diff options
Diffstat (limited to '36822-8.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 36822-8.txt | 6964 |
1 files changed, 6964 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/36822-8.txt b/36822-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..64ed333 --- /dev/null +++ b/36822-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6964 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Japan and the California Problem, by +Toyokichi Iyenaga and Kenoske Sato + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Japan and the California Problem + +Author: Toyokichi Iyenaga + Kenoske Sato + +Release Date: July 23, 2011 [EBook #36822] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JAPAN AND THE CALIFORNIA PROBLEM *** + + + + +Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive.) + + + + + + + + + + Japan + and + The California Problem + + + By + T. Iyenaga, Ph.D. + Professorial Lecturer in the Department of Political Science, + University of Chicago + + and + + Kenoske Sato, M.A. + Formerly Fellow in the University of Chicago + + + G. P. Putnam's Sons + New York and London + The Knickerbocker Press + 1921 + + + + + Copyright, 1921 + by G. P. Putnam's Sons + + _Printed in the United States of America_ + + + + +CONTENTS + + + PAGE + + CHAPTER I + + INTRODUCTORY 3 + + CHAPTER II + + JAPANESE TRAITS AND PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE 9 + + Emotional Nature--Æsthetic Temperament--Group Consciousness-- + Adaptable Disposition--Spirit of Proletarian Chivalry-- + Philosophy of Life--New Turn in Thought. + + CHAPTER III + + JAPAN'S ASIATIC POLICY 33 + + Korean Situation--Policy of Self-Preservation--Shantung + Settlement--Coöperation with China--Understanding with + America--Japan's Proper Sphere of Activity. + + CHAPTER IV + + BACKGROUND OF JAPANESE EMIGRATION 50 + + Causes of Emigration and Immigration--Japan's Land Area-- + Agriculture--Population--Industry--Social Factors. + + CHAPTER V + + ATTEMPTS AT EMIGRATION: RESULTS 64 + + Australia--Canada--South America--The United States--Results. + + CHAPTER VI + + CAUSES OF ANTI-JAPANESE AGITATION 75 + + Modern Civilization--Various Attitudes Towards Japanese-- + Psychological Nature of the Cause--Chinese Agitation + Inherited--Local Polities--"Yellow Peril"--Propaganda-- + Racial Difference--Japanese Nationality--Modern Nationalism-- + Congestion in California--Fear and Envy Incited by Japanese + Progress--Summary. + + CHAPTER VII + + FACTS ABOUT THE JAPANESE IN CALIFORNIA--POPULATION AND BIRTH + RATE 90 + + Number of Japanese in California--Immigration--"Gentlemen's + Agreement"--Smuggling--Birth Rate--What we May Expect in the + Future. + + CHAPTER VIII + + FACTS ABOUT THE JAPANESE IN CALIFORNIA--FARMERS AND ALIEN LAND + LAWS 120 + + History of Japanese Agriculture in California--Causes of + Progress--Japanese Farm Labor--Japanese Farmers--Anti-Alien + Land Laws--Land Laws of Japan--Effect of the Initiative Bill. + + CHAPTER IX + + ASSIMILATION 148 + + Nationalism and Assimilation--Meaning of "Assimilation"-- + Biological Assimilation--Is Assimilation without Intermarriage + Possible?--Cultural Assimilation--Assimilability of Japanese + Immigrants--Native-Born Japanese. + + CHAPTER X + + GENERAL CONCLUSION 178 + + APPENDIXES + + APPENDIX A 198 + + Charts on Comparative Height and Weight of American, + Japanese-American, and Japanese Children. + + APPENDIX B 201 + + Extracts from the Treaty of Commerce and Navigation and + Protocol between Japan and the United States of America, + of February 21, 1911. + + APPENDIX C 204 + + California's Alien Land Law, Approved May 19, 1913. + + APPENDIX D 207 + + Alien Land Law, Adopted November 2, 1920. + + APPENDIX E 216 + + Crops Raised by Japanese and their Acreage. + + APPENDIX F 217 + + Japanese Immigration to the United States. + + APPENDIX G 218 + + Japanese Admitted into Continental United States; Arrivals + and Departures. + + APPENDIX H 218 + + Immigrants and Non-Immigrants. + + APPENDIX I 219 + + Distribution of Japanese and Chinese Population in the + United States. + + APPENDIX J 220 + + Distribution of Japanese in the United States, According + to the Consular Division, as Reported by Foreign Department, + Japan. + + APPENDIX K 221 + + An Abstract of Expatriation Law of Japan. + + APPENDIX L 223 + + A Minute of Hearing at Seattle, Washington, before the + House Sub-Committee on Immigration and Naturalization. + + APPENDIX M 230 + + Comparative Standing of Intelligence and Behavior of + American-born Japanese Children and American Children + Discussed by Several Principals of Elementary Schools of + Los Angeles, California. + + LITERATURE ON THE SUBJECT 238 + + INDEX 247 + + + + +Japan and the California Problem + + + + +Japan and The California Problem + + + + +CHAPTER I + +INTRODUCTORY + + +When, during the middle years of the last century, thousands of stalwart +pioneers moved westward to California in quest of gold, they had no idea +whatsoever of the part of destiny they were playing. When, synchronously +with that movement, Commodore Perry crossed the Pacific and forced open +the doors of Japan with the prime object of securing safe anchorage, +water, and provisions for the daring American schooners then busily +engaged in trade with China, he never dreamed of the tremendous result +which he was thereby bringing about. What those men were doing +unconsciously was nothing short of preparing the way for contact and +ultimate harmonious progress of two great branches of mankind and +civilization which originally sprang from a common root, but which in the +course of thousands of years of independent development have come to +possess strikingly different characteristics. + +Culture is aggressive and masculine; it craves conquest and vaunts +victory. Once let loose in the open field of the Pacific, the East and +West are now involved in a mighty tournament, the outcome of which is yet +beyond mortal imagination. The most we can hope for is the speedy +realization of Kipling's vision: + + But there is neither East nor West, + Border, nor Breed, nor Birth, + When two strong men stand face to face, + Though they come from the ends of the earth. + +The Oriental problems in California, originating as they did in the +conflict of local, economic, and political interests, have in recent years +come to assume more and more the character of cultural and racial +questions. The forms and motives of the movement for the exclusion of the +Orientals are vastly diverse, often counteracting and contradictory, but +deep in the bottom of the whirl there lies the fundamental question of +race and civilization. To say the least, the present unrest in California +with reference to the Japanese problem is the intensified, miniature form +of the general struggle in which East and West are now being involved. +Says Governor Stephens of California in his letter to Secretary of State +Colby: + + California stands as an outpost on the western edge of Occidental + civilization. Her people are the sons or the followers of the + Argonauts who wended their way westward ... and here, without + themselves recognizing it at the time, they took the farthest westward + step that the white men can take. From our shores roll the waters of + the Pacific. From our coast the mind's eye takes its gaze and sees on + the other shores of that great ocean the teeming millions of the + Orient, with its institutions running their roots into the most + venerable antiquity, its own inherited philosophy and standards of + life, its own peculiar races and colors. + +This being the case, the magnitude of the Japanese problem in California +can hardly be exaggerated. Enveloped in a state under the guise of local +conflict, the problem is, nevertheless, a gigantic one, involving vital +questions of world destiny. Shall the races of Asia and Europe, brought +together by the progress of science, be once more strictly separated? +Cannot different races, while remaining biologically distinct, form +together the strong factors of a unified nation? Should white races +organize in defense of themselves against "the rising tide of color" and +invoke race war of an unprecedented scale and consequence? Is it not +possible to arrive at some principle by which the contact of white and +yellow races may be rendered a source of human happiness instead of being +a cause for all the evil consequences imaginable? These are some of the +questions which are contained in the Asiatic problem in California. + +Already a considerable quantity of literature has appeared which sounds an +extremely pessimistic forecast of the future of Eurasiatic relationship. +Some writers erroneously divide mankind into so many races by the color of +the skin, as if each were a pure, homogeneous race, and they indulge in +the risky speculation of "inevitable" race war between the white race, +which hitherto held supremacy, and the yellow race, which is now attaining +a position of serious rivalry. Others urge the imperative need of +organizing the white nations into a supernational state in order to enable +them to weather the threatened attacks from the yellow races. All these +arguments are based on the presumption that the Asiatic races wherever +they go--in Australia, Canada, or America--create conflict with the Aryan +race. The fallacy of such arguments lies in envisaging the large problem +of East and West from its partial expression. The anti-Asiatic movement in +the new world is certainly a significant problem, but it is only an +incidental and local phenomenon of the great process under way of cultural +unification. That the California problem is not all that is involved in +the relationship of Asia and America can readily be seen by the incessant +increase, in spite of it, of close coöperation between them. In science, +in art, in religion, in ideals, in industry, and commerce, and, last but +not least, in sentiment, the peoples of these continents find themselves +ever more closely bound together, learning to appreciate the inestimable +value thereby created, and fast widening the scope of their group +consciousness so as to embrace all mankind, thus concretely vindicating +the futility of the idle speculation of race war based on the mere +difference of skin pigmentation. + +If the error of race-war theory arises from absorption in parts, +overlooking their relations with the whole--from magnifying out of +proportion the local racial conflict to the extent of eclipsing the value +and significance of vastly more important relations--it behooves us to +avoid such grievous mistakes and to view the situation in a broader +perspective. Indeed, the key to the understanding and the solution of the +difficulty of the Pacific Coast is in viewing it in the light of +friendship and coöperation between America and Japan. Then, and only then, +does it become clear how important it is to approach the problem with +prudence and foresight, and to endeavor to solve it in a spirit of +fairness and justice. It then becomes plain, in the face of the vastly +important tasks involved in wisely conducting the relationship of Orient +and Occident, how foolish and cowardly it is to assume a negative attitude +of fear and withdrawal from the natural circumstance which time has +brought about. Whether one likes it or not, the world is already made one, +and any human attempt to divide it into air-tight compartments is +hopeless. We are bound to have yet closer contacts among all races and +nations. The way to a satisfactory solution of the California problem +clearly lies in a closer and more intimate association--in a word, better +mutual understanding between Orientals and Occidentals. + +Let us then honestly seek to comprehend the heart of the difficulty and +frankly discuss the question, untrammeled by any bias, prepossessions, or +fear; with eyes steadily fixed on the larger aspects of the problem; eager +to arrive at some constructive principles of solution satisfactory to all +concerned. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +JAPANESE TRAITS AND PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE + + +The national traits of different peoples are, like our faces, similar in +rough outline but infinitely different in the finer details. The people of +Japan are in the larger characteristics not different from any other +people; they are part of the aggregate of human beings and they possess +all the instincts and desires which are common to humanity. But, as +distinguished from other peoples, they display certain individual +characteristics which are the product of a unique environment and history. + + +Emotional Nature. + +Perhaps the most prominent characteristic of the Japanese is their +excitable, emotional nature, which among the ignorant is often expressed +in turbulent and irascible action, and which among the refined takes the +form of a fine sentimentality and temperamental delicacy. This is rather +the direct opposite of the American disposition, which is stable, blunt +and big, hearty and generous. Such difference is greatly responsible for +mutual misunderstandings, such as the Japanese charge that the American is +discourteous and inconsiderate, and the American impression that the +Japanese is dissimulating, not to say tricky. + +The emotional temper of the Japanese has played a large rôle in their +history and constitutes a conspicuous factor in their national life. If +the history of the Anglo-Saxons is primarily a story of competition and +struggle for the control of power and the pursuit of material interests, +that of the Japanese is a drama of sentimental entanglement largely +removed from material issues. Without due regard to the rôle played by +emotion, the history of the Japanese people is wholly incomprehensible. +What, for instance, incited Hideyoshi to invade Korea in 1592? What made +the Japanese accept so readily the teachings of the Jesuit Fathers during +the latter half of the sixteenth century? What more recently induced Japan +to insist at the Paris Conference on recognition of racial equality by the +League of Nations? + +If the emotionalism of the race has been deeply influential in the +historic drama, it has been no less persuasive in the political and social +life of the present-day Japan. Compare the Constitutions of America and +Japan. If the outstanding features of the American Constitution are the +safeguarding of the interests and rights of the individual, the states, +and the nation, those of the Japanese Constitution are the expressions of +the people's anxiety to recognize and perpetuate their beloved head, the +Emperor, as the great, the divine ruler of their ideals. Although the +onslaught of materialism has wrought some changes in recent years, there +yet remains the ineradicable proof of Japanese emotionalism in the realm +of marriage and love, where all earthly considerations are forgotten, if +not tabooed, and in the realms of family and of society, where the +relations between parents and children, and between friends and neighbors, +are conducted with an assured sense of devotion, love, and good will. The +same tendency is to be recognized in almost all Japanese institutions, +educational, military, and political, while it is particularly true in the +realm of æsthetics, including, art, literature, and music--a realm that is +ruled by sentiment. + +In the common daily life of the Japanese their emotionalism expresses +itself in almost infinitely diverse ways. Their peculiarly strong sense of +pride and dignity, individual, family, and national, a sense for which the +Japanese will make any sacrifice, comes from their highly-strung nervous +system. Their keen sense of pride gives rise to another marked Japanese +peculiarity--an excessive susceptibility to the opinions and feelings of +their fellow men. Social ostracism to the Japanese is a punishment which +is often more unbearable than the death penalty. The peculiarly high rate +of suicides in Japan is explained by statisticians as being largely due to +some mistake or sin for which the offender would rather die than be +chastised by society. The cold-blooded _hara kiri_ was an institution by +which the Samurai could sustain his honor or save his face when involved +in disgrace. High-spirited temper, suppressed by ethical teachings, social +conventions, and rigorous discipline, results in a singular contrast +between external physical expressions and internal feelings. The placid +faces, reserved manners, and reticence are but masks of the intense, +burning spirit, whose spontaneous expression has been inhibited by +centuries of stoic training. It is most unfortunate that this virtue in +the Oriental sense has frequently been a cause of misunderstanding, making +the Japanese appear dissimulating, and, therefore, untrustworthy. + +But at heart the Japanese are neither as inscrutable or deceitful as some +believe, nor are they as intriguing or profound as these terms would +imply. They are kind and sympathetic, easily moved by the attitude of +others, quite simple-minded and honest, lacking tenacity, audacity, iron +will, or cold deliberation. In these respects, as in many others, the +Japanese possess some of the weaker traits of the South European peoples. +They have proved heretofore not a great people, but a little people "who +are great in little things and little in great things." + +The simple explanation of Japanese sentimentalism may be found in one of +the original race stocks which migrated from southern islands of tropical +climate, where emotion rather than will guides the conduct of the people. +The topographical and climatic conditions of Japan have also had their +influence, and these, with the numerous volcanic eruptions, frequent +earthquakes, and recurrent typhoons, have given the people the disposition +of restlessness and excitement. Perhaps also the social system of the +Middle Ages, which was unduly autocratic and despotic, irritated the lower +classes, driving them to turbulent and "peppery" conduct. + + +Æsthetic Temperament. + +The next characteristic of the Islander is one which is closely related to +the preceding trait. It is artistic temperament. Some scholars of +archæology attempted to trace this characteristic to the original settlers +of the empire, but the resultant opinions are so diverse as to deny +scientific validity. Some of them maintain that the Ainu, the earliest +known settlers in Japan, a now dwindling race living in the northern +island called Hokkaido, were originally a very artistic people, +contributing much to the æsthetic temperament of the Japanese. There are +other scholars who insist that the Yamato race, and not the Ainu, was the +most artistic, while there are still others who uphold the view that it +was the vast horde of migrators coming from Korea, Tartary, and China who +brought with them the love of beauty. But these are speculations of +prehistorical conditions which are largely hidden from us by the veil of +mythology. What we can be sure of is that the influence on the people of +the exceptionally beautiful natural surroundings reflected itself in their +artistic genius. Encouragement of art and literature and of artistic +productions generally through the patronage of aristocrats, who enjoyed +from the earlier ages leisure and wealth, has also had much to do in +making the Japanese artistic. + +What influence has this æsthetic temperament exerted on the life of the +Japanese? In the first place, it has rendered Japanese civilization +markedly feminine. This is shown by the fact that the creative efforts of +the people were mainly directed to personal and home decoration and to +literary and artistic pursuits, instead of to masculine efforts to fight +and conquer the forces of nature, from which alone the sciences are born. +Particularly noticeable was the almost total absence of science in Japan, +in striking contrast to the remarkable wealth of art at the time, some +half a century ago, when the country began a critical introspection of +itself in comparison with other nations. + +In the second place, it had the effect of making the people inclined to +underestimate the value of material things and to exaggerate the glory of +the spiritual aspects of life. This is most clearly seen in the teachings +of Bushido,[1] which laid strong emphasis on the baseness of the conduct +that has for its motive pecuniary or material interests, and which taught +the subordination of the body to the soul as the most essential virtue of +the Samurai. The traditional custom of sacrificing the material side of a +question for the satisfaction and upholding of the emotional side still +survives in present Japan, and constitutes one of the marked +characteristics of the Japanese. His strong inclination towards +imagination, meditation, and religious belief is too well known a fact to +require more than a mention here. + +It seems true that people gifted æsthetically are more apt to turn +hedonistic. While it remains doubtful whether the Japanese are more +immoral than other peoples, as is so frequently charged, it is quite true +that they take more delight in a leisurely comfort of living, going to +picnics, attending theaters, calling upon friends, and holding various +ceremonies and feasts. Generally speaking, although not given to excesses, +they show no puritanic disposition about drink and are lavish spenders for +luxuries. In the tea houses and other places of social amusement they +spend money often beyond the reasonable proportion of their income. They +are not a thrifty people. + + +Group Consciousness. + +Next to the artistic disposition must be mentioned their strong group +consciousness. It is true that all people have a certain degree of group +consciousness which emerges out of the facts of common biological and +cultural heritage and experience. But in the case of the Japanese this +group spirit is markedly strong, expressing itself in loyalty and +patriotism. Most strangely, the spirit of _Yamato_, or the Japanese group +spirit, has had its source more than anywhere else in primitive myths. Two +ancient books of mythology, _Kojiki_ and _Nihongi_, record the story of +the Japanese ancestors who were originally born of the gods of heaven and +earth, and who settled in Japan and established there through their brave +deeds the majesty of the Empire of Nippon. From these ancestors sprang the +people of Japan. This myth is faithfully believed by the Japanese, and the +people worship at the shrines where the spirits of their heroic ancestors +are supposed still to reside and guard the country. So strong is this +belief in myth even to-day that, in spite of the anthropological discovery +that the original settlers of the island were of diverse races and +possessed no advanced culture, the people still cling to the idea that the +Japanese are a pure and glorious race, having sprung from one line of +ancestors which was divine and which is now represented by its direct +descendant, the Emperor. + +In addition to mythology, what bound the Japanese so close together was +the natural environment and the lack of cosmopolitan associations. +Marooned as they were on little islands, the mutual association and +intermarriage of people took place freely, and in the course of time +established a substantially complete homogeneity of the population. The +internal unity was further strengthened by the policy of national +seclusion, which gave the common people the idea that Japan was the only +universe and that the Japanese were the only people on earth. In modern +times, the group spirit or patriotism has been skillfully encouraged and +enkindled by utilizing the national experience of the wars with China and +Russia, and by a system of education which aimed to impress on the minds +of children the glory of their people and history, the absolute duty of +being loyal to the Emperor, and the hostile tendency of foreign countries +toward their own. + +What the people gain by narrow patriotism in the maintenance of national +integrity they lose in their failure to take a broad view of things. This +stubbornly obstructs the Japanese in their efforts to view their country +in its proper relation to other countries; it hinders them from being +"Romans when in Rome"; it makes the idea of following the example of +England, the policy of loose national expansion, wholly +unthinkable--Japanese colonies must be exclusively Japanese. The chief +cause of the failure of Japanese colonization and emigration must be +attributed to the strong consciousness of the Yamato Minzoku (Yamato +race). This has made the Japanese noticeably narrow-minded, quite awkward +in their relations with different peoples, and more or less given to race +prejudice. The reputation of the Japanese as poor mixers is well known. +Their strong race prejudice has been exemplified by their attitude toward +the Chinese, Koreans, and the outcast class of their fellow countrymen, +called _Eta_, which has been nothing short of prejudicial discrimination. + +In spite of the desperate efforts of the militarists and bureaucrats to +conserve narrow patriotism and racial pride, it has been found +increasingly difficult to do so, since the facts and thoughts of the West +became accessible to the people. When the marvelous scientific +achievements of the Occidental peoples, their advanced political and +social systems, their profound philosophies of life and of the universe, +together with their superior physique and formidable armament, were +appreciated, it became all too apparent, even to the most conceited mind, +that the culture and racial stock, in which the Japanese had taken so much +pride, were sadly inferior, and that years of hard toil would be necessary +before they could be the equals of the Occidentals. The pathetic cry of +Japan for recognition of racial equality by the League of Nations is a +reluctant admission of this fact. + +The outcome of this disillusionment has been the appearance of three +currents of thought with reference to the national policy. One is the +ultra Occidentalism which sees nothing good in their own country and +people, and hence is extremely merciless and outspoken in denunciation of +things Japanese, but which admires even to the point of worship almost +everything that is European and American. To this school belong many +younger radicals who are more or less socialistically inclined and who +would like to see Japan converted into a republic or a Bolshevik +communism. Categorically opposed to this thought is another school, which +its adherents call "Japanism." This school sees nothing new or worth while +in things Occidental, and advocates, after the reasoning of Rousseau, a +return to natural Japan. Between these two extremes stand the majority of +sane intellectuals, who clearly perceive both the limitations and the +strength of Japan, and endeavor to benefit through learning and +assimilating the valuable experience of advanced nations. + + +Adaptable Disposition. + +Another notable feature of the Japanese is their meager endowment of +originality and, conversely, their marked aptitude for adaptability. A +glance at the outline of Japanese history shows how much the Japanese +borrowed from other peoples in almost all phases of civilization and how +little they themselves have created. Indeed, there is hardly anything +which belongs to Japan that cannot be traced originally to the earnest +creative effort of other peoples. The same may be said of modern peoples, +who, with the exception of scientific inventions, have mainly derived +their culture from the Greeks and Romans. Whatever difference the future +may witness, the Japanese thus far have been borrowers and receivers of +other races' accomplishments. Perhaps this is the cause of the rapid +development of the Japanese, who have succeeded in imitating and +assimilating the strong points of nations in succession from the lower to +the top of the hierarchy--from Korea, China, India, to Europe. When the +process reaches the top of the ladder, let us hope that Nippon will start +for the first time real creative work. + + +Spirit of Proletarian Chivalry. + +The discussion of Japanese traits would be very incomplete if we omitted +one outstanding idiosyncrasy that has not yet been mentioned. So peculiar +is this trait to the Japanese that there is no adequate word to designate +it in other languages. The Japanese express it by such words as _kikotsu_, +_otokodate_, and _gikyoshin_. The nearest English equivalents for these +terms would be heroism and chivalry. It is a mixed sentiment of rebellion +against bully power, sympathy for the helpless, and willingness to +sacrifice self for the sake of those who have done kind acts. This +admirable sentiment must be strictly distinguished from the spirit of +Bushido, because it has arisen among the plebeians in place of Bushido, +which was the way of the Samurai or aristocrats, although it may have +been, as some scholars claim, the source of inspiration for the growth of +proletarian chivalry. Bushido has found an able propounder in Dr. Nitobé. +Under the Tokugawa régime the Samurai was the flower and the rest were +nothing. The Samurai often abused their privilege and oppressed the common +people not a little, disregarding their rights and personality. Then a +class of plebeians appeared who called themselves "men of men," and who +made it their profession to defy the bullying Samurai and to defend the +oppressed people. It was the virtue of this class always to help the weak +and crush the strong, and to be ready to lay down their lives at any +moment. The story of Sakura Sogoro, who fell a martyr to the cause of +oppressed peasants, has become a classic. + +Thus originating in defiance of despotism, the spirit of proletarian +chivalry permeated among the lower classes of people, and to this day it +forms the bulwark of the rights and freedom of the common people. Refined +and enriched by the embodiment in it of enlightened knowledge and ideals, +the sentiment came to be on one side a keen appreciation of kindness and +sympathy, and on the other a strong hatred of oppression and injustice. +The present proletarian movement in Japan, a movement which is destined +presently to become a mighty social force, owes its source and guidance to +"the ways of the common people." + +If Dr. Nitobé is right in predicting that Bushido, "the way of the +Samurai," will eventually enjoy the glory of "blessing mankind with the +perfume with which it will enrich life," we may reasonably hope that +proletarian chivalry will succeed in bringing about general freedom and +democracy in Nippon, in defiance of military and imperialistic domination. + +The understanding of this trait of the common people of Japan goes far to +explain what has puzzled those Americans who wonder why the Japanese +immigrants in this country are so unsubmissive and rebellious. In his +letter to the Legislature of Nevada, the late Senator Newlands stated: +"The presence of the Chinese, who are patient and submissive, would not +create as many complications as the presence of Japanese, whose strong and +virile qualities would constitute additional factors of difficulty." +Governor Stephens of California, too, observes in his letter to the +Secretary of State: "The Japanese, be it said to their credit, are not a +servile or docile stock." Acquired by centuries of opposition to arbitrary +power, the trait has become almost instinctive, and expresses itself even +under democracy whenever they think they are unjustly treated. + +In discussing the features of Japanese character thus far, we have taken +care to state the known causes which gave rise to each trait. This has +been done with a view to preparing ourselves to answer the question; To +what extent are these characteristics of the Japanese inherent in the race +and to what extent acquired? The answer which the foregoing discussion +suggests is that they are both inherent and acquired, biological and +social. While racial stock is responsible to an extent, other factors, +such as natural environment and social conditions, have helped to develop +the characteristics of the Japanese. Perhaps the best criterion by which +we can determine the relative strength of heredity and environment in this +case is to observe how and in what respects the Japanese, born and reared +in other countries, undergo transformation in their mentality and +characteristics. We shall touch on this point again later when we discuss +the characteristics of the American-born Japanese children. + + +Philosophy of Life. + +It is but natural that the philosophy of a nation developed from the life +and experience of people should be deeply colored by their temperament. +After having discussed the essential features of the Japanese disposition, +it may be easy to anticipate the character of philosophy which rests on +it. We shall now consider the outstanding features of Japanese thought, +with a view to interpreting and evaluating the spiritual side of Japan's +civilization. + +True to the characteristics of the Japanese, who lack initiative, the +thought of the people also manifests a marked absence of originality. +Until, in the early part of the sixth century, Buddhism and Confucianism +came into the country, the Japanese seem to have had no system of religion +or philosophy save fetichism and mythology. The advent of new doctrines of +ethics and religion caused a rapid transformation of the life and ideas of +the people, elevating them by one stroke from barbarian obscurity to +civilized enlightenment. From this time on a childish admiration of +mythological characters and stories began to be superseded by an earnest +effort for the perfection of the individual character and the realization +of social ideals; and crude superstitions were gradually replaced by the +profound teachings of Gautama. Out of the religious zeal were developed +admirable art and literature, and from the moral effort were born +elaborate ethical codes, social order, and social etiquette. Thus, with +raw materials imported, the Japanese worked diligently and carefully to +turn out finished products well adapted to their tastes and needs. If the +Japanese were people endowed with great originality, they would surely +have given evidence of it during nearly three hundred years of national +seclusion (1570-1868), when almost all conditions requisite for a creative +impulse were present, including peace, prosperity, need, and +encouragement. In fact, however, the people were interested and absorbed +in stamping out the feeble hold of Christian influence, in assimilating +the teachings of Wang Yang Ming, and in recasting the doctrines of +Confucius and Buddha. When the flood gates of Japan were thrown open and +the tides of Occidental learning swept in, the Japanese were almost +overwhelmed, and found themselves too busy in coping with them to think of +the original contribution. + +Lack of ability to start new things is generally compensated by the +capacity to borrow new things. In the point of borrowing new ideas and +then working these to suit their own tastes, the Japanese are probably +second to no nation on earth. Japan first borrowed Confucianism and +Buddhism, and within a short time remodeled them in ways peculiar to her, +rendering their identity with the original almost unrecognizable. Thus the +stoic, pessimistic character of Buddhism was greatly modified, becoming +more or less epicurean and optimistic in the hands of the Japanese. The +casuistic, practical, individualistic ethics of Confucius were radically +changed to general principles of ideal conduct, with the addition of +æsthetic elements, and a strong emphasis laid on group loyalty rather than +on filial piety. It is to this ability of the Japanese to assimilate new +thought and new belief that the unexpected success of early Catholic +propaganda was chiefly due. To this capacity of assimilation is also due +the origin of Bushido, which is essentially an eclectic of Confucian, +Taoist, and Buddhist doctrines. The later-day Shintoism, the so-called +cult of ancestor worship, is also a product of the skillful combination of +native mythology, Taoism, and Confucianism, with an infusion of certain of +the Buddhist doctrines. That the present Japanese civilization is largely +a product of assimilation by native genius of American, French, German, +and English ideas and institutions is an established fact. It may be that +therein lies the hope, as many Japanese thinkers cherish, of making Japan +a modern Alexandria, where centuries of human achievements in Asia and +Europe may be harmoniously woven together for the realization of a more +perfect fabric of civilization. + +In literature it is asserted that the creative period is uncritical and +the critical period is barren. It seems that the critical tendency is the +antithesis of creative effort. This applies to the Japanese, who do not +create but who are keenly critical. Instinctively bent on absorbing new +ideas, they immediately react to any new schools of thought--turning from +Eucken to Bergson, again to Russell, now to Einstein--but they soon begin +to analyze their doctrines and to find fault and fallacy here and there, +and, finally, are ready to depreciate them wholesale. In so doing, of +course, they assimilate some of the good points involved in various +systems. The chief obstacle which Christianity, as interpreted by +healthy-minded missionaries, encounters in Nippon is the sceptical temper +of the Japanese intellectuals. + +A strong appeal to emotionalism and to the sense of beauty rather than to +cold reason and unpleasant realities is another common characteristic of +Japanese philosophy. The Japanese have always taken pride in expressing +great truths in a short verse form called _Uta_, with choice words and +exquisite phrases. Until the advent of European learning, poetry and +philosophy were never clearly distinguished in Japan. Love of emotionalism +naturally leads Japanese thought to humanism rather than to metaphysical +speculation. + +From this it may be thought that English positivism would find great vogue +in Japan. In fact, the influence of Adam Smith, Bentham, Mill, Malthus, +and others was a considerable factor in shaping modern Japanese thought. +But at bottom the Japanese are not utilitarians. They are by temper +idealists. The magical power by which German idealism as propounded by +Kant, Hegel, and Fichte, and more recently by Lotze and Eucken, controls +the Japanese mind is astounding. Nearly all the prominent philosophers of +the Meiji era may be classed under some branch of German idealism. The +fact that of American thinkers Emerson is more widely read than any other, +and that Royce is more popular than James, is no accident. If pragmatism +appeals to the Japanese mind, it is not in the logical form of Professor +Dewey but rather in the æsthetic presentation of Santayana. + + +New Turn in Thought. + +Recently, however, or more particularly since the war, the trend of +Japanese thought has began to follow a somewhat different path. Industrial +revolution, which has been rapidly advancing during the past twenty years, +reached its culmination during the war, when various forces accidently +combined in bringing about universal recognition of the need for radical +social reorganization. Capitalism, which had in the course of time grown +to be a gigantic power, proved unable to adapt itself to the changing +conditions of the day, and it thus obstructed the onward march of +liberalism and democracy. Labor, however, shook off the dust of long +humiliation, and began with united front to demand recognition of its +rights and of humanity. The struggle naturally forced the attention of the +people to the actual condition of society, where the poor majority are +sadly left in destitution, where sins and crime are sapping the very +vitality of the people, where the rich are abusing their fortunes for +deplorable ends. Then came the European downfall of autocracy and the +triumph (at least for a short time) of democracy. Liberty, equality, and +fraternity became once more the slogan of the time. All these forces +united and started a reform movement, upsetting to a certain degree the +age-long social system of Nippon. + +The three years of confusion did a lasting good. The German systems of +government, diplomacy, education, military affairs, and philosophy, to +which the Japanese had hitherto adhered too blindly, were, one after +another, filtrated and purified, thereby removing much of the scum that +was in them. It is, of course, impossible for hardened militarists and +bureaucrats to get rid of the beliefs in which they were born and brought +up and which have become endeared; but the old generations are gradually +dying off, carrying with them to the grave the skeleton of systems which +are now dead. In open rebellion against these falling autocrats there +arose a great number of brilliant young people, bred and trained in the +new school of liberty and democracy, with courage and foresight to +complete the second Restoration--that of the rights of humanity belonging +to the common masses. Already the status of the working classes is greatly +improved through a persistent, costly struggle against the misused power +of capital; wages have been increased, hours shortened, and, in the near +future, we may expect the triumph of industrial democracy, a triumph which +will secure for labor the deserved right of industrial copartnership. +Already the status of the women has been greatly improved by their +emancipation from the traditional and social bondage under which they +suffered so long. Political rights have been greatly enlarged, and +universal manhood suffrage is now within view. The educational system, +too, has just been revised, rendering its spirit a great deal more liberal +than ever before. In this way, though the road is yet long and uncertain, +true liberalism in Nippon at last stands firmly on its ground, ready to +march towards its ordained goal. + +Such a great social innovation is but a concrete expression of changes +that are taking place in the underlying currents of thought. It indicates +the breaking up of classic systems of moral and political philosophy, +which by dint of age-long prestige had never ceased to exercise a strong +influence upon the minds of the people. It discloses the bankruptcy of +that German idealism which so precisely fitted in with the _à priori_, +passive, spiritual temper of the people but which proved hopeless in the +face of vital problems of life and society. It means the exposure of the +inadequacy of English utilitarianism, with its over-emphasis on +individualism, to help the people effectually to solve many difficulties +of society. The changes now taking place in Japanese thought imply the +failure of those philosophies which belittle the value of the material, +slight the position of mankind in the universe and fail to satisfy man's +inherent craving for ceaseless progress. The new direction of Japanese +thought is decidedly towards pragmatic humanism at its best, with due +emphasis on the importance of the practical and social phases of life, +enriched with the spirit of a sentimental delicacy and an æsthetic +proclivity singularly characteristic of the people. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +JAPAN'S ASIATIC POLICY + + +Colonel Theodore Roosevelt once remarked to one of the authors of this +book, with his accustomed emphasis and gesture: "The United States' proper +sphere is in this hemisphere; Japan's proper sphere is in Asia." With this +text the great statesman was propounding an idea of deep political +significance. What is suggested by the text is, of course, not that either +of the two nations should resume its traditional policy of isolation or +confine its activities within the specified zones, but rather it is to the +effect that each should know its bounds and play the part which destiny +and geography have assigned to it. + +In further elucidating the same idea, in his book entitled _Fear God and +Take Your Own Part_, Roosevelt says: + + Japan's whole sea front, and her entire home maritime interest, bear + on the Pacific; and of the other great nations of the earth the United + States has the greatest proportion of her sea front on, and the + greatest proportion of her interest in, the Pacific. But there is not + the slightest real or necessary conflict of interests between Japan + and the United States in the Pacific. When compared with each other, + the interest of Japan is overwhelmingly Asiatic, that of the United + States overwhelmingly American. Relatively to each other, one is + dominant in Asia, the other in North America. Neither has any desire, + nor any excuse for desiring, to acquire territory on the other's + continent. + +President Roosevelt had a unique opportunity of making himself thoroughly +conversant with the situation in the Far East without even setting foot on +the soil. The Portsmouth Treaty of 1905, the "Gentlemen's Agreement" of +1907, the Root-Takahira Agreement of 1908, negotiated on behalf of America +by the able Secretary of State, Elihu Root, and the American recognition +of the amalgamation of Korea into the Japanese Empire in 1910, are the +outstanding acts of the Roosevelt administration wherein the foregoing +idea has been translated into deeds. These acts have proceeded from a +thorough appreciation of the history and development of modern Japan. Nor +did Colonel Roosevelt cease on his return to private life to follow +closely the march of events in Asia. He wrote many articles on Far Eastern +affairs which showed his remarkable grasp of the situation. No wonder, +then, that the Japanese people reciprocate this generous appreciation by +paying the highest respect to, and entertaining a genuine admiration for, +the late American statesman. + + +Korean Situation. + +Recently Japan has been made the target of attack from many quarters with +reference to her Asiatic policy. The Shantung settlement, the Korean +administration, and Japan's activities in East Siberia have been severely +assailed by her critics. Patriotism imposes upon a citizen no obligation +to condone any mistakes and wrongs which his country has committed. We +deplore the gross diplomatic blunder which Japan made in 1915 in her +dealings with China, which, although perfectly justifiable in the main +proposals presented,[2] had the appearance of browbeating her to +submission by brandishing the sword. We deplore the atrocities perpetrated +in the attempt to crush the Korean uprisings. Whatever may have been the +advisability of adopting drastic measures to nip the Korean revolt in the +bud, a revolt which, if leniently dealt with, might have resulted in far +greater sufferings of the people, it can never be proffered as a plea for +the committing of inhuman deeds. Fortunately, a change of heart has come +to the Mikado's Government, which, by uprooting the militaristic régime, +is now resolutely introducing liberal measures and reforms in Korea. The +most significant of the measures is the system of local self-government +which has just been inaugurated. It creates in the provinces, +municipalities, and villages of Chosen (Korea) consultative or advisory +Councils whose functions are to deliberate on the finances and other +matters of public importance to the respective local bodies. The members +are partly elective and partly appointive. Besides these deliberative +Councils, there will be established in each municipality, county, and +island a School Council to discuss matters relating to education. This is +the sure road to complete self-government in Chosen. The same process of +evolution, which brought local autonomy and a constitutional régime to +Japan proper, which took thirty years to perfect, is now being applied to +the newly joined integral part of the Mikado's Empire. The step may be +slow, but the goal is sure. Korea's union with Japan was consummated after +the bitter experience of two sanguinary wars and the mature deliberation +of the best minds of the two peoples. Its revocation is out of the +question, unless it is demanded in the future for most cogent reasons. The +privilege of taking a hand in the government of the empire, however, +should be extended as speedily as possible to its subjects in the +peninsula. + + +Policy of Self-Preservation. + +Many as are the pitfalls into which Japan has fallen in pursuance of her +Asiatic policy, it may confidently be asserted that the road she has +trodden has, on the whole, been straight. She can face with a clean +conscience the verdict of history. When Far Eastern history, from the +China-Japan War to the conclusion of the Versailles Treaty, is carefully +examined and rightly understood, it will be conceded that the course which +Japan has adopted, so far as its general principles are concerned, is the +one which any nation of self-respect and right motive would pursue. +Fundamentally Japan's Asiatic policy is the policy of self-preservation, +the policy of defense, and never of aggression. The Anglo-Japanese +Alliance, which was and still remains the cornerstone of Japan's Asiatic +policy, was formed for purely defensive purposes, in order to maintain +peace in Asia and safeguard mutual interests vested therein of the two +Powers. Only the "inexorable march of events" has brought Japan into +Korea, Manchuria, and East Siberia. None of the statesmen who took part in +the Meiji Restoration could ever have dreamed that their country would in +the course of time be driven through sheer force of circumstances to +plant its flag on the Asiatic mainland. It was solely in self-defense that +Japan took up arms against China and Russia. Once enmeshed in continental +politics, however, it became imperative for her to take such measures as +would ensure and consolidate the position and gains that were won through +enormous sacrifice of blood and treasure. Herein, in short, is the genesis +of Japan's present status in Korea and Manchuria. + +Even at the present time, the heavy arming of Japan is a case of +necessity, so long as the Far East remains in such an unstable condition +as exists there to-day, and is not free from the menace of the Bolsheviki, +who, professing pacifism, are not slow to emulate the military machine of +Imperial Russia. Nothing could be more welcome to the Japanese people than +to see the curtailment of their naval and military equipments, for the +maintenance of which they have to bear the burden of crushing taxes, and +to behold the day when they can, without fear of interference by force of +arms, win their spurs in the Far East by engaging in the peaceful +enterprises of farming, trade, and industry. + +Precisely as the position of Japan on the Asiatic mainland was the result +of arbitrament by the sword, drawn in response to a challenge made by +others, and is now upheld by the prestige of arms, her Asiatic policy, +although conceived in self-defense, came to assume in the eyes of the +outside world a semblance of military aggrandizement. As a consequence, +Japan is looked upon as a militaristic nation, bent upon conquest. +Suspicion and fear are thereby engendered. This is, to say the least, +extremely unfortunate. No stone should be left unturned to smooth the +sharp edges cut by this historical retrospect and to obliterate the +unpleasant memories of the past. No effort would be too great for Japan to +convince the world of her genuine faith that her future lies "not in +territorial and military conquest, but on the water in the carrying trade +and on land in her commercial and industrial expansion abroad." Her +erstwhile failure to dispel the suspicion of the world about her +intentions and to take it into her confidence is the root of many ills +with which she has been afflicted for the past few years. + + +Shantung Settlement. + +The storm of criticism we have witnessed in America about the Shantung +settlement is a good illustration. Whatever part party politics in the +United States may have played in raising the furor, had Japan secured the +complete confidence of the American people, all the eloquence expended +for the denunciation of the Shantung clause in the Versailles Treaty +would surely have fallen on deaf ears. That our judgment is not wrong is +sustained by the fact that the Portsmouth Treaty evoked not a word of +protest in America. We need not remind our readers that the Treaty +concluded through the good offices of President Roosevelt and the +settlement made at Versailles are not only based upon the same principles +but are exactly identical in many respects, with this most important +exception--namely, that the former Treaty transferred to Japan the lease +of the Kwantung territory, and she still holds it, while in the latter +case she pledges herself to relinquish the leasehold of Kiaochow, thereby +restoring the complete sovereignty of China over Shantung, which had been +infringed upon by Germany. The Shantung settlement is, consequently, of a +far greater advantage to China. What Japan secures in that province is +only the same economic rights and privileges which are enjoyed by other +Powers in other parts of China. There is, therefore, no justifiable ground +for singling out Japan for attack with regard to the international +arrangement now in vogue in China. Were the complete reconstruction of +China, the re-writing of her history, to be attempted, international +justice would demand that the parties interested should all share equal +responsibilities and sacrifices. Discrimination against Japan alone is +unjust, unfair. The would-be builders of the new heaven and the new earth +can ill afford to lay the cornerstone of their edifice on such an unsafe +and unlevel ground. Manifestly, the dawn of the millennium is still far +away. We have to make the best of the world as it is. To ignore this fact +is to make the confusion in the world worse confounded. As a result of +this misapprehension of history, the Shantung question still remains in +abeyance, because of China's refusal to enter into negotiations with Japan +for the restoration of Kiaochow, thus delaying perfect accord between the +two Oriental neighbors whom destiny has called to be on the best of terms. +The foregoing interpretation of the Shantung question could not in +ordinary circumstances have failed to convince the practical American +people of the appropriateness of the Versailles settlement, were they not +tempted to indulge suspicions of Japan and, hence, ready to be easily +misled by false stories, misrepresentations, and slanders concocted by her +enemies. + +Rather unfortunate, one is sometimes tempted to think, has been the +heading of the clause in the Versailles Treaty, that has readjusted the +German-China Treaty of 1898 and its sequel, and disposed of the rights and +privileges Germany had secured thereby in the province of Shantung. Like +"the three R's" and other catchwords that have in American history often +proved so powerful in misleading the people, so this curt phrase "Shantung +clause," which was seized on and skillfully utilized by Japan's critics, +has been a cause of mountains of misunderstanding that have crept into the +heads of the American people, who, as a rule, take neither time nor pains +to examine the subject carefully and thoroughly. As a result, they imagine +that the whole province of Shantung was ceded to Japan by the Peace +Treaty. Great, indeed, as is this mistake, it would be extremely difficult +to correct it, as the mischief has already been done, except by the actual +restoration of Kiaochow. Japan cannot, of course, be held responsible for +the misinterpretations of other people, but at the same time it would be +well for her to spare no effort to convince China of the wisdom of +entering into negotiations for the recovery of the leased territory, and, +consequently, of her complete sovereignty over the province of Shantung. +Until this pledge is redeemed, Japan's credit will suffer, and all her +pronouncements on justice and humanity fall flat on the ears of the world. + + +Coöperation with China. + +While Japan's Asiatic policy was, of course, primarily formulated to +further her own interests, it has also been inspired with the laudable +ambition of rendering a good record of stewardship over the people who +have come within the orbit of its influence. No one who knows the work +undertaken in Korea and South Manchuria will grudge a word of praise for +the record. It has bestowed untold benefits on the inhabitants. Theodore +Roosevelt, in reviewing the enterprise of Japan in Korea, grew +enthusiastic over it. The same story is repeated in South Manchuria, where +the South Manchurian Railroad Company, acting as a civilizing agent, has +wrought marvels. We should like to dwell here with patriotic pride on +these reforms and undertakings in some detail, were they not out of place +in this book. + +Commendable as are these civilizing measures adopted by Japan, the fact +remains that she has signally failed in one great essential, namely, in +winning the good will and friendship of her neighbors. This is the weakest +spot in the armor of her Asiatic policy. She is thereby jeopardizing her +future. The sentiment of good will is as much a fact, though imponderable, +as any other fact, and is a force of immense consequence. How vital this +moral asset is to Japan can easily be gauged when we consider that in her +neighboring lands are found the indispensable materials for her industrial +expansion and the best market for her commerce. Japanese leaders are +thoroughly aware of the importance of this moral asset, and have done all +that they could to secure it. + +The failure to win it is partly due to the pettiness of Japanese +officialdom, so bitterly complained of by Lafcadio Hearn with his fine +poetical irony--the pettiness which tries to bring everything within its +prescribed order and does not allow free play to the idiosyncrasies and +peculiar characteristics of other peoples. No less responsible are the +shortsightedness of Japanese nationals, their too great eagerness to +accomplish things within a short time, their haughtiness and overbearing +manners, which are decidedly offensive to their neighbors. The fault, +however, is not Japan's alone. There are tremendous difficulties which +confront her in the way of winning the friendship of her neighbors. The +first to reckon with are their weak and unstable qualities, which have so +sadly but too clearly been shown by their incapacity to organize a strong +nation or to put their house in order. To deal with these neighbors is no +easy task. It requires the highest statesmanship. The task is made +difficult a hundredfold by the counteracting influences exerted on Japan's +neighbors, as they are in the vortex of international rivalry. And not all +foreigners are the friends of Japan. There is a considerable number of +those who entertain, for one reason or another, a dislike of the Island +Empire, and ceaselessly labor to defeat its purpose. They paint, either +wittingly or unwittingly, every act of Japan so maliciously that it +instills fear and hatred of her among her neighbors. Undiscriminating and +unfair attacks of Japan's critics play into the hands of the jingoistic +elements in the countries concerned and make the task of the liberals +extremely difficult. Whatever the obstacles, however, they must be +surmounted, for the future road to tread is clear. Japan's salvation, +together with that of her neighbors, lies in their genuine friendship and +coöperation. + + +Understanding with America. + +A brief review of Japan's Asiatic policy was deemed advisable in +connection with the discussion of the Japanese-California problem in order +to see how Japan proposes to solve the question of human congestion at +home and to meet her other urgent needs. The succeeding chapters will show +what an unparalleled predicament Japan is facing. Circumscribed within a +narrowly limited area, only 16 per cent. of which is fit for cultivation, +and crowded with two thirds as many people as the entire population of the +United States, with an annual increase at the rate of seven hundred +thousand, Japan must perforce find a way whereby her people may live +contentedly and develop robustly. Emigration and industrial expansion are +manifestly the exits from the dilemma of slow strangulation. Emigration, +however, is found a difficult exit, for the Japanese find themselves +barred from the most favorably placed lands of the earth. Australia, +Canada, and the United States, with their vast lands yet sparsely peopled, +and their immense resources left unexploited, while welcoming every race +and creed of Europe, shut their doors against the Japanese. + +Japan has acquiesced without much ado in the restrictive immigration +measures adopted by America and by British colonies from the higher +consideration of international comity. She saw that there lies at the +bottom of these measures the delicate question of race difference, which +requires a long period for its proper adjustment. To ignore this fact and +force the race issue, however just in principle, would be to court +disaster. It might result in the loss of friendship of her best associates +in international affairs and of the vital interests involved in that +friendship. At the same time, the "Gentlemen's Agreement" which Japan has +entered into is evidence of her sincere solicitude to avoid embarrassment +of her friends by the influx of an alien race. It is then but just that +they reciprocate the courtesy by a sympathetic understanding of Japan's +difficulties. + +Barred in the east and south, it is natural for Japan to strive to find +room and employment for the surplus of her population in her neighboring +lands--the sparsely peopled Manchuria, Mongolia, and East Siberia. +Climate, cheap and efficient native labor, and the unfavorable economic +conditions, however, preclude the immigration in large numbers of Japanese +laborers into these regions. Only by building up large plants and +inaugurating big agricultural enterprises, in coöperation with the +natives, could Japan hope to transplant in these lands some portion of her +skilled laborers and traders. During the stay of a decade and a half in +South Manchuria, limited as it was until the conclusion of the China-Japan +Treaties of 1915 to the Kwantung territory and the railway zones, Japan +can count therein as colonists only a little over 150,000 of her sons and +daughters.[3] + +The only alternative which remains and which is the most feasible +proposition to absorb the energies of her crowded population is found in +her commercial and industrial expansion. Here again, however, she is +terribly handicapped, as we shall see in the next chapter, by the +conspicuous absence and scarcity of raw materials indispensable for +industrial development. Fortunately, in the territories of her +neighbors--China and East Siberia--there are vast stores of these +materials untouched and unused, the unfolding of which will not only meet +her wants, but will equally benefit her neighbors. The supreme importance +of winning their good will thereby becomes accentuated a thousandfold, for +without their willing coöperation nothing can be accomplished. In the +participation of the benefits accruing from the development of her +neighbors' natural resources Japan need not ask for special privileges. +The faithful and effective execution of the "open door" policy is all she +requires. Here she stands on common ground with Occidental Powers. She +entertains no fear of the outcome of the "open door" policy, for she is in +a position to secure every advantage accruing from its operation. + + +Japan's Proper Sphere of Activity. + +As Colonel Roosevelt pointed out, "Japan's proper sphere is in Asia," and +it is but proper that her activities therein develop in intensity and +vigor. She is entitled to use every peaceful and legitimate means that is +open to her for the extension of her influence in the Far East, for it is +there that she can assure herself of her right to live. America and Great +Britain, while reserving to themselves the right of opening or closing +their own doors to the Japanese, will not be playing a fair and even game +if they grudge to recognize this fact. In the strict adherence on the part +of Japan to the spirit which gave birth to the "Gentlemen's Agreement," +and in the just appreciation on the part of America of Japan's +difficulties at home and abroad, lies one of the fundamentals of an +equitable solution of the Japanese-California problem. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +BACKGROUND OF JAPANESE EMIGRATION + + +Causes of Emigration and Immigration. + +Diverse as are the causes that induce emigration and invite immigration, +the most fundamental of all, with the exception of a few extraordinary +cases, such as that of the Pilgrim Fathers, is economic pressure. There is +a close relationship--a mutual give and take--between the immigrants and +those who receive them. Generally speaking, human activities have their +main-spring in man's desire to improve his conditions of living. The +motive which induces the people of one country to go out and settle in +another country is the same as the motive which induces another people to +invite immigrants from other countries. True, in the former case, the +direct reason for the move is generally the overcrowding and poor natural +environment at home. In the latter case, it is the lack of man-power and +the presence of great unexploited natural resources. But in both cases the +real motive is the pursuit of interest, which may be reciprocally +promoted by the transaction. It is well to keep this point clearly in mind +at the outset, because much of the confusion in discussing the Japanese +problem in California arises from forgetting the real cause which brought +Japanese immigrants to America and which induced America to invite them. + +During the early colonial period the American colonies invited refugees +from political and religious oppression to come and settle in the new +world of freedom and democracy. The remnant of this early spirit still +remains embodied in the present immigration laws of the United States. +Nevertheless, it is almost a dead letter, with great historic interest but +with no practical significance. The real motive for welcoming immigrants +has been the acquisition of man-power for the exploitation of vast natural +resources and for the development of industry. This is a fact which may be +observed in almost all "new worlds," including the South American +republics, Canada, and Australia, where the dearth of human energy is the +capital reason of slow economic development. With settlers, however, the +economic motive is not the only one, though it is predominant. Here the +motives are diverse and complicated. With the Japanese there are +particular causes which have been driving them to seek opportunities in +new worlds. + + +Japan's Land Area. + +The first and foremost cause is Japan's limited and unresourceful land. +The land area of Japan Proper is 147,655 square miles, which is about +8,000 square miles less than that of California. The terrain of Japan is +mountainous and volcanic, being traversed by two chains of mountains. One +runs down from Saghalien towards the center of Honshu and the other from +China via Formosa headed towards the north, both meeting at the middle of +Honshu, thereby producing rugged upheavals popularly known as "the +Japanese Alps." Being thus rocky and mountainous, the area contains a very +small portion of plain land. Hokkaido, the extreme northern island, has +seven plains. Honshu, the main island, has between the mountains five +small plains, and Kyushu, the large southern island, has one. The total +area of plains forms about one fourth of the entire area of Japan. The +consequence of this geological formation is that about 16 per cent. of the +total area is fit for cultivation, while over 70 per cent. of it is made +up of mountains and forests. + + +Agriculture. + +The Japanese having always been primarily farmers, agriculture still +remains the principal occupation of the people. More than half the +population is earning a livelihood wholly or partially by agricultural +pursuits. The large number of farmers and the small amount of agricultural +land allotted to them has given rise to the most intensive cultivation, +which probably has no parallel in the world. Nearly five and a half +million families, or thirty million people, cultivate fifteen million +acres, which means less than three acres per family, and half an acre per +individual farmer. It is little wonder that the law of diminishing return +has long been operating, rendering the agricultural pursuit less and less +remunerative, driving farm hands to industry and other work. The average +daily wage of the farm laborer was 56 sen in 1917, while that of the +industrial laborer was 1 yen.[4] + +In recent years the Government undertook a thorough examination of the +tillable land in the country and reported as a result that there is yet a +possibility of reclaiming about five million acres. By way of experiment, +the Government began, with the approval of the 41st Session of the Diet +(1918-19), to undertake the work of partial reclamation of seven hundred +thousand acres on a nine-year program, with an outlay of some four million +yen. It is yet uncertain how the enterprise will turn out; but it is +fairly doubtful, in view of the fact that already the land is utilized +almost to the limit of cultivation, including narrow back yards and rugged +hillsides, as well as sandy beach, whether the program can materially +increase the present amount of farm acreage. + +Parallel with the effort to extend the tillable land, everything has been +done to increase the productivity of the soil under cultivation. Thanks to +the application of scientific methods in agriculture and the use of +fertilizer, the average yield of all crops per acre has increased since +1894 by about 35 per cent. But experts assert that owing to the excessive +employment of land the soil now indicates signs of exhaustion, and that +accordingly any further increase of productivity cannot be hoped for. On +the contrary, the tendency will be toward a gradual decrease of +productivity in the future. This is a grave forecast for Japan, and makes +that country dependent more and more upon the food supply from abroad. The +average yield of staple crops in Japan during the past few years +comprises: barley, nine million koku (a koku is approximately five +bushels); rye, seven million koku; wheat, five million koku; millet, four +million koku, and rice, the most important crop, fifty-two million koku. +The crops are far from being sufficient to feed a population of fifty-five +millions, and Japan buys annually millions of koku of staple food from +abroad. Taking rice, for instance, the average annual consumption is +fifty-eight million koku, which exceeds by six million koku the average +annual yield of Japan, so that the deficiency is made up by imports from +Korea, China, and India. + +Naturally, the Japanese, being very good farmers and fond of agriculture, +and yet having so small a prospect of success at home, look with eager +eyes for an opportunity to cultivate land abroad. In the north there are +the vast plains of Manchuria; towards the south the fertile soil of +Australia; in the east, California and Hawaii appear to offer golden +opportunities for industrious farmers. Manchuria, however, turned out to +be too cold, and competition there with cheap Chinese labor proved +unprofitable. Australia, from the beginning, never welcomed the yellow +races. Only Hawaii and California seemed in all respects satisfactory for +Japanese emigration. Hence, large numbers of Japanese farmers migrated to +these places during the years between 1891 and 1907. + + +Population. + +Another big factor of Japanese emigration is the overcrowded status of the +home population. Strangely, during the three centuries of national +isolation, Japan's population remained fairly static, varying only +slightly around twenty-six millions. A reasonable explanation of this +peculiar phenomenon may be found in the rigid social structure of +feudalism, which allowed no swelling of population beyond a certain +number. Malthusian factors, such as pestilence and famine, as well as +artificial means of control, operated in effectively thwarting the +increasing forces of population. + +When, however, feudalism was at last destroyed and in its place were +established new forms of political and social systems which were much more +liberal and advanced, the population suddenly began to swell at a +tremendous rate. The advent of Occidental enlightenment which went far to +improve the economic conditions of the country, and hence the conditions +of living among the people, greatly encouraged the rapid multiplication of +the number of people. Within the last fifty years the population of Japan +has nearly doubled, increasing from thirty millions to fifty-five +millions. At the present time the population is increasing at the rate of +650,000 to 700,000 per annum within Japan proper alone. The census taken +on October 1, 1920, shows the total population of the Mikado's Empire as +totalling 77,005,510, of which that of Japan proper is 55,961,140. + +The significance of Japan's population cannot be appreciated unless it is +considered in connection with her land. The total area of Japan proper we +have seen to be 147,655 square miles and the population close to +56,000,000. That is to say, the number of inhabitants per square mile is +380. This is rather a high figure when compared with that of other +countries. Germany with her dense population counted, in 1915, 319 per +square mile; France had 191, America 31 (1910), India and China, famous +for density, had populations enumerated respectively at 158 and 100. Great +Britain has rather a dense population (370 per square mile), but she has +vast colonies, the population of which is extremely thin. This comparison +of the number of people per square mile does not tell the true story until +the quality and resources of each square mile are also compared. It has +already been made clear that only 16 per cent., or fifteen million acres, +of the land of Japan proper is tillable. This gives only one quarter of an +acre of agricultural land per capita of population. In Great Britain +agricultural land occupies 77 per cent. of the total area; in Italy, 76 +per cent.; in France, 70 per cent. and in Germany 65 per cent. + + +Industry. + +Handicapped as she is in agriculture, and holding on the other hand a vast +and ever-increasing population, the best, in fact the only, policy for +Japan to follow has been to utilize her vast man-power for the development +of industry. Firmly convinced that the future of Japan depends solely on +her ability to stand in the world as an industrial nation, the far-sighted +statesmen of Japan long ago formulated plans for a steady industrial +expansion. These plans were furthered by Government subsidy and have been +faithfully carried out step by step by the authorities. The creation of a +vast merchant marine; the building of railroads throughout the country, +closely knitting all parts of the empire together; the enactment of a +carefully drafted protective tariff; the national and municipal +monopolization of public utilities and important industries; the +establishment of a stable financial system with facilities for financing +healthy enterprises; the establishment of technical schools throughout the +empire for the training of experts and skilled workmen, and thousands of +other remarkable undertakings were accomplished within a very short time +by the direct and indirect efforts of the State. + +The people, too, were not behind in their devotion to the cause of making +Japan an industrial power. They toiled most willingly under all kinds of +disadvantages and hardships; they shouldered extortionate taxes with +smiling faces; they worked in unison, disregarding for the time being +petty private interests; they calmly and bravely met all privations and +adversities. There is little wonder indeed that Japan established herself +within only a few decades as an industrial nation of the first rank. + +In order to get a general idea of Japan's industrial strides, a few +figures will perhaps suffice. Take, for instance, the number of factories. +There was not one factory, properly so-called, in the country at the time +of the Restoration in 1868; as late as 1885 there were but 496 industrial +companies, joint stock or partnership, with a total capital of seven +million yen. In the year 1900, however, there were 7000 typically modern +factories, and this number rapidly multiplied, subsequently reaching over +25,000, with billions of paid-up capital. The number of factory +operatives, too, correspondingly multiplied during that period. Less than +500,000 twenty years ago, they now total 1,500,000. The increase in the +output of production and multiplication of various kinds of industries has +been particularly phenomenal. In the textile industry the production has +increased more than 300 per cent. during the past twenty years, cotton +yarn having increased from 30,000,000 kan (one kan is approximately equal +to 8.27 pounds avoirdupois) in 1900 to 100,000,000 kan; and in the silk +textiles from 2,500,000 kan to 7,500,000 kan. In cloth fabrics, similarly +the value turned out in silk weaving increased from $42,000,000 to +$100,000,000; in cotton weaving from $30,000,000 to $200,000,000 between +the years mentioned. The corresponding increase of output has been +realized in almost all established industries, and the same ratio obtains +in the many new industries which have sprung up in recent years. Generally +speaking, the industry of Japan, which was established on a firm footing +by the year 1900, has trebled during the last twenty years. + +The World War, too, by absorbing for military purposes all the energies of +the belligerent Powers in Europe and America, was greatly instrumental in +stimulating the industrial growth of Japan, who, after accomplishing her +allotted task at the initial stage of the great conflict, was thereafter +called upon by her Allies to do her utmost in supplying their urgent needs +in ships and industrial products. + +The development of industry naturally accompanies a similar expansion in +commerce. The total amount of foreign trade, which started with the meager +sum of $13,000,000 in 1868, jumped to about $250,000,000 in 1900, and in +1920 reached $2,124,000,000. That is, within the past twenty years only, +Japan's foreign trade increased roughly ten times, and during the past +fifty years 163 times. + +Yet, with all this remarkable development, the future of Japanese +manufactures does not allow unqualified optimism. In several important +respects the foundation of Japan's industrialism is seriously hampered. In +the first place, the supply of raw material is pitifully meager. With the +exception of silk, Japan has in store hardly any raw material worthy of +mention. She produces no wool or cotton and has only a limited store of +iron. With the exception of coal, in which alone she is fairly +independent--at least for the present--Japan depends for these +indispensable factors of modern industry mostly on foreign supply. +Scarcity of iron, in particular, is a notable weakness of Japan as an +industrial nation. + +The many mistakes Japan made in her labor policy, which were the +inevitable outcome of the extreme difficulty she confronted in adjusting +the sudden transition from the Feudal régime to the modern industrial +stage, must also be counted as a cause in retarding the progress of her +industry. Due to exceedingly low wages, long working hours, and lack of +adequate protection of labor from exploitation, the man-power of Japan has +been greatly lavished and wasted. The paternal social systems inherited +from the feudal days long refused to allow the voice of the working +classes to be heard and to give them freedom to improve their status. +Strikes and labor unions, whatever their motive and character, have always +been frowned upon in Japan. It is by no means too much to say that the +present development of Japan's industry has been achieved largely by the +costly sacrifice of health and the rights of millions of laboring men and +women. Considering how costly was the present achievement of industry, +there remains some doubt as to how far Japan can carry on its progress in +the future. + +It may seem that the development of industry must have brought a marked +improvement in the standard of living of the masses. Such, however, is not +the case. It has indeed immensely swelled the pockets of plutocrats, but +has not much benefited the rank and file. While the income of the lower +classes has not increased to any large extent, the cost of living has gone +up by leaps and bounds, aggravating the severity of their struggle. + +When both farming and manufacturing failed successfully to cope with the +ever-increasing population, the only alternative for the Japanese was +emigration. Among the students, the talk of another alternative, namely +birth-control, is becoming a fad. + + +Social Factors. + +Besides the economic reasons so far discussed there are social reasons +which induce Japanese youths to go abroad. Socially an old country like +Japan contains a vast accumulated crust of custom and tradition which +refuses to adapt itself to the changing conditions and ideals of the age, +and which, therefore, is objectionable to the younger generation who know +something of the value of freedom and democracy. Again, the national +conscription for military service is becoming increasingly distasteful to +the youths of individualistic inclination. It is but natural, in the face +of such powerful and numerous fetters which obstruct the free development +of lives and personalities, that the young people of Nippon should seek +opportunities abroad. + +All these factors above described would not have constituted the effective +motive forces for Japanese emigration had it not been for the assumed +external advantages. Attractive narratives in which some of the new +countries, more especially America, were represented as places where +economic opportunities are really boundless and where an ideal state of +freedom and democracy prevails, took an exaggerated form in the +imagination. The glaring contrast which the visualized America presents +with the actual Japan stimulates the desire of young men to turn to +America and try their fortunes. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +ATTEMPTS AT EMIGRATION: RESULTS + + +The history of Japanese emigration began only a few decades ago. +Immediately after the conclusion of treaties with the Western Powers many +Japanese youths were sent abroad to acquire advanced Occidental knowledge. +A number of adventurous persons and travelers also knocked at the doors of +western countries, but they were not immigrants. Real immigration movement +did not start until the facts of other countries became more or less +known; until the colossal task of economic and social "revolutions" was +well started; until the influence of European imperialism began to take +root in the empire. Then came a brief period of "emigration fever" towards +the end of the eighties, lasting some twenty years. What follows is a +brief history of the various attempts made by Japanese to emigrate into +different countries, and the results of the experiment. + + +Australia. + +Because of the geographical proximity and alluring temptations that the +vast uncultivated lands and rich natural resources presented, Australia +was the place which early attracted the Japanese. A few hundreds of them +began to migrate to several colonies, chiefly to Queensland, New South +Wales, and Victoria. But they soon found the conditions exceedingly +uncomfortable, owing to the hostile feeling already prevalent there +against the Asiatics. The Australian fear of an influx of Asiatic races +was early aroused by Chinese immigrants, who, as early as 1848, attained a +sufficient number to cause agitation and race riots in several colonies. +These colonies subsequently enacted rigorous anti-Asiatic immigration laws +restricting the number of immigrants admitted per annum to a few hundred. +Since then, filled with the fear, real or imaginary, of a menace of +Asiatic inundation from across the equator, where one-half of the planet's +population live congested on one-tenth of the total area of the earth, the +great task of Australia during the last sixty years has been to keep the +country clear of Asiatics. + +The immigration policy of the Commonwealth of Australia presents perhaps +the most clear-cut and radical example of racial discrimination. While, on +the one side, she spares neither effort nor money to attract and welcome +white settlers, on the other side she leaves no stone unturned to exclude +all Asiatic immigrants. With an immensely large area--about 50,000 square +miles more extensive than that of the United States--yet almost untouched, +and a population less than that of the City of New York, Australia really +needs farmers, artisans, and all other classes of people. It is the +function of the Commonwealth Department of Home and Territories to +advertise in Europe, through lectures, films, exhibitions, and posters, +for the purpose of inviting laborers and settlers to Australia. Each State +of the Commonwealth has extended assistance in money and privilege to +hundreds of thousands of European immigrants. The cause for lamentation by +the government is that with all this effort and sacrifice she has not been +successful in getting any considerable number of people as settlers. + +Unsuccessful in attracting white settlers, she has been most successful in +repelling the yellow race. She has an immigration law which requires +immigrants to pass a dictation test--a test in writing of not less than +fifty words of a European language--which is dictated to them by an +officer. Examination in a European language for the Asiatics! And what is +more, the Europeans are exempt from it. The law provides, furthermore, +that Asiatic immigrants may be required to pass a test at any time within +two years after they have entered the Commonwealth. Even for the +reception of those Asiatics who have been lawfully admitted, some of the +States, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, and Tasmania in +particular, do not allow them the right of owning or leasing land, under +the pretext that they are not eligible to citizenship. The Commonwealth of +Australia does not extend the right of naturalization to Asiatics. No +wonder, then, that there is only a handful of Orientals in that vast +country--35,000 Chinese and some 5000 Japanese. + + +Canada. + +Until recent years, no record was kept of the number of Japanese +immigrants arriving in Canada and consequently the development of the +movement cannot be accurately traced. The Canadian census of 1901 shows +that 4674 persons born in Japan were in the Dominion at that time; 4415 +were in the Province of British Columbia, the rest being scattered in the +Provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. After that year the +number of Japanese immigrants coming to Canada gradually increased, and +when the United States placed restrictions on the influx of Japanese from +Hawaii, and the latter began to seek entrance into Canada, the number grew +considerably and soon caused serious concern to the people of Western +Canada. It was estimated that in 1907 the Japanese domiciled in Canada +had reached eight thousand. Determined opposition soon arose among the +western provinces, and protests were sent by the Canadian Government to +Hawaii and Tokyo requesting them to control the sudden immigration tide. +An agreement was reached in 1908 between Japan and Canada by which the +number of passports to be granted in any one year to Japanese emigrating +to Canada was limited to four hundred. In this way the question was +satisfactorily settled. + +Canada's treatment of the Asiatic races lawfully admitted has been marked +by leniency. She has extended to the Orientals the privilege of +naturalization and of securing homesteads. Even in British Columbia, the +center of anti-Oriental agitation, the Japanese and Chinese are permitted +to conduct business and cultivate land on an equal basis with British +subjects in Canada. They may own land, both urban and rural, and in +provinces other than British Columbia they are entitled to voting +privileges when naturalized; only in that province the Orientals are not +allowed to cast ballots, though free to become citizens. It is reported +that there are 13,823 Japanese residing in Canada to-day, engaged in +fishing and logging and sawmill industries, as well as in agriculture. + + +South America. + +For some years past a number (about six thousand) of Japanese immigrants +has been sent every year to Brazil in compliance with the request of the +Republic. They have been mostly engaged on coffee plantations in Sao +Paulo. The colonization is still in an experimental stage, and it is a +little premature to forecast its future at this time. Altogether about +twenty thousand Japanese immigrants have gone to the South American +Republic. + + +The United States. + +Perhaps attracted by the wonderful stories of the discovery of gold in the +Sacramento Valley, or possibly cast ashore in boats on the Pacific Coast +of America, there seem to have lived in the early sixties in California +about a hundred Japanese. Early California papers record the story of +quaint-looking Japanese settlers, who were received with great favor. +Although accurate records are lacking, it would seem that the number of +Japanese did not begin to increase until the late eighties, when a few +hundred began to come in every year. The census of 1890 reported the +number of Japanese residents as 2039. From that time on the number of +immigrants steadily increased, reaching the highest mark in 1907, when +about ten thousand of them entered continental America in one year.[5] + +The direct incentive for Japanese emigration was furnished by a few large +emigration companies,[6] which were formed with a view to supplying +contract labor to Hawaii and America, where the demand for labor was +insatiable. In the former case, the rapid growth of the sugar plantations +demanded a large supply of cheap labor. In the latter case, the need for +cheap labor was urgent, due to the enactment of the Chinese Exclusion Law +in 1882, which soon began to effect a decrease in the number of Chinese +laborers, resulting in a dearth of labor on the farms and in railroad +work. It was in response to the urgent demand of capitalists and +landowners in Hawaii and America for Japanese labor that the emigration +companies sprang into existence with the object of facilitating the +complex process of immigration. + +The Japanese coolies so brought in were welcomed and prosperous--at least +for a while. Their industry and frugality won them the confidence of their +employers. In agriculture, in railroad-building, in mining and fishing, +they proved useful hands. They saved money and remitted to their native +country a considerable portion of it. Some of them returned home with a +fortune and a degree of refinement which a superior environment could +bestow upon a laborer. These incidents stimulated the desire of ambitious +Japanese to leave for and work in California and Hawaii, and the number of +applicants for emigration greatly multiplied. + +In the meantime, between 1895 and 1900, changes had taken place in the +attitude of the people of California toward the Japanese. For various +reasons the friendly feeling of the Californians was gradually replaced by +a more or less hostile sentiment. It so happened that just about this time +California was the stage for a struggle between organized labor and +capital. It was with a great deal of effort and sacrifice that the +organized labor of California succeeded in excluding the Chinese coolies. +But their hard-won victory was shattered to pieces by the advent of +Japanese laborers, whom capital, taking advantage of their ignorance of +American customs and language, wisely utilized as a powerful weapon to +defeat the unions. To the union men it made no difference whether the +strike-breakers were Chinese or Japanese; whether strike-breaking was +voluntarily or unwittingly performed; they were enemies just the same. +The cry for exclusion was a natural consequence. + +Then there also seems to be some truth in the report[7] made in 1908 by W. +L. Mackenzie King, the Deputy Minister of the Government of Canada, which +states that it is suspected that much of the anti-Japanese agitation in +California was deliberately fermented by the interests of the Planters' +Association of Honolulu, who, alarmed by the tendency of Japanese laborers +engaged on the sugar plantations to seek work on the Pacific Coast of +America, where wages were much better, started a campaign to check the +exodus by causing ill feeling toward the Japanese along the Pacific Coast. +The report states in part: + + It is believed ... that the members of the Asiatic Exclusion League in + San Francisco were not without contributions from the Association's + incidental expense fund, to assist them in an agitation which by + excluding Japanese from the mainland would confine that class of labor + to the islands, to the greater economic advantage of the members of + the Association.[8] + +For these two chief reasons, and perhaps for many other minor ones, there +arose the persistent social movement for Japanese exclusion in +California, which first took definite shape in 1900, when a mass-meeting +held at San Francisco for the express purpose of more rigidly excluding +the Chinese, adopted a resolution urging Congress to take measures for the +total exclusion of Japanese other than members of the Diplomatic Staff. +Following this came the first of the anti-Japanese messages delivered by +the Governor of California, and of the resolutions voted on by the State +Legislature calling upon Congress to extend the Chinese Exclusion Law to +other Asiatics. The climax of the movement was reached when, immediately +after the earthquake, the Board of Education of San Francisco passed the +"separate school order," and Japan protested. A series of diplomatic +negotiations followed, which finally resulted in the repeal of the school +discriminatory order and the conclusion of the "Gentlemen's Agreement," +whereby Japan pledged herself to restrict the number of immigrants to the +United States. + +Leaving to a later chapter the detailed discussion of the result which the +"Gentlemen's Agreement" has brought about in the status of Japanese +immigration, it will suffice to mention here that the agreement has +faithfully and loyally been carried out by Japan, and that since then the +Japanese problem has in fact ceased to be an immigration issue. + + +Results. + +Twenty years of emigration attempts, chief of which we reviewed in this +chapter, have resulted in failure in every case, and Japan's effort to +plant her race in other lands has proved futile. There are many causes for +this failure, for which Japan is partially, but not wholly, responsible. +But this is a matter which we shall more fully discuss in the next +chapter. Excluded and maltreated wherever they went, the Japanese returned +home with shattered hopes and wounded feelings, and the mooted question of +population once more confronted them with intensified severity. Giving up +as entirely hopeless the attempt at settling in places where the white +races held supremacy, they now appear to have made up their minds to +migrate towards the north, where climatic and economic disadvantages, +together with political revolution in Eastern Europe, have freed the land +temporarily from the strong white grip, offering the line of least +resistance for Japanese. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +CAUSES OF ANTI-JAPANESE AGITATION + + +Modern Civilization. + +The major cause of the agitation against Japanese in California must be +attributed to modern civilization, which, with scientific devices, has +conquered time and space and thereby destroyed the high walls of +international boundaries. Indeed, had it not been for the steamboat, +railroad, telegraph, and other civilized instruments, which bind the +nations of the world into a composite whole, and modern industrialism, +which civilization brought about and which in turn assisted in unifying +the world, Japan for one would have remained a peaceful hermit nation, +undisliked or unsuspected by any other. She, of course, has no reason to +regret the adoption of European culture, which brought her untold values +and happiness; but the fact remains that the present anti-Japanese +agitation in California, as well as elsewhere in the world, would never +have occurred had she not followed the lead of Occidental nations. + +Clearly, such a conflict is one of the by-products of the complex +international relations brought about by modern science, which, simply +because of the lack of experience and regulation due to their short +history, remain deplorably defective. This suggests the point already +brought out in our introduction, that the principle of the solution of the +California problem lies not in an attempt at separating Japan and the +United States, which time and destiny brought together, but in a yet +closer, more regulated relationship, and in the promotion of a better +mutual understanding. + + +Various Attitudes Towards Japanese. + +With reference to the attitude toward the Japanese, it is possible to +discern four classes of critics in California. There are the veteran +exclusionists, whose only hope in this world seems to be the realization +of the slogan, "All Japs must go!" There is the majority of people which +is too preoccupied with its own affairs to investigate the facts and is +ready to accept anything said or asserted by the exclusionists. Then there +are those, intellectually more critical, who hold independent opinions as +to why the Japanese must be excluded. There are also others who stoutly +oppose, rationally or irrationally, any attempt at excluding the Japanese. + +The reasons offered for justifying the exclusion of the Japanese widely +vary according to the class of people, and they are often mutually +contradictory and conflicting. To those agitators whose motive is purely +self-interest, agitation is a profession, and hence it transcends the +consideration of justice or international courtesy. They have no scruples +about lying or resorting to any means which they think would serve their +purpose. The masses, generally speaking, accept what is given to them by +the agitators, unthinkingly echo their voices, and so play directly into +their hands. Only fair, rational exclusionists study the facts of the +case, consider the significance involved therein, and present arguments +supporting their conviction. It is in this class of people, and not in +professional agitators or whimsical populace, or irrational friends of the +Japanese, that the hope of the solution of the problem may be found. + +From the fact that so much agitation is going on in California, some may +think--especially those in Japan--that all Californians are unkind or +hostile to the Japanese. This, however, is far from being the case. It is +precisely in California that the most earnest, devoted friends of the +island people are found--found in great numbers.[9] These sympathizers +are wholly unable to share the opinions of the exclusionists, and are +simply at a loss to comprehend the reason why so much fuss should be made +because of a handful of Japanese who compare favorably with European +immigrants. + + +Psychological Nature of the Cause. + +The fact that right in the midst of the hotbed of the Japanese exclusion +movement there are goodly numbers of unqualified friends of the Japanese +suggests that the motives of exclusion as well as inclusion are primarily +personal; that is, psychological. We are all human and are prone to pass +judgment from personal incidents or experience. A single disagreeable +experience with a Japanese may drive a level-headed politician to a frenzy +of Japanese exclusion, just as the memory of one Japanese friend may make +another individual a consistent advocate of a friendly attitude toward all +Japanese. Inevitably limited in the scope of experience, we can only +generalize from a few particulars. This is why there are such +contradictory attitudes to be found among Californians toward the same +problem. In generalizing from particular experience we are more apt to +arrive at a conclusion which suits our desires and emotions. We reach our +conclusions in ways which we think promote our interests and please our +feeling. Gain or loss, like or dislike, are two pivots determining our +judgment. Those who think they gain from the presence of Japanese and +those who like the Japanese, from whatever reason, naturally tend to +welcome them; those who feel the contrary, incline to advocate their +exclusion. At bottom, therefore, the effort of discrimination arises from +a direct or indirect personal experience with Japanese which resulted in +some sort of an unfavorable impression. + + +Chinese Agitation Inherited. + +With this preliminary we shall see what are the more obvious factors which +give rise to anti-Japanese sentiment on the Pacific Coast. It is perhaps +beyond doubt, as most authorities insist, that the Japanese inherited the +ill-feeling that early prevailed against the Chinese, and this for no +other reason than that the Japanese are similar to the Chinese in many +respects and were placed under the same conditions which caused hostility +to the Chinese. We have already discussed how the Japanese coolies were +used by capital as weapons to pit against the ascendency of organized +labor. Under the general term "Asiatics" the Japanese shared at first, and +later inherited, the painful experience of the Chinese. + + +Local Politics. + +That the Japanese issue was frequently made the football of minor +political games in California is an undeniable truth. Wholly apart from +the consideration of right and wrong, we cite a case of political activity +which illustrates such a situation. Writing in the January (1921) issue of +the _North American Review_, Mr. R. W. Ryder observes: + + All during the late war--while the Japanese fleet was protecting our + commerce and other interests by patrolling the Pacific--the most + cordial relationship existed between the two peoples. But the + Armistice had hardly been signed before agitation against the Japanese + again manifested itself; however, not until it had been resuscitated + and energized by one of California's United States Senators who was + soon to be a candidate for reëlection. This Senator, Mr. Phelan, + appeared in California early in 1919, and at once made a visit to the + Immigration Station at San Francisco and Los Angeles; whereupon he + issued a statement characterizing the Japanese situation as a menace. + Next, he addressed the State Legislature on the Japanese question. + Prior to his address, although the Legislature had been in session for + almost two months, it had done nothing regarding the Japanese. But a + few days afterward several anti-Japanese measures were introduced.... + +The particular susceptibility of the Japanese issue to political agitation +in California may be attributed to the safety and advantage with which it +may be manipulated. The Japanese in California having practically no vote +are safe toys for play. The possibility of magnifying the "menace" of the +Asiatic "influx" is immensely tempting in this case, rendering it a most +effective smoke screen for the tactics of private interests. + +The San Francisco _Chronicle_ stated, in its editorial on October 22, +1920, under the heading, "It Would Probably Have Been Settled without +Trouble but for Politicians," as follows: + + Had no attempt been made to drag California's Japanese question into + politics we would probably have settled the question satisfactorily + and with no fuss.... + + We think it probable that if the question had not been appropriated by + politicians seeking to make capital for themselves it would have been + possible to have obtained the coöperation, at least the acquiescence, + of the intellectual Japanese leaders in the State, in measures + designed to prevent the presence of their countrymen from being or + becoming an economic menace to California.... + + That the question has been brought into politics, where it was not an + issue and could not be, that it has been made a cause of irritation + between Japan and the United States, and has given Japan a lever to + use against us in all matters affecting the Orient, is due to the + senior Senator from California, who sought to use the problem to + advance his own personal interests. + + +"Yellow Peril." + +The imaginary fear of an Asiatic influx, cleverly fermented by agitators, +is certainly a strong cause of Japanophobia. Somehow we have a historical +fear of foreign invasion. This fear is inculcated and whetted among the +Californians by a hideous picture of a Japanese Empire, that, like +medieval Mongolia, would send a storming army of invasion. One might +gather from the reports of the Hearst papers in California that the +Pacific Coast of North America was invaded by a Japanese army on an +average of once a month. Whether misled by jingo journalism or aroused by +the exaggeration of agitators--whatever the cause--it is simply amazing +how large a portion of the California people honestly fear the utterly +impossible eventuality of a Japanese invasion. + +Quite recently another form of menace was suggested, which, because of its +more plausible nature, has been widely circulated. It is the fear based +upon conjecture that the Japanese will soon control the entire +agricultural industry of California and that they will ere long overwhelm +the white population in that State. This apprehension was by far the most +effective force in deciding in the affirmative the initiative bill voted +on by the California electorate on November 2, 1920. + + +Propaganda. + +Propaganda is autocratic power in a democratic state; it is a subtle +attempt at controlling social sentiment by influencing the people's mind +through its unconscious entrance. Freud teaches us that each of us is in a +sense a complex of boundless wishes. We wish vastly more than our +environment offers us; hence, most of our wishes have to be suppressed, +thwarted. Now, propaganda appeals to this weakest part of man; it promises +us an opportunity to satisfy our arrested wishes. "You are badly off, my +friends," a propagandist would say to honest laborers, "because the Japs +are here to bid your wages down. We are trying to get rid of them for you, +and for this we want your help." A similar appeal can be made with +immediate good results to almost all classes of people who have some +unsatisfied wish--and all men do have such wishes. + + +Racial Difference. + +It is clearly untenable, however, to argue that the Japanese agitation in +California is wholly due to imaginary fear and aversion created in the +minds of people by politicians and propagandists. The Japanese themselves +are responsible for conditions which often justify some of the +accusations, and which prompt exaggeration and misrepresentation. In the +first place, the Japanese are a wholly different race, with different +customs, manners, sentiment, language, traditions, and--not of least +importance--of different physical appearance. Were these differences +merely in kind, they would not be very repugnant, but when such +differences involve qualitative difference they are particularly +repulsive. It is, of course, impossible to pass judgment upon the relative +superiority in all respects of things Occidental and Oriental; but western +civilization naturally seems incomparably superior to American eyes. Mere +difference of race alone gives no unpleasant feeling. When it is also a +difference of quality, at least in appearance--and in this all must +agree--it arouses our æsthetic repulsion. + +Even if a man be of different race and as ugly as a Veddah from Ceylon, if +he remains a solitary example, or one of a very limited number of his +kind, he would not only not arouse our antipathy but would even stimulate +our curiosity, and many of us would spend money to see his quaint customs +and manners. But when his followers increase in number and establish +themselves in our midst, and carry on the struggle for existence until +they are in the way of fairly matching ourselves, we begin to be alarmed +and unconsciously learn to hate them. This is an exaggerated illustration, +but it is precisely the process which has been taking place in California +relative to the Japanese. The fact that the Japanese are looked upon +rather favorably in the East is because there they are comparatively few +in number and are not competitors of the Americans in the struggle for +existence. + + +Japanese Nationality. + +To a certain extent, the anti-Japanese sentiment in California as well as +elsewhere is accentuated by the national principles of the Japanese +Empire. It has a system of government which for various good reasons is +unique. It embraces many points that are considered, from the standpoint +of the Anglo-Saxon, undemocratic. The smooth operation of democracy has +been hindered by some inherent defect in the national system, by lack of +experience in representative government, and by the influence exerted +through an unconstitutional power represented by the elder statesmen. To +make the situation worse, by means of unscrupulous journalism, the +American mind is duly impressed with the assumed bellicose and Prussian +character of the Japanese Empire, the hatred of which becomes +anti-Japanese sentiment in general. + +The Japanese Government, again, adheres to a policy of extreme paternalism +with regard to her colonists abroad. It seems true that in case of an +aggressive and military government it is from necessity the devotee of a +pure race and a solidified population, as Mr. Walter Lippman stated.[10] +At any rate, Japan does not wish her subjects to be naturalized nor does +she encourage them to lose their racial or national consciousness. This is +clearly seen in her policy of dual nationality (which we shall have +occasion to discuss later), which aims to retain the descendants of the +Japanese who are born in America, and hence are citizens thereof, as +subjects also of the Mikado. It is likewise observable in the spirit of +Japanese education, which is fundamentally nationalistic, as it was +referred to in the second chapter. Such a policy of nationalism inevitably +incites the suspicion of countries to which Japanese immigrants go, and +discourages the people from making an attempt at assimilating the +Japanese. This, together with their nationalistic training and education, +renders the assimilation of the Japanese exceedingly difficult. + + +Modern Nationalism. + +What accentuates the difficulty in the situation is that the countries +which receive such Japanese immigrants also uphold a policy of +nationalism, which runs full tilt against the "influx" of immigrants who +do not readily become amalgamated or assimilated. The inflow of such a +population, they claim, threatens and endangers the unity of the nation, +and therefore it must be stopped or resisted. This is the capital reason +which is being ascribed for the discriminatory effort against the Japanese +in California by the leaders of the movement. + + +Congestion in California. + +The Japanese, moreover, manifest a strong tendency to congregate in a +locality where they realize a social condition which is a poor hybrid of +Japanese and American ways. The tendency to group together is not a +phenomenon peculiar to Japanese immigrants alone. Such a tendency is +manifested by almost all immigrants in America in different degrees. In +the case of the Japanese, however, several additional factors operate to +necessitate their huddling together--they are ethnologically different; +English is an entirely different language from theirs; their customs are +wholly different from those of Americans; their segregation offers +advantages and facilities to some Americans who deal with them. The +external hostile pressure naturally compresses them into small groups. +Whatever the cause, it is true that this habit of collective living among +themselves retards the process of assimilation, and, moreover, makes the +Japanese problem loom large in the eyes of the white population living in +adjoining places. + + +Fear and Envy Incited by Japanese Progress. + +In addition to this, a point to be noted is the increase in number of +Japanese and their rapid economic development within the State of +California. The question of immigration becomes inextricably mixed up in +the minds of the populace with the problem of the treatment of those who +are already admitted. They act and react as causes and effects of the +agitation. The apprehension of a Japanese "influx" expresses itself in a +hostile attitude toward the Japanese already domiciled there. Conversely, +the conflict arising from the presence of Japanese in California naturally +prompts opposition against Japanese immigration. Now, it so happened that +recently, and especially since the war, the number of Japanese coming to +the United States through the California port has decidedly increased. +This is due to the increased arrival of travelers, business men, +officials, and students, as a consequence of the closer relationship +between America and Japan, as we shall see in the next chapter. +Nevertheless, it incites the fear of the Californians and induces them to +adopt more stringent measures against the Japanese living in that State. + +On the other hand, the economic status of the Japanese in California has +been steadily developing. They are entering in some directions into +serious competition with the white race. Thus, in agriculture, their +steady expansion through industry and thrift has caused alarm among small +white farmers. Added to this is the high birth rate among the Japanese, +which, because of their racial and cultural distinction, forms a problem +touching the fundamental questions of the American commonwealth. + + +Summary. + +By the foregoing analysis of the situation, we see that although the +problem of the Japanese in California has been made the subject of +political and private exploitation, and thereby rendered unnecessarily +complicated and acute, it is, nevertheless, a grave problem which contains +germs that are bound to develop many evils unless it is properly solved. + +In the following chapters we shall study the status of the Japanese in +California in respect to population and birth rate, their agricultural +condition, their living and culture, and their economic attainments, with +a view to elucidating just wherein lie the precise causes of the +difficulties. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +FACTS ABOUT THE JAPANESE IN CALIFORNIA--POPULATION AND BIRTH RATE + + +A knowledge of the facts regarding the Japanese population in California +is important, because it has been a point of sharp dispute between those +who insist on exclusion and those who oppose it, the former arguing that +the Japanese are increasing at an amazing rate through immigration, +smuggling, and birth, threatening to overwhelm the white population in the +State, the latter contending that they are not multiplying in a way +menacing to the State of California. The fact that such a dispute prevails +in the matter of the number of Japanese suggests that it is, at least, one +of the crucial points on which the whole problem rests. This is true in +the sense that, if the Japanese in California were decreasing in number as +the American Indians are, it would be totally useless to waste energy in +an attempt to quicken the final extinction. If, on the other hand, they +were to multiply in a progressively higher rate so as to overwhelm the +white population, it would certainly be serious both for California and +for the United States. + + +Number of Japanese in California. + +This being the case, it is but natural that the enemies of the Japanese +should exaggerate the number of Japanese living in California. The leaders +of the movement for excluding Japanese estimate their number as no less +than one hundred thousand. The report of the State Board of Control of +California, prepared for the specific purpose of emphasizing the gravity +of the Japanese problem in California, enumerated the population of +Japanese in that State at the end of December, 1919, as 87,279. This +number turned out to be 13,355 higher than the number reported by the +Foreign Office of Japan,[11] which was based on the Consular registrations +(including American-born offspring of the Japanese) and the count made by +the Japanese Association of America. Most fortunately, the preliminary +publication of a part of the United States Census for 1920 removed the +uncertainty arising from the discrepancy by stating the exact number of +the Japanese in California to be 70,196. The possible cause of the +over-estimation by the Board of Control is to be found in its method of +computation. Instead of counting the actual number of residents, it simply +added the number of net gain from immigration and the excess in birth over +death statistics to the returns of the census of 1910, overlooking the +fact that in the meantime a great number of Japanese were leaving +California for Japan as well as other States of the Union. + +The present number of Japanese is a minor matter compared with its dynamic +tendency. The rate of increase of the Japanese population in California in +the past may be easily obtained by comparing the returns of the United +States Census. + +The following table indicates the number and rate of decennial increase: + +NUMBER OF JAPANESE IN CALIFORNIA ACCORDING TO THE UNITED STATES CENSUS. + + =========================================== + Year.|Number.|Decennial| Percentage of + | |Increase.|Decennial Increase. + -----|-------|---------|------------------- + 1880 | 86| ..... | ....... + 1890 | 1,147| 1,061 | 1,234 % + 1900 | 10,151| 9,004 | 785 % + 1910 | 41,356| 31,205 | 307.3% + 1920 | 70,196| 28,840 | 69.7% + =========================================== + +We see from the above table that after half a century of Japanese +immigration to the United States, California's net gain amounts to a +little over 70,000, the number having increased at an average rate of +14,025 per decade, or 1603 per annum. We also observe that the percentage +of decennial increase gradually decreased from 1234 per cent. to 69.7 per +cent. + +It is useful to compare this development of the Japanese population with +that of California in general, because it gives an idea of the relative +importance of the Japanese increase. This is shown in the following table, +in which the decennial rates of increase between them are compared: + +COMPARISON OF POPULATION INCREASE OF CALIFORNIA AND OF JAPANESE IN +CALIFORNIA. + + ================================================================== + Year.| Number. | Decennial | Rate of | Rate of | Percentage of + | | Increase. |Decennial|Japanese | Japanese to the + | | |Increase.|Decennial|Total Population + | | | |Increase.| of California. + -----|-----------|-----------|---------|---------|---------------- + 1880 | 864,694 | ......... | .... | .... | .0099% + 1890 | 1,213,398 | 348,704 | 40.3% | 1234 % | .095 % + 1900 | 1,485,053 | 271,655 | 22.3% | 785 % | .68 % + 1910 | 2,377,549 | 892,496 | 60.0% | 307.3% | 1.73 % + 1920 | 3,426,861 | 1,049,312 | 44.1% | 69.7% | 2.04 % + ================================================================== + +Thus we see that while the percentage of decennial increase of Japanese +has been fast decreasing since the census of 1890, descending from 1234 +per cent. to 785 per cent. in the next census, and to 307.3 per cent. in +1910, and 69.7 per cent. in 1920, that of California is headed, on the +whole, towards an increase. We also notice that the percentage of the +Japanese population to the total population of California also shows a +tendency to slow growth, increasing only three tenths of one per cent. +during the last decade. As a general conclusion, therefore, we may say +that the rate of increase of Japanese in California is slowly declining +while that of the total population of California is steadily increasing. + +In the next place, how does the status of the Japanese population in +California compare with that in the continental United States? In the +following table, we compare the rate of increase in California and the +United States, and enumerate the percentage of the number of Japanese in +California to the total number of Japanese in the United States: + +JAPANESE POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES AND CALIFORNIA. + + ===================================================================== + Census.