of
these, the number of double events in which pattern No. 1 would appear in
the same combination, is 15 × 12 = 180. Therefore in 150 trials, the
double event of pattern No. 1 would appear upon the average, on 180
divided by 150, or on 1·20 occasions. As a matter of fact, it appeared
four times. These figures will be found in the first line of Table XXV.;
the rest of its contents have been calculated in the same way.</p>
<p>Leaving aside the Randoms that exceed 0 but are less than 1, there are
nineteen cases in which the Random may be compared with the Observed
values; in all but two of these the Observed are the highest, and in these
two the Random exceed the Observed by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> only trifling amounts, namely, 5·18
Random against 5·00 Observed; 1·87 Random against 1·00 Observed. It is
impossible, therefore, to doubt from the steady way in which the Observed
values overtop the Randoms, that there is a greater average likeness in
the finger marks of two brothers, than in those of two persons taken at
hazard.</p>
<p>Table XXVI. gives the results of applying the centesimal scale to the
measurement of the average closeness of fraternal resemblance, in respect
to finger prints, according to the method and under the reservations
already explained in page 125. The average value thus assigned to it is a
little more than 10°. The values obtained from the three fingers
severally, from which that average was derived, are 9°, 10°, and 12°; they
agree together better than might have been expected. The value obtained
from a set of fifty additional couplets of the middle fingers only, of
fraternals, is wider, being 21°. Its inclusion with the rest raises the
average of all to between 10 and 11.</p>
<p>In the pre-eminently frequent event of loops with an outward slope on the
middle finger, it is remarkable that the Random cases are nearly equal to
the Observed ones; they are 34·08 to 35·00. It was to obtain some
assurance that this equality was not due to statistical accident, that the
additional set of fifty couplets were tabulated. They tell, however, the
same tale, viz. 6·4 Randoms to 7·0 Observed. The loops on the fore-fingers
confirm this, showing 5·18 Randoms to 5·00 Observed; those on the
ring-finger have the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> same peculiarity, though in a slighter degree, 13 to
16: the average of other patterns shows a much greater difference than
that. I am unable to account for this curious behaviour of the loops,
which can hardly be due to statistical accident, in the face of so much
concurrent evidence.</p>
<p><i>Twins.</i>—The signs of heredity between brothers and sisters ought to be
especially apparent between twins of the same sex, who are physiologically
related in a peculiar degree and are sometimes extraordinarily alike. More
rarely, they are remarkably dissimilar. The instances of only a moderate
family resemblance between twins of the same sex are much less frequent
than between ordinary brothers and sisters, or between twins of opposite
sex. All this has been discussed in my <i>Human Faculty</i>. In order to test
the truth of the expectation, I procured prints of the fore, middle, and
ring-fingers of seventeen sets of twins, and compared them, with the
results shown in Table XXVII.</p>
<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXVII.</span></p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">17 Sets of Twins</span> (A and B).</p>
<p class="center"><i>Comparison between the patterns on the Fore, Middle, and Ring-fingers respectively of the Right hand.</i></p>
<p class="center">Agreement (=), 19 cases; partial (··), 13 cases; disagreement (×), 19 cases.</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td class="btlr"> </td>
<td class="bt" align="center">A</td>
<td class="bt"> </td>
<td class="btr" align="center">B</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">A</td>
<td class="bt"> </td>
<td class="btr" align="center">B</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">A</td>
<td class="bt"> </td>
<td class="btr" align="center">B</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">A</td>
<td class="bt"> </td>
<td class="btr" align="center">B</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">A</td>
<td class="bt"> </td>
<td class="btr" align="center">B</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">Fore</td>
<td align="center" class="bt">42</td>
<td align="center" class="bt">=</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">42</td>
<td align="center" class="bt">21</td>
<td align="center" class="bt">=</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">21</td>
<td align="center" class="bt">40</td>
<td align="center" class="bt">=</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">40</td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bt">=</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bt"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td align="center" class="bt">=</td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Middle<span class="spacer3"> </span></td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td align="center">=</td>
<td align="center" class="br">42</td>
<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td align="center">=</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td align="center">32</td>
<td align="center">×</td>
<td align="center" class="br">42</td>
<td align="center">15</td>
<td align="center">··</td>
<td align="center" class="br">32</td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td align="center">=</td>
<td align="center" class="br">42</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Ring</td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td align="center">=</td>
<td align="center" class="br">42</td>
<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td align="center">=</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td align="center">=</td>
<td align="center" class="br">42</td>
<td align="center">33</td>
<td align="center">=</td>
<td align="center" class="br">33</td>
<td align="center">40</td>
<td align="center">×</td>
<td align="center" class="br">19</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr"> </td>
<td class="br" colspan="3"> </td>
<td class="br" colspan="3"> </td>
<td class="br" colspan="3"> </td>
<td class="br" colspan="3"> </td>
<td class="br" colspan="3"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Fore</td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td align="center">=</td>
<td align="center" class="br">42</td>
<td align="center">43</td>
<td align="center">×</td>
<td align="center" class="br">15</td>
<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td align="center">=</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td align="center">15</td>
<td align="center">×</td>
<td align="center" class="br">34</td>
<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td align="center">··</td>
<td align="center" class="br">42</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Middle</td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td align="center">=</td>
<td align="center" class="br">42</td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td align="center">··</td>
<td align="center" class="br">40</td>
<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td align="center">×</td>
<td align="center" class="br">40</td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td align="center">=</td>
<td align="center" class="br">42</td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td align="center">=</td>
<td align="center" class="br">42</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Ring</td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td align="center">··</td>
<td align="center" class="br">46</td>
<td align="center">35</td>
<td align="center">=</td>
<td align="center" class="br">35</td>
<td align="center">40</td>
<td align="center">··</td>
<td align="center" class="br">42</td>
<td align="center">14</td>
<td align="center">×</td>
<td align="center" class="br">32</td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td align="center">×</td>
<td align="center" class="br">14</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr"> </td>
<td class="br" colspan="3"> </td>
<td class="br" colspan="3"> </td>
<td class="br" colspan="3"> </td>
<td class="br" colspan="3"> </td>
<td class="br" colspan="3"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Fore</td>
<td align="center">49</td>
<td align="center">··</td>
<td align="center" class="br">14</td>
<td align="center">15</td>
<td align="center">×</td>
<td align="center" class="br">49</td>
<td align="center">15</td>
<td align="center">··</td>
<td align="center" class="br">16</td>
<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td align="center">×</td>
<td align="center" class="br">42</td>
<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td align="center">×</td>
<td align="center" class="br">15</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Middle</td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td align="center">=</td>
<td align="center" class="br">42</td>
<td align="center">23</td>
<td align="center">×</td>
<td align="center" class="br">14</td>
<td align="center">19</td>
<td align="center">×</td>
<td align="center" class="br">42</td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td align="center">··</td>
<td align="center" class="br">48</td>
<td align="center">32</td>
<td align="center">×</td>
<td align="center" class="br">22</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Ring</td>
<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
<td align="center">··</td>
<td align="center" class="br">32</td>
<td align="center">14</td>
<td align="center">··</td>
<td align="center" class="br">16</td>
<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td align="center">··</td>
<td align="center" class="br">18</td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td align="center">×</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td align="center">18</td>
<td align="center">×</td>
<td align="center" class="br">23</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr"> </td>
<td class="br" colspan="3"> </td>
<td class="br" colspan="3"> </td>
<td class="br" colspan="3"> </td>
<td class="br" colspan="3"> </td>
<td class="br" colspan="3"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Fore</td>
<td align="center">48</td>
<td align="center">×</td>
<td align="center" class="br">33</td>
<td align="center">(loop)</td>
<td align="center">×</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
<td class="br" colspan="3"> </td>
<td class="br" colspan="3"> </td>
<td class="br" colspan="3"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Middle</td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td align="center">×</td>
<td align="center" class="br">22</td>
<td align="center">48</td>
<td align="center">×</td>
<td align="center" class="br">22</td>
<td class="br" colspan="3"> </td>
<td class="br" colspan="3"> </td>
<td class="br" colspan="3"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr">Ring</td>
<td class="bb" align="center">14</td>
<td class="bb" align="center">··</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td class="bb" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
<td class="bb" align="center">··</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">35</td>
<td class="bbr" colspan="3"> </td>
<td class="bbr" colspan="3"> </td>
<td class="bbr" colspan="3"> </td></tr></table>
<p><br />The result is that out of the seventeen sets (=51 couplets), two sets
agree in all their three couplets of fingers; four sets agree in two; five
sets agree in one of the couplets. There are instances of partial
agreement in five others, and a disagreement throughout in only one of the
seventeen sets. In another collection of seventeen sets, made to compare
with this, six agreed in two of their three couplets, and five agreed in
one of them. There cannot then be the slightest doubt as to the strong
tendency to resemblance in the finger patterns in twins.</p>
<p>This remark must by no means be forced into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> sense of meaning that the
similarity is so great, that the finger print of one twin might
occasionally be mistaken for that of the other. When patterns fall into
the same class, their general forms may be conspicuously different (see <a href="#Page_74">p.