|Japanese in| Decennial | Rate of | Rate of | Percentage of + |Continental|Increase of|Decennial| Decennial | Japanese in + |United |Japanese in|Increase.|Increase of| California to + |States. |Continental| |Japanese in|entire Japanese + | | United | |California.| population of + | | States. | | |United States. + -------------------|-----------|---------|-----------|--------------- + 1880 | 148 | ...... | ....... | ...... | 58.1% + 1890 | 2,039 | 1,891 | 1,277.7%| 1234.0% | 56.2% + 1900 | 24,326 | 22,287 | 1,093.0%| 785.0% | 41.7% + 1910 | 72,157 | 47,831 | 196.6%| 307.3% | 57.3% + 1920 | 119,207 | 47,050 | 65.2%| 69.7% | 58.8% + ===================================================================== + +The table indicates that the percentage of Japanese in California to the +total number of Japanese in the United States is rather high, justifying +the complaint of the Governor of California that during ten years, between +1910 and 1920, "the Japanese population in California _increased_ 25,592, +but in all of the other States of the United States it _decreased_ 10,873. +Perhaps, in this last-named fact may be found the reason that makes +Oriental immigration a live subject of continued consideration in +California."[12] + +The truth of this statement, which in other words means that the cause of +anti-Japanese agitation in California is due to congestion in that one +State, becomes almost indisputable. It is doubly apparent when we consider +the reason why the Chinese no longer constitute the objects of exclusion +in California while the Japanese do. The Chinese have shown, ever since +the launching of the agitation against them in the early '80's, a wise +tendency to disperse into other States, thus avoiding conflict with the +Californians. The Japanese, on the other hand, appear to cling tenaciously +to California, and the more they are maltreated and slandered the more +steadfastly they remain in that State. This is apparently due largely to +the recognition of the desirability of California, even with its +handicaps, over other States, but it is also due to their helplessness to +extricate themselves from the situation in fear of a great financial loss +involved in the change. + +The Report of the State Board of Control of California uses the fact of +the decreasing number of Chinese and the increasing number of Japanese in +California as evidence of the success of the Chinese Exclusion Act in +accomplishing its purpose, and of the failure of the "Gentlemen's +Agreement" in restricting Japanese immigration.[13] But, in so doing, it +fails to take into consideration the very fact which it points out +elsewhere, which we have just quoted; namely, that the number of Japanese +has decreased in all of the other States combined while it has increased +in California. It also fails to take into account the fact that the number +of Chinese, contrary to the Japanese tendency, has shown a marked tendency +to grow in eastern and middle western States and to decrease in +California. Thus, for example, the number of Chinese in New England, the +Middle Atlantic, and Eastern and North Central States increased from 401, +1227, and 390 respectively in 1880 to 3499, 8189, and 3415, respectively, +in 1910, while it decreased in the Pacific division from 87,828 to 46,320 +in the corresponding period.[14] + +The foregoing examination establishes the fact that much of the +anti-Japanese agitation in California is due to the congestion of Japanese +in that one State, as pointed out by the authorities of California, and as +confirmed by the extinction of anti-Chinese sentiment in California, +consequent upon the exodus of large numbers of Chinese from that State. + +We have seen that the Japanese population in California increased from 86 +in 1880 to 70,196 in 1920 at the annual rate of 1403. We shall now see how +each of the three factors--lawful entrance of Japanese into the United +States, smuggling, and birth--has contributed to this increase. + + +Immigration. + +Without question, the coming of the Japanese who are legally permitted to +enter the United States has been the largest factor contributing to their +increase in California. Of the total Japanese entering the continental +United States since its beginning up to the end of 1920, estimated at +180,000,[15] California claims to have received about two thirds,[16] or +approximately 125,000. Since California's present Japanese population is +70,196, of which about 25,000[17] are American-born children, it means +that out of the total number of Japanese immigrants (125,000) who entered +California, only 45,196 survive now in that State, the rest having either +migrated to other States, or died out, or returned home. + +One reason why the Japanese immigration is viewed with so much +apprehension is because the facts of the situation are not rightly +understood. The number of Japanese coming to the United States has +decidedly increased in recent years, especially since the war, the annual +number reaching the ten thousand mark. This would certainly be alarming +were it not for the correspondingly large number of Japanese who returned +every year. The following table shows the percentage of those who returned +out of the total arrivals: + + ======================================= + Year.|Arrivals.|Returned.| Percentage + | | | of Returned + | | |Against Total + | | | Arrivals. + -----|---------|---------|------------- + 1916 | 9,100 | 6,922 | 76% + 1917 | 9,159 | 6,581 | 72% + 1918 | 11,143 | 7,696 | 69% + 1919 | 11,404 | 8,328 | 73% + 1920 | 12,868 | 11,662 | 90% + ======================================= + +The growing number of Japanese coming into America and the increasing high +rate of their return, as shown in the above table, clearly indicate the +fact that the character of the Japanese now entering the United States has +decidedly changed. The explanation of the high rate of Japanese entrance +is to be sought in the growing business, diplomatic, intellectual, and +other relations between America and Japan which the recent war brought +about. In the field of business, the number of branch offices of Japanese +firms employing Japanese clerks and managers rapidly increased in the +large cities of the United States. Students who formerly went to Europe +for study now flock to America and enter the large universities of this +country. Many of the newly rich whom the unique opportunity of the World +War has created, have taken it into their heads to see the post-war +changes in America and Europe. But these Japanese visitors are not +immigrants; they are not coolies; they do not come to America to work and +settle. They will give America no trouble, for they stay in this country +only a brief period of time. They are America's guests, as it were, and +they should not be treated as immigrants. The rough handling of these +visitors, as sometimes happens in the Western States, gives them a bad +impression of the American people at large. + +That most of the Japanese now coming to this country are temporary +visitors is shown by the following table which distinguishes non-laborers +from laborers: + + =================================================== + Year.| Total.|Laborers.|Non-Laborers.|Percentage of + | | | |Non-Laborers + | | | |Against All. + -----|-------|---------|-------------|------------- + 1916 | 9,100| 2,956 | 6,144 | 67.5% + 1917 | 9,159| 2,838 | 6,321 | 69 % + 1918 | 11,143| 2,604 | 8,539 | 77 % + =================================================== + + +"Gentlemen's Agreement." + +It is useful to remember the above fact when discussing the workings of +the so-called "Gentlemen's Agreement." It is often alleged that Japan has +not been observing the agreement in good faith. Thus Governor Stephens +states: + + There can be no doubt that it was the intent of our Government by this + agreement (the "Gentlemen's Agreement") to prevent the further + immigration of Japanese laborers. Unfortunately, however, the + hoped-for results have not been attained. Without imputing to the + Japanese Government any direct knowledge on the subject, the + statistics clearly show a decided increase in Japanese population + since the execution of the so-called "Gentlemen's Agreement." Skillful + evasions have been resorted to in various manners. + +Such an accusation appears plausible when it is examined solely in the +light of the high number of annual Japanese arrivals. The accusation, +however, falls to the ground when we consider two other facts already +pointed out; namely, the correspondingly high and ascending rate of +departures, and the increasingly high percentage of non-immigrants against +immigrants. + +It is provided in the "Gentlemen's Agreement" that "the Japanese +Government shall issue passports to the continental United States only to +such of its subjects as are non-laborers, or are laborers who in coming to +the continent seek to resume a formerly-acquired domicile, to join a +parent, wife, or children residing here, or to assume active control of an +already possessed interest in a farming enterprise in this country." +Accordingly, the classes of laborers entitled to receive passports have +come to be designated "former residents," "parents, wives, or children of +residents," and "settled agriculturists." Of these, the last item, the +"settled agriculturists," has practically no significance, because under +that class only four entered America since the conclusion of the +agreement. According to the agreement, then, only two classes of +immigrants, former residents and the families of residents, are admitted. + +This agreement leaves the question of the admittance of non-laborers +entirely untouched, permitting the Japanese Government to decide as to +who may be classed laborers and who non-laborers. The lack of concrete +understanding between Japan and the United States in this respect is a +grave defect in the agreement. True, the executive orders issued in +connection with the "Gentlemen's Agreement" provide a definition of term +"laborer," and state: + + For practical administrative purposes, the term "laborer, skilled and + unskilled," within the meaning of the executive order of February 24, + 1913, shall be taken to refer primarily to persons whose work is + essentially physical, or, at least, manual, as farm laborers, street + laborers, factory hands, contractors' men, stablemen, freight + handlers, stevedores, miners, and the like, and to persons whose work + is less physical, but still manual, and who may be highly skilled as + carpenters, stone masons, tile setters, painters, blacksmiths, + mechanics, tailors, printers, and the like; but shall not be taken to + refer to persons whose work is neither distinctively manual nor + mechanical but rather professional, artistic, mercantile, or + clerical--as pharmacists, draftsmen, photographers, designers, + salesmen, bookkeepers, stenographers, copyists, and the like.[19] + +The weakness of the provision, however, is in the difficulty it gives rise +to in practical application and in the liability of wrong construction to +be placed by the American public in the administration of the "Gentlemen's +Agreement." The difficulty lies not at all in the lack of mutual +understanding between the American and the Japanese Governments in respect +to this question. The _modus operandi_ arrived at between these two +Governments has worked satisfactorily. But because of the lack of a +specified definition of "non-immigrants" and "immigrants," the distinction +to be made between them, and, consequently, the granting of passports, as +already stated, is left in a large measure to the discretion of the +authorities of the Foreign Office of the Japanese Government. + +The foregoing defect and the confusion on the part of the American people +suggest that the adoption of a specific definition of "immigrants" and +"non-immigrants"--in other words, laborers and non-laborers--on the basis +of whether a person is coming to America for work and settlement or for a +temporary visit, seems quite essential. + +The Japanese method of distinguishing non-immigrants from immigrants, +however, has not been altogether irrational or arbitrary. The established +custom is that the Government issues two kinds of passports, one with a +lavender color design on the front page with the word "non-immigrant" +stamped on it, and the other with a green color design with the word +"immigrant" printed on the front page. The former is given to those who +desire to go to America for business, educational, or traveling purposes, +expecting to return home after a brief stay, and who have strong financial +assurance. The latter passports, namely, the immigrant's, are given to +those who are entitled to enter America, according to the already +specified provisions of the "Gentlemen's Agreement," viz. "former +residents," "parents, wives, or children of residents," and "settled +agriculturists." The passports, however, are not granted even to these +classes unless they file a petition to the Government with a certificate +from a Japanese Consulate in America certifying the breadwinner in America +to be an honest man, with a clean record, who is capable of comfortably +supporting a family. In this way, although without a definite standard of +regulation, the Japanese Government faithfully adheres to the provisions +of the agreement, even to the point of being charged with an extreme +rigidity. The following table given in the Report of the +Commissioner-General of Immigration shows in detail how the agreement has +been operating: + +JAPANESE LABORERS ADMITTED TO CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES 1910 TO 1919. + +_According to Annual Report of Commissioner-General of Immigration._ + + ========================================================================= + | In possession of proper passports. | + Fiscal| Entitled to passports under | + Year | "Gentlemen's Agreement." | + Ending|------------------------------------------------------------------ + June. | Former | Parents, | Settled | Not | Without |Total. + |Residents.| Wives, |Agriculturists.| Entitled | Proper | + | | and | | to |Passports.| + | | Children | |Passports.| | + | | of | | | | + | |Residents.| | | | + ------|----------|----------|---------------|----------|----------|------ + 1910 | 245 | 373 | 1 | 47 | 39 | 705 + 1911 | 351 | 268 | .. | 88 | 25 | 732 + 1912 | 602 | 224 | .. | 60 | 27 | 913 + 1913 | 1,175 | 178 | .. | 41 | 13 | 1,407 + 1914 | 1,514 | 119 | .. | 84 | 51 | 1,768 + 1915 | 1,545 | 585 | 1 | 54 | 29 | 2,214 + 1916 | 1,695 | 1,199 | 2 | 39 | 78 | 3,013 + 1917 | 1,647 | 1,115 | .. | 36 | 87 | 2,885 + 1918 | 1,774 | 507 | .. | 88 | 235 | 2,604 + 1919 | 1,265 | 422 | .. | 48 | 241 | 1,976 + |----------|----------|---------------|----------|----------|------ + Total | 11,813 | 4,990 | 4 | 585 | 825 |18,217 + ========================================================================= + +The table indicates that out of the total immigration of 18,217 from 1909 +to 1920, 11,813 of this number were people who temporarily visited Japan; +4990 belonged to the families of residents; 4 were "settled +agriculturists," and 585 were persons not entitled, for reasons +unexplained, to passports. It also shows that 825 were persons without +proper passports. The latter category included immigrants bound for +Canada, Mexico, and South America who were sidetracked on the way, those +who lost their passports, as well as deserting seamen and smugglers. For +these cases of illicit endeavors to enter America, the Japanese Government +can hardly be held responsible. It would be absurd to put forth the +negligible number of 585 cases, that are recorded during the period of ten +years as persons who are not entitled to passports, as an evasion of the +"Gentlemen's Agreement" on the part of the Tokyo Government. It is one +thing to point out the defects of the agreement, but it is an entirely +different matter to charge bad faith in its execution. + +By way of summary, then, it may be stated that ever since the "Gentlemen's +Agreement" was put into effect in 1907, the number of immigrants has +gradually decreased, those admitted having been mostly former residents, +although the total number of Japanese coming to the United States has +increased, due to the growing number of tourists and business men. The +agreement, as far as its execution is concerned, has been carried out with +the utmost scruple, but it is defective in that it does not clearly +distinguish immigrants from non-immigrants, and this leads to confounding +visitors with immigrants, and hence to the unfounded claim that it is +being ignored, evaded. Judging from the sentiment prevailing in +California, and in other Western States, against the Japanese, it is +desirable that the agreement be so amended as to forbid the advent of all +Japanese, except well-defined non-immigrants and former residents +temporarily visiting Japan. This will prevent the further increase through +immigration of Japanese settlers in California or elsewhere in the United +States. This step is deemed advisable, not that a handful of immigrants as +such is serious, but that the main question at issue--the treatment of +Japanese already in America--becomes thereby liberated from further +complication. It will go far to reduce the fear of Californians, and +thereby alleviate the difficulty of the main issue. + + +Smuggling. + +There is no room for doubt that smuggling is responsible for a part of the +Japanese population in California. From the nature of the case, it is, +however, impossible to estimate the number of Japanese who have entered +the United States through this illegal method. During the visit to +California last summer, of the House sub-Committee on Immigration and +Naturalization for the investigation of Japanese conditions, a rumor was +circulated and published in the principal papers of the country to the +effect that the Committee had discovered amazing facts as to the +systematic smuggling of Japanese into this country through Guaymas. Later, +it was made clear that the rumor owed its source to the machinations of +certain anti-Japanese agitators who willfully concocted the canard. While +it is possible that from the Mexican and Canadian borders a few scores of +Japanese may be smuggled in every year, it is absurd to imagine that any +wholesale smuggling is being practiced through the connivance of Japanese +officials and under the noses of competent officers who patrol the borders +and coasts. + +It may also be remembered that Japan and Canada have an agreement +restricting the number of Japanese entering Canada. This renders the +northern borders of the United States comparatively free from the danger +of smuggling. Except through desertion of seamen, which numbered 315 cases +during the past ten years, it is almost impossible to enter secretly by +way of the Pacific Coast. The only danger zone is the Mexican border. But +here again there are good reasons for believing that smuggling from Mexico +cannot be practiced on a large scale. In the first place, the number of +Japanese in Mexico amounts only to 1169,[20] and no passports have been +granted by the Japanese Government since 1908 to laborers who wish to go +to Mexico.[21] In the second place, the American Government would take +care to see that its border-patrol is efficient enough to arrest +smugglers. The Mikado's Government, too, has been sincere in cooperating +with the American authorities to prevent the evasion of the law. + + +Birth Rate. + +The cardinal question relating to the Japanese population in California is +the question of birth rate. Immigration can be restricted, smuggling may +be completely prevented, but the fact of the high birth rate is something +which cannot be very easily combated without infringing upon traditionally +sacred principles and personal freedom. It is quite true that the high +birth rate among the Japanese in California would not have been a serious +matter if the nationalism of America were as broad as that of Ancient +Rome, or if the Japanese were a race which will readily and speedily lose +its identity in the great American melting pot. But the fact remains that +the United States of America is not merely a mixture of different races +and colors; she is a solid, unified, composite country, although she draws +race material from all over the world. Nor are the Japanese a race likely +to amalgamate completely with Americans in a few generations. Thus the +question of Japanese birth rate in America becomes a vital matter, +touching the fundamental questions of national and racial unity in the +United States. + +With the importance of the question clearly kept in mind, we shall see +what are the facts as to births among the Japanese in California. The +following table, prepared from the reports of the California State Board +of Health, Bureau of Vital Statistics, shows the number of annual births +of Japanese from 1906 to 1919, and its percentage of the total number of +births in California: + +NUMBER OF BIRTHS. + + ======================================================== + Year. |Total Births |Japanese Births| Japanese + |in California.|in California. |Births--Percentage + | | | of Total. + ------|--------------|---------------|------------------ + 1906 | ...... | 134 | .... + 1907 | ...... | 221 | .... + 1908 | ...... | 455 | .... + 1909 | ...... | 682 | .... + 1910 | 32,138 | 719 | 2.24% + 1911 | 34,828 | 995 | 2.86% + 1912 | 39,330 | 1,407 | 3.73% + 1913 | 43,852 | 2,215 | 5.05% + 1914 | 46,012 | 2,874 | 6.25% + 1915 | 48,075 | 3,342 | 6.95% + 1916 | 50,638 | 3,721 | 7.35% + 1917 | 52,230 | 4,108 | 7.87% + 1918 | 55,922 | 4,218 | 7.54% + 1919 | 56,527 | 4,378 | 7.75% + |--------------|---------------| + Totals| 459,552 | 29,469 | + ======================================================== + +The table indicates in the first place that the birth rate of California +as a whole is steadily growing, and in the second place that the birth +rate of the Japanese was very low until 1906 or 1907, but since then it +has been rapidly growing. The relative percentage of Japanese births in +the total births of California, however, indicates the tendency to +diminish, having reached the highest mark in 1917, when it was 7.87 per +cent., but decreasing slightly in the last few years. + +The exceedingly high birth rate of the Japanese in California becomes +clearer when considered in terms of the rate of birth per thousand of +population. In the year 1919, the number of births in California was 1.79 +per thousand population. In Japan, where the birth rate is high, it was +2.53 during the past decade. The birth rate of Japanese in California is +more than three times as high as that for the total of California, and +more than double that in Japan. + +There are several reasons for this abnormally high birth rate among the +Japanese in California. In the first place, a large portion of these +Japanese are in the prime of life, and moreover they are selected groups +of vigorous and healthy individuals. Commenting on the age distribution of +Japanese in this country, the report of the Bureau of Census states[22]: + + The most noteworthy fact about the age distribution of the Japanese is + their remarkable concentration on the age groups 25 to 44, nearly + two-thirds of the Japanese being in this period of life. Only 4.5 per + cent. of the Japanese are over 45 years of age, as compared with 44.7 + per cent. of the Chinese. The explanation is, doubtless, to be found + in the fact that the Japanese represent more recent immigration than + the Chinese. + +The truth of this statement was borne out by the recent investigation +conducted by the Japanese Association of San Francisco, which obtained the +following result in thirty-six northern counties of California: + +AGE DISTRIBUTION OF JAPANESE IN MIDDLE AND NORTHERN CALIFORNIA, 1920. + + ========================================== + Age. |Male. |Female.|Total. |Percentage + | | | | of Age + | | | | Group. + --------|------|-------|-------|---------- + Under 7 | 4,078| 3,786| 7,864| 18.% + 8 to 16| 2,035| 1,663| 3,698| 8.% + 17 to 40|17,037| 8,535| 25,572| 59.% + Above 40| 5,683| 805| 6,488| 15.% + --------|------|-------|-------|---------- + Total |28,833| 14,789| 43,622| 100. + ========================================== + +Thus, out of the total number of 43,622 investigated, 25,572 or nearly 59 +per cent. are between the ages of seventeen to forty, only 5 per cent. of +females being those who passed the age of fertility. + +Another reason for the high birth rate of the Japanese in California is +the high percentage of married people. The rate of married people among +the Japanese in California suddenly rose since some ten years ago when a +great number (between 400 and 900 per annum) of wives began to come in +under the popular name, _picture brides_. The ratio maintained between +male and female among the Japanese in California was one to six ten years +ago, but at present, it is one to two.[23] Since it is estimated that +there are 16,195 Japanese wives in California,[24] it is obvious that +there are double that number, or 32,390 married Japanese, in California, +which means that 46 per cent. of the total population are married. This is +apparently a high rate, since it is 17 per cent. in Japan, 36 per cent. in +Great Britain, 37 per cent. in Italy. Although exact data is lacking, +judging from the fact that only less than a half of California's white +population are of ages above twenty-one,[25] it may not be too far-fetched +to estimate the percentage of married people at 25 per cent. of the total +population. + +From the foregoing considerations we can deduce this, that the Japanese +are mostly at the prime of life, and that the percentage of married people +is exceedingly high. Now, in comparing the birth rates of two groups such +as those of the Japanese and of the Californians in general, a mere +comparison of rates without taking into consideration the difference in +age distribution and marital conditions is not only useless, but it is +absolutely misleading. California has only 20 per cent. of people between +the ages of eighteen to forty-four,[26] while the Japanese group has 59 +per cent.; California has about 25 per cent. or less of married +population, including those who have passed the fertile period; while the +Japanese community has 46 per cent. of married population, all of whom are +in the zenith of productivity. No wonder, then, that the Japanese in +California have three times as high a birth rate as that of California as +a whole. + +There is another factor which accounts for the high birth rate of the +Japanese. It is the sudden rise of the standard of living. It is an +established principle of immigration that when immigrants settle in a new +country and attain a much higher standard of living than they were +accustomed to at home they tend to multiply very rapidly through high +birth rate. Among the European immigrants in this country, a birth rate of +fifty per thousand is not rare.[27] In the careful researches made in +Rhode Island concerning the fertility of the immigrant population,[28] it +was found that their birth rate was invariably high, 72 per cent. of the +married women each having upwards of three children, with an average of +4.5 children for each one of them. This fact holds equally good for the +Japanese immigrants, most of whom came from the poor quarters of the +agricultural communities, where not only economic handicaps but customs +and social fetters operate to check their multiplication. When, therefore, +they come to California, where food is abundant, work easy, climate +salubrious, and personal freedom is incomparably greater, they naturally +tend to multiply. + + +What we May Expect in the Future. + +We have seen, then, that the high birth rate among the Japanese settlers +in California is due primarily to the facts that the largest portion of +them are in the prime of life; that the percentage of married people is +remarkably high, the larger part of them, especially the women, being at +the zenith of productivity, and that their standard of living suddenly +improves when they settle in California. The question naturally arises as +to what will be the future development of Japanese nativity. Remembering +that a prediction, however scientific, cannot at best be more than a +possibility, we shall venture to forecast the future of the Japanese birth +rate in California. + +In doing so, the proper way would be to examine any possible future change +in the causes which constitute the present high birth rate. How, then, +about the age distribution of the Japanese? It has been shown that 59 per +cent. of them are between the ages of seventeen and forty, and that 15 per +cent. of them are above forty. In other words, 74 per cent. of the +Japanese are mature, while only 26 per cent. are minors. Now, we are all +mortals, and grow old as time passes; even the Japanese do not have +magical power to retain perennial juvenility, as some agitators seem to +think. They grow old, the Japanese in California, as years come and go, +passing gradually into the age when childbearing is no longer possible. +Therefore, if fresh immigration is checked, which we have already +indicated is desirable, it is manifest that a large portion of the present +Japanese in California will die out without being reinforced by youths +save those who are born in America, and hence are citizens thereof. That +this tendency has already set in may be seen from the increase of the +death rate among the Japanese in California, as the following table +indicates: + +DEATH RATE OF JAPANESE IN CALIFORNIA. + + ======================== + Year.|Number.|Percentage + | | of Death + | | per 1000. + -----|-------|---------- + 1910 | 440 | 10.64% + 1911 | 472 | ..... + 1912 | 524 | ..... + 1913 | 613 | ..... + 1914 | 628 | ..... + 1915 | 663 | ..... + 1916 | 739 | ..... + 1917 | 910 | ..... + 1918 | 1150 | ..... + 1919 | 1360 | 20.00% + ======================== + +The rate of death per one thousand population increased twice during the +past ten years. + +When the age distribution becomes normal by the passing away of the +middle-aged group which constitutes the majority at present, rendering the +population evenly distributed among the children, middle-aged, and the +old, the present high percentage of married people also will disappear, +descending to the normal rate ruling in the ordinary communities, which is +but half as high as that now prevailing among the Japanese living in +California. When the number of young people relatively lessens, and that +of married people also decreases, what other result can we expect but the +marked fall in numbers born? + +Improved standards of living as a cause of the high birth rate will also +cease to operate as new immigrants will no longer enter; and the +American-born generations will gradually take their parents' place. The +younger generations of Japanese are as a rule higher in culture and ideals +than their parents. Accordingly, it is unthinkable, other things being +equal, that they should go on multiplying themselves as their parents did. +It is an established principle proved conclusively by the thoroughgoing +Congressional researches in Rhode Island,[29] that the birth rate among +foreign-born immigrants is exceedingly high, and that it steadily +decreases in successive generations, reaching the normal American rate +within a few generations. We are, then, on a safe ground in inferring that +a similar tendency will also manifest itself among the Japanese in the +United States. + +Our discussions concerning future birth rate then, seem to point decidedly +to the conclusion that since the present high percentage of the middle-age +group and the married group is bound to diminish as time passes, and since +the fertility of the future generations is not likely to be as high as +that of their parents, it will decrease markedly by the time the present +generation passes away. It is, therefore, only a question of time. The +present is a transitional period, a turning-point, in the history of the +Japanese in America. It is surely unwise, then, to become unduly excited +over the passing phenomenon, and thereby defeat the working of a natural +process which promises to bring about a satisfactory solution in the not +distant future. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +FACTS ABOUT THE JAPANESE IN CALIFORNIA--FARMERS AND ALIEN LAND LAWS + + +Agriculture is by far the most important occupation of the Japanese in +California. Out of the total Japanese population of 70,196 in California, +38,000 belong to the farming classes including those who are sustained by +breadwinners. Besides, there are thousands of laborers who seek farm work +during the summer. Perhaps owing to the facts that most of the Japanese +immigrants are drawn from the agricultural communities in Japan, that the +climate and soil of California are especially suited to the kinds of +farming in which the Japanese are skilled--such as garden-trucking and +berry-farming--the Japanese in California have been markedly successful in +agricultural pursuits. + + +History of Japanese Agriculture in California. + +The history of Japanese farming in California dates back to the time when +the Chinese Exclusion Law was enacted in 1882. A number of Japanese +laborers were employed in the Vaca Valley and another group in the +vineyards of Fresno as early as 1887-1888. Since that time the number of +Japanese farm laborers has steadily increased. They have distributed +themselves widely in the lower Sacramento, San Joaquin River, Marysville, +and Suisun districts. Later many Japanese settled in Southern California. +During that early period the Japanese farm laborers were warmly welcomed +by the California farmers because of the dearth of farm hands and because +of their skill and industry in farming. + +But the Japanese were not satisfied at remaining mere farm hands. They +saved their wages and attempted to start independent farming. In many +cases independent farming was not as profitable as wage labor, since the +former involved risk and responsibility. Yet because of the incalculable +pleasure which independence brings, because of the ease with which leases +could be obtained, and because of the social prestige attached to the +"independent farmers," the Japanese developed a distinct tendency to lease +or buy land and to take up farming by themselves rather than be employed +as wage earners. + +This tendency, however, did not manifest itself distinctly until some time +later, when they had saved sufficient sums of money to launch such +undertakings. Thus the census of 1900 records only 29 farms, covering 4698 +acres, which were operated by Japanese. The number steadily increased +during the following ten years. According to the census of 1910 they +operated 1816 farms, covering 99,254 acres of land. At present it is +reported that they own some 600 farms covering 74,769 acres and operate +some 6000 farms embracing 383,287 acres under lease or crop contract, +bringing the total farm acreage under Japanese control to 458,056 acres. + +The brilliant success of the Japanese farmers in California may be better +appreciated when the amount and value of the crops turned out by them +every year are considered. Governor Stephens, in his letter to Secretary +of State Colby, quotes in part the report prepared by the State Board of +Control, and states: + + ... At the present time, between 80 and 90 per cent. of most of our + vegetable and berry products are those of the Japanese farms. + Approximately, 80 per cent. of the tomato crop of the State is + produced by Japanese; from 80 to 100 per cent. of the spinach crop; a + greater part of our potato and asparagus crops, and so on. + +In another part of the letter he remarks: + + ... In productive values--that is to say, in the market value of crops + produced by them--our figures show that as against $6,235,856 worth + of produce marketed in 1909, the increase has been to $67,145,730, + approximately ten-fold. + + +Causes of Progress. + +There are many causes for this rapid development. In the first place, the +Japanese as a rule are ambitious. They do not rest satisfied, like the +Chinese and the Mexicans, with being employed as farm laborers. They save +money or form partnerships with well-to-do friends, and start independent +farms. This is made easy by a form of tenancy which prevails in +California. That is, the landowner advances the required sum of money to a +tenant, offers him tools and shelter, and in return receives rent from the +sale of the crops. This is a modified form of crop contract, but it is +decidedly more secure for the owner, because he assumes less risk. It is +more profitable to the tenant because he gets a due reward for his effort. +On account of the ease with which this kind of lease is obtained, +ambitious Japanese farm laborers soon become tenants, and when +successful--and usually they are--they buy a piece of land with the +intention of making a permanent settlement. + +That Japanese farmers are usually favorably regarded by landowners is an +important factor in their success. Although there have been cases in +which the Japanese provoked the hatred of landowners by not observing +promises or failing to carry out contracts, on the whole, the Japanese are +preferred to other races, because they are more peaceful, take better care +of the land, and pay higher rent.[30] + +The reason why Japanese take better care of the land and can pay higher +rent than ordinary farmers may be found in their previous agricultural +training in Japan. There the farming is conducted on the basis of +intensive cultivation. Moreover, in order to prevent exhaustion of land +the farmers are accustomed to taking minute care that the soil's fertility +be retained. This habit of intensive cultivation and the minute care of +the soil, which are really inseparable, are maintained by the Japanese +farmers when they undertake agriculture in California. Furthermore, it so +happens that the climate and soil of California are especially suited for +intensive cultivation. Such products as vegetables and berries, which grow +so abundantly in California, are precisely the kinds of crops which +demand careful and intensive cultivation. The notable success of Japanese +farmers in this form of production, therefore, is not an accident. By the +introduction of methods of intensive cultivation they have been able to +take good care of the land and to pay high rent to the landowners. + +That the Japanese are good farmers is attested by the fact that they +actually produce more per acre than the other farmers. The +Japanese-American Year Book of 1918 has the following comment to make +regarding the efficiency of Japanese farmers in California: + + In the year 1917 there were 12,000,000 acres of irrigated farm lands + in California. From this, California produced crops valued at + $500,000,000; that is to say, the value of the product turned out per + acre was about $42. Japanese cultivated 390,000 acres and produced + $55,000,000 worth of farm products, or $141 per acre. The value of the + Japanese farms turned out per acre was, therefore, three and a half + times as much as that obtained by California farms in general. + +Perhaps the patience and industry with which the Japanese have developed +some of the "raw" land of California into productive farm land accounts +for their prosperity in such localities as Florin, New Castle, the +Sacramento district, and the Imperial Valley. + + +Japanese Farm Labor. + +We may now inquire to what extent the Japanese farmers constitute a menace +to the California farmers and to the State of California. In considering +this question, it is useful to distinguish between the Japanese farm +laborers and the regular farmers. + +There are in California at present about fifteen thousand Japanese who are +employed in various kinds of agriculture. The number varies according to +season. In the summer months it increases considerably, while in the +winter it greatly decreases. When the seasonal work is over in a locality, +the men seek other jobs in other localities. There is work for them +throughout the year, since the climatic conditions of California are such +that some crop is raised in some part of the State in almost all months. +The agency which adjusts the demand and supply of farm labor is known as a +"Japanese Employment Office." There are over three hundred, at least, of +such agencies facilitating the supply of labor. + +The chief advantage which the employment of Japanese farm laborers offers +to employers is, in the first place, their highly transitory character. +Most of the Japanese laborers, being men of middle age with no settled +homes, go to any place where wages are high. The convenience which the +farmers receive from this rapid supply of necessary labor is immense, +since the crops handled by the Japanese are perishables demanding +immediate harvesting. The transitory facility of Japanese labor is one +thing which California farmers cannot easily dispense with and is a thing +which the white laborers with families cannot very well substitute. + +Another convenience derived from the employment of Japanese farm labor is +the "boss system." It is a form of contract labor in which a farmer +employs workers on his farm as a united body through its representative or +boss. This frees the farmer from the care of overseeing the work, of +arranging the wages with the workers, and of taking other troubles. +Although this system has given rise to many regrettable complications +through the occasional failure of the Japanese to observe their contracts, +which leads to the general belief that the Japanese are unreliable and +dishonest; nevertheless, this "boss system" remains as the one distinct +feature of Japanese farm labor which is welcomed by the California +farmers. + +There is one more characteristic of the Japanese farm laborers which is +unique and extremely important. They are by habit and constitution adapted +to the garden farming which prevails in California. Fruit and berry +picking, trimming and hoeing, transplanting and nursery work, which +require manual dexterity, quick action, and stooping over or squatting, +are singularly suited to the Japanese. No other race, save possibly the +Chinese, can compete with the Japanese in this sort of field labor. With +their training in intensive cultivation, with physical adaptation to the +important agricultural industries of California, and with the rapid +transitory capacity and advantageous system of contract labor, the +Japanese farm laborers constitute an important asset to the agriculture of +California. + +There are, however, serious charges made against this class of Japanese. +Perhaps the most pertinent criticism of them is that they do not observe +contracts or promises. This question was very ably discussed by Professor +Millis in his valuable book, _The Japanese Problem in the United States_, +as follows: + + Much has been heard to the effect that the Japanese are not honest in + contractual relations.... So far as it relates to the business + relations of the farmers, there has been not a little complaint. Much + of it, however, appears to have been due to their inability to + understand all the details of a contract they could not read. In + recent years more care has been taken to understand all of the + conditions of the contract entered into, and the charges of breach of + contract have become much fewer. Another source of misunderstanding + has been that some of the Japanese, who think more in personal terms + and less in terms of contract than the Americans, have sought to + secure a change in their leases when they proved to be bad bargains, + and have occasionally left their holdings in order to avoid loss. A + third fact is that formerly some undesirable Japanese secured leases. + These, however, have gradually fallen out of the class of tenants, so + that most of those who remain are efficient and desirable farmers.[31] + +Another charge is that they work for lower wages than the white laborers. +This may have been true several years ago, but at present it is claimed +that the exact reverse is the case. The answers received by the State +Board of Control of California to questionnaires sent out by it (one of +which was, "Give wage comparisons, with notes on living conditions,") to +the County Horticultural Commissioners and County Farm Advisers in the +State, agree on one essential; namely, that Japanese farm hands are +receiving wages equal to or higher than those paid the white workers.[32] + +Mr. Chiba, the managing director of the Japanese Agricultural Association +of California, gives the following figures as to wages of Japanese and +white farm laborers[33]: + + _During Harvest._ _After Harvest._ + + Japanese common laborers, $4 per day with $3.50 per day + meals. with meals. + + White common laborers, $3.50 per day $3 per day with + with meals. meals. + + White teamsters, $4 per day with $3.50 per day + meals. with meals. + +The charge that the living conditions of Japanese are lower is a thing +which cannot be determined by off-hand judgment. Reliable statistics are +lacking in this line. In fact, the standard, by which we may safely +pronounce our judgment on the question, is not easy to establish +scientifically. Food, dress, and dwelling may, on the whole, be taken as +the criteria for comparison. The food, however, when it happens to be +different in kind between two groups of people, unless the prices are +compared, cannot be taken as a sure measure for estimating the higher or +lower standard of living. The diet of the Japanese farmer is different in +kind from that of the American; but it will be rash to conclude that the +Japanese standard of living is thereby lower than that of the American. As +a rule, the Japanese feed and dress well. There is perhaps no more liberal +spender than a Japanese youth. His weakness lies rather in taking too much +delight in making display than in taking to heart the qualities of a +miser. In dwellings the Japanese have nothing to compare with the +comfortable and durable homes of the Americans. The reason for this +deficiency is that the Japanese have no assurance for the future; hence +they have no incentive to build permanent homes. At any rate, as long as +the Japanese are getting higher wages than the white laborers, and are not +underbidding the latter, frugal living and money-saving are wholly a +matter of individual freedom, which should not give cause for criticism. + +That there are still other shortcomings in Japanese farm laborers must be +conceded. They are irascible, unstable, complaining, unsubmissive. These +are inborn tendencies of the Japanese, and it is not easy to correct them +in a short time. + +Concerning the question as to what extent the Orientals displace white +labor, the replies given by the County Horticultural Commissioners and the +County Farm Advisers of California disclose this interesting fact; namely, +that in most counties where Japanese are engaged in farm work they are not +displacing white labor, and only in a few counties where fruits are the +chief products do they appear to displace white labor to any extent.[34] +The truth is that the supply of Japanese farm labor has been diminishing +noticeably since the virtual stopping of immigration, while the demand has +been on the increase. In 1910, it was reported that 30,000 Japanese were +engaged in farm labor in California[35]; in 1918, there were only 15,794 +employed.[36] Professor Millis observed + + The number of Japanese available for employment by white farmers has + diminished, and in certain communities to a marked degree. The total + number of such laborers has decreased with restriction on immigration, + and the increase in number of Japanese farmers.[37] + + +Japanese Farmers. + +While Japanese farm labor has been diminishing, the responsible farmers +have been increasing. As already stated, in 1909 the Japanese controlled +1816 farms, covering 99,254 acres; but in 1919 they cultivated 6000 farms, +embracing 458,056 acres. The value of the annual farm products also jumped +from $6,235,856 to $67,145,230 during the ten-year period. Thus the +increase of cultivation area has been approximately four-fold and that of +the crop value ten-fold. + +For three outstanding reasons the rapid progress of Japanese farmers is +envisaged with serious apprehension. The first reason is found in the +words of the Governor of California: + + These Japanese, by very reason of their use of economic standards + impossible to our white ideals--that is to say, the employment of + their wives and their very children in the arduous toil of the + soil--are proving crushing competitors to our white rural populations. + +This statement, that the Japanese are crushing competitors of California +farmers, is in a measure true, but it greatly exaggerates the situation. +In California, large farms still predominate, and the average size of a +farm is about two hundred acres. The size of the Japanese farm is usually +small, the average being about fifty-seven acres. The contrast is due to +the difference both in the method of cultivation and in the crops raised +by white and Japanese farmers. The crops cultivated exclusively by white +farmers are such as corn, fruit, nuts, hay, and grain, which require +extensive farming and the employment of machines and elaborate +instruments. The Japanese, being accustomed to intensive cultivation, +almost monopolize the state production of berries, celery, asparagus, +etc., which require much stooping, squatting, and painstaking manual work. +Thus there is a clear line of demarkation between white and Japanese +farmers based on the difference of training and physical +constitution.[38] + +It must also be remembered that the crops which are exclusively raised by +white farmers are those which constitute the more important products of +the State, a greater acreage of land being devoted to each of them. Most +of the products which are monopolized by the Japanese are newly introduced +kinds, total crop values of which are small, a very limited amount of +acreage being used for their cultivation. This being the case, it is +clearly misleading to represent the Japanese farmers as "crushing +competitors" of all other agriculturists in California. Some of those who +follow the Japanese methods of intensive cultivation perhaps find +themselves injured by the more efficient and successful Japanese farmers, +but the number of such farmers is very small. + +That the Japanese work longer hours than the white farmers is true. That +they occasionally work on Sundays is also true. The explanation for this +is that, being discouraged from taking part in the communal life and +activities, they naturally tend to spend more time in work and to seek +recreation in work itself. On many of the Japanese farms it is frequently +the custom to have a day off during the week instead of on Sunday for the +purpose of going to town to shop or to go visiting. It is true that the +women and children are often found working in the fields with the men, but +this is due to the fact that in intensive cultivation there is much +trivial work which children and women can undertake without undue physical +exertion. The children are usually allowed to play in the fields around +their parents while the parents work, and this is often represented as +compelling children of tender age to engage in "arduous toil." + +We cannot, of course, ascertain how far the Japanese farmers will in the +future push and drive the white farmers out if they are given a free hand; +but it is certain that at the present time the sharp competition has not +yet commenced on account of the clear division of labor established +between the Japanese and white farmers. That the unparalleled success of +Japanese farmers should give rise to jealousy and hatred among intolerant +American farmers is an inevitable tendency. + +The second reason given for apprehension is that the Japanese might soon +control the entire agricultural land of California unless preventive +measures are promptly adopted. This particular fear was by far the most +powerful factor in ushering in and passing the land laws prohibiting +either lease or ownership of agricultural land by an Oriental. The +groundless nature of the premonition becomes apparent when a few figures +are introduced. California has 27,931,444 acres of farm land, of which +about half has been improved. The Japanese at the end of 1920 owned +74,769 acres and leased 383,287 acres.[39] It may be true that the lands +under Japanese control are usually good lands, but they were not so +invariably at the time of purchase. As a matter of fact, most of the lands +which Japanese have secured were at first either untillable or of the +poorest quality, and only by dint of patient toil have they been converted +into productive soil. Many thrilling stories are told of the hardship and +perseverance of Japanese farmers, who have after failure on failure +succeeded in their enterprise. They have indeed reclaimed swamps and +rehabilitated many neglected orchards and ranches. Whatever may be the +nature of the land owned by Japanese, however, its amount is truly +insignificant. It forms only 0.27 per cent. of the agricultural lands of +California, or one acre for every 374 acres; while the amount leased is +1.40 per cent. or one acre for every 72.8 acres. This is saying that the +Japanese in California, who constitute 2 per cent. of the native +population, cultivate under freehold and leasehold 1.67 per cent. of the +farm lands of California. When we recollect that more than half of +California's agricultural land--16,000,000 acres--is still left +uncultivated, it seems almost preposterous that so much vociferation +should be raised because of the very limited amount of acreage held by +the Japanese. + +The weightiest reason offered for the necessity of checking Japanese +agricultural progress is the one which almost all leaders of the +anti-Japanese movement have emphasized; namely, that the Japanese are +unassimilable. If they were an assimilable race, and in the course of a +few generations were to blend their racial identity with the American +blood, California would have no reason to oppose their progress in +agriculture. But they are a distinct people who amalgamate with +difficulty, if at all. Were they allowed unhindered development in +agriculture, in which their success has been most marked, in the opinion +of the exclusionists, they would multiply tremendously in number and +correspondingly increase in power to the extent of not only overwhelming +the white population of California but also of endangering the harmony and +unity of American nationality. This is precisely the line of argument +which the Governor of California advanced in his letter to Secretary of +State Colby. In its conclusion he states: + + I trust that I have clearly presented the California point of view, + and that in any correspondence or negotiations with Japan which may + ensue as the result of the accompanying report, or any action which + the people of the State of California may take thereon, you will + understand that it is based entirely on the principle of race + self-preservation and the ethnological impossibility of successfully + assimilating this constantly increasing flow of Oriental blood. + +Accordingly, the question whether or not California is justified in +prohibiting the Japanese from the pursuit of agriculture is not to be +determined by a consideration of the amount of land they cultivate or the +comparative wages they receive, but by the consideration of their +assimilability. We shall discuss this pertinent question in the next +chapter. + + +Anti-Alien Land Laws. + +The significance of the land issue in itself being slight, as shown by the +foregoing study, a casual discussion will suffice on the issue of the +anti-alien land laws. The land law of 1913, which was enacted in spite of +strong opposition among certain groups of the people of California and on +the part of the Federal Government, provided, in summary: + +(1) An alien not eligible to citizenship cannot acquire, possess, or +transfer real property, unless such is prescribed by the existing treaty +between the United States and the country of which he is a subject. This +provision takes advantage of the fact that in the Treaty of Commerce and +Navigation concluded in 1911 between America and Japan, no specific +mention is made concerning the ownership of farm land. The Treaty +provides: + + Article I. The subjects or citizens of each of the high contracting + parties shall receive, in the territories of the other, the most + constant protection and security for their persons and property, and + shall enjoy in this respect the same rights and privileges as are or + may be granted to native subjects or citizens, on their submitting + themselves to the conditions imposed upon the native subjects and + citizens.[40] + +(2) An alien not eligible to citizenship cannot lease land for +agricultural purposes for a term exceeding three years. + +(3) Any company or corporation of which a majority of the members are +aliens who are ineligible to citizenship, or of which a majority of the +issued capital stock is owned by such aliens, shall not own agricultural +lands or lease for more than three years. + +(4) Any real property acquired in fee in violation of the provisions of +this act shall escheat to, and become the property of, the State of +California.[41] + +This ingenious law was rendered ineffective because the Japanese kept on +buying and leasing land in the names of those of their children who are +citizens of this country. Moreover, they resorted to the formation of +corporations in which a majority of the stock was owned by American +citizens. + +The outcome of the situation was the adoption in November of last year of +a new land law more carefully framed. The new law naturally aims to +correct the defects which led to the evasion of the former law. It is in +substance as follows: + +(1) All aliens not eligible to citizenship and whose home government has +no treaty with the United States providing such right cannot own or lease +land; + +(2) All such aliens cannot become members or acquire shares of stock in +any company, association, or corporation owning agricultural land; + +(3) These aliens cannot become guardians of that portion of the estate of +a minor which consists of property which they are inhibited by this law +from possession or transfer; + +(4) Any real property hereafter acquired in fee in violation of the +provisions of this act by aliens shall escheat to and become the property +of the State of California. + +The difference between the old and the new laws is that in the new law +evasion is made entirely impossible by prohibiting the Japanese from +buying or selling land in the names of their children or through the +medium of corporations. A novel feature of the new law is that it forbids +the three-year lease which was allowed by the old law. + +The opponents of the newly enacted law claim that it is unwise because, if +it proves effective, it will have driven a large number of capable and +industrious farmers out of agriculture, thereby causing no little +inconvenience to the people in getting an abundant supply of table +delicacies. Even the report of the State Board of Control admits that "the +annual output of agricultural products of Japanese consists of food +products practically indispensable to the State's daily supply," and adds +that their sudden removal is not wise.[42] If, on the other hand, the law +fails--and that there is abundant possibility of it the sponsors of the +law themselves admit--critics insist that it will result in no gain, but +"it merely persecutes the aliens against whom it is directed, and sows the +seed of distrust in their minds," and further it will occasion an +unnecessary ill-feeling between America and Japan. Presenting the reasons +for opposing the new land measure, the San Francisco Chamber of Commerce +stated: + + The clause denying the right to lease agricultural lands is + ineffective in operation. It may prove irritating to the Japanese + people, but it will not prevent them from occupying lands for + agricultural purposes under cropping contracts for personal services, + which cannot be legally prohibited to any class of aliens. + +This is what Governor Stephens referred to when he confessed that the law +can be evaded by legal subterfuge, which it is not possible for the State +to counteract. And California has no lack of lawyers, who are resourceful +and ready enough to teach the Japanese the technical way of evading the +law. + +The advocates of the new law, on the other hand, argued that anything is +better than nothing to show their disapproval of Japanese domination in +agriculture, and pointed to the Japanese law regarding foreign land +ownership as an example of foreigners not being allowed to own land. If +Japan does not permit the ownership of land by Americans, they argue, by +what right do the Japanese demand the privilege in America? This +apparently does not hit the point since in case of Japan the prohibition +of land-ownership is not discrimination against any single nation or +people, whereas the case of California is. We may, however, cursorily +touch here upon the status of foreign land ownership in Japan. + + +Land Laws of Japan. + +Under present regulations there are three ways in which foreigners may +hold land in Japan, viz.: + +(1) By ordinary lease running for any convenient term and renewable at the +will of the lessee. The rent of such leased property is liable to a review +by the courts, after a certain number of years, on the application of +either party; + +(2) A so-called superficies title may be secured in all parts of Japan, +save what is called the colonial areas, running for any number of years. +Many such titles now current run for 999 years. These titles give as +complete control over the surface of the land as a fee-simple title would +do. + +(3) Foreigners may form joint stock companies and hold land for the +purposes indicated by their charters. They are juridical persons, formed +under the commercial code of Japan, and are regarded just as truly +Japanese legal persons as though composed solely of Japanese. It will thus +be seen that in practice foreigners can take possession of land in Japan +about as effectually as in fee simple. + +On April 13, 1910, the Japanese Diet passed a land law which embodied, +among others, the following provisions: + + Article I. Foreigners domiciled or resident in Japan and foreign + juridical persons registered therein shall enjoy the right of + ownership in land, provided always that in the countries to which they + belong such right is extended to Japanese subjects, and Japanese + juridical persons.... + + Article II. Foreigners and foreign juridical persons shall not be + capable of enjoying the right of ownership in land in the following + districts: First, Hokkaido; second, Formosa; third, Karafuto; fourth, + districts necessary for national defense. + + Article III. In case a foreigner or a foreign juridical person owning + land ceases to be capable of enjoying the right of ownership in land, + the ownership of such land shall accrue to the fiscus [the Imperial + Treasury], unless he disposes of it within a period of one year. + + Article IV. The date for putting the present law into force shall be + determined by Imperial ordinance. + +This law was severely criticized by both liberals and foreigners on +account of its too conservative provisions, and as a consequence it was +not promulgated by the Emperor for the time being. In the legislative +session of 1919, the Government introduced to the Diet a revised bill +embodying more liberal principles and omitting all features in the law of +1910 considered objectionable by foreigners. Unfortunately the Lower House +was suddenly dissolved by the deadlock encountered on the issue of +universal suffrage before the proposed law was voted on. The Japanese +Government, it is reported, has drafted a new law with the intention of +introducing it to the session of the Diet now sitting (January, 1921), the +notable feature of which is the inclusion of Korea and other territories +among the available lands for ownership by foreigners. + + +Effect of the Initiative Bill. + +Already there are indications that the action of California has had its +effect on the neighboring States. Similar legislation is mooted in Texas, +Washington, Oregon, and Nebraska. When we consider that in those States +the number of Japanese is very small and the amount of land-holding is +simply negligible, the only explanation for the proposal is the influence +of California, which has been deliberately strengthened by the direct +appeal of Governor Stephens to other States for coöperation. In this way +California is rather making the local situation worse, for by limiting the +scope of discriminatory activity within her doors, she might have found a +remedy for relieving the tension found therein through the dispersal of +Japanese into other States. + +It is not the purpose of this book to enter into a detailed examination of +the legal aspects and technicalities of the new land law voted on by the +California electorate. It may be found in contravention to the American +Constitution by depriving certain residents legally admitted into this +country of the "equal protection of the law" as guaranteed by that +instrument. The Japanese Government may lay before the Federal Government +a formal protest against the land law on the theory that it infringes on +the Japanese-American Treaty of 1911, by running counter to the spirit of +fairness pervading the document in withholding from Japanese aliens the +rights and privileges enjoyed by aliens of other nationalities. Or it may +be the intention of the Washington and Tokyo Governments to reach a mutual +agreement by concluding a new treaty which will specifically state the +rights to be conferred upon each other's subjects, so that subterfuge will +no longer be possible, and, on the other hand, will completely prevent the +entrance of Japanese immigrants. We are not in a position to gauge the +intent and nature of the proposed treaty, which is understood to be under +way between the Japanese Embassy and the State Department, while it is in +the stage of negotiation or discussion. Whatever may be the nature of the +_pourparler_, it must be based on the conviction that neither legal +contention nor diplomatic dispute will ever settle the vexed question. + +America is the country of the people, and the Government is powerless +unless it is supported by the people. The key to the solution, +accordingly, must be found in the attitude of the people and not +exclusively in legal or diplomatic arrangements. We are of the opinion, +therefore, that the surest way of removing the difficulty is to study the +causes that constitute the present California unrest and endeavor to +eliminate them so far as it is within our power to do so. Only by +regaining the genuine friendship of the people of California in this way +can the Japanese in that State expect to free themselves from the +unfortunate unfriendly pressure. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +ASSIMILATION + + +Nationalism and Assimilation. + +In the question of assimilation we find the heart of the Japanese problem +in California. The reader will probably recall that, in discussing +California's effort to counteract the progress of the Japanese in +agriculture, we stated that there would be no ground for justification of +the recent rigorous measure except on the assumption that the Japanese are +unassimilable, and that they should not, therefore, be allowed to flourish +in that State. He will also remember that we stated, in discussing the +Japanese population in California, that, were it not for the apprehension +of the probable impossibility of assimilating the Japanese, their increase +in number either in California or in the United States was not an occasion +for anxiety. These arguments implied our belief that the entire problem of +the Japanese-California situation would finally resolve itself to one +crucial point; namely, the question of assimilation. It is our profound +conviction that if it be established that the Japanese are unassimilable, +then decisive steps--much more decisive than any so far adopted--should be +taken by both America and Japan in order to forestall a possible tragedy +in the future. + +We hold this view because the present state of world affairs allows us to +entertain no other opinion. As long as our world order is such that its +constituent units are highly organized, composite nations with independent +rights and marked individualities, it is only natural that each nation +should demand that foreigners entering for the purpose of permanent +settlement conform in a large measure to the social order and ideals of +the country. In case this is deemed impossible, the nation opposes any +large influx of foreign races because of the necessity of maintaining its +national unity and harmony. + +Naturally, this tendency of conserving strict national integrity is +strongest among the oldest and most highly organized States, and weakest +among the new and loosely integrated countries. Countries like Japan and +England, which have long, proud histories and traditions, and which are +highly organized, are more strict about the way they take foreigners into +their households. On the other hand, new countries like Australia and the +South American republics, which have short histories and few traditions, +are more or less liberal in admitting foreigners. This truth has been +exemplified by the history of the United States. She has shown a marked +laxity in this regard during the colonial and growing periods; but as soon +as she achieved a more perfect national unity and consciousness, she began +to manifest a strong tendency toward integration, exerting her energy on +the one hand upon consolidation of her population and on the other upon +excluding "squatters" who would not readily assimilate. + +Whether or not such a nationalistic policy may be considered just, and +whatever change the future may witness in this regard, the fact remains +that not a single nation in the world at present discards or rejects the +policy in practice. In the face of such a situation the only alternative +for the Japanese in the United States, when they obstinately cling to +their own ways of living and thinking, would be to go elsewhere. + +This conviction of ours should not be confused with the hasty, groundless +conjecture that the Japanese are a race utterly impossible of assimilation +to American ways by nature and constitution. Most of the careless +agitators who put forth statements to this effect start from the wrong end +in their reasoning. They assume what ought to be proven, and forthwith +proceed to formulate a policy on this assumption. They assume that the +Japanese are unassimilable and conclude that, therefore, they should not +be given an opportunity to progress. This is analogous to saying that +because a child is ignorant he should not be sent to school, forgetting +that the very ignorance of the child is due to the fact that he has been +denied an education. They fail to see that their conclusion is the very +cause of their premises. What we maintain is that when the Japanese shall +have proved unassimilable, _after all means for their assimilation have +been exhausted_, they should then be persuaded to give up the idea of +establishing themselves in America. + + +Meaning of "Assimilation." + +A great deal of confusion arises from the ambiguity of the term +"assimilation." Its interpretations vary from the idea of a most +superficial imitation of dress and manners to that of an uncontrollable +process of biological resemblance or identity. Those using the term in the +former sense, in face of the fact that the Japanese in their midst dress, +talk, and live like Americans, consider it indisputable that they are +assimilable. Those who use the word in a narrow sense of ethnological +similarity, on the contrary, insist with equal conviction that the +assimilation of the Japanese is absolutely impossible. Neither is wrong in +reasoning, for assimilation, according to the accepted diction, means the +process of bringing to a resemblance, conformity or identity--it is a +relative term. Hence, in order to determine whether it is possible for the +Japanese to become Americanized, it is necessary to find a standard by +which the process can safely be gauged. Without this it is wholly absurd +to say either that they are or are not assimilable. If the standard be +fixed at physical identity with Americans, the Americanization of the +Japanese is hopeless--at least for a few generations; but if it be fixed +at conformity with American customs and social order, the Japanese have to +a certain degree already been assimilated. + +How is the criterion to be determined? Perhaps it may be found, like the +standard of our morality, in practical usage; that is, in the accepted +usages and customs of the United States. Here we can do no better than +point out the traditional spirit of cosmopolitanism, or firm adherence to +the policy of racial non-discrimination, which was sustained even at the +costliest of sacrifices and which is inscribed in the immortal fourteenth +amendment of the Constitution, which states that "All persons born or +naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof +are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside." +If the supreme law as well as the traditions and customs of the land do +not deny, on account of color or race, any person born in America the +right of citizenship, it is apparently un-American to make racial +similarity or conformity the standard of assimilability. + +A nation, however, cannot maintain its own rights and honor among the +family of nations without upholding its individuality. But America's +individuality does not consist in ethnological unity alone. It consists +more in cultural and spiritual solidarity. America upholds her dignity and +national rights with the strength of that patriotism of her people which +is born of their active sharing in her culture and ideals, as well as of +their common experiences of American life. Clearly, then, one criterion of +Americanization is unmixed devotion and allegiance to the cause and +welfare of the United States--devotion and allegiance not blindly +compelled by force of imposition, but born of voluntary and unrestricted +participation in American culture and ideals, religion, and industry; in +short, in the entire American life. More concisely expressed, the required +standard of assimilation in America is an active share in American life as +a whole to such an extent that unmixed love and the will to devote self to +the United States are no longer resistible. + +The essence of Americanization was elucidated in simple and beautiful +words by President Wilson in his memorable speech delivered at +Philadelphia in 1915 before an audience of naturalized citizens of that +city. He said in part: + + ... This is the only country in the world which experiences this + constant and repeated rebirth. Other countries depend upon the + multiplication of their own native people. This country is constantly + drinking strength out of new sources by the voluntary association with + it of great bodies of strong men and forward-looking women out of + other lands. And so by the gift of the free will of independent people + it is being constantly renewed from generation to generation by the + same process by which it was originally created. + + You have just taken an oath of allegiance to the United States. Of + allegiance to whom?... to a great ideal, to a great body of + principles, to a great hope of the human race.... You cannot dedicate + yourself to America unless you become in every respect and with every + purpose of your will thorough Americans. You cannot become Americans + if you think of yourselves in groups. America does not consist of + groups. A man who thinks of himself as belonging to a particular + national group in America has not yet become an American.... + + My urgent advice to you would be, not only always to think first of + America, but always, also, to think first of humanity. You do not love + humanity if you seek to divide humanity into jealous camps. Humanity + can be welded together only by love, by sympathy, by justice, not by + jealousy and hatred. + + +Biological Assimilation. + +With this clarified meaning of assimilation or Americanization, let us +examine the assimilability of the Japanese. First of all, we shall take up +the matter of racial amalgamation. Immediately the questions arise, "Is it +possible to amalgamate the Japanese? Is it desirable to do so? Is it +necessary to do so?" + +To the first question, paradoxical as it may seem, careful observations +compel us to reply that it is, and that it is not, possible to amalgamate +the Japanese blood with the American. Just as there is no national +boundary in science, so there is no human barrier in marriage. Truth and +love appear to transcend all natural and artificial obstacles. That love +defies racial difference has been amply proven in the United States, where +all races are in the process of being fused together. It has no less +conclusively been proven by the number of happy marriages that have taken +place between Americans and Japanese in this country and in Japan. On the +other hand, it is unthinkable that the Japanese should begin wholesale +intermarriages with Americans in the near future, to the extent of losing +their racial distinction. This is unthinkable because of the social +stigma--and Americans as well as Japanese are extremely sensitive on the +question of social environment--and the legal and economic handicaps +which cause thoughtful persons of both nationalities, who take into +consideration the welfare of themselves as well as of their descendants, +to refrain from indulging in uncustomary marriages. It is more likely, +therefore, that while here and there sporadic cases of intermarriage will +continue to take place, and that such cases will gradually increase as the +Japanese raise the degree of Americanization, it is wholly out of the +question that under the present conditions of social, economic, and +political encumbrances, the practice will prevail to any large extent. + +This being the case, our second query--"Is intermarriage +desirable?"--appears superfluous. Indeed, had it not been for the +dangerous dogmatism inculcated by some willful propagandists that the +result of intermarriage between Americans and Japanese is "the germ of the +mightiest problem that ever faced this State; a problem that will make the +black problem in the South look white,"[43] the subject would be purely an +academic one. To allow this sort of baseless assertion to go unchallenged +is extremely dangerous, because it exaggerates an unimportant point to +misrepresent maliciously the whole question of the Japanese in the United +States. + +The conclusions of able observers, such as Dr. Gulick and Professor +Millis, invariably confirm the fact that, as far as the ordinary means of +observation go, the offspring of a Japanese and American couple is in no +respect inferior to those of either American or Japanese unmixed descent. +Professor Millis states: + + So far as experience shows, there is nothing inherently bad in race + mixture, if it takes place under normal conditions, and neither race + is generally regarded as inferior and the offspring therefore given + inferior rank, as in the case of the negro.[44] + +From his extensive association with Japanese, Dr. Gulick has been able to +make some valuable observations on this topic. He states in his important +book, _The American Japanese Problem_: + + The offspring of mixed marriages are oftentimes practically + indistinguishable from Caucasians. The color distinction is the first + to break down. The Japanese hair and eye exert a stronger influence. + So far as the observation of the writer goes, there is a tendency to + striking beauty in Americo-Japanese. The mental ability, also, of the + offspring of Japanese and white marriages is not inferior to that of + children of either race.