74</a>), while their smaller details, namely, the number of ridges and the
minutiæ, are practically independent of the pattern.</p>
<p>It may be mentioned that I have an inquiry in view, which has not yet been
fairly begun, owing to the want of sufficient data, namely to determine
the minutest biological unit that may be hereditarily transmissible. The
minutiæ in the finger prints of twins seem suitable objects for this
purpose.</p>
<p><i>Children of like-patterned Parents.</i>—When two parents are alike, the
average resemblance, in stature at all events, which their children bear
to them, is as close as the fraternal resemblance between the children,
and twice as close as that which the children bear to either parent
separately, when the parents are unlike.</p>
<p>The fifty-eight parentages affording fifty couplets of the fore, middle,
and ring-fingers respectively give 58 × 3 = 174 parental couplets in all;
of these, 27 or 14 per cent are alike in their pattern, as shown by Table
XXVIII. The total number of children to these twenty-seven pairs is 109,
of which 59 (or 54 per cent) have the same pattern as their parents. This
fact requires analysis, as on account of the great frequency of loops, and
especially of the pattern No. 42 on the middle finger, a large number of
the cases of similarity of pattern between child and parents would be mere
random coincidences.</p>
<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXVIII.</span>—<i>Children of like-patterned Parents.</i></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td class="btlr" align="center">The 27<br />cases.</td>
<td class="bt">Patterns of—</td>
<td class="bt" align="center">F.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">M.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">—of Sons.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Alike.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Total<br />sons.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">—of Daughters.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Alike.</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">Total<br />daughters.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Total<br />children.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Alike</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="bt">Fore</td>
<td class="bt" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center">1</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">1</td>
<td class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span>, <span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center">2</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">2</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">3</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">3</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">34</td>
<td class="br" align="center">34</td>
<td class="br">34</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br">42, 48</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">3</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">40</td>
<td class="br" align="center">40</td>
<td class="br">41</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span>, 40</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">3</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">42</td>
<td class="br">48</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="brdoub"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
<td class="dent2">Middle</td>
<td align="center">40</td>
<td class="br" align="center">40</td>
<td class="br">40</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br">40</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">42</td>
<td class="br">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">42</td>
<td class="br">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br">40</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">42</td>
<td class="br">42, 38, 42, 42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">3</td>
<td class="br" align="center">4</td>
<td class="br">40, <span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">6</td>
<td class="br" align="center">3</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">42</td>
<td class="br">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br">40, 42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">3</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">10</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">42</td>
<td class="br">48, 48, 14</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">4</td>
<td class="br">42, 42, 48, 42, 42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">4</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">5</td>
<td class="br" align="center">9</td>
<td class="br" align="center">5</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">11</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">42</td>
<td class="br">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span>, 40</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">3</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">12</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">42</td>
<td class="br">40</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br">42, 42, 42, 42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">4</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">4</td>
<td class="br" align="center">5</td>
<td class="br" align="center">4</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">13</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">42</td>
<td class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">14</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">42</td>
<td class="br">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br">42, 42, 42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">3</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">3</td>
<td class="br" align="center">4</td>
<td class="br" align="center">4</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">15</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">42</td>
<td class="br">42, 46, 42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">3</td>
<td class="br">42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">3</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">3</td>
<td class="br" align="center">4</td>
<td class="br" align="center">4</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">16</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">42</td>
<td class="br">34, 42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br">33, 42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">4</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">17</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">42</td>
<td class="br">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br">40, 42, <span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">3</td>
<td class="br" align="center">4</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">18</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">42</td>
<td class="br">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br">42, 42 (twins)</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="brdoub"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">19</td>
<td class="dent2">Ring</td>
<td align="center">14</td>
<td class="br" align="center">14</td>
<td class="br">33, 42, 14</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">3</td>
<td class="br">32, 40</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">5</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">20</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">14</td>
<td class="br" align="center">14</td>
<td class="br">42, 16</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br">16, 14, 42, 42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">4</td>
<td class="br" align="center">6</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">21</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">14</td>
<td class="br" align="center">14</td>
<td class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span>, 35, 48, 32, 14</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">5</td>
<td class="br" align="center">6</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">22</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">42</td>
<td class="br">40</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br">40</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">23</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">42</td>
<td class="br">42, 42, 42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">3</td>
<td class="br" align="center">3</td>
<td class="br">40, 42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">5</td>
<td class="br" align="center">4</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">24</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">42</td>
<td class="br">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br">40, 42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">25</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">42</td>
<td class="br">42, 42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br">42, 40, 42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">3</td>
<td class="br" align="center">5</td>
<td class="br" align="center">4</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">26</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">42</td>
<td class="br">49, 14</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2</td>
<td class="br">42, 42, 42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">3</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">3</td>
<td class="br" align="center">5</td>
<td class="br" align="center">3</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="blr">27</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">46</td>
<td class="br" align="center">46</td>
<td class="br">48, 40, 16</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">4</td>
<td class="br">16, 38</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
<td class="bbrdoub" align="center">2</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">6</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr"> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">22</td>
<td class="br" align="center">41</td>
<td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Daughters</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">37</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">65</td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr"> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br" align="center"> </td>
<td class="br" align="center"> </td>
<td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Sons</span></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">22</td>
<td class="bbrdoub" align="center">44</td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr"> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="bbr"> </td>
<td class="bbr"> </td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"> </td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"> </td>
<td class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Total Children</span></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">59</td>
<td class="bbrdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">109</span></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">109</span></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">59</td></tr></table>
<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>There are nineteen cases of both parents having the commonest of the loop
patterns, No. 42, on a corresponding finger. They have between them
seventy-five children, of whom forty-eight have the pattern No. 42, on the
same finger as their parents, and eighteen others have loops of other
kinds on that same finger, making a total of sixty-six coincidences out of
the possible 75, or 88 per cent, which is a great increase upon the normal
proportion of loops of the No. 42 pattern in the fore, middle, and
ring-fingers collectively. Again, there are three cases of both parents
having a tendrilled-loop No. 15, which ranks as a whorl. Out of their
total number of seventeen children, eleven have whorls and only six have
loops.</p>
<p>Lastly, there is a single case of both parents having an arch, and all
their three children have arches; whereas in the total of 109 children in
the table, there are only four other cases of an arch.</p>
<p>This partial analysis accounts for the whole of the like-patterned
parents, except four couples, which are one of No. 34, two of No. 40, and
one of No. 46. These concur in telling the same general tale, recollecting
that No. 46 might almost be reckoned as a transitional case between a loop
and a whorl.</p>
<p>The decided tendency to hereditary transmission cannot be gainsaid in the
face of these results, but the number of cases is too few to justify
quantitative conclusions. It is not for the present worth while to extend
them, for the reason already mentioned, namely, an ignorance of the
allowance that ought to be made for related patterns. On this account it
does<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> not seem useful to print the results of a large amount of tabulation
bearing on the simple filial relationship between the child and either
parent separately, except so far as appears in the following paragraph.</p>
<p><i>Relative Influence of the Father and the Mother.</i>—Through one of those
statistical accidents which are equivalent to long runs of luck at a
gaming table, a concurrence in the figures brought out by Mr. Collins
suggested to him the existence of a decided preponderance of maternal
influence in the hereditary transmission of finger patterns. His further
inquiries have, however, cast some doubt on earlier and provisional
conclusions, and the following epitomises all of value that can as yet be
said in favour of the superiority of the maternal influence.</p>
<p>The fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the right hands of the father,
mother, and all their accessible children, in many families, were
severally tabulated under the fifty-three heads already specified. The
total number of children was 389, namely 136 sons and 219 daughters. The
same pattern was found on the same finger, both of a child and of one or
other of his parents, in the following number of cases:—</p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXIX.</span></p>
<p class="center"><i>Relative Influence of Father and Mother.</i></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td class="btlr"> </td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Fore.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Middle.</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">Ring.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Totals.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Corrected<br />Totals.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center" colspan="2"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr">Father and son</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">17</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">35</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">28</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">80</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">80</td>
<td class="bt" rowspan="2"><span class="giant">}</span></td>
<td class="btr" rowspan="2" align="center">149</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr"><span class="spacer3"> </span>"<span class="spacer3"> </span>"<span class="spacer3"> </span>daughter</td>
<td class="br" align="center">29</td>
<td class="br" align="center">52</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">30</td>
<td class="br" align="center">(111)</td>
<td class="br" align="center">69</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr">Mother and son</td>
<td class="br" align="center">18</td>
<td class="br" align="center">50</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">26</td>
<td class="br" align="center">94</td>
<td class="br" align="center">94</td>
<td class="bb" rowspan="2"><span class="giant">}</span></td>
<td class="bbr" rowspan="2" align="center">186</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr"><span class="spacer3"> </span>"<span class="spacer3"> </span>"<span class="spacer3"> </span>daughter</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">38</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">75</td>
<td class="bbrdoub" align="center">35</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">(148)</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">92</td></tr></table>
<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>The entries in the first three columns are not comparable on equal terms,
on account of the large difference between the numbers of the sons and
daughters. This difference is easily remedied by multiplying the number of
daughters by <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>136</sup></span>⁄<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">219</span>,
that is by 0·621, as has been done in the fifth
column headed Corrected Totals. It would appear from these figures, that
the maternal influence is more powerful than the paternal in the
proportion of 186 to 149, or as 5 to 4; but, as some of the details from
which the totals are built up, vary rather widely, it is better for the
present to reserve an opinion as to their trustworthiness.</p>
<p> </p><p> </p>
<hr style="width: 50%;" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2>
<p class="center"><span class="large">RACES AND CLASSES</span></p>
<p>The races whose finger prints I have studied in considerable numbers are
English, pure Welsh, Hebrew, and Negro; also some Basques from Cambo in
the French Pyrenees, twenty miles south-east of Bayonne. For the Welsh
prints I am primarily indebted to the very obliging help of Mr. R. W.