[45] + +These observations are valuable in refuting the kind of vile allegations +we have quoted. But because of the limited number of cases observed, and +the necessarily unscientific character of the observation, the utilization +of these studies must be confined to pointing out the absurdity of the +opposite extreme dogmatism and not extended to the constructive argument. + +Even less reliable are the opinions of speculative biologists who by the +use of analogy--that is, by examples of hybridization of plants and +animals--try to throw light on the subject of racial intermarriage. In +general, the assertions of these biologists agree that the intermixture of +races too far apart is undesirable because it results in a breakdown of +the inherent characteristics of each, but that the combination of races +slightly different is more desirable than intra-racial marriage because it +tends to invigorate the stock. To this extent, opinions concur; but as to +the question what races may be considered similar and what races different +they begin to disagree. Most of them divide the human races by the color +of the skin, and state that the case of the black and white races is that +of extreme intermixture, and cite that between two white races as a +desirable one. When they are pressed to pass a verdict on the result of +mixture between the yellow and white races, most of them give only +vacillating replies, as in the following extracts: + + Yellow-white amalgamation may not be fraught with the evil + consequences in the wake of the yellow-black and the white-black + crosses. At the same time, it should be pointed out that the + Caucasians and the Mongolians are far apart in descent, and that the + advantages to be gained by either in this breaking up of superior + hereditary complexes developed during an extended past are not + clear.[46] + +Professor Castle is more precise in his assertion. He says: + + Mankind consists of a single species; at least no races exist so + distinct that when they are crossed sterile progeny are produced. + + Offspring produced by crossing such races do not lack in vigor, size, + or reproductive capacity.... + + Racial crosses, if so conducted as not to interfere with social + inheritance, may be expected to produce on the whole intermediates as + regards physical and psychic characters.[47] + +Here, Professor Castle touches on the important question involved; namely, +social inheritance. Indeed, human civilization is not all that is +contained in germplasm. Mankind developed and accumulated an elaborate +system of living conditions which operate independently of biological +processes. However wonderful a brain a child has, he will have to remain a +savage if he is born in a savage tribe of Africa or in a place where the +level of culture is extremely low. In discussing the possible effect of +intermarriage upon progeny, therefore, the cultural level of parents and +their environment must first of all be taken into consideration. It is +here that we find ground for opposition to intermarriage between Japanese +and Americans at present. With some marked exceptions, the cultural +standard attained by the mixed couples has on the whole been not of a very +high order. This is inevitable when we consider that intermarriage between +Japanese and Americans has not yet received full social sanction, thus +obstructing free play to the process of natural selection. Aside from the +purely biological consideration, this want of social approval of +intermarriage, with its concomitant, an unenviable social position of the +parents, results in an undesirable environment for the offspring. + +The welfare of their progeny is not the only determining point of +intermarriage. Is it, then, sufficiently happy for the couple? Our +observations lead us to answer in the negative. To be sure, there are +cases of fortunate marriages in which it seems impossible for the couple +to be happier. But, on the whole, the husband and the wife often find it +difficult to harmonize their sentiments and ideals on account of different +antecedents. The inharmony seems to grow as the couple advance in age, +rendering their lives miserable. The greatest stumbling block, however, +seems to be economic. The Japanese in the United States who are engaged in +the ordinary walks of life are offered very little opportunities save in +farming on a small scale and in petty businesses. Regardless of their +ambition or ability, the Japanese cannot get what are considered in +America good positions. Hence, neither their positions nor incomes improve +very rapidly--perhaps no advance is made. Most American women are not +satisfied to follow a blind alley. They turn back and get a divorce. +Exceptional cases, of course, are found in the American-Japanese couples, +whose husbands have won distinction and wealth by extraordinary personal +ability or by scientific or literary attainments, or by representing great +firms of Japan. + +Our discussion of intermarriage seems to suggest that it is not likely to +occur, for some time at least, in large numbers; that as far as hereditary +effect on progeny is concerned, it is wholly premature to pass any +judgment at present because of our limited knowledge; but that the social +as well as the economic position of the contemporary Japanese in America +does not seem conducive to the happiness of either the children of such +unions or their parents. + + +Is Assimilation without Intermarriage Possible? + +Let us now consider the third question:--"Is intermarriage necessary for +the assimilation of the Japanese?" The people, who argue that the Japanese +should be discriminated against because they are biologically unamalgable, +thereby commit themselves to maintaining that intermarriage is the only +way by which Japanese may become true Americans. Governor Stephens states +that California's effort at Japanese exclusion is "based entirely on the +principle of race self-preservation and the ethnological impossibility of +successfully assimilating this constantly increasing flow of Oriental +blood."[48] Without questioning whence he derived the authority for the +assertion that the Japanese are ethnologically impossible of assimilation, +we wish to refute the contention that the Japanese are unassimilable +because they are racially impossible of amalgamation. We believe that +racial amalgamation is not a prerequisite of assimilation. We have already +shown that the customs and traditions, as well as the supreme law of the +United States, do not demand that all Americans be of one and the same +race. This fact alone is sufficient condemnation of those baseless +utterances which seek an excuse for failure and negligence in successfully +fulfilling the duty of Americanizing aliens by the camouflage of race +difference. + +But there are other powerful reasons to support our view that race +intermixture is not the only way to Americanize the Japanese. And this we +find in the strong influence of environment on the physical and mental +make-up of man. Perhaps the most significant anthropological contribution +of recent times is the establishment of the truth that race is not a fixed +thing, but that it is a changeable thing; changeable according to the +conditions of environment. Professor Boas, a recognized authority on +anthropology, found, in a strictly scientific investigation concerning the +changes in bodily form of immigrants and their descents in America, that +aliens change considerably in physical form after they come to America. +His conclusions are: + + The investigation has shown much more than was anticipated, and the + results, so far as worked out, may be summarized as follows: + + The head form, which has always been considered as one of the most + stable and permanent characteristics of human races, undergoes + far-reaching changes due to the transfer of races of Europe to + American soil. + + The influence of American environment upon the descendants of + immigrants increases with the time that the immigrants have lived in + this country before the birth of their children. + + The differences in type between the American-born descendant of the + immigrant and the European-born immigrant develop in early childhood + and persist throughout life. + + Among the East European Hebrews the American environment, even in the + congested parts of the city, has brought about a general more + favorable development of the race, which is expressed in the increased + height of body (stature) and the weight of the children. + + There are not only decided changes in the rate of development of + immigrants, but there is also a far-reaching change in the type--a + change which cannot be ascribed to selection or mixture, but which can + only be explained as due directly to the influence of environment. We + are, therefore, compelled to draw the conclusion that if these traits + change under the influence of environment, presumably _none of the + characteristics of the human types that come to America remain + stable_.[49] + +A very similar result has been reached by Dr. Fishberg in his study[50] of +the Jews in America, in which he found that the physical features of the +Jews in the United States are changing considerably as the result of +change in social elements. + +Because of lack of scientifically established data pertaining to the +physical change of Japanese descendants in America, we forbear from +making any bold assertion on that topic. Yet, even to the casual +observer, it seems almost undeniable that American-born Japanese children +are fast departing from the type which their parents represent, thus +corroborating the truth discovered by scientists. The Japanese Educational +Association of San Francisco once conducted an extensive physical +examination of Japanese children in twenty different grammar schools in +California, and found (1) that they are generally superior in physical +development to children of corresponding ages in Japan; (2) that in height +they are from one to two inches taller than children in Nippon; (3) that +in weight they are from three to seven pounds heavier; (4) that they have +fairer skin when compared with that of their parents born in Japan; (5) +that their hair is dark brown and not jet black, as is that of their +parents; and (6) that their general posture is much better than that +commonly seen among the children of Japan.[51] + +These purely bodily changes of American-born descents may be attributed to +the difference in diet, in mode of living, in climate, and in the +mysterious power of the social _milieu_, of whose influence upon the +physiology of man we are yet uninformed. It is well to remember that +America is a wonderful melting pot which does not depend, in its +functions, solely upon the biological process of cross-breeding, but also +in a good measure upon the social and natural process of automatic +conformity to type. + + +Cultural Assimilation. + +The real criteria of Americanization being, as we have seen, a genuine +patriotism and cultural refinement, it is in the light of these two +points, more than in any other regard, that the question of Japanese +assimilability must be examined. Patriotism is a peculiar emotion +manifesting itself in love of one's own country, in willingness to devote +one's self for the maintenance of national honor and welfare. It arises in +us from our association, since early childhood, with things that surround +us. We love things that we are used to; we cherish the mountains, rivers, +and trees among which we were brought up; we hold dear the friends and +people with whom we associated in our early childhood, and as we grow +mature, we take pride in finding ourselves members not only of local +communities and societies of various sorts but also of the family of a +great nation whose ideals and history we inherit. These and numerous other +things become a part of our life for which we do not hesitate to fight, +and if necessary to lay down our lives. + +This suggests that two things are necessary for the genesis of +patriotism--native birth and a free sharing in the goods of life. While no +generalization can be made off-hand, introspection reveals that, when we +migrate to another country after we have grown up, it seems well-nigh +impossible to find ourselves emotionally attached as closely to the +adopted country as to the country of our birth. To _be born_ in a country +is the strongest factor in one's patriotism. The Constitution of the +United States in claiming all persons born in America as its citizens is +clearly a product of master minds. Nativity alone, however, is not often +sufficient to enkindle the fire of patriotism in our hearts. In the slave, +to whom most of the goods of life were denied, to whom no active share in +communal life was allowed, who was treated not as a member of the nation +but as a tool, could mere nativity arouse strong love for his country? +Only when the child is brought up in an environment of friendly spirit, +encouragement, and sympathy does he learn to identify himself with the +country. + +How do we find the patriotism of the Japanese in America? Are they +patriotic in relation to the United States? For all those Japanese who +came to America as immigrants of mature age with the prime object of +making money, the answer must be made in the negative. Born and reared in +the beautiful country of Nippon among a most hospitable people, their +love of Japan is surely stronger than their love of America. Trained and +educated in the customs and traditions of Japan, imbued with the belief, +ideas, and ideals that are peculiar to Japan, they would not know even how +to avail themselves of the opportunity, supposing they were granted the +rights and the freedom to share in the now forbidden privileges. To +complete the inhibition, there are all sorts of handicaps placed on them, +making it unthinkable that they should love this country. They cannot +vote, they cannot get public positions, and now they can neither own nor +lease the land in California. No; the Japanese immigrants in America do +not love America more than they love Japan. + + +Assimilability of Japanese Immigrants. + +How, then, about their cultural conditions? It is impossible here to +compare the culture of the Japanese _en masse_ with that of other people. +We can take only a few specific points and see how they stand. Of course, +in the absence of accurate data our conclusions are necessarily +unscientific. + +It is often alleged that the Japanese in the United States have a +different standard of morality from that of the Americans, and as evidence +of this allegation the attitude of Japanese men towards women is pointed +out. Japanese men are really "bossy" in their attitude toward women, but +that is the outcome of custom and should not be charged against their +morals. They are often accused of being tricky, untrustworthy. We have +already seen that there have been cases that justify such accusations, but +that the cause was mostly due to their ignorance of legal processes and +obligations, in which they sadly lack training. On the whole, the Japanese +in America are law-abiding; they very rarely become public charges, and +are peaceful and industrious. These facts even the most uncompromising +Japanese exclusionist, Mr. J. M. Inman, admits as true, and states further +that they are "sober, industrious, peaceful, and law-abiding, and contain +within their population neither anarchists, bomb-throwers, Reds, nor I. W. +W.'s."[52] + +That the Japanese in America have been able to make rapid progress in the +Christian religion has been due to the generous aid and wise direction of +the American churches. Within less than thirty years Christianity has +become deeply rooted among the Japanese communities, exerting the most +wholesome and powerful influence in uplifting their living conditions. In +1911, the _Den Do Dan_, or Japanese Inter-Denominational Mission Board, +was organized with a view to carrying on a systematic campaign for +evangelistic as well as community service. The Mission Board has been +successful in propagating Christianity among the Japanese. This is clearly +shown by the fact that at the present time there are sixty-one Protestant +churches on the Pacific Coast, besides fifty-seven Sunday schools. The +greatest success of the Board, however, has been attained in the field of +practical social service, where the organization of young people's +Christian associations, the campaign against gambling and other vices, +relief work among the needy, and the promotion of Americanization, have +been successfully carried out.[53] + +Judging from the small percentage of illiteracy and the complete system of +Japanese compulsory education, the Japanese in America do not seem to be +much behind the corresponding elements in the American population in +average intelligence. Only in English are they markedly weak. The +importance of a knowledge of the language in assimilation can hardly be +exaggerated. It is the gate through which the alien can arrive at an +understanding of American institutions and culture. The weakness of the +Japanese in English is chiefly due to the radical difference of the +language from their own. Statistics indicate, however, a decided increase +in the number of those who can command English. The census of 1900 showed +that less than 40 per cent. of the Japanese in America could speak +English, but in the census of 1910 the rate increased to 61 per cent.[54] +The rate for foreign-born whites in 1910 was 77 per cent. + +The economic status of the Japanese appears to be about the same as that +of European immigrants. This is indisputable from the sheer fact that the +earnings of both are about the same. The only difference is that the +Japanese show a tendency to mediocrity of earning power without becoming +either paupers or millionaires. This is due to the fact that while there +is an abundance of work offered to Japanese which enables them to earn a +comfortable living, all avenues for a greater economic success are closed +to them. No sooner do the Japanese show signs of some small success in +agriculture than the privilege to till the soil is denied them. A similar +restraint is now being attempted on the Japanese progress in fishing in +California. In a sense, economic welfare is the foundation of cultural and +spiritual progress, and to be denied the opportunity to make progress in +this field is a heavy disadvantage. + +The gravest defect of the Japanese is their lack of training in democratic +institutions. Having been given little opportunity to share in public or +political activities in Japan, their understanding and training in civic +duties is notoriously weak. Obviously this must hinder the process of +Americanization to a great extent. To counteract this weakness the +dissemination among them of a knowledge of American civics is necessary. +It may be most effectively done by allowing them to share in a measure the +American communal activities. But this is a privilege denied them. + +The foregoing discussion of the cultural conditions of the Japanese in +America is important, not in determining whether or not the Japanese +immigrants are qualified to become American citizens--for this is out of +the question at present, since the right of naturalization is not granted +to them--but to show what is the character of the influence which is +exerted upon the native-born Japanese, Americans by birth, by their +parents. The core of the Japanese problem in America is, in our opinion, +whether or not American citizens of Japanese descent can become worthy +Americans. Those immigrants who came from Japan will die out in the course +of time, and further immigration can be stopped. In this way it is +possible to curtail to a minimum the number of alien Japanese in the +United States. But the American-born Japanese are American citizens and +they are here to stay. Whether these young Americans will become a strong +and successful element of the American people or whether they will +degenerate to a kind of parasite and become America's "thorns in the +flesh" is really a question of cardinal importance. But this depends much +on the freedom and opportunity which are extended to their parents in this +country. Thus the treatment of the Japanese in California or elsewhere in +the United States assumes an aspect of vital significance to the nation. +It is not a question of the abstract principles of justice or equality +alone, but one of concrete and vital interest to America's own welfare. + +It is in this connection that all sorts of pressure and +oppression--economic, political, social, and spiritual--exerted on the +Japanese population, become most objectionable and harmful. These +discriminatory efforts against the Japanese obstruct the Americanization +of native-born Japanese in two ways. They prevent the parents from +becoming well-to-do and refined people, and from getting permanent +occupation and homes, all of which are essential if parents are to bring +up their sons and daughters to a respectable standard. They also +unconsciously imprint on the tender minds of children the idea that their +fathers and mothers were not treated kindly in America, whose loyal +citizens they are destined to become. What do those exclusionists really +mean, when they insist that the Japanese should be given no opportunity to +progress either in agriculture or industry because they are unassimilable +people? Do they mean thereby to check Japanese immigration? They surely +cannot mean this, for there are other and more friendly ways of achieving +their object, since Japan has more than once expressed her willingness to +coöperate with America in this respect. What else can they mean but that +they want to hinder the American citizens of Japanese descent from +becoming worthy Americans by ostracizing and persecuting their parents? + + +Native-Born Japanese. + +Fortunately, in spite of all unfavorable influence and environment created +for them, the native-born Japanese show very hopeful signs of realizing +perfect Americanization. Here again we do not wish to dogmatize, in +apparent lack of scientific data, and assert that we need feel no +apprehension. Yet the few data gathered on the subject from observation +strongly point to the hopeful conclusion that as greater numbers of them +approach mature age they are gradually becoming Americans by the accepted +standard. They proved their patriotism to America during the great war by +enlisting in the American army and navy. In their manner, address, and +temperament these boys and girls are American, with an unconcealed air of +American mannerism. In their fluent and natural English, in their +frankness and bold recklessness, in their dislike of little and irksome +tasks and love of big and adventurous undertakings, in their chivalry and +gallantry, in their tall and well-built stature, these young people are +wholly American, no longer recognizable as Japanese except in their +physical features. Indeed, it is the common testimony of the Japanese +visiting America that the Japanese children born and reared here differ so +distinctly from children in Japan that in their manners, spirit, and even +in the play of expression on their faces, they appear characteristically +American. We cannot help being surprised by the completeness with which +the so-called racial traits of the Japanese are swept away in the first +generation of Japanese born in America. + +The explanation for such a remarkable fact must be sought in the strong +influence of social, national, and spiritual environment. We have seen how +even the most stable elements of man's physiological constitution may +change in a new environment. This being the case, it may not be entirely +surprising that less stable elements, such as temperament and expression, +should change more rapidly and completely in a new social _milieu_. This +fact is a deathblow to the theorists who uphold the _à priori_ view of +race, that it is a fixed, pure, unchangeable reality. It attests the truth +of Mr. John Oakesmith's thesis in which he so ably establishes that "the +objective influence of race in the evolution of nationality is fiction," +and that the sole foundation and unifying force of nationality is the +"organic continuity of common interest."[55] + +In the cross-examination of native-born Japanese children by the +Congressional Sub-Committee on Immigration and Naturalization conducted on +the Pacific Coast last spring, it was found that in almost all cases the +children expressed the feeling that they like the United States better +than Japan because they are more familiar and closely associated with +things and people in America. This is doubtless an honest confession of +their sentiment. They generally do not read or write Japanese because it +is wholly different from English and so difficult. They learn from their +parents that the life is hard and competition is keen in Japan. They know +America is a great country, a land of liberty and opportunity. Naturally +their interest in Japan is very slight, and they think they are Americans, +and they are proud of it.[56] + +These are the hopeful signs which offer us reason for being optimistic. We +cannot, nevertheless, be blind to the fact that there are many obstacles +which if left unchecked will tend to defeat our hopes. These obstacles we +find, first, in the congested condition of the Japanese on the Pacific +Coast. For convenience and benefit the Japanese have been living more or +less in groups, speaking their own language to a large extent, and +retaining many of the Japanese customs and manners. This tendency has been +a great obstacle in the assimilation of the Japanese. Their dispersal in +many other States of the Union is one of the first requirements of +Americanization, and consequently of an equitable solution of the +Japanese-California problem. We shall touch upon this subject in the +concluding chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +GENERAL CONCLUSION + + +In dealing with the Japanese problem in California, we started with a +general account of Japanese traits and ideas. We did so because we +believed that a knowledge of the Japanese disposition is essential to a +comprehensive understanding of the problem. No attempt was made to +determine whether the traits of the Japanese--their emotional nature, +their well-developed æsthetic temperament and strong group consciousness, +and the unique feature of chivalry and virility prevailing among the lower +classes--are inherent in the race or acquired; but we concluded that the +question may best be answered by observing those of Japanese descent born +and reared in different countries. Later, when we examined the +characteristics of the American-born Japanese and discovered that they +appear to have lost most of the Japanese traits, and, in turn, have +acquired mental attitudes that are peculiar to the American, it was +suggested that none of the racial characteristics is necessarily fixed, +and that, similarly, the Japanese traits must have been largely acquired +through peculiar natural surroundings and social systems. + +Next we reviewed in a brief way Japan's Asiatic policy in order to +envisage the international situation in which she finds herself and to see +how she proposes to meet her difficulties at home and abroad. We commented +on the manifest shortcomings of that policy. In view of the fact that +Japan's industry--her only hope in the future--has to depend largely on +the supply of raw material from her Asiatic neighbors, the assurance of +good-will and friendly coöperation with them is essential for her welfare. +It is in the failure to obtain this assurance that the defect of Japan's +past Asiatic policy becomes apparent. We expressed our conviction that +under the circumstances the best that Japan can do is to so reconstruct +the principle of the policy as to convince her neighbors of her genuine +sincerity. + +In the chapter on the background of Japanese emigration, an attempt has +been made to discover its causes. The principal causes found are the small +amount of land, the dense population, and the limited prospect of +industrial development due to the scarcity of raw material. Moreover, the +peculiar social and political conditions in Japan are such as to obstruct, +by numerous fetters and restraints, the free development of ambitious +youths. The exaggerated stories of great opportunities in the new worlds +kindle the desire of the young people to go abroad. + +Tentative attempts were made some thirty years ago in emigration to +Australia, Canada, and the United States. Nearly a quarter of a century's +effort at emigration into the new worlds, with the exception of partial +success in Brazil, had proved a complete failure, and thus attempts at +migration towards the North came into vogue. + +In our discussion of the causes of anti-Japanese agitation in California, +it was made clear that the explanation of much of the trouble lies in the +conditions of the Japanese themselves, such as congestion in particular +localities and different manners and customs. The nationalistic policy of +Japan was also pointed out as a factor making for resentment. What renders +the situation unnecessarily complicated, leading to a general +misunderstanding, is the employment of the issue in local +politics--exploitation of the subject for private ends by agitators and +propagandists. + +Then our study entered the heart of the California problem, the fact of +the existing Japanese population. It was discovered that the rate of +increase of Japanese population in California has been rapid, but that it +shows a tendency to slow down, while the rate of increase of the entire +population of the State shows a tendency to steady increase. We found +that in comparison with the total number of Japanese in the United States +the percentage of Japanese in California is remarkably high, nearly 60 per +cent. of them being domiciled in that one State. Then we examined the +factors--immigration, smuggling, and births--which contributed to the +increase of the Japanese population in California. Under the subject of +immigration it was made clear that the net gain from immigration has +become small since the restrictive agreement was concluded, but that the +number of those entering the country increased because the number of those +who are passing through or temporarily visiting America has increased. We +expressed our opinion that in order to quiet the excitement of the people +of the Pacific Coast it is entirely desirable to stop sending Japanese +immigrants to America. + +We have somewhat fully treated the subject of birth because it is a vital +part of the question. It was discovered in the discussion that the birth +rate of the Japanese in California is exceptionally high, due to the fact +that a high percentage of the immigrants are in the prime of life and that +the percentage of married people is remarkably high. In forecasting the +future of the birth rate we stated that if immigration is stopped the +present generation will in time pass out without being re-enforced, +leaving behind American-born children, who, with higher culture and more +even distribution with regard to age and marriage, will not multiply at +nearly so high a rate as their parents. We concluded, therefore, that the +present is a transitional period and that apprehension over the high birth +rate is entirely unwarranted. + +The chapter on Japanese agriculture in California gives report of a degree +of progress that has been remarkable. As to the causes of this progress +the peculiar adaptation of the Japanese farmers to the agricultural +conditions of California was presented as the principal one. Then we +considered separately the Japanese farm labor and the farmers. What we +found in treating the subject of Japanese farm laborers was that they are +indispensable to California's agriculture, inasmuch as they have several +important peculiarities which are useful. Their ability to farm and their +aptitude for bodily and manual dexterity, as well as their highly +transitory character under the system of contract labor, are useful assets +to the farmers of California. Under the topic of the Japanese farmer, we +examined the reasons given for the discrimination against Japanese in +agricultural pursuits. The first reason--that they are "crushing +competitors of California farmers"--was criticized on the ground that +there is not much competition between white and Japanese farmers, since +there is a pretty clear line of demarkation between them, the former being +engaged in farming on a large scale and the latter engaged in small +intensive agriculture. The second apprehension--that the Japanese farmer, +if left unchecked, will soon control the greater part of California +agriculture--was characterized as an entirely exaggerated fear, since the +portion of land which the Japanese till is quite negligible and there are +vast tracts of land yet uncultivated. The third objection--which finds +reason for opposition in the unassimilability of the Japanese--we held as +the weightiest count, and withheld criticism until we had fully treated +the subject of assimilation in the succeeding chapter. What we insisted on +was that it is unwise to maltreat the Japanese on the surmise that they +are unassimilable. Whether they are assimilable or not--and this is not +the question, for they are not allowed to become American citizens--their +children, who are Americans by virtue of birth, will suffer much from a +hostile policy towards their parents. + +The anti-alien land laws were considered briefly, and the views of their +critics were introduced. As an effective measure to cope with the +legislation, we suggested that neither legal nor diplomatic disputes will +bring about a satisfactory result, but that only through obtaining the +good-will and friendship of the people of California can there be a true +solution. + +The topic of assimilation discussed in the preceding chapter needs no +recapitulation. + +The foregoing study, which we have undertaken from the outset with an open +mind and fair attitude, has, it is to be hoped, disclosed that the +underlying cause of the entire difficulty is a conflict or maladjustment +of interest. There are four parties whose peculiar interests and rights +are seriously involved in the situation. First and foremost, we have to +consider the rights and interests of California. Then we have the United +States, which is no less directly concerned with the problem. For the +Japanese living in California, the issue is a matter of life and death; +their entire interests and welfare are at stake. Japan also is as much +concerned with the fate of her subjects in America as the United States +would be with the welfare of her people living abroad--say in Mexico. The +Japanese problem in California is the concrete expression of the +maladjustment of the interests and rights of these four parties concerned. + +Various measures, wise and unwise, have been proposed for the solution of +the problem, but none of them has so far been put into effect, since each +has failed to adjust the interests and rights of all parties concerned in +an harmonious way, and hence has met with violent protest at the outset. + +Take, for instance, the proposal that the Japanese should be granted the +right of naturalization. The promoters of the project insist that the +denial to the Japanese of the right to become citizens of the United +States is the cause of the anti-Japanese exclusion movement, and, +accordingly, that the granting of the privilege will annul all +discriminatory efforts. Undoubtedly the proposal was well meant, but it +has perhaps done more harm than good. In the first place, it confuses the +cause and method of discrimination against the Japanese. The Japanese +ineligibility to citizenship has certainly been seized on as a weapon for +discrimination, but it is by no means the cause. The cause is elsewhere. +In the second place, the advocates of the proposal argue that, if adopted, +it will defeat the entire discriminatory efforts of the Californians. It +is, however, decidedly unwise to attempt to defeat the effort without +removing the cause of the difficulty. No wonder the proposal has provoked +the wild criticism of California leaders. The granting of citizenship to +refined and Americanized Japanese is in itself a proper and desirable +step, but to use it as a weapon to defeat the exclusion movement is +clearly unwise. + +The solution of the Japanese problem in California, if it be equitable at +all and satisfactory to the four parties involved, must rest on the +following basic principles: + +_1. That it should be in consonance with justice and international +courtesy; it must redress Japan's grievances and meet America's wishes._ + +_2. That it should be fair to Californians; that is to say, operate to +allay the fear they entertain of the alarming increase of Japanese in +numbers and economic importance._ + +_3. That it should be fair to the Japanese residents, both aliens and +American-born, so that they may enjoy in peace, without molestation or +persecution, the blessings of "life, liberty, and the pursuit of +happiness," and participate, as all American-born are entitled and in duty +bound to do, in the promotion of the State's well-being._ + +The new treaty, which is reported to have been laid for final decision +before the Washington and Tokyo Governments by the two negotiators, +Ambassador Morris and Ambassador Shidehara, has not been made public at +this writing. We have, therefore, no means of knowing the contents or +nature of its provisions. It may, however, be presumed that it will go a +long way toward redressing Japan's grievances and meeting America's +wishes. The latter will probably be met by Japan's adoption of drastic +measures to check completely the influx of her immigrants. Knowing that +Japan has always been sincere and ready to yield to the wishes of the +United States, we hold it only just that she be saved the embarrassment +arising from discrimination against her subjects in America. Proud and +sensitive, Japan takes to heart the abuses or indignities which she deems +seriously detrimental to her national honor. + +The conclusion of the Treaty and its ratification by the Senate, however, +may not prove the panacea for all evils, for governmental action is +naturally circumscribed in its sphere. To solve the perplexing question +once for all, the Treaty must be supplemented by the patriotic efforts of +public-spirited citizens of both countries to heal and adjust the +irritated parts in the scheme of American-Japanese relations which are +beyond the reach of governmental action. Viscount Shibusawa and some of +his compatriots have, during the last year, held many conferences with +some prominent Americans--those representing the Chamber of Commerce of +San Francisco and the party headed by Mr. Frank Vanderlip. A better +understanding of the situation must have resulted as a consequence of the +conferences. The earnestness of the Viscount and his friends to do what +they could for the good of both countries is beyond praise. But we fear +they have been measuring America by Japan's standard and trying to cure +the trouble without remedying the cause. In Japan the counsel of a few +influential men often proves effective even in local affairs, but in +America, where local autonomy is strongly entrenched, a man, however +prominent a figure he may have cut in national affairs, will think twice +before he pronounces judgment on matters of local concern, lest it be +construed as an intrusion, and thus defeat the good intention. The +California question can only be settled by or in coöperation with the +Californians, and right on the spot, not elsewhere. + +We believe that the time has come, therefore, when those public-spirited +citizens of both countries should replace academic discussion by action. +As a means of alleviating the situation we venture to offer the following +modest suggestion: + +1. That a Committee of a dozen or so members, consisting of +public-spirited men of broad vision of both countries, and particularly of +California, be formed with the object of formulating and putting into +effect the project of relieving the congestion of Japanese in California. + +Such a Committee would doubtless be able to secure the hearty coöperation +of The Japan Society of New York and other cities, as well as of the +Japanese Association of America and similar organizations, all of which +exist with a view to promoting friendly relations between America and +Japan. + +2. That the said Committee appoint an administrator of proved executive +ability and a staff for the prosecution of the project. + +3. That to finance the project an initial fund of half a million dollars +be raised by contribution from the 120,000 Japanese living in this +country. + +The Japanese domiciled in this country have the keenest interest in the +subject; they are directly or indirectly affected by the anti-Japanese +agitation in California; they would not grudge a contribution of a small +sum for the purpose of uprooting the cause of that annoyance. The Japanese +in California who have interests at stake would surely be more than +willing to contribute their quota to the fund. The native Californians, +too, we strongly feel, in their calm and considerate mood, would obey the +dictates of wisdom to adopt a more liberal and logical method of relieving +the local tension than to resort, as at present, to measures of repression +and persecution. + +We are of the opinion that there would be a fair demand in other States of +the Union for such skilled farm hands as we have found in the Japanese in +California if the facts were well advertised. If proper precaution be +taken so as to avoid the repetition of the same story of congestion as +that in California, the plan of dispersal above outlined might prove a +boon to all concerned. If the initial stage of the plan be earnestly +carried out before the eyes of the Californians, a totally different +atmosphere might be created among them so as to win their good will and +enlist their coöperation. When such a happy outcome is obtained, a +solution of the Japanese-California problem is assured. + +There is certainly a great deal which the Japanese in California can and +must do. In the first place, they must thoroughly grasp the psychology of +the Californians. They must indicate, if they are to remain in this +country, their willingness to become Americans regardless of barriers or +opposition. They must show this willingness not only in intention but also +in practice. They must improve their command of English, alter many of +their customs and manners. They must endeavor to elevate their standard of +living and culture. They must give up beliefs and ideals which are +Japanese and which run counter to the American. It would be well for them +to refrain from building in California Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples +and from maintaining language schools. They must above all learn to take +an interest in the national life of the United States. + +There is also much that the Japanese Government can do. Its policy of +paternalism, extending too much care to Japanese domiciled abroad, and +even to Japanese born abroad, must, in our opinion, be altered. The claim +of allegiance to the home country by the children born in another country, +whatever may be their status in the land of birth, is an international +practice still adhered to by most European nations--France, Italy, +Germany, Switzerland, Greece. From this results what is called a "dual +nationality" of a subject. In a country like the United States, where its +Constitution endows children born therein with citizenship, the so-called +"dual nationality" gives rise to an awkward situation in case its mother +country adopts the military conscription system. To avoid this awkward +situation, Japan enacted in the year 1916 a law which provides that a +Japanese boy who has acquired a foreign nationality by reason of his birth +in a foreign country may divest himself of Japanese nationality if his +father, or other parental authority, takes the necessary steps to that end +before he is fifteen years of age, or, if he has attained the age of +fifteen, he may himself take the same steps, with the consent of his +father or guardian, before he reaches the age of seventeen.[57] This law +is objectionable because it fixes the age limit of expatriation at +seventeen, when the subject is yet a minor and is not competent to +exercise his own choice. Fixing the age limit at seventeen is a provision +in consonance with the Japanese military law, which imposes on all male +Japanese subjects above that age the duty of military service. +Consequently, all American-born Japanese males who have failed to +expatriate before they have reached the age of seventeen are claimed as +Japanese subjects and are subject to conscription, while at the same time +they are American citizens. The existence of such a discordance in the +laws and Constitution of the two countries has the possibility of giving +rise to a serious international complication, and it seems advisable that +some sort of settlement be made on this point between the American and +Japanese Governments. The difficulty could, of course, be overcome if the +Japanese parents who are determined to stay permanently in this country +would take the necessary steps to expatriate their children as soon as +they are born, or at the proper time. The hesitation they have heretofore +manifested was greatly due to the uncertainty in which their future and +that of their children was shrouded. + +We cannot omit to emphasize in this connection the part which America can +and has to perform. Of the numerous things America can do with profit we +believe the task of Americanizing the Japanese to be the foremost. We +wish to make it clear that, whether Japanese aliens are worthy or not, +their children born in America are in any case Americans, and it is +America's duty to make them worthy members of the nation. They are not +foreigners or aliens, and, accordingly, it is clearly wrong, as well as +unwise, to deal with them as if they were. Upon what we can do to guide +the rising generation depends the future of the Japanese problem in +America. This in turn must depend upon how America treats their parents. +Disappearing gradually as they are, they are bequeathing their impressions +and accomplishments to their children. Any generosity and kindness +extended to them are acts not so much of altruism as of vital interest in +the welfare of America herself, for they are the guardians of the +Republic's sons and daughters of Japanese blood. + +It is certainly not fair to slander and maltreat those people, who were +originally brought in to fill the need of man-power and who have +contributed much towards making the Pacific Coast what it is to-day. To +prevent the influx of Japanese immigrants, to avoid the possible future +development of difficult problems with Japan, there certainly ought to be +some better means than gradually strangling the innocent people who +individually are in no way to be blamed for the present strained +relations on the Pacific Coast. + +All these considerations lead us to a belief that the time is now ripe for +the American people, and especially for the people of California, to +reconstruct their attitude and policy towards the Japanese domiciled in +this country. Every indication seems to suggest that if, in place of the +discriminatory policy so far resorted to with no better effect than +general irritation, a new policy be initiated, a policy of constructive +Americanization based upon generosity, sympathy, and understanding, the +result will surely be far-reaching. It is a common fact of human +experience that one's attitude is directly responded to by other people +with whom we deal. It was Thackeray, we believe, who said that "the world +is like a looking-glass; if we smile, others also smile." What cannot be +achieved by a hostile policy is often easily and satisfactorily +accomplished by sympathetic attitude and friendly dealing. Give the +Japanese the opportunity and see what good use they will make of it. + +We hardly need to reiterate that the Japanese-California question--the +main theme of this book--is only a part of the vast problem which +confronts America and Japan. The present world tendency is to bind +increasingly all parts of the world into one. The process of civilization, +like a revolving body, exerts centrifugal and centripetal force and +gradually unifies all civilizations into a cohesive system. At present +there are two centers of such forces, one in the East and another in the +West, each trying to influence the other. By virtue of being the youngest +and the most vigorous representatives of the two spheres, Japan and +America, respectively, are naturally destined to shoulder together the +great task of harmonizing and unifying these two great currents of human +achievement. The task involves, from its gigantic nature, a great many +difficulties and risks of which the present California issue is certainly +one. All these difficulties must be squarely met and surmounted with +courage and wisdom, since to shrink from the job is to commit the future +relationship of the East and West to the cruel law of natural selection. + +It is, however, generally true that the perfect understanding of the +common aim settles the incidental difficulties arising in the process. +This is particularly true in the case of the California-Japanese question, +which is a partial issue of the great undertaking between America and +Japan. The core of the California problem, our study has shown, is the +question of assimilability of the Japanese. But what is the assimilation +but the approach to the common standard of culture and ideals? The +approach to the common standard of culture and ideals between the peoples +of Asia and Europe and America is precisely the task in which Japan and +the United States are engaged in unison. Herein is the explanation of our +earlier assertion that the California problem is a miniature form of the +problem of the East and West. Herein also is the support of our contention +that to accelerate the coöperative effort of America and Japan for mutual +understanding is the only and the best method of bringing about the +solution of the Japanese problem in California or elsewhere in the United +States. We wish, therefore, to emphasize once more that the wisest policy +to follow in the future for America and Japan is not foolishly to sharpen +the edge of swords for imaginary race wars, which are absurd, but to +devote themselves wisely to learning and appreciating each other's +accomplishments and greatness, from which alone true friendship can +arise. + + + + +APPENDIX A + + +[Illustration: _COMPARATIVE HEIGHT OF AMERICAN, JAPANESE-AMERICAN & +JAPANESE CHILDREN_] + +[Illustration: _COMPARATIVE WEIGHT OF AMERICAN, JAPANESE-AMERICAN & +JAPANESE CHILDREN_] + + + + +APPENDIX B + +EXTRACTS FROM THE TREATY OF COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION AND PROTOCOL BETWEEN +JAPAN AND THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, OF FEBRUARY 21, 1911. + + +His Majesty, the Emperor of Japan, and the President of the United States +of America, being desirous to strengthen the relations of amity and good +understanding which happily exist between the two nations, and believing +that the fixation in a manner clear and positive of the rules which are +hereafter to govern the commercial intercourse between their respective +countries will contribute to this most desirable result, have resolved to +conclude a treaty of commerce and navigation. + +=Article I.=--The subjects or citizens of each of the high contracting +parties shall have liberty to enter, travel, and reside in the territories +of the other, to carry on trade, wholesale and retail, to own or lease and +occupy houses, manufactories, warehouses, and shops, to employ agents of +their choice, to lease land for residential and commercial purposes, and +generally to do anything incident to or necessary for trade, upon the same +terms as native subjects or citizens, submitting themselves to the laws +and regulations there established. + +They shall not be compelled, under any pretext whatever, to pay any +charges or taxes other or higher than those that are or may be paid by +native subjects or citizens. + +The subjects or citizens of each of the high contracting parties shall +receive, in the territories of the other, the most constant protection and +security for their persons and property and shall enjoy in this respect +the same rights and privileges as are or may be granted to native subjects +or citizens, on their submitting themselves to the conditions imposed upon +the native subjects and citizens. + +=Article IV.=--There shall be between the territories of the two high +contracting parties reciprocal freedom of commerce and navigation. The +subjects or citizens of each of the contracting parties, equally with the +subjects or citizens of the most favored nation shall have liberty freely +to come with their ships and cargoes to all places, ports, and rivers in +the territories of the other which are or may be opened to foreign +commerce, subject always to the laws of the country to which they thus +come. + +=Article V.=--Neither contracting party shall impose any other or higher +duties or charges on the exportation of any article to the territories of +the other than are or may be payable on the exportation of the like +article to any other foreign country. + +Nor shall any prohibition be imposed by either country on the importation +or exportation of any article from or to the territories of the other +which shall not equally extend to the like article imported from or +exported to any other country. + +=Article XIV.=--Except as otherwise expressly provided in this treaty, the +high contracting parties agree that in all that concerns commerce and +navigation, any privilege, favor, or immunity which either contracting +party has actually granted or may hereafter grant, to the subjects or +citizens of any other State shall be extended to the subjects or citizens +of the other contracting party ... on the same or equivalent +conditions.... + + +Declaration + +In proceeding this day to the signature of the treaty of commerce and +navigation ... the undersigned has the honor to declare that the Imperial +Japanese Government are fully prepared to maintain with equal +effectiveness the limitation and control which they have for the past +three years exercised in regulation of the immigration of laborers to the +United States. + +(Signed) Y. UCHIDA. + +February 21, 1911. + + + + +APPENDIX C + +CALIFORNIA'S ALIEN LAND LAW + +(Approved May 19, 1913) + + +_The people of the State of California do enact as follows_: + +=Section 1.=--All aliens eligible to citizenship under the laws of the +United States may acquire, possess, enjoy, transmit, and inherit real +property, or any interest therein, in this State, in the same manner and +to the same extent as citizens of the United States, except as otherwise +provided by the laws of this State. + +=Section 2.=--All aliens other than those mentioned in section one of this +act may acquire, possess, enjoy, and transfer real property, or any +interest therein, in this State, in the manner and to the extent and for +the purposes prescribed by any treaty now existing between the Government +of the United States and the nation or country of which such alien is a +citizen or subject and not otherwise, and may in addition thereto lease +lands in this State for agricultural purposes for a term not exceeding +three years. + +=Section 3.=--Any company, association, or corporation organized under the +laws of this or any other State or nation, of which a majority of the +members are aliens other than those specified in section one of this act, +or in which a majority of the issued capital stock is owned by such +aliens, may acquire, possess, enjoy, and convey real property, or any +interest therein in this State, in the manner and to the extent and for +the purposes prescribed by any treaty now existing between the Government +of the United States and the nation or country of which such members or +stockholders are citizens or subjects, and not otherwise, and may in +addition thereto lease lands in this State for agricultural purposes for a +term not exceeding three years. + +=Section 4.=--Whenever it appears to the court in any probate proceeding +that by reason of the provisions of this act any heir or devisee cannot +take real property in this State which, but for said provisions, said heir +or devisee would take as such, the court, instead of ordering a +distribution of such real property to such heir or devisee, shall order a +sale of said real property to be made in the manner provided by law for +probate sales of real property, and the proceeds of such sale shall be +distributed to such heirs or devisee in lieu of such real property. + +=Section 5.=--Any real property hereafter acquired in fee in violation of +the provisions of this act by any alien mentioned in section two of this +act, or by any company, association or corporation mentioned in section +three of this act, shall escheat to, and become and remain the property of +the State of California. The attorney general shall institute proceedings +to have the escheat of such real property adjudged and enforced in the +manner provided by section 474 of the Political Code and title eight, part +three of the Code of Civil Procedure. Upon the entry of final judgment in +such proceedings, the title to such real property shall pass to the State +of California. The provisions of this section and of sections two and +three of this act shall not apply to any real property hereafter acquired +in the enforcement or in satisfaction of any lien now existing upon, or +interest in such property, so long as such real property so acquired shall +remain the property of the alien, company, association or corporation +acquiring the same in such manner. + +=Section 6.=--Any leasehold or other interest in real property less than +the fee, hereafter acquired in violation of the provisions of this act by +any alien mentioned in section two of this act, or by any company, +association or corporation mentioned in section three of this act, shall +escheat to the State of California. The attorney general shall institute +proceedings to have such escheat adjudged and enforced as provided in +section five of this act. In such proceedings the court shall determine +and adjudge the value of such leasehold, or other interest in such real +property, and enter judgment for the State for the amount thereof together +with costs. Thereupon the court shall order a sale of the real property +covered by such leasehold, or other interest, in the manner provided by +section 1271 of the Code of Civil Procedure. Out of the proceeds arising +from such sale, the amount of the judgment rendered for the State shall be +paid into the State Treasury and the balance shall be deposited with and +distributed by the court in accordance with the interest of the parties +therein. + +=Section 7.=--Nothing in this act shall be construed as a limitation upon +the power of the State to enact laws with respect to the acquisition, +holding or disposal by aliens of real property in this State. + +=Section 8.=--All acts and parts of acts inconsistent or in conflict with +the provisions of this act, are hereby repealed. + + + + +APPENDIX D + +ALIEN LAND LAW + +(Adopted November 2, 1920) + +PROPERTY RIGHTS AND DISABILITIES OF ALIENS IN CALIFORNIA + + + =Alien Land Law.= Initiative Act. Permits Acquisition and Transfer of + Real Property by Aliens Eligible to Citizenship, to Same Extent as + Citizens Except as Otherwise Provided by Law; Permits Other Aliens, + and Companies, Associations, and Corporations in Which they Hold + Majority Interest, to Acquire and Transfer Real Property Only as + Prescribed by Treaty, but Prohibiting Appointment Thereof as Guardians + of Estates of Minors Consisting Wholly or Partially of Real Property + or Shares in Such Corporations; Provides for Escheats in Certain + Cases; Requires Reports of Property Holdings to Facilitate Enforcement + of Act; Prescribes Penalties and Repeals Conflicting Acts. + + _An act relating to the rights, powers, and disabilities of aliens and + of certain companies, associations, and corporations with respect to + property in this State, providing for escheats in certain cases, + prescribing the procedure therein, requiring reports of certain + property holdings to facilitate the enforcement of this act, + prescribing penalties for violation of the provisions hereof, and + repealing all acts or parts of acts inconsistent or in conflict + herewith._ + +_The people of the State of California do enact as follows_: + +=Section 1.=--All aliens eligible to citizenship under the laws of the +United States may acquire, possess, enjoy, transmit, and inherit real +property, or any interest therein, in this State, in the same manner and +to the same extent as citizens of the United States, except as otherwise +provided by the laws of this State. + +=Section 2.=--All aliens other than those mentioned in section one of this +act may acquire, possess, enjoy, and transfer real property, or any +interest therein, in this State, in the manner and to the extent and for +the purpose prescribed by any treaty now existing between the Government +of the United States and the nation or country of which such alien is a +citizen or subject, and not otherwise. + +=Section 3.=--Any company, association or corporation organized under the +laws of this or any other State or nation, of which a majority of the +members are aliens other than those specified in section one of this act, +or in which a majority of the issued capital stock is owned by such +aliens, may acquire, possess, enjoy, and convey real property, or any +interest therein, in this State, in the manner and to the extent and for +the purposes prescribed by any treaty now existing between the Government +of the United States and the nation or country of which such members or +stockholders are citizens or subjects, and not otherwise. Hereafter all +aliens other than those specified in section one hereof may become members +of or acquire shares of stock in any company, association or corporation +that is or may be authorized to acquire, possess, enjoy or convey +agricultural land, in the manner and to the extent and for the purposes +prescribed by any treaty now existing between the Government of the United +States and the nation or country of which such alien is a citizen or +subject, and not otherwise. + +=Section 4.=--Hereafter no alien mentioned in section two hereof and no +company, association or corporation mentioned in section three hereof, may +be appointed guardian of that portion of the estate of a minor which +consists of property which such alien or such company, association or +corporation is inhibited from acquiring, possessing, enjoying or +transferring by reason of the provisions of this act. The public +administrator of the proper county, or any other competent person or +corporation, may be appointed guardian of the estate of a minor citizen +whose parents are ineligible to appointment under the provisions of this +section. + +On such notice to the guardian as the court may require, the superior +court may remove the guardian of such an estate whenever it appears to the +satisfaction of the court: + +(_a_) That the guardian has failed to file the report required by the +provisions of section five hereof; or + +(_b_) That the property of the ward has not been or is not being +administered with due regard to the primary interest of the ward; or + +(_c_) That facts exist which would make the guardian ineligible to +appointment in the first instance; or + +(_d_) That facts establishing any other legal ground for removal exist. + +=Section 5.=--(_a_) The term "trustee" as used in this section means any +person, company, association or corporation that as guardian, trustee, +attorney-in-fact or agent, or in any other capacity has the title, +custody or control of property, or some interest therein, belonging to an +alien mentioned in section two hereof, or to the minor child of such an +alien, if the property is of such a character that such alien is inhibited +from acquiring, possessing, enjoying or transferring it. + +(_b_) Annually on or before the thirty-first day of January every such +trustee must file in the office of the Secretary of State of California +and in the office of the county clerk of each county in which any of the +property is situated, a verified written report showing: + +(1) The property, real or personal, held by him for or on behalf of such +an alien or minor; + +(2) A statement showing the date when each item of such property came into +his possession or control; + +(3) An itemized account of all expenditures, investments, rents, issues, +and profits in respect to the administration and control of such property +with particular reference to holdings of corporate stock and leases, +cropping contracts, and other agreements in respect to land and the +handling or sale of products thereof. + +(_c_) Any person, company, association or corporation that violates any +provision of this section is guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be punished +by a fine not exceeding one thousand dollars or by imprisonment in the +county jail not exceeding one year, or by both such fine and imprisonment. + +(_d_) The provisions of this section are cumulative and are not intended +to change the jurisdiction or the rules of practice of courts of justice. + +=Section 6.=--Whenever it appears to the court in any probate proceeding +that by reason of the provisions of this act any heir or devisee cannot +take real property in this State or membership or shares of stock in a +company, association or corporation which, but for said provisions, said +heir or devisee would take as such, the court, instead of ordering a +distribution of such property to such heir or devisee, shall order a sale +of said property to be made in the manner provided by law for probate +sales of property and the proceeds of such sale shall be distributed to +such heir or devisee in lieu of such property. + +=Section 7.=--Any real property hereafter acquired in fee in violation of +the provisions of this act by any alien mentioned in section two of this +act, or by any company, association or corporation mentioned in section +three of this act, shall escheat to, and become and remain the property of +the State of California. The attorney general or district attorney of the +proper county shall institute proceedings to have the escheat of such real +property adjudged and enforced in the manner provided by section four +hundred seventy-four of the Political Code and title eight, part three of +the Code of Civil Procedure. Upon the entry of final judgment in such +proceedings, the title to such real property shall pass to the State of +California. The provisions of this section and of sections two and three +of this act shall not apply to any real property hereafter acquired in the +enforcement or in satisfaction of any lien now existing upon, or interest +in such property, so long as such real property so acquired shall remain +the property of the alien, company, association or corporation acquiring +the same in such manner. No alien, company, association or corporation +mentioned in section two or section three hereof shall hold for a longer +period than two years the possession of any agricultural land acquired in +the enforcement of or in satisfaction of a mortgage or other lien +hereafter made or acquired in good faith to secure a debt. + +=Section 8.=--Any leasehold or other interest in real property less than +the fee, hereafter acquired in violation of the provisions of this act by +any alien mentioned in section two of this act, or by any company, +association or corporation mentioned in section three of this act, shall +escheat to the State of California. The attorney general or district +attorney of the proper county shall institute proceedings to have such +escheat adjudged and enforced as provided in section seven of this act. In +such proceedings the court shall determine and adjudge the value of such +leasehold or other interest in such real property, and enter judgment for +the State for the amount thereof together with costs. Thereupon the court +shall order a sale of the real property covered by such leasehold, or +other interest, in the manner provided by section twelve hundred +seventy-one of the Code of Civil Procedure. Out of the proceeds arising +from such sale, the amount of the judgment rendered for the State shall be +paid into the state treasury and the balance shall be deposited with and +distributed by the court in accordance with the interest of the parties +therein. Any share of stock or the interest of any member in a company, +association or corporation hereafter acquired in violation of the +provisions of section three of this act shall escheat to the State of +California. Such escheat shall be adjudged and enforced in the same manner +as provided in this section for the escheat of a leasehold or other +interest in real property less than the fee. + +=Section 9.=--Every transfer of real property, or of an interest therein, +though colorable in form, shall be void as to the state and the interest +thereby conveyed or sought to be conveyed shall escheat to the State if +the property interest involved is of such a character that an alien +mentioned in section two hereof is inhibited from acquiring, possessing, +enjoying or transferring it, and if the conveyance is made with intent to +prevent, evade or avoid escheat as provided for herein. + +A _prima facie_ presumption that the conveyance is made with such intent +shall arise upon proof of any of the following groups of facts: + +(_a_) The taking of the property in the name of a person other than the +persons mentioned in section two hereof if the consideration is paid or +agreed or understood to be paid by an alien mentioned in section two +hereof; + +(_b_) The taking of the property in the name of a company, association or +corporation, if the membership or shares of stock therein held by aliens +mentioned in section two hereof, together with the memberships or shares +of stock held by others but paid for or agreed or understood to be paid +for by such aliens, would amount to a majority of the membership or the +issued capital stock of such company, association or corporation; + +(_c_) The execution of a mortgage in favor of an alien mentioned in +section two hereof if said mortgagee is given possession, control or +management of the property. + +The enumeration in this section of certain presumptions shall not be so +construed as to preclude other presumptions or inferences that reasonably +may be made as to the existence of intent to prevent, evade or avoid +escheat as provided for herein. + +=Section 10.=--If two or more persons conspire to effect a transfer of real +property, or of an interest therein, in violation of the provisions +hereof, they are punishable by imprisonment in the county jail or State +penitentiary not exceeding two years, or by a fine not exceeding five +thousand dollars, or both. + +=Section 11.=--Nothing in this act shall be construed as a limitation upon +the power of the State to enact laws with respect to the acquisition, +holding or disposal by aliens of real property in this State. + +=Section 12.=--All acts and parts of acts inconsistent or in conflict with +the provisions hereof are hereby repealed; _provided_, that-- + +(_a_) This act shall not affect pending actions or proceedings, but the +same may be prosecuted and defended with the same effect as if this act +had not been adopted; + +(_b_) No cause of action arising under any law of this State shall be +affected by reason of the adoption of this act whether an action or +proceeding has been instituted thereon at the time of the taking effect of +this act or not and actions may be brought upon such causes in the same +manner, under the same terms and conditions, and with the same effect as +if this act had not been adopted. + +(_c_) This act in so far as it does not add to, take from or alter an +existing law, shall be construed as a continuation thereof. + +=Section 13.=--The legislature may amend this act in furtherance of its +purpose and to facilitate its operation. + +=Section 14.=--If any section, subsection, sentence, clause or phrase of +this act is for any reason held to be unconstitutional, such decision +shall not affect the validity of the remaining portions of this act. The +people hereby declare that they would have passed this act, and each +section, subsection, sentence, clause and phrase thereof, irrespective of +the fact that any one or more other sections, subsections, sentences, +clauses or phrases be declared unconstitutional. + + + + +APPENDIX E + + +CROPS RAISED BY JAPANESE AND THEIR ACREAGE. + + =============================================================== + | Total |Acreage by|Percentage of Japanese + Product. | Acreage of | Japanese.| Cultivation Against + |Cultivation.| | Total Cultivation. + ----------------|------------|----------|---------------------- + Berries | 6,500 | 5,968 | 91.8 + Celery | 4,000 | 3,568 | 89.2 + Asparagus | 12,000 | 9,927 | 82.7 + Seeds | 20,000 | 15,847 | 79.2 + Onions | 12,112 | 9,251 | 76.3 + Tomatoes | 16,000 | 10,616 | 66.3 + Cantaloupes | 15,000 | 9,581 | 63.8 + Sugar Beets | 102,949 | 51,604 | 50.1 + Green Vegetables| 75,000 | 17,852 | 23.8 + Potatoes | 90,175 | 18,830 | 20.8 + Hops | 8,000 | 1,260 | 15.7 + Grapes | 360,000 | 47,439 | 13.1 + Beans | 592,000 | 77,107 | 13.0 + Rice | 106,220 | 16,640 | 10.0 + Cotton | 179,860 | 18,000 | 10.0 + Corn | 85,000 | 7,845 | 9.2 + Fruits, Nuts | 715,000 | 29,210 | 4.0 + Hay, Grain | 2,200,000 | 15,753 | 0.0 + =============================================================== + +Reported by the Japanese Agricultural Association of California, 1919. + + + + +APPENDIX F + + +JAPANESE IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES. + + ===================== + Year.|No. of Japanese + | Immigrants. + -----|--------------- + 1869 | 63 + 1870 | 48 + 1871 | 78 + 1872 | 17 + 1873 | 9 + 1874 | 21 + 1875 | 3 + 1876 | 4 + 1877 | 7 + 1878 | 2 + 1879 | 4 + 1880 | 4 + 1881 | 11 + 1882 | 5 + 1883 | 27 + 1884 | 20 + 1885 | 49 + 1886 | 194 + 1887 | 229 + 1888 | 404 + 1889 | 640 + 1890 | 691 + 1891 | 1,136 + 1892 | 1,498 + 1893 | 1,648 + 1894 | 1,739 + 1895 | 480 + 1896 | 1,110 + 1897 | 1,526 + 1898 | 2,230 + 1899 | 2,844 + 1900 | 6,618 + 1901 | 4,908 + 1902 | 5,325 + 1903 | 6,990 + 1904 | 7,771 + 1905 | 4,319 + 1906 | 5,178 + 1907 | 9,948 + 1908 | 7,250 + ---------------------- + + + ----------------------------------- + Year.| Admitted.|Departed.|Balance. + -----|----------|---------|-------- + 1909 | 1,593 | 5,004 | -3,411 + 1910 | 1,552 | 5,024 | -3,472 + 1911 | 4,282 | 5,869 | -1,587 + 1912 | 5,358 | 5,437 | - 79 + 1913 | 6,771 | 5,647 | +1,124 + 1914 | 8,462 | 6,300 | +2,162 + 1915 | 9,029 | 5,967 | +3,062 + 1916 | 9,100 | 6,922 | +2,178 + 1917 | 9,159 | 6,581 | +2,578 + 1918 | 11,143 | 7,691 | +3,452 + 1919 | 11,404 | 8,328 | +3,076 + 1920 | 12,868 | 11,662 | +1,206 + ----------------------------------- + +The above is taken from the Annual Report of the Commissioner General of +Immigration. + + + + +APPENDIX G + + +JAPANESE ADMITTED INTO CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES: ARRIVALS AND DEPARTURES. + + =============================================== + | Number of | |Total Gains + Year. | Arrivals. | Departed. |Up to Date. + -----------|-----------|-----------|----------- + 1861-1870 | 218 } | | + 1871-1880 | 149 } | | + 1881-1890 | 2,270 } | 25,000 | + 1891-1900 | 20,829 } |(estimated)| + 1901-1910 | 54,838 } | | + 1911-1920 | 87,576 | 70,404 | + -----------|-----------| | + Total | 165,880 | | + | | | + No. of | | | + transient | | | + immigrants | | | + from Hawaii| 15,000 | | + |(estimated)| | + |-----------|-----------|----------- + Total | 180,880 | 95,404 | 87,476 + =============================================== + + + + +APPENDIX H + + +IMMIGRANTS AND NON-IMMIGRANTS. + + ======================================================== + | Total | | | Percentage of + | Number | | Non- | Non-Immigrants + Year.|Admitted.|Immigrants.|Immigrants.| Against Total + | | | |Number Admitted. + -----|---------|-----------|-----------|---------------- + 1909 | 1,593 | 255 | 1,338 | 84.0 + 1910 | 1,552 | 116 | 1,436 | 92.5 + 1911 | 4,282 | 736 | 3,546 | 83.0 + 1912 | 5,358 | 894 | 4,464 | 83.3 + 1913 | 6,771 | 1,371 | 5,400 | 79.7 + 1914 | 8,462 | 1,762 | 6,700 | 79.1 + 1915 | 9,029 | 2,214 | 6,815 | 75.5 + 1916 | 9,100 | 2,958 | 6,142 | 67.5 + 1917 | 9,159 | 2,838 | 6,321 | 69.0 + 1918 | 11,143 | 2,604 | 8,539 | 76.6 + ======================================================== + +Taken from Kawakami, _Japan Review_, vol. iv., p. 76. + + + + +APPENDIX I + +DISTRIBUTION OF JAPANESE AND CHINESE POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES. + + +DISTRIBUTION OF JAPANESE POPULATION. + + ====================================================== + Census. | 1880 | 1890 | 1900 | 1910 + -------------------|--------|--------|--------|------- + Total United States| 148 | 2039 | 24,326 | 72,157 + -------------------|--------|--------|--------|------- + New England | 14 | 45 | 89 | 272 + Middle Atlantic | 27 | 202 | 446 | 1,643 + East North Central | 7 | 101 | 126 | 482 + West North Central | 1 | 16 | 223 | 1,000 + South Atlantic | 5 | 55 | 29 | 156 + East South Central | ... | 19 | 7 | 26 + West South Central | ... | 42 | 30 | 428 + Mountain | 5 | 27 | 5,107 | 10,447 + Pacific | 89 | 1,532 | 18,296 | 57,703 + ====================================================== + + +DISTRIBUTION OF CHINESE POPULATION. + + ======================================================== + Census. | 1880 | 1890 | 1900 | 1910 + -------------------|---------|---------|--------|------- + United States | 105,465 | 107,488 | 89,863 | 71,531 + -------------------|---------|---------|--------|------- + New England | 401 | 1,488 | 4,203 | 3,499 + Middle Atlantic | 1,277 | 4,689 | 10,490 | 8,189 + East North Central | 390 | 1,254 | 2,533 | 3,451 + West North Central | 423 | 1,097 | 1,135 | 1,195 + South Atlantic | 74 | 669 | 1,791 | 1,582 + East South Central | 90 | 274 | 427 | 414 + West South Central | 758 | 1,173 | 1,555 | 1,303 + Mountain | 14,274 | 11,572 | 7,950 | 5,614 + Pacific | 87,828 | 85,272 | 59,779 | 46,320 + ======================================================== + +Taken from Gulick, _American Democracy and Asiatic Citizenship_, pp. 152, +177. + + + + +APPENDIX J + + +DISTRIBUTION OF JAPANESE IN UNITED STATES. + +(_According to Consular Division as Reported by Foreign Department, +Japan._) + + ================================================== + Districts. | Male. | Female. | Total for 1919. + --------------|--------|---------|---------------- + Seattle | 14,568 | 4,397 | 18,965 + Portland | 5,829 | 1,637 | 7,466 + San Francisco | 37,375 | 16,578 | 53,953 + Los Angeles | 22,644 | 9,861 | 32,505 + Chicago | 2,336 | 378 | 2,714 + New York | 3,320 | 284 | 3,604 + |--------|---------|---------------- + | 86,072 | 33,135 | 119,207 + ================================================== + + + + +APPENDIX K + +AN ABSTRACT OF EXPATRIATION LAW OF JAPAN + + +=Article XVIII.=--When a Japanese, by becoming the wife of a foreigner, has +acquired the husband's nationality, then such Japanese loses her Japanese +nationality. + +=Article XX.=--A person who voluntarily acquires a foreign nationality +loses Japanese nationality. In case a Japanese subject, who has acquired +foreign nationality by reason of his or her birth in a foreign country has +domiciled in that country, he or she may be expatriated with the +permission of the Minister of State for Home Affairs. The application for +the permission referred to in the preceding paragraph shall be made by the +legal representative in case the person to be expatriated is younger than +fifteen years of age. If the person in question is a minor above fifteen +years of age, or a person adjudged incompetent, the application can be +made with the consent of his or her legal representative or guardian. A +stepfather, a stepmother, a legal mother, or a guardian may not make the +application or give the consent prescribed in the preceding paragraph +without the consent of the family council. A person who has been +expatriated loses Japanese nationality. + +=Article XXIV.=--Notwithstanding the provisions of the preceding six +articles a male of full seventeen years or upwards does not lose Japanese +nationality, unless he has completed active service in the army or navy, +or he is under no obligation to enter into it. A person who actually +occupies an official post--civil or military--does not lose Japanese +nationality notwithstanding the provisions of the foregoing seven +articles. + +=Article XXVI.