Atkinson, of Cardiff, who interested the masters of schools in purely
Welsh-speaking mountainous districts on my behalf; for the Hebrew prints
to Mr. Isidore Spielman, who introduced me to the great Hebrew schools in
London, whose head-masters gave cordial assistance; and for the Negro
prints to Sir George Taubman Goldie, Dep. Governor of the Royal Niger Co.,
who interested Dr Crosse on my behalf, from whom valuable sets of prints
were received, together with particulars of the races of the men from whom
they were made. As to the Basques, they were printed by myself.</p>
<p>It requires considerable patience and caution to arrive at trustworthy
conclusions, but it may emphatically be said that there is no <i>peculiar</i>
pattern which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> characterises persons of any of the above races. There is
no particular pattern that is special to any one of them, which when met
with enables us to assert, or even to suspect, the nationality of the
person on whom it appeared. The only differences so far observed, are
statistical, and cannot be determined except through patience and caution,
and by discussing large groups.</p>
<p>I was misled at first by some accidental observations, and as it seemed
reasonable to expect to find racial differences in finger marks, the
inquiries were continued in varied ways until hard fact had made hope no
longer justifiable.</p>
<p>After preliminary study, I handed over the collection of racial finger
prints to Mr F. Howard Collins, who kindly undertook the labour of
tabulating them in many ways, of which it will be only necessary to give
an example. Thus, at one time attention was concentrated on a single
finger and a single pattern, the most instructive instance being that of
arches on the right fore-finger. They admit of being defined with
sufficient clearness, having only one doubtful frontier of much
importance, namely that at which they begin to break away into
nascent-loops, etc. They also occur with considerable frequency on the
fore-finger, so the results from a few hundred specimens ought to be
fairly trustworthy. It mattered little in the inquiry, at what level the
limit was drawn to separate arches from nascent-loops, so long as the same
limit was observed in all races alike. Much pains were taken to secure
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>uniformity of treatment, and Mr. Collins selected two limits, the one
based on a strict and the other on a somewhat less strict interpretation
of the term “arches,” but the latter was not so liberal as that which I
had used myself in the earlier inquiries (see p. 114). His results showed
no great difference in the proportionate frequency of arches in the
different races, whichever limit was observed; the following table refers
to the more liberal limit:—</p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXX.</span></p>
<p class="center"><i>Frequency of Arches in the Right Fore-Finger.</i></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td class="btlr" align="center">No. of<br />Persons.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Race.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">No. of<br />Arches.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Per Cents.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">250</span></td>
<td class="btr">English</td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">34</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center">13·6</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">250</span></td>
<td class="br">Welsh</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">26</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">10·8</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">1332</td>
<td class="br">Hebrew</td>
<td class="br" align="center">105</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7·9</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">250</span></td>
<td class="br">Negro</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">27</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">11·3</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr"> </td>
<td class="br" align="center"><i>Hebrews in detail</i>—</td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">500</span></td>
<td class="br">Boys, Bell Lane School</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">35</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7·0</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">400</span></td>
<td class="br">Girls, Bell Lane School</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">34</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8·5</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">220</span></td>
<td class="br">Boys, Tavistock St. & Hanway St.</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">18</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8·2</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">212</span></td>
<td class="bbr">Girls, Hanway Street School</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">18</span></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8·5</span></td></tr></table>
<p><br />The two contrasted values here are the English and the Hebrew. The 1332
cases of the latter give a percentage result of 7·9, which differs as may
be seen less than 1 per cent from that of any one of the four large groups
upon which the average is based. The 250 cases of English are
comparatively few, but the experience I have had of other English prints
is so large as to enable me to say confidently that the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>percentage result
of 13·6 is not too great. It follows, that the percentage of arches in the
English and in the Hebrew differs in the ratio of 13·6 to 7·9, or nearly
as 5 to 3. This is the largest statistical difference yet met with. The
deficiency in arches among the Hebrews, and to some extent in loops also,
is made up by a superiority in whorls, chiefly of the tendril or
circlet-in-loop patterns.</p>
<p>It would be very rash to suppose that this relative infrequency of arches
among the Hebrews was of fundamental importance, considering that such
totally distinct races as the Welsh and the Negro have them in an
intermediate proportion. Still, why does it occur? The only answer I can
suggest is that the patterns being in some degree hereditary, such
accidental preponderances as may have existed among a not very numerous
ancestry might be perpetuated. I have some reason to believe that local
peculiarities of this sort exist in England, the children in schools of
some localities seeming to be statistically more alike in their patterns
than English children generally.</p>
<p>Another of the many experiments was the tabulation separately by Mr.
Collins of the fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the right hand of fifty
persons of each of the five races above-mentioned: English, Welsh, Basque,
Hebrew, and different groups of Negroes. The number of instances is of
course too small for statistical deductions, but they served to make it
clear that no very marked characteristic distinguished the races. The
impressions from Negroes betray the general clumsiness of their fingers,
but their patterns<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> are not, so far as I can find, different from those of
others, they are not simpler as judged either by their contours or by the
number of origins, embranchments, islands, and enclosures contained in
them. Still, whether it be from pure fancy on my part, or from the way in
which they were printed, or from some real peculiarity, the general aspect
of the Negro print strikes me as characteristic. The width of the ridges
seems more uniform, their intervals more regular, and their courses more
parallel than with us. In short, they give an idea of greater simplicity,
due to causes that I have not yet succeeded in submitting to the test of
measurement.</p>
<p>The above are only a few examples of the laborious work so kindly
undertaken for me by Mr. F. H. Collins, but it would serve no useful
purpose to give more in this book, as no positive results have as yet been
derived from it other than the little already mentioned.</p>
<p>The most hopeful direction in which this inquiry admits of being pursued
is among the Hill tribes of India, Australian blacks, and other diverse
and so-called aboriginal races. The field of ethnology is large, and it
would be unwise as yet to neglect the chance of somewhere finding
characteristic patterns.</p>
<hr style="width: 25%;" />
<p>Differences between finger prints of different classes might continue to
exist although those of different races are inconspicuous, because every
race contains men of various temperaments and faculties, and we cannot
tell, except by observation, whether any of these are correlated with the
finger marks. Several different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> classes have been examined both by Mr.
Collins and myself. The ordinary laboratory work supplies finger prints of
persons of much culture, and of many students both in the Art and in the
Science schools. I took a large number of prints from the worst idiots in
the London district, through the obliging assistance of Dr. Fletcher
Beech, of the Darenth Asylum; my collections made at Board Schools are
numerous, and I have one of field labourers in Dorsetshire and
Somersetshire. But there is no notable difference in any of them. For
example; the measurements of the ridge-interval gave the same results in
the art-students and in the science-students, and I have prints of eminent
thinkers and of eminent statesmen that can be matched by those of
congenital idiots.<a name='fna_5' id='fna_5' href='#f_5'><small>[5]</small></a> No indications of temperament, character, or ability
are to be found in finger marks, so far as I have been able to discover.</p>
<p>Of course these conclusions must not be applied to the general shape of
the hand, which as yet I have not studied, but which seems to offer a very
interesting field for exact inquiry.</p>
<p> </p><p> </p>
<hr style="width: 50%;" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
<p class="center"><span class="large">GENERA</span></p>
<p>The same familiar patterns recur in every large collection of finger
prints, and the eye soon selects what appear to be typical forms; but are
they truly “typical” or not? By a type I understand an ideal form around
which the actual forms are grouped, very closely in its immediate
neighbourhood, and becoming more rare with increasing rapidity at an
increasing distance from it, just as is the case with shot marks to the
right or left of a line drawn vertically through the bull’s eye of a
target. The analogy is exact; in both cases there is a well-defined point
of departure; in both cases the departure of individual instances from
that point is due to a multitude of independently variable causes. In
short, both are realisations of the now well-known theoretical law of
Frequency of Error. The problem then is this:—take some one of the
well-marked patterns, such as it appears on a particular digit,—say a
loop on the right thumb; find the average number of ridges that cross a
specified portion of it; then this average value will determine an ideal
centre from which individual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> departures may be measured; next, tabulate
the frequency of the departures that attain to each of many successive
specified distances from that ideal centre; then see whether their
diminishing frequency as the distances increase, is or is not in
accordance with the law of frequency of error. If it is, then the central
form has the attributes of a true type, and such will be shown to be the
case with the loops of either thumb. I shall only give the data and the
results, not the precise way in which they are worked out, because an
account of the method employed in similar cases will be found in <i>Natural
Inheritance</i>, and again in the Memoir on Finger Prints in the <i>Phil.
Trans.</i>; it is too technical to be appropriate here, and would occupy too
much space. The only point which need be briefly explained and of which
non-mathematical readers might be ignorant, is how a single numerical
table derived from abstract calculations can be made to apply to such
minute objects as finger prints, as well as to the shot marks on a huge
target; what is the common unit by which departures on such different
scales are measured? The answer is that it is a self-contained unit
appropriate to <i>each series severally</i>, and technically called the
Probable Error, or more briefly, P.E., in the headings to the following
tables. In order to determine it, the range of the central half of the
series has to be measured, namely, of that part of the series which
remains after its two extreme quarters have been cut off and removed. The
series had no limitation before, its two ends tailing away indefinitely
into nothingness,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> but, by the artifice of lopping off a definite fraction
of the whole series from both ends of it, a sharply-defined length, call
it PQ, is obtained. Such series as have usually to be dealt with are
fairly symmetrical, so the position of the half-way point M, between P and
Q, corresponds with rough accuracy to the average of the positions of all
the members of the series, that is to the point whence departures have to
be measured. MP, or MQ,—or still better, ½(MP + MQ) is the
above-mentioned Probable Error. It is so called because the amount of
Error, or Departure from M of any one observation, falls just as often
within the distance PE as it falls without it. In the calculated tables of
the Law of Frequency, PE (or a multiple of it) is taken as unity. In each
observed series, the actual measures have to be converted into another
scale, in which the PE of that series is taken as unity. Then observation
and calculation may be compared on equal terms.</p>
<div class="figleft"><img src="images/fig_pg200.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p>Observations were made on the loops of the right and left thumbs
respectively. AHB is taken as the primary line of reference in the loop;
it is the line that, coinciding with the axis of the <i>uppermost portion</i>,
and that only, of the core, cuts the summit of the core at H, the upper
outline at A, and the lower outline, if it cuts it at all, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> it nearly
always does, at B. K is the centre of the single triangular plot that
appears in the loop, which may be either I or O. KNL is a perpendicular
from K to the axis, cutting it at N, and the outline beyond at L. In some
loops N will lie above H, as in <a href="#plate4">Plate 4</a>, Fig. 8; in some it may coincide
with H. (See <a href="#plate6">Plate 6</a> for numerous varieties of loop.) These points were
pricked in each print with a fine needle; the print was then turned face
downwards and careful measurements made between the prick holes at the
back. Also the number of ridges in AH were counted, the ridge at A being
reckoned as 0, the next ridge as 1, and so on up to H. Whenever the line
AH passed across the neck of a bifurcation, there was necessarily a single
ridge on one side of the point of intersection and two ridges on the
other, so there would clearly be doubt whether to reckon the neck as one
or as two ridges. A compromise was made by counting it as 1½. After the
number of ridges in AH had been counted in each case, any residual
fractions of ½ were alternately treated as 0 and as 1. Finally, six
series were obtained; three for the right thumb, and three for the left.
They referred respectively (1) to the Number of Ridges in AH; (2) to
KL/NB; (3) to AN/AH, all the three being independent of stature. The
number of measures in each of the six series varied from 140 to 176; they
are reduced to percentages in Table XXXI.</p>
<p>We see at a glance that the different numbers of ridges in AH do not occur
with equal frequency, that a single ridge in the thumb is a rarity, and so
are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> cases above fifteen in number, but those of seven, eight, and nine
are frequent. There is clearly a rude order in their distribution, the
number of cases tailing away into nothingness, at the top and bottom of
the column. A vast amount of statistical analogy assures us that the
orderliness of the distribution would be increased if many more cases had
been observed, and later on, this inference will be confirmed. There is a
sharp inferior limit to the numbers of ridges, because they cannot be less
than 0, but independently of this, we notice the infrequency of small
numbers as well as of large ones. There is no strict limit to the latter,
but the trend of the entries shows that forty, say, or more ridges in AH
are practically impossible. Therefore, in no individual case can the
number of ridges in AH depart very widely from seven, eight, or nine,
though the range of possible departures is not sharply defined, except at
the lower limit of 0. The range of variation is <i>not</i> “rounded off,” to
use a common but very inaccurate expression often applied to the way in
which genera are isolated. The range of possible departures is not defined
by any rigid boundary, but the rarity of the stragglers rapidly increases
with the distance at which they are found, until no more of them are met
with.</p>
<p>The values of KL/NB and of AN/AH run in a less orderly sequence, but
concur distinctly in telling a similar tale. Considering the paucity of
the observations, there is nothing in these results to contradict the
expectation of increased regularity, should a large addition be made to
their number.</p>
<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span></p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXXI.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td class="btlr" align="center" rowspan="3">No. of<br />ridges<br />in AH.</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center" colspan="2">No. of cases reduced<br />to per cents.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center" rowspan="3">KL<br />—<br />NB</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center" colspan="2">No. of cases reduced<br />to per cents.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center" rowspan="3">AN<br />—<br />AH</td>
<td class="btr" align="center" colspan="2">No. of cases reduced<br />to per cents.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Right.</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">Left.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Right.</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">Left.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Right.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Left.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btr" align="center">171 cases.</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">166 cases.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">149 cases.</td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">140 cases.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">176 cases.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">163 cases.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btlr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">0·3-0·4</td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="btrdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center">0·1-0·2</td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">0·5-0·6</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">11</td>
<td class="br" align="center">0·3-0·4</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">0·7-0·8</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">14</td>
<td class="br" align="center">0·5-0·6</td>
<td class="br" align="center">11</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">0·9-1·0</td>
<td class="br" align="center">21</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">18</td>
<td class="br" align="center">0·7-0·8</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">1·1-1·2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">16</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">23</td>
<td class="br" align="center">0·9-1·0</td>
<td class="br" align="center">22</td>
<td class="br" align="center">15</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">18</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1·3-1·4</td>
<td class="br" align="center">24</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">1·1-1·2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">15</td>
<td class="br" align="center">13</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">14</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1·5-1·6</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">10</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1·3-1·4</td>
<td class="br" align="center">12</td>
<td class="br" align="center">12</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">16</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1·7-1·8</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">1·5-1·6</td>
<td class="br" align="center">11</td>
<td class="br" align="center">14</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">11</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">10</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1·9-2·0</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">1·7-1·8</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">10</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">10</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">2·1-2·2</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">1·9-2·0</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">11</td>
<td class="br" align="center">14</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">10</td>
<td class="br" align="center">above</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">2·1-2·2</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">12</td>
<td class="br" align="center">11</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2·3-2·4</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">13</td>
<td class="br" align="center">10</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2·5-2·6</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">14</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2·7-2·8</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">15</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">2·9-3·0</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="blr" align="center">above</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
<td class="bbrdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">...</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
<td class="bbrdoub" align="center">...</td>
<td class="br" align="center">above</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
<td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="bblr"> </td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">100</td>
<td class="bbrdoub" align="center">100</td>
<td class="bbr"> </td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">100</td>
<td class="bbrdoub" align="center">100</td>
<td class="bbr"> </td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">100</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">100</td></tr></table>
<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span></p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXXII.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" class="btlr" rowspan="4">Abscissae<br />reckoned in<br />centesimal<br />parts of<br />the<br />interval<br />between<br />the limits<br />of the<br />scheme.<br />0° to 100°.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr" colspan="12">Ordinates to the six schemes of Distribution, being the ordinates drawn from the base of each scheme<br />at selected centesimal divisions of the base.</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4" align="center" class="btrdoub">No. of ridges in AH.</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" class="btrdoub">Values of KL/NB</td>
<td colspan="4" align="center" class="btr">Values of AN/AH</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" class="btr">Right.</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" class="btrdoub">Left.</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" class="btr">Right.</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" class="btrdoub">Left.</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" class="btr">Right.</td>
<td colspan="2" align="center" class="btr">Left.</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btr">Observed.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">Calculated<br />from<br />M=10·4<br />p.e.=2·3</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">Observed.</td>
<td align="center" class="btrdoub">Calculated<br />from<br />M=7·8<br />p.e.=1·9</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">Observed.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">Calculated<br />from<br />M=1·15<br />p.e.=0·25</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">Observed.</td>
<td align="center" class="btrdoub">Calculated<br />from<br />M=1·10<br />p.e.=0·31</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">Observed.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">Calculated<br />from<br />M=1·08<br />p.e.=0·30</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">Observed.</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">Calculated<br />from<br />M=1·36<br />p.e.=0·36</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="btl"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"> </td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3·8</span></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4·8</span></td>
<td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3·8</span></td>
<td align="center" class="btrdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3·2</span></td>
<td align="center" class="btr">0·54</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">0·54</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">0·49</td>
<td align="center" class="btrdoub">0·35</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">0·36</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">0·32</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">0·58</td>
<td align="center" class="btr">0·48</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="bl"> </td>
<td align="center" class="br">10</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5·5</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6·0</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4·8</span></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4·2</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·64</td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·67</td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·59</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">0·51</td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·50</td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·48</td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·74</td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·68</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="bl"> </td>
<td align="center" class="br">20</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7·3</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7·5</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5·8</span></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5·4</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·85</td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·84</td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·78</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">0·71</td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·66</td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·67</td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·96</td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·91</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="bl">25</td>
<td align="center" class="br"> </td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7·9</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8·1</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6·1</span></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5·9</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·91</td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·90</td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·83</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">0·79</td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·79</td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·75</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·00</td>
<td align="center" class="br">l·00</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="bl"> </td>
<td align="center" class="br">30</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8·5</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8·6</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6·4</span></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6·3</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·99</td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·95</td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·89</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">0·86</td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·87</td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·82</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·04</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·08</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="bl"> </td>
<td align="center" class="br">40</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9·5</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9·5</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7·1</span></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7·4</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·05</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·05</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·00</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">0·98</td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·98</td>
<td align="center" class="br">0·93</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·21</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·22</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="bl"> </td>
<td align="center" class="br">50</td>
<td align="center" class="br">10·5</td>
<td align="center" class="br">10·4</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7·8</span></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7·8</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·15</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·15</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·10</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">1·10</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·04</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·05</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·37</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·36</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="bl"> </td>
<td align="center" class="br">60</td>
<td align="center" class="br">11·3</td>
<td align="center" class="br">11·3</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8·4</span></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8·2</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·29</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·25</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·18</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">1·22</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·18</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·17</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·48</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·50</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="bl"> </td>
<td align="center" class="br">70</td>
<td align="center" class="br">12·1</td>
<td align="center" class="br">12·2</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9·3</span></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9·3</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·33</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·35</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·32</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">1·34</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·31</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·28</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·66</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·64</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="bl">75</td>
<td align="center" class="br"> </td>
<td align="center" class="br">12·5</td>
<td align="center" class="br">12·7</td>
<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9·9</span></td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9·7</span></td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·41</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·40</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·46</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">1·41</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·39</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·35</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·73</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·72</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="bl"> </td>
<td align="center" class="br">80</td>
<td align="center" class="br">13·0</td>
<td align="center" class="br">13·3</td>
<td align="center" class="br">11·0</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">10·2</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·45</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·46</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·53</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">1·49</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·48</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·43</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·90</td>
<td align="center" class="br">2·81</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="bl"> </td>
<td align="center" class="br">90</td>
<td align="center" class="br">14·3</td>
<td align="center" class="br">14·8</td>
<td align="center" class="br">11·5</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">11·4</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·77</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·63</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·73</td>
<td align="center" class="brdoub">1·69</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·69</td>
<td align="center" class="br">1·62</td>
<td align="center" class="br">2·23</td>
<td align="center" class="br">2·04</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center" class="bbl">95</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr"> </td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">15·0</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">16·0</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">12·2</td>
<td align="center" class="bbrdoub">12·2</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">2·00</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">1·76</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">1·80</td>
<td align="center" class="bbrdoub">1·85</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">1·81</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">1·78</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">2·48</td>
<td align="center" class="bbr">2·24</td></tr></table>
<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span></p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXXIII.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td class="btlr" align="center" rowspan="4" colspan="2">Abscissae<br />reckoned in<br />centesimal<br />parts of<br />the interval<br />between the<br />limits of the<br />curve.<br />0° to 100°.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center" colspan="6">Ordinates to the six curves of distribution, drawn from the axis of<br />each curve at selected centesimal divisions of it.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Observed.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Calculated.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="br" colspan="6"><br />They are here reduced to a common measure, by dividing the<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">observed deviations in each series by the probable error</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">appropriate to the series, and multiplying by 100. For the</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">values of M, whence the deviations are measured, and for</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">those of the corresponding probable error, see the headings</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">to the columns in Table II.</span></td>
<td class="btr" align="center" rowspan="3">Mean of the<br />corresponding<br />ordinates in the<br />six curves after<br />reduction to the<br />common scale of<br />p.e. = 100.<br />965 observations<br />in all.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center" rowspan="3">Ordinates to the<br />normal curve<br />of distribution,<br />probable error<br />= 100.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btr" align="center" colspan="2">No. of Ridges in AH.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center" colspan="2">Values of KL/NB</td>
<td class="btr" align="center" colspan="2">Values of AN/AH</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Right.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Left.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Right.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Left.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Right.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Left.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btl" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">5</span></td>
<td class="btr"> </td>
<td class="btr" align="center">-291</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">-211</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">-244</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">-196</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">-230</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">-217</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">-231</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">-244</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">10</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-213</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-158</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-204</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-164</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-183</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-172</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-182</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-190</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">20</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-135</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-105</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-120</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-103</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-130</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-111</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-117</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-125</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl">(P)<span style="margin-left: .5em;">25</span></td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">-109</td>
<td class="br" align="center">- 84</td>
<td class="br" align="center">- 92</td>
<td class="br" align="center">- 87</td>
<td class="br" align="center">- 87</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-100</td>
<td class="br" align="center">- 93</td>
<td class="br" align="center">-100</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">30</td>
<td class="br" align="center">- 83</td>
<td class="br" align="center">- 74</td>
<td class="br" align="center">- 64</td>
<td class="br" align="center">- 68</td>
<td class="br" align="center">- 60</td>
<td class="br" align="center">- 89</td>
<td class="br" align="center">- 73</td>
<td class="br" align="center">- 78</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">40</td>
<td class="br" align="center">- 44</td>
<td class="br" align="center">- 37</td>
<td class="br" align="center">- 44</td>
<td class="br" align="center">- 31</td>
<td class="br" align="center">- 23</td>
<td class="br" align="center">- 42</td>
<td class="br" align="center">- 37</td>
<td class="br" align="center">- 38</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl">(M) 50</td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">+ 4</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1.25em;">0</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1.25em;">0</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1.25em;">0</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1.25em;">0</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1.25em;">0</span></td>
<td class="br" align="center">+ 1</td>
<td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1.25em;">0</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">60</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+ 39</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+ 31</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+ 56</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+ 23</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+ 43</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+ 33</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+ 38</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+ 38</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">70</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+ 74</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+ 79</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+ 72</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+ 68</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+ 87</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+ 83</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+ 77</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+ 78</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl">(Q) 75</td>
<td class="br"> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">+ 91</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+116</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+104</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+116</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+113</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+103</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+107</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+100</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">80</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+113</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+168</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+120</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+138</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+143</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+150</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+139</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+125</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl"> </td>
<td class="br" align="center">90</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+170</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+200</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+248</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+203</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+213</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+242</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+213</td>
<td class="br" align="center">+190</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bbl">95</td>
<td class="bbr"> </td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">+200</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">+231</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">+340</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">+225</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">+253</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">+311</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">+260</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">+244</td></tr></table>
<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>Table XXXII. is derived from Table XXXI. by a process described by myself
in many publications, more especially in <i>Natural Inheritance</i>, and will
now be assumed as understood. Each of the six pairs of columns contain,
side by side, the Observed and Calculated values of one of the six series,
the data on which the calculations were made being also entered at the
top. The calculated figures agree with the observed ones very respectably
throughout, as can be judged even by those who are ignorant of the
principles of the method. Let us take the value that 10 per cent of each
of the six series falls short of, and 90 per cent exceed; they are entered
in the line opposite 10; we find for the six pairs successively,</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
<tr><td><i>Obs.</i>:</td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td>
<td>5·5</td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td>
<td>4·8</td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td>
<td>0·64</td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td>
<td>0·59</td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td>
<td>0·50</td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td>
<td>0·74</td></tr>
<tr><td><i>Calc.</i>:</td><td> </td>
<td>6·0</td><td> </td>
<td>4·2</td><td> </td>
<td>0·67</td><td> </td>
<td>0·51</td><td> </td>
<td>0·48</td><td> </td>
<td>0·68</td></tr></table>
<p>The correspondence between the more mediocre cases is much closer than
these, and very much closer than between the extreme cases given in the
table, namely, the values that 5 per cent fall short of, and 95 exceed.
These are of course less regular, the observed instances being very few;
but even here the observations are found to agree respectably well with
the proportions given by calculation, which is necessarily based upon the
supposition of an infinite number of cases having been included in the
series.</p>
<p>As the want of agreement between calculation and observation must be
caused in part by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> paucity of observations, it is worth while to make
a larger group, by throwing the six series together, as in Table XXXIII.,
making a grand total of 965 observations. Their value is not so great as
if they were observations taken from that number of different persons,
still they are equivalent to a large increase of those already discussed.
The six series of observed values were made comparable on equal terms by
first reducing them to a uniform PE and then by assigning to M, the point
of departure, the value of 0. The results are given in the last column but
one, where the orderly run of the observed data is much more conspicuous
than it was before. Though there is an obvious want of exact symmetry in
the observed values, their general accord with those of the calculated
values is very fair. It is quite close enough to establish the general
proposition, that we are justified in the conception of a typical form of
loop, different for the two thumbs; the departure from the typical form
being usually small, sometimes rather greater, and rarely greater still.</p>
<p>I do not see my way to discuss the variations of the arches, because they
possess no distinct points of reference. But their general appearance does
not give the impression of clustering around a typical centre. They
suggest the idea of a fountain-head, whose stream begins to broaden out
from the first.</p>
<p>As regards other patterns, I have made many measurements altogether, but
the specimens of each sort were comparatively few, except in whorled
patterns. In all cases where I was able to form a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> well-founded opinion,
the existence of a typical centre was indicated.</p>
<p>It would be tedious to enumerate the many different trials made for my own
satisfaction, to gain assurance that the variability of the several
patterns is really of the quasi-normal kind just described. In the first
trial I measured in various ways the dimensions of about 500 enlarged
photographs of loops, and about as many of other patterns, and found that
the measurements in each and every case formed a quasi-normal series. I do
not care to submit these results, because they necessitate more
explanation and analysis than the interest of the corrected results would
perhaps justify, to eliminate from them the effect of variety of size of
thumb, and some other uncertainties. Those measurements referred to some
children, a few women, many youths, and a fair number of adults; and
allowance has to be made for variability in stature in each of these
classes.</p>
<p>The proportions of a typical loop on the thumb are easily ascertained if
we may assume that the most frequent values of its variable elements,
taken separately, are the same as those that enter into the most frequent
combination of the elements taken collectively. This would necessarily be
true if the variability of each element separately, and that of the sum of
them in combination, were all strictly normal, but as they are only
quasi-normal, the assumption must be tested. I have done so by making the
comparisons (<i>A</i>) and (<i>B</i>) shown in Table XXXIV.,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> which come out
correctly to within the first decimal place.</p>
<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXXIV.</span></p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
<tr><td colspan="2" class="btlr"> </td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Right Thumb.</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">Left Thumb.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btl">(<i>a</i>)</td>
<td class="btr">Median of all the values of KL</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">12·5</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">10·1</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl">(<i>b</i>)</td>
<td class="br">Median of all the values of NB</td>
<td class="br" align="center">10·1</td>
<td class="br" align="center">8·9</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl" rowspan="2">(<i>A</i>)</td>
<td class="br">Value of <i>a/b</i></td>
<td class="btr" align="center">1·24</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">1·11</td></tr>
<tr><td class="br">( Median of all the fractions KL/NB</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1·15</td>
<td class="br" align="center">1·10</td></tr>
<tr><td class="btdoubl">(<i>c</i>)</td>
<td class="btdoubr">Median of all the values of AN</td>
<td class="btdoubr" align="center">4·6</td>
<td class="btdoubr" align="center">4·6</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bl">(<i>d</i>)</td>
<td class="br">Median of all the values of AH</td>
<td class="br" align="center">4·4</td>
<td class="br" align="center">3·3</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bbl" rowspan="2">(<i>B</i>)</td>
<td class="br">Value of <i>c/d</i></td>
<td class="btr" align="center">1·05</td>
<td class="btr" align="center">1·40</td></tr>
<tr><td class="bbr">Median of all the fractions AN/AH</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">1·08</td>
<td class="bbr" align="center">1·36</td></tr></table>
<p><br />It has been shown that the patterns are hereditary, and we have seen that
they are uncorrelated with race or temperament or any other noticeable
peculiarity, inasmuch as groups of very different classes are alike in
their finger marks. They cannot exercise the slightest influence on
marriage selection, the very existence both of the ridges and of the
patterns having been almost overlooked; they are too small to attract
attention, or to be thought worthy of notice. We therefore possess a
perfect instance of promiscuity in marriage, or, as it is now called,
panmixia, in respect to these patterns. We might consequently have
expected them to be hybridised. But that is not the case; they <i>refuse to
blend</i>. Their classes are as clearly separated as those of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> any of the
genera of plants and animals. They keep pure and distinct, as if they had
severally descended from a thorough-bred ancestry, each in respect to its
own peculiar character.</p>
<p>As regards other forms of natural selection, we know that races are kept
pure by the much more frequent destruction of those individuals who depart
the more widely from the typical centre. But natural selection was shown
to be inoperative in respect to individual varieties of patterns, and
unable to exercise the slightest check upon their vagaries. Yet, for all
that, the loops and other classes of patterns are isolated from one
another just as thoroughly and just in the same way as are the genera or
species of plants and animals. There is no statistical difference between
the form of the law of distribution of individual Loops about their
respective typical centres, and that of the law by which, say, the Shrimps
described in Mr. Weldon’s recent memoirs (<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1891 and
1892) are distributed about theirs. In both cases the distribution is in
quasi-accordance with the theoretical law of Frequency of Error, this form
of distribution being entirely caused in the patterns, by <i>internal</i>
conditions, and in no way by natural selection in the ordinary sense of
that term.</p>
<p>It is impossible not to recognise the fact so clearly illustrated by these
patterns in the thumbs, that natural selection has no monopoly of
influence in the construction of genera, but that it could be wholly
dispensed with, the internal conditions acting by themselves being
sufficient. When the internal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> conditions are in harmony with the external
ones, as they appear to be in all long-established races, their joint
effects will curb individual variability more tightly than either could do
by itself. The normal character of the distribution about the typical
centre will not be thereby interfered with. The probable divergence (=
probable error) of an individual taken at random, will be lessened, and
that is all.</p>
<p>Not only is it impossible to substantiate a claim for natural selection,
that it is the sole agent in forming genera, but it seems, from the
experience of artificial selection, that it is scarcely competent to do so
by favouring mere <i>varieties</i>, in the sense in which I understand the
term.</p>
<p>My contention is that it acts by favouring small <i>sports</i>. Mere varieties
from a common typical centre blend freely in the offspring, and the
offspring of every race whose <i>statistical</i> characters are constant,
necessarily tend, as I have often shown, to regress towards their common
typical centre. Sports, on the other hand, do not blend freely; they are
fresh typical centres or sub-species, which suddenly arise we do not yet
know precisely through what uncommon concurrence of circumstance, and
which observations show to be strongly transmissible by inheritance.</p>
<p>A mere variety can never establish a sticking-point in the forward course
of evolution, but each new sport affords one. A substantial change of type
is effected, as I conceive, by a succession of small changes of typical
centre, each more or less stable,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> and each being in its turn favoured and
established by natural selection, to the exclusion of its competitors. The
distinction between a mere variety and a sport is real and fundamental. I
argued this point in <i>Natural Inheritance</i>, but had then to draw my
illustrations from non-physiological experiences, no appropriate
physiological ones being then at hand: this want is now excellently
supplied by observations of the patterns on the digits.</p>
<p> </p><p> </p>
<hr style="width: 50%;" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span></p>
<h2>INDEX</h2>
<p class="index">
AH, number of ridges in, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br />
<br />
Allix, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
<br />
A. L. W. system, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br />
<br />
Ambiguities in minutiæ, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br />
<br />
America, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br />
<br />
Anthropometric laboratory, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
<br />
Arches, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interpretations of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></span><br />
<br />
Artisans, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
<br />
Artists, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
<br />
Assyrian bricks, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
<br />
Atkinson, R. F., <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
<br />
Author, the, finger prints of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
<br />
Axis of pattern, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br />
<br />
<br />
Ball for inking, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
<br />
Ball of thumb, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
<br />
Basques, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
<br />
Bearings as by compass, <a href="#Page_84">84</a><br />
<br />
Beech, Dr. Fletcher, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
<br />
Benzole, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
<br />
Bertillon, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Bertillonage</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br />
<br />
Bewick, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
<br />
Bible, the, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
<br />
Bifurcations, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br />
<br />
Binomial law, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br />
<br />
Bird’s nest, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
<br />
Blacklead, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
<br />
Blood as ink, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
<br />
Bowditch, H. P., Professor, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
<br />
British Museum, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
<br />
Brobdingnags, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
<br />
Brothers, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
<br />
Burns of finger, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
<br />
<br />
C. set of standard patterns, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
<br />
Callosities, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
<br />
Cambo, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
<br />
Camera lucida, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br />
<br /><a name="cards" id="cards"></a>
Cards, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">keeping in order, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br />
<br />
Casts, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
<br />
Centesimal scale, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br />
<br />
Cheiromancy, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">creases, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br />
<br />
Chequer-work, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br />
<br />
Chess board, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br />
<br />
Chinese deed, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">money, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cheiromancy, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">registration of Chinese, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></span><br />
<br />
Cicatrix, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
<br />
Circular patterns, optical illusion, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br />
<br />
Collins, F. H., <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a><br />
<br />
Collodion, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
<br />
Colour-blindness, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
<br />
Comparison of prints, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br />
<br />
Compass bearings, <a href="#Page_84">84</a><br />
<br />
Compasses, test by the points of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br />
<br />
Copper sheeting for inking, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for smoking, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br />
<br />
Cores, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br />
<br />
Correlation, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
<br />
Couplets of digits, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of A and B brothers, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></span><br />
<br />
Creases, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in infant, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br />
<br />
Criminals, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
<br />
Crosse, Dr., <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
<br />
Cylinder, revolving, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
<br />
<br />
Dabs by the finger, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
<br />
Darenth Asylum, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
<br />
Demography, Congress of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br />
<br />
Deserters, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br />
<br />
Development, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
<br />
Digits, peculiarities of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
<br />
Direction of twist, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
<br />
Divergence of ridges, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br />
<br />
Drawing master, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
<br />
Ducts, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
<br />
Dyes, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
<br />
<br />
Ear-marking the A, B sets of brothers, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
<br />
Embryology, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
<br />
Enclosures within ridges, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
<br />
English, the, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
<br />
Enlargements, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span><br />
Envelopes to rods or staples, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
<br />
Error, law of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“probable,” <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br />
<br />
<span class="smcap">Evidential Value</span>, Chap. VII., <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
<br />
Evolution, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
<br />
Eyes in patterns, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br />
<br />
<br />
Fauld, Mr., <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
<br />
Feet, prints of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ridges on, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></span><br />
<br />
Féré, M., <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
<br />
Ferris, Major, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
<br />
Ferro-prussiate process, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
<br />
File, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
<br />
Flexure, lines of, in palm, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
<br />
Focus of eye, range of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
<br />
Folders;—inked, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">smoked, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br />
<br />
Foot-paths, <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br />
<br />
Forgeot, Dr., <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
<br />
Forks, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br />
<br />
Fraternity, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
<br />
Frequency of error, law of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br />
<br />
Funnel, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
<br />
Furrows, not followed, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
<br />
<br />
G——, Sir W., <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
<br />
<span class="smcap">Genera</span>, Chap. XIII., <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the nine chief genera, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></span><br />
<br />
Glass, temporary prints on, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">etched, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for lantern, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></span><br />
<br />
Glue, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
<br />
Goldie, Sir G. T., <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
<br />
Granulations on rollers, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
<br />
Greenleaf, Col. C. R., <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br />
<br />
Gulliver, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
<br />
Gum, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
<br />
Gutta-percha, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
<br />
<br />
Hand, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
<br />
Harrild, Messrs., <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
<br />
Hawksley, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
<br />
Haycraft, Dr. J. B., <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
<br />
Head-length and breadth, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
<br />
Hebrews, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br />
<br />
Herbette, M., <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br />
<br />
<span class="smcap">Heredity</span>, Chap. XI., <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see also</i> <a href="#Page_16">16</a></span><br />
<br />
Herschel, Sir W. J., <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">instructions for printing, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">data for persistence, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">right fore-finger of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">official experience, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></span><br />
<br />
Hindoos, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br />
<br />
<br />
I (or Inner side), <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
<br />
Identification, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see</i> Jezebel, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br />
<br />
Idiots, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
<br />
Illusion, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br />
<br />
Indexing, power of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">methods of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">specimen of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">search in, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></span><br />
<br />
India-rubber for roller, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
<br />
Ink, printer’s, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for stamp, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br />
<br />
Inner side, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
<br />
Interpolation of ridges, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br />
<br />
Interspace, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
<br />
Interval, equally discernible, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br />
<br />
Islands, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
<br />
<br />
Japan, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
<br />
Jews, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br />
<br />
Jezebel, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br />
<br />
<br />
Kensington, S., my laboratory at, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
<br />
Klaatsch, Dr. H., <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
<br />
Kollmann, Dr. A., <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
<br />
<br />
Labels, gummed, as for luggage, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
<br />
Laboratory, anthropometric, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
<br />
Labourers, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
<br />
Lace, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
<br />
Ladies’ hands, ridges on, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
<br />
Language, inadequacy of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
<br />
Lankester, Prof. Ray, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
<br />
Left and right, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
<br />
Lenses, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
<br />
Letters, alike when reversed, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
<br />
Licked paper, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
<br />
Linen-tester (lens), <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
<br />
Linseed oil, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
<br />
Litharge, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
<br />
Lithography, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
<br />
Loops, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">predominance of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relationships of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on thumbs, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">typical shape of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></span><br />
<br />
Lying Bob, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
<br />
Lyon, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br />
<br />
<br />
Mammalia, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
<br />
Marseille, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br />
<br />
Measurement of patterns, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
<br />
Memoirs by the author, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br />
<br />
<span class="smcap">Methods of Indexing</span>, Chap. IX., <a href="#Page_131">131</a><br />
<br />
<span class="smcap">Methods of Printing</span>, Chap. III., <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
<br />
Mica, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
<br />
Minutiæ, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ambiguities in, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></span><br />
<br />
Monkey pattern, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ridges on tail, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Purkenje on, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stuffed, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br />
<br />
Morgue, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see</i> Jezebel, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br />
<br />
Mould for casting rollers, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
<br />
Mountain ranges, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
<br />
Mucilage, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
<br />
Mummies, ridges still visible, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
<br />
<br />
Nail-marks, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
<br />
Natural selection, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a><br />
<br />
Negro, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cheiromancy, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br />
<br />
Ngeu-yang-siun, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
<br />
Notes, musical, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span><br />
<br />
Oil, oxidisation of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for ink, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
<br />
Orientation, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br />
<br />
Outer side, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
<br />
Outlines, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">followed with a point, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br />
<br />
Overtones, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
<br />
<br />
Pacinian bodies, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
<br />
Pad for stamp, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of paper, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
<br />
Palm of the hand, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br />
<br />
Palmistry, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see</i> Cheiromancy, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br />
<br />
Panmixia, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br />
<br />
Pantagraph, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
<br />
Paper in pads, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see</i> <a href="#cards">Cards</a></span><br />
<br />
Papillæ, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
<br />
Paraffin, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
<br />
Paris, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br />
<br />
Passports, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
<br />
Paste, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
<br />
<span class="smcap">Patterns: Their Outlines and Cores</span>, Chap. V., <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see also</i> <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">number of easily distinguishable patterns, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">standard, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ditto C. set, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">percentage frequency of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></span><br />
<br />
<span class="smcap">Peculiarities of the Digits</span>, Chap. VIII., <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
<br />
<span class="smcap">Persistence</span>, Chap. VI., <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br />
<br />
<span class="smcap">Personal Identification</span>, Chap. X., <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see also</i> <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lecture on, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
<br />
Photographers, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">photographs, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></span><br />
<br />
Plots, triangular, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
<br />
Plumbago, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
<br />
Pocket printing apparatus, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
<br />
Points of reference, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
<br />
Poole, Mr. S. L., <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
<br />
Pores, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
<br />
<span class="smcap">Previous Use of Finger Prints</span>, Chap. II., <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
<br />
Printing, the methods of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">printer’s ink, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></span><br />
<br />
Prism, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br />
<br />
Purkenje’s <i>Commentatio</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see also</i> <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on slope of loop, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span class="smcap">Races and Classes</span>, Chap. XII., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see also</i> <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br />
<br />
Radial, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
<br />
Random events, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see also</i> <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br />
<br />
Razor, prints on, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
<br />
Reconstruction of hidden ridges, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br />
<br />
Reeves and Co., <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
<br />
Registration in India, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br />
<br />
Regression, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
<br />
Relationship in fingers, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fraternal, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in twins, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">filial, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ditto of like-patterned parents, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in patterns, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">paternal and maternal, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></span><br />
<br />
Reticulation, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br />
<br />
Reversals, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
<br />
<span class="smcap">Ridges and Their Uses</span>, Chap. IV., <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see also</i> low relief of ridges, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">counting them, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ridge-interval, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>:—measurement by, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">squares of one in the side, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of six, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of five, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br />
<br />
Right and left, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
<br />
Robinson, Dr. Louis, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
<br />
Rods, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
<br />
Rolled prints, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br />
<br />
Roller, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">small, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></span><br />
<br />
Royal Institution, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
<br />
<br />
Sand, ridges on, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
<br />
Scars, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
<br />
Seal, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sealing-wax casts, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br />
<br />
Seamstresses, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
<br />
Selection, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br />
<br />
Shrimps, <a href="#Page_210">210</a><br />
<br />
<i>Signalements</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br />
<br />
Size (glue), <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
<br />
Skin disease on fingers, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br />
<br />
Slab, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
<br />
Slopes, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on fore-finger, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br />
<br />
Smart, Major Charles, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br />
<br />
Smoke-prints, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
<br />
Snow on mountain ranges, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
<br />
Soda (washing), <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
<br />
Spielman, Isidore, Mr., <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
<br />
Spirals, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
<br />
Sports, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br />
<br />
Squares (interpolations), <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br />
<br />
Standard patterns, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the C. set, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></span><br />
<br />
Staples, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br />
<br />
Stereoscope, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br />
<br />
Students, in Art and Science, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
<br />
Surnames, Hindoo and Chinese, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br />
<br />
Swift, Dean, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
<br />
Symbols for patterns, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br />
<br />
Systems of ridges on palm, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
<br />
<br />
Tables, <i>see</i> list of, p. <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii.</a><br />
<br />
Tabor, Mr., <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
<br />
Tabulations, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
<br />
Tang dynasty, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
<br />
Tattoo marks, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
<br />
Taylor, T. Meadows, Mr., <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br />
<br />
Teeth, <a href="#Page_166">166</a><br />
<br />
Tests of calculated Randoms, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of classification, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></span><br />
<br />
Thompson, Gilbert, Mr., <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
<br />
Thrills, their relation to notes, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
<br />
Thumb, loops on, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ball of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br />
<br />
<i>Tipsahi</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br />
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span><br />
Titchener, E. B., Mr., <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
<br />
Title-page, prints on, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">index-number to them, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></span><br />
<br />
Toes, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
<br />
Tools, callosities caused by, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
<br />
Transitional patterns, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
<br />
Triangular plots, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br />
<br />
Turpentine, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
<br />
Twins, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br />
<br />
Twist, direction of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
<br />
Type, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br />
<br />
<br />
Ulnar, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
<br />
United States, system used in, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br />
<br />
<br />
Variation, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br />
<br />
Varnish, prints on when undried, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
<br />
Velvet, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
<br />
<br />
Wall-paper, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
<br />
Water colours, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
<br />
Wax;—sealing, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;<br />
<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dentist’s, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br />
<br />
Weldon, Prof., <a href="#Page_210">210</a><br />
<br />
Welsh, the, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
<br />
Wen-teh, the Empress, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
<br />
Whitening, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
<br />
Whorls, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
<br />
Wundt, Professor, laboratory at Leipzig, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
</p>
<p> </p>
<p class="center">THE END</p>
<p> </p>
<p class="center"><i>Printed by</i> <span class="smcap">R. & R. Clark</span>, <i>Edinburgh</i>.</p>
<p> </p><p> </p>
<hr style="width: 50%;" />
<p><strong>Footnotes:</strong></p>
<p><a name='f_1' id='f_1' href='#fna_1'>[1]</a> <i>Der Tastapparat der Hand der menschlichen Rassen und der Affen.</i> Dr.
Arthur Kollmann. Leopold Voss, Leipzig, 1883. He has also published a more
recent memoir.</p>
<p><a name='f_2' id='f_2' href='#fna_2'>[2]</a> “Morphologie der Tastballen der Saugethiere,” <i>Jahrbuch</i>, xiv. p. 407.
Leipzig, 1888.</p>
<p><a name='f_3' id='f_3' href='#fna_3'>[3]</a> <i>Ann. Sc. Nat.</i>, 5th series, vol. ix. 1868.</p>
<p><a name='f_4' id='f_4' href='#fna_4'>[4]</a> The Latin is obscure. “Mira vallecularum tangentium in interna parte
manus pedisque ... dispositio flexuraque attentionem ... in se trahit.”
There are three ways of translating “tangentium,” and none of them makes
good sense. In the index of prints he uses the phrase “vallecularum
tactui.” It would seem that he looked upon the furrows, and not the
ridges, as the special seat of touch.</p>
<p><a name='f_5' id='f_5' href='#fna_5'>[5]</a> The results arrived at by M. Féré in a Memoir (<i>Comptes Rendus, Soc.
Biologie</i>, July 2, 1891; Masson, 120 Boulevard St. Germain, Paris) may be
collated with mine. The Memoir is partly a review of my paper in the
<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, and contains many observations of his own. His data are
derived from epileptics and others mentally affected. He has, by the way,
curiously misinterpreted my views about symmetry.</p>
<p> </p><p> </p>
<hr style="width: 50%;" />
<p><strong>Transcriber’s Notes:</strong></p>
<p>Punctuation has been corrected without note.</p>
<p>Images do not necessarily match the sizes described in the original text.</p>
<pre>
End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Finger Prints, by Francis Galton
*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FINGER PRINTS ***
***** This file should be named 36979-h.htm or 36979-h.zip *****
This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
https://www.gutenberg.org/3/6/9/7/36979/
Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
generously made available by The Internet Archive.)
Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
will be renamed.
Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules,
set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project
Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you
do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is
subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
redistribution.
*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
https://gutenberg.org/license).
Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the
collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an
individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in
a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check
the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning
the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
States.
1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
copied or distributed:
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
1.E.9.
1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked
to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg-tm License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or
distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
that
- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is
owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments
must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License. You must require such a user to return or
destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
Project Gutenberg-tm works.
- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
of receipt of the work.
- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the
Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
1.F.
1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
your equipment.
1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.
1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with
the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy
is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
opportunities to fix the problem.
1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists
because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
people in all walks of life.
Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at
809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact
information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
page at https://pglaf.org
For additional contact information:
Dr. Gregory B. Newby
Chief Executive and Director
gbnewby@pglaf.org
Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation
Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.
The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To
SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
particular state visit https://pglaf.org
While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.
International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works.
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily
keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
https://www.gutenberg.org
This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
</pre>
</body>
</html>
|