=--A person who has lost Japanese nationality in accordance +with Article XX may recover Japanese nationality provided that he or she +possesses a domicile in Japan, but this does not apply when the person +mentioned in Article XVI has lost Japanese nationality. In case the person +who has lost Japanese nationality in accordance with the provision of +Article XX is younger than fifteen years of age, the application for the +permission prescribed in the preceding paragraph shall be made by the +father who is the member of the family to which such person belonged at +the time of his expatriation; should the father be unable to do so, the +application shall be made by the mother; if the mother is unable to do so, +by the grandfather; and if the grandfather is unable to do so, then by the +grandmother. + + + + +APPENDIX L + +A MINUTE OF HEARING AT SEATTLE, WASHINGTON, BEFORE THE HOUSE SUB-COMMITTEE +ON IMMIGRATION AND NATURALIZATION + + +DIRECT EXAMINATION + + July 27, 1920. + Evening Session + SEATTLE + + JAMES SAKAMOTO, produced as a witness, having + been first duly sworn, testified + as follows: + +QUESTIONS BY MR. BOX: + +_Q._ What is your name? + +_A._ James Sakamoto. + +_Q._ Where do you live? + +_A._ 1609 Yesler Way. + +_Q._ You were born in the United States? + +_A._ Yes, sir. + +_Q._ Where were you born? + +_A._ In Seattle, Washington. + +_Q._ Right here? + +_A._ Yes. + +_Q._ Are you full of Seattle spirits? + +_A._ You bet. + +_Q._ You only refer to one kind. How old are you? + +_A._ Seventeen. I was born in 1903; March 22d. + +_Q._ You go to school here? + +_A._ Oh, yes. + +_Q._ In the high school? + +_A._ The Franklin High. + +_Q._ About how many boys are there here in and about Seattle that were +born here, along about your age, from three or four years younger to two +or three years older? + +_A._ Well, I only know of the fellows that I associate with. I can't tell +you the fellows that I don't know about. + +_Q._ Do you know a number? + +_A._ I don't know many of them. + +_Q._ A half a dozen? + +_Q._ How many in your high school are Japanese boys? + +_A._ I think I am the only one. + +_Q._ Are there many young ladies? Do you know this young lady that just +testified? + +_A._ Yes, sir. + +_Q._ Are there many such nice looking girls as she is in Seattle? + +_A._ You better ask them. + +_Q._ You get along all right in school? + +_A._ Oh, yes, sir. + +_Q._ You don't have any trouble with your classes, and boys? + +_A._ I have lots of fun. + +_Q._ You have a good time? + +_A._ Yes, sir. + +_Q._ Did you attend the Japanese Language School? + +_A._ Yes, sir; eight years. + +_Q._ What did they teach you there? + +_A._ Taught me Japanese. + +_Q._ The Japanese language? + +_A._ Yes, sir. + +_Q._ Did they teach you Japanese history? + +_A._ I wasn't able to learn very quick. + +_Q._ You were not very quick to learn, but they did that, teach the +history of Japan? + +_A._ They tried to. + +_Q._ Didn't they succeed with a boy as bright as you are, going to high +school? + +_A._ They were successful, but I did not succeed. See? + +_Q._ You read the Japanese language now? + +_A._ I can't read it; it is too hard. + +_Q._ You really can't read any? + +_A._ There are three different kinds of words and letters. I can read the +easiest. + +_Q._ In other words, you have adopted the road of least resistance with +the Japanese language? + +_A._ Sure. + +_Q._ You talk Japanese with your parents? + +_A._ In a simple, broken language. + +_Q._ Do they talk English? + +_A._ They can't talk English. They have been here quite long, but they +have never had a chance to talk English. + +_Q._ Let me ask you this; do you get along very well with them? + +_A._ In my home? + +_Q._ Yes. + +_A._ Sure. They are my father and mother. + +_Q._ (Mr. Siegel.) And you say that you don't understand the Japanese +language sufficiently well to carry on a conversation with them? + +_A._ I understand them, but that is about all. + +_Q._ How do they arrange to get along with you, if you can't speak the +language orally? + +_A._ They just about guess what I am trying to tell them. + +_Q._ In other words, you are always asking for money. Is that the +principal idea? + +_A._ May be, not any more, but I used to. + +_Q._ When they talk to you, you understand them all right? + +_A._ Oh, yes; I understand them. + +_Q._ (Mr. Raker.) Would you tell us why, you haven't, or didn't, and +haven't given more attention and worked harder to become familiar with the +Japanese language and history? + +_A._ That is a hard question to ask me just now. + +_Q._ I know it is, but I think you know, my boy; tell us in your own +language, in your own way? + +_A._ Well, suppose we go to school five hours a day, the American school. +We attend Japanese school for two hours; that is overwork two hours, you +see, and we don't get paid for over time. + +_Q._ I guess you are about pretty near right, didn't I? You are the kind +of a fellow that is going to be thinking a little about money as you grow +up, and you are going to make it in Seattle. + +_A._ I haven't got a business. + +_Q._ (Mr. Raker.) What I was asking that question for, I am going to put +it direct. I want you to give me your good frank answer, which I know you +will. Is it your determination when you get a little older, and begin to +think over the situation, that you want to become familiar with the +English language and understand the American ways rather than to devote +your time to Japanese ways and language? + +_A._ Well, I want to be an American more than a Japanese. I was born here. + +_Q._ That is one of the reasons you haven't devoted your time to the +Japanese language. How old were you when you started? + +_A._ I started the same year when I went to Grammar School. + +_Q._ That was when? + +_A._ Five years old. Five years old I started to kindergarten, and at six +I started to Grammar School. + +_Q._ So when you started to kindergarten did you start in the Japanese +School? + +_A._ No, when I was six. + +_Q._ And you did that from the time you were six until you were fourteen? + +_A._ I think that is right, fourteen. + +_Q._ How old are you now? + +_A._ Seventeen. + +_Q._ You have to renounce the Japanese Emperor before you are seventeen? + +_A._ I don't know a thing about it. + +_Q._ You know, don't you, that you are claimed as a citizen by Japan, and +also by the United States. + +_A._ I don't care. I was born here. + +_Q._ Is it your intention to remain an American citizen or be a Japanese +citizen? + +_A._ Why shouldn't I remain an American? I was born here. Why should I go +back there? This is my home here. + +_Q._ You intend to remain an American citizen? + +_A._ Nobody is going to stop me. + +_Q._ That's what I want to get at. Do you remember when you were first +told that you were a native-born American citizen; do you remember when +that was first told you? + +_A._ I don't know. + +_Q._ How long have you felt the pride that you are a young American +citizen? How long have you held that feeling of pride? + +_A._ Since I went to Grammar School. + +_Q._ Has every young Japanese boy here expressed that feeling as you do to +us; have you heard them talk about it? + +_A._ They don't talk about it much. It is mostly their home training. My +father and mother don't care whether I am an American. They would rather +have me an American. + +_Q._ And they have encouraged you to be an American? + +_A._ Sure. + +_Q._ And your teachers have? + +_A._ Oh, yes, naturally. + +_Q._ And you like the idea? + +_A._ Sure. + +_Q._ Your father and mother intend to remain here all their lives, do +they, as far as you know? + +_A._ Well, I would like to have them go back and see their home once +again, but that is about all. I don't know what I can do. + +_Q._ (Mr. Vaile.) As far as you know, their own intention is to live here, +except for a visit home, perhaps, the rest of their lives? + +_A._ Yes, sir. + +_Q._ Suppose you visit Japan. You know, don't you, that the Japanese +Emperor still claims you as his subject? Suppose you are required to +render military service to Japan, what would be your position on that +subject? + +_A._ It would be a pretty difficult one, but I will get out of it. + +_Q._ Following that, suppose you were required to render military service +to the United States, what will be your position? + +_A._ I will get in. + +_Q._ Exactly. We are glad to meet you. Good luck to you. + +(_Witness Excused._) + + + + +APPENDIX M + +COMPARATIVE STANDING OF INTELLIGENCE AND BEHAVIOR OF AMERICAN-BORN +JAPANESE CHILDREN AND AMERICAN CHILDREN DISCUSSED BY SEVERAL PRINCIPALS OF +ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS OF LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA. + + +_Request Sent to the Board of Education of Los Angeles, California._ + + +December 24, 1920. + + President of the + Board of Education, + Los Angeles, California. + +MY DEAR SIR: + +I am collecting data on the intellectual and moral status of American-born +Japanese children. Among the data the most important, I need hardly say, +are their school records. + +I shall highly appreciate your courtesy if you will be pleased to provide +me with the valuable information you have at your command bearing on the +subject. What I am particularly interested in is the average record of +American-born Japanese children and its comparison with the record of +American children. + + Yours very respectfully, + (Signed) T. IYENAGA. + + +_Method of Gathering Material_ + +December 31, 1920. + +DEAR MR. SHAFER: + +May I trouble you to select two of your schools in which you have the +largest Japanese attendance and secure for me at your earliest possible +convenience data as to the number of Japanese children in those schools +and the points about them that are touched upon in the accompanying +letter? + +My thought is this--that if we secure records from two or three schools +where we have the largest Japanese attendance, this will suffice as a +basis for decision as to the other such schools. + +MRS. DORSEY. + + +January 7, 1921. + + Mrs. Adda Wilson Hunter, _Principal_, Moneta School, + Miss Mary A. Colestock, _Principal_, Hewitt St. School, + Miss Mary A. Henderson, _Principal_, Amelia St. School, + Miss Lizzie A. McKenzie, _Principal_, Hobart Blvd. School. + +A communication has been received from Dr. T. Iyenaga stating that he is +collecting data on the intellectual and moral status of American-born +Japanese children. He is anxious to know the average record of +American-born Japanese children in the schools and how it compares with +the record of American children. + +Will you kindly send me statement concerning the results in your schools? + + Very truly yours, + _Assistant Superintendent_. + + +_Replies_ + +(1) + +_Office of the Principal of Hewitt St. School, District No. 151_ + +Report of American-born Japanese Children. + +January 17, 1921. + +MY DEAR MR. SHAFER: + +The American-born Japanese children, who are enrolled in this school, +compare most favorably with the American children both intellectually and +morally. They are like all groups of children. We find some very bright +children and some very dull ones. As a whole, they are more persevering +and more dependable than the class of white children found in this school. + +Miss Oliver, who has been working with the Japanese for the past four +years, said, "When with them I feel that I am in the company of well-bred +Americans." + + Truly yours, + MARY A. COLESTOCK, + _Prin._ + + +(2) + +_Amelia St. School, City_ + +January 19, 1921. + + MR. HARRY M. SHAFER, + _Assistant Superintendent_, + Los Angeles City Public Schools, + Los Angeles, California. + +DEAR MR. SHAFER: + +My general observation has been that given anything of an equal chance, +children are children, human nature is human nature, and brains are +brains--whatever the mother tongue may be. Compared with our other foreign +children, or with other children born in America of foreign parentage not +Japanese, keeping in mind the differences in social position that exist in +all classes, whatever the nationality may be, I cannot see much difference +along any line between our Japanese children and our Mexicans, our French +and our Italians; nor do I think any of them differ radically from what we +are apt to term "American" children. Few families are many generations +away from some foreign ancestors.... + +Our Japanese children are called brighter and more studious, sometimes, +than the others. I think this is due to the fact that they have, in many +cases, ambitious, educated parents who follow school work up very closely +in the home. Where home restrictions are lifted, such conditions do not +always prevail, any more than in cases of other neglected children. _They +must_ be studious. Discipline of American-born Japanese children is not so +close in the home as it seems to be with children born in Japan and reared +along Japanese lines, yet such children show much more initiative in all +of their work at school. They catch the American spirit. + +As summary, I would say that physically, mentally, morally, given the same +chance, there does not seem to me to be a great difference among children +of the different nationalities, but this difference is most readily +noticed. The other nationalities do assimilate quickly, and lose, to a +great extent, their parents' national traits in short time; but it is +exceedingly hard to get the same results with our Japanese children. They +cling to one another, to their own ways, and to their own language, even +after many years of work in public schools, where most social barriers are +broken down. My personal feeling in the matter is that this condition is +the result of lack of American education in the Japanese homes and lack of +American touch with the Japanese mothers. + +Our Home teachers are doing much to help along this line, but it is slow +work, and work that takes much time, and requires great tact on part of +the workers. + +Most important to me is the work our public schools are doing with the +Japanese girls, the mothers of tomorrow. + + Yours respectfully, + MARY A. HENDERSON. + + +(3) + +_Report of Intellectual and Moral Status of American-born Japanese +Children_ + +MONETA SCHOOL, LOS ANGELES SCHOOL DIST. + +As a rule American-born Japanese children know no English when entering +school. Their progress at first, therefore, is more slow than that of +English speaking children. Japanese children require one year to complete +one half year's work through the first, second, and third grades. After +the third grade they complete the work in the time assigned. + +They are especially good in handwork. Their chief difficulty is with +English. In application they rank high. + +As to their moral status they are neither better nor worse than other +children. + + MRS. ADDA WILSON HUNTER, + _Principal Moneta School_. + January 14, 1921. + +_Report of Intellectual and Moral Status of American-Born Japanese +Children_ + + ========================================================================= + Grade| Amer.- |Time to |Standard|Average | Rank |Appli- |1. In What Do + | Born |Complete| Age of | Age of | in |cation.| They Excel? + |Japanese |Work of | Grade. |Am.-Born|Class.| |2. What is + |Enrolled.| 1/2 | |Jap'se. | | | Greatest + | | Year. | | | | | Drawback? + -----|---------|--------|--------|--------|------|-------|--------------- + | | | | | | | + Kgn. | 13 | 1 yr. |4-1/2-6 | 5 | | Good |1. Handwork. + | | | | | | |2. Do not speak + | | | | | | | English. + | | | | | | | + B-1 | 21 | 1 yr. | 6-7 | | | Good |1. Drawing, + | | | | | | | writing, + | | | | | | | handwork. + | | | | | | |2. Do not speak + | | | | | | | English. + | | | | | | | + A-1 | 4 | 1 yr. | 6-7 | 9 | | Good |1. Handwork. + | | | | | | |2. Do not speak + | | | | | | | English. + | | | | | | | + B-2 | 2 | 1 yr. | 7-8 | 9 | | Good |1. Handwork. + | | | | | | |2. Do not speak + | | | | | | | English. + | | | | | | | + A-2 | 3 | 1 yr. | 7-8 | 10 | | Good |1. Handwork. + | | | | | | |2. Do not speak + | | | | | | | English. + | | | | | | | + B-3 | 2 | 5 mos. | 8-9 | 10 |Excel.| Poor |1. Spelling, + | | | | | | | arithmetic. + | | | | | | |2. English. + | | | | | | | + A-3 | 3 | 1 yr. | 8-9 | 10 | Fair | Good |1. Spelling, + | | | | | | | arithmetic. + | | | | | | |2. English. + | | | | | | | + B-4 | 1 | 5 mos. | 9-10 | 9 |Excel.| Excel.|1. Arithmetic. + | | | | | | |2. English. + | | | | | | | + A-4 | 1 | 5 mos. | 9-10 | 11 |Excel.| Excel.|1. Arithmetic, + | | | | | | | spelling. + | | | | | | |2. English. + | | | | | | | + B-5 | 2 | 5 mos. | 10-11 | 11 |Excel.| Excel.|1. Arithmetic, + | | | | | | | spelling. + | | | | | | |2. English. + | | | | | | | + B-6 | 2 | 5 mos. | 11-12 | 10 | Good | Excel.|1. History, + | | | | | | | geography. + | | | | | | |2. Arithmetic. + | | | | | | | + A-6 | 1 | 5 mos. | 11-12 | 12-1/2 |Excel.| Excel.|1. Arithmetic, + | | | | | | | history. + | | | | | | |2. Geography. + | | | | | | | + ========================================================================= + + +(4) + + HOBART BLVD. SCHOOL, + LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA, + January 13, 1921. + + MR. HARRY M. SHAFER, + _Assistant Supt. City Schools_. + +MY DEAR MR. SHAFER: + +In reply to your inquiry relative to the American-born Japanese pupils of +our school, I enclose statement as to results noted in the various +classes. + +Trusting that this may serve the purpose desired, and appreciating your +very kindly interest, + + Sincerely, + LIZZIE A. MCKENZIE, + _Principal_. + + Hobart Blvd. School. January 13, 1921. + + +_Report on Japanese Pupils_ + +(American-born) + +Many of the Japanese fail in First Grade on account of inability to +understand the English language. In succeeding grades, progress is +satisfactory as shown by the following tabulation of current date: + + ==================== + | To Be + Enrolled.|Promoted. + ---------|---------- + B-1 16 | 10 + A-1 7 | 6 + B-2 5 | 5 + A-2 4 | 4 + B-3 1 | 1 + A-3 1 | 1 + B-4 2 | 2 + A-4 0 | + B-5 2 | 1 + A-5 1 | 1 + B-6 1 | 1 + A-6 0 | + + Total enrolled, 40. + Total promoted, 32. + ==================== + +We find these children as a rule clever in use of pen and crayon, +possessing light touch, having correct ideas of form, and excellent taste +in selection of color. + +As pupils they follow direction well, and are usually free from faults of +rudeness or improper language. Of the forty above Kindergarten, three are +troublesome and are persistent cases. In general, it may be said that +these children as a class compare favorably with others in matters of +progress and of conduct as well. + + LIZZIE A. MCKENZIE, + _Principal_. + + + + +LITERATURE ON THE SUBJECT + + +BOOKS + +ANNALS OF AMERICAN ACADEMY OF POLITICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE, January, 1921. +_Present Day Immigration with Special Reference to the Japanese._ + +ANNALS OF AMERICAN ACADEMY OF POLITICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE, September, +1909. _Chinese and Japanese in America._ + +GULICK, SYDNEY L. _American Democracy and Asiatic Citizenship._ Scribners, +New York, 1918. _The American-Japanese Problem._ Scribners, New York, +1914. + +ICHIHASHI, Y. _Japanese Immigration._ Marshall Press, San Francisco, 1915. + +KAWAKAMI, K. K. _American-Japanese Relations._ Revell, New York, 1912. +_Asia at the Door._ Revell, New York, 1914. _Japan in the World Politics._ +Revell, New York, 1917. + +MASAOKA, N. (Editor). _Japan to America._ G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, +1915. + +MILLIS, H. A. _The Japanese Problem in the United States._ McMillan, New +York, 1915. + +PITKIN, WALTER B. _Must We Fight Japan?_ The Century Co., New York, 1921. + +RUSSELL, LINDSAY (Editor). _America to Japan._ G. P. Putnam's Sons, New +York, 1915. + +SCHERER, J. A. A. _The Japanese Crisis._ Stokes, 1915. + +THE JAPANESE-AMERICAN NEWS. _The Japanese-American Year Book_, 1910 and +1918. San Francisco. + + +OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS + +Annual Reports of the United States Commissioner-General of Immigration. + +Bureau of Labor (California). Biennial Reports, and especially, "Report on +the Japanese in California." + +California and the Oriental. Report of California State Board of Control, +with Governor Wm. D. Stephens's letter addressed to Secretary of State +Bainbridge Colby. California State Printing Office, Sacramento, 1920. + +Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census. Chinese and Japanese in the +United States, 1910. Bulletin 127, Washington Printing Office, 1914. + +Immigration Commission. Changes in Bodily Form of Descendants of +Immigrant. Senate Document, No. 208, 61st Congress, 2nd Session. +Washington Government Printing Office, 1910. + +Immigration Laws of the United States. (Revised Federal Statutes). + +KAHN, CONGRESSMAN. Japanese-California Problem. Congressional Record, 60, +4: 78-82, December 9, 1920. + +METCALF, SECRETARY. Report on the Japanese School Question. + +Naturalization Laws of the United States. (Revised Federal Statutes.) + +Reports of the Immigration Commission. Immigrants in the Industries, Vols. +23, 24, 25, Senate Document, No. 633, 61st Congress. + +ROOSEVELT, THEODORE. Presidential Message to Congress, 1907. House of +Representatives; Message of the President of the United States, and +Accompanying Documents. Part I; pp. 492-846. Ex. Doc. No. 1. + + +PAMPHLETS + +CALIFORNIA FARMERS' CO-OPERATIVE ASSOCIATION. _Japanese Immigration and +the Japanese in California_, 1919. + +CLEMENT, E. W. _Expatriation of Japanese Abroad._ Japanese Association of +America, San Francisco, 1916. + +ELIOT, CHAS. W. _Friendship between the United States and Japan._ Japanese +Merchants' Association, Portland, Oregon. + +GADSBY, JOHN. _Foreign Land-Ownership and Leasing in Japan_, 1920. +Japanese Association of America, San Francisco, 1914. + +GULICK, SYDNEY L. _How Shall Immigration be Regulated?_ 1920. _Japan and +the Gentlemen's Agreement._ 1920. _The New Anti-Japanese Agitation._ 1920. + +ICHIHASHI, Y. _Japanese Immigration, Its Status in California._ 1913. + +IRISH, JOHN P. _Campaign of Lies, Stolen Letters of Senator Phelan._ 1920. +_Shall Japanese-Americans in Idaho be Treated with Fairness and Justice or +Not?_ 1921. + +KAWAKAMI, K. K. _Senator Phelan, Dr. Gulick and I._ Bureau of Literary +Service, San Francisco, 1920. + +LAMONT, THOMAS, AND OTHERS. _Japan._ 1920. + +PEOPLE'S LEAGUE OF JUSTICE. _Petition by People's League of Justice_, Los +Angeles, California, 1920. + +REA, GEORGE BRONSON. _Japan's Right to Exist._ _Far Eastern Review_, +Shanghai, China, 1920. + +ROOSEVELT, T. _America and Japan._ Reprint from the New York _Times_. + +SHIMA, GEORGE. _An Appeal To Justice._ 1920. + +TAFT, HENRY W. _Our Relations with Japan._ Japan Society, New York, 1920. + +THE AMERICAN COMMITTEE OF JUSTICE. _California and the Japanese._ Oakland, +California, December, 1920. + +TYNDALL, PHILIP. _Proposed Initiative Measure to be Presented to the +Legislature of 1921_, Seattle, Washington. + +VANDERLIP, FRANK. _Mr. Vanderlip's Message._ + +WALLACE, J. B. _Waving the Yellow Flag in California._ Reprinted from the +Dearborn Independent. + +WILLIAMS, B. H. _The Case against the Japanese._ 1920. + + +ARTICLES IN PERIODICALS + +"America and the Japanese Relations." WAINWRIGHT, S. H. _Outlook_, 124: +392, March, 1920. + +"America's Responsibility on the Pacific." GREENBIE, S. _North American +Review_, 212: 71-79, July, 1920. + +"Another Japanese Problem." MCLEOD, H. _New Republic_, 24: 184-6, October +20, 1920. + +"Anti-Japanese Agitation." _Business Chronicle_, 9, 18: 137-49, September, +1920. + +"Asia's American Problem." ROBINSON, GEROID. _Pacific Review_, 367-388, +December, 1920. + +"California and the Japanese." KAWAKAMI, K. K. _Nation_, 112: 173-174, +February 2, 1921. + +"California and the Oriental." The Letter of WM. D. STEPHENS to the +Secretary of State Colby. _The Pacific Review_, 349-361, December, 1920. + +"California-Japanese Problem." _The Pacific Voice_, 5, 10: 4-10. + +"California-Japanese Question." WOOLSEY, THEODORE S. _The American Journal +of International Laws_, Oxford Press, 15, 1: 24-26, January, 1921. + +"Co-operation between Japan and America." KANEKO, K. _Japan Review_, +24-26, December, 1920. + +"Discrimination against the Japanese." _New Republic_, 24: 135-6. + +"Future of Japanese-American Relations." SHIDEHARA, K. _Japan Review_, +170-171, April, 1920. + +"Hegemony of the Pacific." _Living Age_, 316: 638-40. + +"Japan, a Great Economic Power." LONGFORD, J. H. _Nineteenth Century_, +523: 526-39, September, 1920. + +"Japan and America." _Far Eastern Review_, 16: 335-36. + +"Japan and the United States, a Suggestion." OTTO, M. C. _Japan Review_, +334-336, October, 1920. + +"Japan and the Japanese-California Problem." IYENAGA, T. _Current +History_, 13, 1: 1-7, October, 1920. + +"Japan as Colonizer." _Stead's Review_, 53, 7: 358-9. + +"Japan Challenges Us to Control California." STODDARD, L. _World's Work_, +40: 48-85. + +"Japan Our New Customer." STARRETT, W. A. _Scribner's_, 66: 517-18. + +"Japan's Diplomacy of Necessity." _Living Age_, 316: 638-640. + +"Japan's New Difficulties with China." _The New York Times Current +History_, 457-458, December, 1920. + +"Japan's Use of Her Hegemony." FERGUSON, J. C. _North American Review_, +210: 456-459. + +"Japan's Aggression." INMAN, J. M. _Forum_, 65, 1: 1-9, January, 1921. + +"Japanese-American Relations." SHIDEHARA, K. _Outlook_, 125: 317-18, June +16, 1920. + +"Japanese-American Relations." YOSHINO, SAKUZO. _Pacific Review_, 418-421, +December, 1920. + +"Japanese and the Pacific Coast." RYDER, R. W. _North American Review_, +213, 1: 1-15, January, 1921. + +"Japanese Farmers' Contribution to California." CHIBA, TOYOJI. _Japan +Review_, 212-13, May, 1920. + +"Japanese Imperialism in Siberia." CHAMBERLAIN, W. H. _Nation_, 110: +798-9. + +"Japanese in America." TRENT, P. J. _Review of Reviews_, 61: 76-8, June, +1920. + +"Japanese in California." BRIGGS, A. H.; JOHNSON, H. B.; LOOFBOUROW, I. J. +_Japan Review_, 166-170, April, 1920. + +"Japanese in California." IRISH, JOHN P. _Japan Review_, 7-72, January, +1920. + +"Japanese in California." JORDAN, D. S. _The Pacific Review_, 316-65, +December, 1920. + +"Japanese Issue in California." STODDARD, L. _World's Work_, 40, 5: +585-600, September, 1920. + +"Japanese Language Schools." KAWAKAMI, K. K. _Japan Review_, 14-15, +January, 1921. + +"Japanese Problem in California." LOCAN, C. A. _Current History_, 13: +7-11, October, 1920. + +"Japanese Pupils and American Schools." FULTON, C. W. _North American +Review_, December, 1906. + +"Japanese Question." _Kawakami, K. K._ _Pacific Review_, 365-78, December, +1920. + +"Japanese Views of California." _Literary Digest_, 67, 1: 20-1. + +"Japanthropy." WOOLSTON, H. D. _Pacific Review,_ 289-96, December, 1920. + +"Legal Aspects of the Japanese Question." MCMURRAY, ORRIN K. _Pacific +Review_, 396-403, December, 1920. + +"Liberalism in Japan." DEWEY, JOHN. _Dial_, 63: 283-5; 335-7; 369-71. + +"Light on the Japanese Question." KINNEY, H. W. _Atlantic Monthly_, 126: +832-42, December, 1920. + +"Moral Factors in Japanese Policy." BLAND, J. O. P. _Asia_, 211-217, +March, 1920. + +"Oriental Immigration from the Canadian Standpoint." BAGGS, THEODORE H. +_Pacific Review,_ 408-418, December, 1920. + +"Oriental in California." IRISH, JOHN P. _Overland_, 75: 332-3, April, +1920. + +"Oriental Problem, as the Coast See It." HART, J. A. _World's Work_, +March, 1906. + +"Oriental Question and Popular Diplomacy." PRUETT, ROBERT L. _Japan +Review_, 291-92, August, 1920. + +"Possum and the Dinosaur." MASON, G. _Outlook_, 125: 319-20, June 16, +1920. + +"Race Prejudice: Psychological Analysis." SATO, K. _Japan Review_, +237-238, June, 1920. + +"Shall East and West Never Meet?" SATO, K. _Japan Review_, 336-37, +October, 1920. + +"Some Aspects of the So-called Japanese Problem." VANDERLIP, F. A. +_Outlook_, 125: 380-4. + +"What are the Japanese Doing towards Americanization?" SASAMORI, JUNZO. +_Japan Review_, 22-24, December, 1920. + +"What Japan Wants." ADACHI, K. _Nation_, 181-82, February 2, 1921. + +"When East is West," GULICK, SYDNEY L. _Outlook_, 102: 12-14, April 3, +1920. + + + + +INDEX + + + Adaptability, Japanese disposition of, 20 + + Æsthetic temperament of Japanese, 13 + + Age distribution of Japanese in California, 112 + + Agreement, Root-Takahira, 34 + + Agriculture, Japanese, in California, 120-147; + causes of Japanese progress in, 123-126 + + Ainu, 14 + + American-born Japanese, 174-177 + + American disposition, 9 + + Americanization, criterion of, 151-154 + + Ancestors, Japanese, 16 + + Anti-Alien Land Laws, 138-142; + effect of, 145; + Appendixes C, D + + Anti-Japanese Agitation, causes of, 75-89 + + Asiatic policy, Japan's, 33-45 + + Assimilation, 137; 148-177; + and nationalism, 148-159; + meaning of, 151-154; + biological, 155-162; + of Japanese immigrants, 168-174 + + Australia, Japanese emigration to, 64-67 + + + Birth-rate of Japanese in California, 109-119 + + Boas, Professor, quoted, 163 + + Bolsheviki, 38 + + Buddhism, 25 + + Bushido, 15, 21 + + + California, causes of Anti-Japanese agitation in, 75; + causes of Japanese influx to, 50-63; + Christianity among Japanese in, 169-170; + competition in, 133-135; + congestion of Japanese in, 87-89; + cultural assimilation of Japanese in, 166-168; + genesis of hostility towards Japanese in, 71; + population of, 93; + problem, 7 + + Canada, Japanese emigration to, 67-69 + + Capitalism, 29 + + Castle, Professor, quoted, 159 + + Chiba, T., quoted, 129 + + China, Japan's coöperation with, 42-45 + + Chinese, 23, 95 + + Chivalry, proletarian, 21 + + Christianity, 28 + + Colonization, Japanese policy of, 18 + + Confucianism, 25, 27 + + Congressional sub-Committee on Immigration and Naturalization, 176 + + Constitution, Japanese, 11 + + + Democracy, industrial, 31 + + Democratic institutions, Japanese training in, 172 + + Den Do Dan, 169-170 + + Despotism, Japanese, 22 + + Dewey, Professor John, 29 + + Dispersal of Japanese in California, 189 + + Disposition, Japanese, 20 + + Dual nationality, 191 + + + East and West, 4, 195-196 + + Economic status of Japanese in California, 171 + + Education, system of, 31 + + Emotional nature, of Japanese, 9 + + English, Japanese ability to command, 170 + + Eta, 18 + + Eurasiatic relationship, 6 + + Expatriation Law of Japan, Appendix K + + + Farmers, Japanese, in California, 132-138 + + Fishberg, Dr., quoted, 164 + + + "Gentlemen's Agreement," 100-106 + + German, influence on Japan, 30; + idealism, 32 + + _Gikyoshin_, 21 + + Group consciousness of Japanese, 16 + + Gulick, Dr. Sydney L., quoted, 157 + + + _Hara kiri_, 12 + + Hearn, Lafcadio, 44 + + Hedonism, Japanese, 15 + + Hideyoshi, 10 + + History of Japanese, 10, 20 + + Humanism, 32 + + + Immigration to + Australia, 64-67 + Canada, 67-69 + South America, 69 + United States, 69-75 + + Industrial democracy, 31 + + Intelligence of Japanese in California, 170 + + Intermarriage, 155-162 + + + Japan, topographical conditions of, 13; + Nature of, 14 + + Japan's, Asiatic Policy, 33; + land area, 52; + agriculture, 52-55; + industry, 57-62; + population, 55-57; + social conditions, 62-63 + + Japanese, ability to speak English, 170; + age distribution of, in California, 112; + agriculture in California, 120-147; + ancestors, 16; + assimilability of, 148-177; + birth rate in California, 109-119; + civilization of, 14; + Constitution, 11; + death rate of, in California, 117; + descendants in California, 164-166, 174-177; + economic status of, in California, 171; + farm labor, 126-131; + farmers in California, 132-138; + immigration to America, 97-107; + Land Laws, 142-145; + morality of, in California, 168-169; + nationality, 85-86; + number of, in California, 91; + philosophy, 24; + sex distribution of, in California, 112; + social system, 30; + susceptibility of, 12; + training in civics, 172 + + Jesuit Fathers, 10 + + Jones and East, quoted, 159 + + + _Kikotsu_, 21 + + Kipling, quoted, 4 + + Kojiki, 16 + + Korea, amalgamation of, 34; + local self-government in, 36; + situation in, 35-37 + + Koreans, 18 + + Kusama, Shiko, note, 170 + + + Labor, 30 + + Land, amount held by Japanese in California, 135-137 + + Land Laws, Anti-Alien, 138-142; + Appendixes C and D + + League of Nations, 19 + + Lippman, Walter, note, 86 + + + Manchuria, 37 + + Mankind, 6 + + Marriage, Japanese, 11 + + Millis, Professor H. A., quoted, 157 + + Morality of Japanese in California, 168-169 + + Morris, Roland, 186 + + Myth, 17 + + + Nationalism, 148 + + Native-born Japanese, 174 + + Nevada, 23 + + Newlands, U. S. Senator, 23 + + Nihongi, 16 + + Nitobé, Dr., 22 + + Number of Japanese in California, 91 + + + Oakesmith, John, quoted, 176 + + Occidental learning, 26 + + Occidentalism, ultra, 19 + + _Otokodate_, 21 + + + Pacific Coast, 193-194 + + Passports, 103 + + Patriotism of Japanese, 17 + + Perry, Commodore, 3 + + Philosophy, Japanese, 24 + + Picture brides, 113 + + Political rights of Japanese, 31 + + Politics as a cause of agitation, 80-82 + + Population of Japanese in California, 90-97 + + Positivism, English, 28 + + Pragmatism, 29, 32 + + Pride of Japanese, 11, 19 + + Propaganda, 83 + + + Race war, 7 + + Racial difference, 83-85 + + Radicals, Japanese, 20 + + Relationship, American Japanese, 7 + + Roosevelt, Theodore, 33 + + Root-Takahira Agreement, 34 + + Russo-Japanese war, 18 + + + Sakura, Sogoro, 22 + + Samurai, 12, 15 + + San Francisco Chamber of Commerce, 187 + + Santayana, 29 + + Science, lack of, in Japan, 15 + + Sex distribution of Japanese in California, 113 + + Shantung, 39 + + Shibusawa, Viscount, 186 + + Smuggling of Japanese to United States, 107-109 + + Social, force, 23; + _milieu_ as affecting man, 165; + reorganization, 29 + + South America, Japanese emigration to, 69 + + State Board of Control of California, 96 + + Stephens, Governor, quoted, 5, 23, 122 + + Suicide in Japan, 12 + + + Thought, Japanese, 29 + + Tokugawa régime, 22 + + Traits, Japanese, 9 + + Treaty, American-Japanese, 187, Appendix B + + + United States, the, Japanese immigration to, 69-74 + + Unity, national, 17 + + Utilitarians, 29 + + + Vanderlip, Frank, 187 + + + Wang Yang Ming, 26 + + White and yellow races, 5 + + Wilson, Woodrow, quoted, 154 + + Women, status of Japanese, 31 + + + Yamato race, 14 + + "Yellow peril," 82 + + Young Japan, 14 + + + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] _The System of Samurai Ethics and Obligations of Honor._ + +[2] See "The New Chino-Japanese Treaties and Their Import," by T. Iyenaga, +in _The American Review of Reviews_, September, 1915. + +[3] According to the result of the census taken on October 1, 1920, the +Japanese population of South Manchuria stands at 154,998 souls. Of this +total, those living at Dairen number 63,745; Fushun, 12,659; Mukden, +12,268; Port Arthur, 9379; Antung, 7057, and Anshan, 6678, while those +resident in the jurisdiction of Kwantung Province number 74,893. + +[4] One dollar U. S. currency is approximately two yen. + +[5] For a complete tabulation of Japanese immigration see appendix F. + +[6] Tokyo Emigration Co., Toyo Emigration Co., were the most conspicuous. + +[7] Report of the Royal Commission appointed to inquire into the methods +by which Oriental laborers were induced to come to Canada in 1909. + +[8] Report as cited, p. 54. + +[9] Those who voted in the negative for the initiative bill were 222,086 +against 668,483 in the affirmative. + +[10] _Stakes of Diplomacy_, by Walter Lippman, p. 40. + +[11] Report published on October 5, 1920, by the Bureau of Commercial +Affairs, Foreign Office, Tokyo, Japan. + +[12] _California and the Oriental, State Board of Control of California, +1920_, p. 30. + +[13] _California and the Oriental_, p. 27. + +[14] For detailed comparison of geographical distribution of Chinese and +Japanese see Appendix I. + +[15] See Appendix G. + +[16] _California and the Oriental_, p. 31. + +[17] Total number of Japanese born in California so far is approximately +30,000, of which about 5000 have either died or live in Japan. + +[18] Annual Report of Commissioner-General of Immigration. + +[19] _Immigration Laws--Rules of November 15, 1911_, published by U. S. +Department of Labor, Bureau of Immigration, March 10, 1913. + +[20] _Japan Year Book_, 1920, p. 34. + +[21] _Pacific Review_, vol. i., No. 3, p. 363; "The Japanese in +California," by David S. Jordan. + +[22] Bulletin 127, 1914, p. 8. + +[23] The following data are reported by the Bureau of Census, Washington, +in preliminary publication of 1920 census: + +The Japanese population by sex in 1920 is male 44,364, female 25,832; for +1910, male 35,116, female 6,240; and for 1900, male 9,598, female 553. The +per cent. distribution by sex of the Japanese in 1920 is male 63.2 per +cent., female 36.8 per cent.; for 1910 male 84.9 per cent., female 15.1 +per cent.; and for 1900, male 94.6 per cent., female 5.4 per cent. + +[24] Gulick, S. L., _Japan and the Gentlemen's Agreement_, 1920, p. 7. + +[25] _World Almanac 1921_, p. 476-9. + +[26] _World Almanac 1920_, p. 487. + +[27] The birth rate of immigration population in Massachusetts was 49.1 in +1910. + +[28] _Senate Document_, vol. lxv., 61st Congress. + +[29] _Senate Document_, vol. lxv., 61st Congress. + +[30] Of the forty-one answers to the questionnaires sent to the County +Farm Commissioners in California by the Board of Control asking them to +give pertinent facts concerning the methods used by these races +(Orientals) in securing land leases, twenty-five stated: "The Japanese pay +more rent in cash or shares"; ten said: "Japanese pay ordinary rent" or +"use ordinary means in obtaining lease." _California and the Oriental_, +pp. 56-61. + +[31] _The Japanese Problem in the United States_, pp. 148-49. + +[32] _California and the Oriental_, pp. 56-61. + +[33] _Ibid._, p. 221. + +[34] _California and the Oriental_, p. 58. + +[35] _Immigration Commission Reports_, vol. xxiii., chap. iv. + +[36] _Japanese-American Year Book_, 1918, p. 10. + +[37] _The Japanese Problem in the United States_, p. 123. + +[38] For detailed comparison of crops raised by white and Japanese farmers +see Appendix E. + +[39] Figures taken from _California and the Oriental_, p. 47. + +[40] See Appendix B. + +[41] For full texts of land laws 1913 and 1920 see Appendixes C and D. + +[42] _California and the Oriental_, p. 104. + +[43] Mr. Newman in the hearings held at Sacramento, California, in 1913. + +[44] Millis' _The Japanese Problem in the United States_, p. 275. + +[45] Gulick, S. L., _The American Japanese Problem_, p. 153. + +[46] Jones and East, _Inbreeding and Outbreeding--Their Genetic and +Sociological Significance_, p. 255. + +[47] W. E. Castle, _Genetics and Eugenics_, pp. 233-38. + +[48] _California and the Oriental_, p. 15. + +[49] "Changes in Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants." _Senate +Document No. 208_, pp. 7-54. + +[50] _The Jews: A Study of Race and Environment._ + +[51] See Appendix A. + +[52] _The Forum_, January, 1921, p. 3. + +[53] For this as well as other information the authors are indebted to Mr. +S. Kusama, who furnished us with the materials which were carefully +prepared by him from first-hand research in California. + +[54] _Bureau of Census Bulletin 127_, p. 12. + +[55] _Race and Nationality_, Frederick A. Stokes Co., New York, 1919. + +[56] See example of testimony in Appendix L. + +See also Appendix M in which the subject of comparative standing of +intelligence and behaviour of native-born Japanese children and American +children is discussed by several principals of elementary schools in +Southern California. + +[57] For text of this law see Appendix K. + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: + +Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_. + +Passages in bold are indicated by =bold=. + +Foonote 18 appears on page 104 of the text, but there is no corresponding +marker on the page. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Japan and the California Problem, by +Toyokichi Iyenaga and Kenoske Sato + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JAPAN AND THE CALIFORNIA PROBLEM *** + +***** This file should be named 36822-8.txt or 36822-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/6/8/2/36822/ + +Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |