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diff --git a/36776-h/36776-h.htm b/36776-h/36776-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1cb53de --- /dev/null +++ b/36776-h/36776-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,22851 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> +<head> + <meta charset="UTF-8"> + <title> + Inventions in the Century | Project Gutenberg + </title> + <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> + <style> +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + margin: auto; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + width: 80%; +} + + +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} +table.autotable { border-collapse: collapse; } +table.autotable td, +table.autotable th { padding: 0.25em; } + +.tdl {text-align: left;} +.tdr {text-align: right;} +.tdc {text-align: center;} +.vb {vertical-align: bottom;} + +.sub {font-size: .8em;} + +p { + margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; +} + +hr { + width: 80%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; +} + +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} + +td.padLeft { + padding-left: 2em; +} + +tr.spaceUnder > td +{ + padding-bottom: 1em; +} + +.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; +} /* page numbers */ + +.sblockquot { + margin-left: 20%; + margin-right: 20%; + font-size: smaller; +} + +.poem { margin-left: 30%;} + +.line {display:block;} +.i30 {margin-left: 30em;} +.center {text-align: center;} + +.right {margin-left: 40%;} + +.notebox {border: solid 2px; padding: 1em; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background: #CCCCB2;} + +.center {text-align: center;} +.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} +.small {font-size: 0.8em;} +.big {font-size: 1.3em;} +.xbig {font-size: 1.8em;} + </style> + </head> +<body> + +<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Inventions in the Century, by William Henry Doolittle</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online +at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you +are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the +country where you are located before using this eBook. +</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Inventions in the Century</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: William Henry Doolittlen</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: July 18, 2011 [EBook #36776]<br> +[Most recently updated: September 3, 2023]</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Chris Curnow, Stephanie Kovalchik and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net +(This file was produced from images generously made +available by The Internet Archive)</div> +<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INVENTIONS IN THE CENTURY ***</div> + + + + +<div class="notebox"> +<p class="center"><b>Transcriber’s Notes:</b></p> + +<p>Misspellings in the source text have been corrected.</p> + +<p>Missing page entries for “Wooden shoes” was assigned a page number by the transcriber.</p> + +<p>Index entry for “Stamfield, Jas.” was removed since this name does not +occur in the main text.</p> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;"> +<h3>THE NINETEENTH CENTURY SERIES</h3> +<hr style="width: 65%;"> + +<div class='center'> +<table class="autotable"> +<tr><td class="tdl">EDITOR:</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">JUSTIN McCARTHY.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">ASSOCIATE EDITORS:</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl"> +R<span class="small">EV</span>. W. H. WITHROW, M.A., D.D., F.R.S.C.<br> +CHARLES G. D. ROBERTS, M.A., F.R.C.I.<br> +J. CASTELL HOPKINS, F.R.S.L.<br> +T. G. MARQUIS, B.A.<br> +R<span class="small">EV</span>. T. S. LINSCOTT, F.R.C.I. +</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;"> + +<h1>INVENTIONS<br> +IN THE CENTURY</h1> +<p class="center p2">BY<br><span class="big"> +WILLIAM H. DOOLITTLE</span></p> + +<p class="center"><i>Expert and Patent Solicitor, Ex-Examiner in the Patent Office and Assistant<br> +Commissioner of Patents at Washington, Writer of Inventions, etc.</i></p> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<p class="center">THE LINSCOTT PUBLISHING COMPANY<br> +<span class="small">TORONTO AND PHILADELPHIA</span><br> +<br> +W. & R. CHAMBERS, LIMITED<br> +<span class="small">LONDON AND EDINBURGH</span><br> +<br> +1903</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;"> + + +<div class='center'> +<table class="autotable"> +<tr><td class="tdl">Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the Year One Thousand Nine +Hundred and Two, by the Bradley-Garretson Co., Limited, in the Office +of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. +</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Entered, according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in the Year One +Thousand Nine Hundred and Two, by the Bradley-Garretson Co., Limited, +in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture. +</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdc"><br><i>All Rights Reserved.</i> +</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;"> + + +<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<table> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdr"><span class="small">PAGE</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a><br><br> +INTRODUCTORY.<br> +INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +Inventions and Discoveries.—Distinctions and Contrast.—The + One, Useful Contrivances of Man; the Other, New Things Found + in Nature.—Galileo and the Telescope.—Newton and the Law of + Gravitation.—Often United as Soul and Body.—Inventions and + Discoveries do not Precede or Succeed in Order.—Inventions—Alphabetical + Writing; Arabic Notation; The Mariner’s Compass; + The Telescope; The Steam Engine.—Discoveries;—Attraction of + Gravitation; Planetary Motions; Circulation of Blood; Velocity + of Light.—Nineteenth Century Inventions and Discoveries.—Further + Definitions.—Law of Development.—Contrivances, not Creations.—Man + Always an Inventor.—Prof. Langley on Slow Growth of + Inventions.—Inventions of this Century Outgrowth of Past Ones.—Egyptian + Crooked Stick, Precursor of Modern Plough.—Hero of + Alexandria and James Watt.—David’s Harp and the Grand Piano.—Electrical + Science in 1600 and the Present Day.—Evolution + and Interrelation of the Arts.—Age of Machine Inventions.—Its + Beginning.—The Inducements to Invention.—Necessity not Always + the Mother.—Wants of Various Kinds.—Accident.—Governmental + Protection the Greatest Incentive.—Origin and Growth of Patent + Laws.—Influence of Personal, Political and Intellectual Freedom + and Education.—Arts of Civilization Due to the Inventor.—Macaulay’s + Estimate.—Will Inventions Continue to Increase or Decrease.—Effect + of Economic, Industrial and Social Life upon Inventions.—What + Inventions have Done for Humanity.—Thread of the Centuries.—The + Roll of Inventions too Vast for Enumeration. +</td><td class="tdr vb">1</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a><br><br>AGRICULTURE AND ITS IMPLEMENTS.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +The Egyptians the Earliest and Greatest Agriculturists.—Rome + and Farming.—Cato, Varro, Virgil.—Columella.—Pliny.—Palladius.—The + Decline of Agriculture.—Northern Barbarism.—Lowest Ebb + in the Middle Ages.—Revival in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth + Centuries.—With Invention of Printing.—Publications then, + Concerning.—Growth in Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.—Jethro + Tull.—Arthur Young.—Washington.—Jefferson.—The + Art Scientifically Commenced with Sir Humphry Davy’s Lectures + on Soils and Plants, 1802-1812.—Societies.—“Book Farming” and + Prejudice of Farmers.—A Revisit of Ruth and Cincinnatus at + Beginning of Nineteenth Century.—Their Implements still the + Common Ones in Use.—The Plough and its History.—Its Essential + Parts and their Evolution to Modern Forms.—Originated in Holland.—Growth + in England and America.—Small, Jefferson, Newbold.—Lord + Kames’ Complaint.—The American Plough.—Cutting Disks.—Steam + Ploughs: Implements for Preparing the Soil for Planting.—Various Forms of Harrows. +</td><td class="tdr vb">13</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a><br><br>AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +The Sowing of Grain.—The Sower of the Parables.—His Art and + its Defects Lasted until Nineteenth Century.—The Problems to be + Solved.—Assyrian and Chinese Seeding Implements.—India.—Italy + First to Introduce a Grain Sowing Machine, Seventeenth + Century.—Zanon’s Work on Agriculture, 1764.—Austria and + England.—A Spaniard’s Invention.—Don Lescatello.—The Drill + of Jethro Tull.—A Clergyman, Cooke’s Machine.—Washington + and Others.—Modern Improvements in Seeders and their Operation + and Functions.—Force Feed and Gravity Feed.—Graduated + Flow.—Divided Feeds for Separate Grains and Fertilizing + Material.—Garden Ploughs and Seeders.—Gangs of Heavy + Ones.—Operated by Steam.—Corn Planters.—Walking and + Riding.—Objects of Proper Planting.—How Accomplished by + Machinery.—Variety of Machines.—Potatoes and the Finest + Seeds.—Transplanters.—Cultivators.—Their Purposes and + Varieties.—Primitive and Modern Toilers.—Millet.—Tillers + of the Soil no Longer “Brothers of the Ox.” +</td><td class="tdr vb">23</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a><br><br>AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +Harvesting in Ancient Times.—The Sickle.—Pliny’s Machine.—Now + the Clover Header.—Palladius’ Description.—Improved in + 1786.—Scotchman’s Grain Cradle in 1794.—The Seven Ancient Wonders + and the Seven Modern Wonders.—The Modern Harvester and the Cotton + Gin.—Requirements of the Harvester.—Boyce.—Meares.—Plucknett.—Gladstone + and the First Front Draft Machine, 1806.—Salonen + introduced Vibrating Knives over Stationary Blades, 1807.—Ogle + and Reciprocating Knife Bar, 1822.—Rev. Patrick Bell, 1823, + Cuts an Acre of Grain in an Hour.—Mowers and Reapers in America + in 1820.—Reaper and Thresher combined by Lane, of Maine, 1828.—Manning’s + Harvester, 1831.—Schnebly.—Hussey.—McCormick, + 1833-34.—Harvesters and Mowers at World’s Fair, London, 1851.—Automatic + Binders.—Wire and Twine.—Advances Shown at Centennial + Exhibition, 1876.—Inventions Beyond the Wildest Dreams of Former + Farmers.—One Invention Generates Another.—Lawn Mowers.—Hay + Forks and Stackers.—Corn, Cotton, Potato, Flax Harvesters.—Threshing.—The + Old Flail.—Egyptian and Roman Methods.—The + First Modern Threshing Machine.—Menzies, Leckie, Meikle.—Combined + Harvesters and Threshers.—Flax Threshers and + Brakes.—Cotton Gins.—Eli Whitney.—Enormous Importance of + this Machine in Cotton Products.—Displacement of Labour. +</td><td class="tdr vb">32</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a><br><br>AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS (<i>continued</i>).</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +Harvest Ended, Comes the Preparation of Grain and Fruits for + Food.—Cleaning.—Separating.—Grinding.—Fanning Mills and Sir + Walter Scott.—The Rudimentary Mills.—Egyptian.—Hebrew, Grecian, + and Roman Methods, Prevailed until Middle of Eighteenth Century.—The + Upper and Nether Mill Stone in Modern Dress.—Modern + Mills Invented at Close of Eighteenth Century.—Oliver Evans of + America, 1755-1819.—Evans’ System Prevailed for Three Quarters + of a Century.—New System.—Middlings.—Low Milling.—High + Milling.—Roller Mills.—Middlings Separators.—Dust Explosions + and Prevention.—Vegetable Cutters.—Choppers.—Fruit Parers and + Slicers.—Great Range of Mechanisms to Treat the Tenderest Pods + and Smallest Seeds.—Crushing Sugar Cane.—Pressing and Baling.—Every + Product has its own Proper Machine for Picking, Pressing, + Packing, or Baling.—Cotton Compress.—Extensive and Enormous + Cotton Crops of the World.—Cotton Presses of Various Kinds.—Hay + and its Baling.—Bale Ties.—Fruits and Foods.—Machines for + Gathering, Packing, Preserving, etc., all Modern.—Drying and + Evaporating.—Sealing.—Transporting.—Tobacco.—Its Enormous + Production.—The Interdict of James I., and of Popes, Kings, + Sultans, etc.—Variety of Machines for its Treatment. +</td><td class="tdr vb">45</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a><br><br>CHEMISTRY, MEDICINES, SURGERY, DENTISTRY.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +Chemistry among the Ancients.—Egyptians.—Phœnicians.—Israelites.—Greeks +and Romans.—Chinese.—Became a Science + in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.—Libavius.—Van + Helmont.—Glauber—Tachenius.—Boyle.—Lémery.—Becher.—Stahl.—Boerhaave.—Black.—Cavendish.—Lavoisier.—Priestley.—Chemistry + of Nineteenth Century a New World.—Atomic and Molecular Theories.—Light, + Heat, and Electricity.—Correlation and Conservation of + Forces.—Spectrum Analysis.—Laws of Chemical Changes.—John + Dalton.—Wollaston.—Gay.—Lussac.—Berzelius.—Huygens’ and Newton’s + Discoveries in Light in Seventeenth Century.—Unfolded and Developed + by Fraunhofer, Kirchoff.—Bunsen in the Nineteenth.—Young of + America.—Combination of Spectroscope and Telescope.—Huggins of + England, Spectrum Analysis of the Stars.—Heat and other Forces.—Count + Rumford.—Davy.—Mayer.—Helmholtz.—Colding.—Joule.—Grove.—Faraday.—Sir + William Thomson.—Le Conte and Martin.—French + Revolution and Agricultural Chemistry.—Lavoisier, Berthollet.—Guyton.—Fourcroy.—Napoleon.—Sir + Humphry Davy.—Liebig.—Fermentation.—Alcohol.—Yeast.—Malt.—Wines.—Beer.—Huxley’s + Lecture on Yeast, 1871.—Protein.—Protoplasm.—Evolution from one all-pervading + Force.—Alcohol and Pasteur.—Manufacture of Liquors.—Carbonating.—Soils + and Fertilisers.—Liquids, Oils, Sugar and Fats.—Bleaching + and Dyeing.—Aniline Colours.—Perfumes.—Electro-Chemical + Methods.—Applied to the Production of Artificial + Light.—Abradants.—Disinfectants.—Pigments.—Mineral Analysis.—Purification of + Water and Sewage.—Electroplating Metals.—Chemicals and the Fine + Arts.—Redemption of Waste Materials.—Medicines and Surgery.—Their + Growth from Empiricism.—Anæsthetics.—Davy.—Morton.—Jackson.—Innumerable + Medical Compounds.—Antiseptic Treatment + of Wounds.—Vast Variety of Surgical Instruments Invented.—Four + Thousand Patents in United States Alone.—Dentistry.—Its Ancient + Origin.—Account of Herodotus.—Revolution in, during Nineteenth + Century.—Instruments.—Artificial Teeth.—Vast Relief + from Pain. +</td><td class="tdr vb">58</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a><br><br>STEAM AND STEAM ENGINES.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +Prophecy of Dr. Darwin in Eighteenth Century.—Review of the Art + from Hero to James Watt.—Pumping Engines.—Road + Carriages.—Watt.—Cugnot.—Rumsey.—Fitch.—Oliver + Evans.—Read.—Symington.—Trevithick.—Locomotives.—Blenkinsop.—Griffith.—Bramah.—Horse Engine.—Hancock.—Blackett.—George Stephenson.—Hackworth.—Braithwaite.—Ericsson.—Huskisson + First Victim of Railroad + Accident.—Seguin.—John C. Stevens.—Horatio Allen.—Peter + Cooper.—Symington.—Lord Dundas.—Fulton and Livingston.—The + First Successful Steamboat.—Transatlantic Steam + Navigation.—Scarborough of Georgia.—Bell of Scotland.—Cunard + Line; Paddle Wheels.—Screw Propellers.—The Age of Kinetic + Energy.—Professor Thurston.—Variety of Engines and + Boilers.—Corliss.—Bicycle and Automobile Engines.—Napoleon’s + Stage Trip and Present Locomotion.—Daniel + Webster’s Survey of the Art. +</td><td class="tdr vb">73</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a><br><br>ENGINEERING AND TRANSPORTATION.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +The Duties of a Civil Engineer.—Great Engineering of the + Past.—The Divisions.—Steam.—Mining.—Hydraulic.—Electrical.—Marine.—Bridge + Making, Its Development.—First Arched + Iron Bridge.—Darby.—Telford.—Leading Bridges of the + Century.—Suspension.—Tubular.—Tubular + Arch.—Truss.—Cantilever.—Spider’s Web and Suspension.—Sir + Samuel Brown.—The Tweed.—Menai Straits and Telford.—M. Chaley + and Fribourg.—J. K. Brunel and Isle of Bourbon.—British + America and the United States united in 1855—Niagara.—John A. + Roebling.—The Brooklyn Bridge.—Caissons and the Caisson + Disease.—Tubular Bridge at Menai.—“The Grandest Lift in + Engineering.”—Robert Stephenson.—The Tubular Arch at + Washington.—Captain Meigs and Captain Eads.—St. Louis + Bridge.—Truss System and Vast Modern Bridges.—Cantilever + Succeeded the Suspension.—New Niagara and River + Forth.—Schneider.—Hayes.—Fowler and Baker.—Milton’s + Description.—Lighthouses.—Smeaton.—Douglass.—Bartholdi.—Eiffel.—Excavating, + Dredging, Draining.—Road-making.—Railroads.—Canals.—Tunnels.—Excavating.—Desert + Lands Reclaimed.—Holland and Florida Swamps.—The Tunnels of the + Alps.—Suez Canal.—Engineering, as seen from a Pullman + Car.—Cable Transportation.—Pneumatic Lock System.—Grain + Elevators—Progress in Civilisation. +</td><td class="tdr vb">93</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a><br><br>ELECTRICITY.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +Theories and Definitions.—Franklin’s and a Modern One.—Varieties + of the Force.—Generation.—Dynamic Energy.—Discoveries + before the Nineteenth Century.—Magnetism and + Electricity.—Fathers of the Science.—Doctor Gilbert.—Otto + von Guericke.—Sir Isaac Newton.—Gray.—Dufay.—Professor + Muschenbroeck.—Cuneus.—Charles Morrison.—Franklin and + Galvani.—Volta.—The Door to Nineteenth Century Inventions + then Opened.—Fabroni.—Sir Humphry Davy, Wollaston, Nicholson, + and Carlisle.—Ritter Followed—Electrolysis.—Faraday and its + Laws.—Davy and the Electric Light.—Batteries.—Daniell.—Grove.—Bunsen.—Brilliant + Discoveries from 1800 to 1820.—Oersted, + Schweigger.—Magnetising Helix.—Indicators.—Arago and + Davy.—Ampère’s Discoveries.—Sturgeon and the first Electro-Magnet, + 1825.—Telegraphy.—Gauss, Weber, Schilling.—Professor + Barlow’s Demonstration that Telegraphy was Impracticable.—Joseph + Henry.—Powerful Magnets.—Modern and Ancient Telegraphy of + Various Kinds.—The Third Decade.—George Simon Ohm.—Steinheil.—Telegraph + of Morse, Vail, Dana, Gale.—Wheatstone.—U.S. Supreme + Court on Morse System.—His Alphabet and Submarine Telegraph.—Michael + Faraday and Science of Magnets.—Steam and Magneto-Dynamo + Machines.—Chemical Affinity and Electricity.—Helmholtz, Faraday, + Henry, and Pixii.—Ruhmkorff Coil.—Page.—Electrical + Light.—Decomposition of Water.—Professor Nollet.—First + Practical Electric Light Shone on the Sea, 1858.—Faraday and + Holmes.—Lighthouse Illumination.—Dr. W. Siemens.—Wilde’s + Machine.—Other Powerful Magnetic Machines.—Field Magnets.—Z. + Gramme.—The Various Ways and Means of Developing Electric + Light.—Geissler Tubes.—First House Lighted in America.—Moses + G. Farmer.—Jablochoff’s Candle.—French Regulators.—Outdoor and + Indoor Illumination.—Siemens, Farmer, Brush, Maxim, Westinghouse, + Edison, Swan, Lane—Fox and Others.—Arc Lamps of Heffner + von Alteneck.—Ocean Cables.—Cyrus W. Field.—John Bright’s + Expression.—Weak Currents.—Thomson’s Remedy.—Mirror + Galvanometer.—Centennial Exhibition and the Telephone.—Alexander + Graham Bell, 1875.—The Telephone and Helmholtz’ Theory of + Tone.—Scott’s Phonautograph.—Page’s Production of Galvanic + Music and Researches of Reis.—Its Slow Growth.—The Ideas of + Faraday and Henry still the Basis of the Great Machines.—“Lines + of Force.”—Electric Railway.—Storage Batteries.—Dynamos.—First + Railway at Berlin, 1879.—Then Saxony, Paris, London, New + York.—Telpherage by Professor Jenkin.—Problems Solved.—Electrical + Magicians.—Edison and Tesla.—Recent Improvements in + Telegraphy.—The Talks Both Ways at Same Time and Multiplied.—Printing + Systems by Types and Otherwise.—Electrical Elevators.—Microphone.—Ticks + of a Watch and the Tread of a Fly Recorded.—Musical + Sounds from Minerals and Other Substances.—Signalling + and Other Appliances.—The X Rays.—Wireless Telegraphy. +</td><td class="tdr vb">111</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</a><br><br>HOISTING, CONVEYING, AND STORING.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +Drudgery of Ancient Times Relieved by Modern Inventions.—The + Labour of Men and Beasts now Done by Steam Giants.—Labour-Saving + Appliances for Transportation.—Tall Buildings and Elevators.—Evolution + Slow until 19th Century.—Carrying of Weights.—The Pyramids.—Modern + Methods.—Ship-Loading.—The Six Ordinary Powers Alone Used + until the Time of Watt.—Elevator Mills of Oliver Evans.—The + Hydraulic Press of Bramah.—The Lifting of Tubular Bridge by + Robt. Stephenson.—Compressed Air Elevator of Slade.—Counterbalance + Lifts of Van Elvean.—Modern Elevator of Otis, + 1859.—Steam-Water.—Compressed Air.—Electricity: Elevators, how + Controlled.—Store Service Conveyors.—Pneumatic Transmission: + Dodge’s Air Blast Conveyor.—Mode of Switching Conveyors.—“Lazy + Tongs” Conveyors.—Buffers.—Endless Cables.—Clutches, + Safety.—Labour-Saving Devices and Derangement of Labour.—In + One Sense, Inventions Labour-Increasing Devices. +</td><td class="tdr vb">152</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.</a><br><br>HYDRAULICS.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +Old as the Thirst of Man.—Prehistoric Inventions.—China.—Pliny’s + Record.—Egyptian, Carthaginian, Greek and Roman Water + Works.—“Pneumatics of Hero.”—Overshot, Undershot, and Breast + Wheels, Ancient.—Screw of Archimedes.—Frontinus, a Roman + Inspector.—1593, Servière Invents the Rotary Pump.—1586, + Stevinus of Holland, Father of the Elementary Science.—Galileo, + Torricelli, Pascal, and Sir Isaac Newton in the Seventeenth + Century.—Bernoulli, D’Alembert, Euler, Abbé Bossut, Venturi, + and Eylewein in the Eighteenth.—Water Distribution then + Originated.—Peter Maurice and the London Bridge Pumps.—La + Hire’s Double Acting Pump.—Dr. John Allen and David Ramsey of + England.—Franklin’s Force Pump.—Water Ram of Whitehurst and + Montgolfier.—Nineteenth Century Opens with Bramah’s Pumps.—Water + and Steam.—Pumps the Strong Hands of Hydraulics.—Review of + Past Inventions: Pascal’s Paradox.—Turbines of Forneyron.—Power + of Niagara and Turbines there.—Jonval’s.—Euler’s Old Centrifugal + Pumps Revived.—Massachusetts and Appold Systems.—Lowlands of + Holland, Marshes of Italy, Swamps of Florida, Drained.—Injectors.—Giffard.—Intensifiers.—Hydraulicising.—Hydraulic + Jack and Cleopatra’s Needle.—Flow of Cold Metal.—Lead Pipe Made, and + Cold Steel Stretched by Water Pressure.—Cotton Presses, Sir + Wm. Armstrong’s Inventions.—Tweddle and Sir Wm. Fairbairn.—Water + Motors.—Baths and Closets.—Results of Modern + Improvements.—Germ Theory and Filters. +</td><td class="tdr vb">164</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.</a><br><br>PNEUMATICS AND PNEUMATIC MACHINES.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +The Slow March of the Human Mind.—Burke.—The Age of Mechanical + Inventions not until nearly Watt’s Steam Engine.—Review of + “Learning” until that Time.—Motor Engines not Produced until + Seventeenth Century.—Suggested by the Bellows and the + Cannon.—Huygens and Papin.—Van Helmont the Author of the + Term “Gas,” 1577-1644.—Robert Boyle and the Air Pump.—Law + of Gases.—Mariotte.—Abbé Hauteville, 1682.—The Heart and + a Motor.—Sun Burner.—Murdock, 1798, Uses Coal Gas for + Illumination.—John Barber and Carburetted Hydrogen.—Street’s + Heated Gas.—1801, Lebon Proposes Coal Gas Motor.—Investigations + of Dalton and Gay-Lussac, 1810.—Heat engines: Air, Gas, + Steam, Vapor, Solar.—Explosive.—Temperature the Tie that Binds + them as One Family.—1823-26, Sir Samuel Brown.—Gunpowder and + Gas Engine.—Davy and Faraday.—Gas to a Liquid State.—Wright, + 1833.—Burdett’s Compressed Air Engine, 1838.—Lenoir’s.—Hugon’s.—Beau + de Rohes’ Investigations.—Oil Wells of United States, + 1860.—Petroleum Engines.—Brayton, Spiel.—Otto’s Gas Engine + and Improvements.—Ammoniacal Gas Engines.—Nobels’ + Inventions.—Storm’s Gunpowder Engine.—Gas and Vapour Compared + with Steam.—Prof. Jenkins’ Prediction.—Gas to Supplant + Steam.—Compressed Air Engines.—Innumerable Applications + of Pneumatic Machines.—A Number Mentioned.—Their Universal + Application to the Useful and Fine Arts. +</td><td class="tdr vb">182</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.</a><br><br>ART OF HEATING, VENTILATING, COOKING, REFRIGERATING AND LIGHTING.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +Prometheus and the Modern Match.—1680, Godfrey Hanckwitz + Invented First Phosphorous Match.—Other Forms of + Matches.—Promethean Matches in 1820.—John Walker.—Lucifer.—Tons + of Chemicals, Hundreds of Pine Trees Yearly Made into + Matches.—Splints and Machines.—Reuben + Partridge.—Poririer.—Pasteboard Box.—Machines for Assorting and + Dipping, Drying and Boxing.—Cooking and Heating Stoves.—History + of, from Rome to Ben Franklin.—The Old-Fashioned + Fireplace.—Varieties of Coal Stoves.—Stove + Fireplace.—Ventilation.—Hot Air Furnaces.—How Heat is + Distributed, Retained, and Moistened.—Hot Water + Circulation.—Incubators.—Baking Ovens, the Dutch and the + Modern.—Vast Number of Stove and Furnace Foundries in United + States.—Ventilation.—Parliament Buildings and U. S. + Capitol.—Eminent Scientific Men who have Made Ventilation a + Study.—Best Modes.—Its Great Importance.—Car Heaters.—Grass + and Refuse Burning Stoves.—Oil, Vapour, and Gas Stoves, their + Construction and Operation.—Sterilising.—Electric Heating + and Cooking.—Refrigeration.—Messrs. Carré of France, 1870.—Artificial + Ice.—Sulphuric Acid and Ammonia Processes.—Absorption + and Compression Methods Described.—Refrigerating + Cars.—Liquid Air. +</td><td class="tdr vb">199</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.</a><br><br>METALLURGY.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +The Antiquity of the Art.—The “Lost Arts” Rediscovered.—The + Earliest Forms of Smelting Furnaces.—Ancient Iron and + Steel.—India and Africa.—Early Spain and the Catalan + Furnace.—The Armour of Don Quixote.—Bell’s History of the + Art.—Germany.—Cast Iron Made by Ancients, Disused for 15 + Centuries.—Reinvented by Page and Baude in England, 1543.—German + Furnaces.—Dud Dudley, the Oxford Graduate and his Furnace, + 1619.—Origin of Coke in England.—Use in United States.—Revival + of Cast Iron.—Cast Steel in England, Huntsman, 1740.—Henry Cort + and Puddling, 1784, and its Subsequent Wonderful Value.—Steam + Engine of Watt and Iron.—Refining of Precious Metals.—Amalgamating + Process.—Review of the 18th Century.—Herschel’s Distinction + of Empirical and Scientific Art.—The Nineteenth Century, Scientific + Metallurgy.—Steam, Chemistry, Electricity.—Rogers’ Iron + Floor.—Neilson’s Hot Air Blast, 1828, Patent Sustained.—Anthracite + Coal.—Colossal Furnaces.—Gas Producers.—Bunsen’s + Experiments.—Constituents of Ores.—Squeezing Process.—Burden’s + Method.—Mechanical Puddlers.—Rotary.—Henry Bessemer’s Great + Process—1855-1860.—Steel from Iron.—Holley’s Apparatus.—Effects + of and Changes in Bessemer Process.—Old Methods and Means Revived + and Improved.—Eminent Inventors.—New Metals and New Processes + Discovered.—Harveyised Steel.—Irresistible Projectiles and + Impenetrable Armour Plate.—Krupp’s Works.—Immense Manufactures + in United States.—Treatment of Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead, etc.; + Mining Operations, Separation, Reduction.—Chemical Methods: + Lixiviation or Leaching.—MacArthur.—Forrest.—Sir Humphry + Davy.—Scheele.—Chlorine and Cyanide + Processes.—Alloys.—Babbitting.—Metallic Lubricants.—Various + Alloys and Uses.—Reduction of Aluminium and other + Metals.—Electro-Metallurgy.—Diamonds to be Made.—All + Arts have Waited on Development of this Art. +</td><td class="tdr vb">218</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.</a><br><br>METAL WORKING PROCESSES AND MACHINES.—TUBE +MAKING.—WELDING.—ANNEALING AND TEMPERING.—COATING +AND METAL FOUNDING.—METAL WARE.— WIRE WORKING.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +Metal Working Tools One of the Glories of 19th Century.—Wood + Working and Metal Working.—Ancient and Modern Lathe.—Turning + Metal Lathe.—A Lost Art in Use in Egypt and in Solomon’s + Time.—Revived in Sixteenth Century.—Forgotten and Revived + again in Eighteenth.—Sir Samuel Bentham and Joseph Bramah + Laid Foundation of Nineteenth Century Tools.—The Slide Rest + and Henry Maudsley.—Nasmyth’s Description.—Vast Rolls, and + Most Delicate Watch Mechanisms, cut by the Lathe and its + Tools.—Metal Planing.—Eminent Inventors, 1811-1840.—Many + Inventions and Modifications Resulting in a Wonderful + Evolution.—Metal-Boring Machines.—Modern Vulcan’s Titanic + Work-Shop.—Screw Making.—Demand Impossible to Supply under + Old Method.—Great Display at London Exhibition, 1851, and + Centennial, Philadelphia, 1876.—J. Whitworth & Co., of England, + Sellers & Co., of America, and Others.—The Great + Revelation.—Hoopes and Townsend and the Flow of Cold, Solid + Metal.—Cold Punching, etc.—Machine-Made Horse-Shoes.—The + Blacksmith and Modern Inventions.—Making of Great Tubes.—Welding + by Electricity, and Tempering and Annealing.—How Armour Plate + is Hardened.—Metals Coated.—Electro-Plating and Casting.—Great + Domes Gilded.—Moulds for Metal Founding.—Machines and + Methods.—Steel Ingots.—Sheet Metal and Personal Ware.—Great + Variety of Machines for Making.—Wire Made Articles.—Description + of Great Modern Work-Shop. +</td><td class="tdr vb">240</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI.</a><br><br>ORDNANCE, ARMS, AMMUNITION, AND EXPLOSIVES.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +This Art Slow in Growth, but no Art Progressed Faster.—The + Incentives to its Development.—The Greatest Instruments in + the New Civilisation.—Peace and its Fruits Established by + them.—Its History.—Chinese Cannon.—India.—The + Moors.—Arabs.—Cannon at Cordova in 1280.—The Spaniards and + Gibraltar, 1309.—The Spread of Artillery through Europe.—Description + of Ancient Guns.—Breech Loaders and Stone Cannon Balls.—Wrought + Iron Cannon and Shells in 15th Century.—Big Cannon of the + Hindoos and Russians.—Strange Names.—France under Louis + XI.—Improvements of the Sixteenth Century.—Holland’s Mortar + Shells and Grenades in the Seventeenth.—Coehorn Mortars + and Dutch Howitzers.—Louis XIV.—French Artillery Conquers + Italy.—Eighteenth Century.—“Queen Ann’s Pocket Piece.”—Gribeauval + the Inventor of the Greatest Improvements in the Eighteenth.—His + System Used by Bonaparte at Toulon, the French Revolution, + and in Italy.—Marengo, 1800.—Small Arms, their History.—From + the Arquebus to the Modern Rifle.—Rifle, the Weapon of the American + Settler, and the Revolution.—Puckle’s Celebrated Breech-Loading + Cannon Patent, and Christian and Turk Bullets.—1803, Percussion + Principle in Fire-arms, Invented by a Clergyman, Forsyth.—1808, + Genl. Shrapnel.—Bormann of Belgium.—1814, Shaw and the + Cap.—Flint Locks Still in Use, 1847.—Colt’s Revolvers, + 1835-1851.—History of Cannon again Reverted to.—Columbiads of + Bomford.—Paixhan in 1822.—Shells of the Crimea.—Kearsarge and + Alabama.—Requirements of Modern Ordnance.—Rodman One of + the Pioneers.—Woodbridge’s Wire Wound Guns, Piezometer, and + Shell Sabot.—Sir William Armstrong and Sir Jos. Whitworth.—Krupp’s + Cannon and Works.—The Latest Improvements.—Compressed Air + Ordnance.—Constructions of Metals and Explosives.—The “Range + Finder.”—Small Arms again Considered.—History of the Breech + Loader and Metallic Cartridges.—Wooden Walls and Stone Forts + disappeared.—Monitor and Merrimac.—Blanchard and + Hall.—Gill.—Springfield Rifle.—Machine Guns.—Electric + Battery.—Gatling’s, Hotchkiss’.—Explosives.—Torpedoes.—Effect + of Modern Weapons. +</td><td class="tdr vb">252</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII.</a><br><br>PAPER AND PRINTING, TYPEWRITING AND THE LINOTYPE.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +Paper-making Preceded the Art of Printing.—The Wasp Preceded + Man.—The Chinese, the Hindoos, Egyptians, and other Orientals + had Invented Both Arts.—History of Papyrus.—Parchment.—Twelfth + Century Documents Written on Linen Paper still Extant.—Water + Marks.—Wall Paper, Substitute for Tapestry, 1640.—Holland + in Advance, Seventeenth Century.—Rittenhouse of Holland + Introduces Paper-Making in America, Eighteenth Century.—Paper + a Dear Commodity.—The Revolution of the Nineteenth Century.—400 + Different Materials now Used.—Nineteenth Century Opens with + Robert’s Paper-Making Machine.—Messrs. Fourdrinier.—Immense + Growth of their System.—Modern Discoveries of Chemists.—Soda + Pulp and Sulphite Processes.—Paper Mills.—Paper Bag Machines, + etc.—Printing.—Chinese Invented Both Block and Movable + Types.—European Inventors.—The Claims of Different + Nations.—From Southern Italy to Sweden.—Spread of the + Art.—Printing Press and the Reformation.—First Printing + Press in New World Set up in Mexico, 1536.—Then in + Brazil.—Then in 1639 in Massachusetts.—Types and + Presses.—English and American.—Ramage and Franklin.—Blaew + of Amsterdam.—Nineteenth Century Opens with Earl of Stanhope’s + Hand Press.—Clymer of Philadelphia, 1817.—The First Machine + Presses.—Nicholson in Eighteenth.—Konig and Bauer in + Nineteenth Century, 1813.—London Times, 1814.—1815, + Cowper’s Electrotype plates.—1822, First Power Press in United + States.—Treadwell.—Bruce’s Type Casting Machines.—Hoe’s + Presses.—John Walter’s.—German and American Presses.—Capacities + of Modern Presses.—Mail Marking.—Typewriting.—Suggested in + Eighteenth Century.—Revived by French in 1840.—Leading Features + Invented in U. S., 1857.—Electro-Magnet + Typewriters.—Cahill.—Book-binding.—Review of the Art.—Linotype + “Most Remarkable Machine of Century.”—Merganthaler.—Rogers.—Progress + and Triumphs of the Art. +</td><td class="tdr vb">273</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII.</a><br><br>TEXTILES.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +The Distaff and the Spindle, without a Change from Ancient + Days to Middle of Fourteenth Century.—Ancient and Modern + Cloth Making.—Woman the Natural Goddess of the Art.—The + Ancient and Isolated Weavers of Mexico.—After 40 Centuries + of Hand-Weaving Comes John Kay, of England, 1733.—The + Spinning Machines of Wyatt and Hargreaves.—1738-1769, + Richard Arkwright.—The “Spinning Jenny” and the + “Throstle.”—The Steam Engine and Weaving.—1776, Crompton + and the “Mule.”—1785, Cartwright and Power Looms.—1793, + Eli Whitney and the Cotton Gin.—1793-1813, Samuel Slater, + Lowell, and Cotton Factories of America.—The Dominion of + the Nineteenth Century.—What it Comprises in the Art of + Spinning and Weaving.—Description of Operations.—Bobbins + of Asa Arnold and the Ring Frame of Jenks.—Spooling + Machines.—Warping and Dressing and other Finishing + Operations.—Embroidery.—Cloth Finishing.—The Celebrated + Jacquard Loom.—Jacquard and Napoleon.—Bonelli’s Electric + Loom.—Fancy Woollen Looms of George Crompton.—Bigelow’s + Carpet Looms.—Figuring, Colouring, Embossing.—Cloth + Pressing and Creasing.—Felting.—Ribbons.—Comparison + of Penelopes of Past and Present.—Knitting Days of our + Grandmothers and Knitting Machines.—A Mile of Stockings.—Fancy + Stocking and Embroidery Machines.—Netting and Turkish + Carpets.—Matting.—Spun Glass, etc.—Hand, and the Skilled + Labour of Machinery. +</td><td class="tdr vb">292</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX.</a><br><br>GARMENTS.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +“Man is a Tool-using Animal, of which Truth, Clothes are but + one Example.”—Form of Needle not Changed until + 1775.—Weisenthal.—Embroidery Needle.—Saint’s Sewing Machine, + 1790.—John Duncan’s Tamboring Machine, 1804.—Eye Pointed + Needles for Rope Matting, 1807.—Madersperger’s Sewing Machine, + 1814.—France and the Thimonnier Machine, 1830-1848-50, Made of + Wood.—Destroyed by Mob.—English Embroidering Machine, + 1841.—Concurrent Inventions in Widely Separated + Countries.—Thimonnier in France, Hunt in America, 1832, + 1834.—Elias Howe, 1846.—Description of Howe’s Inventions.—Recital + of his Struggles and final Triumphs.—The Test of + Priority.—Leather Sewing Machines of Greenough and Corliss, 1842-43.—Bean’s + Running Stitch, 1843.—The Decade of 1849-1859, Greatest + in Century in Sewing Machine Inventions.—Hood’s “Song of the + Shirt,” a Dying Drudgery.—Improvements after Howe.—Blodgett + and Lerow’s Dip Motion.—Wilson’s Four-Motion Feed.—Singer’s + Inventions, their Importance, his Rise from Poverty to Great + Wealth.—The Grover and Baker.—The Display in 1876 at the + Centennial.—Vast Growth of the Industry.—Extraordinary + Versatility of Invention in Sewing and Reaping Machines, and + Breech-Loading Fire-arms.—Commercial Success due to Division of + Labour and Assembling of Parts.—Innumerable Additions to the + Art.—Seventy-five Different Stitches.—Passing of the Quilting + Party.—Embroidery and Button-hole Machines.—Garment-cutting + Machines.—Bonnets and Inventions of Women.—Hat Making.—Its + History.—Bonjeau’s Improvements in Plain Cloths, 1834.—Effect + of Modern Inventions on Wearing Apparel and Condition of the + Poor.—The Epoch of Good Clothes. +</td><td class="tdr vb">310</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX.</a><br><br>INDUSTRIAL MACHINES.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +Inventions Engender Others.—Co-operative Growth.—Broom + Making.—Crude Condition until the Modern Lathe, Mandrel, + Shuttle and Sewing Machine.—Broom Sewing Machines.—Effect + on Labour.—The Brush and Brush Machines.—A Hundred Species + of Brushes, each Made by a Special Machine.—First Successful + Brush Machine, Woodbury’s, 1870.—Wonderful Operations.—Street-Sweeping + Machines, 1831.—Most Effective Form.—Abrading + Machines.—Application of Sand Blast.—Nature’s Machine Patented + by Tilghman in 1870.—Things Done by the Sand Blast and + How.—Emery and Corundum Machines.—Vast Application in Cutting, + Grinding, Polishing.—Washing and Ironing Machines.—Their + Contribution to Cleanliness and Comfort.—Laundry Appliances.—Old + and the New Mangle.—Starch Applying.—Steam Laundry + Machinery.—Description of Work done in a Modern Laundry. +</td><td class="tdr vb">328</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXI">CHAPTER XXI.</a><br><br>WOOD-WORKING.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +Contrast of Prehistoric Labour and Implements and Modern + Tools.—The Ages of Stone, Bronze, Iron, and the Age of + Wood.—The Slow Growth of Wood-working Inventions.—Tools of + the Egyptians.—Saw of the Greeks.—Known to Hindoos and + Africans.—Accounts of Pliny and Ansonius as to Planes and + Marble Sawing.—Saw-mills of France, Germany, Norway, + Sweden.—Holland 100 Years ahead of England, and Why.—William + Penn Found Saw-mills in America in 1682.—What made Americans + Inventors.—Progress Unknown where Saw-mills are not.—Steam + and Saw Mills.—Splendid System and Inventions of Samuel Bentham, + Bramah and Branch at Close of Eighteenth Century.—First Decade + of Nineteenth Century Produces Wonderful Inventor, Thomas + Blanchard.—His Life and Inventions.—Machines for Turning + Irregular Forms in Wood and Metal.—The Boring Worm and Boring + Machine.—Gun-making and Mortising Machines.—Complicated + Ornamental Wood-cutting and Carving Machines.—Whatever Made by + Hand can be Better Made by Machinery.—Pattern-Cutting + Machines.—Xyloplasty.—Art of Hand Carving Revived.—Bending + of Wood by Fire and Steam.—The Problems Solved by Wood-working + Inventors.—Great Saws at the Vienna Exposition, 1873.—Boring + Tools, Augers, Planes, Lathes, etc. How Improved and by + Whom.—“The Universal Wood Workers.”—Flexible Shafting.—Shingles + and Tiles.—A Great Log, how Turned into Bundles of + Shingles.—Veneering.—What Pliny Thought of It.—Brunel’s + Machines, 1805-1808.—Homes Made Beautiful by Modern + Wood-working.—Objects without and Within a House, Made by Such + Machinery.—Array of Wood-working Machinery at International + Expositions.—The Art of Forestry. +</td><td class="tdr vb">339</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII.</a><br><br>FURNITURE.—BOTTLING, PRESERVING, AND LAMPLIGHTING.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +Universal Supply of Convenient and Ornamental Furniture Due + to Modern Inventions and Machinery.—The Furniture of the + Egyptians, Greeks and Romans.—Tables.—Modern Improvements.—Combined + Tables, Desks, and Chairs.—Special Forms of Each.—Beds: + Advance from the Ponderous Bedsteads of Former Times.—Modern, + Ornamental, Healthful Styles.—Iron, Brass, Springs, Surgical + and Invalid Chairs and Beds.—Kitchen Utensils.—Vast Amount of + Drudgery Relieved.—Curtains, Shades, and Screens.—Great Changes + Produced by Steaming and Bending Wood.—The Bentwood Ware Factories + of Austria, Hungary, Moravia (1870-73), in Vast Beech Forests + Followed in other Countries.—Modern Chairs of Various Kinds.—The + Dentist and the Theatre.—Bottle Stoppers.—Enormous Demand for + Cork Exhausting the Supply.—Modern Substitutes.—Fruit Jars, + etc.—Lamplighting, Ancient and Modern.—Revolution Produced by + Petroleum.—Wickless and Electric Lamps. +</td><td class="tdr vb">354</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIII">CHAPTER XXIII.</a><br><br>LEATHER.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +Leather and Prehistoric Man.—Earliest Implements and + Processes Forerunners of Modern Inventions.—Modern Leather + Unknown to the Earliest Races.—Tanning.—Leathers of Different + Nations.—Hand Tools and Variety of Operations.—Inventions + of Nineteenth Century—Labour-Saving Machinery and New + Processes.—Epoch of Modern Machinery.—1780, John Bull and + his Scraping Machine, Hide-mill, Pioneer Machine of + Century.—Fleshing Machines.—Tanning Apparatus.—Reel + Machines.—Tanning Processes and the Chemists.—Machines for + Different Operations.—Pendulum Lever Machine.—Leather + Splitting, and other Remarkable Machines.—Boots and + Shoes, their Character before Modern Inventions.—Randolph’s + Riveting Machine of 1809.—Great Civil Engineer, J. M. Brunel’s + Machines.—1818, Walker Invents the Wooden Peg.—Peg-making + Machines.—1858, Sturtevant’s Great Improvement.—Fifty-five + Million Pairs of Boots and Shoes then Annually Pegged.—Metal + Wire, and Screw Pegs.—Last-turning Machines of Blanchard.—McKay’s + Shoe Sewing Machine.—Revolution in Shoe Making.—Special + Machines for Making Every Part.—One Machine Makes 300 Pairs + a Day.—Many Millions made Daily.—Vast Increase of Labourers + as the Art Advances.—Illustrations of Yankee Enterprise.—Modern + and Ancient Harnesses.—Embossed Leather.—Book Covers + and the many Useful and Beautiful Leather Articles.—The + Vast and Important Leather Manufactures. +</td><td class="tdr vb">361</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIV">CHAPTER XXIV.</a><br><br>MINERALS.—WELLS.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +Ancient Tools and the Art of Building.—The Parthenon.—Aqueducts + of Rome.—Tombs of India.—Halls of Alhambra.—Gothic + Cathedrals.—Steam First Drew Coal, then Sawed Wood and then + Stone.—Stone-cutting Machinery.—Carving.—Dressing.—Drilling.—Tunnels.—Wonderful + Work of Stone-Boring Machine on + Pillars of Ohio State Capitol.—Stone Drills and Compressed Air.—Hell + Gate.—Crushing Stones and Ores.—Blake’s Crusher.—“Road + Metal.”—Different Form of Crushers.—Assorting Coal.—Steam + and Coal, strong Brothers.—Compressed Air for Mining + Machinery.—Mighty Picks Driven by Air.—Electric Motor.—Machines + for Screening, Loading, and Weighing.—Ore Mills.—Separators.—Centrifugal + Action.—Ore Washing.—Amalgamators: Electric, Lead, + Mercury, Plate, Vacuum, Vapour, etc.—The Revolution in + Mining.—Well Boring an Ancient Art.—Artesian Wells.—Coal + Oil and Coal Wells.—Preceded by Discovery of Paraffine and its + Uses.—Reichenbach, Young.—Petroleum Discovery.—New + Industry.—Col. Drake and First Oil Well.—Sudden Riches of + Farmers.—Boring Water Wells.—Green’s Driven Wells.—The + Deserts Made to Bloom as the Rose. +</td><td class="tdr vb">373</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXV">CHAPTER XXV.</a><br><br>HOROLOGY AND INSTRUMENTS OF PRECISION.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +Time Measuring Instruments of Antiquity.—Sun-dial.—Clepsydra, + Hour-glass, Graduated Candle.—Plato’s Bell.—The Clepsydra + of Ctesibius.—Incense Sticks of Chinese.—Sun-dials of Greeks + and Romans.—Candles of Alfred the Great.—Wonderful Clocks + of the Middle Ages.—Henry de Vick of France, 1370.—Two + Hundred Years without Advance.—Astronomers, Brache and + Valherius.—1525, Zech’s Fusee.—Progenitors of Modern Watch, + 1500.—1582, Swinging Lamp of Galileo.—1639, Galileo’s + Book.—Huygens and the Pendulum.—Dr. Hooke’s and David Ramsey’s + Inventions.—Hair-Spring Balances.—George the Third’s Small + Time-Piece.—Eighteenth Century Division of Time Pieces into + Hours, Minutes and Seconds.—Stem Winders.—Astronomical + Discoveries and Chronometers.—Dutch, Leading Clockmakers; + Germany, Switzerland.—Systems Followed in these Countries.—Minute + Sub-divisions of Labour.—Watch and Clock Making in the United + States.—American System.—Wonderful Machines for every Part.—Watch + factories.—Pope’s Simile.—Revolution in Nineteenth + Century.—Electric System.—4000 Patents in U.S. since + 1800.—Registering Devices.—“A Mechanical Conscience.”—Cash + Registers.—Voting Machines.—Electrical Recorders.—Cyclometers.—Speed + Indicators.—Weighing Scales and Machines, History of.—The + Fairbanks of Vermont, 1831.—Platform and other Scales.—Spring + Weighing.—Automatic Recorders of Weight and Prices.—Testing + Machines, English, German, American.—The Emery Scales.—Gages, + Dynamometers.—Hydraulic Testing.—Delicate Operations.—Strength + of a Horse-hair and Great Steel Beam, Tested by Same + Machine.—Effect on Public Works. +</td><td class="tdr vb">384</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVI">CHAPTER XXVI.</a><br><br>MUSIC, ACOUSTICS, OPTICS, PHOTOGRAPHY, FINE ARTS.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +Musical Instruments Old as Religion.—Abounded before the Lyre + of Apollo or the Harp of Orpheus.—Their Evolution.—To Meet + Wants and Growing Tastes.—Nineteenth Century and the Laws + of Helmholtz.—The Story of the Piano, the Queen, Involves + whole History of the Art of Music.—Ancient Harp and + Growth.—Psaltery and Dulcimer of Assyrians and Hebrews.—No + Inventions by Greeks and Romans in this Art.—Fifteenth + Century and the Clavicitherium.—Sixteenth Century, the Virginal + and the Spinet.—Seventeenth Century, the Clavichord and + Harpsichord.—Italian Cembello.—Bach, Mozart, Handel, + Haydn.—Cristofori of Florence, Schreiber of Germany and Modern + Piano.—Eighteenth Century, Pianos of Broadwood and Clementi + of London, Erard of Strasburg, Petzold of Paris and Others.—Two + Thousand Years Taken to Ripen the Modern Piano.—Description of + Piano Parts.—Helmholtz’s Great Work, 1862.—Effect on System of + Music and Musical Instruments.—The Organ, King in the Realm of + Music.—History of, from Earliest Times.—Improvements of the + Nineteenth Century.—The Auto-harp.—Self-playing Instruments.—The + Science of Acoustics and Practical Applications.—Auricular + Tubes.—Telephone, Phonograph, Graphophone, Gramophone.—Their + Evolution and their Inventors.—Optical Instruments.—Their + Growth.—Lippersheim, Galileo, Lieberkulm, John Dolland.—The + Improvements and Inventors of the Nineteenth Century.—Brewster + and the Kaleidoscope, Stereoscope.—Lenticular Lenses.—Lighthouse + Illumination.—Faraday and Tyndall.—Abbé Moigno’s + Troubles.—Ophthalmoscope.—Spectroscope.—Making of Great + Lenses.—Solarmeter.—Measuring the Position and Distances of Unseen + Objects.—Light Converted into Music.—Daguerre and + Photography.—History and Development.—Colour + Reproduction.—Pencils.—Painting.—Air Brushes.—Telegraphic Photographs. +</td><td class="tdr vb">400</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVII">CHAPTER XXVII.</a><br><br>SAFES AND LOCKS.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +Safes, how Constructed before this Century.—Classification.—Century + Starts out to Make Safes Fireproof.—Scott in 1801.—Marr, + 1834.—Result of Great Fire in New York, 1835.—Wilder’s and + Herring’s Safes.—Burglar-proof Safes, 1835.—Chubb, Newton, + Thompson, Hall, Marvin and Others.—Electricity.—Seal Locks + from 1815.—Locks of Various Kinds in Ancient Days.—Of + Ponderous Size.—Key of the House of David.—Lock of Penelope’s + House.—Locks of the Middle Ages.—Letter Locks of the Dutch, + 1650.—Carew’s Verse.—Eighteenth Century Locks.—Tumblers.—Joseph + Bramah’s Locks.—Combination, Permutation and Time Locks.—Yale + Locks.—Modern Locks Invented for Special Uses.—Master or + Secondary Key Locks.—Value of Simple, Cheap, Effective + Locks.—Mail Locks and Others.—Greater General Security for + Property of all Kinds now Obtained. +</td><td class="tdr vb">420</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVIII">CHAPTER XXVIII.</a><br><br>CARRIAGES AND CARRYING MACHINES GENERALLY.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +Review of Conveyances from Time of Ptolemy’s Great Procession, + 270 B. C., until Nineteenth Century.—The Old Stage Coaches.—Coaches + of the Rich, the Middle Classes and the Poor.—The Past Art + Compared with the Art as Exhibited at Centennial Exhibition + in 1876 at Philadelphia.—The Varieties of Different Vehicles + there Displayed by Different Nations.—Velocipedes and + Bicycles.—1800 to 1869.—French, German, English, Scotch.—The + “Draisine” of Von Drais, 1816.—Johnson’s “Curricle,” + 1818.—Gompertz’s “Dandy” and “Hobby Horse,” 1821.—Michaux’s, + 1863.—Lallement’s of France, 1866, Crank and Pedal.—America + and Europe Adopts it, 1866, 1869.—Pneumatic Rubber Tire + Invented by Thomson, 1845.—Sleeps Forty Years.—Improvements + since 1869.—Motor Vehicles and Automobiles.—Traction + Engines.—Brakes, Railway, Air and Electric.—Automatic Couplers, + Buffers, and Vestibule Trains. +</td><td class="tdr vb">428</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIX">CHAPTER XXIX.</a><br><br>SHIPS AND SHIP BUILDING.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +“Ships are but Boards.”—“The Great Harry.”—Noah’s Ark the + Prototype of the Modern “Whale-back.”—Phœnicians.—Northmen.—Dutch, + French, English, and American Types.—Nineteenth Century, + the Yankee Clippers.—Donald McKay.—“Great Republic.”—Steam as + Motive Power in Ships the Leading Event in the Art.—Lord + Dundas and Steam Canal Boats.—Iron Ships in Place of Wood, + 1829-30.—John Laird of Birkenhead.—Sir William Fairbairn.—Clyde + Works.—Comparison of Wood and Iron.—1844, the Great + Britain.—John Ericsson.—Monitor and Merrimac.—Composite Style of + Vessels.—Marine Propulsion.—Paddle Wheels.—Screws.—1804, John + Stevens.—1807, Fulton.—Screw Propeller of Ericsson.—The Ogden, + the Stockton and the Princeton, the First Naval Warship of its + Kind.—The Two Revolutions Produced by Ericsson.—Pneumatic + Propellers.—Description of a Warship.—The Deutschland.—Torpedo + Boats.—Franklin and Oil on the Waves.—Air Ships.—Count + Zeppelin’s Boat.—Other Plans of Air Navigation.—The + Problems to be Solved. +</td><td class="tdr vb">438</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXX">CHAPTER XXX.</a><br><br>ILLUMINATING GAS.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +What Artificial Light has done for Man.—Its Condition before + the Nineteenth Century.—Experiments of Dr. Clayton, Hon. R. + Boyle, Dr. Hales, Bishop Watson, Lord Dundonald, Dr. Rickel, + and William Murdock in Eighteenth Century.—1801, Le Bon Makes + Gas, Proposes to Light Paris.—1803, English Periodicals + Discuss the Subject.—1806, Melville of Newport, U. S., Lights + House and Street.—1817, First Lighthouse Lit by Gas.—The + Beaver Tail on Atlantic Coast.—Parliament in 1813, London Streets + Lit in 1815, Paris, 1820, American Cities 1816-25.—Gas + Processes.—Chemistry.—Priestley and Dalton.—Berthollet, + Graham, and Others.—Clegg of England and his Gas Machines.—Art + Revolutionised by Invention of Water Gas, 1823-1847.—Donovan, + Lowe, White.—T. S. C. Lowe, Anthracite Process, 1873.—Competition + with Electricity.—Siemens’ Regenerative System.—The Generators, + Carburetors, Retorts, Mixers, Purifiers, Meters, Scrubbers, + Holders, Condensers, Governors, Indicators, Registers, Chargers, + Pressure Regulators, etc.—Portable Gas Apparatus.—Argand + Burners.—Acetylene Gas.—Calcium Carbide.—Magnesium.—Bunsen + Burner and Welsbach Mantle. +</td><td class="tdr vb">450</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXI">CHAPTER XXXI.</a><br><br>POTTERY, PLASTICS, PORCELAINS, STONEWARE, GLASS, RUBBER, CELLULOID.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="spaceUnder"> +<td class="tdl"> +Brickmaking from the Earliest Ages to Nineteenth Century.—Pottery, + its Origin Unknown.—Its Evolution.—Women the First Inventors + in Ceramic and Textile Arts.—Progress of Man Traced in + Pottery.—Review of Pottery from Time of Homer to the Wedgwood + Ware of Eighteenth Century.—Labour-Saving Devices of + Nineteenth.—Operations in Brickmaking and Machinery.—The + Celebrated Pug Mill, the Pioneer.—Moulding and Pressing.—Drying + and Burning.—The Slow Growth of Methods.—Useful Contrivances + never wholly Supplanted.—Modern Heat Distributors.—Hoffman’s + Kilns.—Wedgwood’s Pottery in Eighteenth.—Siemens’ Regenerators + in Nineteenth, and other Kilns.—Susan Frackelton’s.—The + Filter Press.—Chinese and French Porcelains—Battam’s Imitations + of Marbles and Plaster Moulds.—Faience.—Porcelain Moulding + and Colours.—Atomisers and Backgrounds.—Rookwood Pottery and + Miss Fry.—Enamelled Ware.—Artificial Stone.—Modern + Cements.—Glass the Sister of Pottery.—The Inventors of + Blowing, Cutting, Trimming by Shears and Diamond Cutting, Ancient + and Unknown.—Glass Windows and Mirrors Unknown to the Poor Prior + to Eighteenth Century.—The Nineteenth Century the Scientific + Age of Glass.—Its Commercial Development.—Crystal Palace of + 1851.—Description of Modern Discoveries.—Materials.—Colours + and Faraday’s Discovery in 1824.—Gaffield’s Extensive + Experiments in Producing Colours.—The German Glass Works at + Jena of Abbe and Schott.—Methods Followed for Different + Varieties.—Machines for Different Purposes.—Cut Glass and + other Beautiful Ware.—Cameo Cutting.—Porcelain + Electroplating.—Rubber, History of, in Seventeenth, Eighteenth + and Nineteenth Centuries.—Sketch of Goodyear.—His Inventions + and Present State of the Art.—Glass Wool of Volcano of + Kilauea and Krupp’s Blast Furnaces. +</td><td class="tdr vb">457</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p class="center xbig">INVENTIONS IN THE CENTURY.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_1" id="PAGE_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a><br><br> +<span class="sub"> +INTRODUCTORY—INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES—THEIR +DEVELOPMENT.</span></h2> + + +<p>In treating of the subject of Inventions it is proper +to distinguish them from their scientific kindred—Discoveries.</p> + +<p>The history of inventions is the history of new +and useful contrivances made by man for practical +purposes. The history of scientific discoveries is the +record of new things found in Nature, its laws, +forces, or materials, and brought to light, as they +exist, either singly, or in relation, or in combination.</p> + +<p>Thus Galileo invented the telescope, and Newton +discovered the law of gravitation. The practical +use of the invention when turned to the heavenly +bodies served to confirm the truth of the discovery.</p> + +<p>Discovery and invention may be, and often are, +united as the soul is to the body. The union of the +two produces one or more inventions. Thus the invented +electro-telegraph consists of the combination +of discoveries of certain laws of electricity with +an apparatus, by which signs are communicated to +distances by electrical influence.</p> + +<p>Inventions and discoveries do not precede or follow +each other in order. The instrument may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_2" id="PAGE_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> +made before the laws which govern its operation are +discovered. The discovery may long precede its +adaptation in physical form, and both the discovery +and adaptation may occur together.</p> + +<p>Among the great <i>inventions</i> of the past are alphabetical +writing, Arabic notation, the mariner’s compass, +the telescope, the printing-press, and the steam-engine. +Among the great <i>discoveries</i> of the past +are the attraction of gravitation, the laws of planetary +motion, the circulation of the blood, and velocity +of light. Among the great inventions of the nineteenth +century are the spectroscope, the electric +telegraph, the telephone, the phonograph, the railways, +and the steam-ships. Among the great discoveries +of this century are the correlation and conservation +of forces, anæsthetics, laws of electrical +energy, the germ theory of disease, the molecular +theory of gases, the periodic law of Mendeljeff in +chemistry, antiseptic surgery, and the vortex theory +of matter. This short enumeration will serve to indicate +the different roads along which inventions and +the discoveries of science progress.</p> + +<p>By many it is thought that the inventions and discoveries +of the nineteenth century exceed in number +and importance all the achievements of the kind in all +the ages of the past.</p> + +<p>So marvellous have been these developments of +this century that, not content with sober definitions, +men have defined <i>invent</i>, even when speaking +only of mechanical productions, as “creating what +had not before existed;” and this period has +been described as an age of new creations. The +far-off cry of the Royal Preacher, “There is no +new thing under the sun: Is there anything whereof +it may be said, see this is new, it hath been already<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_3" id="PAGE_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> +of old time which was before us,” is regarded as a cry +of satiety and despair, finding no responsive echo in +the array of inventions of this bright age.</p> + +<p>But in one sense the Preacher’s words are ever profoundly +true. The forces and materials of Nature +always exist, awaiting man’s discovery, and at best +he can but vary their relations, re-direct their course, +or change their forms. In a still narrower sense the +truth of the Preacher’s declaration is apparent:—</p> + +<p>In an address before the Anthropological Society +of Washington in 1885, the late Prof. F. A. Seely, of +the United States Patent Office, set forth that it was +one of the established laws of Invention, that,</p> + +<p>“Every human invention has sprung from some +prior invention, or from some prior known expedient.”</p> + +<p>Inventions, he said, do not, like their protectress, +Pallas Athene, spring forth full grown from the +heads of their authors; that both as to modern inventions +and as to those whose history is unrecorded, +each exhibits in itself the evidence of a similar sub-structure; +and that, “in the process of elimination +we go back and back and find no resting place till we +reach the rude set of expedients, the original endowment +of men and brutes alike.”</p> + +<p>Inventions, then, are not creations, but the evolution +of man-made contrivances.</p> + +<p>It may be remarked, however, as was once said +by William H. Seward: “The exercise of the inventive +faculty is the nearest akin to that of the +Creator of any faculty possessed by the human mind; +for while it does not create in the same sense that the +Creator did, yet it is the nearest approach to it of +anything known to man.”</p> + +<p>There is no history, rock-record, or other evidence<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_4" id="PAGE_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> +of his existence as man, which discloses a period when +he was not an inventor.</p> + +<p>Invention is that divine spark which drove, and +still drives him to the production of means to meet +his wants, while it illuminates his way. From that +inward spark must have soon followed the invention +of that outer fire to warm and cheer him, and to melt +and mould the earth to his desires. Formed for society, +the necessity of communication with his fellows +developed the power of speech. Speech developed +written characters and alphabets. Common +communication developed concert of action, and from +concert of action sprung the arts of society.</p> + +<p>But the evolution of invention has not been uniform. +Long periods of slowness and stagnation have +alternated with shorter or longer periods of prolific +growth, and these with seasons of slumber and repression.</p> + +<p>Thus, Prof. Langley has said that man was thousands +of years, and possibly millions, in evolving a +cutting edge by rubbing one stone on another; but +only a few thousand years to next develop bronze +tools, and a still shorter period tools of iron.</p> + +<p>We cannot say how long the period was from the +age of iron tools to the building of the pyramids, but +we know that before those stupendous structures +arose, the six elementary mechanical powers, the +lever, the wheel, the pulley, the inclined plane, the +wedge and the screw, were invented. And without +those powers, what mechanical tool or machine has +since been developed? The age of inventions in the +times of the ancients rested mainly upon simple applications +of these mechanical powers. The middle ages +slumbered, but on the coming of the fifteenth and sixteenth +centuries, the inventions of the ancients were<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_5" id="PAGE_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> +revived, new ones added, and their growth and development +extended with ever-increasing speed to the +present time.</p> + +<p>The inventions of the nineteenth century, wonderful +and innumerable as they are, and marvellous +in results produced, are but the fruit of the seed sown +in the past, and the blossom of the buds grown upon +the stalks of former generations. The early crude +stone hatchet has become the keen finished metal implement +of to-day, and the latter involves in itself the +culmination of a long series of processes for converting +the rough ore into the hard and glistening +steel.</p> + +<p>The crooked and pointed stick with which the +Egyptian turned the sands of the Nile has slowly +grown to be the finished plough that is now driven +through the sod by steam.</p> + +<p>The steam-operated toys of Hero of Alexandria +were revived in principle and incorporated in the +engines of Papin and the Marquis of Worcester in +the seventeenth century; and the better engines of +Savery, Newcomen, and more especially of James +Watt in the eighteenth century, left the improvements +in steam-engines of the nineteenth century—great +as they are—inventions only in matter of detail.</p> + +<p>It has been said that electrical science began with +the labours of Dr. Gilbert, published in 1600. These, +with the electrical discoveries and inventions of Gray, +Franklin, Galvani, and others in the next century, +terminating with the invention of his battery by +Volta in 1800, constituted the framework on which +was built that world of flashing light and earth-circling +messages in which we now live.</p> + +<p>The study of inventions in any one or all eras can<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_6" id="PAGE_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>not +proceed intelligently unless account is taken not +only of their mode of construction, and of their evolution +one from another, but of the evolution of distinct +arts, their relation, their interdependence in +growth, and their mutual progress.</p> + +<p>The principles adopted by the ancients in weaving +and spinning by hand are those still in force; but +so great was the advance of inventions from hand-operated +mechanisms to machines in these and other +arts, and especially in steam, in the last half of the +eighteenth century, that it has been claimed that the +age of machine production or invention then for the +first time really began.</p> + +<p>When the humble lift became the completed elevator +of to-day, the “sky-scraper” buildings appeared; +but these buildings waited upon the invention +of their steel skeletons, and the steel was the +child of the Bessemer process.</p> + +<p>The harp with which David stirred the dead soul +of Saul was the prototype of the sweet clavichord, +the romantic virginal, the tinkling harpsichord, and +the grand piano. The thrumming of the chords by +the fingers was succeeded by the striking keys; and +the more perfect rendition of tones awaited the application +of new discoveries in the realm of musical +sounds. The keys and the levers in the art of musical +instruments were transferred to the art of printing, +and are found to-day striking a more homely +music on the type-writer and on those other and more +wonderful printing instruments that mould, and set, +and distribute the type. But these results of later +days did not reach their perfected operations and +forms until many other arts had been discovered and +developed, by which to treat and improve the wood, and +the wire, and all the other materials of which those<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_7" id="PAGE_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> +early instruments were composed, and by which the +underlying principles of their operations became +known.</p> + +<p>Admitting that man possesses the faculty of invention, +what are the motives that induce its exercise? +Why so prolific in inventions now? And will they +continue to increase in number and importance, or +decrease?</p> + +<p>An interesting treatise of bulky dimensions might +be written in answer to these queries, and the answers +might not then be wholly satisfactory. Space permits +the submission of but a few observations and +suggestions on these points:——</p> + +<p><i>Necessity</i> is still the mother of inventions, but not +of all of them. The pressing needs of man in fighting +nakedness and hunger, wild beasts and storms, +may have driven him to the production of most of his +early contrivances; but as time went on and his +wants of every kind multiplied, other factors than +mere necessity entered into the problem, and now it +is required to account for the multiplicity of inventions +under the general head of <i>Wants</i>.</p> + +<p>To-day it is the want of the luxuries, as well as of +the necessities of life, the want of riches, distinction, +power, and place, the wants of philanthropy and the +wants of selfishness, and that restless, inherent, unsatisfied, +indescribable want which is ever pushing +man onward on the road of progress, that must be regarded +as the springs of invention.</p> + +<p><i>Accident</i> is thought to be the fruitful source of +great inventions. It is a factor that cannot be ignored. +But accidents are only occasional helps, +rarely occurring,—flashes of light suddenly revealing +the end of the path along which the inventor has +been painfully toiling, and unnoticed except by him<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_8" id="PAGE_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> +alone. They are sudden discoveries which for the +most part simply shorten his journey. The rare complete +contrivance revealed by accident is not an invention +at all, but a discovery.</p> + +<p>The greatest incentive in modern times to the production +of inventions is governmental protection.</p> + +<p>When governments began to recognize the right of +property in inventions, and to devise and enforce +means by which their author should hold and enjoy +the same, as he holds his land, his house, or his horse, +then inventions sprung forth as from a great unsealed +fountain.</p> + +<p>This principle first found recognition in England +in 1623, when parliament, stung by the abuse of the +royal prerogative in the grant of exclusive personal +privileges that served to crush the growth of inventions +and not to multiply them, by its celebrated +Statute of Monopolies, abolished all such privileges, +but excepted from its provisions the grant of patents +“for the sole working or making of any manner of +new manufactures within this realm to the true and +first inventor” thereof.</p> + +<p>This statute had little force, however, in encouraging +and protecting inventors until the next century, +and until after the great inventions of Arkwright in +spinning and James Watt in steam-engines had been +invaded, and the attention of the courts called more +seriously thereby to the property rights of inventors, +and to the necessity of a liberal exposition of the law +and its proper enforcement.</p> + +<p>Then followed in 1789 the incorporation of that +famous provision in the Constitution of the United +States, declaring that Congress shall have the power +“To promote the progress of science and useful arts +by securing for limited times to authors and inventors<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_9" id="PAGE_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> +the exclusive right to their respective writings +and discoveries.”</p> + +<p>In 1791 followed the law of the National Assembly +of France for the protection of new inventions, +setting forth in the preamble, among other +things, “that not to regard an industrial invention +as the property of its author would be to attack the +essential rights of man.”</p> + +<p>These fundamental principles have since been +adopted and incorporated in their laws by all the nations +of the earth.</p> + +<p>Inventions in their nature being for the good of all +men and for all time, it has been deemed wise by +all nations in their legislation not to permit the inventor +to lock up his property in secret, or confine it +to his own use; and hence the universal practice is +to enact laws giving him, his heirs, and assigns, exclusive +ownership to this species of his property for +a limited time only, adjudged sufficient to reward +him for his efforts in its production, and to encourage +others in like productions; while he, in consideration +for this protection, is to fully make known his +invention, so that the public may be enabled to freely +make and use it after its exclusive ownership shall +have expired.</p> + +<p>In addition to the motives and incentives mentioned +inducing this modern mighty outflow of inventions, +regard must be had to the conditions of personal, +political and intellectual freedom, and of education. +There is no class of inventors where the +mass of men are slaves; and when dense ignorance +abounds, invention sleeps.</p> + +<p>In the days of the greatest intellectual freedom of +Greece, Archimedes, Euclid, and Hero, its great +inventors, flourished; but when its political <i>status</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_10" id="PAGE_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +had reduced the mass of citizens to slaves, when the +work of the artisan and the inventor was not appreciated +beyond the gift of an occasional crown of laurel, +when manual labour and the labourer were scorned, +inventions were not born, or, if born, found no +nourishment to prolong their lives.</p> + +<p>In Rome, the labourer found little respect beyond +the beasts of burden whose burdens he shared, and the +inventor found no provision of fostering care or protection +in her mighty jurisprudence. The middle +ages carefully repressed the minds of men, and hid +away in dark recesses the instruments of learning. +When men at length awoke to claim their birthright +of freedom, they invented the printing-press and rediscovered +gunpowder, with which to destroy the +tyranny of both priests and kings. Then arose +the modern inventor, and with him came the freedom +and the arts of civilisation which we now enjoy.</p> + +<p>What the exercise of free and protected invention +has brought to this century is thus summarised by +Macaulay:</p> + +<p>“It has lengthened life; it has mitigated pain; +has extinguished diseases; has increased the fertility +of the soil; given new security to the mariner; furnished +new arms to the warrior; spanned great +rivers and estuaries with bridges of form unknown +to our fathers; it has guided the thunderbolt innocuously +from heaven to earth; it has lighted up the +night with splendour of the day; it has extended the +range of human vision; it has multiplied the power +of the human muscles; it has accelerated motion; +it has annihilated distance; it has facilitated intercourse, +correspondence, all friendly offices, all despatch +of business; it has enabled man to descend to +the depths of the sea, to soar into the air, to penetrate<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_11" id="PAGE_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +securely into the noxious recesses of the earth; to +traverse the land in carts which whirl along without +horses; to cross the ocean in ships which run many +knots an hour against the wind. Those are but a part +of its fruits, and of its first fruits, for it is a philosophy +which never rests, which is never perfect. +Its law is progress. A point which yesterday was invisible +is its goal to-day, and will be its starting +point to-morrow.”</p> + +<p>The onward flow of inventions may be interrupted, +if not materially stayed, by the cessation of some of +the causes and incentives which now give them life. +When comfort for all and rest for all, and a suitable +division of labour, and an equal distribution of its +fruits are reached, in that state of society which is +pictured in the visions of the social philosopher, or +as fast as such conditions are reached, so soon will +cease the pricking of those spurs of invention,—individual +rewards, the glorious strife of competition, +the harrowing necessities, and the ambitions for +place and power. If all are to co-operate and share +alike, what need of exclusive protection and fierce +and individual struggle? Why not sit down now and +break the loaf and share it, and pour the wine, and +enjoy things as they are, without a thought for the +morrow?</p> + +<p>The same results as to inventions may be reached +in different but less pleasant ways: When all the industries +are absorbed by huge combinations of capital +the strife of competition among individuals, and the +making of individual inventions to meet such competition, +will greatly disappear. Or, the same +results may be effected by stringent laws of labour +organisations, in restricting or repressing all individual +independent effort, prescribing what shall be<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_12" id="PAGE_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> +done or what shall not be done along certain lines of +manufacture or employment. So that the progress +of future inventions depends on the outcome of the +great economic, industrial, and social battles which +are now looming on the pathway of the future.</p> + +<p>But what the inventions of the nineteenth century +were and what they have done for Humanity, +is a chapter that must be read by all those now living +or to come who wish to learn the history of their +race. It is a story which gathers up all the threads +of previous centuries and weaves them into a fabric +which must be used in all the coming ages in the attainment +of their comforts, their adornments, and +their civilisations.</p> + +<p>To enumerate all the inventions of the century +would be like calling up a vast army of men and proclaiming +the name of each. The best that can be +done is to divide the wide field into chapters, and in +these chapters give as best one may an idea of the +leading inventions that have produced the greatest +industries of the World.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_13" id="PAGE_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a><br><br> +<span class="sub">AGRICULTURE AND ITS IMPLEMENTS.</span></h2> + + +<p>The Egyptians were the earliest and greatest agriculturists, +and from them the art was learned by the +Greeks. Greece in the days of her glory greatly improved +the art, and some of her ablest men wrote valuable +treatises on its different topics. Its farmers +thoroughly ploughed and fertilised the soil, used various +implements for its cultivation, paid great attention +to the raising of fruits,—the apple, pear, cherry, +plum, quince, peach, lemon, fig and many other +varieties suitable to their climate, and improved the +breeds of cattle, horse and sheep. When, however, +social pride and luxurious city life became the dominant +passions, agriculture was left to menials, and +the art gradually faded with the State. Rome in her +best days placed farming in high regard. Her best +writers wrote voluminously on agricultural subjects, +a tract of land was allotted to every citizen, which was +carefully cultivated, and these citizen farmers were +her worthiest and most honoured sons. The condition +and needs of the soil were studied, its strength replenished +by careful fertilisation, and it was worked +with care. There were ploughs which were made +heavy or light as the different soils required, and +there were a variety of farm implements, such as +spades, hoes, harrows and rakes. Grains, such as +wheat, barley, rye and oats, were raised, a variety of +fruits and vegetables, and great attention paid to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_14" id="PAGE_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>the breeding of stock. Cato and Varro, Virgil and +Columella, Pliny and Palladius delighted to instruct +the farmer and praise his occupation.</p> + +<p>But as the Roman Empire grew, its armies absorbed +its intelligent farmers, the tilling of the soil +was left to the menial and the slave, and the Empire +and agriculture declined together.</p> + +<p>Then came the hordes of northern barbarians pouring +in waves over the southern countries and burying +from sight their arts and civilisation. The gloom of +the middle ages then closed down upon the European +world. Whatever good may have been accomplished +in other directions by the crusades, agriculture +reached its lowest ebb, save in those instances where +the culture of the soil received attention from monastic +institutions.</p> + +<p>The sixteenth century has been fixed upon as the +time when Europe awoke from its long slumber. +Then it was after the invention of the printing press +had become well established that publications on agriculture +began to appear. The <i>Boke of Husbandrie</i>, +in 1523, by Sir Anthony Fitzherbert; +Thomas Tusser’s <i>Five Hundred Points of Good +Husbandry</i>; Barnaby Googe’s <i>The Whole Art of +Husbandry</i>; <i>The Jewel House of Art and Nature</i>, +by Sir Hugh Platt; the <i>English Improver</i> of +Walter Blithe, and the writings of Sir Richard +Weston on the husbandry of Brabant and Flanders, +were the principal torches by which the light on this +subject was handed down through the sixteenth and +seventeenth centuries. Further awakening was had +in the eighteenth century, the chief part of which +was given by Jethro Tull, an English agriculturist, +who lived, and wrote, and laboured in the cause between +1680 and 1740. Tull’s leading idea was the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_15" id="PAGE_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +thorough pulverisation of the soil, his doctrines being +that plants derived their nourishment from +minute particles of soil, hence the need of its pulverisation. +He invented and introduced a horse hoe, +a grain drill, and a threshing machine.</p> + +<p>Next appeared Arthur Young, of England, born in +1741, whose life was extended into the 19th century, +and to whom the world was greatly indebted +for the spread of agricultural knowledge. He devoted +frequent and long journeys to obtaining information +on agricultural subjects, and his writings attracted +the attention and assistance of the learned +everywhere. His chief work was the making known +widely of the beneficial effects of ammonia and ammoniacal +compounds on vegetation. Many other useful +branches of the subject, clearly treated by him, +are found in his <i>Annals of Agriculture</i>. It was +this same Arthur Young with whom Washington +corresponded from his quiet retreat at Mount Vernon. +After the close of the War of Independence in 1783 +and before the adoption of the Constitution in 1789 +and his elevation to the Presidency in that year, +Washington devoted very much of his time to the +cultivation of his large estate in Virginia. He took +great interest in every improvement in agriculture +and its implements. He invented a plough and a +rotary seed drill, improved his harrows and mills, +and made many inquiries relative to the efficacy +of ploughs and threshing machines made +in England and other parts of Europe. It was +during this period that he opened an interesting +correspondence with Young on improvements +in agriculture, which was carried on even while +he was President, and he availed himself of the +proffer of Young’s services to fill an order for seeds<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_16" id="PAGE_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +and two ploughs from a London merchant. He +also wrote to Robert Cary & Co., merchants in +London, concerning an engine he had heard of as +being constructed in Switzerland, for pulling up +trees and their stumps by the roots, and ordered one +to be sent him if the machine were efficient.</p> + +<p>Jefferson, Washington’s great contemporaneous +statesman and Virginia planter, and to whom has +been ascribed the chief glory of the American patent +system, himself also an inventor, enriched his +country by the full scientific knowledge he had +gained from all Europe of agricultural pursuits and +improvements.</p> + +<p>The progress of the art, in a fundamental sense, +that is in a knowledge of the constituents, properties, +and needs of the soil, commenced with the investigations +of Sir Humphry Davy at the close of the 18th +century, resulting in his celebrated lectures before +the Board of Agriculture from 1802 to 1812, and +his practical experiments in the growth of plants and +the nature of fertilisers. Agricultural societies and +boards were a characteristic product of the eighteenth +century in Europe and America. But this birth, or +revival of agricultural studies, the enthusiastic interest +taken therein by its great and learned men, +and all its valuable publications and discoveries, bore +comparatively little fruit in that century. The ignorance +and prejudice of the great mass of farmers +led to a determined, and in many instances violent resistance +to the introduction of labour-saving machinery +and the practical application of what they called +“book-farming.” A fear of driving people out of +employment led them to make war upon new agricultural +machines and their inventors, as they had +upon weaving and spinning inventions. This war<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_17" id="PAGE_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> +was more marked in England than elsewhere, because +there more of the new machines were first introduced, +and the number of labourers in those fields +was the greatest. In America the ignorance took the +milder shape of contempt and prejudice. Farmers +refused, for instance, to use cast-iron ploughs as it +was feared they would poison the soil.</p> + +<p>So slow was the invention and introduction of new +devices, that if Ruth had revisited the earth at the beginning +of the nineteenth century, she might have +seen again in the fields of the husbandmen everywhere +the sickle of the reapers behind whom she gleaned in +the fields of Boaz, heard again the beating on the +threshing floor, and felt the old familiar rush of the +winnowing wind. Cincinnatus returning then would +have recognised the plough in common use as about the +same in form as that which he once abandoned on his +farm beyond the Tiber.</p> + +<p>But with the spread of publications, the extension +of learning, the protection now at last obtained and +enforced for inventions, and with the foundations +laid and the guide-posts erected in nearly every art +and science by previous discoverers, inventors and +writers, the century was now ready to start on that +career of inventions which has rendered it so glorious.</p> + +<p>As the turning over and loosening of the sod and +the soil for the reception of seed was, and still is the +first step in the art of agriculture, the plough is the +first implement to be considered in this review.</p> + +<p>A plough possesses five essential features,—a frame +or beam to which the horses are attached and which is +provided with handles by which the operator guides +the plough, a share to sever the bottom of a slice +of land—the furrow—from the land beneath, a mould +board following the share to turn the furrow over<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_18" id="PAGE_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +to one side, and a landside, the side opposite the +mould board and which presses against the unploughed +ground and steadies the plough. To +these have been commonly added a device called +the coulter, which is a knife or sharp disk +fastened to the frame in advance of the share +and adapted to cut the sod or soil so that the +furrow may be more easily turned, an adjustable +gauge wheel secured to the beam in advance of the +coulter, and which runs upon the surface of the soil +to determine by the distance between the perimeter of +the wheel at the bottom and the bottom of the plough +share the depth of the furrow, and a clevis, which is +an adjustable metal strap attached to the end of the +beam to which the draught is secured, and by which +the pitch of the beam and the depth and width of the +furrow are regulated. The general features, the +beam, handles, and share, have existed in ploughs +from the earliest ages in history. A plough with a +metal share was referred to by the prophecy of Isaiah +seven centuries before Christ, “They shall beat their +swords into plough-shares;” and such a plough with +the coulter and gauge wheel added is found in the +Caylus collection of Greek antiquities. The inventions +of centuries in ploughs have proceeded along the +lines of the elements above enumerated.</p> + +<p>The leading features of the modern plough with a +share and mould board constructed to run in a certain +track and turn its furrows one over against the other, +appear to have originated in Holland in the 18th century, +and from there were made known to England. +James Small of Scotland wrote of and made ploughs +having a cast-iron mould board and cast and wrought +iron shares in 1784-85.</p> + +<p>In America, about the same time, Thos. Jefferson<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_19" id="PAGE_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +studied and wrote upon the proper shape to be given +to the mould board.</p> + +<p>Charles Newbold in 1797 took out the first patent +in the United States for a plough—all parts cast in +one piece of solid iron except the beam and handles.</p> + +<p>It is a favourite idea with some writers and with +more talkers, that when the necessity really arises for +an invention the natural inventive genius of man will +at once supply it. Nothing was more needed and +sought after for thirty centuries among tillers of the +soil than a good plough, and what finally supplied it +was not necessity alone, but improved brains. Long +were the continued efforts, stimulated no doubt in +part by necessity, but stimulated also by other motives, +to which allusion has already been made, and +among which are the love of progress, the hope of +gain, and legislative protection in the possession of +inventive property.</p> + +<p>The best plans of writers and inventors of the +eighteenth century were not fully developed until +the nineteenth, and it can be safely said that within +the last one hundred years a better plough has been +produced than in all of the thousands of years before. +The defects which the nineteenth century’s improvements +in ploughs were designed to remedy can best be +understood by first realising what was the condition +of ploughs in common use when the century opened.</p> + +<p>Different parts of the plough, such as the share and +coulter, were constructed of iron, but the general +practice among farmers was to make the beam and +frame, handles and mould board of strong and heavy +timber. The beam was straight, long, and heavy, +and that and the mould generally hewed from a tree. +The mould board on both sides to prevent its wearing +out too rapidly was covered with more or less thick<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_20" id="PAGE_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +plates of iron. The handles were made from crooked +branches of trees. “The beam,” it is said, “was set +at any pitch that fancy might dictate, with the +handles fastened on almost at right angles with it, +thus leaving the ploughman little control over his implement +which did its work in a very slow and imperfect +manner.” It was some such plough that Lord +Kames complained about in the <i>Gentleman Farmer</i> +in 1768, as being used in Scotland—two horses +and two oxen were necessary to pull it, “the ridges +in the fields were high and broad, in fact enormous +masses of accumulated earth, that could not admit +of cross ploughing or cultivation; shallow ploughing +universal; ribbing, by which half the land was left +untilled, a general practice over the greater part of +Scotland; a continual struggle between the corn and +weeds for superiority.” As late as 1820 an American +writer was making the same complaint. “Your +furrows,” he said, “stand up like the ribs of a lean +horse in the month of March. A lazy ploughman +may sit on the beam and count every bout of his day’s +work; besides the greatest objection to all these +ploughs is that they do not perform the work well +and the expense is enormous for blacksmith work.” +It was complained by another that it took eight or ten +oxen to draw it, a man to ride upon the beam to keep +it on the ground, and a man followed the plough with +a heavy iron hoe to dig up the “baulks.”</p> + +<p>The improvements made in the plough during the +century have had for their object to lessen the great +friction between the wide, heavy, ill-formed share +and mould board, and the ground, which has been accomplished +by giving to the share a sharp clean tapering +form, and to the mould board a shape best calculated +to turn the furrow slice; to improve the line<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_21" id="PAGE_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +of draught so that the pull of the team may be most +advantageously employed, which has been effected +after long trials, study and experiment in the arrangement +of beam, clevis and draft rod, setting the +coulter at a proper angle and giving the landside a +plane and parallel surface; to increase the wear and +lessen the weight of the parts, which has been accomplished +by ingenious processes in treating the +metal of which the parts are composed, and lessening +the number of parts; to render the plough easily +repairable by casting the parts in sets and numbering +them, by which any part may be replaced by the +manufacturer without resort to the blacksmith. In +short there is no part of the plough but what has received +the most careful attention of the inventor. +This has been evidenced by the fact that in the +United States alone nearly eleven thousand patents +on ploughs were issued during the nineteenth century. +When it is considered that all the applications for +these patents were examined as to their novelty, before +the grant of the patent, the enormous amount of +study and invention expended on this article can be +appreciated. Among the century’s improvements in +this line is the use of disks in place of the old shovel +blades to penetrate the earth and revolve in contact +therewith. Cutting disks are harnessed to steam +motors and are adapted to break up at one operation +a wide strip of ground. The long-studied problem +of employing a gang of ploughs to plough back and +forth and successfully operated by steam has been +solved, and electricity is now being introduced as a +motor in place of steam. Thus millions of broad +acres which never would have been otherwise turned +are now cultivated. The tired muscle-strained +ploughman who homeward plodded his weary way at<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_22" id="PAGE_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +night may now comfortably ride at his ease upon the +plough, while at the same time the beasts that pull it +have a lighter load than ever before.</p> + +<p>Next to the plough among the implements for breaking, +clearing and otherwise preparing the soil for the +reception of seed, comes the <i>harrow</i>. From time immemorial +it has been customary to arm some sort of +a frame with wooden or iron spikes to scratch the +earth after the ploughing. But this century has +greatly improved the old constructions. Harrows +are now found everywhere made in sections to give +flexibility to the frame; collected in gangs to increase +the extent of operation; made with disks instead of +spikes, with which to cut the roots of weeds and separate +the soil, instead of merely scratching them. A +still later invention, curved spring teeth, has been +found far superior to spikes or disks in throwing up, +separating and pulverising the soil. A harrow comprising +two ranks of oppositely curved trailing teeth +is especially popular in some countries. These three +distinct classes of harrows, the disk type, the curved +spring tooth type, and gangs of sections of concavo-convex +disks, particularly distinguish this class of implements +from the old forms of previous ages.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_23" id="PAGE_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.</span></h2> + + +<p>It is wonderful for how many generations men +were contented to throw grain into the air as the Parable +relates:</p> + +<p>“Behold, a sower went forth to sow, and when he +sowed some seeds fell by the way side, and the fowls +came and devoured them up: some fell on stony +places where they had not much earth, and forthwith +they sprung up, because they had no deepness of +earth; and when the sun was up they were scorched; +and because they had no root they withered away. +And some fell among thorns and the thorns sprung +up and choked them. But others fell into good +ground and brought forth fruit, some a hundredfold, +some sixtyfold, and some thirtyfold.”</p> + +<p>Here are indicated the defects in depositing the +seed that only the inventions of the century have +fully corrected. The equal distribution of the seed +and not its wide scattering, its sowing in regular +drills or planting at intervals, at certain and uniform +depths, the adaptation of devices to meet the +variations in the land to be planted, and in short the +substitution of quick, certain, positive mechanisms +for the slow, uncertain, variable hand of man. Not +only has the increase an hundredfold been obtained, +but with the machines of to-day the sowing and planting +of a hundredfold more land has been made possible, +the employment of armies of men where idleness +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_24" id="PAGE_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>would have reigned, and the feeding of millions +of people among whom hunger would otherwise have +prevailed. Not only did this machinery not exist +at the beginning of the century, but the agricultural +machines and devices in this line of the character +existing fifty years ago are now discarded as useless +and worthless.</p> + +<p>It is true that, as in the case of the ploughs, attempts +had been made through the centuries to invent +and improve seeding implements. The Assyrians 500 +years B. C. had in use a rude plough in which behind +the sharp wooden plough point was fixed a bowl-shaped +hopper through which seed was dropped into +the furrow, and was covered by the falling back of +the furrow upon it. The Chinese, probably before +that time, had a wheelbarrow arrangement with a +seed hopper and separate seed spouts. In India a +drilling hopper had been attached to a plough. Italy +claims the honour among European nations of first +introducing a machine for sowing grain. It was invented +about the beginning of the seventeenth century +and is described by Zanon in his <i>Work on +Agriculture</i> printed at Venice in 1764. It was a +machine mounted on two wheels, that had a seed box +in the bottom of which was a series of holes opening +into a corresponding number of metal tubes or funnels. +At their front these tubes at their lower ends +were sharpened to make small furrows into which +the seed dropped.</p> + +<p>Similar single machines were in the course of the +seventeenth and eighteenth centuries devised in Austria +and England. The one in Austria was invented +by a Spaniard, one Don Joseph de Lescatello, +tested in Luxembourg in 1662. The inventor was +rewarded by the Emperor, recommended to the King<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_25" id="PAGE_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +of Spain, and in 1663 and 1664 his machines were +made and sold at Madrid. The knowledge of this +Spaniard’s invention was made known in England in +1699 by the Earl of Sandwich and John Evelyn. +Jethro Tull in England shortly after invented and +introduced a combined system of drilling, ploughing +and cultivating. He sowed different seeds from the +same machine, and arranged that they might be covered +at different depths. Tull’s machines were much +improved by James Cooke, a clergyman of Lancashire, +England; and also in the last decade of the +eighteenth century by Baldwin and Wells of Norfolk, +England.</p> + +<p>Washington and others in America had also commenced +to invent and experiment with seeding machines. +But as before intimated, the nineteenth +century found the great mass of farmers everywhere +sowing their wheat and other grains by throwing +them into the air by hand, to be met by the gusts of +wind and blown into hollows and on ridges, on stones +and thorny places,—requiring often a second and +third repetition of the same tedious process.</p> + +<p>In 1878 Mr. Coffin, a distinguished journalist of +Boston, in an address before the Patent Committee +of the U. S. Senate, set forth the advantages obtained +by the modern improvements in seeders as follows:</p> + +<p>“The seeder covers the soil to a uniform depth. +It sows evenly, and sows a specific quantity. You +may graduate it so that, after a little experience, you +can determine the amount per acre even to a quart +of wheat. They sow all kinds of grain,—wheat, +clover, and superphosphate, if need be, at once. +They harrow at the same time. They make the crop +more certain. It is the united testimony of manufacturers +and farmers alike that the crop is increased<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_26" id="PAGE_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +from one-eighth to one-fourth, especially in the winter +wheat. Winter wheat, you are aware, in the +freezing and thawing season, is apt to heave out. It +is desirable to bury the seed a uniform and proper +depth and to throw over the young plant such an +amount of soil that it shall not heave with the freezing +and thawing. Of the 360,000,000 bushels of +wheat raised last year I suppose more than 300,000,000 +was winter wheat. One-eighth of this is 37,700,000 +bushels.”</p> + +<p>It would seem to many that after the adoption +of a seed hopper, and spouts with sharpened ends +that cut the drill rows in the furrows and deposited +the seed therein, that little was left to be done in this +class of inventions; but a great many improvements +were necessary. Gravity alone could not be depended +upon for feeding the seed. Means had to be +devised for a continuous and regular discharge from +each grain tube; for varying the quantity of the seed +fed by varying the escape openings, or by positive +mechanical movements variable in speed; for fixing +accurately the quantity of seed discharged; for +changing the apparatus to feed coarse or fine seed; +and for rendering the apparatus efficient on different +surfaces—steep hillsides, level plains, irregular +lands.</p> + +<p>An important step was the substitution of what is +called the “force feed” for the gravity feed. There +is a variety of devices for this purpose, the principle +of one of them being a revolving feed wheel located +beneath the hopper, and above each spout, the two +casings between which the feed wheel revolves forming +the outer walls of a complete measuring channel, +or throat, through which the grain is carried by the +rotary motion of the wheel, thus providing the means<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_27" id="PAGE_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +of measuring the seed with as much accuracy as could +be done by a small measure. The quantity sown per +acre is governed by simply increasing or diminishing +the speed of the feed wheel. In one form of device +this change of speed is altered by a system of +cone gearing. A graduated flow of the seed has also +been effected by the employment of a cylinder having +a smooth and fluted part working in a cup beneath +the hopper with provision for adjustment of +the smooth part towards and from the fluted part to +cut off or increase the flow.</p> + +<p>To avoid the use of a separate apparatus for separate +sizes of grain and other seed, the seed holder +has been divided into parts—one part for containing +wheat, barley and other medium-sized grains, +and another for corn, peas and the larger seeds. +And as these parts are used on separate occasions, +the respective apertures are opened or closed by a +sliding bottom and by a single movement of the hand.</p> + +<p>Rubber tubes for conducting the seed through the +hollow holes were introduced in place of the metal +spouts that answered both as a spout and a hoe.</p> + +<p>In place of the common hoe drill of a form used +in the early part of the century, the hoes being +forced into the soil by the use of levers and weights, +what are known as “shoe drills” have largely succeeded. +A series of shoes are pivoted to the frame, +extend beneath the seed box, and are provided with +springs for depressing or raising them.</p> + +<p>All kinds of seeds and fertilisers, separately +or together, may be now sown, and the broadcast sowing +of a larger area than that covered by the throw +of the hand can now be given by machinery.</p> + +<p>Corn and cotton seed are thus also planted, mixed +or unmixed with the fertilising material.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_28" id="PAGE_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p> + +<p>Not only have light ploughs been combined with +small seed boxes and one or more seed tubes, for easy +work in gardens, but the arrangements varied and +graded for different uses until is reached that +great machine run by steam power, in which is +assembled a gang of heavy harrows in front to loosen +and pulverise the soil, then the seed and fertilising +drill of capacious width for sowing the grain in rows, +followed by a lighter broad harrow to cover the seed, +and all so arranged that the steam lifts the heavy +frames on turning, and all controlled easily by the +man who rides upon the machine.</p> + +<p>In planting at intervals or in hills, as corn and +potatoes, and other like larger seeds, no longer is the +farmer required to trudge across the wide field carrying +a heavy load in bag or box, or compel his +boys or women folk to drop the seed while he +follows on laboriously with the hoe. He may now +ride, if he so choose, and the machine which carries +him furnishes the motive power for operating the +supply and cut-off of the grain at intervals.</p> + +<p>The object of the farmer in planting corn is to +plant it in straight lines about four feet apart each +way, putting from three to five grains into each spot +in a scattered and not huddled condition. These objects +are together nicely accomplished by a variety +of modern machines.</p> + +<p>The planting of great fields of potatoes has been +greatly facilitated by machinery that first slices +them and then sows the slices continuously in a row, +or drops them in separate spots or hills, as may be desired. +The finest seeds, such as grass and clover, +onion and turnip seed, and delicate seed like rice, +are handled and sown by machines without crushing +or bruising, and with the utmost exactness. Just<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_29" id="PAGE_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> +what seed is necessary to be supplied to the machine +for a given area is decided upon, and the machine +distributes the same with the same nicety that a +doctor distributes the proper dose of pellets upon +the palm of his patient.</p> + +<p>Transplanters as well as planters have been devised. +These transplanters will dig the plant trench, +distribute the fertiliser, set the plant, pack the earth +and water the plant, automatically.</p> + +<p>The class of machines known as cultivators are +those only, properly speaking, which are employed to +cultivate the plant after the crop is above the ground. +The duties which they perform are to loosen the +earth, destroy the weeds, and throw the loosened +earth around the growing plant.</p> + +<p>Here again the laborious hoe has been succeeded +by the labour-saving machine.</p> + +<p>Cultivators have names which indicate their construction +and the crop with which they are adapted +to be used. Thus there are “corn cultivators,” +“cotton cultivators,” “sugar-cane cultivators,” etc. +Riding cultivators are known as “sulky cultivators” +where they are provided with two wheels and a seat +for the driver.</p> + +<p>If worked between two rows they are termed +single, and when between three rows, double cultivators. +A riding cultivator adapted to work three +rows has an arched axle to pass over the rows of +the growing plants and cultivate both sides of the +plants in each row. Double cultivators are constructed +so that their outside teeth may be adjusted +in and out from the centre of the machine to meet +the width of the rows between which they operate. A +“walking cultivator” is when the operator walks and +guides the machine with the hands as with ploughs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_30" id="PAGE_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +Ordinary ploughs are converted into cultivators by +supplying them with double adjustable mould boards. +Ingenious arrangements generally exist for widening +or narrowing the cultivator and for throwing the soil +from the centre of the furrow to opposite sides and +against the plant. The depth to which the shares or +cultivator blades work in the ground may be adjusted +by a gauge wheel upon the draught beam, or a +roller on the back of the frame.</p> + +<p>Disk cultivators are those in which disk blades instead +of ploughs are used with which to disturb the +soil already broken. As with ploughs, so with cultivators, +steam-engines are employed to draw a gang +of cultivating teeth or blades, their framework, and +the operator seated thereon, to and fro across the +field between two or more rows, turning and running +the machine at the end of the rows.</p> + +<p>Millet’s recent celebrated painting represents a +brutal, primitive type of a man leaning heavily on a +hoe as ancient and woful in character as the man +himself. It is a picture of hopeless drudgery and +blank ignorance. Markham, the poet, has seized upon +this picture, dwelt eloquently on its horrors, and +apostrophised it as if it were a condition now existing. +He exclaims,</p> + +<p class="poem"> +<span class="line">“O masters, lords and rulers in all lands</span> +<span class="line">How will the future reckon with this man?”</span> +</p> + + +<p>The present has already reckoned with him, and +he and his awkward implement of drudgery nowhere +exist, except as left-over specimens of ancient and +pre-historic misery occasionally found in some benighted +region of the world.</p> + +<p>The plough and the hoe are the chief implements +with which man has subdued the earth. Their use<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_31" id="PAGE_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +has not been confined to the drudge and the slave, but +men, the leaders and ornaments of their race, have +stood behind them adding to themselves graces, and +crowning labor with dignity. Cincinnatus is only +one of a long line of public men in ancient and modern +times who have served their country in the ploughfield +as well as on the field of battle and in the halls +of Legislation. We hear the song of the poet rising +with that of the lark as he turns the sod. Burns, +lamenting that his share uptears the bed of the “wee +modest crimson-tipped flower” and sorrowing that +he has turned the “Mousie” from its “bit o’ leaves +and stibble” by the cruel coulter. The finest natures, +tuned too fine to meet the rude blasts of the +world, have shrunk like Cowper to rural scenes, and +sought with the hoe among flowers and plants for +that balm and strength unfound in crowded marts.</p> + +<p>But the dignity imparted to the profession of Agriculture +by a few has now by the genius of invention +become the heritage of all.</p> + +<p>While prophets have lamented, and artists have +painted, and poets sorrowed over the drudgeries of the +tillers of the soil, the tillers have steadily and quietly +and with infinite patience and toil worked out their +own salvation. They no longer find themselves +“plundered and profaned and disinherited,” but +they have yoked the forces of nature to their +service, and the cultivation of the earth, the sowing +of the seed, the nourishment of the plant, have become +to them things of pleasurable labour.</p> + +<p>With the aid of these inventions which have been +turned into their hands by the prolific developments +of the century they are, so far as the soil is concerned, +no longer “brothers of the ox,” but king of +kings and lord of lords.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_32" id="PAGE_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS.</span></h2> + + +<p>If the farmer, toward the close of the 18th century, +tired with the sickle and the scythe for cutting +his grass and grain, had looked about for more expeditious +means, he would have found nothing better +for cutting his grass; and for harvesting his grain +he would have been referred to a machine that had +existed since the beginning of the Christian era. This +machine was described by Pliny, writing about A. D. +60, who says that it was used on the plains of +Rhætia. The same machine was described by Palladius +in the fourth century. That machine is substantially +the machine that is used to-day for cutting +and gathering clover heads to obtain the seed. It +is now called a header.</p> + +<p>A machine that has been in use for eighteen centuries +deserves to be described, and its inventor remembered; +but the name of the inventor has been lost +in oblivion. The description of Palladius is as follows:</p> + +<p>“In the plains of Gaul, they use this quick way +of reaping, and without reapers cut large fields with +an ox in one day. For this purpose a machine is +made carried upon two wheels; the square surface +has boards erected at the side, which, sloping outward, +make a wider space above. The board on the +fore part is lower than the others. Upon it there +are a great many small teeth, wide set in a row, answering +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_33" id="PAGE_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>to the height of the ears of corn (wheat), +and turned upward at the ends. On the back part of +the machine two short shafts are fixed like the poles +of a litter; to these an ox is yoked, with his head to +the machine, and the yoke and traces likewise +turned the contrary way. When the machine is +pushed through the standing corn all the ears are +comprehended by the teeth and cut off by them from +the straw and drop into the machine. The driver +sets it higher or lower as he finds it necessary. By +a few goings and returnings the whole field is reaped. +This machine does very well in plain and smooth +fields.”</p> + +<p>As late as 1786 improvements were being attempted +in England on this old Gallic machine. At +that time Pitt, in that country, arranged a cylinder +with combs or ripples which tore off the heads of +the grain-stalks and discharged them into a box on +the machine. From that date until 1800 followed attempts +to make a cutting apparatus consisting of +blades on a revolving cylinder rotated by the rotary +motion of the wheels on which the machine was carried.</p> + +<p>In 1794, a Scotchman invented the grain cradle. +Above the blade of a scythe were arranged a set of +fingers projecting from a post in the scythe snath. +This was considered a wonderful implement. A report +of a Scottish Highland Agricultural Society +about that time said of this new machine:</p> + +<p>“With a common sickle, seven men in ten hours +reaped one and one-half acres of wheat,—about one-quarter +of an acre each. With the new machine a +man can cut one and one-half acres in ten hours, to +be raked, bound, and stacked by two others.”</p> + +<p>It was with such crude and imperfect inventions<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_34" id="PAGE_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +that the farmers faced the grain and grass fields of +the nineteenth century.</p> + +<p>The Seven Wonders of the ancient world have +often been compared with the wonders of invention +of this present day.</p> + +<p>Senator Platt in an address at the Patent Centennial +Celebration in Washington, in 1891, made +such a contrast:</p> + +<p>“The old wonders of the world were the Pyramids, +the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Phidian +statue of Jupiter, the Mausoleum, the Temple of +Diana at Ephesus, the Colossus of Rhodes, and the +Pharos of Alexandria. Two were tombs of kings, +one was the playground of a petted queen, one was +the habitat of the world’s darkest superstition, one +the shrine of a heathen god, another was a crude attempt +to produce a work of art solely to excite wonder, +and one only, the lighthouse at Alexandria, was +of the slightest benefit to mankind. They were created +mainly by tyrants; most of them by the unrequited +toil of degraded and enslaved labourers. In +them was neither improvement nor advancement for +the people.” With some excess of patriotic pride, he +contrasts these with what he calls “the seven wonders +of American invention.” They were the cotton-gin; +the adaptation of steam to methods of transportation; +the application of electricity to business pursuits; +the harvester; the modern printing-press; the +ocean cable; and the sewing machine. “How wonderful,” +he adds, “in conception, in construction, in +purpose, these great inventions are; how they dwarf +the Pyramids and all the wonders of antiquity; what +a train of blessings each brought with its entrance +into social life; how wide, direct and far-reaching +their benefits. Each was the herald of a social rev<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_35" id="PAGE_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>olution; +each was a human benefactor; each was a +new Goddess of Liberty; each was a great Emancipator +of man from the bondage of labour; each was a +new teacher come upon earth; each was a moral +force.”</p> + +<p>Of these seven wonders, the harvester and the +cotton-gin will only be described in this chapter. +“Harvester” has sometimes been used as a broad +term to cover both mowers and reapers. In a recent +and more restricted sense, it is applied to a machine +that cuts grain, separates it into gavels, and +binds it.</p> + +<p>The difficulty that confronted the invention of +mowers was the construction, location and operation +of the cutting part. To convert the scythe or the +sickle, or some other sharp blade into a fast reciprocating +cutter, to hang such cutter low so that it would +cut near the ground, to protect it from contact with +stones by a proper guard, to actuate it by the wheels +of the vehicle, to hinge the cutter-bar to the frame so +that its outer end might be raised, and to arrange +a seat on the machine so that the driver could control +the operating parts by means of a lever, or +handles, were the main problems to be solved.</p> + +<p>In 1799, Boyce, of England, had a vertical shaft +with six rotating scythes beneath the frame of the +implement. This died with the century.</p> + +<p>In 1800, Meares, his countryman, tried to adapt +shears. He was followed there, in 1805, by Plucknett, +who introduced a horizontal, rotating, circular +blade. Others, subsequently, adopted this idea, +both in England and America. It had been customary, +as in olden times, to push the apparatus forward +by a horse or horses hitched behind. But, in +1806, Gladstone had patented a front draft machine,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_36" id="PAGE_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> +with a revolving wheel armed with knife-blades cutting +at one side of the machine and a segment-bar +with fingers which gathered the grain and held the +straw while the knife cut it.</p> + +<p>Then, in 1807, Salonen introduced vibrating +knifes over stationary blades, fingers to gather grain +to the cutters, and a rake to carry the grain off to one +side.</p> + +<p>In 1822, Ogle, also of England, was the first to +invent the <i>reciprocating</i> knife-bar. This is the +movement that has been given in all the successful +machines since. Ogle’s was a crude machine, but it +furnished the ideas of projecting the cutter-bar at +the side of a reel to gather the grain to the cutter and +of a grain platform which was tilted to drop the +sheaf.</p> + +<p>The world is indebted also to the Rev. Patrick +Bell, of Scotland, who had invented and built as +early as 1823-26, a machine which would cut an acre +of grain in an hour, and is thus described by Knight:</p> + +<p>“The machine had a square frame on two wheels +which ran loose on the axle, except when clutched +thereto to give motion to the cutters. The cutter-bar +had fixed triangular cutters between each of +which was a movable vibrating cutter, which made a +shear cut against the edge of the stationary cutter, +on each side. It had a reel with twelve vanes to +press the grain toward the cutters, and cause it to +fall upon a travelling apron which carried away cut +grain and deposited it at the side of the machine. +The reel was driven by bevel-gearing.”</p> + +<p>It was used but a few years and then revived again +at the World’s Fair in London, in 1851.</p> + +<p>In the United States, inventions in mowers and +reapers began to make their appearance about 1820.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_37" id="PAGE_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> +In 1822, Bailey was the first to patent a mowing machine. +It was a circular revolving scythe on a vertical +axis, rotated by gearing from the main axle, and +so that the scythe was self-sharpened by passing under +a whet-stone fixed on an axis and revolving with +the scythe and was pulled by a horse in front. In +1828, Lane, of Maine, combined the reaper and +thresher. In 1831, Manning had a row of fingers +and a reciprocating knife, and in 1833, Schnebly introduced +the idea of a horizontal endless apron on +which the grain fell, constructed to travel intermittently +so as to divide the grain into separate parts or +gavels, and deliver the gavels at one side. Hussey, +of Maryland, in 1833, produced the most useful harvester +up to that time. It had open guard fingers, +a knife made of triangular sections, reciprocating +in the guard, and a cutter-bar on a hinged frame.</p> + +<p>Then came the celebrated reaper of McCormick, +of Virginia, in 1834, and his improvements of +1845-1847, and by 1850 he had built hundreds of +his machines. Other inventors, too numerous to +mention, from that time pushed forward with their +improvements. Then came many public trials and +contests between rival manufacturers and inventors.</p> + +<p>One of the earliest and most notable was the contest +at the World’s Fair, in London, in 1851. This +exhibition, the first of the kind the world had seen, +giving to the nations taking part such an astonishing +revelation of each other’s productions, and stimulating +in each such a surprising growth in all the +industrial and fine arts, revealed nothing more gratifying +to the lover of his kind than those inventions +of the preceding half-century that had so greatly +lifted the farm labourer from his furrow of drudgery.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_38" id="PAGE_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p> + +<p>Among the most conspicuous of such inventions +were the harvesters. Bell’s machine, previously described, +and Hussey’s and McCormick’s were the +principal contesting machines. They were set to +work in fields of grain, and to McCormick was finally +awarded the medal of honour.</p> + +<p>This contest also opened the eyes of the world to +the fact that vast tracts of idle land, exceeding in +extent the areas of many states and countries, could +now be sown and reaped—a fact impossible with +the scythe and the sickle. It was the herald of the +admission into the family of nations of new territories +and states, which, without these machines, +would unto this day be still wild wildernesses and +trackless deserts.</p> + +<p>This great trial also was followed by many others, +State and International. In 1852, there was in the +United States a general trial of reapers and mowers +at Geneva, New York; in 1855, at the French Exposition, +at Paris, where again McCormick met +with a triumph; in 1857, at Syracuse, New York, +and subsequently at all the great State and International +Expositions. These contests served to bring +out the failures, and the still-existing wants in this +line of machinery. The earlier machines were +clumsy. They were generally one-wheeled machines, +lacked flexibility of parts and were costly. They cut, +indeed, vast tracts of grain and grass, but the machines +had to be followed by an army of men to bind +and gather the fallen grain. This army demanded +high wages and materially increased the cost of reaping +the crop, and sadly diminished the profits.</p> + +<p>When the Vienna Exposition, in 1873, was held, a +great advance was shown in this and all other classes +of agricultural machinery. Reapers and mowers<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_39" id="PAGE_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> +were lighter in construction, and far less in cost, and +stronger and more effective in every way. The old +original machines of McCormick on which he had +worked for twenty years prior to the 1851 triumph, +had been succeeded by another of his machines, on +which an additional twenty years of study, experiment +and improvement had been expended. An +endless number of inventors had in the meantime +entered the lists. The frame, the motive gearing, +the hinged cutter-bar and knives, the driver’s seat, +the reel, the divider, for separating the swath of +grain to be cut from the uncut, the raising and depressing +lever, the self-raker, and the material of +which all the parts were composed had all received +the greatest attention, and now was awaiting the +coming of a perfect mechanical binder that would +roll the grain on the machine into a bundle, automatically +bind it, and drop the bound bundles on the +ground. The latter addition came in an incomplete +shape to Vienna. The best form was a crude wire +binder. In 1876 at the Centennial Exhibition at +Philadelphia, the mowers and reapers blossomed still +more fully, but not into full fruition; for it was not +until two or three years thereafter that the celebrated +<i>twine</i> binders, which superseded the wire, +were fully developed.</p> + +<p>Think of the almost miraculous exercise of invention +in making a machine to automatically cut +the grain, elevate it to a platform, separate and roll +it into sheaves, seize a stout cord from a reel, wrap +it about the sheaf, tie a knot that no sailor could untie, +cut the cord, and throw the bound sheaf to one +side upon the ground!</p> + +<p>So great became the demand for this binders’ +twine that great corporations engaged in its manufacture, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_40" id="PAGE_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>and they in turn formed a great trust to control +the world’s supply. This one item of twine, +alone, amounted to millions of dollars every year, +and from its manufacture arose economic questions +considered by legislators, and serious litigation requiring +the attention of the courts.</p> + +<p>At this Centennial Exhibition, besides twenty or +more great manufacturing firms of the United +States who exhibited reapers and mowers, Canada, +far-away Australia, and Russia brought each a fine +machine of this wonderful class. And not only these +countries, but nearly all of Europe sent agricultural +machines and implements in such numbers and superior +construction that they surpassed the wildest +dreams of the farmer of a quarter of a century before.</p> + +<p>Up to this time, about eleven thousand patents +have been granted in the United States, all presumably +on separate improvements in mowers and +reapers alone. This number includes, of course, +many patents issued to inventors of other countries.</p> + +<p>Before leaving this branch of the subject the lawn-mower +should not be overlooked, with its spiral +blades on a revolving cylinder, a hand lever by which +it can be pushed over a lawn and the grass cut as +smooth as the green rug upon a lady’s chamber.</p> + +<p>It is the law of inventions that one invention +necessitates and generates another. Thus the vastly +increased facilities for cutting grass necessitated +new means for taking care of it when cut. And +these new means were the hay tedder to stir it, the +horse hay-rake, the great hay-forks to load, and the +hay-stackers. Harvesters for grass and grain have +been supplemented by Corn, Cotton, Potato and +Flax Harvesters.</p> + +<p>The threshing-floor still resounds to the flail as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_41" id="PAGE_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> +grain is beaten from the heads of the stalks. Men +and horses still tread it out, the wooden drag and +the heavy wain with its gang of wheels, and all the +old methods of threshing familiar to the Egyptians +and later among the Romans may still be found in +use in different portions of the world.</p> + +<p>Menzies of Scotland, about the middle of the eighteenth +century, was the first to invent a threshing machine. +It was unsuccessful. Then came Leckie, of +Stirlingshire, who improved it. But the type of the +modern threshing machine was the invention of a +Scotchman, one Meikle, of Tyningham, East Lothian, +in 1786. Meikle threw the grain on to an inclined +board, from whence it was fed between two +fluted rollers to a cylinder armed with blades which +beat it, thence to a second beating cylinder operating +over a concave grating through which the loosened +grain fell to a receptacle beneath; thence the straw +was carried over a third beating cylinder which +loosened the straw and shook out the remaining grain +to the same receptacle, and the beaten straw was then +carried out of the machine. Meikle added many improvements, +among which was a fan-mill by which +the grain was separated and cleaned from both straw +and chaff. This machine, completed and perfected +about the year 1800, has seen no departure in +principle in England, and in the United States the +principal change has been the substitution of a +spiked drum running at a higher speed for Meikle’s +beater drum armed with blades.</p> + +<p>In countries like California, says the U.S. Commissioner +of Patents in his report for 1895, “Where +the climate is dry and the grain is ready for threshing +as soon as it is cut, there is in general use a type +of machine known as a combined harvester and<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_42" id="PAGE_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> +thresher in which a thresher and a harvester machine +of the header type are mounted on a single +platform, and the heads of grain are carried directly +from the harvester by elevators into the threshing +machine, from which the threshed grain is delivered +into bags and is then ready for shipment. Some of +these machines are drawn by horses and some have a +portable engine mounted on the same truck with the +harvester propelling the machine, while furnishing +power to drive the mechanism at the same time. +Combined harvesters and threshers have been known +since 1836, but they have been much improved and +are now built on a much larger scale.”</p> + +<p>Flax-threshers for beating the grain from the bolls +of the cured flax plant, removing the bolls, releasing +and cleaning the seed, are also a modern invention.</p> + +<p>Flax and Hemp Brakes, machines by which the +woody and cellular portion of the flax is separated +from the fibrous portion, produced in practical shape +in the century, and flanked by the improved pullers, +cutters, threshers, scutchers, hackles, carders, and +rovers, have supplanted Egyptian methods of 3,000 +years’ standing, for preparing the flax for spinning, +as well as the crude improvements of the 18th century.</p> + +<p>After the foundation of cotton manufacture had +been laid “as one of the greatest of the world’s +industries,” in the 18th century by those five great +English inventors, Kay, who invented the fly-shuttle, +Hargreaves, the “Spinning Jenny,” Arkwright, the +water-frame, Crompton, the spinning-mule, and +Cartwright, the power-loom, came Eli Whitney in +1793, a young school teacher from Massachusetts located +in Georgia, who invented the <i>cotton-gin</i>. His crude +machine, worked by a single person, could clean more<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_43" id="PAGE_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +cotton in a single day than could be done by a man +in several months, by hand.</p> + +<p>The enormous importance of such a machine began +to be appreciated at the beginning of the century, +and it set cotton up as a King whose dominion +has extended across the seas.</p> + +<p>Prior to 1871, inventions in this art were mainly +directed to perfecting the structure of this primary +gin. By that machine only the long staple fibre was +secured, leaving the cotton seed covered with a short +fibre, which with the seed was regarded as a waste +product. To reclaim this short fibre and secure the +seed in condition for use, have been the endeavours +of many inventors during the last twenty years. +These objects have been attained by a machine known +as the <i>delinter</i>, one of the first practical forms of +which appeared about 1883.</p> + +<p>In a bulletin published by the U.S. Department +of Agriculture in 1895, entitled, “Production and +Price of Cotton for One Hundred Years,” the period +commences with the introduction of Whitney’s saw +gin, and ends with the year mentioned and with the +production in that year of the largest crop the world +had ever seen. No other agricultural crop commands +such universal attention. Millions of people are employed +in its production and manufacture. How insignificant +compared with the wonder wrought by this +one machine seems indeed any of the old seven wonders +of the world! Although the displacement of labour +occasioned by the introduction of the cotton-gin +was not severely felt, as it was slave labour, yet that +invention affords a good illustration of the fact that +labour-saving machines increase the supply of the +article, the increased supply lowers its price, the +lower price increases the demand, the increased demand +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_44" id="PAGE_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>gives rise to more machines and develops +other inventions and arts, all of which results in the +employment of ten thousand people to every one +thousand at work on the product originally.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_45" id="PAGE_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS (<i>continued</i>).</span></h2> + + +<p>When the harvest is ended and the golden stores +of grains and fruits are gathered, then the question +arises what shall be next done to prepare them for +food and for shipment to the distant consumer.</p> + +<p>If the cleaning of the grain and separating it +from the chaff and dirt are not had in the threshing +process, separate machines are employed for +fanning and screening.</p> + +<p>It was only during the 18th century that fanning +mills were introduced; and it is related by Sir Walter +Scott in one of his novels that some of his countrymen +considered it their religious duty to wait for +a natural wind to separate the chaff from the wheat; +that they were greatly shocked by an invention which +would raise a whirlwind in calm weather, and that +they looked upon the use of such a machine as rebellion +against God.</p> + +<p>As to the grinding of the grain, the rudimentary +means still exist, and are still used by rudimentary +peoples, and to meet exceptional necessities; these +are the primeval hollowed stone and mortar and +pestle, and they too were “the mills of the Gods” +in Egyptian, Hebrew and Early Greek days: the +<i>quern</i>—that is, the upper running stone and the +lower stationary grooved one—was a later Roman invention +and can be found described only a century +or two before the Christian era.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_46" id="PAGE_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p> + +<p>Crude as these means were they were the chief +ones used in milling until within a century and a +quarter ago.</p> + +<p>In a very recent bright work published in London, +by Richard Bennett and John Elton, on Corn Mills, +etc., they say on this point: “The mill of the last +century, that, by which, despite its imperfections, +the production of flour rose from one of the smallest +to one of the greatest and most valuable industries +of the world, was essentially a structure of few parts, +whether driven by water or wind, and its processes +were exceedingly simple. The wheat was cleaned +by a rude machine consisting of a couple of cylinders +and screens, and an air blast passed through a pair +of mill-stones, running very close together, in order +that the greatest amount of flour might be produced +at one grinding. The meal was then bolted, and the +tailings, consisting of bran, middlings and adherent +flour, again sifted and re-ground. It seems probable +that the miller of the time had a fair notion of the +high grade of flour ground from middlings, but no +systematic method of procedure for its production +was adopted.”</p> + +<p>The upper and the nether mill-stone is still a most +useful device. The “dress,” which consists of the +grooves which are formed in the meeting faces of +the stones, has been changed in many ways to meet +the requirements in producing flour in varying degrees +of fineness. Machines have been invented to +make such grooves. A Swiss machine for this purpose +consists of two disks carrying diamonds in +their peripheries, which, being put in rapid revolution, +cut parallel grooves in the face of the stone.</p> + +<p>A great advance in milling was made both in +America and Europe by the inventions of Oliver<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_47" id="PAGE_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +Evans. Evans was born in the State of Delaware, +U.S., in 1755, and died in 1819. He was a poor +boy and an apprentice to a wheelwright, and while +thus engaged his inventive powers were developed. +He had an idea of a land carriage propelled without +animal power. At the age of 22 he invented a machine +for making card teeth, which superseded the +old method of making them by hand. Later he invented +steam-engines and steam-boats, to which attention +will hereafter be called. Entering into business +with his brothers within the period extending +from 1785 to 1800, he produced those inventions in +milling which by the opening of the 19th century +had revolutionised the art. A description of the +most important of these inventions was published by +him in 1795 in a book entitled <i>The Young Millwright +and Miller’s Grist</i>. Patents were granted +Evans by the States of Delaware, Maryland and +Pennsylvania in 1787, and by the U.S. Government +in 1790 and 1808.</p> + +<p>As these inventions formed the basis of the most +important subsequent devices of the century, a brief +statement of his system is proper:</p> + +<p>From the time the grain was emptied from the +waggon to the final production of the finest flour at +the close of the process, all manual labour was dispensed +with. The grain was first emptied into a +box hung on a scale beam where it was weighed, then +run into an elevator which raised it to a chamber +over cleaning machines through which it was passed, +and reclaimed by the same means if desired; then it +was run down into a chamber over the hoppers of the +mill-stones; when ground it fell from the mill-stones +into conveyors and as carried along subjected to the +heated air of a kiln drier; then carried into a meal<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_48" id="PAGE_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +elevator to be raised and dropped on to a cooling +floor where it was met by what is called a hopper boy, +consisting of a central round upright shaft revolving +on a pivot, and provided with horizontal arms and +sweeps adapted to be raised and lowered and turned, +by which means the meal was continually stirred +around, lifted and turned on the floor and then gathered +on to the bolting hoppers, the bolts being cylindrical +sieves of varying degrees of fineness to separate +the flour from its coarser impurities, and when +not bolted sufficiently, carried by a conveyor called a +drill to an elevator to be dumped again into the bolting +hoppers and be re-bolted. When not sufficiently +ground the same drill was used to carry the meal +to the grind stones. It was the design of the process +to keep the meal in constant motion from first to +last so as to thoroughly dry and cool it, to heat it +further in the meantime, and to run the machines +so slowly as to prevent the rise and waste of the flour +in the form of dust.</p> + +<p>The Evans system, with minor modifications and +improvements, was the prevailing one for three-quarters +of a century. New mills, when erected, were +provided with this system, and many mills in their +quiet retreats everywhere awoke from their drowsy +methods and were equipped with the new one.</p> + +<p>But the whole system of milling has undergone +another great change within the last thirty years:</p> + +<p>During that time it has been learned that the +coarser portion or kernel of wheat which lies next to +the skin of the berry and between the skin and +the heart is the most valuable and nutritious part, +as it consists largely of gluten, while the interior +consists of starch, which when dry becomes a pearly +powder. Under the old systems this coarser part,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_49" id="PAGE_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> +known as middlings, was eliminated, and ground +for feed for cattle, or into what was regarded as an +inferior grade of flour from which to make coarse +bread. It was customary, therefore, under the old +method to set the grinding surfaces very close with +keen sharp burrs, so that this coarser part was cut +off and mixed with the small particles of bran, fine +fuzz and other foreign substances, which was separated +from the finer part of the kernel by the bolting.</p> + +<p>The new process consists of removing the outer +skin and adherent impurities from the middlings, +then separating the middlings from the central +finer part and then regrinding the middlings into +flour.</p> + +<p>This middlings flour being superior, as stated, to +what was called straight grade, it became desirable +to obtain as much middlings as possible, and to this +end it was necessary to set the grinding surfaces further +apart so as to grind <i>high</i>, hence the <i>high</i> milling +process as distinguished from <i>low</i> milling. For the +better performance of the high rolling process, roller +mills were invented. It was found that the cracking +process by which the kernel could be cracked and the +gluten middlings separated from the starchy heart +could best be had by the employment of rollers or cylinders +in place of face stones, and at the same time +the heating of the product, which injures it, be +avoided.</p> + +<p>The rollers operate in sets, and successive crackings +are obtained by passing and repassing, if necessary, +the grain through these rollers, set at different +distances apart. The operation on grains of different +qualities, whether hard or soft, or containing +more or less of the gluten middlings, or starchy parts,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_50" id="PAGE_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +and their minute and graded separation, thus are obtained +with the greatest nicety.</p> + +<p>The Hungarians, the Germans, the Austrians, the +Swiss, the English and the Americans have all invented +useful forms of these rollers.</p> + +<p>This process was accompanied by the invention of +new forms of middlings separators and purifiers, in +which upward drafts of air are made to pass up +through flat, graded shaking bolts, in an enclosed +case, by which the bran specks and fuzz are lifted +and conveyed away from the shaken material. In +some countries, such as the great wheat state of Minnesota, +U.S., where the wheat had before been of inferior +market value owing to the poorer grade of +flour obtained by the old processes, that same wheat +was made to produce the most superior flour under +the new processes, thus increasing the yearly value +of the crops by many millions of dollars.</p> + +<p>Disastrous flour dust explosions in some of the +great mills at Minneapolis, in 1877-78, developed +the invention of dust collectors, by which the suspended +particles of flour dust are withdrawn from the +machinery and the mill, and the air is cleared for respiration +and for the production of the finest flour, +while the mill is kept closed and comfortable in cold +seasons. One of the latest forms of such a collector +has for its essential principle the vertical or rotatory +air current, which it is claimed moves and precipitates +the finest particles.</p> + +<p>The inventions in the class of mills have so multiplied +in these latter days, that nearly every known +article that needs to be cleaned and hulled, or ground, +or cracked or pulverized, has its own specially designed +machine. Wind and water as motive powers +have been supplanted by steam and electricity. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_51" id="PAGE_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +would be impossible in one volume to describe this +great variety. Knight, in his Mechanical Dictionary, +gives a list under “Mills,” of more than a hundred +distinct machines and processes relating to +grinding, hulling, crushing, pulverising and mixing +products.</p> + +<p><i>Vegetable Cutters.</i>—Modern ingenuity has not +neglected those more humble devices which save the +drudgery of hand work in the preparation of vegetables +and roots for food for man and beasts, and for +use especially when large quantities are to be prepared. +Thus, we find machines armed with blades +and worked by springs and a lever, for chopping, +others for cutting stalks, other machines for paring +and slicing, such as apple and potato parers and +slicers, others for grating and pulping, others for +seeding fruits, such as cherries and raisins, and an +entire range of mechanisms, from those which handle +delicately the tenderest pod and smallest seed, to the +ponderous machines for cutting and crushing the +cane in sugar making.</p> + +<p><i>Pressing and Baling.</i>—The want of pressing loose +materials and packing bulky ones, like hay, wool, +cotton, hops, etc, and other coarser products, into +small, compact bales and bodies, to facilitate their +transportation, was immediately felt on the great increase +of such products in the century.</p> + +<p>From this arose pressing and baling machines of a +great variety, until nearly every agricultural product +that can be pressed, packed or baled has its special +machine for that operation. Besides those above +indicated relating to agricultural products, we have +cane presses, cheese presses, butter presses, cigar and +tobacco presses, cork presses, and flour packers, fruit +and lard presses, peat presses, sugar presses and<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_52" id="PAGE_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> +others. Leading mechanical principles in presses +are also indicated by name, as screw presses, toggle +presses, beater press, revolving press, hydraulic +press, rack and pinion press, and rolling pressure +press and so on.</p> + +<p>There are the presses also that are used in compressing +cotton. When it is remembered that cotton +is raised in about twenty different countries, +and that the cotton crop of the United States of +1897-98 was 10,897,857 bales, of about 500 lbs. +each; of India, (estimated) for the same period, +2,844,000, of 400 lbs each; of China about 1,320,000, +of 500 lbs each, and between two and three million +bales in the other countries, it is interesting to +consider how the world’s production of this enormous +mass of elastic fibre, amounting to seventeen or eighteen +million bales, of four and five hundred pounds +each, is compressed and bound.</p> + +<p>The screw press was the earliest form of machine +used, and then came the hydraulic press. Later it +has been customary to press the cotton by screw +presses or small hydraulic presses at the plantation, +bind it with ropes or metal bands and then transport +it to some central or seaboard station where an immense +establishment exists, provided with a great +steam-operated press, in which the bale from the +country is placed and reduced to one-fourth or one-third +its size, and while under pressure new metallic +bands applied, when the bale is ready for shipment. +This was a gain of a remarkable amount of room on +shipboard and on cars, and solved a commercial +problem. But now this process, and the commercial +rectangular bale, seem destined to be supplanted by +roller presses set up near the plantations themselves, +into which the cotton is fed directly from the gin,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_53" id="PAGE_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +rolled upon itself between the rollers and compressed +into round bales of greater density than the square +bale, thus saving a great amount of cost in dispensing +with the steam and hydraulic plants, with +great additional advantages in convenience of handling +and cost of transportation.</p> + +<p>It is so arranged also that the cotton may be rolled +into clean, uniform dense layers, so that the same +may be unwound at the mill and directly applied to +the machines for its manufacture into fabrics, without +the usual tedious and expensive preliminary +operations of combing and re-rolling.</p> + +<p>It has also remained for the developed machine of +the century to convert hay into an export commodity +to distant countries by the baling process. Bale +ties themselves have received great attention from inventors, +and the most successful have won fortunes +for their owners.</p> + +<p>Most ingenious machines have been devised for +picking cotton in the fields, but none have yet reached +that stage of perfection sufficient to supplant the +human fingers.</p> + +<p><i>Fruits and Foods.</i>—To prepare and transport +fruits in their natural state to far distant points, +while preserving them from decay for long times, is, +in the large way demanded by the world’s great +appetites, altogether a success of modern invention.</p> + +<p>To gather the fruit without bruising by mechanical +pickers, and then to place the fruit, oranges for +instance, in the hands of an intelligent machine +which will automatically, but delicately and effectually, +wrap the same in a paper covering, and discharge +them without harm, are among the recent inventive +wonders. In the United States alone 67<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_54" id="PAGE_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +patents had been granted up to 1895 for fruit wrapping +machines.</p> + +<p>Inventions relating to drying and evaporating +fruit, and having for their main object to preserve +as much as possible the natural taste and colour of +the fruit, have been numerous. Spreading the fruit +in the air and letting the sun and air do the rest is +now a crude process.</p> + +<p>These are the general types of drying and evaporating +machines:</p> + +<p>First, those in which trays of fruit are placed +upon stationary ledges within a heated chamber; +second, those in which the trays are raised and lowered +by mechanical means toward or farther from +the source of heat as the drying progresses; third, +those in which the fruit is placed in imperforate +steam jacketed pans. Many improvements, of +course, have been made in detail of form, in ventilation, +the supplying and regulating of heat and the +moving of trays.</p> + +<p>The hermetically sealed glass or earthenware fruit +jar, the lids of which can be screwed or locked down +upon a rubber band, after the jar is filled and the +small remainder of air drawn out by a convenient +steam heater, now used by the million, is an illustration +of the many useful modern contrivances in +this line.</p> + +<p><i>Sterilisation.</i>—In preserving, the desirability of +preventing disease and keeping foods in a pure state +has developed in the last quarter of a century many +devices by which the food is subjected to a steam heat +in chambers, and, by devices operated from the outside, +the cans or bottles are opened and shut while +still within the steam-filled chamber.</p> + +<p><i>Diastase.</i>—By heating starchy matters with substances +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_55" id="PAGE_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>containing diastase, a partial transformation +is effected, which will materially shorten and aid its +digestion, and this fact has been largely made use +of in the preparation of soluble foods, especially +those designed for infants and invalids, such as +malted milk and lactated food.</p> + +<p><i>Milkers.</i>—Invention has not only been exercised in +the preservation and transportation of milk, but in +the task of milking itself. Since 1860 inventors +have been seeking patents for milkers, some having +tubes operated by air-pumps, others on the same +principle in which the vacuum is made to increase +and decrease or pulsate, and others for machines in +which the tubes are mechanically contracted by +pressure plates.</p> + +<p><i>Slaughtering.</i>—Great improvements have been +made in the slaughtering of animals, by which a +great amount of its repulsiveness and the unhealthfulness +of its surroundings have been removed. +These improvements relate to the construction of +proper buildings and appliances for the handling of +the animals, the means for slaughtering, and modes +of taking care of the meat and transporting the same. +Villages, towns, and even many cities, are now relieved +of the formerly unsavoury slaughter-houses, +and the work is done from great centres of supply, +where meats in every shape are prepared for food +and shipment.</p> + +<p>It would be impossible in a bulky volume, much +less in a single chapter, to satisfactorily enumerate +those thousands of inventions which, taking hold of +the food products of the earth, have spread them as +a feast before the tribes of men.</p> + +<p><i>Tobacco.</i>—Some of the best inventive genius of +the century has been exercised in providing for man’s<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_56" id="PAGE_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +comfort, not a food, but what he believes to be a +solace.</p> + +<p class="poem"> +<span class="line">“Sublime Tobacco! which from East to West<br></span> +<span class="line">Cheers the tar’s labour or the Turkman’s rest.”<br></span> +</p> + +<p>In the United States alone, in the year 1885, there +were 752,520 acres of land devoted to the production +of tobacco, the amount in pounds grown being +562,736,000, and the value of which was estimated +as $43,265,598. These amounts have been somewhat +less in years since then, but the appetite continues, +and any deficiency in the supply is made up +by enormous importation. Thus, in 1896, there +were imported into the United States, 32,924,966 +pounds of tobacco, of various kinds, valued at $16,503,130. +There are no reliable statistics showing +that, man for man, the people of that country are +greater lovers of the weed than the people of other +countries, but the annual value of tobacco raised and +imported by them being thus about $60,000,000, it +indicates the strength of the habit and the interest +in the nurture of the plant throughout the world. +Neither the “Counterblaste to Tobacco” of King +James I., and the condemnations of kings, popes, +priests and sultans, that followed its early introduction +into Europe, served to choke the weed in its +infancy or check its after growth. Now it is attended +from the day of its planting until it reaches +the lips of the consumer by contrivances of consummate +skill to fit it for its destined purpose. Besides +the ploughs, the cultivators and the weeders of +especial forms used to cultivate the plant, there are, +after the grown plant is cut in the field, houses of +various designs for drying it, machines for rolling +the leaves out smoothly in sheets; machines for removing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_57" id="PAGE_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>the stems from the leaves and for crushing +the stem; machines for pressing it into shape, and +for pressing it, whether solid or in granular form, +into boxes, tubs and bags; machines for granulating +it and for grinding it into snuff; machines for twisting +it into cords; machines for flavouring the leaf +with saccharine and other matters; machines for +making cigars, and machines of a great variety and of +the most ingenious construction for making cigarettes +and putting them in packages.</p> + +<p>Samples of pipes made by different ages and by +different peoples would form a collection of wonderful +art and ingenuity, second only to an exhibition +of the means and methods of making them.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_58" id="PAGE_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +CHEMISTRY.</span></h2> + + +<p>Chemistry, having for its field the properties and +changes of matter, has excited more or less attention +ever since men had the power to observe, to +think, and to experiment.</p> + +<p>Some knowledge of chemistry must have existed +among the ancients to have enabled the Egyptians to +smelt ores and work metals, to dye their cloths, to +make glass, and to preserve their dead from decomposition; +so, too, to this extent among the Phœnicians, +the Israelites, the Greeks and the Romans; +and perhaps to a greater extent among the Chinese, +who added powder to the above named and other +chemical products. Aristotle speculated, and the +alchemists of the middle ages busied themselves in +magic and guess-work. It reached the dignity of a +science in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, +by the labours of such men, in the former century, as +Libavius, Van Helmont, Glauber, Tachenius, Boyle, +Lémery and Becher; Stahl, Boerhaave and Hamberg +in both; and of Black, Cavendish, Lavoisier, Priestley +and others in the eighteenth.</p> + +<p>But so great have been the discoveries and inventions +in this science during the nineteenth century +that any chemist of any previous age, if permitted to +look forward upon them, would have felt</p> + +<p class="poem"> +<span class="line">“Like some watcher of the skies<br></span> +<span class="line">When a new planet swims into his ken.”<br></span> +</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_59" id="PAGE_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p> + +<p>Indeed, the chemistry of this century is a new +world, of which all the previous discoveries in that +line were but floating nebulæ.</p> + +<p>So vast and astonishingly fast has been the +growth and development of this science that before +the century was two-thirds through its course Watts +published his <i>Dictionary of Chemistry</i> in five +volumes, averaging a thousand closely printed pages, +followed soon by a thousand-page supplement; and +it would have required such a volume every year +since to adequately report the progress of the science. +Nomenclatures, formulas, apparatuses and processes +have all changed. It was deemed necessary to publish +works on <i>The New Chemistry</i>, and Professor +J. P. Cooke is the author of an admirable volume under +that title.</p> + +<p>We can, therefore, in this chapter only step from +one to another of some of the peaks that rise above +the vast surrounding country, and note some of the +lesser objects as they appear in the vales below.</p> + +<p>The leading discoveries of the century which have +done so much to aid Chemistry in its giant strides +are the atomic and molecular theories, the mechanics +of light, heat, and electricity, the correlation and +conservation of forces, their invariable quantity, and +their indestructibility, spectrum analysis and the laws +of chemical changes.</p> + +<p>John Dalton, that humble child of English north-country +Quaker stock, self-taught and a teacher all +his life, in 1803 gave to the world his atomic theory +of chemistry, whereby the existence of matter in ultimate +atoms was removed from the region of the +speculation of certain ancient philosophers, and established +on a sure foundation.</p> + +<p>The question asked and answered by Dalton was, +what is the relative weight of the atoms composing +the elementary bodies?<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_60" id="PAGE_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p> + +<p>He discovered that one chemical element or compound +can combine with another chemical element, +to form a new compound, in two different proportions +by weight, which stand to each other in the +simple ratio of one to two; and at the same time he +published a table of the <i>Relative weight of the ultimate +particles of Gaseous and other Bodies</i>. Although +the details of this table have since been +changed, the principles of his discovery remain unchanged. +Says Professor Roscoe:</p> + +<blockquote><p>“Chemistry could hardly be said to exist as a +science before the establishment of the laws of combination +in multiple proportions, and the subsequent +progress of chemical science materially depended +upon the determination of these combined proportions +or atomic weights of the elements first set up +by Dalton. So that among the founders of our science, +next to the name of the great French Philosopher, +Lavoisier, will stand in future ages the name of +John Dalton, of Manchester.”</p></blockquote> + +<p>Less conspicuous but still eminently useful were +his discoveries and labours in other directions, in the +expansion of gases, evaporation, steam, etc.</p> + +<p>Wollaston and Gay-Lussac, both great chemists, +applied Dalton’s discovery to wide and most important +fields in the chemical arts.</p> + +<p>Also contemporaneous with Dalton was the great +German chemist, Berzelius, who confirmed and extended +the discoveries of Dalton. More than this, +it has been said of Berzelius:</p> + +<blockquote><p>“In him were united all the different impulses +which have advanced the science since the beginning +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_61" id="PAGE_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>of the present epoch. The fruit of his labors is +scattered throughout the entire domain of the science. +Hardly a substance exists to the knowledge of which +he has not in some way contributed. A direct descendant +of the school of his countryman, Bergman, +he was especially renowned as an analyst. No chemist +has determined by direct experiment the composition +of a greater number of substances. No one has +exerted a greater influence in extending the field of +analytical chemistry.”</p></blockquote> + + + +<p>As to light, the great Huygens, the astronomer +and mathematician, the improver of differential calculus +and of telescopes, the inventor of the pendulum +clock, chronometers, and the balance wheel to the +watch, and discoverer of the laws of the double refraction +of light and of polarisation, had in the 17th +century clearly advanced the idea that light was propagated +from luminous bodies, not as a stream of particles +through the air but in waves or vibrations of +ether, which is a universal medium extending +through all space and into all bodies. This fundamental +principle now enters into the explanation of +all the phenomena of light.</p> + +<p>Newton in the next century, with the prism, decomposed +light, and in a darkened chamber reproduced +all the colours and tints of the rainbow. But +there were dark lines in that beam of broken sunlight +which Newton did not notice.</p> + +<p>It was left to Joseph von Fraunhofer, a German +optician, and to the 19th century, and nearly one +hundred years after Newton’s experiments with the +prism, to discover, with finer prisms that he had +made, some 590 of these black lines crossing the solar +spectrum. What they were he did not know, but conjectured +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_62" id="PAGE_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>that they were caused by something which +existed in the sun and stars and not in our air. But +from that time they were called Fraunhofer’s dark +lines.</p> + +<p>From the vantage ground of these developments +we are now enabled to step to that mountain peak of +discovery from which the sun and stars were looked +into, their elements portrayed, their very motions +determined, and their brotherhood with the earth, +in substance, ascertained.</p> + +<p>The great discovery of the cause of Fraunhofer’s +dark bands in the broken sunlight was made by Gustave +Robert Kirchoff, a German physician, in his +laboratory in Heidelberg, in 1860, in conjunction +with his fellow worker, Robert Bunsen.</p> + +<p>Kirchoff happened to let a solar ray pass through +a flame coloured with sodium, and through a prism, +so that the spectrum of the sun and the flame fell one +upon another. It was expected that the well known +yellow line of sodium would come out in the solar +spectrum, but it was just the opposite that took +place. Where the bright yellow line should have +fallen appeared a dark line.</p> + +<p>With this observation was coupled the reflection +that heat passes from a body of a higher temperature +to one of a lower, and not inversely. Experiments +followed: iron, sodium, copper, etc., were +heated to incandescence and their colours prismatically +separated. These were transversed with the +same colours of other heated bodies, and the latter +were absorbed and rendered black. Kirchoff then +announced his law that all bodies absorb chiefly +those colours which they themselves emit. Therefore +these vapours of the sun which were rendered in +black lines were so produced by crossing terrestrial +vapors of the same nature.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_63" id="PAGE_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p> + +<p>Thus by the prism and the blowpipe were the same +substances found in the sun, the stars, and the earth. +The elements of every substance submitted to the +process were analysed, and many secrets in the universe +of matter were revealed.</p> + +<p>Young, of America, invented a splendid combination +of spectroscope and telescope, and Huggins of +England was the first to establish by spectrum analysis +the approach and retreat of the stars.</p> + +<p>It was prior to this time that those wonderful +discoveries and labours were made which developed +the true nature of heat, which demonstrated the kinship +and correlation of the forces of Nature, their +conservation, or property of being converted one into +another, and the indestructibility of matter, of which +force is but another name.</p> + +<p>The first demonstrations as to the nature of heat +were given by the American Count Rumford, and +then by Sir Humphry Davy, just at the close of the +18th century, and then followed in this the brilliant +labours and discoveries of Mayer and Helmholtz of +Germany, Colding of Denmark, and Joule, Grove, +Faraday, Sir William Thomson of England, of +Henry, Le Conte and Martin of America, as to the +correlation and convertibility of all the forces.</p> + +<p>The French revolution, and the Napoleonic wars, +isolating France and exhausting its resources, its +chemists were appealed to devote their genius and +researches to practical things; to the munitions of +war, the rejuvenation of the soil, the growing of +new crops, like the sugar beet, and new manufacturing +products.</p> + +<p>Lavoisier had laid deep and broad in France the +foundations of chemistry, and given the science nomenclature +that lasted a century. So that the suc<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_64" id="PAGE_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>ceeding +great teachers, Berthollet, Guyton, Fourcroy +and their associates, and the institutions of instruction +in the sciences fostered by them, and inspired +in that direction by Napoleon, bent their energies +in material directions, and a tremendous impulse +was thus given to the practical application of +chemistry to the arts and manufactures of the century.</p> + +<p>The same spirit, to a less extent, however, manifested +itself in England, and as early as 1802 we +find Sir Humphry Davy beginning his celebrated +lectures on the <i>Elements of Agricultural Chemistry</i> +before a board of agriculture, a work that has +passed through many editions in almost every +modern language.</p> + +<p>When the fact is recalled that agricultural chemistry +embraces the entire natural science of vegetable +and animal production, and includes, besides, +much of physics, meteorology and geology, the extent +and importance of the subject may be appreciated; +and yet such appreciation was not manifested in a +practical manner until the 19th century. It was only +toward the end of the 18th century that the vague and +ancient notions that air, water, oil and salt formed +the nutrition of plants, began to be modified. Davy +recognized and explained the beneficial fertilizing +effects of ammonia, and analysed and explained numerous +fertilizers, including guano. It is due to +his discoveries and publications, combined with those +of the eminent men on the continent, above referred +to, that agricultural chemistry arose to the dignity +of a science. The most brilliant, eloquent and devoted +apostle of that science who followed Davy was +Justus von Liebig of Germany, who was born in +Darmstadt in 1803, the year after Davy commenced<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_65" id="PAGE_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> +his lectures in England. It was in response to the +British Association for the Advancement of Science +that he gave to the world his great publications on +<i>Chemistry in its application to Agriculture, Commerce, +Physiology, and Pathology</i>, from which great +practical good resulted the world over. One of his +favorite subjects was that of fermentation, and this +calls up the exceedingly interesting discoveries in +the nature of alcohol, yeast, mould—aging malt, +wines and beer—and their accompanying beneficial +results.</p> + +<p>In one of Huxley’s charming lectures—such as he +delighted to give before a popular audience—delivered +in 1871, at Manchester, on the subject of +“Yeast,” he tells how any liquid containing sugar, +such as a mixture of honey and water, if left to itself +undergoes the peculiar change we know as fermentation, +and in the process the scum, or thicker +muddy part that forms on top, becomes yeast, carbonic +acid gas escapes in bubbles from the liquid, +and the liquid itself becomes spirits of wine or alcohol. +“Alcohol” was a term used until the 17th +century to designate a very fine subtle powder, and +then became the name of the subtle spirit arising +from fermentation. It was Leeuwenhoek of Holland +who, two hundred years ago, by the use of a +fine microscope he invented, first discovered that +the muddy scum was a substance made up of an +enormous multitude of very minute grains floating +separately, and in lumps and in heaps, in the liquid. +Then, in the next century the Frenchman, Cagniard +de la Tour, discovered that these bodies grew to a +certain size and then budded, and from the buds the +plant multiplied; and thus that this yeast was a mass +of living plants, which received in science the name<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_66" id="PAGE_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> +of “torula,” that the yeast plant was a kind of fungus +or mould, growing and multiplying. Then came +Fabroni, the French chemist, at the end of the 18th +century, who discovered that the yeast plant was of +bag-like form, or a cell of woody matter, and that +the cell contained a substance composed of carbon, +hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. This was a vegeto-animal +substance, having peculiarities of “animal +products.”</p> + +<p>Then came the great chemists of the 19th century, +with their delicate methods of analysis, and decided +that this plant in its chief part was identical with +that element which forms the chief part of our own +blood. That it was protein, a substance which forms +the foundation of every animal organism. All +agreed that it was the yeast plant that fermented or +broke up the sugar element, and produced the alcohol. +Helmholtz demonstrated that it was the minute +particles of the solid part of the plant that produced +the fermentation, and that such particles must be +growing or alive, to produce it. From whence +sprang this wonderful plant—part vegetable, part +animal? By a long series of experiments it was +found that if substances which could be fermented +were kept entirely closed to the outer air, no plant +would form and no fermentation take place. It was +concluded then, and so ascertained, that the torulae +in the plant proceeded from the torulae in the atmosphere, +from “gay motes that people the sunbeams.” +Concerning just how the torulae broke up +or fermented the sugar, great chemists have differed.</p> + +<p>After the discovery that the yeast was a plant +having cells formed of the pure matter of wood, and +containing a semi-fluid mass identical with the composition +which constitutes the flesh of animals, came<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_67" id="PAGE_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> +the further discovery that all plants, high and low, +are made up of the same kind of cells, and their contents. +Then this remarkable result came out, that +however much a plant may otherwise differ from an +animal, yet, in essential constituents the cellular constructure +of animal and plant is the same. To this +substance of energy and life, common in the minute +plant cell and the animal cell, the German botanist, +Hugo von Mohl, about fifty years ago gave the name +“protoplasm.” Then came this astounding conclusion, +that this <i>protoplasm</i> being common to both +plant and animal life, the essential difference consisted +only in the manner in which the cells are built +up and are modified in the building.</p> + +<p>And from that part of these great discoveries +which revealed the fact that the sugary element was +infected, as it were, from the germs of the air, producing +fermentation and its results, arose that remarkable +theory of many diseases known as the +“germ theory.” And, as it was found in the yeast +plant that only the solid part or particle of the plant +germinated fermentation and reaction, so, too, it has +been found by the germ theory that only the solid +particle of the contagious matter can germinate or +grow the disease.</p> + +<p>In this unfolding of the wonders of chemistry in +the nineteenth century, the old empirical walls between +forces and organisms, and organic and inorganic +chemistry, are breaking down, and celestial +and terrestrial bodies and vapours, living beings, and +growing plants are discovered to be the evolution of +one all-pervading essence and force. One is reminded +of the lines of Tennyson:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +<span class="line">“Large elements in order brought<br></span> +<span class="line">And tracts of calm from tempest made,<br></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_68" id="PAGE_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> +<span class="line">And world fluctuation swayed<br></span> +<span class="line">In vassal tides that followed thought.<br></span> +<span class="line"><br></span> +<span class="line">One God, one law, one element,<br></span> +<span class="line">And one far-off divine event<br></span> +<span class="line">To which the whole creation moves.”<br></span> +</p> + +<p>In the class of alcohol and in the field of yeast, the +work of Pasteur, begun in France, has been followed +by improvements in methods for selecting proper +ferments and excluding improper ones, and in improved +processes for aging and preserving alcoholic +liquors by destroying deleterious ferments. Takamine, +in using as ferment, koji, motu and moyashi, +different forms of mould, and proposing to do entirely +away with malt in the manufacture of beer +and whiskey, has made a noteworthy departure. +Manufacturing of malt by the pneumatic process, +and stirring malt during germination, are among the +improvements.</p> + +<p><i>Carbonating.</i>—The injecting of carbonic acid gas +into various waters to render them wholesome, and +also into beers and wines during fermentation, and to +save delay and prevent impurities, are decided improvements.</p> + +<p>The immense improvements and discoveries in the +character of soils and fertilisers have already been +alluded to. Hundreds of instruments have been invented +for measuring, analysing, weighing, separating, +volatilising and otherwise applying chemical +processes to practical purposes.</p> + +<p>To the chemistry of the century the world is indebted +for those devices and processes for the utilisation +and manufacture of many useful products from +the liquids and oils, sugar from cane and beets, +revivifying bone-black, centrifugal machinery for +refining sugar, in defecating it by chemicals and heat,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_69" id="PAGE_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> +in evaporating it in pans, in separating starch and +converting it into glucose, etc.</p> + +<p><i>Oils and Fats.</i>—Up to within this century the vast +amount of cotton seed produced with that crop was +a waste. Then by the process, first of steaming the +seed and expressing the oil, now by the process of +extraction by the aid of volatile solvents, and casting +off the solvents by distillation, an immensely valuable +product has been obtained.</p> + +<p>The utilising of oils in the manufacture of oilcloth +and linoleum and rubber, has become of great +commercial value. Formerly sulphur was the vulcanising +agent, now chloride of sulphur has been substituted +for pure sulphur.</p> + +<p>Steam and the distillation processes have been applied +with great success to the making of glycerine +from fat and from soap underlye and in extracting +fat from various waste products.</p> + +<p><i>Bleaching and Dyeing.</i>—Of course these arts are +very old, but the old methods would not be recognised +in the modern processes; and those who lived +before the century knew nothing of the magnificent +colours, and certain essences, and sweet savours that +can be obtained from the black, hand-soiling pieces +of coal. In the making of illuminating gas, itself a +finished chemical product of the century, a vast +amount of once wasted products, especially coal +tar, are now extensively used; and from coal tar and +the residuum of petroleum oils, now come those +splendid aniline dyes which have produced such a +revolution in the world of colours. The saturation +of sand by a dye and its application to fabrics by +an air blast; the circulation of the fluid colors, or of +fluids for bleaching or drying, or oxidising, through +perforated cylinders or cops on which the cloths are<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_70" id="PAGE_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +wound; devices for the running of skeins through +dyes, the great improvements in carbon dyes and +kindred colours, the processes of making the colours +on the fibre, and the perfumes made by the synthetic +processes, are among the inventions in this field.</p> + +<p>The space that a list of the new chemical products +of this age and their description would fill, has already +been indicated by reference to the great dictionary +of Watts. Some of the electro-chemical +products will be hereinafter referred to in the Chapter +on Electricity, and the chemistry of Metallurgy +will be treated under the latter topic.</p> + +<p><i>Electro-chemical Methods.</i>—Space will only permit +it to be said that these methods are now employed +in the production of a large number of elements, by +means of which very many of them which were before +mere laboratory specimens, have now become +cheap and useful servants of mankind in a hundred +different ways; such as aluminium, that light and +non-corrosive metal, reduced from many dollars an +ounce a generation ago, to 30 and 40 cents a pound +now; carborundum, largely superseding emery and +diamond dust as an abradant; artificial diamonds; +calcium carbide, from which the new illuminating +acetylene gas is made; disinfectants of many kinds; +pigments, chromium, manganese, and chlorates by +the thousand tons. The most useful new chemical +processes are those used in purifying water sewage +and milk, in electroplating metals and other substances, +in the application of chemicals to the fine +arts, in extracting grease from wool, and the making +of many useful products from the waste materials of +the dumps and garbage banks.</p> + +<p><i>Medicines and Surgery.</i>—One hundred years ago, +the practice of medicine was, in the main, empirical.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_71" id="PAGE_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +Certain effects were known to usually follow the giving +of certain drugs, or the application of certain +measures, but why or how these effects were produced, +was unknown. The great steps forward have +been made upon the true scientific foundation established +by the discoveries and inventions in the fields +of physics, chemistry and biology. The discovery of +anaesthetics and their application in surgery and the +practice of medicine, no doubt constitutes the leading +invention of the century in this field.</p> + +<p>Sir Humphry Davy suggested it in 1800, and Dr. +W. T. Morton was the first to apply an anaesthetic to +relieve pain in a surgical operation, which he did in +a hospital in Boston in 1846. Both its original suggestion +and application were also claimed by others.</p> + +<p>Not only relief from intense pain to the patient +during the operation, but immense advantages +are gained by the long and careful examination +afforded of injured or diseased parts, otherwise difficult +or impossible in a conscious patient.</p> + +<p>The exquisite pain and suffering endured previous +to the use of anaesthetics often caused death by +exhaustion. Many delicate operations can now be +performed for the relief of long-continued diseases +which before would have been hazardous or impossible. +How many before suffered unto death long-drawn-out +pain and disease rather than submit to the +torture of the knife! How many lives have been +saved, and how far advanced has become the knowledge +of the human body and its painful diseases, by +this beneficent remedy!</p> + +<p>Inventions in the field of medicine consist chiefly +in those innumerable compositions and compounds +which have resulted from chemical discoveries. Gelatine +capsules used to conceal unpalatable remedies<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_72" id="PAGE_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +may be mentioned as a most acceptable modern invention +in this class. Inventions and discoveries in +the field of surgery relate not only to instrumentalities +but processes. The antiseptic treatment of +wounds, by which the long and exhausting suppuration +is avoided, is among the most notable of the latter. +In instruments vast improvements have been +made; special forms adapted for operation in every +form of injury; in syringes, especially hypodermic, +those used for subcutaneous injections of liquid +remedies; inhalers for applying medicated vapours +and devices for applying volatile anaesthetics, and +devices for atomising and spraying liquids. In the +United States alone about four thousand patents have +been granted for inventions in surgical instruments.</p> + +<p><i>Dentistry.</i>—This art has been revolutionised during +the century. Even in the time of Herodotus, one +special set of physicians had the treatment of teeth; +and artificial teeth have been known and used for +many ages, but all seems crude and barbarous until +these later days. In addition to the use of anaesthetics, +improvements have been made in nearly +every form of dental instruments, such as forceps, +dental engines, pluggers, drills, hammers, etc., and in +the means and materials for making teeth. Later +leading inventions have reference to utilising the +roots of destroyed teeth as supports on which to form +bridges to which artificial teeth are secured, and to +crowns for decayed teeth that still have a solid +base.</p> + +<p>There exists no longer the dread of the dentist’s +chair unless the patient has neglected too long the +visit. Pain cannot be all avoided, but it is ameliorated; +and the new results in workmanship in the +saving and in the making of teeth are vast improvements +over the former methods.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_73" id="PAGE_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +STEAM AND STEAM ENGINES.</span></h2> + +<p class="poem"> +<span class="i30">“Soon shall thy arm, unconquered steam! afar<br></span> +<span class="i30">Drag the slow barge, or drive the rapid car;<br></span> +<span class="i30">Or in wide waving wings expanded bear<br></span> +<span class="i30">The flying chariot through the field of air.”<br></span> +</p> + + +<p>Thus sang the poet prophet, the good Dr. Darwin +of Lichfield, in the eighteenth century. Newcomen +and Watt had not then demonstrated that steam +was not unconquerable, but the hitching it to the +slow barge and the rapid car was yet to come. It +has come, and although the prophecy is yet to be +rounded into fulfilment by the driving of the “flying +chariot through the field of air,” that too is to come.</p> + +<p>The prophecy of the doctor poet was as suggestive +of the practical means of carrying it into +effect as were all the means proposed during the +first seventeen centuries of the Christian Era for +conquering steam and harnessing it as a useful servant +to man.</p> + +<p>Toys, speculations, dreams, observations, startling +experiments, these often constitute the framework +on which is hung the title of Inventor; but the nineteenth +century has demanded a better support for +that proud title. He alone who first transforms his +ideas into actual work and useful service in some +field of man’s labor, or clearly teaches others to do +so, is now recognised as the true inventor. Tested +by this rule there was scarcely an inventor in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_74" id="PAGE_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> +field of steam in all the long stretches of time preceding +the seventeenth century. And if there were, +they had no recording scribes to embalm their efforts +in history.</p> + +<p>We shall never know how early man learned the +wonderful power of the spirit that springs from +heated water. It was doubtless from some sad experience +in ignorantly attempting to put fetters on it.</p> + +<p>The history of steam as a motor generally commences +with reference to that toy called the aeolipile, +described by Hero of Alexandria in a treatise +on pneumatics about two centuries before Christ, +and which was the invention of either himself or +Ctesibius, his teacher.</p> + +<p>This toy consisted of a globe pivoted on two supports, +one of which was a communicating pipe leading +into a heated cauldron of water beneath. The +globe was provided with two escape pipes on diametrically +opposite sides and bent so as to discharge in +opposite directions. Steam admitted into the globe +from the cauldron escaped through the side pipes, and +its pressure on these pipes caused the globe to rotate.</p> + +<p>Hero thus demonstrated that water can be converted +into steam and steam into work.</p> + +<p>Since that ancient day Hero’s apparatus has been +frequently reinvented by men ignorant of the early +effort, and the principle of the invention as well as +substantially the same form have been put into many +practical uses. Hero in his celebrated treatise +described other devices, curious siphons and pumps. +Many of them are supposed to have been used in the +performance of some of the startling religious rites +at the altars of the Greek priests.</p> + +<p>From Hero’s day the record drops down to the +middle ages, and still it finds progress in this art<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_75" id="PAGE_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +confined to a few observations and speculations. +William of Malmesbury in 1150 wrote something on +the subject and called attention to some crude experiments +he had heard of in Germany. Passing from +the slumber of the middle ages, we are assured by +some Spanish historians that one Blasco de Garay, +in 1543, propelled a ship having paddle wheels by +steam at Barcelona. But the publication was long +after the alleged event, and is regarded as apocryphal.</p> + +<p>Observations became more acute in the sixteenth +and seventeenth centuries, experiments more frequent, +and publications more full and numerous.</p> + +<p>Cardan Ramelli and Leonardo da Vinci, learned +Italians, and the accomplished Prof. Jacob Besson +of Orleans, France, all did much by their writings +to make known theoretically the wonderful powers +of steam, and to suggest modes of its practical operation, +in the latter part of the sixteenth century.</p> + +<p>Giambattista della Porta, a gentleman of Naples, +possessing high and varied accomplishments in all +the sciences as they were known at that day, 1601, +and who invented the magic-lantern and <i>camera +obscura</i>, in a work called <i>Spiritalia</i>, described how +steam pressure could be employed to raise a column +of water, how a vacuum was produced by the condensation +of steam in a closed vessel, and how the +condensing vessel should be separated from the +boiler. Revault in France showed in 1605 how a +bombshell might be exploded by steam.</p> + +<p>Salomon de Caus, engineer and architect to Louis +XIII, in 1615 described how water might be raised +by the expansion of steam.</p> + +<p>In 1629 the Italian, Branco, published at Rome an +account of the application of a steam jet upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_76" id="PAGE_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> +vanes of a small wheel to run it, and told how in +other ways Hero’s engine might be employed for +useful purposes.</p> + +<p>The first English publication describing a way of +applying steam appeared in 1630 in a patent granted +to David Ramseye, for a mode of raising water thereby. +This was followed by patents to Grant in 1632 +and to one Ford in 1640. During that century +these crude machines were called “fire engines.” +It seems to have been common in some parts of +Europe during the seventeenth century to use a blast +of steam to improve the draft of chimneys and of +blast furnaces. This application of steam to smoke +and smelting has been frequently revived by modern +inventors with much flourish of originality.</p> + +<p>It is with a certain feeling of delight and relief, +after a prolonged search through the centuries for +some evidence of harnessing this mighty agent to +man’s use, that we come to the efforts of the good +Marquis of Worcester—Edward Somerset. He it was +who in 1655 wrote of the <i>Inventions of the Sixteenth +Century</i>. He afterwards amplified this title by calling +his book <i>A Century of Names and Scantlings +of such Inventions as at present I call to mind to +have tried and perfected</i>, etc.</p> + +<p>There are about one hundred of these “Scantlings,” +and his descriptions of them are very brief +but interesting. Some, if revived now and put to +use, would throw proposed flying machines into the +background, as they involved perpetual motion.</p> + +<p>But to his honor be it said that he was the first +steam-engine builder. A patent was issued to him in +1663. It was about 1668 that he built and put in +successful operation at Raglan Castle at Vauxhall, +near London, a steam engine to force water upward.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_77" id="PAGE_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +He made separate boilers, which he worked alternately, +and conveyed the steam from them to a vessel +in which its pressure operated to force the water up. +Unfortunately he did not leave a description of his +inventions sufficiently full to enable later mechanics +to make and use them. He strove in vain to get capital +interested and a company formed to manufacture +his engines. The age of fear and speculation as +to steam ceased when the Marquis set his engine to +pumping water, and from that time inventors went +on to put the arm of steam to work.</p> + +<p>In 1683 Sir Samuel Morland commenced the construction +of the Worcester engines for use and sale; +Hautefeuille of France taught the use of gas, +described how gas as well as steam engines might be +constructed, and was the first to propose the use of +the piston. The learned writings of the great Dutch +scientist and inventor, Huygens, on heat and light +steam and gas, also then came forth, and his assistant, +the French physicist and doctor, Denis Papin, +in 1690, proposed steam as a universal motive power, +invented a steam engine having a piston and a safety +valve, and even a crude paddle steamer, which it is +said was tried in 1707 on the river Fulda. Then in +1698 came Thomas Savery, who patented a steam +engine that was used in draining mines.</p> + +<p>The eighteenth century thus commenced with a +practical knowledge of the power of steam and of +means for controlling and working it.</p> + +<p>Then followed the combined invention of Newcomen, +Cawley and Savery, in 1705, of the most successful +pumping engine up to that time. In this +engine a cylinder was employed for receiving the +steam from a separate boiler. There was a piston in +the cylinder driven up by the steam admitted below<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_78" id="PAGE_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> +it, aided by a counterpoise at one end of an engine +beam. The steam was then cut off from the boiler +and condensed by the introduction beneath the piston +of a jet of water, and the condensed steam and water +drawn off by a pipe. Atmospheric pressure forced +the piston down. The piston and pump rods were +connected to the opposite ends of a working beam of +a pumping engine, as in some modern engines. +Gauge cocks to indicate the height of water, and a +safety valve to regulate the pressure of steam, were +employed. Then came the ingenious improvement +of the boy Humphrey Potter, connecting the valve +gear with the engine beam by cords, so as to do automatically +what he was set to do by hand, and the improvement +on that of the Beighton plug rod. Still +further improved by others, the Newcomen engine +came into use through out Europe.</p> + +<p>Jonathan Hulls patented in England in 1736 a +marine steam engine, and in 1737 published a description +of a Newcomen engine applied to his system +for towing ships. William Henry, of Pennsylvania, +tried a model steamboat on the Conestoga +river in 1763.</p> + +<p>This was practically the state of the art, in 1763, +when James Watt entered the field. His brilliant +inventions harnessed steam to more than pumping +engines, made it a universal servant in manifold +industries, and started it on a career which has revolutionized +the trade and manufactures of the world.</p> + +<p>To understand what the nineteenth century has +done in steam motive power we must first know what +Watt did in the eighteenth century, as he then laid +the foundation on which the later inventions have +all been built.</p> + +<p>Taking up the crude but successful working en<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_79" id="PAGE_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>gine +of Newcomen, a model of which had been sent +to him for repairs, he began an exhaustive study of +the properties of steam and of the means for producing +and controlling it. He found it necessary to +devise a new system.</p> + +<p>Watt saw that the alternate heating and cooling of +the cylinder made the engine work slowly and caused +an excessive consumption of steam. He concluded +that “the cylinder should always be as hot as the +steam that entered it.” He therefore closed the +cylinder and provided a separate condensing vessel +into which the steam was led after it raised the +piston. He provided an air-tight jacket for the cylinder, +to maintain its heat. He added a tight packing +in the cylinder-head for the piston-rod to move +through, and a steam-tight stuffing-box on the top of +the cylinder. He caused the steam to alternately enter +below and above the piston and be alternately condensed +to drive the piston down as well as up, and +this made the engine double-acting, increasing its +power and speed. He converted the reciprocating +motion of the piston into a rotary motion by the +adoption of the crank, and introduced the well-known +parallel motion, and many other improvements. In +short, he demonstrated for the first time by a practical +and efficient engine that the expansive force of +steam could be used to drive all ordinary machinery. +He then secured his inventions by patents against +piracy, and sustained them successfully in many a +hard-fought battle. It had taken him the last +quarter of the 18th century to do all these things.</p> + +<p>Watt was the proper precursor of the nineteenth +century inventions, as in him were combined the +power and attainments of a great scientist and the +genius of a great mechanic. The last eighteen years<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_80" id="PAGE_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> +of his life were passed in the 19th century, and he was +thus enabled to see his inventions brought within its +threshold and applied to those arts which have made +this age so glorious in mechanical achievements.</p> + +<p>Watt so fitly represents the class of modern great +inventors in his character and attainments that the +description of him by Sir Walter Scott is here pertinent +as a tribute to that class, and as a delineation +of the general character of those benefactors of his +race of which he was so conspicuous an example:—</p> + +<p>Says Sir Walter:—</p> + +<blockquote><p>“Amidst this company stood Mr. Watt, the man +whose genius discovered the means of multiplying +our national resources to a degree, perhaps, even beyond +his own stupendous powers of calculation and +combination; bringing the treasures of the abyss to +the summit of the earth—giving to the feeble arm of +man the momentum of an Afrite—commanding manufactures +to rise—affording means of dispensing with +that time and tide which wait for no man—and of +sailing without that wind which defied the commands +and threats of Xerxes himself. This potent commander +of the elements—this abridger of time and +space—this magician, whose cloudy machinery has +produced a change in the world, the effects of which, +extraordinary as they are, are perhaps only beginning +to be felt—was not only the most profound man +of science, the most successful combiner of powers +and calculator of numbers, as adapted to practical +purposes, was not only one of the most generally well-informed, +but one of the best and kindest of human +beings.”</p></blockquote> + +<p>The first practical application of steam as a work<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_81" id="PAGE_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>ing +force was to pumping, as has been stated. After +Watt’s system was devised, suggestions and experiments +as to road locomotives and carriages were +made, and other applications came thick and fast. A +French officer, Cugnot, in 1769 and 1770, was the +first to try the road carriage engine. Other prominent +Frenchmen made encouraging experiments on +small steamboats—followed in 1784-86 by James +Rumsey and John Fitch in America in the same line. +Watt patented a road engine in 1784. About the +same time his assistant, Murdock, completed and +tried a model locomotive driven by a “grasshopper” +engine. Oliver Evans, the great American contemporary +of Watt, had in 1779 devised a high-pressure +non-condensing steam engine in a form still used. +In 1786-7 he obtained in Pennsylvania and Maryland +patents for applying steam to driving flour mills +and propelling waggons. Also about this time, Symington, +the Scotchman, constructed a working model +of a steam carriage, which is still preserved in the +museum at South Kensington, London. Symington +and his fellow Scotchmen, Miller and Taylor, in +1788-89 also constructed working steamboats. In +1796 Richard Trevithick, a Cornish marine captain, +was producing a road locomotive. The century thus +opened with activity in steam motive power. The +“scantlings” of the Marquis of Worcester were now +being converted into complete structures. And so +great was the activity and the number of inventors +that he is a daring man who would now decide priority +between them. The earliest applications in +this century of steam power were in the line of road +engines.</p> + +<p>On Christmas eve of 1801, Trevithick made the +initial trip with the first successful steam road loco<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_82" id="PAGE_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>motive +through the streets of Camborne in Cornwall, +carrying passengers. In one of his trips he passed +into the country roads and came to a tollgate through +which a frightened keeper hastily passed him without +toll, hailing him as the devil.</p> + +<p>Persistent efforts continued to be made to introduce +a practical steam road carriage in England until +1827. After Trevithick followed Blenkinsop, who +made a locomotive which ran ten miles an hour. +Then came Julius Griffith, in 1821, of Brompton, +who patented a steam carriage which was built by +Joseph Bramah, one of the ablest mechanics of his +time. Gordon, Brunton and Gurney attempted a +curious and amusing steam carriage, resembling a +horse in action—having jointed legs and feet, but +this animal was not successful. Walter Hancock, in +1827, was one of the most persistent and successful +inventors in this line; but bad roads and an unsympathetic +public discouraged inventors in their efforts +to introduce steam road carriages, and their +attention was turned to the locomotive to run on +rails or tracks especially prepared for them. Wooden +and iron rails had been introduced a century +before for heavy cars and wagons in pulling loads +from mines and elsewhere, but when at the beginning +of the century it had been found that the +engines of Watt could be used to drag such loads, it +was deemed necessary to make a rail having its top +surface roughened with ridges and the wheels of the +engine and cars provided with teeth or cogs to prevent +anticipated slipping.</p> + +<p>In England, Blackett and George Stephenson discovered +that the adhesion of smooth wheels to smooth +rails was sufficient. Without overlooking the fact +that William Hendley built and operated a locomotive<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_83" id="PAGE_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> +called the <i>Puffing Billy</i> in 1803, and Hackworth +one a little later, yet to the genius of Stephenson +is due chiefly the successful introduction of +the modern locomotive. His labours and inventions +continued from 1812 for twenty years, and culminated +at two great trials: the first one on the +Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1829, when he +competed with Hackworth and Braithwaite and +Ericsson, and with the <i>Rocket</i> won the race; and +the second at the opening of the same road in 1830, +when with the <i>Northumbrian</i>, at the head of seven +other locomotives and a long train of twenty-eight +carriages, in which were seated six hundred passengers, +he ran the train successfully between the two +towns.</p> + +<p>On this occasion Mr. Huskisson, Home Secretary +in the British Cabinet, while the cars were stopping +to water the engines, and he was out on the track +talking with the Duke of Wellington, was knocked +down by one of the engines and had one of his legs +crushed. Placed on board of the <i>Northumbrian</i>, it +was driven at the rate of thirty-six miles an hour by +Stephenson to Eccles. Mr. Huskisson died there +that night. This was its first victim, and the greatest +speed yet attained by a locomotive.</p> + +<p>The year 1829 therefore can be regarded as the +commencement of the life of the locomotive for transportation +of passengers. The steam blast thrown into +the smokestack by Hackworth, the tubular boiler of +Seguin and the link motion of Stephenson were then, +as they now are, the essential features of locomotives.</p> + +<p>In the meantime America had not been idle. The +James Watt of America, Oliver Evans, in 1804 completed +a flat-bottomed boat to be used in dredging +at the Philadelphia docks, and mounting it on wheels<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_84" id="PAGE_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> +drove it by its own steam engine through the streets +to the river bank. Launching the craft, he propelled +it down the river by using the same engine to drive +the paddle wheels. He gave to this engine the +strange name of <i>Oruktor Amphibolos</i>.</p> + +<p>John C. Stevens of New Jersey was, in 1812, urging +the legislature of the State of New York to build +railways, and asserting that he could see nothing to +hinder a steam carriage from moving with a velocity +of one hundred miles an hour. In 1829 George +Stephenson in England had made for American +parties a locomotive called <i>The Stourbridge Lion</i>, +which in that year was brought to America and used +on the Delaware and Hudson R. R. by Horatio +Allen. Peter Cooper in the same year constructed +a locomotive for short curves, for the Baltimore +and Ohio Railroad.</p> + +<p>Returning now to steam navigation:—Symington +again entered the field in 1801-2 and constructed +for Lord Dundas a steamboat, named after his wife, +the <i>Charlotte Dundas</i>, for towing on a canal, which +was successfully operated.</p> + +<p>Robert Fulton, an American artist, and subsequently +a civil engineer, built a steamboat on the +Seine in 1803, assisted by R. Livingston, then American +Minister to France. Then in 1806 Fulton, having +returned to the United States, commenced to +build another steamboat, in which he was again assisted +by Livingston, and in which he placed machinery +made by Boulton and Watt in England. +This steamboat, named the <i>Clermont</i>, was 130 ft. +long, 18 ft. beam, 7 ft. depth and 160 tons burden. +It made its first trip on the Hudson, from New York +to Albany and return, in August, 1807, and subsequently +made regular trips. It was the first com<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_85" id="PAGE_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>mercially +successful steamboat ever made, as George +Stephenson’s was the first commercially successful +locomotive. In the meantime Col. John Stevens of +New Jersey was also at work on a steamboat, and had +in 1804 built such a boat at his shops, having a screw +propeller and a flue boiler. Almost simultaneously +with Fulton he brought out the <i>Phœnix</i>, a side-wheel +steamer having hollow water lines and provided with +feathering paddle wheels, and as Fulton and Livingston +had a monopoly of the Hudson, Stevens took his +boat by sea from New York around to Delaware bay +and up the Delaware river. This was in 1808, and +was the first sea voyage ever made by a steam vessel.</p> + +<p>Transatlantic steamship navigation was started +in 1819. A Mr. Scarborough of Savannah, Ga., in +1818 purchased a ship of about three hundred and +fifty tons burden, which was named the <i>Savannah</i>. +Equipped with engine and machinery it steamed out +of New York Harbour on the 27th day of March, +1819, and successfully reached Savannah, Georgia. +On the 20th of May in the same year she left Savannah +for Liverpool, making the trip in 22 days. +From Liverpool she went to Copenhagen, Stockholm, +St. Petersburg, Cronstadt and Arundel, and from +the latter port returned to Savannah, making the +passage in twenty-five days.</p> + +<p>But Scottish waters, and the waters around other +coasts of the British Islands, had been traversed by +steamboats before this celebrated trip of the <i>Savannah</i>. +Bell’s steamboat between Glasgow and Greenock +in 1812 was followed by five others in 1814; +and seven steamboats plied on the Thames in 1817.</p> + +<p>So the locomotives and the steamboats and steamships +continued to multiply, and when the first forty +years of the century had been reached the Iron Horse<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_86" id="PAGE_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> +was fairly installed on the fields of Europe and +America, and the rivers and the oceans were +ploughed by its sisters, the steam vessels.</p> + +<p>It was in 1840 that the famous Cunard line of +transatlantic steamers was established, soon followed +by the Collins line and others.</p> + +<p>A few years before, John C. Stevens in America +and John Ericsson in England had brought forward +the screw propeller; and Ericsson was the first to +couple the engine to the propeller shaft. It succeeded +the successful paddle wheels of Fulton in +America and Bell in England.</p> + +<p>The nineteenth century is the age of kinetic +energy: the energy of either solid, liquid, gaseous +or electrical matter transformed into useful work.</p> + +<p>It has been stated by that eminent specialist in +steam engineering, Prof. R. H. Thurston, that “the +steam engine is a machine which is especially designed +to transform energy originally dormant or +potential into active and useful available kinetic +energy;” and that the great problem in this branch +of science is “to construct a machine which shall +in the most perfect manner possible convert the kinetic +energy of heat into mechanical power, the heat +being derived from the combustion of fuel, and steam +being the receiver and conveyor of that heat.”</p> + +<p>Watt and his contemporaries regarded heat as a +material substance called “Phlogiston.” The modern +kinetic theory of heat was a subsequent discovery, +as elsewhere explained.</p> + +<p>The inventors of the last part of the eighteenth +century and of the nineteenth century have directed +their best labours to construct an engine as above +defined by Thurston.</p> + +<p>First as to the boiler: Efforts were made first to<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_87" id="PAGE_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> +get away from the little old spherical boiler of Hero. +In the 18th century Smeaton devised the horizontal +lengthened cylindrical boiler traversed by a flue. +Oliver Evans followed with two longitudinal flues. +Nathan Read of Salem, Massachusetts, in 1791, invented +a tubular boiler in which the flues and gases +are conducted through tubes passing through the +boiler into the smokestack. Such boilers are adapted +for portable stationary engines, locomotives, fire +and marine engines, and the fire is built within the +boiler frame. Then in the 19th century came the use +of sectional boilers—a combination of small vessels +instead of a large common one, increasing the strength +while diminishing capacity—to obtain high pressure +of steam. Then came improved weighted and other +safety valves to regulate and control this pressure. +The compound or double cylinder high-pressure engine +of Hornblower of England, in 1781, and the high-pressure +non-condensing steam engine devised by +Evans in 1779, were reconstructed and improved in +the early part of the century.</p> + +<p>To give perfect motion and the slightest friction +to the piston; to regulate the supply of steam to the +engine by proper valves; to determine such supply by +many varieties of governors and thus control the +speed; to devise valve gear which distributes the +steam through its cycles of motion by which to admit +the steam alternately to each end of the steam +cylinder as the piston moves backward and forward, +and exhaust valves to open and close the parts +through which the steam escapes; to automatically +operate such valves; to condense the escaping steam +and to remove the water of condensation; to devise +powerful steam brakes—these are some of the important +details on which inventors have exercised<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_88" id="PAGE_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +their keenest wits. Then again the extensive inventions +of the century have given rise to a great classification +to designate their forms or their uses: condensing +and non-condensing, high-pressure or low-pressure—the +former term being applied to engines +supplied with steam of 50 lbs. pressure to the square +inch and upward, and the latter to engines working +under 40 lbs. pressure—and the low pressure are +nearly always the condensing and the high pressure +the non-condensing; reciprocating and rotary—the +latter having a piston attached to a shaft and revolving +within a cylinder of which the axis is parallel +with the axis of rotation of the piston.</p> + +<p>Direct acting, where the piston rod acts directly +upon the connecting rod and through it upon the +crank, without the intervention of a beam or lever; +oscillating, in which the piston rods are attached directly +to the crank pin and as the crank revolves the +cylinder oscillates upon trunnions, one on each side +of it, through which the steam enters and leaves the +steam chest.</p> + +<p>Then as to their use, engines are known as stationary, +pumping, portable, locomotive or marine.</p> + +<p>The best-known engine of the stationary kind is +the Corliss, which is very extensively used in the +United States and Europe.</p> + +<p>Among other later improvements is the duplex +pumping engine, in which one engine controls the +valve of the other; compensating devices for steam +pumping, by which power is accumulated by making +the first half of the stroke of the steam piston assist +in moving the piston the other half of the stroke during +the expansion of steam; steam or air hand hammers +on which the piston is the hammer and strikes +a tool projecting through the head into the cylinder;<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_89" id="PAGE_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> +rock drilling, in which the movement of the valves is +operated by the piston at any portion of its stroke; +shaft governors, in which the eccentric for operating +the engine valves is moved around or across the main +or auxiliary shaft; multiple cylinders, in which several +cylinders, either single or double, are arranged +to co-operate with a common shaft; impact rotary, +known as steam turbines, a revival in some respects +of Hero’s engine. And then, finally, the delicate and +ingenious bicycle and automobile steam engines.</p> + +<p>Then there are steam sanding devices for locomotives +by which sand is automatically fed to the rails +at the same time the air brake is applied.</p> + +<p>Starting valves used for starting compound locomotives +on ascending steep grades, in which both +low and high pressure cylinders are supplied with +live steam, and when the steam, exhausted from +either high or low pressure cylinders into the receivers, +has reached a predetermined pressure, the engine +works on the compound principle. Single acting +compound engines, in which two or more cylinders +are arranged tandem, the steam acting only in +one direction, and the exhaust steam of one acting +upon the piston in the cylinder next of the series, are +arranged in pairs, so that while one is acting downward +the other is acting upward.</p> + +<p>Throttle valves automatically closed upon the +bursting of a pipe, or the breaking of machinery, are +operated by electricity, automatically, or by hand at +a distance.</p> + +<p>Napoleon, upon his disastrous retreat from Moscow, +anxious to reach Paris as soon as possible, left +his army on the way, provided himself with a travelling +and sleeping carriage, and with relays of fresh +horses at different points managed, by extraordi<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_90" id="PAGE_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>nary +strenuous efforts day and night, to travel from +Smorgoni to Paris, a distance of 1000 miles, between +the 5th and 10th of December, 1812. This was at +the average rate of about two hundred miles a day, +or eight or nine miles an hour. It was a most remarkable +ride for any age by horse conveyance.</p> + +<p>Within the span of a man’s life after that event +any one could take a trip of that distance in twenty-four +hours, with great ease and comfort, eating and +sleeping on the car, and with convenient telegraph +and telephone stations along the route by which to +comunicate by pen, or word of mouth, with distant +friends at either end of the journey.</p> + +<p>If Napoleon had deemed it best to have continued +his journey across the Atlantic to America he would +have been compelled to pass several weeks on an uncomfortable +sailing vessel. Now, a floating palace +would await him which would carry him across in +less than six days.</p> + +<p>Should mankind be seized with a sudden desire to +replace all the locomotives in the world by horse +power it would be utterly impossible to do it. It was +recently estimated that there were one hundred and +fifty thousand locomotives in use on the railroads of +the world; and as a fair average would give them +five hundred horse power each, it will be seen that +they are the equivalent of seventy-five million horses.</p> + +<p>Space and time will not admit of minute descriptions, +or hardly a mention, of the almost innumerable +improvements of the century in steam. Having +seen the principles on which these inventions have +been constructed, enumerated the leading ones and +glanced at the most prominent facts in their history, +we must refer the seeker for more particulars to those +publications of modern patent offices, in which each<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_91" id="PAGE_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> +regiment and company of this vast army is embalmed +in its own especial and ponderous volume.</p> + +<p>A survey of the field will call to mind, however, +the eloquent words of Daniel Webster:—</p> + +<p>“And, last of all, with inimitable power, and with +a 'whirlwind sound’ comes the potent agency of +steam. In comparison with the past, what centuries +of improvement has this single agent compressed in +the short compass of fifty years! Everywhere practicable, +everywhere efficient, it has an arm a thousand +times stronger than that of Hercules, and to which +human ingenuity is capable of fitting a thousand +times as many hands as belonged to Briareus. +Steam is found triumphant in operation on the seas; +and under the influence of its strong propulsion, the +gallant ship,</p> + +<p class="poem"> +<span class="line">'Against the wind, against the tide<br></span> +<span class="line">Still steadies with an upright keel.’<br></span> +</p> + +<p>It is on the rivers, and the boatman may repose upon +his oars; it is on highways, and exerts itself along +the courses of land conveyances; it is at the bottom of +mines, a thousand feet below the earth’s surface; it +is in the mills and in the workshops of the trades. +It rows, it pumps, it excavates, it carries, it draws, +it lifts, it hammers, it spins, it weaves, it prints. It +seems to say to men, at least to the class of artisans: +'Leave off your manual labour, give up your bodily +toil; bestow but your skill and reason to the directing +of my power and I will bear the toil, with no muscle +to grow weary, no nerve to relax, no breast to feel +faintness!’ What further improvement may still be +made in the use of this astonishing power it is impossible +to know, and it were vain to conjecture.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_92" id="PAGE_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +What we do know is that it has most essentially altered +the face of affairs, and that no visible limit yet +appears beyond which its progress is seen to be impossible.”</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_93" id="PAGE_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +ENGINEERING AND TRANSPORTATION.</span></h2> + + +<p>The field of service of a civil engineer has thus been +eloquently stated by a recent writer in <i>Chambers’s +Journal</i>:</p> + +<p>“His duties call upon him to devise the means for +surmounting obstacles of the most formidable kind. +He has to work in the water, over the water, and under +the water; to cause streams to flow; to check +them from overflowing; to raise water to a great +height; to build docks and walls that will bear the +dashing of waves; to convert dry land into harbours, +and low water shores into dry land; to construct +lighthouses on lonely rocks; to build lofty aqueducts +for the conveyance of water, and viaducts, for +the conveyance of railway trains; to burrow into the +bowels of the earth with tunnels, shafts, pits and +mines; to span torrents and ravines with bridges; to +construct chimneys that rival the loftiest spires and +pyramids in height; to climb mountains with roads +and railways; to sink wells to vast depths in search of +water. By untiring patience, skill, energy and invention, +he produces in these several ways works +which certainly rank among the marvels of human +power.”</p> + +<p>The pyramids of Egypt, the roads, bridges and +aqueducts built by the Chinese and by Rome; the +great bridges of the Middle Ages, and especially +those built by that strange fraternal order known<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_94" id="PAGE_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> +as the “Brothers of the Bridge”; the ocean-defying +lighthouses of a later period—these, and more than +these, attest the fact that there were great engineers +before the nineteenth century.</p> + +<p>But the engineering of to-day is the hand-maid +of all the Sciences; and as they each have advanced +during the century beyond all that was imagined, or +dreamed of as possible in former times, so have the +labours of engineering correspondingly multiplied. +No longer are such labours classified and grouped in +one field, called Civil Engineering, but they have +been necessarily divided into great additional new +and independent fields, known as Steam Engineering, +Mining Engineering, Hydraulic Engineering, +Electrical Engineering and Marine Engineering. +Within each of these fields are assembled innumerable +appliances which are the offspring of the inventive +genius of the century just closed.</p> + +<p>We have seen how one discovery, or the development +of a certain art, brings in its train and +often necessitates other inventions and discoveries. +The development and dedication of the steam engine +to the transportation of goods and men called for improvements +in the roads and rails on which the engine +and its load were to travel, and this demand +brought forth those modern railway bridges which +are the finest examples in the art of bridge making +that the world has ever seen.</p> + +<p>The greatest bridges of former ages were built of +stone and solid masonry. Now iron and steel have +been substituted, and these light but substantial +frameworks span wide rivers and deep ravines with +almost the same speed and gracefulness that the +spider spins his silken web from limb to limb. These, +too, waited for their construction on that next turn<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_95" id="PAGE_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> +in the wheel of evolution, which brought better +processes in the making of iron and steel, and better +tools and appliances for working metals, and in +handling vast and heavy bodies.</p> + +<p>The first arched iron bridge was over the Severn at +Coalbrookdale, England, erected by Abraham Darby +in 1777. In 1793 one was erected by Telford at +Buildwas, and in the same year Burden completed +an arch across the weir at Sunderland. The most +prominent classes of bridges in which the highest inventive +and constructive genius of the engineers of +the century are illustrated are known as the <i>suspension</i>, +the <i>tubular</i> and the <i>tubular arch</i>, the <i>truss and +cantilever</i>.</p> + +<p>Suspension bridges consisting of twisted vines, of +iron chains, or of bamboo, or cane, or of ropes, have +been known in different parts of the world from time +immemorial, but they bear only a primitive and suggestive +resemblance to the great iron cable bridges +of the nineteenth century. The first notable structure +of this kind was constructed by Sir Samuel +Brown, across the Tweed at Berwick, England, in +1819. Brown was born in London in 1776 and died +in 1852. He entered the navy at the age of 18, was +made commander in 1811, and retired as captain in +1842. We have alluded to the spider’s web, and +Smiles, in his <i>Self Help</i>, relates as an example of +intelligent observation that while Capt Brown was +occupied in studying the character of bridges with +the view of constructing one of a cheap description +to be thrown across the Tweed, near which he lived, +he was walking in his garden one dewy autumn morning +when he saw a tiny spider’s web suspended across +his path. The idea immediately occurred to him of +a bridge of iron wires. In 1829 Brown also was the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_96" id="PAGE_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +engineer for suspension bridges built over the Esk +at Montrose and over the Thames at Hammersmith. +Before that time, a span in a bridge of 100 feet was +considered remarkably long. Suspension bridges +are best adapted for long spans, and have been constructed +with spans more than twice as long as any +other form. Sir Samuel Brown’s bridge had a span +of 449 feet. This class of bridges is usually constructed +with chains or cables passing over towers, +with the roadway suspended beneath. The ends of +the chains or cables are securely anchored. The +cables are then passed over towers, on which they are +supported in movable saddles, so that the towers are +not overthrown by the strain on the cables. Nice +calculations have to be made as to the tension to +be placed on the cables, the allowance for deflection, +and the equal distribution of weight. The floor-way +in the earlier bridges of this type was supported +by means of a series of equidistant vertical rods, +and was lacking stiffness, but this was remedied +by trussing the road bed, using inclined stays extending +from the towers and partially supporting +the roadway for some distance out from the tower.</p> + +<p>The next finest suspension bridge was constructed +by Thomas Telford and finished in 1826, across the +Menai Strait to connect the island of Anglesea with +the mainland of Wales. Telford was born in Dumfriesshire, +Scotland, in 1757, and died in Westminster +in 1834. Beginning life as a stone mason, he +rose by his own industry to be a master among architects +and a prince among builders of iron bridges, +aqueducts, canals, tunnels, harbours and docks.</p> + +<p>The Menai bridge was composed of chains or wire +ropes, each nearly a third of a mile in length, and +which descended 60 feet into sloping pits or drifts,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_97" id="PAGE_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +where they were screwed to cast-iron frames embedded +in the rocks. The span of the suspended +central arch was 560 feet, and the platform was 100 +feet above high water. Seven stone arches of 52½ +feet span make up the rest of the bridge.</p> + +<p>But a suspension bridge was completed in 1834 by +M. Challey of Lyon over the Saane at Fribourg, Switzerland, +which greatly surpassed the Menai bridge. +The span is 880 feet from pier to pier, and the roadway +is 167 feet above the river. It is supported by +four iron wire cables, each consisting of 1056 wires. +It was tested by placing 15 pieces of artillery, drawn +by 50 horses and accompanied by 300 men crowded +together as closely as possible, first at the centre, +and then at each extreme, causing a depression of 39½ +inches, but no sensible oscillation was experienced.</p> + +<p>Isambard K. Brunel was another great engineer, +who constructed a suspension bridge at the Isle of +Bourbon in 1823, and the Charing Cross over the +Thames at Hungerford in 1845, which was a footbridge, +having a span of 675 feet, the longest span +of any bridge in England. Then followed finer and +larger suspension bridges in other parts of the world. +It was across the Niagara in front of the great falls +that in 1855 British America and the United States +were joined by a magnificent suspension bridge, one +of the finest in the world, and the two English speaking +countries were then physically and commercially +united. At the opening of the bridge, one portion of +which was for a railway, the shriek of the locomotive +and the roar of the train mingled with the roar of +the wild torrent 250 feet below. The bridge, 800 feet +long, is a single span, supported by four enormous +cables of wire stretching from the Canadian cliff to +the opposite United States cliff. The cables pass<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_98" id="PAGE_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +over the tops of lofty stone towers arising from these +cliffs, and each cable consists of no less than 4,000 +distinct wires. The roadway hangs from these cables, +suspended by 624 vertical rods.</p> + +<p>The engineer of this bridge was John A. Roebling, +a native of Prussia, born there in 1806, and who +died in New York in 1869. He was educated at the +Polytechnic School in Berlin, and emigrated to +America at the age of 25. His labors were first as +a canal and railway engineer, then he became the +inventor and manufacturer of a new form of wire +rope, and then turned his attention to the construction +of aqueducts and suspension bridges. After the +Niagara bridge, above described, he commenced +another bridge of greater dimensions over the same +river, which was finished within two or three years. +His next work was the splendid suspension bridge +at Cincinnati, Ohio, which has a clear span of 1057 +feet. In 1869, in connection with his son, Washington +A. Roebling, he commenced that magnificent +suspension bridge to unite the great cities of New +York and Brooklyn, and which, by its completion, +resulted in the consolidation of those cities as Greater +New York. The Roeblings, father and son, were to +the engineering of America what George Stephenson +and his son Robert were to the locomotive and railway +and bridge engineering of Great Britain.</p> + +<p>The Brooklyn bridge, known also as the East +River bridge, was formally opened to the public on +the 24th of May 1883. Most enormous and unexpected +technical difficulties were met and overcome in +its construction. Its total length is nearly 6,000 +feet. The length of the suspended structure from +anchorage to anchorage is 3,454 feet. A statement +of the general features of this bridge indicates the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_99" id="PAGE_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +nature of the construction of such bridges as a class, +and distinguishes them from the comparatively simple +forms of past ages. This structure is supported +by two enormous towers, having a height of 276 feet +above the surface of the water, carrying at their tops +the saddles which support the cables, and having a +span between them of 1,595 feet. The towers are +each pierced by two archways, 31½ feet wide, and +120½ feet high, through which openings passes the +floor of the bridge at the height of 118 feet above +high water mark. There are four supporting cables, +each 16 inches in diameter, and each composed of +about 5,000 single wires. The wire is one-eighth +size; 278 single wires are grouped into a rope, and +19 ropes bunched to form a cable. The iron saddles +at the top of the lofty towers, and on which the cables +rest, are made movable to permit its expansion +and compression—and they glide through minute +distances on iron rollers in saddle plates embedded +and anchored in the towers, in response to strains and +changes of temperature. The enormous cables pass +from the towers shoreward to their anchorages 930 +feet away, and which are solid masses of masonry, +each 132 x 119 feet at base and top, 89 feet high, and +weighing 60,000 tons. The bridge is divided into +five avenues: one central one for foot passengers, +two outer ones for vehicles, and the others for the +street cars. The cost of the bridge was nearly +$15,000,000.</p> + +<p>Twenty fatal and many disabling accidents occurred +during the construction of the bridge. The +great engineer Roebling was the first victim to an +accident. He had his foot crushed while laying the +foundation of one of the stone piers, and died of +lockjaw.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_100" id="PAGE_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p> + +<p>It was necessary to build up the great piers by the +aid of caissons, which are water-tight casings built of +timber and metal and sunk to the river bed and sometimes +far below it, within which are built the foundations +of piers or towers, and into which air is +pumped for the workmen. A fire in one of the caissons, +which necessitated its flooding by water, and to +which the son, Washington Roebling, was exposed, +resulted in prostrating him with a peculiar form of +caisson disease, which destroyed the nerves of motion +without impairing his intellectual faculties. But, although +disabled from active work, Mr. Roebling continued +to superintend the vast project through the +constant mediation of his wife.</p> + +<p><i>Tubular Bridges.</i>—These are bridges formed by a +great tube or hollow beam through the center of +which a roadway or railway passes. The name +would indicate that the bridge was cylindrical in +form, and this was the first idea. But it was concluded +after experiment that a rectangular form was +the best, as it is more rigid than either a cylindrical +or elliptical tube. The adoption of this form was +due to Fairbairn, the celebrated English inventor +and engineer of iron structures. The Menai tubular +railway bridge, adjacent to the suspension bridge of +Telford across the same strait, and already described, +was the first example of this type of bridge. Robert +Stephenson was the engineer of this great structure, +aided by the suggestions of Fairbairn and other eminent +engineers. This bridge was opened for railway +traffic in March, 1850. It was built on three +towers and shore abutments. The width of the strait +is divided by these towers into four spans—two of +460 feet each, and two of 230 feet. In appearance, +the bridge looked like one huge, long, narrow iron<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_101" id="PAGE_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +box, but it consisted really of four bridges, each made +of a pair of rectangular tubes, and through one set +of tubes the trains passed in going in one direction, +and through the other set in going the opposite direction. +These ponderous tubes were composed of +wrought-iron plates, from three-eighths to three-fourths +of an inch thick, the largest 12 feet in length, +riveted together and stiffened by angle irons. They +varied in height—the central ones being the highest +and those nearest the shore the lowest. The +central ones are 30 feet high, and the inner +ones about 22 feet. Their width was about +14 feet. They were built upon platforms on the +Caernarvon shore, and the great problem was +how to lift them and put them in place, especially +the central ones, which were 460 feet in length. Each +tube weighed 1,800 pounds, and they were to be +raised 192 feet. This operation has been described +as “the grandest lift ever effected in engineering.” +It was accomplished by means of powerful hydraulic +presses. Another and still grander example of this +style of bridge is the Victoria at Montreal, Canada. +This also was designed by Robert Stephenson and +built under his direction by James Hodges of Montreal. +Work was commenced in 1854 and it was +completed in December, 1859, and opened for travel +in 1860. It consists of 24 piers, 242 feet apart, except +the centre one, from which the span is 330 feet. +The tube is in sections and quadrangular in form. +Every plate and piece of iron was made and punched +in England and brought across the Atlantic. In +Canada little remained to be done but to put the +parts together and in position. This, however, was +in itself a Herculean task. The enormous structure +was to be placed sixty feet above the swift current of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_102" id="PAGE_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> +the broad St. Lawrence, and wherein huge masses of +ice, each block from three to five feet in thickness, +accumulated every winter. The work was accomplished +by the erection of a vast rigid stage of timber, +on which the tubes were built up plate by plate. +When all was completed the great staging was removed, +and the mighty tube rested alone and secure +upon its massive wedge-faced piers rising from the +bedrock of the flood below.</p> + +<p><i>The Tubular Arch Bridge.</i>—This differs from the +tubular bridge proper, in that the former consists of +a bridge the body of which is supported by a tubular +archway of iron and steel, whereas in the latter the +body of the bridge itself is a tube. The tubular arch +is also properly classed as a girder bridge because +the great tube which covers the span is simply an immense +beam or girder, which supports the superstructure +on which the floor of the bridge is laid. A +fine illustration of this style of bridge is seen in what +is known as the aqueduct bridge over Rock Creek +at Washington, D. C., in which the arch consists of +two cast-iron jointed pipes, supporting a double carriage +and a double street car way, and through which +pipes all the water for the supply of the City of +Washington passes. General M. C. Meigs was the +engineer.</p> + +<p>Another far grander illustration of such a structure, +in combination with the truss system, is that of +the Illinois and St. Louis bridge, across the Mississippi, +of which Captain James B. Eads was the engineer. +There are three great spans, the central +one of which has a length of about 520 feet, and the +others a few feet less. Four arches form each span, +each arch consisting of an upper and lower curved +member or rib, extending from pier to pier, and each +member composed of two parallel steel tubes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_103" id="PAGE_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Truss and truss arched bridges.</i>—These, for the +most part, are those quite modern forms of iron +or wooden bridges in which a supplementary frame +work, consisting of iron rods placed obliquely, vertically +or diagonally, and cemented together, and with +the main horizontal beams either above or below the +same, to produce a stiff and rigid structure, calculated +to resist strain from all directions.</p> + +<p>Previous to the 19th century, the greatest bridges +being constructed mostly of solid masonry piers and +arches, no demand for a bridge of this kind existed; +but after the use of wrought iron and steel became +extensive in bridge making, and as these apparently +light and airy frames may be extended, piece by +piece across the widest rivers, straits, and arms of the +sea, a substitute for the great, expensive, and frequent +supporting piers became a want, and was supplied +by the system of trusses and truss arches. The +truss system has also been applied to the construction +of vast modern bridges in places where timber is accessible +and cheap. Each different system invented +bears the name of its inventor. Thus, we have the +Rider, the Fink, the Bollman, the Whipple, the +Howe, the Jones, the Linville, the McCallum, +Towne’s lattice and other systems.</p> + +<p>What is called the cantilever system has of late +years to a great extent superseded the suspension +construction. This consists of beams or girders extending +out from the opposite piers at an upward +diagonal angle, and meeting at the centre over the +span, and there solidly connected together, or to +horizontal girders, in such manner that the compression +load is thrown on to the supporting piers, upward +strains received at the centre, and side deflections +provided against. It is supposed that greater<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_104" id="PAGE_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> +rigidity is obtained by this means than by the suspension, +and, like the suspension, great widths may +be spanned without an under supporting frame work. +Two fine examples of this type are found, one in a +bridge across the Niagara adjacent to the suspension +bridge above described and one across the river Forth +at Queens Ferry in Scotland. The Niagara Bridge +is a combination of cast steel and iron. It was designed +by C. C. Schneider and Edmund Hayes. It +was built for a double-track railroad. The total +length of the bridge is 910 feet between the centres of +the anchorage piers. The cantilevers rest on two gigantic +steel towers, standing on massive stone piers +39 feet high. The clear span between the towers is +470 feet, and the height of the bridge, from the mad +rush of waters to the car track is 239 feet.</p> + +<p>Messrs Fowler and Baker were the engineers of +the Forth railway bridge. It was begun in 1883 +and finished in 1890. It is built nearly all of steel, +and is one of the most stupendous works of the kind. +It crosses two channels formed by the island of Inchgarvie, +and each of the channel spans is 1710 feet in +the clear and a clear headway of 150 feet under the +bridge. Three balanced cantilevers are employed, +poised on four gigantic steel tube legs supported on +four huge masonry piers. The height of the bridge +above the piers is 330 feet. The cantilever portion +has the appearance of a vast elongated diamond. +Steel lattice work of girders, forms the upper +side of the cantilever, while the under side consists +of a hollow curve approaching in form a quadrant of +a circle drawn from the base of the legs or struts to +the ends of the cantilever.</p> + +<p>Such is the growth of these great bridges with their +tremendous spans across which man is spinning his<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_105" id="PAGE_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> +iron webs, that when seen at night with a fiery engine +pulling its thundering train across in the darkness, +one is reminded of Milton’s description, +“over the dark abyss whose boiling gulf tamely endured +a bridge of wondrous length, from Hell +continued, reaching the utmost orb of this frail +world.”</p> + +<p>The <i>lighthouses</i> of the century, in masonry, do +not greatly excel in general principles those of +preceding ones, as at Eddystone, designed by Smeaton. +Nicholas Douglass, however, invented a new +system of dovetailing, and great improvements have +been made in the system of illuminating.</p> + +<p>Lighthouses are also distinguished from those of +preceding centuries by the substitution of iron and +cast steel for masonry. The first cast-iron lighthouse +was put up at Point Morant, Jamaica, in 1842. +Since then they have taken the form of iron skeleton +towers.</p> + +<p>One of the latest and most picturesque of lighthouses +is that of Bartholdi’s statue of Liberty enlightening +the world, the gift of the French government +to the United States, framed by M. Eiffel, the +great French engineer, and set up by the United +States at Bedloe’s Island in New York harbor. It +consists of copper plates on a network of iron. Although +the statue is larger than any in the world +of such composite construction, its success as a lighthouse +is not as notable as many farther seaward.</p> + +<p>In <i>excavating</i>, <i>dredging</i> and <i>draining</i>, the inventions +of the century have been very numerous, but, +like numerous advances in the arts, such inventions, +so far as great works are concerned, have developed +from and are closely related to steam engineering.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_106" id="PAGE_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p> + +<p>The making of roads, railroads, canals and tunnels +has called forth thousands of ingenious +mechanisms for their accomplishment. A half +dozen men with a steam-power excavator or dredger +can in one day perform a greater extent of work than +could a thousand men and a thousand horses in a single +day a few generations ago.</p> + +<p>An excavating machine consisting of steel knives +to cut the earth, iron scoops, buckets and dippers to +scoop it up, endless chains or cranes to lift them, +actuated by steam, and operated by a single engineer, +will excavate cubic yards of earth by the minute +and at a cost of but a few dollars a day.</p> + +<p>Dredging machines of a great variety have been +constructed. Drags and scoops for elevating, and +buckets, scrapers and shovels, and rotating knives to +first loosen the earth, suction pumps and pipes, +which will suck great quantities of the loosened +earth through pipes to places to be filled—these and +kindred devices are now constantly employed to dig +and excavate, to deepen and widen rivers, to drain +lands, to dig canals, to make harbours, to fill up the +waste places and to make courses for water in desert +lands.</p> + +<p>Inventions for the excavating of clay, piling and +burning it in a crude state for ballast for railways, +are important, especially for those railways which +traverse areas where clay is plentiful, and stones +and gravel are lacking.</p> + +<p>Sinking shafts through quicksands by artificially +freezing the sand, so as to form a firm frozen wall +immediately around the area where the shaft is to +be sunk, is a recent new idea.</p> + +<p>Modern countries especially are waking up to the +necessity of good roads, not only as a necessary means<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_107" id="PAGE_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> +of transportation, but as a pre-requisite to decent +civilisation in all respects. And, therefore, great +activity has been had in the last third of a century +in invention of machines for finishing and repairing +roads.</p> + +<p>In the matter of sewer construction, regarded now +so necessary in all civilised cities and thickly-settled +communities as one of the means of proper sanitation, +great improvements have been made in deep +sewerage, in which the work is largely performed +below the surface and with little obstruction to street +traffic.</p> + +<p>In connection with excavating and dredging machines, +mention should be made of those great works +in the construction of which they bore such important +parts, as drainage and land reclamation, such as is +seen in the modern extensions of land reclamation in +Holland, in the Haarlem lake district in the North +part of England, the swamps of Florida and the +drainage of the London district; in modern tunnels +such as the Hoosac in America and the three great +ones through the Alps: the Mont Cenis, St. Gothard, +and Arlberg, the work in which developed an entirely +new system of engineering, by the application of +newly-discovered explosives for blasting, new rock-drilling +machinery, new air-compressing machines +for driving the drill machines and ventilating the +works, and new hydraulic and pumping machinery +for sinking shafts and pumping out the water.</p> + +<p>The great canals, especially the Suez, developed a +new system of canal engineering. Thus by modern +inventions of devices for digging and blasting, dredging +and draining and attendant operations, some of +the greatest works of man on earth have been produced, +and evinced the exercise of his highest inventive +genius.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_108" id="PAGE_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p> + +<p>If one wishes an ocular demonstration of the wonders +wrought in the 19th century in the several domains +of engineering, let him take a Pullman train across +the continent from New York to San Francisco. The +distance is 3,000 miles and the time is four days and +four nights. The car in which the passenger finds +himself is a marvel of woodwork and upholstery—a +description of the machinery and processes for producing +which belongs to other arts. The railroad +tracks upon which the vehicle moves are in themselves +the results of many inventions. There is the +width of the track, and it was only after a long and +expensive contest that countries and corporations settled +upon a uniform gauge. The common gauge of +the leading countries and roads is now 4 feet 8½ +inches. A greater width is known as a broad gauge, +a less width as a narrow gauge. Then as to the rail: +first the wooden, then the iron and now the steel, +and all of many shapes and weights. The T-rail invented +by Birkensaw in 1820, having two flanges at +the top to form a wide berth for the wheels of the +rolling stock, the vertical portion gripped by chairs +which are spiked to the ties, is the best known. Then +the frogs, a V-shaped device by which the wheels +are guided from one line of rails to another, when +they form angles with each other; the car wheel made +with a flange or flanges to fit the rail, and the railway +gates, ingenious contrivances that guard railway +crossings and are operated automatically by the passing +trains, but more commonly by watchmen. The +car may be lighted with electricity, and as the train +dashes along at the rate of 30 to 80 miles an hour, it +may be stopped in less than a minute by the touch of +the engineer on an air brake. Is it midwinter and +are mountains of snow encountered? They disappear +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_109" id="PAGE_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>before the railway snow-plough more quickly +than they came. It passes over bridges, through tunnels, +across viaducts, around the edges of mountain +peaks, every mile revealing the wondrous work of +man’s inventive genius for encompassing the earth +with speed, safety and comfort. Over one-half million +miles of these railway tracks are on the earth’s +surface to-day!</p> + +<p>Not only has the railway superseded horse power +in the matter of transportation to a vast extent, but +other modes of transportation are taking the place of +that useful animal. The old-fashioned stage coach, +and then the omnibus, were successively succeeded by +the street car drawn by horses, and then about twenty +years ago the horse began to be withdrawn from that +work and the cable substituted.</p> + +<p><i>Cable transportation</i> developed from the art of +making iron wire and steel wire ropes or cables. And +endless cables placed underground, conveyed over +rollers and supported on suitable yokes, and driven +from a great central power house, came into use, and +to which the cars were connected by ingeniously +contrived lever grips—operated by the driver on the +car. These great cable constructions, expensive as +they were, were found more economical than horse +power. In fact, there is no modernly discovered practical +motive power but what has been found less expensive +both as to time and money than horse power. +But the cable for this purpose is now in turn everywhere +yielding to electricity, the great motor next +to steam. The overhead cable system for the transportation +of materials of various descriptions in carriers, +also run by a central motor, is still very extensively +used. The cable plan has also been tried +with some success in the propelling of canal boats.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_110" id="PAGE_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Canals</i>, themselves, although finding a most serious +and in some localities an entirely destructive +rival in the railroad, have grown in size and importance, +and in appliances that have been substituted +for the old-style locks. The latest form of this +device is what is known as the pneumatic balance +lock system.</p> + +<p>It has been said by Octave Chanute that “Progress +in civilisation may fairly be said to be dependent +upon the facilities for men to get about, upon their +intercourse with other men and nations, not only in +order to supply their mutual needs cheaply, but to +learn from each other their wants, their discoveries +and their inventions.” Next to the power and +means for moving people, come the immense and +wonderful inventions for lifting and loading, such +as cranes and derricks, means for coaling ships and +steamers, for handling and storing the great agricultural +products, grain and hay, and that modern wonder, +the <i>grain elevator</i>, that dots the coasts of rivers, +lakes and seas, receives the vast stores of golden +grain from thousands of steam cars that come to +it laden from distant plains and discharges it swiftly +in mountain loads into vessels and steamers to be +carried to the multitudes across the seas, and to satisfy +that ever-continuing cry, “Give us this day our +daily bread.”</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_111" id="PAGE_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +ELECTRICITY.</span></h2> + + +<p>In 1900 the real nature of electricity appears to be +as unknown as it was in 1800.</p> + +<p>Franklin in the eighteenth century defined electricity +as consisting of particles of matter incomparably +more subtle than air, and which pervaded all +bodies. At the close of the nineteenth century electricity +defined as “simply a form of energy which +imparts to material substances a peculiar state or +condition, and that all such substances partake more +or less of this condition.”</p> + +<p>These theories and the late discovery of Hertz +that electrical energy manifests itself in the form of +waves, oscillations or vibrations, similar to light, +but not so rapid as the vibrations of light, constitute +about all that is known about the nature of +this force.</p> + +<p>Franklin believed it was a single fluid, but others +taught that there were two kinds of electricity, positive +and negative, that the like kinds were repulsive +and the unlike kinds attractive, and that when +generated it flowed in currents.</p> + +<p>Such terms are not now regarded as representing +actual varieties of this force, but are retained as +convenient modes of expression, for want of better +ones, as expressing the conditions or states of electricity +when produced.</p> + +<p>Electricity produced by friction, that is, developed<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_112" id="PAGE_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> +upon the surface of a body by rubbing it with a dissimilar +body, and called frictional or static electricity, +was the only kind produced artificially in +the days of Franklin. What is known as galvanism, +or animal electricity, also takes its date in the 18th +century, to which further reference will be made. +Since 1799 there have been discovered additional +sources, among which are voltaic electricity, or electricity +produced by chemical action, such as is manifested +when two dissimilar metals are brought near +each other or together, and electrical manifestations +produced by a decomposing action, one upon the other +through a suitable medium; inductive electricity, or +electricity developed or induced in one body by its +proximity to another body through which a current is +flowing; magnetic electricity, the conversion of the +power of a magnet into electric force, and the reverse +of this, the production of magnetic force by a +current of electricity; and thermal electricity, or +that generated by heat. Electricity developed by +these, or other means in contra-distinction to that +produced by friction, has been called dynamic; but +all electric force is now regarded as dynamic, in the +sense that forces are always in motion and never at +rest.</p> + +<p>Many of the manifestations and experiments in +later day fields which, by reason of their production +by different means, have been given the names of +discovery and invention, had become known to +Franklin and others, by means of the old methods +in frictional electricity. They are all, however, but +different routes leading to the same goal. In the +midst of the brilliant discoveries of modern times +confronting us on every side we should not forget the +honourable efforts of the fathers of the science.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_113" id="PAGE_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p> + +<p>We need not dwell on what the ancients produced +in this line. It was a single fact only:—The Greeks +discovered that amber, a resinous substance, when +rubbed would attract lighter bodies to it.</p> + +<p>In 1600 appeared the father of modern electricity—Dr. +Gilbert of Colchester, physician to Queen +Elizabeth. He revived the one experiment of antiquity, +and added to it the further fact that many +substances besides amber, when rubbed, would manifest +the same electric condition, such as sulphur, +sapphire, wax, glass and other bodies. And thus he +opened the field of electrodes. He was the first to +use the terms, electricity, electric and electrode, +which he derived from the word <i>elektron</i>, the Greek +name for amber. He observed the actions of magnets, +and conjectured the fundamental identity of +magnetism and electricity. He arranged an electrometer, +consisting of an iron needle poised on a pivot, +by which to note the action of the magnet. This was +about the time that Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg, +Germany, was born. He became a “natural” +philosopher, and for thirty-five years was burgomaster +of his native town. He invented the air-pump, +and he it was who illustrated the force of atmospheric +pressure by fitting together two hollow brass hemispheres +which, after the air within them had been exhausted, +could not be pulled apart. He also invented +a barometer, and as an astronomer suggested that the +return of comets might be calculated. He invented +and constructed the first machine for generating +electricity. It consisted of a ball of sulphur rotated +on an axis, and which was electrified by friction +of the hand, the ball receiving negative electricity +while the positive flowed through the person +to the earth. With this machine “he heard the first<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_114" id="PAGE_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +sound and saw the first light in artificially excited +electricity.” The machine was improved by Sir +Isaac Newton and others, and before the close of that +century was put into substantially its present form +of a round glass plate rotated between insulated +leather cushions coated with an amalgam of tin and +zinc, the positive or vitreous electricity thus developed +being accumulated on two large hollow brass +cylinders with globular ends, supported on glass pillars. +Gray in 1729 discovered the conductive power +of certain substances, and that the electrical influence +could be conveyed to a distance by means of +an insulated wire. This was the first step towards +the electric telegraph.</p> + +<p>Dufay, the French philosopher and author, who +in 1733-1737 wrote the <i>Memoirs of the French +Academy</i>, was, it seems, the first to observe electrical +attractions and repulsions; that electrified +resinous substances repelled like substances while +they attracted bodies electrified by contact with glass; +and he, therefore, to the latter applied the term +<i>vitreous</i> electricity and to the former the term <i>resinous</i> +electricity. In 1745 Prof. Muschenbroeck of +Leyden University developed the celebrated Leyden +jar. This is a glass jar coated both inside and outside +with tinfoil for about four-fifths of its height. +Its mouth is closed with a cork through which is +passed a metallic rod, terminating above in a knob +and connected below with the inner coating by a +chain or a piece of tinfoil. If the inner coating be +connected with an electrical machine and the outer +coating with the earth, a current of electricity is established, +and the inner coating receives what is +called a positive and the outer coating a negative +charge. On connecting the two surfaces by means<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_115" id="PAGE_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> +of a metallic discharger having a non-conducting +handle a spark is obtained. Thus the Leyden jar +is both a collector and a condenser of electricity. +On arranging a series of such jars and joining their +outer and inner surfaces, and connecting the series +with an electrical machine, a battery is obtained of +greater or less power according to the number of +jars employed and the extent of supply from the +machine.</p> + +<p>The principle of the Leyden jar was discovered by +accident. Cuneus, a pupil of Muschenbroeck, was one +day trying to charge some water in a glass bottle +with electricity by connecting it with a chain to the +sparking knob of an electrical machine. Holding the +bottle in one hand he arranged the chain with the +other, and received a violent shock. His teacher +then tried the experiment himself, with a still livelier +and more convincing result, whereupon he declared +that he would not repeat the trial for the +whole Kingdom of France.</p> + +<p>When the science of static electricity was thus +far developed, with a machine for generating it and +a collector to receive it, many experiments followed. +Charles Morrison in 1753, in the <i>Scots Magazine</i>, +proposed a telegraph system of insulated wires with +a corresponding number of characters to be signalled +between two stations. Other schemes were proposed +at different times down to the close of the century.</p> + +<p>Franklin records among several other experiments +with frictional electricity accumulated by the Leyden +jar battery the following results, produced +chiefly by himself: The existence of an attractive +and a repulsive action of electricity; the restoration +of the equilibrium of electrical force between electrified +and non-electrified bodies, or between<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_116" id="PAGE_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +bodies differently supplied with the force; the +electroscope, a body charged with electricity +and used to indicate the presence and condition +of electricity in another body; the production of +work, as the turning of wheels, by which it was +proposed a spit for roasting meat might be formed, +and the ringing of chimes by a wheel, which was +done; the firing of gunpowder, the firing of wood, +resin and spirits; the drawing off a charge from +electrified bodies at a near distance by pointed rods; +the heating and melting of metals; the production of +light; the magnetising of needles and of bars of iron, +giving rise to the analogy of magnetism and electricity.</p> + +<p>Franklin, who had gone thus far, and who also had +drawn the lightning from the clouds, identified it as +electricity, and taught the mode of its subjection, +felt chagrined that more had not been done with this +subtle agent in the service of man. He believed, +however, that the day-spring of science was opening, +and he seemed to have caught some reflection of its +coming light. Observing the return to life and +activity of some flies long imprisoned in a bottle of +Madeira wine and which he restored by exposure to +the sun and air, he wrote that he should like to be +immersed at death with a few friends in a cask of +Madeira, to be recalled to life a hundred years thence +to observe the state of his country. It would not +have been necessary for him to have been embalmed +that length of time to have witnessed some great developments +of his favorite science. He died in 1790, +and it has been said that there was more real +progress in this science in the first decade of the +nineteenth century than in all previous centuries put +together.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_117" id="PAGE_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p> + +<p>Before opening the door of the 19th century, let us +glance at one more experiment in the 18th:</p> + +<p>While the aged Franklin was dying, Dr. Luigi +Galvani of Bologna, an Italian physician, medical +lecturer, and learned author, was preparing for publication +his celebrated work, <i>De viribus Electricitatis +in Motu Musculari Commentarius</i>, in which he +described his discovery made a few years before of +the action of the electric current on the legs and +spinal column of a frog hung on a copper nail. +This discovery at once excited the attention of scientists, +but in the absence of any immediate practical +results the multitude dubbed him the “frog +philosopher.” He proceeded with his experiments +on animals and animal matter, and developed the +doctrine and theories of what is known as animal or +galvanic electricity. His fellow countryman and +contemporary, Prof. Volta of Pavia, took decided +issue with Galvani and maintained that the pretended +animal electricity was nothing but electricity +developed by the contact of two different metals. +Subsequent investigations and discoveries have established +the fact that both theories have truth for +their basis, and that electricity is developed both by +muscular and nervous energy as well as by chemical +action. In 1799 Volta invented his celebrated pile, +consisting of alternate disks of copper and zinc separated +by a cloth moistened with a dilute acid; and +soon after an arrangement of cups—each containing +a dilute acid and a copper and a zinc plate placed a +little distance apart, and thus dispensing with the +cloth. In both instances he connected the end plate +of one kind with the opposite end plate of the other +kind by a wire, and in both arrangements produced +a current of electricity. To the discoveries, experi<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_118" id="PAGE_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>ments, +and disputes of Galvani and Volta and to +those of their respective adherents, the way was +opened to the splendid electrical inventions of the +century, and the discovery of a new world of light, +heat, speech and power. The discoveries of Galvani +and Volta at once set leading scientists at work. +Fabroni of Florence, and Sir Humphry Davy and +Wollaston of England, commenced interesting experiments, +showing that rapid oxidation and chemical +decomposition of the metals took place in the voltaic +pile.</p> + +<p>By the discoveries of Galvani the physicians and +physiologists were greatly excited, and believed that +by this new vital power the nature of all kinds of +nervous diseases could be explored and the remedy +applied. Volta’s discovery excited the chemists. +If two dissimilar metals could be decomposed and +power at the same time produced they contended that +practical work might be done with the force. In +1800 Nicholson and Carlisle decomposed water by +passing the electric current through the same; Ritter +decomposed copper sulphate, and Davy decomposed +the alkalies, potash and soda. Thus the art of electrolysis—the +decomposition of substances by the galvanic +current, was established. Later Faraday laid +down its laws. Naturally inventions sprung up in +new forms of batteries. The pile and cup battery +of Volta had been succeeded by the trough battery—a +long box filled with separated plates set in dilute +acid. The trough battery was used by Sir Humphry +Davy in his series of great experiments—1806-1808—in +which he isolated the metallic bases, +calcium, sodium, potassium, etc. It consisted of +2000 double plates of copper and zinc, each having +a surface of 32 square inches. With this same<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_119" id="PAGE_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> +trough battery Davy in 1812 produced the first electric +carbon light, the bright herald of later glories.</p> + +<p>Among the most noted new batteries were +Daniell’s, Grove’s and Bunsen’s. They are called +the “two fluid batteries,” because in place of a single +acidulated bath in which the dissimilar metals +were before placed, two different liquid solutions +were employed.</p> + +<p>John Frederick Daniell of London, noted for his +great work, <i>Meteorological Essays</i>, and other +scientific publications, and as Professor of Chemistry +in King’s College, in 1836, described how a powerful +and constant current of electricity may be continued +for an unlimited period by a battery composed +of zinc standing in an acid solution and +a sheet of copper in a solution of sulphate of +copper.</p> + +<p>Sir William Robert Grove, first an English physician, +then an eminent lawyer, and then a professor +of natural philosophy, and the first to announce the +great theory of the Correlation of Physical Forces, +in 1839 produced his battery, much more powerful +than any previous one, and still in general use. In +it zinc and platinum are the metals used—the zinc +bent into cylindrical form and placed in a glass jar +containing a weak solution of sulphuric acid, while +the platinum stands in a porous jar holding strong +nitric acid and surrounded by the zinc. Among +the electrical discoveries of Grove were the decomposition +by electricity of water into free oxygen and +hydrogen, the electricity of the flame of the blow-pipe, +electrical action produced by proximity, without +contact, of dissimilar metals, molecular movements +induced in metals by the electric current, and +the conversion of electricity into mechanical force.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_120" id="PAGE_120">[Pg 120]</a></span></p> + +<p>Robert Wilhelm Bunsen, a German chemist and +philosopher and scientific writer, who invented some +of the most important aids to scientific research of +the century, who constructed the best working chemical +laboratory on the continent and founded the +most celebrated schools of chemistry in Europe, invented +a battery, sometimes called the carbon battery, +in which the expensive pole of platinum in the Grove +battery is replaced by one of carbon. It was found +that this combination gave a greater current than that +of zinc and platinum.</p> + +<p>A great variety of useful voltaic batteries have +since been devised by others, too numerous to be +mentioned here. There is another form of battery +having for its object the storing of energy by electrolysis, +and liberating it when desired, in the form +of an electric current, and known as an accumulator, +or secondary, polarization, or storage battery. Prof. +Ritter had noticed that the two plates of metal which +furnished the electric current, when placed in the +acid liquid and united, could in themselves furnish +a current, and the inventing of <i>storage</i> batteries was +thus produced. The principal ones of this class are +Gustave Planté’s of 1860 and M. Camille Faure’s +of 1880. These have still further been improved. +Still another form are the <i>thermo-electric batteries</i>, +in which the electro-motive force is produced by the +joining of two different metals, connecting them by +a wire and heating their junctions. Thus, an electric +current is obtained directly from heat, without +going through the intermediate processes of boiling +water to produce steam, using this steam to drive an +engine, and using this engine to turn a dynamo machine +to produce power.</p> + +<p>But let us retrace our steps:—As previously stated,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_121" id="PAGE_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> +Franklin had experimented with frictional electricity +on needles, and had magnetised and polarised them +and noticed their deflection; and Lesage had established +an experimental telegraph at Geneva by the +same kind of electricity more than a hundred years +ago. But frictional electricity could not be transmitted +with power over long distances, and was for +practical purposes uncontrollable by reason of its +great diffusion over surfaces, while voltaic electricity +was found to be more intense and could be +developed with great power along a wire for any +distance. Fine wires had been heated and even +melted by Franklin by frictional electricity, and now +Ritter, Pfaff and others observed the same effect +produced on the conducting wires by a voltaic current; +and Curtet, on closing the passage with a piece +of charcoal, produced a brilliant light, which was +followed by Davy’s light already mentioned.</p> + +<p>As early as 1802 an Italian savant, Gian D. Romagnosi +of Trent, learning of Volta’s discovery, +observed and announced in a public print the deflection +of the magnetic needle when placed near a +parallel conductor of the galvanic current. In the +years 1819 and 1820 so many brilliant discoveries +and inventions were made by eminent men, independently +and together, and at such near and distant +places, that it is hard telling who and which was +first. It was in 1819 that the celebrated Danish +physicist, Oersted of Copenhagen, rediscovered the +phenomena that the voltaic current would deflect a +magnetic needle, and that the needle would turn at +right angles to the wire. In 1820 Prof. S. C. +Schweigger of Halle discovered that this deflecting +force was increased when the wire was wound several +times round the needle, and thus he invented<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_122" id="PAGE_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +the magnetising helix. He also then invented +a galvano-magnetic indicator (a single-wire circuit) +by giving the insulated wire a number of turns +around an elongated frame longitudinally enclosing +the compass needle, thus multiplying the effect of the +current upon the sensitive needle, and converting it +into a practical <i>measuring</i> instrument—known as +the galvanometer, and used to observe the strength of +currents. In the same year Arago found that iron +filings were attracted by a voltaic charged wire; and +Arago and Davy that a piece of soft iron surrounded +spirally by a wire through which such a current was +passed would become magnetic, attract to it other +metals while in that condition, immediately drop +them the instant the current ceased, and that +such current would permanently magnetise a steel +bar. The elements of the <i>electro-magnet</i> had +thus been produced. It was in that year that Ampère +discovered that magnetism is the circulation of +currents of electricity at right angles to the axis of +the needle or bar joining the two poles of the magnet. +He then laid down the laws of interaction +between magnets and electrical currents, and in +this same year he proposed an electric-magneto telegraph +consisting of the combination of a voltaic battery, +conducting wires, and magnetic needles, one +needle for each letter of the alphabet.</p> + +<p>The discoveries of Ampère as to the laws of electricity +have been likened to the discovery of Newton +of the law of gravitation.</p> + +<p>Still no practical result, that is, no useful machine, +had been produced by the electro-magnet.</p> + +<p>In 1825 Sturgeon of England bent a piece of +wire into the shape of a horse-shoe, insulated it with +a coating of sealing wax, wound a fine copper wire<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_123" id="PAGE_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> +around it, thus making a helix, passed a galvanic +current through the helix, and thus invented the first +practical electro-magnet. But Sturgeon’s magnet +was weak, and could not transmit power for more +than fifty feet. Already, however, it had been urged +that Sturgeon’s magnet could be used for telegraphic +purposes, and a futile trial was made. In the field +during this decade also labored the German professors +Gauss and Weber, and Baron Schilling of Russia. +In 1829 Prof. Barlow of England published +an article in which he summarised what had been +done, and scientifically demonstrated to his own satisfaction +that an electro-magnetic telegraph was impracticable, +and his conclusion was accepted by the +scientific world as a fact. This was, however, not +the first nor the last time that scientific men had predicted +impracticabilities with electricity which afterwards +blossomed into full success. But even before +Prof. Barlow was thus arriving at his discouraging +conclusion, Prof. Joseph Henry at the Albany Institute +in the State of New York had commenced experiments +which resulted in the complete and successful +demonstration of the power of electro-magnetism for +not only telegraph purposes but for almost every advancement +that has since been had in this branch of +physics. In March 1829 he exhibited at his Institute +the magnetic “spool” or “bobbin,” that form of coil +composed of tightly-wound, silk-covered wire which +he had constructed, and which since has been universally +employed for nearly every application of +electro-magnetism, of induction, or of magneto-electrics. +And in the same year and in 1830 he +produced those powerful magnets through which the +energy of a galvanic battery was used to lift hundreds +of tons of weight.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_124" id="PAGE_124">[Pg 124]</a></span></p> + +<p>In view of all the facts now historically established, +there can be no doubt that previous to Henry’s +experiments the means for developing magnetism in +soft iron were imperfectly understood, and that, as +found by Prof. Barlow, the electro-magnet which +then existed was inapplicable and impracticable for +the transmission of power to a distance. Prof. +Henry was the first to prove that a galvanic battery +of “intensity” must be employed to project the +current through a long conductor, and that a magnet +of one long wire must be used to receive this current; +the first to magnetise a piece of soft iron at a +distance and call attention to its applicability to the +telegraph; the first to actually sound a bell at a distance +by means of the electro-magnet; and the first to +show that the principles he developed were applicable +and necessary to the practical operation of an effective +telegraph system.</p> + +<p>Sturgeon, the parent of the electro-magnet, on +learning of Henry’s discoveries and inventions, +wrote: “Professor Henry has been enabled to produce +a magnetic force which totally eclipses every +other in the whole annals of magnetism; and no +parallel is to be found since the miraculous suspension +of the celebrated oriental impostor in his iron +coffin.” (<i>Philosophical Magazine and Annals</i>, +1832.)</p> + +<p>The third decade was now prepared for the development +of the telegraph. As to the telegraph in +its broadest sense, as a means for conveying intelligence +to a distance quickly and without a messenger, +successful experiments of that kind have existed from +the earliest times:—from the signal fires of the ancients; +from the flag signals between ships at sea, +introduced in the seventeenth century by the Duke<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_125" id="PAGE_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> +of York, then Admiral of the English fleet, and +afterwards James II of England; from the semaphore +telegraph of M. Chappe, adopted by the French +government in 1794, consisting of bars pivoted to +an upright stationary post, and made to swing vertically +or horizontally to indicate certain signals; +and from many other forms of earlier and later days.</p> + +<p>As to electricity as an agent for the transmission +of signals, the idea dates, as already stated, from +the discovery of Stephen Gray in 1729, that the +electrical influence could be conveyed to a distance +by the means of an insulated wire. This was followed +by the practical suggestions of Franklin and +others. But when, as we have seen, voltaic electricity +entered the field, electricity became a more +powerful and tractable servant, and distant intelligent +signals became one of its first labors.</p> + +<p>The second decade was also made notable by the +discovery and establishment by George Simon Ohm, +a German professor of Physics, of the fundamental +mathematical law of electricity: It has been expressed +in the following terms: (a) the current +strength is equal to the electro-motive force divided +by the resistance; (b) the force is equal to the current +strength multiplied by the resistance; (c) the +resistance is equal to the force divided by the current +strength.</p> + +<p>The historical development and evolution of the +telegraph may be now summarized:—</p> + +<p>1. The discovery of galvanic electricity by Galvani—1786-1790.</p> + +<p>2. The galvanic or voltaic battery by Volta in +1800.</p> + +<p>3. The galvanic influence on a magnetic needle +by Romagnosi (1802) Oersted (1820).<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_126" id="PAGE_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></p> + +<p>4. The galvanometer of Schweigger, 1820—the +parent of the needle system.</p> + +<p>5. The electro-magnet by Arago and Sturgeon—1820-1825—the +parent of the magnet system.</p> + +<p>Then followed in the third decade the important +series of steps in the evolution, consisting of:—</p> + +<p><i>First</i>, and most vital, Henry’s discovery in 1829 +and 1830 of the “intensity” or spool-wound magnet, +and its intimate relation to the “intensity” battery, +and the subordinate use of an armature as the signalling +device.</p> + +<p><i>Second</i>, Gauss’s improvement in 1833 (or probably +Schilling’s considerably earlier) of reducing the electric +conductors to a single circuit by the ingenious +use of a dual sign so combined as to produce a true +alphabet.</p> + +<p><i>Third</i>, Weber’s discovery in 1833 that the conducting +wires of an electric telegraph could be efficiently +carried through the air without any insulation +except at their points of support.</p> + +<p><i>Fourth</i>, Daniell’s invention of a “constant” galvanic +battery in 1836.</p> + +<p><i>Fifth</i>, Steinheil’s remarkable discovery in 1837 +that the earth may form the returning half of a +closed galvanic circuit, so that a single conducting +wire is sufficient for all telegraphic purposes.</p> + +<p><i>Sixth</i>, Morse’s adaptation of the armature and +electro-magnet of Henry as a recording instrument +in 1837 in connection with his improvement in 1838 +on the Schilling, Gauss and Steinheil alphabets by +employing the simple “dot and dash” alphabet in +a single line. He was also assisted by the suggestions +of Profs. Dana and Gale. To which must be added +his adoption of Alfred Vail’s improved alphabet, and +Vail’s practical suggestions in respect to the recording +and other instrumentalities.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_127" id="PAGE_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p> + +<p>To these should be added the efforts in England, +made almost simultaneously with those of Morse, of +Wheatstone and Cook and Davy, who were reaching +the same goal by somewhat different routes.</p> + +<p>Morse in 1837 commenced to put the results of his +experiments and investigations in the form of +caveats, applications and letters patent in the United +States and in Europe. He struggled hard against indifference +and poverty to introduce his invention to +the world. It was not until 1844 that he reduced +it to a commercial practical success. He then laid +a telegraph from Washington to Baltimore under the +auspices of the United States Government, which +after long hesitation appropriated $30,000 for the +purpose. It was on the 24th day of May, 1844, that +the first formal message was transmitted on this line +between the two cities and recorded by the electro-magnet +in the dot and dash alphabet, and this was +immediately followed by other messages on the same +line.</p> + +<p>Morse gathered freely from all sources of which +he could avail himself knowledge of what had gone +before. He was not a scientific discoverer, but an +inventor, who, adding a few ideas of his own to what +had before been discovered, was the first to combine +them in a practical useful device. What he did as +an inventor, and what anyone may do to constitute +himself an inventor, by giving to the world a device +which is useful in the daily work of mankind, as +distinguished from the scientific discoverer who stops +short of successful industrial work, is thus stated by +the United States Supreme Court in an opinion sustaining +the validity of his patents, after all the previous +art had been produced before it:—</p> + +<p>“Neither can the inquiries he made nor the information<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_128" id="PAGE_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +or advice he received from men of science in +the course of his researches impair his right to the +character of an inventor. No invention can possibly +be made, consisting of a combination of different elements +of power, without a thorough knowledge of the +properties of each of them, and the mode in which +they operate on each other. And it can make no difference +in this respect, whether he derives his information +from books, or from conversation with men +skilled in the science. If it were otherwise, no +patent in which a combination of different elements +is used would ever be obtained, for no man ever made +such an invention without having first obtained this +information, unless it was discovered by some fortunate +accident. And it is evident that such an invention +as the electro-magnetic telegraph could never +have been brought into action without it; for a very +high degree of scientific knowledge and the nicest +skill in the mechanic arts are combined in it, and +were both necessary to bring it into successful operation. +The fact that Morse sought and obtained the +necessary information and counsel from the best +sources, and acted upon it, neither impairs his rights +as an inventor nor detracts from his merits.”—<i>O’Reilly +vs. Morse, 5 Howard</i>.</p> + +<p>The combination constituting Morse’s invention +comprised a main wire circuit to transmit the current +through its whole length whenever closed; a +main galvanic battery to supply the current; operating +keys to break and close the main circuit; office +circuits; a circuit of conductors and batteries at each +office to record the message there; receiving spring +lever magnets to close an office circuit when a current +passes through the main circuit; adjusting screws +to vary the force of the main current; marking apparatus,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_129" id="PAGE_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> +consisting of pointed pieces of wire, to indent +dots and lines upon paper; clockwork to move the +paper indented; and magnet sounders to develop the +power of the pointer and of the armatures to produce +audible distinguishable sounds.</p> + +<p>It was soon learned by operators how to distinguish +the signs or letters sent by the length of the “click” +of the armature, and by thus reading by sound the +reading of the signs on paper was dispensed with, and +the device became an electric-magnetic acoustic telegraph.</p> + +<p>What is known as the Morse system has been improved, +but its fundamental principles remain, and +their world-wide use constitute still the daily evidence +of the immense value of the invention to mankind.</p> + +<p>Before the 1844 reduction to practice, Morse had +originated and laid the first submarine telegraph. +This was in New York harbour in 1842. In a letter +to the Secretary of the United States Treasury, +August 10, 1843, he also suggested the project of an +Atlantic telegraph.</p> + +<p>While Henry was busy with his great magnets and +Morse struggling to introduce his telegraph, Michael +Faraday was making those investigations and discoveries +which were to result in the application of +electricity to the service of man in still wider and +grander fields.</p> + +<p>Faraday was a chemist, and Davy’s most brilliant +pupil and efficient assistant. His earliest experiments +were in the line of electrolysis. This was +about 1822, but it was not until 1831 that he began +to devote his brilliant talents as an experimentalist +and lecturer wholly to electrical researches, and for +a quarter of a century his patient, wonderful labours<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_130" id="PAGE_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +and discoveries continued. It has been said that +“although Oersted was the discoverer of electro-magnetism +and Ampère its expounder, Faraday made the +science of magnets electrically what it is at the present +day.”</p> + +<p>Great magnetic power having been developed by +passing a galvanic current around a bar of soft iron, +Faraday concluded that it was reasonable to suppose +that as mechanical action is accompanied by an equal +amount of reaction, electricity ought to be evolved +from magnetism.</p> + +<p>“It was in 1831 that Faraday demonstrated before +the Royal Society that if a magnetized bar of +steel be introduced into the centre of a helix of insulated +wire, there is at the moment of introduction +of the magnet a current of electricity set up in a +certain direction in the insulated wire forming the +helix, while on the withdrawal of the magnet from +the helix a current in an opposite direction takes +place.</p> + +<p>“He also discovered that the same phenomenon was +to be observed if for the magnet was substituted a +coil of insulated wire, through which the current +from a voltaic element was passing; and further +that when an insulated coil of wire was made to revolve +before the poles of a permanent magnet, electric +currents were induced in the wires of the coil.”—<i>Journal +of the Society of Arts.</i></p> + +<p>On these discoveries were based the action of all +magneto-dynamo electric machines—machines that +have enabled the world to convert the energy of a +steam engine in its stall, or a distant waterfall, into +electric energy for the performance of the herculean +labours of lighting a great city, or an ocean-bound +lighthouse, or transporting quickly heavy loads of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_131" id="PAGE_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> +people or freight up and down and to and fro upon +the earth.</p> + +<p>As before stated, Faraday was also the first to proclaim +the laws of electrolysis, or electro-chemical +decomposition. He expressed conviction that the +forces termed chemical affinity and electricity are one +and the same. Subsequently the great Helmholtz, +having proved by experiment that in the phenomena +of electrolysis no other force acts but the mutual attractions +of the atomic electric charges, came to the +conclusion, “that the very mightiest among the chemical +forces are of electric origin.”</p> + +<p>Faraday having demonstrated by his experiments +that chemical decomposition, electricity, magnetism, +heat and light, are all inter-convertible and correlated +forces, the inventors of the age were now ready +to step forward and put these theories at work in machines +in the service of man. Faraday was a leader +in the field of discovery. He left to inventors the +practical application of his discoveries.</p> + +<p>Prof. Henry in America was, contemporaneously +with Faraday, developing electricity by means of +magnetic induction.</p> + +<p>In 1832, Pixii, a philosophical instrument-maker +of Paris, and Joseph Saxton, an American then residing +in London, invented and constructed magneto-machines +on Faraday’s principle of rendering magnetic +a core of soft iron surrounded with insulated +wire from a permanent magnet, and rapidly reversing +its polarity, which machines were used to produce +sparks, decompose liquids and metals, and fire combustible +bodies. Saxton’s machine was the well-known +electric shock machine operated by turning a +crank. A similar device is now used for ringing +telephone call bells.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_132" id="PAGE_132">[Pg 132]</a></span></p> + +<p>Prof. C. G. Page of Washington and Ruhmkorff +of Paris each made a machine, well known as the +Ruhmkorff coil, by which intense electro-magnetic +currents by induction were produced. The production +of electrical illumination was now talked of more +than ever. Scientists and inventors now had two +forms of electrical machines to produce light: the +voltaic battery and the magneto-electric apparatus. +But a period of comparative rest took place in this +line until 1850, when Prof. Nollet of Brussels made +an effort to produce a powerful magneto-electric +machine for decomposing water into its elements of +hydrogen and oxygen, which gases were then to be +used in producing the lime light; and a company +known as “The Alliance” was organized at Paris to +make large machines for the production of light.</p> + +<p>We have seen that Davy produced a brilliant electric +light with two pieces of charcoal in the electric +circuit of a voltaic battery. Greener and Staite revived +this idea in a patent in 1845. Shortly after +Nollet’s machine, F. H. Holmes of England improved +it and applied the current directly to the production +of electric light between carbon points. And +Holmes and Faraday in 1857 prepared this machine +for use.</p> + +<p>On the evening of December 8, 1858, the first practical +electric light, the work of Faraday and Holmes, +flashed over the troubled sea from the South Foreland +Lighthouse. On June 6, 1862, this light was also +introduced into the lighthouse at Dungeness, England. +The same light was introduced in French +lighthouses in December, 1863, and also in the work +on the docks of Cherbourg. At this time Germany +was also awake to the importance of this invention, +and Dr. Werner Siemens of Berlin was at work developing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_133" id="PAGE_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>a machine for the purpose into one of less +cost and of greater use. Inventors were not yet +satisfied with the power developed from either the +voltaic battery or the magneto-electric machine, and +continued to improve the latter.</p> + +<p>In 1867, the same year that Faraday died, and too +late for him to witness its glory, came out the most +powerful magneto-electric machine that had yet been +produced. It was invented by Wilde of London, and +consisted of very large electro-magnets, or field magnets, +receiving their electric power from the “lines +of force” discovered by Faraday, radiating from the +poles of a soft iron magnet, combined with a small +magneto-electric machine having permanent magnets, +and by which the current developed in the +smaller machine was sent through the coils of the +larger magnets. By this method the magnetic force +was vastly multiplied, and electricity was produced +in such abundance as to fuse thick iron wire fifteen +inches long and one-fourth of an inch in diameter, +and to develop a magnificent arc light. Quickly succeeding +the Wilde machine came independent inventions +in the same direction from Messrs. G. Farmer +of Salem, Mass., Alfred Yarley and Prof. Charles +Wheatstone of England, and Dr. Siemens of Berlin, +and Ladd of America. These inventors conceived +and put in practice the great idea of employing the +current from an electro-magnetic machine to excite +its own electric magnet. They were thus termed +“self-exciting.” The idea was that the commutator +(an instrument to change the direction, strength or +circuit of the current) should be so connected with the +coils of the field magnets that all or a part of the current +developed in the armature would flow through +these coils, so that all permanent magnets might be<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_134" id="PAGE_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> +dispensed with, and the machine used to excite itself +or charge its own field magnets without the aid of +any outside charging or feeding mechanism.</p> + +<p>Mr. Z. Gramme, of France, a little later than +Wilde made a great improvement. Previously, +machines furnished only momentary currents of +varying strength and polarity; and these intermittent +currents were hard to control without loss in the +strength of current and the frequent production of +sparks. Gramme produced a machine in which, although +as in other machines the magnetic field of +force was created by a powerful magnet, yet the armature +was a ring made of soft iron rods, and surrounded +by an endless coil of wire, and made to revolve +between the poles of the magnet with great +rapidity, producing a constant current in one direction. +By Faraday’s discovery, when the coil of the +closed circuit was moved before the poles of the magnet, +the current was carried half the time in one +direction and half in the other, constituting what is +called an alternating current. Gramme employed +the commutator to make the current direct instead +of alternating.</p> + +<p>Dynamo-electric machines for practical work of +many kinds had now been born and grown to +strength.</p> + +<p>In addition to these and many other electrical +machines this century has discovered several ways +by which the electricity developed by such machines +may be converted into light. I. By means of two +carbon conductors between which passes a series of +intensely brilliant sparks which form a species of +flame known as the <i>voltaic arc</i>, and the heat of which +is more intense than that from any other known artificial +source. II. By means of a rod of carbon or<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_135" id="PAGE_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> +kaolin, strip of platinum or iridium, a carbon filament, +or other substance placed between two conductors, +the resistance opposed by such rod, strip, or filament +to the passage of the current being so great as +to develop heat to the point of incandescence, and +produce a steady white and pure light. Attempts +also have been made to produce illumination by what +is called stratified light produced by the electric discharge +passing through tubes containing various +gases. These tubes are known as Geissler tubes, from +their inventor. Still another method is the production +of a continuous light from a vibratory movement +of carbon electrodes to and from each other, +producing a bright flash at each separation, and +maintaining the separations at such a rate that the +effect of the light produced is continuous. But these +additional methods do not appear as yet to be commercially +successful.</p> + +<p>It must not be overlooked that before dynamo-magneto-electric +machines were used practically in +the production of the electric light for the purposes +of illumination, the voltaic battery was used for the +same purpose, but not economically.</p> + +<p>The first private dwelling house ever lighted in +America, or doubtless anywhere else, by electricity, +was that of Moses G. Farmer, in Salem, Massachusetts, +in the year 1859. A voltaic battery furnished +the current to conducting wires which led to two +electric lamps on the mantel-piece of the drawing-room, +and in which strips of platinum constituted +the resisting and lighting medium. A soft, mild, +agreeable light was produced, which was more delightful +to read or sew by than any artificial light +ever before known. Either or both lamps could be +lighted by turning a button, and they were maintained +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_136" id="PAGE_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>for several weeks, but were discontinued for +the reason that the cost of maintaining them was +much greater than of gas light.</p> + +<p>It was in connection with the effective dynamo-electric +apparatus of M. Gramme above referred to +that the electric candle invented by M. Paul Jablochoff +became soon thereafter extensively employed +for electric lighting in Paris, and elsewhere in +Europe. This invention, like the great majority +of useful inventions, is noted for its simplicity. It +consists of two carbon pencils placed side by side and +insulated from each other by means of a thin plate +of some refractory material which is a non-conductor +at ordinary temperatures, but which becomes +a conductor, and consequently a light, when fused by +the action of a powerful current. Plaster of Paris +was found to be the most suitable material for this +purpose, and the light produced was soft, mellow, +slightly rose-coloured, and quite agreeable to the eye.</p> + +<p>It having been found that carbon was better +adapted for lighting purposes than platinum or other +metals, by reason of its greater radiating power for +equal temperatures, and still greater infusibility at +high temperatures, inventors turned their attention +to the production of the best carbon lamp.</p> + +<p>The two pointed pieces of hard conducting carbon +used for the separated terminals constitute the voltaic +arc light—a light only excelled in intense brilliancy +by the sun itself. It is necessary in order to +make such a light successful that it should be continuous. +But as it is found that both carbons waste +away under the consuming action of the intense heat +engendered by their resistance to the electric current, +and that one electrode, the positive, wastes away +twice as fast as the opposite negative electrode, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_137" id="PAGE_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> +distance between the points soon becomes too great +for the current longer to leap over it, and the light +is then extinguished. Many ingenious contrivances +have been devised for correcting this trouble, and +maintaining a continuously uniform distance between +the carbons by giving to them a self-adjusting automatic +action. Such an apparatus is called a <i>regulator</i>, +and the variety of regulators is very great. +The French were among the first to contrive such +regulators,—Duboscq, Foucault, Serrin, Houdin, and +Lontin invented most useful forms of such apparatus. +Other early inventors were Hart of Scotland, Siemens +of Germany, Thompson and Houston of England, +and Farmer, Brush, Wallace, Maxim, and +Weston and Westinghouse of America. Gramme +made his armature of iron rods to prevent its destruction +by heat. Weston in 1882 improved this +method by making the armature of separate and insulated +sheets of iron around which the coil is wound. +The arc light is adapted for streets and great buildings, +etc.; but for indoor illumination, when a milder, +softer light is desirable, the <i>incandescent</i> light was +invented, and this consists of a curved filament of +carbon about the size of a coarse horsehair, seated +in a bulb of glass from which the air has been exhausted. +In exhausted air carbon rods or filaments +are not consumed, and so great ingenuity was exercised +on that line. Among the early noted inventors +of incandescent carbon filament lamps were Edison +and Maxim of New York, Swan, and Lane-Fox of +England.</p> + +<p>Another problem to be solved arose in the proposed +use of arc lamps upon an extended scale, or in +series, as in street lighting, wherein the current to +all lamps was supplied by a single wire, and where<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_138" id="PAGE_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> +it was found that owing to the unequal consumption +of the carbons some were burning well, some poorly, +and some going out. It was essential, therefore, to +make each lamp independent of the resistance of the +main circuit and of the action of the other lamps, +and to have its regulating mechanism governed entirely +by the resistance of its own arc. The solution +of this difficult problem was the invention by Heffner +von Alteneck of Germany, and his device came +into use wherever throughout the world arc lamps +were operated. Westinghouse also improved the +direct alternating system of lighting by one wire by +the introduction of two conducting wires parallel to +each other, and passing an interrupted or alternating +current through one, thereby inducing a similar +and always an alternating current through the other. +Brush adopted a three-wire system; and both obtained +a uniform consumption of the carbons.</p> + +<p>In a volume like this, room exists for mention only +of those inventions which burn as beacon lights on +the tallest hills—and so we must now pass on to +others.</p> + +<p>Just as Faraday was bringing his long series of +experimental researches to a close in 1856-59, and +introducing the fruits of his labours into the lighthouses +of England, Cyrus W. Field of New York +had commenced his trials in the great scheme of an +ocean cable to “moor the new world alongside the +old,” as John Bright expressed it. After crossing +the ocean from New York to England fifty times, +and baffled often by the ocean, which broke his cables, +and by the incredulous public of both hemispheres, +who laughed at him, and by electricity, which refused +to do his bidding, he at last overcame all obstacles, +and in 1866 the cable two thousand miles<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_139" id="PAGE_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> +in length had been successfully stretched and communication +perfected. To employ currents of great +power, the cable insulation would have been disintegrated +and finally destroyed by heat. Therefore +only feeble currents could be used. But across that +long distance these currents for many reasons grew +still weaker. The inventor, Sir William Thomson, +was at hand to provide the remedy. First, by his +<i>mirror galvanometer</i>. A needle in the shape of a +small magnet and connected to the current wires, is +attached to the back of a small concave mirror having +a hole in its centre; opposite the mirror is placed +a graduated scale board, having slits through it, and +a lighted lamp behind it. The light is thrown +through the slits across to the hole at the center of +the mirror and upon the needle. The feeblest imaginable +current suffices to deflect the needle in one direction, +which throws back the little beam of light upon +it to the graduated front of the scale. When the current +is reversed the needle and its shadow are deflected +in the other direction, and so by a combination +of right and left motions, and pauses, of the spots of +light to represent letters, the message is spelled out. +Second, a more expeditious instrument called the +<i>syphon recorder</i>. In this the galvanometer needle is +connected to a fine glass syphon tube conducting ink +from a reservoir on to a strip of paper which is +drawn under the point of the tube with a uniform +motion. The irregular movements given the galvanometer +needle by the varying current are clearly delineated +on the paper. Or in writing very long cables +the point of the syphon may not touch the paper, but +the ink by electrical attraction from the paper is +ejected from the syphon upon the paper in a succession +of fine dots. The irregular lines of dots and<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_140" id="PAGE_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> +dashes were translated into words in accordance with +the principles of the Morse telegraph.</p> + +<p>An instrument was exhibited at the Centennial +International Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876, +which was considered by the judges “the greatest +marvel hitherto achieved by the electric telegraph.” +Such was the language used both by Prof. Joseph +Henry and Sir Wm. Thomson, and concurred in by +the other eminent judges from America, Germany, +France, Austria and Switzerland. This instrument +was the <i>Telephone</i>. It embodied, for the practical +purpose of transmitting articulate speech to distances, +the union of the two great forces,—sound and electricity. +It consisted of a method and an apparatus. +The apparatus or means consisted of an electric battery +circuit, a transmitting cone placed at one end +of the line into which speech and other vocal sounds +were uttered, a diaphragm against which the sounds +were projected, an armature secured to or forming a +part of the diaphragm, an electro-magnet loosely +connected to the armature, a wire connecting this +magnet with another precisely similar arrangement +of magnet, armature, diaphragm, and cone, at the +receiving end. When speech was uttered in the transmitter +the sound vibrations were received on the diaphragm, +communicated to the electricised armature, +from thence by induction to the magnet and the connecting +wire current, which, undulating with precisely +the same form of sound vibrations, carried +them in exactly the same form to the receiving magnet. +They were then carried through the receiving +armature and reproduced on the receiving diaphragm, +with all the same characteristics of pitch, loudness +and quality.</p> + +<p>The inventor was Alexander Graham Bell, by<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_141" id="PAGE_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> +nativity a Scotchman, then a resident of Canada, and +finally a citizen of the United States. His father +was a teacher of vocal physiology at Edinburgh, and +he himself became a teacher of deaf mutes. This occupation +naturally led him to a thorough investigation +of the laws of sound. He acknowledged the aid +he received from the great work of Helmholtz on the +<i>Theory of Tone</i>. His attention was called to sounds +transmitted and reproduced by the electric current, +especially by the ease with which telegraph operators +read their messages by the duration of the “click” +of their instruments. He knew of the old device of +a tightly-stretched string or wire between two little +boxes. He had read the publication of Prof. C. G. +Page, of America, in 1837, on the <i>Production of +Galvanic Music</i>, in which was described how musical +notes were transmitted and reproduced by an interrupted +magnetic circuit. He became acquainted with +the experimental musical telephonic and acoustic researches +of Reis, and others of Germany, and those of +celebrated scientists in France, especially the phonautograph +of Scott, a delicate instrument having a +cone membrane and pointer, and used to reproduce +on smoked glass the waves of sound. He commenced +his experiments with magneto instruments in 1874, +continued them in 1875, when he succeeded in reproducing +speech, but poorly, owing to his imperfect +instruments, and then made out his application, and +obtained a patent in the United States in July, 1876.</p> + +<p>Like all the other remarkable inventions recorded +in these pages, this “marvel” did not spring forth +as a sudden creation, but was a slow growth of a plant +derived from old ideas, although it blossomed out +suddenly one day when audible sounds were accidentally +produced upon an apparatus with which he was +experimenting.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_142" id="PAGE_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p> + +<p>It is impossible here to narrate the tremendous +conflict that Bell now encountered to establish his +title as first inventor, or to enumerate the multitude +of improvements and changes made which go to make +up the successful telephone of to-day.</p> + +<p>The messages of the voice are carried on the wings +of electricity wherever any messages are carried, except +under the widest seas, and this difficulty inventors +are now seeking to overcome.</p> + +<p>The story of the marvellous inventions of the century +in electricity is a fascinating one, but in length +and details it is also marvellous, and we must hasten +unwillingly to a close. Numerous applications of it +will be mentioned in chapters relating to other arts.</p> + +<p>In the generation of this mighty force improvements +have been made, but those of greatest power +still involve the principles discovered by Faraday +and Henry seventy years ago. The ideas of Faraday +of the “lines of force”—the magnetic power streaming +from the poles of the magnet somewhat as the +rays of heat issue on all sides from a hot body, forming +the magnetic field—and that a magnet behaves like +an electric current, producing an electric wave by its +approach to or recession from a coil of wire, joined +with Henry’s idea of increasing the magnetising +effect by increasing the number of coils around the +magnet, enter into all powerful dynamo electric +machines of to-day. In them the lines of force must +flow around the frame and across the path of the +armature; and there must be a set of conductors to +cut the lines of force twice in every revolution of the +cylinder carrying the armature from which the current +is taken.</p> + +<p>When machines had been produced for generating +with some economy powerful currents of electricity,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_143" id="PAGE_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> +their use for the world’s business purposes rapidly +increased. Among such applications, and following +closely the electric lighting, came the <i>electric railway</i>. +A substitute for the slow animal, horse, and for the +dangerous, noisy steam horse and its lumbering locomotive +and train, was hailed with delight. Inventors +came forward with adaptations of all the old systems +they could think of for the purpose, and with many +new ones. One plan was to adapt the storage battery—that +silent chemical monster which carries its +own power and its own machine—and place one on +each car to actuate a motor connected to the driving +wheels. Another plan was to conduct the current +from the dynamo machine at its station along the +rails on one side of the track to the motor on the car +and the return current on the opposite track; another +was to carry the current to the car on a third +rail between the track, using both the other rails +for the return; another to use an overhead wire for +the current from the dynamo, and connect it with +the car by a rod, one end of which had a little wheel +or trolley running on the overhead wire, to take up +the current, the other end being connected by a wire to +the car motor; another plan to have a trench made +leading from the central station underneath the track +the whole length of the line, and put into this trench +conducting wires from the dynamo, to one of which +the car motor should be connected by a trolley rod or +“brush,” extending down through a central slot between +the rails of the track to carry the electric supply +into the motor. In all these cases a lever was +supplied to cut off communication between the conducting +wire and the motor, and a brake lever to +stop the car.</p> + +<p>All of these plans have been tried, and some of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_144" id="PAGE_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> +them are still being tried with many improvements +in detail, but not in principle.</p> + +<p>The first electrical railway was constructed and +operated at Berlin in 1879, by Messrs Siemens and +Halske. It was two thousand seven hundred feet +long and built on the third rail system. This was +an experiment but a successful one. It was followed +very soon by another line near Berlin for actual +traffic; then still another in Saxony. At the +Paris Exposition in 1881, Sir Wm. Siemens had in +operation a road about one thousand six hundred feet +in length, on which it is estimated ninety-five thousand +passengers were conveyed in seven weeks. Then +in the next year in London; and then in the following +year one in the United States near New York, constructed +by Edison. And thus they spread, until +every important town and city in the world seems to +have its electric plant, and its electric car system, and +of course its lighting, telephone and telegraph +systems.</p> + +<p>In 1882 Prof. Fleeming Jenkin of England invented +and has put to use a system called <i>Telpherage</i>, +by which cars are suspended on an overhead wire +which is both the track and electrical conductor. It +has been found to be advantageous in the transportation +of freight from mines and other places to central +stations.</p> + +<p>With the coming of the electric railway, the slow, +much-abused horse, the puffing steam engine blowing +off smoke and cinders through the streets, the great +heavy cars, rails and roadbeds, the dangerous collisions +and accidents, have disappeared.</p> + +<p>The great problems to solve have related to generation, +form, distribution and division of the electric +current at the dynamos at the central stations for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_145" id="PAGE_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> +purposes of running the distant motors and for +furnishing independent supplies of light, heat, sound and +power. These problems have received the attention +of the keenest inventors and electrical engineers and +have been solved.</p> + +<p>The description of the inventions made by such +electrical magicians as Thomas Edison and Nikola +Tesla would fill volumes.</p> + +<p>The original plan of sending but one message over +a wire at a time has also been improved; and duplex, +quadruplex and multiplex systems have been invented +(by Stearns, Farmer, Edison and others) +and applied, which have multiplied the capacity of +the telegraphs, and by which even the alleged all-talk-at-the-same-time +habit of certain members of the +great human family can be carried on in opposite +directions on the same wire at the same time between +their gatherings in different cities and without a +break.</p> + +<p>To understand the manner of multiplying messages +or signals on the same line, and using apparently +the same electric current to perform different +operations, the mind must revert to the theory already +referred to, that a current of electricity does +not consist of a stream of matter flowing like water +through a conductor in one direction, but of particles +of subtle ether, vibrating or oscillating in waves from +and around the conductor which excites them; that +the vibration of this line of waves proceeds at the rate +of many thousand miles per second, almost with the +velocity of waves of light, with which they are so +closely related; that this wave current is susceptible +of being varied in direction and in strength, according +to the impulse given by the initial pressure of the +transmitting and exciting instrument; and that some<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_146" id="PAGE_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +wave currents have power by reason of their form or +strength to penetrate or pass others coming from an +opposite direction. So that in the multiplex process, +for instance, each transmission having a certain direction +or strength and its own set of transmitting and +receiving instruments, will have power to give its own +peculiar and independent signal or message. Apparently +there is but one continuous current, but in +reality each transmission is separated from the others +by an almost inconceivably short interval of time.</p> + +<p>Among the inventions in the class of Telegraphy +should also be mentioned the dial and the printing +systems. Ever since the electric telegraph was invented, +attempts have been made to use the electric +influence to operate either a pointer to point out the +letters of the message sent on a dial, or to print them +on a moving strip of paper; and also to automatically +reproduce on paper the handwriting of the +sender or writer of the message. The earliest efforts +were by Cooke and Prof. Wheatstone of London, in +1836-37; but it was not until 1839, after Prof. +Henry had succeeded in perfecting the electromagnet, +that dial and printing telegraphs were successfully +produced. Dial telegraphs consist of the +combination with magnets, armatures and printed +dial plate of a clock-work and a pointer, means to +set the pointer at the communicating end (which in +some instances has been a piano keyboard) to any +letter, the current operating automatically to indicate +the same letters at the receiving end. These instruments +have been modified and improved by Brequet +and Froment of France, Dr. Siemens and Kramer, +and Siemens and Halske of Germany, Prof. Wheatstone +of England, Chester and Hamblet of America, +and others. They have been used extensively upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_147" id="PAGE_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> +private and municipal lines both in Europe and the +United States.</p> + +<p>The type-printing telegraph was coeval with the +dial, and originated with Morse and Vail as early as +1837. The printing of the characters is effected in +various ways; sometimes by clockwork mechanism +and sometimes by the direct action of an electromagnet. +Wheatstone exhibited one in 1841. House +of Vermont invented in 1845-1846 the first printing +telegraph that was brought into any extensive use +in the United States. Then followed that of David +E. Hughes of Kentucky in 1855, aided by his co-inventor +George M. Phelps of Troy, New York, and +which was subsequently adopted by the French government, +by the United Kingdom Telegraph Co. +of Great Britain, and by the American Telegraph +Co in the United States. The system was subsequently +greatly improved by Hughes and others. +Alexander Bain of Edinburgh in 1845-46 originated +the modern automatic chemical telegraph. In this +system a kind of punch was used to perforate two +rows of holes grouped to represent letters on a strip +of paper conducted over a metal cylinder and arranged +so as to permit spring levers to drop through +the perforations and touch the cylinder, thus forming +an electrical contact; and a recording apparatus +consisting of a strip of paper carried through a chemical +solution of an acid and potash and over a metal +roller, and underneath one or two styles, or pens, +which pens were connected by live wires with the +poles of two batteries at the sending station. The +operation is such that colored marks upon the paper +were made by the pens corresponding precisely to +the perforations in the strip at the sending station. +Siemens, Wheatstone and others also improved this<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_148" id="PAGE_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> +system; but none of these systems have as yet replaced +or equalled in extensive use the Morse key and +sounder system, and its great acoustic advantage of +reading the messages by the click of the instrument. +The type-printing system, however, has been recently +greatly improved by the inventions of Howe, C. L. +Buckingham, Fiske and others in the United States. +Special contrivances and adaptations of the telegraph +for printing stock reports and for transmitting fire +alarm, police, and emergency calls, have been invented.</p> + +<p>The erection of tall office and other buildings, some +to the height of more than twenty stories, made practicable +by the invention of the elevator system, has +in turn brought out most ingenious devices for operating +and controlling the elevators to insure safety +and at the same time produce economy in the motive +power.</p> + +<p>The utility of the telephone has been greatly increased +by the inventions of Hughes and Edison of +the <i>microphone</i>. This consists, in one form, of +pieces of carbon in loose contact placed in the circuit +of a telephone. The very slightest vibrations +communicated to the wood are heard distinctly in +the telephone. By these inventions and certain improvements +not only every sound and note of an +opera or concert has been carried to distant places, +but the slightest whispers, the minute movements of +a watch, even the tread of a fly, and the pressure of +a finger, have been rendered audible.</p> + +<p>By the aid of the electric current certain rays of +light directed upon the mineral selenium, and some +other substances, have been discovered to emit musical +sounds.</p> + +<p>So wonderful and mysterious appear these com<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_149" id="PAGE_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>munications +along the electric wire that each and +every force in the universe seems to have a voice +awaiting utterance to man. The hope is indulged +that by some such means we may indeed yet +receive the “touch of a vanished hand and the sound +of a voice that is still.”</p> + +<p>In 1879 that eminent English scientist, Prof. Wm. +Crookes, published his extensive researches in electrical +discharges as manifested in glass tubes from +which the air had been exhausted. These same tubes +have already been referred to as Geissler tubes, from +the name of a young artist of Bonn who invented +them. In these tubes are inclosed various gases through +which the sparks from an induction coil can be passed +by means of platinum electrodes fused into the glass, +and on the passage of the current a soft and delicately-tinted +light is produced which streams through the +tube from pole to pole.</p> + +<p>In 1895, Wm. Konrad Roentgen, professor of +Physics in the Royal University of Würzburg, while +experimenting with these Crookes and Geissler tubes, +discovered with one of them, which he had covered +with a sort of black cardboard, that the rays +emanating from the same and impinging on certain +objects would render them self-luminous, or fluorescent; +and on further investigation that such rays, +unlike the rays of sunlight, were not deflected, refracted +or condensed; but that they proceeded in +straight lines from the point at which they were produced, +and penetrated various articles, such as flesh, +blood, and muscle, and thicknesses of paper, cloth +and leather, and other substances which are opaque +to ordinary light; and that thus while penetrating +such objects and rendering them luminous, if a portion +of the same were of a character too dense to ad<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_150" id="PAGE_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>mit +of the penetration, the dark shadow of such obstacle +would appear in the otherwise luminous mass.</p> + +<p>Unable to explain the nature or cause of this +wonderful revelation, Roentgen gave to the light an +algebraic name for the unknown—the X rays.</p> + +<p>This wonderful discovery, at first regarded as a +figment of scientific magic, soon attracted profound +attention. At first the experiments were confined to +the gratification of curiosity—the interior of the +hand was explored, and on one occasion the little +mummified hand of an Egyptian princess folded in +death three or four thousand years ago, was held up +to this light, and the bones, dried blood, and muscle +of the ancient Pharaohs exhibited to the startled +eyes of the present generation. But soon surgery +and medicine took advantage of the unknown rays +for practical purposes. The location of previously +unreachable bullets, and the condition of internal +injuries, were determined; the cause of concealed +disease was traced, the living brain explored, and +the pulsations of the living heart were witnessed.</p> + +<p>Retardation of the strength of the electric current +by the inductive influence of neighboring wires and +earth currents, together with the theory that the +electric energy pervades all space and matter, gave +rise to the idea that if the energy once established +could be set in motion at such point above the ordinary +surface of the earth as would free this upper +current from all inductive disturbance, impulses of +such power might be conveyed from one high point +and communicated to another as to produce signals +without the use of a conducting wire, retaining only +the usual batteries and the earth connection. On +July 30th, 1872, Mahlen Loomis of Washington, D. +C., took out a patent for “the utilization of natural<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_151" id="PAGE_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> +electricity from elevated points” for telegraphic +purposes, based on the principle mentioned, and +made successful experiments on the Blue Ridge +mountains in Virginia near Washington, accounts of +which were published in Washington papers at the +time; but being poor and receiving no aid or encouragement +he was compelled to give it up. Marconi +of Italy has been more successful in this direction, +and has sent electric messages and signals from +high stations over the English Channel from the +shores of France to England. So that now wireless +telegraphy is an established fact.</p> + +<p>It is certainly thrilling to realize that there is a +mysterious, silent, invisible and powerful mechanical +agent on every side of us, waiting to do our bidding, +and to lend a hand in every field of human +labour, and yet unable to be so used without excitement +to action and direction in its course by some +master, intermediate between itself and man. The +principal masters for this purpose are steam and +water power. A small portion of the power of the +resistless Niagara has been taken, diverted to turn +the machinery which excites electricity to action, +and this energy in turn employed to operate a multitude +of the most powerful motors and machines of +many descriptions.</p> + +<p>So great is the might of this willing agent that at +a single turn of the hand of man it rushes forth +to do work for him far exceeding in wonder and extent +any labour of the gods of mythological renown.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_152" id="PAGE_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +HOISTING, CONVEYING AND STORING.</span></h2> + + +<p>Allusion has been made to the stupendous buildings +and works of the ancients and of the middle +ages; the immense multitude of workers and great +extent of time and labour employed in their construction; +and how the awful drudgery involved in +such undertakings was relieved by the invention of +modern engineering devices—the cranes, the derricks, +and the steam giants to operate them, so that +vast loads which required large numbers of men and +beasts to move, and long periods of time in which to +move them, can now be lifted with ease and carried +to great heights and distances in a few minutes by +the hands of one or of a few men.</p> + +<p>But outside of the line of such undertakings there +is an immense field of labor-saving appliances +adapted for use in transportation of smaller loads +from place to place, within and without buildings, +and for carrying people and freight from the lower +to the upper stories of tall structures. In fact the +tall buildings which we see now in almost every +great city towering cloudward from the ground to +the height of fifteen, twenty and twenty-five stories, +would have been extravagant and useless had not +the invention of the modern elevator rendered their +highest parts as easy of access as their lowest, and at +the same time given to the air space above the city<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_153" id="PAGE_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> +lot as great a commercial value in feet and inches as +the stretch of earth itself.</p> + +<p>Many of the “sky-scrapers” so called, are splendid +monuments of the latest inventions of the century.</p> + +<p>It is by means of the modern elevator that the +business of a whole town may be transacted under a +single roof.</p> + +<p>In the multiplicity of modern human contrivances +by which the sweat and drudgery of life are saved, +and time economised for worthier objects, we are +apt to overlook the painful and laborious steps by +which they were reached, and to regard with impatience, +or at least with indifference, the story of +their evolution; and yet no correct or profound +knowledge of the growth of humanity to its higher +planes can be obtained without noting to what extent +the minor inventions, as well as the startling ones, +have aided the upward progress.</p> + +<p>For instance, consider how few and comparatively +awkward were the mechanical means before this +century. The innumerable army of men when men +were slaves, and when blood and muscle and brain +were cheap, who, labouring with the beast, toiled upward +for years on inclined ways to lay the stones +of the stupendous pyramids, still had their counterpart +centuries later in the stream of men carrying on +their shoulders the loads of grain and other freight +and burdens from the shore to the holds of vessels, +from vessels to the shore, from the ground to high +buildings and from one part of great warehouses to +another. Now look at a vessel moved to a wharf, +capable of holding fifty thousand or one hundred +thousand bushels of grain and having that amount +poured into it in three hours from the spouts of an +elevator, to which the grain has been carried in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_154" id="PAGE_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> +myriad buckets on a chain by steam power in about +the same time; or to those arrangements of carriers, +travelling on ropes, cords, wires, or cables, by which +materials are quickly conveyed from one part of some +structure or place to another, as hay and grain in +barns or mows, ores from mines to cars, merchandise +of all kinds from one part of a great store to another; +or shot through pipes underground from one section +of a city or town to their destination by a current of +air.</p> + +<p>True, as it has before been stated, the ancients +and later generations had the wedge, the pulley, the +inclined plane, the screw and the windlass, and by +these powers, modified in form and increased in size +as the occasion demanded, in the form of cranes, derricks, +and operated by animal power, materials were +lifted and transported; but down to the time of the +practical and successful application of steam by +Watt in the latter part of the 18th century, and +until a much later period in most places in the world, +these simple means actuated alone by men or animals +were the best means employed for elevating and conveying +loads, and even they were employed to a comparatively +limited extent.</p> + +<p>The century was well started before it was common +to employ cups on elevator bands in mills, invented +by Oliver Evans in 1780, to carry grain to +the top of the mill, from whence it was to fall by gravity +to the grinding and flouring apparatus below. +It was not until 1795 that that powerful modern apparatus—the +hydraulic, or hydrostatic, press was +patented by Bramah in England. The model he +then made is now in the museum of the Commissioner +of Patents, London. In this a reservoir for water is +provided, on which is placed a pump having a piston<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_155" id="PAGE_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> +rod worked by a hand lever. The water is conveyed +from the reservoir to a cylinder by a pipe, and this +cylinder is provided with a piston carrying at its +top a table, which rises between guides. The load to +be carried is placed on this table, and as the machine +was at first designed to compress materials the load +is pressed by the rising table against an upper stationary +plate. The elevation of the table is proportionate +to the quantity of water injected, and the +power proportionate to the receptive areas of the +pump and the cylinder. The first great application +of machines built on this principle was by Robert +Stephenson in the elevation of the gigantic tubes for +the tubular bridge across the Menai straits, already +described in the chapter on Civil Engineering. The +century was half through with before it was proposed +to use water and steam for passenger elevators.</p> + +<p>In 1852 J. T. Slade in England patented a device +consisting of a drum to be actuated by steam, +water, or compressed air, around which drum ropes +were wound, and to which ropes were attached separate +cages in separate wells, to counterbalance each +other, the cages moving in guides, and provided with +brakes and levers to stop and control the cages +and the movement of the drum. Louis T. Van Elvean, +also of England, in 1858 invented counterbalance +weights for such lifts. Otis, an American, +invented and patented in America and England +in 1859 the first approach to the modern passenger +elevator for hotels, warehouses, and other structures. +The motive power was preferably a steam engine; +and the elevating means was a large screw placed vertically +and made to revolve by suitable gearing, and +a cylinder to which the car was attached, having +projections to work in the threads of the screw.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_156" id="PAGE_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> +Means were provided to start and to stop the car, and +to retard its otherwise sudden fall and stoppage.</p> + +<p>Elevators, which are now so largely used to raise +passengers and freight from the lower to the upper +stories of high edifices, have for their motive power +steam, water, compressed air, and electricity. With +steam a drum is rotated over which a hoisting wire-rope +is wound, to which the elevator car is attached. +The car for passengers may be a small but elegantly +furnished room, which is carried on guide blocks, +and the stationary guides are provided with ratchet +teeth with which pawls on the car are adapted to engage +should the hoisting rope give way. To the +hoisting rope is attached a counterbalance weight to +partly meet the weight of the car in order to prevent +the car from sticking fast on its passage, and also to +prevent a sudden dropping of the car should the rope +become slack. A hand rope for the operator is provided, +which at its lower end is connected with a +starting lever controlling the valves of the cylinders +into which steam is admitted to start the piston shaft, +which in turn actuates the gear wheels, by which +movement the ropes are wound around the drums.</p> + +<p>In another form of steam elevator the drums are +turned in opposite directions, by right and left worms +driven by a belt.</p> + +<p>In the hydraulic form of elevator, a motor worked +by water is employed to lift the car, although steam +power is also employed to raise the water. The car +is connected to wire cables passing over large sheaves +at the top of the well room to a counterbalancing +bucket. This bucket fits closely in a water-tight upright +tube, or stand-pipe, about two feet in diameter, +extending from the basement to the upper story. +Near this stand-pipe in the upper story is placed a<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_157" id="PAGE_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> +water supply tank. A pipe discharges the water +from the tank into the bucket, which moves up and +down in the stand pipe. There is a valve in the tank +which is opened by stepping on a treadle in the car, +and this action admits to the bucket just enough +weight of water to overbalance the load on the car. +As soon as the bucket is heavier than the car it descends, +and of course draws the car upward, thus +using the minimum power required to raise each load, +rather than, when steam is employed, the full power +of the engine each and every time. The speed is controlled +by means of brakes or clamps that firmly clasp +wrought-iron slides secured to posts on each side of +the well room, the operator having control of these +brakes by a lever on the car. When the car has ascended +as far as desired, the operator steps upon another +treadle in the car connected with a valve in the +bottom of the bucket and thus discharges the water +into the receiving tank below until the car is heavier +than the bucket, when it then of course descends. +The water is thus taken from the upper tank into the +bucket, discharged through the stand-pipe into the +receiving tank under the floor of the basement and +then pumped back again to the upper tank, so that +it is used over and over again without loss.</p> + +<p>Various modifications have been made in the hydraulic +forms. In place of steam, electricity was +introduced to control the hydraulic operation. +Again, an electric motor has been invented to be +placed on the car itself, with connected gearing engaging +rack bars in the well.</p> + +<p>Elevators have been contrived automatically controlled +by switch mechanisms on the landings; and in +connection with the electric motor safety devices are +used to break the motor circuit and thus stop the car<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_158" id="PAGE_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> +the moment the elevator door is opened; and there +are devices to break the circuit and stop the car at +once, should an obstruction, the foot for instance, +be accidentally thrust out into the path of the car +frame. Columns of water and of air have been so +arranged that should the car fall the fall will be +broken by the water or air cushion made to yield +gradually to the pressure. So many safety devices +have been invented that there is now no excuse for +accidents. They result by a criminal neglect of +builders or engineers to provide themselves with such +devices, or by a most ignorant or careless management +and operation of simple actuating mechanisms.</p> + +<p>Between 1880 and 1890 there was great activity +in the invention of what is known as store service +conveyors. One of the earliest forms, and one which +had been partly selected from other arts, was to suspend +from a rigid frame work connected to the floor, +roof, or side of the building, a long platform in the +direction through the building it was desired the road +to run, giving this platform a slight inclination. On +this platform were placed tracks, and from the tracks +were suspended trucks, baskets, or other merchandise +receptacles, having wheels resting on and adapted +to roll on the tracks. Double or single tracks could +be provided as desired. The cars ran on these tracks +by gravity, and considerable ingenuity was displayed +in the feature alone of providing the out-going and +returning inclined tracks; in hand straps and levers +for raising and lowering the carriage, part or all of +it, to or from the tracks, and in buffers to break the +force of the blow of the carriages when arriving at +their stopping places.</p> + +<p>Then about 1882-83 it was found by some inventors +if moderately fine wires were stretched level,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_159" id="PAGE_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> +and as tight as possible, they would afford such little +friction and resistance to light and nicely balanced +wheels, that no inclination of the tracks was necessary, +and that the carriages mounted on such wheels +and tracks would run the entire length of a long +building and turn corners not too sharp by a single +initial push of the hand. In other arrangements a +carrier is self-propelled by means of a coiled spring +on the carrier, which begins its operation as soon as +the carrier is given a start; and to meet the exhausted +strength of such spring, coiled springs at different +points on the line are arranged to engage and give +the carrier an additional push. Before the carrier +is stopped its action is such as to automatically rewind +its spring.</p> + +<p>A system of pneumatic transmission was invented, +by which a carrier is caused to travel through a tube +by the agency of an air current, created therein by an +air compressor, blower, or similar device. The device +is so arranged that the air current is caused to +take either direction through the tube; and in some +instances gravity may be used to assist a vacuum +formed behind the carrier. The tube is controlled at +each end by one or more sliding gates or valves, and +the carrier is made to actuate the gates, and close the +one behind it, so that the carrier may be discharged +without permitting the escape of the air and consequent +reduction of pressure.</p> + +<p>An interesting invention has been made by James +M. Dodge of Philadelphia in the line of conveyors, +whereby pea coal and other quite heavy materials introduced +by a hopper into a trough are subjected to a +powerful air blast which pushes the material forward; +and as the trough is provided with a series of +frequently occurring slots or perforations open to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_160" id="PAGE_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> +outer air and inclined opposite the direction of travel, +the powerful current from the blower in escaping +through such outlets tends to lift or buoy the material +and carry it forward in the air current, thereby +greatly reducing frictional contact and increasing the +impelling operation. The inventor claims that with +such an apparatus many tons of material per hour +may be conveyed with a comparatively small working +air pressure.</p> + +<p>In order that a conveyor carriage may be automatically +switched off at a certain place or station +on the line, one mode adopted was to arrange at a +gate or station a sort of pin or projection or other +deflector to engage some recess or corresponding feature +on the carriage, so as to arrest and turn the carriage +in its new direction at that point. Another +mode was the adoption of electro-magnets, which +would operate at a certain place to arrest or divert +the carriage; and in either case the carriage was so +constructed that its engaging features would operate +automatically only in conjunction with certain features +at a particular place on the line.</p> + +<p>Signals have been also adopted, in some cases operated +by an electric current, by which the operator +can determine whether or not the controlling devices +have operated to stop the carrier at the desired place. +By electric or mechanical means it is also provided +that one or more loop branches may be connected with +or disconnected from the main circuit.</p> + +<p>The “lazy tongs” principle has been introduced, +by which a long lazy-tongs is shot forth through +a tube or box to carry forward the carriage; +and the same principle is employed in fire-escapes +to throw up a cage to a great height to a window or +other point, which cage is lowered gently and safely<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_161" id="PAGE_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> +by the same means to the ground. Buffers of all +kinds have been devised to effect the stoppage of the +carrier without injury thereto under the different +degrees of force with which it is moved upon its way, +to prevent rebounding, and to enable the carrier to be +discharged with facility at the end of its route.</p> + +<p>Among the early mechanical means of transporting +the carriage was an endless cable moved continuously +by an engine, and this adoption of cable principle +in store service was co-eval with its adoption for +running street cars. Also the system of switching +the cars from the main line to a branch, and in +different parts of a city, at the same time that all +lines are receiving their motive power from the main +line, corresponds to the manner of conveying cash to +all parts of a building at the same time from many +points.</p> + +<p>To the great department store or monstrous building +wherein, as we have said, the whole business of +a town may be transacted, the assemblage and conjoint +use of elevators and conveyors seem to be actually +necessary.</p> + +<p>A very useful and important line of inventions +consists in means for forming connections between +rotary shafts and their pulleys and mechanisms to +be operated thereby, by which such mechanism can +be started or stopped at once, or their motion reversed +or retarded; or by which an actuating shaft +may be automatically stopped. These means are +known as <i>clutches</i>.</p> + +<p>They are designed often to afford a yielding connection +between the shaft and a machine which shall +prevent excessive strain and wear upon starting of +the shaft. They are also often provided with a +spring connection, which, in the rotation of the shaft<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_162" id="PAGE_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> +in either direction, will operate to relieve the strain +upon the shaft, or shafts, and its driving motor. +Safety clutches are numerous, by which the machine +is quickly and automatically stopped by the action +of electro-magnets should a workman or other obstruction +be caught in the machinery.</p> + +<p>Electric auxiliary mechanism has also been devised +to start or stop the main machine slowly, and thus +prevent injury to small or delicate parts of complicated +machines, like printing presses for instance. +Clutches are arranged sometimes in the form of +weights, resembling the action of the weights +in steam governors, whereby centrifugal action is relied +upon for swinging the weights outward to effect a +clutching and coupling of the shaft, or other mechanism, +so that two lines of shafting are coupled, or the +machine started, or speeded, at a certain time during +the operation. In order to avoid the great mischief +arising sometimes from undue strain upon and the +breaking of a shaft, a weak coupling composed of a +link is sometimes employed between the shaft and the +driven machine, whereby, should the force become +suddenly too great, the link of weaker metal is broken, +and the connection between the shaft thereby destroyed +and the machine stopped.</p> + +<p>To this class of inventions, as well as to many +others, the phrase, “labour-saving”, is applied as a +descriptive term, and as it is a correct one in most instances, +since they save the labour of many human +hands, they are regarded by many as detrimental to +a great extent, as they result in throwing out of employment +a large number of persons.</p> + +<p>This derangement does sometimes occur, but the +curtailment of the number of labourers is but temporary +after all.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_163" id="PAGE_163">[Pg 163]</a></span></p> + +<p>The increased production of materials, resulting +from cheaper and better processes, and from the reduced +cost of handling them, necessitates the employment +of a larger number of persons to take care of, +in many ways, the greater output caused by the increased +demand; the new machinery demands the +labour of additional numbers in its manufacture; the +increase in the size and heights of buildings involves +new modes of construction and a greater number of +artisans in their erection; new forms of industry +springing from every practical invention which produces +a new product or results in a new mode of operation, +complicates the systems of labour, and creates +a demand for a large number of employers and +employees in new fields. Hence, it is only necessary +to resort to comparative, statistics (too extensive +to cite here) to show that the number of unemployed +people in proportion to the populations, is less +in the present age than in any previous one. In +this sense, therefore, inventions should be classed as +labour-<i>increasing</i> devices.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_164" id="PAGE_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +HYDRAULICS.</span></h2> + + +<p>The science of Hydraulics appears to be as old as +the thirst of man.</p> + +<p>When prehistoric men had only stone implements, +with which to do their work, they built aqueducts, +reservoirs and deep wells which rival in extent many +great similar works that are the boast of their modern +descendants. Modern inventors have also produced +with a flourish nice instrumentalities for raising +water, agencies which are covered with the moss of +untold centuries in China.</p> + +<p>It was more than an ancient observation that came +down to Pliny’s time for record, that water would +rise to a level with its source. The observation, however, +was put into practical use in his time and long +before without a knowledge of its philosophical +cause.</p> + +<p>Nothing in Egyptian sculpture portraying the arts +in vogue around the cradle of the human race is older +than the long lever rocking upon a cleft stick, one +arm of the lever carrying a bracket and the other arm +used to raise a bucket from a well. Forty centuries +and more have not rendered this device obsolete.</p> + +<p>Among other machines of the Egyptians, the Carthaginians, +the Greeks, and the Romans for raising +water was the <i>tympanum</i>, a drum-shape wheel divided +into radial partitions, chambers, or pockets, +which were open to a short depth on the periphery<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_165" id="PAGE_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> +of the wheel, and inclined toward the axis, and which +was driven by animal or manual power. These +pockets scooped up the water from the stream or +pond in which the wheel was located as the wheel revolved, +and directed it toward the axis of the wheel, +where it ran out into troughs, pipes, or gutters. +The <i>Noria</i>, a chain of pots, and the screw of Archimedes +were other forms of ancient pumps. The +bucket pumps with some modifications are known in +modern times as scoop wheels, and have been used extensively +in the drainage of lands, especially by the +Dutch, who at first drove them by windmills and +later by steam.</p> + +<p>The division of water-wheels into overshot, undershot +and breast wheels is not a modern system.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Pneumatics of Hero</i>, which compilation +of inventions appeared in 225 B. C., seventy-nine illustrations +are given and described of simple machines, +between sixty and seventy of which are hydraulic devices. +Among these, are siphon pumps, the force +pump of Ctesibius, a “fire-pump,” having two cylinders, +and two pistons, valves, and levers. We have +in a previous chapter referred to Hero’s steam engine. +The fact that a vacuum may be created in a +pump into which water will rise by atmospheric pressure +appears to have been availed of but not explained +or understood.</p> + +<p>The employment of the rope, pulley and windlass +to raise water was known to Hero and his countrymen +as well as by the Chinese before them. The +chain pump and other pumps of simple form have +only been improved since Hero’s day in matters of +detail. The screw of Archimedes has been extended +in application as a carrier of water, and converted +into a conveyor of many other materials.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_166" id="PAGE_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p> + +<p>Thus, aqueducts, reservoirs, water-wheels (used +for grinding grain), simple forms of pumps, fountains, +hydraulic organs, and a few other hydraulic +devices, were known to ancient peoples, but their +limited knowledge of the laws of pneumatics and +their little mechanical skill prevented much general +progress or extensive general use of such inventions.</p> + +<p>It is said that Frontinus, a Roman Consul, and inspector +of public fountains and aqueducts in the +reigns of Nerva and Trajan, and who wrote a book, +<i>De Aquaeductibus Urbis Romae Commentarius</i>, describing +the great aqueducts of Rome, was the first +and the last of the ancients to attempt a scientific investigation +of the motions of liquids.</p> + +<p>In 1593 Serviere, a Frenchman, born in Lyons, +invented the rotary pump. In this the pistons consisted +of two cog wheels, their leaves intermeshing, +and rotated in an elliptical shaped chamber. The +water entered the chamber from a lower pipe, and +the action of the wheels was such as to carry the +water around the chamber and force it out through +an opposite upper pipe. Subsequent changes involved +the rotating of the cylinder instead of the +wheels and many modifications in the form of the +wheels. The same principle was subsequently +adopted in rotary steam engines.</p> + +<p>In 1586, a few years before this invention of Serviere, +Stevinus, the great engineer of the dikes of +Holland, wrote learnedly on the <i>Principles of +Statics and Hydrostatics</i>, and Whewell states that +his treatment of the subject embraces most of the +elementary science of hydraulics and hydrostatics +of the present day. This was followed by the investigations +and treatises of Galileo, his pupil Torricelli, +who discovered the law of air pressure, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_167" id="PAGE_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> +great French genius, Pascal, and Sir Isaac Newton, +in the 17th century; and Daniel Bernoulli, d’Alembert, +Euler, the great German mathematician and +inventor of the centrifugal pump, the Abbé Bossut, +Venturi, Eylewein, and others in the 18th century.</p> + +<p>It was not until the 17th and 18th centuries that +mankind departed much from the practice of supplying +their towns and cities with water from distant +springs, rivers and lakes, by pipes and aqueducts, +and resorted to water distribution systems from +towers and elevated reservoirs. Certain cities in +Germany and France were the first to do this, followed +in the 18th century by England. This seems +strange, as to England, as in 1582 one Peter Maurice, +a Dutch engineer, erected at London, on the +old arched bridge across the Thames, a series of +forcing pumps worked by undershot wheels placed +in the current of the river, by which he forced a supply +of water to the uppermost rooms of lofty buildings +adjacent to the bridge. Before the inventions +of Newcomen and Watt in the latter part of the 18th +century of steam pumps, the lift and force pumps +were operated by wheels in currents, by horses, and +sometimes by the force of currents of common sewers.</p> + +<p>When the waters of rivers adjacent to towns and +cities thus began to be pumped for drinking purposes, +<i>strainers</i> and <i>filters</i> of various kinds were invented +of necessity. The first ones of which there is any +printed record made their appearance in 1776.</p> + +<p>After the principles of hydraulics had thus been reviewed +and discussed by the philosophers of the 17th +and 18th centuries and applied, to the extent indicated, +further application of them was made, and especially +for the propelling of vessels. In 1718 La<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_168" id="PAGE_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> +Hire revived and improved the double-acting pump of +Ctesibius, but to what extent he put it into use does +not appear. However, it was the double-acting pump +having two chambers and two valves, and in which +the piston acted to throw the water out at each stroke.</p> + +<p>In 1730 Dr. John Allen of England designed a vessel +having a tunnel or pipe open at the stern thereof +through which water was to be pumped into the air +or sea—the reaction thus occasioned driving the vessel +forward. He put such a vessel at work in a +canal, working the pumps by manual labor, and suggested +the employment of a steam engine. A vessel +of this kind was patented by David Ramsey of England +in 1738. Rumsey of America in 1782 also +invented a similar vessel, built one 50 feet long, and +ran it experimentally on the Potomac river. Dr. +Franklin also planned a boat of this kind in 1785 and +illustrated the same by sketches. His plan has since +been tried on the Scheldt, but two turbines were substituted +for his simple force pump. Further mention +will be made later on of a few more elaborate inventions +of this kind.</p> + +<p>It also having been discovered that the fall of a +column of water in a tube would cause a portion of it +to rise higher than its source by reason of the force of +momentum, a machine was devised by which successive +impulses of this force were used, in combination +with atmospheric pressure, to raise a portion of the +water at each impulse. This was the well-known +<i>ram</i>, and the first inventor of such a machine was +John Whitehurst of Cheapside, England, who constructed +one in 1772. From a reservoir, spring, or +cistern of water, the water was discharged downward +into a long pipe of small diameter, and from thence +into a shorter pipe governed by a stop-cock. On the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_169" id="PAGE_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> +opening of the stop-cock the water was given a quick +momentum, and on closing the cock water was forced +by the continuing momentum through another pipe +into an air chamber. A valve in the latter-mentioned +pipe opened into the air chamber. The air +pressure served to overcome the momentum and to +close the chamber and at the same time forced the +water received into the air chamber up an adjacent +pipe. Another impulse was obtained and another injection +of water into the chamber by again opening +the stop-cock, and thus by successive impulses water +was forced into the chamber and pressed by the air up +through the discharge pipe and thence through a +building or other receptacle. But the fact that the +stop-valve had to be opened and closed by hand to obtain +the desired number of lifts rendered the machine +ineffective.</p> + +<p>In 1796 Montgolfier, a Frenchman and one of the +inventors of the balloon, substituted for the stop-cock +of the Whitehurst machine a loose impulse valve in +the waste pipe, whereby the valve was raised by the +rush of the water, made to set itself, check the outflow +and turn the current into the air chamber. This +simple alteration changed the character of the machine +entirely, rendered it automatic in action and +converted it into a highly successful water-raising +machine. For this invention Montgolfier obtained +a Gold Medal from the French Exposition of 1802. +Where a head can be had from four to six feet, water +can be raised to the height of 30 feet. Bodies of +water greater in amount than is desired to be raised +can thus be utilised, and this simple machine has +come into very extensive use during the present century.</p> + +<p>Allusion was made in the last chapter to the powerful +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_170" id="PAGE_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>hydraulic press of Joseph Bramah invented in +1795-1800, its practical introduction in this century +and improvements therein of others. After +the great improvements in the steam engine made +by Watt, water, steam and air pressure joined their +forces on the threshold of this century to lift and +move the world, as it had never been moved before.</p> + +<p>The strong hands of hydraulics are pumps. They +are divided into classes by names indicating their +purpose and mode of operation, such as single, +double-acting, lift or force, reciprocating or rotary, +etc.</p> + +<p>Knight, in his celebrated <i>Mechanical Dictionary</i>, +enumerates 100 differently constructed pumps connected +with the various arts. In a broader enumeration, +under the head of <i>Hydraulic Engineering +and Engineering Devices</i>, he gives a list of over 600 +species. The number has since increased. About +nine-tenths of these contrivances have been invented +during the 19th century, although the philosophical +principles of the operation of most of them had +been previously discovered.</p> + +<p>The important epochs in the invention of pumps, +ending with the 18th century, were thus the single-acting +pump of Ctesibius, 225 B. C., the double-acting +of La Hire in 1718, the hydraulic ram of Whitehurst, +1772, and the hydraulic press of Bramah of +1795-1802.</p> + +<p>Bramah’s press illustrates how the theories of one +age often lie dormant, but if true become the practices +of a succeeding age. Pascal, 150 years before +Bramah’s time, had written this seeming hydraulic +paradox: “If a vessel closed on all sides has two +openings, the one a hundred times as large as the +other, and if each be supplied with a piston which<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_171" id="PAGE_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> +fits it exactly, then a man pushing the small piston +will equilibrate that of 100 men pushing the piston +which is 100 times as large, and will overcome the +other 99.” This is the law of the hydraulic press, +that intensity of pressure is everywhere the same.</p> + +<p>The next important epoch was the invention of +Forneyron in 1823, of the water-wheel known as the +Turbine and also as the Vortex Wheel. If we will +return a moment to the little steam engine of the +ancient Hero of Alexandria, called the Eolipile, it +will be remembered that the steam admitted into +a pivoted vessel and out of it through little opposite +pipes, having bent exits turned in contrary directions, +caused the vessel to rotate by reason of the reaction of +the steam against the pipes. In what is called +Barker’s mill, brought out in the 18th century, substantially +the same form of engine is seen with water +substituted for the steam.</p> + +<p>A turbine is a wheel usually placed horizontally +to the water. The wheel is provided with curved +internal buckets against which the water is led by +outer curved passages, the guides and the buckets +both curved in such manner that the water shall +enter the wheel as nearly as possible without shock, +and leave it with the least possible velocity, thereby +utilising the greatest possible amount of energy.</p> + +<p>In the chapter on Electrical inventions reference +is made to the mighty power of Niagara used to actuate +a great number of electrical and other machines +of vast power. This utilisation had long been +the dream of engineers. Sir William Siemens had +said that the power of all the coal raised in the +world would barely represent the power of Niagara. +The dream has been realised, and the turbine is the +apparatus through which the power of the harnessed<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_172" id="PAGE_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> +giant is transmitted. A canal is dug from the river +a mile above the falls. It conducts water to a power +house near the falls. At the power house the canal +is furnished with a gate, and with cribs to keep +back the obstructions, such as sticks. At the gate +is placed a vertical iron tube called a penstock, 7½ feet +in diameter and 160 feet deep. At the bottom +of the penstock is placed a turbine wheel fixed on a +shaft, and to which shaft is connected an electric +generator or other power machine. On opening the +gate a mass of water 7½ feet in diameter falls upon +the turbine wheel 160 feet below. The water rushing +through the wheel turns it and its shaft many +hundred revolutions a minute. All the machinery +is of enormous power and dimensions. One electric +generator there is 11 feet 7 inches in diameter +and spins around at the rate of 250 revolutions a +minute. Means are provided by which the speed of +each wheel is regulated automatically. Each turbine +in a penstock represents the power of 5,000 +horses, and there are now ten or more employed.</p> + +<p>After the water has done its work on the wheels it +falls into a tunnel and is carried back to the river +below the falls. Not only are the manufactures of +various kinds of a large town at the falls thus supplied +with power, but electric power is transmitted +to distant towns and cities.</p> + +<p>Turbine pumps of the Forneyron type have an outward +flow; but another form, invented also by a +Frenchman, Jonval, has a downward discharge, and +others are oblique, double, combined turbine, rotary, +and centrifugal, embodying similar principles. The +term <i>rotary</i>, broadly speaking, includes turbine and +centrifugal pumps. The centrifugal pump, invented<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_173" id="PAGE_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> +by Euler in 1754, was taken up in the nineteenth +century and greatly improved.</p> + +<p>In the centrifugal pump of the ordinary form the +water is received at the centre of the wheel and diverted +and carried out in an upward direction, but +in most of its modern forms derived from the +turbine, the principle is adopted of so shaping +the vanes that the water, striking them in the +curved direction, shall not have its line of curvature +suddenly changed.</p> + +<p>Among modern inventions of this class of pumps +was the “Massachusetts” of 1818 and McCarty’s, in +1830, of America, that of some contemporary French +engineers, and subsequently in France the Appold +system, which latter was brought into prominent +notice at the London Exposition of 1851. Improvements +of great value were also made by Prof. James +Thompson of England.</p> + +<p>Centrifugal pumps have been used with great success +in lifting large bodies of water to a moderate +height, and for draining marshes and other low lands.</p> + +<p>Holland, Germany, France, England and America +have, through some of their ablest hydraulic engineers +and inventors, produced most remarkable results +in these various forms of pumps. We have +noted what has been done at Niagara with the turbines; +and the drainage of the marshes of Italy, the +lowlands of Holland, the fens of England and the +swamps of Florida bear evidence of the value of kindred +inventions.</p> + +<p>That modern form of pump known as the <i>injector</i>, +has many uses in the arts and manufactures. +One of its most useful functions is to automatically +supply steam boilers with water, and regulate the +supply. It was the invention of Giffard, patented<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_174" id="PAGE_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> +in England in 1858, and consists of a steam pipe +leading from the boiler and having its nozzle projecting +into an annular space which communicates +with a feed pipe from a water supply. A jet of +steam is discharged with force into this space, producing +a vacuum, into which the water from the +feed pipe rushes, and the condensed steam and water +are driven by the momentum of the jet into a pipe +leading into the boiler. This exceedingly useful +apparatus has been improved and universally used +wherever steam boilers are found. This idea of +injecting a stream of steam or water to create or increase +the flow of another stream has been applied +in <i>intensifiers</i>, to increase the pressure of water in +hydraulic mains, pipes, and machines, by additional +pressure energy. Thus the water from an ordinary +main may be given such an increased pressure that +a jet from a hydrant may be carried to the tops of +high houses.</p> + +<p>In connection with pumping it may be said that +a great deal has been discovered and invented during +this century concerning the force and utilisation of +jets of water and the force of water flowing through +orifices. In the art of mining, a new system called +<i>hydraulicising</i> has been introduced, by which jets +of water at high pressure have been directed against +banks and hills, which have crumbled, been washed +away, and made to reveal any precious ore they have +concealed.</p> + +<p>To assist this operation <i>flexible nozzles</i> have been +invented which permit the stream to be easily turned +in any desired direction.</p> + +<p>Returning to the idea of raising weights by hydraulic +pressure, mention must be made of the recent +invention of the <i>hydraulic jack</i>, a portable machine<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_175" id="PAGE_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> +for raising loads, and which has displaced the older +and less efficient screw jack. As an example of the +practical utility of the hydraulic jack, about a half +century ago it required the aid of 480 men working +at capstans to raise the Luxor Obelisk in Paris, +whilst within 30 years thereafter Cleopatra’s Needle, +a heavier monument, was raised to its present position +on the Thames embankment by four men each +working one hydraulic jack.</p> + +<p>By the high pressures, or stresses given by the hydraulic +press it was learned that cold metals have +plasticity and can be moulded or stretched like other +plastic bodies. Thus in one modification a machine +is had for making lead pipes:—A “container” +is filled with molten lead and then allowed to cool. +The container is then forced by the pump +against an elongated die of the size of the pipe required. +A pressure from one to two tons per square +inch is exerted, the lead is forced up through the die, +and the pipe comes out completed. Wrought iron +and cold steel can be forced like wax into different +forms, and a rod of steel may be drawn through a +die to form a piano wire.</p> + +<p>By another modification of the hydraulic press +pipes and cables are covered with a coating of lead +to prevent deterioration from rust and other causes.</p> + +<p>Not only are cotton and other bulky materials +pressed into small compass by hydraulic machines, +but very valuable oils are pressed from cotton seed +and from other materials—the seed being first softened, +then made into cakes, and the cakes pressed.</p> + +<p>If it is desired to line tunnels or other channels +with a metal lining, shield or casing, large segments +of iron to compose the casing are put in position, and +as fast as the tunnel is excavated the casing is<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_176" id="PAGE_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> +pressed forward, and when the digging is done the +cast-iron tunnel is complete.</p> + +<p>If the iron hoops on great casks are to be tightened +the cask is set on the plate of a hydraulic press, +the hoops connected to a series of steel arms projecting +from an overhanging support, and the cask is +pressed upward until the proper degree of tightness +is secured.</p> + +<p>In the application of hydraulic power to machine +tools great advances have been made. It has become +a system, in which Tweddle of England was a +pioneer. The great force of water pressure combined +with comparatively slow motion constitutes the +basis of the system. Sir William Fairbairn had +done with steam what Tweddle and others accomplished +with water. Thus the enormous force of men +and the fearful clatter formerly displayed in these +huge works where the riveting of boilers was carried +on can now be dispensed with, and in place of the +noisy hammer with its ceaseless blows has come the +steam or the hydraulic riveting machine, which noiselessly +drives the rivet through any thickness of metal, +clinches the same, and smooths the jointed plate. +The forging and the rolling of the plates are performed +by the same means.</p> + +<p>William George Armstrong of England, afterward +Sir William, first a lawyer, but with the strongest +bearing toward mechanical subjects, performed a +great work in the advancement of hydraulic engineering. +It is claimed that he did for hydraulic +machinery, in the storage and transmission of power +thereby, what Watt did for the steam engine and +Bessemer did for steel. In 1838 he produced his +first invention, an important improvement in the +hydraulic engine. In 1840, in a letter to the <i>Me<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_177" id="PAGE_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>chanics’ +Magazine</i>, he calls attention to the advantages +of water as a mechanical agent and a reservoir +of power, and showed how water pumped to +an elevated reservoir by a steam engine might +have the potential energy thus stored utilised +in many advantageous ways. How, for instance, +a small engine pumping continuously could thus +supply many large engines working intermittently. +In illustration of this idea he invented a crane, which +was erected on Newcastle quay in 1846; another was +constructed on the Albert dock at Liverpool, and +others at other places. These cranes, adapted for the +lifting and carrying of enormous loads, were worked +by hydraulic pressure obtained from elevated tanks +or reservoirs, as above indicated. But as a substitute +for such tanks or reservoirs he invented the <i>Accumulator</i>. +This consists of a large cast-iron cylinder +fitted with a plunger, which is made to work water-tight +therein by means of suitable packing. To this +plunger is attached a weighted case filled with one or +many tons of metal or other coarse material. Water +is pumped into the cylinder until the plunger is +raised to its full height within the cylinder, when the +supply of water is cut off by the automatic operation +of a valve. When the cranes or other apparatus to be +worked thereby are in operation, water is passed +from the cylinder through a small pipe which actuates +the crane through hydraulic pressure. This +pressure of course depends upon the weight of the +plunger. Thus a pressure of from 500 to 1,000 +pounds per square inch may be obtained. The descending +plunger maintains a constant pressure +upon the water, and the water is only pumped into +the cylinder when it is required to be filled. With +sensitive accumulators of this character hydraulic<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_178" id="PAGE_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> +machinery is much used on board ships for steering +them, and for loading, discharging and storing cargoes.</p> + +<p><i>Water Pressure Engines</i> or <i>Water Motors</i> of a +great variety as to useful details have been invented +to take advantage of a natural head of water from falls +wherever it exists, or from artificial accumulators or +from street mains. They resemble steam engines, in +that the water under pressure drives a piston in a +cylinder somewhat in the manner of steam. The +underlying principle of this class of machinery is +the admission of water under pressure to a cylinder +which moves the piston and is allowed to escape on +the completion of the stroke. They are divided +into two great classes, single and double acting engines, +accordingly as the water is admitted to one +side of the piston only, or to both sides alternately. +Both kinds are provided with a regulator in the +form of a turn-cock, weight, or spring valve to regulate +and control the flow of water and to make it +continuous. They are used for furnishing a limited +amount of power for working small printing +presses, dental engines, organs, sewing machines, +and for many other purposes where a light motor +is desired.</p> + +<p>The nineteenth century has seen a revolution in +<i>baths</i> and accompanying <i>closets</i>. However useful, +luxurious, and magnificent may have been the patrician +baths of ancient Rome, that system, which modern +investigators have found to be so complete to a certain +extent, was not nor ever has been in the possession +of the poor. It is within the memory of many +now living everywhere how wretched was the sanitary +accommodations in every populous place a generation +or two ago. Now, with the modern water distribu<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_179" id="PAGE_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>tion +systems and cheap bathing apparatuses which +can be brought to the homes of all, with plunger, +valved siphon and valved and washout closets, air +valve, liquid seal, pipe inlet, and valve seal traps, +and with the flushing and other hydraulic cleaning +systems for drains and cesspools, little excuse can be +had for want of proper sanitary regulations in any +intelligent community. The result of the adoption +of these modern improvements in this direction on the +health of the people has been to banish plagues, curtail +epidemics, and prolong for years the average duration +of human life.</p> + +<p>How multiplied are the uses to which water is +put, and how completely it is being subjected to the +use of man!</p> + +<p>Rivers and pipes have their metres, so that now +the velocity and volume of rivers and streams are +measured and controlled, and floods prevented. The +supplies for cities and for families are estimated, +measured and recorded as easily as are the supplies +of illuminating gas, or the flow of food from elevators.</p> + +<p>Among the minor, but very useful inventions, are +<i>water scoops</i> for picking up water for a train while +in motion, consisting of a curved open pipe on a car, +the mouth of which strikes a current of water in an +open trough between the tracks and picks up and +deposits in a minute a car load of water for the engine. +<i>Nozzles</i> to emit jets of great velocity, and +ball nozzles terminating in a cup in which a ball +is loosely seated, and which has the effect, as it is +lifted by the jet, to spread it into an umbrella-shaped +spray, are of great value at fires in quenching flame +and smoke.</p> + +<p>Next to pure air to breathe we need pure water to<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_180" id="PAGE_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> +drink, and modern discoveries and inventions have +done and are doing much to help us to both. Pasteur +and others have discovered and explained the +germ theory of disease and to what extent it is due +to impure water. Inventors have produced <i>filters</i>, +and there is a large class of that character which render +the water pure as it enters the dwelling, and fit +for all domestic purposes. A specimen of the latter +class is one which is attached to the main service +pipe as it enters from the street. The water is +first led into a cylinder stored with coarse filtering +material which clears the water of mud, sediment and +coarser impurities, and then is conducted into a second +cylinder provided with a mass of fine grained +or powdered charcoal, or some other material which +has the quality of not only arresting all remaining +injurious ingredients, but destroys organisms, neutralises +ammonia and other deleterious matter. +From thence the water is returned to the service pipe +and distributed through the house. The filter may +be thoroughly cleansed by reversing the movement +of the water, and carrying it off through a drain +pipe until it runs clear and sweet, whereupon the +water is turned in its normal course through the +filter and house.</p> + +<p>In a very recent report of General J. M. Wilson, +Chief of Engineers, U.S.A., the subject of filtration +of water, and especially of public water supplies in +England, the United States, and on the Continent, +is very thoroughly treated, and the conclusion arrived +at there is that the system termed “the American,” +or mechanical system, is the most successful +one.</p> + +<p>This consists, first, in leading the water into one or +more reservoirs, then coagulating suspended matter<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_181" id="PAGE_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> +in the water by the use of the sulphate of alumina, +and then allowing the water to flow through a body +of coarse sand, by which the coagulated aluminated +matter is caught and held in the interstices of the +sand, and the bacteria arrested. All objectionable +matter is thus arrested by the surface portion of +the sand body, which portion is from time to time +scraped off, and the whole sand mass occasionally +washed out by upward currents of water forced +through the same.</p> + +<p>By this system great rapidity of filtration is obtained, +the rate being 120,000,000 gallons a day per +acre.</p> + +<p>The English system consists more in the use of extended +and successive reservoirs or beds of sand alone, +or aided by the use of the sulphate. This also is +extensively used in many large cities.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_182" id="PAGE_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +PNEUMATICS AND PNEUMATIC MACHINES.</span></h2> + + +<p>“The march of the human mind is slow,” exclaimed +Burke in his great speech on “Conciliation +with the Colonies.” It was at the beginning of the +last quarter of the 18th century that he was speaking, +and he was referring to the slow discovery of +the eternal laws of Providence as applied in the +field of political administration to distant colonies. +The same could then have been said of the march +of the human mind in the realms of Nature. How +slow had been the apprehension of the forces of that +kind but silent Mother whose strong arms are ever +ready to lift and carry the burdens of men whenever +her aid is diligently sought! The voice of +Burke was, however, hardly silent when the human +mind suddenly awoke, and its march in the realms +of government and of natural science since then cannot +be regarded as slow.</p> + +<p>More than fifteen centuries before Burke spoke, +not only had Greece discovered the principles of +political freedom for its citizens and its colonies, but +the power of steam had been discovered, and experimental +work been done with it.</p> + +<p>Yet when the famous orator made his speech the +Grecian experiment was a toy of Kings, and the steam +engine had just developed from this toy into a +mighty engine in the hands of Watt. The age of +mechanical inventions had just commenced with<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_183" id="PAGE_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> +the production of machines for spinning and +weaving. And yet, in view of the rise of learning, +and the appearance from time to time of +mighty intellects in the highest walks of science, the +growth of the mind in the line of useful machinery +had indeed been strangely slow. “Learning” had +revived in Italy in the 12th and 13th centuries and +spread westward in the 14th. In the 15th, gunpowder +and printing had been discovered, and Scaliger, +the famous scholar of Italy, and Erasmus, the +celebrated Dutch philosopher, were the leading restorers +of ancient literature. Science then also revived, +and Copernicus, the Pole, gave us the true +theory of the solar system. The 16th century produced +the great mathematicians and astronomers +Tycho Brahe, the Dane, Cardan and Galileo, the illustrious +Italians, and Kepler, the German astronomer, +whose discovery of the laws of planetary motion +supplemented the works of Copernicus and Galileo +and illuminated the early years of the 17th century.</p> + +<p>In the 17th century appeared Torricelli, the inventor +of the barometer; Guericke, the German, inventor +of the air pump; Fahrenheit, the inventor of +the mercurial thermometer bearing his name; Leibnitz, +eminent in every department of science and +philosophy; Huygens, the great Dutch astronomer +and philosopher; Pascal of France and Sir Isaac +Newton of England, the worthy successors of Kepler, +Galileo and Copernicus; and yet, with the exception +of philosophical discoveries and a few experiments, +the field of invention in the way of motor +engines still remained practically closed. But slight +as had been the discoveries and experiments referred +to, they were the mine from which the inventions of +subsequent times were quarried.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_184" id="PAGE_184">[Pg 184]</a></span></p> + +<p>One of the earliest, if not the first of pneumatic +machines, was the bellows. Its invention followed +the discovery of fire and of metals. The bladders +of animals suggested it, and their skins were substituted +for the bladders.</p> + +<p>The Egyptians have left a record of its use, thirty-four +centuries ago, and its use has been continuous +ever since.</p> + +<p>Mention has been made of the cannon. It was +probably the earliest attempt to obtain motive power +from heat. The ball was driven out of an iron cylinder +by the inflammatory power of powder. Let a +piston be substituted for the cannon ball, as was suggested +by Huygens in 1680 and by Papin in 1690, +and the charge of powder so reduced that when it is +exploded the piston will not be thrown entirely out +of the cylinder, another small explosive charge introduced +on the other side of the piston to force it +back, or let the cylinder be vertical and the piston +be driven back by gravity, means provided to permit +the escape of the gas after it has done its work, +and means to keep the cylinder cool, and we have +the prototype of the modern heat engines. The gunpowder +experiments of Huygens and Papin were not +successful, but they were the progenitors of similar +inventions made two centuries thereafter.</p> + +<p>Jan Baptista van Helmont, a Flemish physician +(1577-1644), was the first to apply the term, <i>gas</i> +to the elastic fluids which resemble air in physical +properties. Robert Boyle, the celebrated Irish +scholar and scientist, and improver of the air pump, +and Edwin Mariotte, the French physicist who was +first to show that a feather and a coin will drop the +same distance at the same time in a reservoir exhausted +of air, were the independent discoverers of +Boyle’s and Mariotte’s law of gases (1650-1676).<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_185" id="PAGE_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> +This was that at any given temperature of a gas +which is at rest its volume varies inversely with the +pressure put upon it. It follows from this law that +the density and tension, and therefore the expansive +force of a gas, are proportional to the compressing +force to which it is subjected. It is said that Abbé +Hauteville, the son of a baker of Orleans, about +1678 proposed to raise water by a powder motor; +and that in 1682 he described a machine based on +the principle of the circulation of the blood, produced +by the alternate expansion and contraction +of the heart.</p> + +<p>The production of heat by concentrating the rays +of the sun, and for burning objects had been known +from the time of Archimedes, and been repeated from +time to time.</p> + +<p>Thus stood this art at the close of the 17th century, +and thus it remained until near the close of the 18th.</p> + +<p>In England Murdock, the Cornish Steam Engineer, +was the first to make and use coal gas for +illuminating purposes, which he did in 1792 and +1798. Its utilisation for other practical purposes +was then suggested.</p> + +<p>Gas engines as motive powers were first described +in the English patent to John Barber, in +1791, and then in one issued to Robert Street in +1794. Barber proposed to introduce a stream of +carbonated hydrogen gas through one port, and a +quantity of air at another, and explode them against +the piston. Street proposed to drive up the piston by +the expansive force of a heated gas, and anticipated +many modern ideas. Phillipe Lebon, a French engineer, +in 1799 and in 1801 anticipated in a theoretical +way many ideas since successfully reduced +to practice. He proposed to use coal gas to drive a<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_186" id="PAGE_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> +piston, which in turn should move the shaft that +worked the pumps which forced in the gas and air, +and thus make the machine double-acting; to introduce +a charge of inflammable gas mixed with sufficient +air to ignite it; to compress the air and gas +before they entered the motor cylinder; to introduce +the charge alternately on each side of the piston; +and he also suggested the use of the electric spark +to fire the mixture. But Lebon was assassinated +and did not live to work out his ideas.</p> + +<p>At the very beginning of the 19th century John +Dalton in England, 1801-1807, and Gay-Lussac in +France began their investigations of gases and vapours. +Dalton was not only the author of the atomic +theory, but the discoverer of the leading ideas in the +“Constitution of Mixed Gases.” These features were +the diffusion of gases, the action of gases on each +other in vacuum—the influence of different temperatures +upon them, their chemical constituents and +their relative specific gravity.</p> + +<p>Gay-Lussac, continuing his investigations as to +expansion of air and gases under increased temperatures, +in 1807-10, established the law that when free +from moisture they all dilate uniformly and to +equal amounts for all equal increments of temperature. +He also showed that the gases combine, as +to volume, in simple proportions, and that several of +them on being compounded contracted always in +such simple proportions as one-half, one-third, or +one-quarter, of their joint bulk. By these laws all +forms of engines which were made to work through +the agency of heat are classed as heat engines—so +that under this head are included steam engines, air +engines, gas engines, vapour engines and solar +engines. The tie that binds these engines into<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_187" id="PAGE_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> +one great family is temperature. It is the heat that +does the work. Whether it is a cannon, the power of +which is manifested in a flash, or the slower moving +steam engine, whose throbbing heart beats not until +water is turned to steam, or the sun, the parent of +them all, whose rays are grasped and used direct, +the question in all cases is, what is the amount of +heat produced and how can it be controlled?</p> + +<p>It, then, can make no difference what the agent +is that is employed, whether air, or gas, or steam, +or the sun, or gunpowder explosion, but what is the +temperature to be attained in the cylinder or vessel in +which they work. Power is the measure of work done +in a given time. Horse power is the unit of such +measurement, and it consists of the amount of power +that is required to raise one pound through a vertical +distance of one foot. This power is pressure and the +pressure is heat. The unit of heat is the amount of +heat required to raise the temperature of a pound of +distilled water one degree—from 39 degrees to 40 degrees +F. Its amount or measurement is determined +in any instance by a dynamometer.</p> + +<p>These were the discoveries with which Philosophy +opened the nineteenth century so brilliantly in the +field of Pneumatics.</p> + +<p>Before that time it seemed impossible that explosive +gases would ever be harnessed as steam had been +and made to do continual successful work in a cylinder +and behind a piston. As yet means were to be +found to make the engine efficient as a double-acting +one—to start the untamed steed at the proper moment +and to stop him at the moment he had done his work.</p> + +<p>As Newcomen had been the first in the previous +century to apply the steam engine to practical work—pumping +water from mines—so Samuel Brown of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_188" id="PAGE_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> +England was the first in this century to invent and +use a gas engine upon the water.</p> + +<p>Brown took out patents in 1823 and 1826. He +proposed to use gunpowder gas as the motive power. +His engine was also described in the <i>Mechanics’ +Magazine</i> published in London at that time. In the +making of his engine he followed the idea of a steam +engine, but used the flame of an ignited gas jet to +create a vacuum within the cylinder instead of steam. +He fitted up an experimental boat with such an engine, +and means upon the boat to generate the gas. +The boat was then operated upon the Thames. He also +succeeded experimentally in adapting his engine to +a road carriage. But Brown’s machines were cumbrous, +complicated, and difficult to work, and therefore +did not come into public use.</p> + +<p>About this time (1823), Davy and Faraday reawakened +interest in gas engines by their discovery +that a number of gases could be reduced to a liquid +state, some by great pressure, and others by cold, and +that upon the release of the pressure the gases would +return to their original volume. In the condensation +heat was developed, and in re-expansion it was rendered +latent.</p> + +<p>Then Wright in 1833 obtained a patent in which +he expounded and illustrated the principles of expansion +and compression of gas and air, performed in +separate cylinders, the production of a vacuum by the +explosion and the use of a water jacket around the +cylinder for cooling it.</p> + +<p>For William Burdett, in 1838, is claimed the +honour of having been the first to invent the means +of compressing the gas and air previous to the explosion, +substantially the same as adopted in gas engines +of the present day.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_189" id="PAGE_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></p> + +<p>The defects found in gas engines thus far were +want of proper preliminary compression, then in +complete expansion, and finally loss of heat through +the walls.</p> + +<p>Some years later, Lenoir, a Frenchman, invented +a gas engine of a successful type, of which three hundred +in 1862 were in use in France. It showed +what could be accomplished by an engine in which +the fuel was introduced and fired directly in the piston +cylinder. Its essential features were a cylinder +into which a mixture of gas and air was admitted +at atmospheric pressure, which was maintained until +the piston made half its stroke, when the gas was exploded +by an electric spark. A wheel of great weight +was hung upon a shaft which was connected to the +piston, and which weight absorbed the force suddenly +developed by the explosion, and so moderated the +speed. Another object of the use of the heavy wheel +was to carry the machine over the one-half of the +period in which the driving power was absent.</p> + +<p>Hugon, another eminent French engineer, invented +and constructed a gas engine on the same principle +as Lenair’s.</p> + +<p>About this time (1850-60) M. Beau de Rohes, +a French engineer, thoroughly investigated the +reasons of the uneconomical working of gas motors, +and found that it was due to want of sufficient compression +of the gas and air previous to explosion, incomplete +expansion and loss of heat through the walls +of the cylinder, and he was the first to formulate +a “cycle” of operations necessary to be followed in +order to render a gas engine efficient. They related +to the size and dimensions of the cylinder; the maximum +speed of the piston; the greatest possible expansion, +and the highest pressure obtainable at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_190" id="PAGE_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> +beginning of the act of expansion. The study and +application of these conditions created great advancements +in gas engines.</p> + +<p>With the discovery and development of the oil +wells in the United States about 1860 a new fuel was +found in the crude petroleum, as well as a source of +light. The application of petroleum to engines, +either to produce furnace heat, or as introduced +directly into the piston cylinder mixed with inflammable +gas to produce flame heat and expansion, has +given a wonderful impetus to the utilisation of gas +engines.</p> + +<p>G. H. Brayton of the United States in 1873 invented +a very efficient engine in which the vapour of +petroleum mixed with air constituted the fuel. Adolf +Spiel of Berlin has also recently invented a petroleum +engine.</p> + +<p>Principal among those to whom the world is indebted +for the revolution in the construction of gas +engines and its establishment as a successful rival to +the steam engine is Nicolaus A. Otto of Deutz on the +Rhine.</p> + +<p>In the Lenair and Hugon system the expansive +force of the exploded gas was used directly upon the +piston, and through this upon the other moving parts. +A great noise was produced by these constant explosions. +In the Otto system the explosion is used +indirectly and only to produce a vacuum below the +piston, when atmospheric pressure is used to give +the return stroke of the piston and produce the +effective work. The Otto engine is noiseless. This +is accomplished by his method of mixing and admitting +the gases. He employs two different mixtures, +one a “feebly explosive mixture,” and the +other “a strongly explosive mixture,” used to operate +on the piston and thus prolong the explosions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_191" id="PAGE_191">[Pg 191]</a></span></p> + +<p>The mode of operation of one of Otto’s most successful +engines is as follows: The large fly wheel is +started by hand or other means, and as the piston +moves forward it draws into the cylinder a light +charge of mixed coal gas and air, and the gas inlet +is then cut off. As the piston returns it compresses +this mixture. At the moment the down stroke is +completed the compressed mixture is ignited, and, expanding, +drives the piston before it. In the second +return stroke the burnt gases are expelled from the +cylinder and the whole made ready to start afresh. +Work is actually done in the piston only during one-quarter +of the time it is in motion. The fly-wheel +carries forward the work at the outset and the gearing +the rest of the time.</p> + +<p>Otto was associated with Langen in producing his +first machine, and its introduction at the Centennial +Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876 excited great attention. +Otto and E. W. and W. J. Crossley jointly, +and then Otto singly, subsequently patented notable +improvements.</p> + +<p>Simon Bischof and Clark, Hurd and Clayton in +England; Daimler of Deutz on the Rhine, Riker +and Wiegand of the United States, and others, have +made improvements in the Otto system.</p> + +<p>Ammoniacal gas engines have been successfully +invented. <i>Aqua ammonia</i> is placed in a generator +in which it is heated. The heat separates the ammonia +gas from the water, and the gas is then used +to operate a suitable engine. The exhaust gas is +cooled, passed into the previously weakened solution, +reabsorbed and returned to the generator. In 1890 +Charles Tellier of France patented an ammoniacal +engine, also means for utilising solar heat and exhaust +steam for the same purpose; and in the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_192" id="PAGE_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> +year De Susini, also of France, patented an engine +operated by the vapour of ether; A. Nobel, another +Frenchman, in 1894, patented a machine for propelling +torpedoes and other explosive missiles, and for +controlling the course of balloons, the motive power +of which is a gas developed in a closed reservoir by +the chemical reaction of metallic sodium or potassium +in a solution of ammonia. These vapour engines +are used for vapour launches, bicycles and +automobiles.</p> + +<p>In 1851 the ideas of Huygens and Papin of two +hundred years before were revived by W. M. Storm, +who in that year took out a gunpowder engine patent +in the United States, in which the air was compressed +by the explosions of small charges of gunpowder. +About fifteen other patents have been taken out in +America since that time for such engines. In some +the engines are fed by cartridges which are exploded +by pulling a trigger.</p> + +<p>As to gas and vapor engines generally, it may now +be said, in comparison with steam, that although the +steam engine is now regarded as almost perfect in +operation, and that it can be started and stopped and +otherwise controlled quietly, smoothly, instantaneously, +and in the most uniform and satisfactory +manner, yet there is the comparatively long delay +in generating the steam in the boiler, and the loss of +heat and power as it is conducted in pipes to the +working cylinder, resulting in the utilisation of only +ten per cent of the actual power generated, whereas +gas and vapour engines utilise twenty-five per cent +of the power generated, and the flame and explosions +are now as easily and noiselessly controlled as the +flow of oil or water. The world is coming to agree +with Prof. Fleeming Jenkins that “Gas engines will +ultimately supplant the steam.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_193" id="PAGE_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></p> + +<p>The smoke and cinder nuisance with them has been +solved.</p> + +<p>The sister invention of the gas engine is the air +engine. There can be no doubt about the success of +this busy body, as it is now a swift and successful +motor in a thousand different fields. Machines in +which air, either hot or cold, is used in place of steam +as the moving power to drive a piston, or to be driven +by a piston, are known generally as air, caloric, or +hot-air engines, air compressors, or compressed air +engines, and are also classed as pneumatic machines, +air brakes, or pumps. They are now specifically +known by the name of the purpose to which they are +applied, as air ship, ventilator, air brake, fan blower, +air pistol, air spring, etc.</p> + +<p>The attention of inventors was directed towards +compressed and heated air as a motor as soon as +steam became a known and efficient servant; but the +most important and the only successful air machine +existing prior to this century was the air pump, invented +by Guericke in 1650, and subsequently perfected +by Robert Boyle and others. The original +pump and the Magdeburg hemispheres are still +preserved.</p> + +<p>It is recorded that Amontons of France, in 1699, +had an atmospheric fire wheel or air engine in which +a heated column of air was made to drive a wheel.</p> + +<p>It has already been noted what Papin (1680-1690) +proposed and did in steam. His last published +work was a Latin essay upon a new system for +raising water by the action of fire, published in +1707.</p> + +<p>The action of confined and compressed steam and +gases, and air, is so nearly the same in the machines +in which they constitute the motive power that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_194" id="PAGE_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> +history, development, construction, and operation of +the machines of one class are closely interwoven with +those of the others.</p> + +<p>Taking advantage of what had been taught them +by Watt and others as to steam and steam engines, +and of the principles and laws of gases as expounded +by Boyle, Mariotte, Dalton, and Gay-Lussac, that +many of the gases, such as air, preserve a permanent +expansive gaseous form under all degrees of temperature +and compression to which they had as yet +been subjected, that when compressed and released +they will expand, and exert a pressure in the contrary +direction until the gas and outside atmospheric pressure +are in equilibrium, that this compressed gas +pressure is equal, and transmitted equally in all directions, +and that the weight of a column of air resting +on every horizontal square inch at the sea level is +very nearly 14.6 pounds, the inventors of the nineteenth +century were enabled by this supreme illumination +to enter with confidence into that work of mechanical +contrivances which has rendered the age so +marvellous.</p> + +<p>It was natural that in the first development of +mechanical appliances they should be devoted to +those pursuits in which men had the greatest practical +interest. Thus as to steam it was first applied +to the raising of water from mines and then to road +vehicles. And so in 1800 Thos. Parkinson of England +invented and patented an “hydrostatic engine +or machine for the purpose of drawing beer or any +other liquid out of a cellar or vault in a public house, +which is likewise intended to be applied for raising +water out of mines, ships or wells.” By the use of a +sort of an air pump he maintained an air pressure +on the beer in an air-tight cask situated in the cellar,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_195" id="PAGE_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> +which was connected with pipes having air-tight +valves, with the upper floor. The liquid was forced +from the cellar by the air pressure, and when +turned off, the air pressure was resumed in the cask, +which “preserved the beer from being thrown into +a state of flatness.” Substantially the same device +in principle has been reinvented and incorporated +in patents numerous times since.</p> + +<p>In the innumerable applications of the pneumatic +machines and air tools of the century, especially of +air-compressing devices, to the daily uses of life, we +may, by turning first to our home, find its inner and +outer walls painted by a pneumatic paint-spraying +machine, for such have been made that will coat forty-six +thousand square feet of surface in six hours; and +it is said that paint can be thus applied not only more +quickly, but more thoroughly and durably than by +the old process. The periodical and fascinating practice +of house cleaning is now greatly facilitated by +an air brush having a pipe with a thin wide end in +which are numerous perforations, and through which +the air is forced by a little pump, and with which +apparatus a far more efficient cleaning effect upon +carpets, mattresses, curtains, clothes, and furniture +can be obtained than by the time-honoured broom and +duster.</p> + +<p>Is the home uncomfortable by reason of heat and +summer insects? A compressor having tanks or cisterns +in the cellar filled with cool or cold air may be +set to work to reduce the temperature of the house +and fan the inmates with a refreshing breeze.</p> + +<p>Air engines have been invented which can be used +to either heat or cool the air, or do one or the other +automatically. The heating when wanted is by fuel +in a furnace forced up by a working cylinder, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_196" id="PAGE_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> +cooling by the circulation of water around small, thin +copper tubes through which the air passes to the +cylinder.</p> + +<p>Do the chimes of the distant church bells lead one +to the house of worship? The worshipper goes with +the comforting assurance that the chimes which send +forth such sweet harmonies are operated not by toiling, +sweating men at ropes, but by a musician who +plays as upon an organ, and works the keys, valves +and stops by the aid of compressed air, and sometimes +by the additional help of electricity.</p> + +<p>Mention has already been made of office and other +elevators, in which compressed air is an important +factor in operating the same and for preventing accidents.</p> + +<p>If a waterfall is convenient, air is compressed by +the body of descending water, and used to ventilate +tunnels, and deep shafts and mines, or drive the +drills or other tools.</p> + +<p>The pneumatic mail tube despatch system, by +which letters, parcels, etc., are sent from place to +place by the force of atmospheric pressure in an air-exhausted +tube, is a decidedly modern invention, unknown +in use even by those who are still children. +Tubes as large as eight inches in diameter are now +in use in which cartridge boxes are placed, each +holding six hundred or more letters, and when the +air is exhausted the cartridge is forced through the +tubes to the distance sometimes of three miles and +more in a few minutes.</p> + +<p>In travelling by rail the train is now guided in +starting or in stopping on to the right track, which +may be one out of forty or fifty, by a pneumatic +switch, the switches for the whole number of tracks +being under the control of a single operator. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_197" id="PAGE_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> +fast-moving train is stopped by an air brake, and the +locomotive bell is rung by touching an air cylinder. +The “baggage smashing,” a custom more honoured +in the breach than in the observance, is prevented by +a pneumatic baggage arrangement consisting of an +air-containing cylinder, and an arm on which to place +the baggage, and which arm is then quickly raised by +the cylinder piston and is automatically swung +around by a cam action carrying the baggage out of +or into the car.</p> + +<p>Bridge building has been so facilitated by the use +of pneumatic machines for raising heavy loads of +stone and iron, and for riveting and hammering, and +other air tools, aided by the development in the art +of quick transportation, that a firm of bridge builders +in America can build a splendid bridge in Africa +within a hundred days after the contract has been +entered upon.</p> + +<p>Ship building is hastened by these same air drilling +and riveting machines.</p> + +<p>The propelling of cars, road vehicles, boats, balloons, +and even ships, by explosive gases and compressed +air is an extensive art in itself, yet still in its +infancy, and will be more fully described in the +chapter on carrying machines.</p> + +<p>The realm of Art has received a notable advancement +by the use of a little blow-pipe or atomiser by +which the pigments forming the background on +beautiful vases are blown with just that graduated +force desired by the operator to produce the most exquisitely +smooth and blended effects, while the varying +colours are made to melt imperceptibly into one +another as delicately as the mingled shade and coloured +sunlight fall on a forest brook.</p> + +<p>But to enumerate the industrial arts to which air<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_198" id="PAGE_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> +and other pneumatic machines have been adapted +would be to catalogue them all. Mention is made of +others in chapters in which those special arts are +treated.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_199" id="PAGE_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +ART OF HEATING, VENTILATING, COOKING, REFRIGERATION +AND LIGHTING.</span></h2> + + +<p>That Prometheus stole fire from heaven to give +it to man is perhaps as authentic an account of the +invention of fire as has been given. It is also reported +that he brought it to earth in a hollow tube. +If a small stick or twig had then been dipped into the +divine fire the suggestion of the modern match may +be supposed to have been made.</p> + +<p>But men went on to reproduce the fire in the old +way by rubbing pieces of wood together, or using +the flint, the steel and the tinder until 1680, when +Godfrey Hanckwitz of London, learning of the recent +discovery of phosphorus and its nature, and inspired +by the Promethean idea, wrapped the phosphorus +in folds of brown paper, rubbed it until it +took fire, and then ignited thereat one end of a stick +which he had dipped in sulphur; and this is commonly +known as the first invented match. There followed +the production of a somewhat different form of +match, sticks first dipped in sulphur, and then in a +composition of chlorate potash, sulphur, colophony, +gum of sugar, and cinnabar for coloring. These +were arranged in boxes, and were accompanied by +a vial containing sulphuric acid, into which the +match was dipped and thereby instantly ignited. +These were called chemical matches and were sold at +first for the high price of fifteen shillings a box.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_200" id="PAGE_200">[Pg 200]</a></span></p> + +<p>They were too costly for common use, and so our +fathers went on to the nineteenth century using the +flint, the steel and the tinder, and depending on the +coal kept alive upon their own or their neighbour’s +hearth.</p> + +<p>Prometheus, however, did reappear about 1820-25, +when a match bearing the name “Promethean” +was invented. It consisted of a roll of paper treated +with sugar and chlorate of potash and a small cell +containing sulphuric acid. This cell was broken by a +pair of pliers and the acid ignited the composition +by contact therewith.</p> + +<p>It was not until 1827-29 that John Walker, +chemist, at Stockton-upon-Tees, improved upon the +idea of Prometheus and Hanckwitz of giving fire to +men in a hollow tube. He used folded sanded +paper—it may have been a tube—and through this +he drew a stick coated with chlorate of potash and +phosphorus. This successful match was named +“Lucifer,” whose other name was Phosphor, the +Morning Star, and the King of the Western Land. +Faraday, to whom also was given Promethean inspiration, +procured some of Walker’s matches and +brought them to public notice.</p> + +<p>In many respects the mode of their manufacture +has been improved, but in principle of composition +and ignition they remain the same as Walker’s to-day. +In 1845, Schrotter of Vienna discovered amorphous +or allotropic phosphorus, which rendered the manufacture +of matches less dangerous to health and property. +Tons of chemicals and hundreds of pine trees +are used yearly in the making of matches, and many +hundreds of millions of them are daily consumed.</p> + +<p>But this vast number of matches could not be supplied +had it not been for the invention of machines<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_201" id="PAGE_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> +for making and packing them. Thus in 1842 Reuben +Partridge of America patented a machine for making +splints. Others for making splints and the matches +separately, quickly followed. Together with these +came match dipping and match box machines. The +splint machines were for slitting a block of wood of +the proper height downward nearly the whole way +into match splints, leaving their butts in the solid +wood. These were square and known as block +matches. Other mechanisms cut and divided the +block into strips, which were then dipped at one end, +dried and tied in bundles. By other means, a swing +blade, for instance, the matches were all severed from +the block. Matches are made round by one machine +by pressing the block against a plate having circular +perforations, and the interspaces are beveled so as to +form cutting edges.</p> + +<p>Poririer, a Frenchman, invented a machine for +making match boxes of pasteboard. Suitable sized +rectangular pieces of pasteboard rounded at the angles +for making the body of the box are first cut, then +these pieces are introduced into the machine, where +by the single blow of a plunger they are forced into +a matrix or die and pressed, and receive by this +single motion their complete and final shape. The +lid is made in the same way.</p> + +<p>By one modern invention matches after they are +cut are fed into a machine at the rate of one hundred +thousand an hour, on to a horizontal table, each +match separated from the other by a thin partition. +They are thus laid in rows, one row over another, and +while being laid, the matches are pushed out a little +way beyond the edge of the table, a distance far +enough to expose their ends and to permit them to be +dipped. When a number of these rows are completed<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_202" id="PAGE_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> +they are clamped together in a bundle and then dipped—first, +into a vessel of hot sulphur, and then into one +of phosphorus, or other equivalent ingredients may +be used or added. After the dipping they are subjected +to a drying process and then boxed. Processes +differ, but all are performed by machinery.</p> + +<p>In many factories where phosphorus is used without +great care workmen have been greatly affected +thereby. The fumes of the phosphorus attack the +teeth, especially when decayed, and penetrate to the +jaw, causing its gradual destruction, but this has +been avoided by proper precautions.</p> + +<p>The greatly-increased facility of kindling a fire by +matches gave an impetus to the invention of <i>cooking +and heating stoves</i>. Of course stoves, generically +speaking, are not a production of the nineteenth +century. The Romans had their <i>laconicum</i> or heating +stove, which from its name was an invention from +Laconia. It probably was made in most cases of +brick or marble, but might have been of beaten iron, +was cylindrical in shape, with an open cupola at the +top, and was heated by the flames of the <i>hypocaust</i> +beneath. The <i>hypocaust</i> was a hot-air furnace built +in the basement or cellar of the house and from +which the heat was conducted by flues to the bath +rooms and other apartments. The Chinese ages ago +heated their hollow tiled floors by underground furnace +fires. We know of the <i>athanor</i> of the alchemists +of the middle ages. Knight calls it the “original +base-burning furnace.” A furnace of iron or earthenware +was provided on one side with an open stack +or tower which opened at the bottom into the furnace, +and which stack was kept filled with charcoal, or +other fuel, which fed itself automatically into the furnace +as the fuel on the bed thereof burned away.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_203" id="PAGE_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> +Watt introduced an arrangement on the same principle +in his steam boiler furnace in 1767, and thousands +of stoves are now constructed within England +and the United States also embodying the same principle.</p> + +<p>The earthenware and soapstone stoves of continental +Europe were used long before the present century.</p> + +<p>In Ben Franklin’s time in the American Colonies +there was not much of a demand for stoves outside of +the largest cities, where wood was getting a little +scarce and high, but the philosopher not only deemed +it proper to invent an improvement in chimneys to +prevent their smoking and to better heat the room, but +also devised an improved form of stove, and both inventions +have been in constant use unto this day. +Franklin invented and introduced his celebrated +stove, which he called the Pennsylvania Fire Place, +in 1745, having all the advantages of a cheerful open +fireplace, and a heat producer; and which consisted +of an iron stove with an open front set well into the +room, in which front part the fire was kindled, and +the products of combustion conducted up a flue, and +thence under a false back and up the chimney. Open +heat spaces were left between the two flues. Air inlets +and dampers were provided. In his description +of this stove at that time Franklin also referred to +the iron box stoves used by the Dutch, the iron plates +extending from the hearths and sides, etc., chimneys +making a double fireplace used by the French, and +the German stove of iron plates, and so made that the +fuel had to be put into it from another room or from +the outside of the house. He dwells upon the pleasure +of an open fire, and the destruction of this pleasure +by the use of the closed stoves. He also describes<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_204" id="PAGE_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> +the discomforts of the fireplace in cold weather—of +the “cold draught nipping one’s back and heels”—“scorched +before and frozen behind”—the sharp +draughts of cold from crevices from which many +catch cold and from “whence proceed coughs, +catarrhs, toothaches, fevers, pleurisies and many +other diseases.” Added to the pleasure of seeing the +crackling flames, feeling the genial warmth, and the +diffusion of a spirit of sociability and hospitality, is +the fact of increased purity of the air by reason of +the fireplace as a first-class ventilator. Hence it will +never be discarded by those who can afford its use; +but it alone is inadequate for heating and cooking +purposes. It is modernly used as a luxury by those +who are able to combine with it other means for +heating.</p> + +<p>The great question for solution in this art at all +times has been how to produce through dwelling +houses and larger buildings in cold and damp weather +a uniform distribution and circulation of pure +heated air. The solution of this question has of +course been greatly helped in modern times by a better +knowledge of the nature of air and other gases, +and the laws which govern their motions and combinations +at different temperatures.</p> + +<p>The most successful form of heating coal stove of +the century has been one that combined in itself the +features of base-burning: that is, a covered magazine +at the centre or back of the stove open at or near the +top of the stove into which the coal is placed, and +which then feeds to the bottom of the fire pot as fast +as the coal is consumed, a heavy open fire pot placed +as low as possible, an ash grate connected with the +bottom of the pot which can be shaken and dumped +to an ash box beneath without opening the stove, thus<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_205" id="PAGE_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> +preventing the escape of the dust, an illuminating +chamber nearly or entirely surrounding the fire pot, +provided with mica windows, through which the fire +is reflected and the heat radiated, a chamber above the +fire pot and surrounding the fuel chamber and into +which the heat and hot gases arise, producing additional +radiating surface and permitting the gases to +escape through a flue in the chimney, or, leading +them first through another chamber to the base of the +stove and thence out, and dampers to control and +regulate the supply of air to the fuel, and to cut off +the escape or control the course of the products of +combustion.</p> + +<p>The cheerful stove fireplace and stove of Franklin +and the French were revived, combined and improved +some years ago by Capt. Douglas Galton of +the English army for use in barracks, but this +stove is also admirably adapted for houses. It consists +of an open stove or grate set in or at the front +of the fireplace with an air inlet from without, the +throat of the fireplace closed and a pipe extending +through it from the stove into the chimney. Although +a steady flow of heat, desirable regulation of +temperature and great economy in the consumption +of fuel, by reason of the utilisation of so much of the +heat produced, were obtained by the modern stove, +yet the necessity of having a stove in nearly every +room, the ill-ventilation due to the non-supply of pure +outer air to the room, the occasional diffusion of +ash dust and noxious gases from the stove, and inability +to heat the air along the floor, gave rise to a +revival of the hot-air furnace, placed under the floor +in the basement or cellar, and many modern and radical +improvements therein.</p> + +<p>The heat obtained from stoves is effected by radia<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_206" id="PAGE_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>tion—the +throwing outward of the waves of heat +from its source, while the heat obtained from a hot-air +furnace is effected by convection—the moving +of a body of air to be heated to the source of heat, and +then when heated bodily conveyed to the room to be +warmed. Hence in stoves and fireplaces only such +obstruction is placed between the fire and the room +as will serve to convey away the obnoxious smoke and +gases, and the greatest facility is offered for radiation, +while in hot-air furnaces, although provision +is also made to carry away the smoke and impure +gases, yet the radiation is confined as closely as possible +to chambers around the fire space, which chambers +are protected by impervious linings from the +outer air, and into which fresh outdoor air is +introduced, then heated and conveyed to different +apartments by suitable pipes or flues, and admitted +or excluded, as desired, by registers operated by +hand levers.</p> + +<p>There are stationary furnaces and portable furnaces; +the former class enclose the heating apparatus +in walls of brick or other masonry, while in the +latter the outer casing and the inner parts are metal +structures, separable and removable. In both classes +an outer current of pure air is made to course around +the fire chamber and around among other flues and +chambers through which the products of combustion +are carried, so that all heat possible is utilised. +Vessels of water are supplied at the most convenient +place in one of the hot-air chambers to moisten and +temper the air, and dampers are placed in the pipes +to regulate and guide the supply of heat to the rooms +above.</p> + +<p>After Watt had invented his improvements on the +steam engine the idea occurred to him of using steam<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_207" id="PAGE_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> +for heating purposes. Accordingly, in 1784, he made +a hollow sheet-iron box of plates, and supplied it with +steam from the boiler of the establishment. It had an +air-escape cock, and condensed-water-escape pipe; +and in 1799 Boulton and Watt constructed a heating +apparatus in Lee’s factory, Manchester, in which the +steam was conducted through cast-iron pipes, which +also served as supports to the floor. Patents were +also taken out by others in England for steam-heating +apparatuses during the latter part of the 18th century.</p> + +<p>Heating by the circulation of hot water through +pipes was also originated or revived during the 18th +century, and a short time before Watt’s circulation +of steam. It is said that Bonnemain of England, in +1777, desiring to improve the ancient methods of +hatching poultry by artificial heat—practised by +both ancient and modern Egyptians ages before it +became a latter day wonder, and taught the Egyptians +by the ostriches—conceived the idea of constructing +quite a large incubator building with shelves for +the eggs, coops for holding the chickens, and a tube +for circulating hot water leading from a boiler below +and above each shelf, and through the coops, and +back to the boiler. This incubator contains the germs +of modern water heaters. In both the steam and +water heating systems the band or collection of pipes +in each room may be covered with ornamental radiating +plates, or otherwise treated or arranged to render +them sightly and effective. In one form of the hot-water +system, however, the collection of a mass of +pipes in the rooms is dispensed with, and the pipes +are massed in an air chamber over or adjacent to the +furnace, where they are employed to heat a current of +air introduced from the outside, and which heated<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_208" id="PAGE_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> +pure air is conveyed through the house by flues and +registers as in the hot-air furnace system.</p> + +<p>The hanging of the crane, the turning of the spit, +the roasting in ashes and on hot stones, the heating +of and the baking in the big “Dutch” ovens, and +some other forms of cooking by our forefathers had +their pleasures and advantages, and still are appreciated +under certain circumstances, and for certain +purposes, but are chiefly honoured in memory alone +and reverenced by disuse; while the modern cooking +stove with its roasting and hot water chambers, +its numerous seats over the fire for pots, pans, and +kettles, its easy means of controlling and directing +the heat, its rotating grate, and, when desired, its +rotating fire chamber, for turning the hot fire on top +to the bottom, and the cold choked fire to the top, its +cleanliness and thorough heat, its economy in the use +of fuel, is adopted everywhere, and all the glowing +names with which its makers and users christen it +fail to exaggerate its qualities when rightly made and +used.</p> + +<p>It would appear that the field of labour and the +number of labourers, chiefly those who toiled with +brick and mortar, were greatly reduced when those +huge fireplaces were so widely discarded. This +must have seemed so especially in those regions +where the houses were built up to meet the yearning +wants of an outside chimney, but armies of men are +engaged in civilised countries in making stoves and +furnaces, where three-quarters of a century ago very +few were so employed. As in every industrial art +old things pass away, but the new things come in +greater numbers, demand a greater number of workers, +develop new wants, new fields of labour, and the +new and increasing supply of consumers refuse to be +satisfied with old contrivances.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_209" id="PAGE_209">[Pg 209]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the United States alone there are between four +and five hundred stove and furnace foundries, in +which about ten thousand people are employed, and +more than three million stoves and furnaces produced +annually, which require nearly a million tons +of iron to make, and the value of which is estimated +as at least $100,000,000.</p> + +<p>The matter of <i>ventilation</i> is such a material part +of heating that it cannot escape attention. There +can be no successful heating without a circulation of +air currents, and fortunately for man in his house no +good fire can be had without an outflow of heat and +an inflow of cooler air. The more this circulation is +prevented the worse the fire and the ventilation.</p> + +<p>It seems to many such a simple thing, this change +of air—only to keep open the window a little—to +have a fireplace, and convenient door. And +yet some of the brightest intellects of the century +have been engaged in devising means to accomplish +the result, and all are not yet agreed as to which is +the best way.</p> + +<p>How to remove the heated, vitiated air and to +supply fresh air while maintaining the same uniform +temperature is a problem of long standing. The history +of the attempts to heat and ventilate the Houses +of Parliament since Wren undertook it in 1660 has +justly been said to be history of the Art of Ventilation +since that time, as the most eminent scientific +authorities in the world have been engaged or consulted +in it, and the most exhaustive reports on the +subject have been rendered by such men as Gay-Lussac, +Sir Humphry Davy, Faraday and Dr. Arnott +of England and Gen. Morin of France. The +same may be said in regard to the Houses of Congress +in the United States Capitol for the past thirty-five<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_210" id="PAGE_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> +years. Prof. Henry, Dr. Billings, the architect, +Clark, of that country, and many other bright inventors +and men of ability have given the subject devoted +attention. Among the means for creating +ventilation are underground tunnels leading to the +outer air, with fans in them to force the fresh air in +or draw the poor air out, holes in the ceiling, fire +places, openings over the doors, openings under the +eaves, openings in the window frames, shafts from +the floor or basement with fires or gas jets to create +an upward draught, floors with screened openings to +the outer air, steam engines to work a suction pipe +in one place and a blow pipe in another, air boxes +communicating with the outer air, screens, hoods, +and deflectors at these various openings,—all these, +separately or in combination, have been used for the +purpose of drawing the vitiated air out and letting +the pure air in without creating draughts to chill the +sensitive, or overheating to excite the nervous.</p> + +<p>There seems to have been as many devices invented +to keep a house or building closed up tight +while highly heating it, as to ventilate the same and +preserve an even, moderate temperature.</p> + +<p>The most approved system of ventilation recognises +the fact that air is of the same weight and is +possessed of the same constituents in one part of a +room as at another, and to create a perfect ventilation +a complete change and circulation must take +place. It therefore creates a draught, arising from +the production of a vacuum by a current of heat or +by mechanical means, or by some other way, which +draws out of a room the used up, vitiated air through +outlets at different places, while pure outer air is admitted +naturally, or forced in if need be, through +numerous small inlets, such outlets and inlets so located +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_211" id="PAGE_211">[Pg 211]</a></span>and distributed and protected as not to give +rise to sensible draughts on the occupants.</p> + +<p>The best system also recognises the fact that all +parts of a house, its cellars and attic, its parlours +and kitchens, its closets, bathrooms and chambers, +should be alike clean and well ventilated, and that if +one room is infected all are infected.</p> + +<p>The laurels bestowed on inventors are no more +worthily bestowed than on those who have invented +devices which give to our homes, offices, churches and +places of amusement a pure and comfortable atmosphere.</p> + +<p><i>Car Heaters.</i>—The passing away of the good old +portable foot stove for warming the feet, especially +when away from home, and while travelling, is not +to be regretted, although in some instances it was +not at first succeeded by superior devices. For a +long time after the introduction of steam, railroad +cars and carriages, in which any heat at all was used, +were heated by a stove in each car—generally kept +full of red hot coal or wood—an exceedingly dangerous +companion in case of accident. Since 1871 +systems have been invented and introduced, the +most successful of which consists of utilising the +heat of the steam from the locomotive for producing +a hot-water circulation through pipes along the +floor of each car, and in providing an emergency +heater in each car for heating the water when steam +from the locomotive is not available.</p> + +<p><i>Grass-burning Stoves.</i>—There are many places in +this world where neither wood nor coal abound, or +where the same are very scarce, but where waste grass +and weeds, waste hay and straw, and similar combustible +refuse are found in great abundance. +Stoves have been invented especially designed for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_212" id="PAGE_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> +economical consumption of such fuel. One requisite +is that such light material should be held in a compressed +state while in the stove to prevent a too rapid +combustion. Means for so holding the material under +compression appear to have been first invented +and patented by Hamilton of America in 1874.</p> + +<p>Some means besides the sickle and scythe, hoe +and plough, were wanted to destroy obnoxious standing +grass and weeds. A weed like the Russian +thistle, for instance, will defy all usual means for its +extermination. A fire chamber has been invented +which when drawn over the ground will burn a swath +as it advances, and it is provided with means, such as +a wide flange on the end of the chamber, which extinguishes +the fire and prevents its spreading beyond +the path. A similar stove with jets of flame from +vapour burners has been used to soften hard asphalt +pavement when it is desired to take it up.</p> + +<p>The art of heating and cooking by oil, vapour and +gas stoves is one that has arisen during the latter half +of this century, and has become the subject of a vast +number of inventions and extensive industries. +Stoves of this character are as efficient and economical +as coal stoves, and are in great demand, especially +where coal and wood are scarce and high-priced.</p> + +<p><i>Oil stoves</i> as first invented consisted of almost the +ordinary lamp, without the glass shade set in the +stove and were similar to gas stoves. But these were +objectionable on account of the fumes emitted. By +later inventions the lamp has been greatly improved. +The wick is arranged within tubular sliding cylinders +so as to be separated from the other parts of the stove +when it is not lit, and better regulating devices +adopted, whereby the oil is prevented from spreading +from the wick on to the other parts of the stove,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_213" id="PAGE_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> +which give rise to obnoxious fumes by evaporation +and heating. Some recent inventors have dispensed +with the wick altogether and the oil is burned practically +like vapour. <i>Gasoline</i>, and other heavy oily +vapours are in many stoves first vapourised by a preliminary +heating in a chamber before the gas is ignited +for use. These vapours are then conducted by +separate jets to different points in the stove where +the heat is to be applied. The danger and unpleasant +flame and smoke arising from this vapourising +in the stove have been obviated by inventions which +vapourise the fuel by other means, as by carbonating, +or loading the air with the vapour in an elevated +chamber and conducting the saturated air to +the burners; or by agitation, by means of a quick-acting, +small, but powerful fan.</p> + +<p><i>Sterilising.</i>—The recent scientific discoveries and +investigations of injurious bacteria rendered it desirable +to purify water by other means than filtering, +especially for the treatment of disease-infected localities; +and this gave rise to the invention of a system +of heat sterilising and filtering the water, in one +process, and out of contact with the germ-laden air, +thus destroying the bacteria and delivering the water +in as pure and wholesome condition as possible. West +in 1892 patented such a system.</p> + +<p><i>Electric Heating and Cooking.</i>—Reference has already +been made in the Chapter on Electricity to the +use of that agent in heating and cooking. The use +of the electric current for these purposes has been +found to be perfectly practical, and for heating cars +especially, where electricity is the motive power, a +portion of the current is economically employed.</p> + +<p>The art of heating and cooking naturally suggests +the other end of the line of temperature—<i>Refrigeration</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_214" id="PAGE_214">[Pg 214]</a></span></p> + +<p>A refrigeration by which ordinary ice is artificially +produced, perishable food of all kinds preserved for +long times, and transported for great distances, +which has proved an immense advantage to mankind +everywhere and is still daily practised to the gratification +and comfort of millions of men, must receive +at least a passing notice. The Messrs. E. and F. +Carré of France invented successful machines about +1870 for making ice by the rapid absorption and +evaporation of heat by the ammonia process. The +discoveries and inventions of others in the artificial +production of cold by means of volatile liquids, +whether for the making of ice or other purposes, constituted +a great step in the art of refrigeration.</p> + +<p>Vaporisation, absorption, compression or reduction +of atmospheric pressure are the principal methods +of producing cold. By vaporisation, water, +ether, sulphuric acid, ammonia, etc., in assuming the +vaporous form change sensible heat to latent heat +and produce a degree of cold which freezes an adjacent +body of water. The principle of making ice +by evaporation and absorption may be illustrated +by two examples of the Carré methods:—It is well +known what a great attraction sulphuric acid has for +water. Water to be frozen is placed in a vessel connected +by a pipe to a reservoir containing sulphuric +acid. A vacuum is produced in this reservoir by the +use of an air pump, while the acid is being constantly +stirred. Lessening of the atmospheric pressure upon +water causes its evaporation, and as the vapour is +quietly absorbed by the sulphuric acid the water is +quickly congealed. It is known that ammonia can +be condensed into liquid form by pressure or cold, +and is absorbed by and soluble in water to an extraordinary +degree. A generator containing a strong so<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_215" id="PAGE_215">[Pg 215]</a></span>lution +of ammonia is connected by a pipe to an empty +receiver immersed in cold water. The ammonia +generator is then heated, its vapour driven off and +conducted to a jacket around the centre of the receiver +and is there condensed by pressure of an air +pump. The central cylindrical space in the receiver +is now filled with water, and the operation is +reversed. The generator is immersed in cold water +and pressure on the liquid ammonia removed. The +liquid ammonia now passes into the gaseous state, +and is conducted to and reabsorbed by the water in +the generator. But in this evaporation great cold +is produced and the water in the receiver is soon +frozen.</p> + +<p>Twining’s inventions in the United States in 1853 +and 1862 of the compression machine, followed by +Pictet of France, and a number of improvements +elsewhere have bid fair to displace the absorption +method. In dispensing with absorption these machines +proceed on the now well-established theory +that air and many other gases become heated when +compressed; that this heat can then be drawn away, +and that when the gas is allowed to re-expand it +will absorb a large amount of heat from any solid or +fluid with which it is brought in contact, and so +freeze it. Accordingly such machines are so constructed +that by the operation of a piston, or pistons, +in a cylinder, and actuated by steam or other motive +power, the air or gas is compressed to the desired +temperature, the heat led off and the cold vapour conducted +through pipes and around chambers where +water is placed and where it is frozen. By the best +machines from five hundred to one thousand pounds +of ice an hour are produced.</p> + +<p>The art of refrigeration and of modern transpor<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_216" id="PAGE_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>tation +have brought the fruits of the tropics in great +abundance to the doors of the dwellers of the north, +and from the shores of the Pacific to the Atlantic +and across the Atlantic to Europe. A train of refrigerator +cars in California laden with delicious +assorted fruits, and provided with fan blowers +driven by the car axles to force the air through ice +chambers, from whence it is distributed by perforated +pipes through the fruit chambers, and wherein +the temperature is maintained at about 40° Fah., can +be landed in New York four days after starting on +its journey of 3,000 miles, with the fruits in perfect +condition.</p> + +<p>But the public is still excited and wondering over +the new king of refrigeration—<i>liquid air</i>.</p> + +<p>As has been stated, the compression of air to produce +cold is a modern discovery applied to practical +uses, and prominent among the inventors and +discoverers in this line have been Prof. Dewar and +Charles E. Tripler.</p> + +<p>Air may be compressed and heat generated in the +process withdrawn until the temperature of the air +is reduced to 312° below zero, at which point the air +is visible and to a certain extent assumes a peculiar +material form, in which form it can be confined in +suitable vessels and used as a refrigerant and as a +motor of great power when permitted to re-expand. +It is said that it was not so long ago when Prof. +Dewar produced the first ounce of liquid air at a +cost of $3,000, but that now Mr. Tripler claims that +he can produce it by his apparatus for five cents a +gallon.</p> + +<p>Refrigeration is at present its most natural and +obvious use, and it is claimed that eleven gallons of +the material when gradually expanded has the refrig<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_217" id="PAGE_217">[Pg 217]</a></span>erating +power of one ton of ice. Its use of course +for all purposes for which cold can be used is thus +assured. It is also to be used as a motor in the running +of various kinds of engines. It is to be used +as a great alleviator of human suffering in lowering +and regulating the temperature of hospitals in hot +weather, and in surgical operations as a substitute +for anæsthetics and cauterising agents.</p> + +<p>It was one of the marvellous attractions at the +great Paris Exposition of 1900.</p> + +<p>Lighting is closely allied to the various subjects +herein considered, but consideration of the various +modes and kinds of lamps for lighting will be reserved +for the Chapter on Furniture for Houses, etc.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_218" id="PAGE_218">[Pg 218]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +METALLURGY.</span></h2> + +<p class="poem"> +<span class="line">“Nigh on the plain, in many cells prepared,<br></span> +<span class="line">That underneath had veins of liquid fire<br></span> +<span class="line">Sluiced from the lake, a second multitude<br></span> +<span class="line">With wondrous art founded the massy ore;<br></span> +<span class="line">Severing each kind, and scumm’d the bullion dross;<br></span> +<span class="line">A third as soon had formed within the ground<br></span> +<span class="line">A various mould, and from the boiling cells<br></span> +<span class="line">By strange conveyance fill’d each hollow nook;<br></span> +<span class="line">As in an organ, from one blast of wind,<br></span> +<span class="line">To many a row of pipes the sound board breathes.”<br></span> +<br> +<span class="right">—<i>Paradise Lost.</i></span> +</p> + + +<p>Ever since those perished races of men who left +no other record but that engraven in rude emblems on +the rocks, or no other signs of their existence but in +the broken tools found buried deep among the solid +leaves of the crusted earth, ever since Tubal Cain +became “an instructor of every artificer in brass and +iron,” the art of smelting has been known. The +stone age flourished with implements furnished +ready-made by nature, or needing little shaping for +their use, but the ages of metal which followed required +the aid of fire directed by the hand of man to +provide the tool of iron or bronze.</p> + +<p>The Greeks claimed that the discovery of iron was +theirs, and was made at the burning of a forest on +the mountains of Ida in Crete, about 1500 B. C., +when the ore contained in the rocks or soil on which +the forest stood was melted, cleansed of its impurities, +and then collected and hammered. Archeolo<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_219" id="PAGE_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>gists +have deprived the Greeks of this gift, and carried +back its origin to remoter ages and localities.</p> + +<p>Man first discovered by observation or accident +that certain stones were melted or softened by fire, +and that the product could be hammered and shaped. +They learned by experience that the melting could +be done more effectually when the fuel and the ore +were mixed and enclosed by a wall of stone; that the +fire and heat could be alone started and maintained +by blowing air into the fuel—and they constructed a +rude bellows for this purpose. Finding that the +melted metal sank through the mass of consumed +fuel, they constructed a stone hearth on which to +receive it. Thus were the first crude furnace and +hearth invented.</p> + +<p>As to gold, silver and lead, they doubtless were +found first in their native state and mixed with other +ores and were hammered into the desired shapes with +the hardest stone implements.</p> + +<p>That copper and tin combined would make bronze +was a more complex proceeding and probably followed +instead of preceding, as has sometimes been +alleged, the making of iron tools. That bronze relics +were found apparently of anterior manufacture to +any made of iron, was doubtless due to the destruction +of the iron by that great consumer—oxygen.</p> + +<p>What was very anciently called “brass” was no +doubt gold-coloured copper; for what is modernly +known as brass was not made until after the discovery +of zinc in the 16th century and its combination +with copper.</p> + +<p>Among the “lost arts” re-discovered in later ages +are those which supplied the earliest cities with ornamented +vessels of gold and copper, swords of steel +that bent and sprung like whalebones, castings that<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_220" id="PAGE_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> +had known no tool to shape their contour and embellishments, +and monuments and tablets of steel and +brass which excite the wonder and admiration of the +best “artificers in brass and iron” of the present day.</p> + +<p>To understand and appreciate the advancements +that have been made in metallurgy in the nineteenth +century, it is necessary to know, in outline at least, +what before had been developed.</p> + +<p>The earliest form of a smelting furnace of historic +days, such as used by the ancient Egyptians, +Hebrews, and probably by the Hindoos and other ancient +peoples, and still used in Asia, is thus described +by Dr. Ure:</p> + +<p>“The furnace or bloomary in which the ore is +smelted is from 4 to 5 feet high; it is somewhat pear-shaped, +being about 5 feet wide at bottom and 1 at +top. It is built entirely of clay. There is an opening +in front about a foot or more in height which is +filled with clay at the commencement, and broken +down at the end of each smelting operation. The +bellows are usually made of two goatskins with bamboo +nozzles, which are inserted into tubes of clay +that pass into the furnace. The furnace is filled +with charcoal, and a lighted coal being introduced before +the nozzle, the mass in the interior is soon kindled. +As soon as this is accomplished, a small portion +of the ore previously moistened with water to +prevent it from running through the charcoal, but +without any flux whatever, is laid on top of the coals, +and covered with charcoal to fill up the furnace. In +this manner ore and fuel are supplied and the bellows +urged for three or four hours. When the +process is stopped and the temporary wall in front +broken down the bloom is removed with a pair of +tongs from the bottom of the furnace.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_221" id="PAGE_221">[Pg 221]</a></span></p> + +<p>This smelting was then followed by hammering to +further separate the slag, and probably after a reheating +to increase the malleability.</p> + +<p>It will be noticed that in this earliest process pure +carbon was used as a fuel, and a blast of air to keep +the fire at a great heat was employed. To what extent +this carbon and air blast, and the mixing and remixing +with other ingredients, and reheating and rehammering, +may have been employed in various instances +to modify the conditions and render the +metal malleable and more or less like modern steel, +is not known, but that an excellent quality of iron resembling +modern steel was often produced by this +simple mode of manufacture by different peoples, is +undoubtedly the fact. Steel after all is iron with a +little more carbon in it than in the usual iron in the +smelting furnace, to render it harder, and a little less +carbon than in cast or moulded iron to render it malleable, +and in both conditions was produced from +time immemorial, either by accident or design.</p> + +<p>It was with such a furnace probably that India +produced her keen-edged weapons that would cut a +web of gossamer, and Damascus its flashing blades—the +synonym of elastic strength.</p> + +<p>Africa, when its most barbarous tribes were first +discovered, was making various useful articles of +iron. Its earliest modes of manufacture were +doubtless still followed when Dr. Livingstone explored +the interior, as they now also are. He thus describes +their furnaces and iron: “At every third or fourth +village (in the regions near Lake Nyassa) we saw a +kiln-looking structure, about 6 feet high and 2½ feet +in diameter. It is a clay fire-hardened furnace for +smelting iron. No flux is used, whether with specular +iron, the yellow hematite, or magnetic ore,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_222" id="PAGE_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> +and yet capital metal is produced. Native manufactured +iron is so good that the natives declare English +iron “rotten” in comparison, and specimens of +African hoes were pronounced at Birmingham +nearly equal to the best Swedish iron.” The natives +of India, the Hottentots, the early Britons, the +Chinese, the savages of North and South America, as +discovery or research brought their labours to light, +or uncovered the monuments of their earliest life, +were shown to be acquainted with similar simple +forms of smelting furnaces.</p> + +<p>Early Spain produced a furnace which was +adopted by the whole of Europe as fast as it became +known. It was the Catalan furnace, so named from +the province of Catalonia, where it probably first +originated, and it is still so known and extensively +used. “It consists of a four-sided cavity or hearth, +which is always placed within a building and separated +from the main wall thereof by a thinner interior +wall, which in part constitutes one side of the +furnace. The blast pipe comes through the wall, +and enters the fire through a flue which slants downward. +The bottom is formed of a refractory stone, +which is renewable. The furnace has no chimneys. +The blast is produced by means of a fall of water +usually from 22 to 27 feet high, through a rectangular +tube, into a rectangular cistern below, to whose +upper part the blast pipe is connected, the water escaping +through a pipe below. This apparatus is exterior +to the building, and is said to afford a continuous +blast of great regularity; the air, when it +passes into the furnace, is, however, saturated with +moisture.”—<i>Knight.</i></p> + +<p>No doubt in such a heat was formed the metal +from which was shaped the armour of Don Quixote +and his prototypes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_223" id="PAGE_223">[Pg 223]</a></span></p> + +<p>Bell in his history of Metallurgy tells us that the +manufacture of malleable iron must have fallen into +decadence in England, especially before the reign of +Elizabeth and Charles I., as no furnaces equal even +to the Catalan had for a long time been in use; and +the architectural iron column found in ancient Delhi, +16 inches in diameter, about 48 feet long and calculated +to weigh about 17 tons, could not have been +formed by any means known in England in the sixteenth +century. This decadence was in part due to +the severe laws enacted against the destruction of +forests, and most of the iron was then brought to +England from Germany and other countries.</p> + +<p>From time immemorial the manufacture of iron +and steel has been followed in Germany, and that +country yet retains pre-eminence in this art both as to +mechanical and chemical processes. It was in the +eighteenth century that the celebrated Freiberg Mining +Academy was founded, the oldest of all existing +mining schools; and based on developing mining and +metallurgy on scientific lines, it has stood always on +the battle line in the fight of progress.</p> + +<p>The early smelting furnaces of Germany resembled +the Catalan, and were called the “Stückofen,” +and in Sweden were known as the “Osmund.” +In these very pure iron was made.</p> + +<p>The art of making cast iron, which differs from +the ordinary smelted iron in the fact that it is +<i>melted</i> and then run into moulds, although known +among the ancients more than forty centuries ago, as +shown by the castings of bronze and brass described +by their writers and recovered from their ruins, appears +to have been forgotten long before the darkness +of the middle ages gathered. There is no record +of its practice from the time the elder Pliny de<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_224" id="PAGE_224">[Pg 224]</a></span>scribed +its former use (40-79 A. D.), to the sixteenth +century. It is stated that then the lost art +was re-invented by Ralph Page and Peter Baude of +England in 1543—who in that year made cast-iron +in Sussex.</p> + +<p>The “Stückofen” furnace above referred to was +succeeded in Germany by higher ones called the +“Flossofen,” and these were followed by still higher +and larger ones called “Blauofen,” so that by the +middle of the eighteenth century the furnaces were +very capacious, the blast was good, and it had been +learned how to supply the furnaces with ore, coal and +lime-stone broken into small fragments. The lime was +added as a flux, and acted to unite with itself the +sand, clay and other impurities to form a slag or +scoria. The melted purified iron falling to the bottom +was drawn off through a hole tapped in the +furnace, and the molten metal ran into channels +in a bed of sand called the “Sow and pigs.” Hence +the name, “pig iron.”</p> + +<p>The smelting of ore by charcoal in those places +where carried on extensively required the use of a +vast amount of wood, and denuded the surrounding +lands of forests. So great was this loss felt that it +gave rise to the prohibitory laws and the decadence +in England of the manufacture of iron, already alluded +to. This turned the attention of iron smelters +to coal as a substitute. Patents were granted in England +for its use to several unsuccessful inventors. +Finally in 1619 Dud Dudley, a graduate of Oxford +University, and to whom succeeded his father’s iron +furnaces in Worcestershire, obtained a patent and +succeeded in producing several tons of iron per week +by the use of the pitcoal in a small blast furnace.</p> + +<p>This success inflamed the wood owners and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_225" id="PAGE_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> +charcoal burners and they destroyed Dudley’s +works. He met with other disasters common to +worthy inventors and discontinued his efforts to improve +the art.</p> + +<p>It is said that in 1664 Sir John Winter of England +made coke by burning sea coal in closed pots. +But this was not followed up, and the use of charcoal +and the destruction of the forests went on until +1735, when Abraham Darby of the Coalbrookdale +Iron Works at Shropshire, England, commenced to +treat the soft pit coal in the same way as wood is +treated in producing charcoal. He proposed to +burn the coal in a smouldering fire, to expel the +sulphur and other impurities existing in the form +of phosphorus, hydrogen and oxygen, etc. while +saving the carbon. The attempt was successful, +and thus <i>coke</i> was made. It was found cheaper and +superior to either coal or charcoal, and produced a +quicker fire and a greater heat. This was a wonderful +discovery, and was preserved as a trade secret +for a long time. It was referred to as a curiosity +in the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> in 1747. In +fact it was not introduced in America until a century +later, when in 1841 the soft coal abounding +around Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania and in the +neighbouring regions of Ohio was thus treated. +Even its use then was experimental, and did not +become a practical art in the United States until +about 1860.</p> + +<p>With the invention of coke came also the revival +of cast iron.</p> + +<p>The process of making cast steel was reinvented +in England by Benjamin Huntsman of Attercliff, +near Sheffield, about 1740. Between that time and +1770 he practised melting small pieces of “blis<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_226" id="PAGE_226">[Pg 226]</a></span>tered” +steel (iron bars which had been carbonised +by smelting in charcoal) in closed clay crucibles.</p> + +<p>In 1784 Henry Cort of England introduced the +puddling process and grooved rolls. Puddling had +been invented, but not successfully used before. The +term “puddling” originated in the covering of the +hearth of stones at the bottom of the furnace with +clay, which was made plastic by mixing the clay in +a puddle of water; and on which hearth the ore when +melted is received. When in this melted condition +Cort and others found that the metal was greatly +improved by stirring it with a long iron bar called +a “rabble,” and which was introduced through an +opening in the furnace. This stirring admitted air +to the mass and the oxygen consumed and expelled +the carbon, silicon, and other impurities. The +process was subsequently aided by the introduction +of pig iron broken into pieces and mixed with hammer-slag, +cinder, and ore. The mass is stirred from +side to side of the furnace until it comes to a boiling +point, when the stirring is increased in quickness +and violence until a pasty round mass is collected by +the puddler. As showing the value of Cort’s discovery +and the hard experience inventors sometimes +have, Fairbairn states that Cort “expended a fortune +of upward of £20,000 in perfecting his invention +for puddling iron and rolling it into +bars and plates; that he was robbed of the fruits of +his discoveries by the villainy of officials in a high +department of the government; and that he was +ultimately left to starve by the apathy and +selfishness of an ungrateful country. His inventions +conferred an amount of wealth on the country +equivalent to £600,000,000, and have given employment +to 600,000 of the working population of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_227" id="PAGE_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> +our land for the last three or four generations.” +This process of puddling lasted for about an +hour and a half and entailed extremely severe labour +on the workman.</p> + +<p>The invention of mechanical puddlers, hereinafter +referred to, consisting chiefly of rotating furnaces, +were among the beneficent developments of the nineteenth +century.</p> + +<p>Prior to Cort’s time the plastic lump or ball of +metal taken from the furnace was generally beaten +by hammers, but Cort’s grooved rollers pressed out +the mass into sheets.</p> + +<p>The improvements of the steam engine by Watt +greatly extended the manufacture of iron toward the +close of the 18th century, as powerful air blasts were +obtained by the use of such engines in place of the +blowers worked by man, the horse, or the ox.</p> + +<p>So far as the art of refining the precious metals +is concerned, as well as copper, tin and iron, it had +not, previous to this century, proceeded much beyond +the methods described in the most ancient +writings; and these included the refining in furnaces, +pots, and covered crucibles, and alloying, or +the mixture and fusion with other metals. Furnaces +to hold the crucibles, and made of iron cylinders +lined with fire brick, whereby the crucibles were subjected +to greater heat, were also known.</p> + +<p>The amalgamating process was also known to the +ancients, and Vitruvius (B. C. 27) and Pliny (A. +D. 79), describe how mercury was used for separating +gold from its impurities. Its use at gold and +silver mines was renewed extensively in the sixteenth +century.</p> + +<p>Thus we find that the eighteenth century closed +with the knowledge of the smelting furnaces of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_228" id="PAGE_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> +various kinds, of coke as a fuel in place of charcoal, +of furious air blasts driven by steam and other +power, of cast iron and cast steel, and of refining, +amalgamating, and compounding processes.</p> + +<p>Looking back, now, from the threshold of the nineteenth +century over the path we have thus traced, it +will be seen that what had been accomplished in +metallurgy was the result of the use of ready means +tested by prolonged trials, of experiments more or +less lucky in fields in which men were groping, of +inventions without the knowledge of the real properties +of the materials with which inventors were +working or of the unvarying laws which govern their +operations. They had accomplished much, but it +was the work mainly of empirics. The art preceding +the nineteenth century compared with what followed +is the difference between experience simply, and experience +when combined with hard thinking, which is +thus stated by Herschel: “Art is the application of +knowledge to a practical end. If the knowledge be +merely accumulated experience the art is empirical; +but if it is experience reasoned upon and brought under +general principles it assumes a higher character +and becomes a scientific art.”</p> + +<p>With the developments, discoveries and inventions +in the lines of steam, chemistry and electricity, as +elsewhere told, the impetus they gave to the exercise +of brain force in every field of nature at the outset +of the century, and with their practical aid, the +art of metallurgy soon began to expand to greater usefulness, +and finally to its present wonderful domain.</p> + +<p>The subject of metallurgy in this century soon +became scientifically treated and its operations +classified.</p> + +<p>Thus the physical character and metallic constit<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_229" id="PAGE_229">[Pg 229]</a></span>uents +of ores received the first consideration; then +the proper treatment to which the ores were to be +subjected for the purpose of extracting the metal—which +are either mechanical or chemical. The mechanical +processes designed to separate the ore from +its enclosing rock or other superfluous earthy matter +called <i>gangue</i> became known as <i>ore dressing</i> and +<i>ore concentrating</i>. These included mills with +rollers, and stamps operated by gravity, or steam, +for breaking up the ore rocks; abrasion apparatus +for comminuting the ore by rubbing the pieces of +ore under pressure; and smelting, or an equivalent +process, for melting the ore and driving off the impurities +by heat, etc. The chemical processes are +those by which the metal, whatever it may be, is +either dissolved or separated from other constituents +by either the application to the ore of certain +metallic solutions of certain acids, or by the fusion +of different ores or metals in substantially the old +styles of furnaces; or its precipitation by amalgamating, +or by electrolysis—the art of decomposing +metals by electricity.</p> + +<p>In the early decades of the century, by the help of +chemistry and physics, the nature of heat, carbon, +and oxygen, and the great affinity iron has for oxygen, +became better known; and particularly how in +the making of iron its behaviour is influenced by +the presence of carbon and other foreign constituents; +also how necessary to its perfect separation +was the proper elimination of the oxygen and carbon. +The use of manganese and other highly oxidisable +metals for this purpose was discovered.</p> + +<p>Among the earliest most notable inventions in +the century, in the manufacture of iron, was that +of Samuel B. Rogers of Glamorganshire, Wales, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_230" id="PAGE_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> +invented the iron floor for furnaces with a refractory +lining—a great improvement on Cort’s sand +floor, which gave too much silicon to the iron; and +the <i>hot air blast</i> by Neilson of Glasgow, Scotland, +patented in 1828. The latter consisted in the use +of heated air as the blast instead of cold air—whereby +ignition of the fuel was quickened, intensity +of the heat and the expulsion of oxygen and carbon +from the iron increased, and the operation shortened +and improved in every way. The patent was +infringed and assailed, but finally sustained by the +highest courts of England. It produced an immense +forward stride in the amount and quality of +iron manufactured.</p> + +<p>By the introduction of the hot air blast it became +practicable to use the hard anthracite coal as a fuel +where such coal abounded; and to use pig iron, scrap +iron, and refractory ore and metals with the fuel to +produce particular results. Furnaces were enlarged +to colossal dimensions, some being a hundred feet +high and capable of yielding 80 or 100 tons of metal +per day.</p> + +<p>The forms of furnaces and means for lining and +cooling the hearth and adjacent parts have received +great attention.</p> + +<p>The discovery that the flame escaping from the +throat of the blast furnace was nothing else than +burning carbon led Faber du Faur at Wasseralfugen +in 1837 to invent the successful and highly valuable +method of utilising the unburnt gas from the blast +furnace for heating purposes, and to heat the blast +itself, and drive the steam engine that blew the blast +into the furnace, without the consumption of additional +fuel. This also led to the invention of separate +gas producers. Bunsen in 1838 made his first<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_231" id="PAGE_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> +experiments at Hesse in collecting the gases from +various parts of the furnace, revealing their composition +and showing their adaptability for various +purposes. Thus, from a scientific knowledge of the +constituents of ores and of furnace gases, calculations +could be made in advance as to the materials +required to make pig iron, cast iron, and steel of +particular qualities.</p> + +<p>In the process of puddling difficulty had been +experienced in handling the bloom or ball after it +was formed in the furnace. A sort of squeezing apparatus, +or tongs, called the alligator, had been employed.</p> + +<p>In 1840 Henry Burden of America invented +and patented a method and means for treating these +balls, whereby the same were taken directly from +the furnace and passed between two plain converging +metal surfaces, by which the balls were gradually +but quickly pressed and squeezed into a cylindrical +form, while a large portion of the cinders and other +foreign impurities were pressed out.</p> + +<p>We have described how by Cort’s puddling process +tremendous labour was imposed on the workmen in +stirring the molten metal by hand with “rabbles.” +A number of mechanical puddlers were invented to +take the place of these hand means, but the most +important invention in this direction was the revolving +puddlers of Beadlestone, patented in 1857 +in England, and of Heaton, Allen and Yates, in +1867-68. The most successful, however, was that +of Danks of the United States in 1868-69. The +Danks rotary puddler is a barrel-shaped, refractory +lined vessel, having a chamber and fire grate and +rotated by steam, into which pig iron formed by the +ordinary blast furnaces, and then pulverised, is<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_232" id="PAGE_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> +placed, with the fuel. Molten metal from the furnace +is then run in, which together with the fuel is +then subjected to a strong blast. Successive charges +may be made, and at the proper time the puddler +is rotated, slowly at some stages and faster at others, +until the operation is completed. A much more +thorough and satisfactory result in the production +of a pure malleable iron is thus obtained than is +possible by hand puddling.</p> + +<p>But the greatest improvements in puddling, and in +the production of steel from iron, and which have +produced greater commercial results than any other +inventions of the century relating to metallurgy, +were the inventions of Henry Bessemer of Hertfordshire, +England, from 1855 to 1860. In place of +the puddling “rabbles” to stir the molten metal, or +<i>matte</i>, as it is called, while the air blast enters to +oxidise it, he first introduced the molten metal from +the furnace into an immense egg-shaped vessel lined +with quartzose, and hung in an inclined position on +trunnions, or melted the metal in such vessel, and +then dividing the air blast into streams forced with +great pressure each separate stream through an opening +in the bottom of the vessel into the molten mass, +thus making each stream of driven air a rabble; and +they together blew and lifted the white mass into a +huge, surging, sun-bright fountain. The effect of +this was to burn out the impurities, silicon, carbon, +sulphur, and phosphorus, leaving the mass a pure +soft iron. If steel was wanted a small amount of +carbon, usually in the form of spiegeleisen, was introduced +into the converter before the process was +complete.</p> + +<p>A. L. Holley of the United States improved the +Bessemer apparatus by enabling a greater number of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_233" id="PAGE_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> +charges to be converted into steel within a given +time.</p> + +<p>Sir Henry Bessemer has lived to gain great fortunes +by his inventions, to see them afford new fields +of labour for armies of men, and to increase the riches +of nations, from whom he has received deserved +honours.</p> + +<p>The Bessemer process led to renewed investigations +and discoveries as to heat and its utilisation, +the constituents of different metals and their decomposition, +and as to the parts played by carbon, +silicon, and phosphorus. The carbon introduced by +the charge of pig iron in the Bessemer process was +at first supposed to be necessary to produce the greatest +heat, but this was found to be a mistake; and +phosphorus, which had been regarded as a great +enemy of iron, to be eliminated in every way, was +found to be a valuable constituent, and was retained +or added to make phosphorus steel.</p> + +<p>The Bessemer process has been modified in various +ways: by changing the mode of introducing the +blast from the bottom of the converter to the sides +thereof, and admitting the blast more slowly at +certain stages; by changing the character of the pig +iron and fuel to be treated; and by changing the +shape and operation of the converters, making them +cylindrical and rotary, for instance.</p> + +<p>The Bessemer process is now largely used in +treating copper. By this method the blowing +through the molten metal of a blast of air largely +removes sulphur and other impurities.</p> + +<p>The principles of reduction by the old style furnaces +and methods we have described have been revived +and combined with improvements. For instance, +the old Catalan style of furnace has been re<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_234" id="PAGE_234">[Pg 234]</a></span>tained +to smelt the iron, but in one method the iron is +withdrawn before it is reduced completely and introduced +into another furnace, where, mixed with +further reducing ingredients, a better result by far +is produced with less labour.</p> + +<p>It would be a long list that would name the +modern discoverers and inventors of the century +in the manufacture of iron and steel. But eminent +in the list, in addition to Davy and Bessemer, and +others already mentioned, are Mushet, Sir L. Bell, +Percy, Blomfield, Beasley, Giers and Snellus of +England; Martin, Chennot, Du Motay, Pernot and +Gruner of France; Lohage, Dr. C. L. Siemens and +Höpfer of Germany; Prof Sarnstrom and Akerman +of Sweden; Turner of Austria; and Holley, Slade, +Blair, Jones, Sellers, Clapp, Griffiths and Eames +of the United States.</p> + +<p>Some of the new metals discovered in the last century +have in this century been combined with iron +to make harder steel. Thus we have nickel, chromium, +and tungsten steel. Processes for hardening +steel, as the “Harveyized” steel, have given rise to +a contest between “irresistible” projectiles and +“impenetrable” armour plate.</p> + +<p>If there are some who regard modern discoveries +and inventions in iron and steel as lessening the +number of workmen and cheapening the product too +much, thus causing trouble due to labour-saving +machinery, let them glance, among other great works +in the world, at Krupp’s at Essen, where on January +1st, 1899, 41,750 persons were employed, and at +which works during the previous year 1,199,610 tons +of coal and coke were consumed, or about 4000 tons +daily. Workers in iron will not be out of employment +in the United States, where 16,000,000 tons of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_235" id="PAGE_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> +coke are produced annually, 196,405,953 tons of +coal mined, 11,000,000 tons of pig iron and about +9,000,000 tons of steel made. The increase of population +within the last hundred years bears no comparison +with this enormous increase in iron and fuel. +It shows that as inventions multiply, so does the demand +for their better and cheaper products increase.</p> + +<p>As the other metals, gold, silver, copper and +lead often occur together, and in the same deposits +with iron, the same general modes of treatment +to extract them are often applied. These are known +as the dry and the wet methods, and electro-reduction.</p> + +<p>Ever since Mammon bowed his head in search for +gold, every means that the mind of man could suggest +to obtain it have been tried, but the devices of this +century have been more numerous and more successful +than any before. The ancient methods of simply +melting and “skimming the bullion dross” have +been superseded. Modern methods may be divided +into two general classes, the mechanical and the +chemical. Of the former methods, when gold was +found loose in sand or gravel, washing was the +earliest and most universally practised, and was +called panning. In this method mercury is often used +to take up and secure the fine gold. Rockers like a +child’s cradle, into which the dirt is shovelled and +washed over retaining riffles, were used; coarse-haired +blankets and hides; sluices and separators, with or +without quicksilver linings to catch the gold; and +powerful streams of water worked by compressed +air to tear down the banks. Where water could not +be obtained the ore and soil were pulverised and +dried, and then thrown against the wind or a blast +of air, and the heavier gold, falling before the +lighter dust, was caught on hides or blankets. For<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_236" id="PAGE_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> +the crushing of the quartz in which gold was found, +innumerable inventions in stamp mills, rollers, crushers, +abraders, pulverisers and amalgamators have been +invented; and so with roasters, and furnaces, and crucibles +to melt the precious metal, separate the remaining +impurities and convert it to use.</p> + +<p>As to chemical methods for the precious metals, +the process of <i>lixiviation</i>, or <i>leaching</i>, by which the +ore is washed out by a solution of potash, or with +dilute sulphuric acid, or boiling with concentrated +sulphuric acid, is quite modern. About 1889 came +out the great cyanide process, also known as the MacArthur-Forrest +process (they being the first to obtain +patents and introduce the invention), consisting of +the use of cyanide potassium in solution, which dissolves +the gold, and which is then precipitated by the +employment of zinc. This process is best adapted +to what are known as free milling or porous ores, +where the gold is free and very fine and is attracted +readily by mercury.</p> + +<p>In 1807, Sir Humphry Davy discovered the metal +potassium by subjecting moistened potash to the +action of a powerful voltaic battery; the positive +pole gave off oxygen and the metallic globules of pure +potassium appeared at the negative pole. It is +never found uncombined in nature. Now if potassium +is heated in cyanogen gas (a gas procured by +heating mercury) or obtained on a large scale by the +decomposition of yellow prussiate of potash, a white +crystalline body very soluble in water, and exceedingly +poisonous, is obtained. When gold, for instance, +obtained by pulverising the ore, or found free +in sand, is treated to such a solution it is dissolved +from its surrounding constituents and precipitated +by the zinc, as before stated.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_237" id="PAGE_237">[Pg 237]</a></span></p> + +<p>Chlorine is another metal discovered by Scheele +in 1774, but not known as an elementary element +until so established by Davy’s investigations in 1810, +when he gave it the name it now bears, from the +Greek <i>chloras</i>, yellowish green. It is found abundantly +in the mineral world in combination with common +salt. Now it was found that chlorine is one of +the most energetic of bodies, surpassing even oxygen +under some circumstances, and that a chlorine solution +will readily dissolve gold.</p> + +<p>These, the cyanide and chlorination processes, +have almost entirely superseded the old washing and +amalgamating methods of treating free gold—and +the cyanide seems to be now taking the lead.</p> + +<p><i>Alloys.</i>—The art of fusing different metals to +make new compounds, although always practised, +has been greatly advanced by the discoverers and +inventors of the century. As we have seen, amalgamating +to extract gold and silver, and the making +of bronze from tin and copper were very early followed. +One of the most notable and useful of modern +inventions or improvements of the kind was that +of Isaac Babbitt of Boston in 1839, who in that +year obtained patents for what ever since has been +known as “babbitting.” The great and undesirable +friction produced by the rubbing of the ends of +journals and shafts in their bearings of the same +metal, cast or wrought iron, amounting to one-fifth +of the amount of power exerted to turn them, had +long been experienced. Lubricants of all kinds had +been and are used; but Babbitt’s invention was an +anti-friction metal. It is composed of tin, antimony, +and copper, and although the proportions and ingredients +have since been varied, the whole art is +still known as babbitting.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_238" id="PAGE_238">[Pg 238]</a></span></p> + +<p>Other successful alloys have been made for gun +metal, sheathing of ships, horseshoes, organ pipes, +plough shares, roofing, eyelets, projectiles, faucets, +and many and various articles of hardware, ornamental +ware, and jewelry.</p> + +<p>Valuable metals, such as were not always rare or +scarce, but very hard to reduce, have been rendered +far less in cost of production and more extensive in +use by modern processes. Thus, aluminium, an +abundant element in rocks and clay, discovered by +the German chemist Wöhler, in 1827, a precious +metal, so light, bright, and tough, non-oxidizing, +harder than zinc, more sonorous than silver, malleable +and ductile as iron, and more tenacious, has +been brought to the front from an expensive and +mere laboratory production to common and useful +purposes in all the arts by the processes commencing +in 1854 with that of St. Clair Deoville, of France, +followed by those of H. Rose, Morin, Castner, Tissier, +Hall, and others.</p> + +<p><i>Electro-metallurgy</i>, so far, has chiefly to do with +the decomposition of metals by the electric current, +and the production of very high temperatures for +furnaces, by which the most refractory ores, metals, +and other substances may be melted, and results +produced not obtainable in any other way. By placing +certain mixtures of carbon and sand, or of carbon +and clay, between the terminals of a powerful +current, a material resembling diamonds, but harder, +has been produced. It has been named carbonundrum. +The production of diamonds themselves is looked for. +Steel wire is now tempered and annealed +by electricity, as well as welding done, of which +mention further on will be made.</p> + +<p>Thus we have seen how the birth of ideas of for<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_239" id="PAGE_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>mer +generations has given rise in the present age to +children of a larger growth. Arts have grown only +as machinery for the accomplishment of their objects +has developed, and machinery has waited on the development +of the metals composing it. The civilisation +of to-day would not have been possible if the successors +of Tubal Cain had not been like him, instructors +“of every artificer in brass and iron.”</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_240" id="PAGE_240">[Pg 240]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +METAL WORKING.</span></h2> + + +<p>We referred in the last chapter to the fact that +metal when it came from the melting and puddling +furnace was formerly rolled into sheets; but, when +the manufacturers and consumers got these sheets +then came the severe, laborious work by hand of cutting, +hammering, boring, shaping and fitting the +parts for use and securing them in place.</p> + +<p>It is one of the glories of this century that metal-working +tools and machinery have been invented that +take the metal from its inception, mould and adapt +it to man’s will in every situation with an infinite +saving of time and labour, and with a perfection and +uniformity of operation entirely impossible by +hand.</p> + +<p>Although the tools for boring holes in wood, such +as the gimlet, auger, and the lathe to hold, turn and +guide the article to be operated on by the tool, are +common in some respects with those for drilling and +turning metal, yet, the adaptation to use with metal +constitutes a class of metal-working appliances distinct +in themselves, and with some exceptions not interchangeable +with wood-working utensils. The +metal-working tools and machines forming the subject +of this chapter are not those which from time immemorial +have been used to pierce, hammer, cut, and +shape metals, directed by the eye and hand of man,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_241" id="PAGE_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> +but rather those invented to take the place of the +hand and eye and be operated by other powers.</p> + +<p>It needs other than manual power to subdue the +metals to the present wants of man, and until those +modern motor powers, such as steam, compressed +air, gas and electricity, and modern hydraulic machinery, +were developed, automatic machine tools to +any extent were not invented. So, too, the tools that +are designed to operate on hard metal should themselves +be of the best metal, and until modern inventors +rediscovered the art of making cast steel such +tools were not obtainable. The monuments and +records of ancient and departed races show that it +was known by them how to bore holes in wood, stone +and glass by some sharp instruments turned by hand, +or it may be by leather cords, as a top is turned.</p> + +<p><i>The lathe</i>, a machine to hold an object, and at +the same time revolve it while it is formed by the +hand, or cut by a tool, is as old as the art of pottery, +and is illustrated in the oldest Egyptian monuments, +in which the god Ptah is shown in the act of +moulding man upon the throwing wheel. It is a +device as necessary to the industrial growth of man as +the axe or the spade. Its use by the Egyptians appears +to have been confined to pottery, but the ancient +Greeks, Chinese, Africans, and Hindoos used lathes, +for wood working in which the work was suspended +on horizontal supports, and adapted to be rotated by +means of a rope and treadle and a spring bar, impelled +by the operator as he held the cutting tool on +the object. Joseph Holtzapffel in his learned work +on <i>Turning and Mechanical Manipulation</i>, gives a +list of old publications describing lathes for +turning both wood and metal. Among these is +Hartman Schapper’s book published at Frankfort, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_242" id="PAGE_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> +1548. A lathe on which was formed wood screws +is described in a work of Jacques Besson, published +at Lyons, France, in 1582.</p> + +<p>It is stated that there is on exhibition in the Abbott +museum of the Historical Society, New York, a +bronze drinking vessel, five inches in diameter, that +was exhumed from an ancient tomb in Thebes, and +which bears evidence of having been turned on a +lathe. It is thought by those skilled in the art that +it was not possible to have constructed the works +of metal in Solomon’s Temple without a turning +lathe. One of the earliest published descriptions of +a metal turning lathe in its leading features is that +found in a book published in London, in 1677-83, +by Joseph Moxon, “hydographer” to King Charles +II., entitled, <i>Mechanical Exercises, or the Doctrine of +Handy Works</i>. He therein also described a machine +for planing metal. Although there is some +evidence that these inventions of the learned gentleman +were made and put to some use, yet they were +soon forgotten and were not revived until a century +later, when, as before intimated, the steam engine +had been invented and furnished the power for working +them.</p> + +<p>Wood-working implements in which the cutting +tool was carried by a sliding block were described in +the English patents of General Sir Samuel Bentham +and Joseph Bramah, in 1793-94. But until this +century, and fairly within its borders, man was content +generally to use the metal lathe simply as a +holding and turning support, while he with such +skill and strength as he could command, and with an +expenditure of time, labour and patience truly marvellous, +held and guided with his hands the cutting +tool with which the required form was made upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_243" id="PAGE_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> +or from the slowly turning object before him. The +contrivance which was to take the place of the hand +and eye of man in holding, applying, directing and +impelling a cutting tool to the surface of the metal +work was the <i>slide-rest</i>. In its modern successful +automatic form Henry Maudsley, an engineer in +London, is claimed to be the first inventor, in the +early part of the century. The leading feature of his +form of this device consists of an iron block which +constitutes the rest, cut with grooves so as to adapt +it to slide upon its iron supports, means to secure +the cutting tool solidly to this block, and two screw +handles, one to adjust the tool towards and against +the object to be cut in the lathe, and the other to +slide the rest and tool lengthwise as the work progresses, +which latter motion may be given by the +hand, or effected automatically by a connection of the +screw handle of the slide and the rotating object on +the lathe.</p> + +<p>A vast variety of inventions and operations have +been effected by changes in these main features. Of +the value of this invention, Nasmyth, a devoted pupil +of Maudsley and himself an eminent engineer and +inventor, thus writes:—“It was this holding of a +tool by means of an iron hand, and constraining it +to move along the surface of the work in so certain +a manner, and with such definite and precise motion, +which formed the great era in the history of mechanics, +inasmuch as we thenceforward became possessed, +by its means, of the power of operating alike on the +most ponderous or delicate pieces of machinery with +a degree of minute precision, of which language cannot +convey an adequate idea; and in many cases we +have, through its agency, equal facility in carrying +on the most perfect workmanship in the interior<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_244" id="PAGE_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> +parts of certain machines where neither the hand nor +the eye can reach, and nevertheless we can give to +these parts their required form with a degree of accuracy +as if we had the power of transforming our-selves +into pigmy workmen, and so apply our labour +to the innermost holes and corners of our machinery.”</p> + +<p>The scope of the lathe, slide-rest and operating +tool, by its adaptation to cut out from a vast roll of +steel a ponderous gun, or by a change in the size of +parts to operate in cutting or drilling the most delicate +portions of that most delicate of all mechanisms, +a watch, reminds one of that other marvel of +mechanical adaptation, the steam hammer, which +makes the earth tremble with its mighty blows upon +a heated mass of iron, or lightly taps and cracks +the soft-shelled nut without the slightest touch of +violence upon its enclosed and fragile fruit.</p> + +<p>The adaptation of the lathe and slide to wood-working +tools will be referred to in the chapter relating +to wood-working.</p> + +<p>Following the invention of the lathe and the slide-rest, +came the <i>metal-planing</i> machines. It is stated +in Buchanan’s <i>Practical Essays</i>, published in 1841, +that a French engineer in 1751, in constructing the +Marly Water Works on the Seine in France, employed +a machine for planing out the wrought iron +pump-barrels used in that work, and this is thought to +be the first instance in which iron was reduced to a +plane surface without chipping or filing. But it needed +the invention of the slide-rest and its application to +metal-turning lathes to suggest and render successful +metal-planing machines. These were supplied in +England from 1811 to 1840 by the genius of Bramah, +Clement, Fox, Roberts, Rennie, Whitworth, Fletcher, +and a few others. When it is considered how many<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_245" id="PAGE_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> +different forms are essential to the completion of +metal machines of every description, the usefulness +of machinery that will produce them with the greatest +accuracy and despatch can be imagined. The +many modifications of the planing machine have +names that indicate to the workman the purpose for +which they are adapted—as the <i>jack</i>, a small portable +machine, quick and handy; the <i>jim crow</i>, a machine +for planing both ways by reversal of the movement +of the bed, and it gets its name because it can “wheel +about and turn about and do just so”; the key +groove machine, the milling machine with a serrated-faced +cutter bar, shaping machine and shaping bar, +slotting machine, crank planer, screw cutting, car-wheel +turning, bolt and nut screwing, etc.</p> + +<p>As to the mutual evolution and important results +of these combined inventions, the slide-rest and the +planer, we again quote Nasmyth:—</p> + +<p>“The first planing machine enabled us to produce +the second still better, and that a better still, and then +slide rests of the most perfect kind came streaming +forth from them, and they again assisted in making +better still, so that in a very short time a most important +branch of engineering business, namely, tool-making, +arose, which had its existence not merely +owing to the pre-existing demand for such tools, but +in fact raised a demand of its own creating. One +has only to go into any of these vast establishments +which have sprung up in the last thirty years to +find that nine-tenths of all the fine mechanisms in +use and in process of production are through the +agency, more or less direct, of the <i>slide rest and planing +machine</i>.”</p> + +<p>Springing out of these inventions, as from a +fruitful soil, came the metal-boring machines, one<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_246" id="PAGE_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> +class for turning the outside of cylinders to make +them true, and another class for boring and drilling +holes through solid metal plates. The principle of +the lathe was applied to those machines in which the +shaft carrying the cutting or boring tool was held +either in a vertical or in a horizontal position.</p> + +<p>Now flowed forth, as from some Vulcan’s titanic +workshop, machines for making bolts, nuts, rivets, +screws, chains, staples, car wheels, shafts, etc., and +other machines for applying them to the objects with +which they were to be used.</p> + +<p>The progress of screw-making had been such that +in 1840, by the machines then in use for cutting, slotting, +shaving, threading, and heading, twenty men +and boys were enabled to manufacture 20,000 screws +in a day. Thirty-five years later two girls tending +two machines were enabled to manufacture 240,000 +screws a day. Since then the process has proceeded +at even a greater rate. So great is the consumption +of screws that it would be utterly impossible +to supply the demand by the processes in vogue +sixty years ago.</p> + +<p>In England’s first great International Fair, in +1851, a new world of metallurgical products, implements, +processes, and metal-working tools, were +among the grand results of the half century’s inventions +which were exhibited to the assembled nations. +The leading exhibitor in the line of self-acting +lathes, planing, slotting, drilling and boring machines +was J. Whitworth & Co., of Manchester, England. +Here were for the first time revealed in a compact +form those machines which shaped metal as wood +alone had been previously shaped. But another +quarter of a century brought still grander results, +which were displayed at the Centennial Exhibition +at Philadelphia, in 1876.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_247" id="PAGE_247">[Pg 247]</a></span></p> + +<p>As J. Whitworth & Co. were the leading exhibitors +at London in 1851, so were William Sellers & +Co., of Philadelphia, the leading exhibitors in the +1876 exhibition. As showing the progress of the +century, the official report, made in this class by +citizens of other countries than America, set forth +that this exhibit of the latter company, “in extent and +value, in extraordinary variety and originality, was +probably without parallel in the past history of international +exhibitions.” Language seemed to be inadequate +to enable the committee to describe satisfactorily +the extreme refinement in every detail, the +superior quality of material and workmanship, the +mathematical accuracy, the beautiful outlines, the +perfection in strength and form, and the scientific +skill displayed in the remarkable assemblage of this +class of machinery at that exhibition.</p> + +<p>An exhibit on that occasion made by Messrs. +Hoopes & Townsend of Philadelphia attracted great +attention by the fact that the doctrine of the flow +of solid metal, so well expounded by that eminent +French scientist, M. Tresca, was therein well illustrated. +It consisted of a large collection of bolts and +screws which had been <i>cold-punched</i>, as well as of +elevator and carrier chains, the links of which had +been so punched. This punching of the cold metal +without cutting, boring, drilling, hammering, or +otherwise shaping the metal, was indeed a revelation.</p> + +<p>So also at this Exhibition was a finer collection of +machine-made horseshoes than had ever previously +been presented to the world. A better and more intelligent +and refined treatment of that noble animal, +the horse, and especially in the care of his feet, had +sprung up during the last half century, conspicuously +advocated by Mr. Fleming in England, and followed<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_248" id="PAGE_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> +promptly in America and elsewhere. Within the +last forty years nearly two hundred patents have +been taken out in the United States alone for machines +for making horseshoes. Prejudices, jealousies +and objections of all kinds were raised at first against +the machine-made horseshoe, as well as the horseshoe +nail, but the horses have won, and the blacksmiths +have been benefited despite their early objections. +The smiths make larger incomes in buying and applying +the machine-made shoes. The shoes are not +only hammered into shape on the machine, but there +are machines for stamping them out from metal at +a single blow; for compressing several thicknesses of +raw hide and moulding them in a steel mould, producing +a light, elastic shoe, and without calks; furnishing +shoes for defective hoofs, flexible shoes for +the relief and cure of contracted or flat feet, shoes +formed with a joint at the toe, and light, hard shoes +made of aluminium.</p> + +<p><i>Tube Making.</i>—Instead of heating strips of metal +and welding the edges together, tubes may now be +made seamless by rolling the heated metal around a +solid heated rod; or by placing a hot ingot in a die +and forcing a mandrel through the ingot. And as to +tube and metal bending, there are wonderful machines +which bend sheets of metal into great tubes, funnels, +ship masts and cylinders.</p> + +<p><i>Welding.</i>—As to welding—the seams, instead of +being hammered, are now formed by melting and condensing +the edges, or adjoining parts, by the electric +current.</p> + +<p><i>Annealing and Tempering.</i>—Steel wire and plates +are now tempered and annealed by electricity. It is +found that they can be heated to a high temperature +more quickly and evenly by the electric current<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_249" id="PAGE_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> +passed through them than by combustion, and the +process is much used in making clock and watch +springs.</p> + +<p>One way of hardening plates, especially armour +plates, by what is called the Harveyized process, is +by embedding the face of the plate in carbon, protecting +the back and sides with sand, heating to +about the melting point of cast iron, and then hardening +the face by chilling, or otherwise.</p> + +<p><i>Coating with Metal.</i>—Although covering metal +with metal has been practised from the earliest +times, accomplished by heating and hammering, it +was not until this century that electro-plating, and +plating by chemical processes, as by dipping the +metal into certain chemical solutions, and by the use +of automatic machinery, were adopted. It was in the +early part of the century that Volta discovered that +in the voltaic battery certain metallic salts were reduced +to their elements and deposited at the negative +pole; and that Wollaston demonstrated how a +silver plate in bath of sulphate of copper through +which a current was passed became covered with +copper. Then in 1838, Spencer applied these principles +in making casts, and Jacobi in Russia shortly +after electro-gilded a dome of a cathedral in St. +Petersburg. Space will not permit the enumeration +of the vast variety of processes and machines for coating +and gilding that have since followed.</p> + +<p><i>Metal Founding.</i>—The treatment of metal after +it flows from the furnaces, or is poured from the +crucibles into moulds, by the operations of facing, +drying, covering, casting and stripping, has given +rise to a multitude of machines and methods for +casting a great variety of objects. The most interesting +inventions in this class have for their object<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_250" id="PAGE_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> +the chilling, or chill hardening, of the outer surfaces +of articles which are subject to the most and hardest +wear, as axle boxes, hammers, anvils, etc., which is +effected by exposing the red-hot metal to a blast of +cold air, or by introducing a piece of iron into a +mould containing the molten metal.</p> + +<p>In casting steel ingots, in order to produce a +uniform compact structure, Giers of England invented +“soaking pits of sand” into which the ingot from +the mould is placed and then covered, so that the +heat radiating outward re-heats the exterior, and the +ingot is then rolled without re-heating.</p> + +<p><i>Sheet Metal Ware.</i>—Important improvements have +been made in this line. Wonderful machines have +been made which, receiving within them a piece of +flat metal, will, by a single blow of a plunger in a die, +stamp out a metal can or box with tightly closed +seams, and all ready for the cover, which is made in +another similar machine; or by which an endless +chain of cans are carried into a machine and there +automatically soldered at their seams; and another +which solders the heads on filled cans as fast as they +can be fed into the machine.</p> + +<p><i>Metal Personal Ware.</i>—Buckles, clasps, hooks and +eyelets, shanked buttons, and similar objects are now +stamped up and out, without more manual labour +than is necessary to supply the machines with the +metal, and to take care of the completed articles.</p> + +<p><i>Wire Working.</i>—Not only unsightly but useful +barbed wire fences, and the most ornamental wire +work and netting for many purposes, such as fences, +screens, cages, etc., are now made by ingenious machines, +and not by hand tools.</p> + +<p>In stepping into some one of the great modern +works where varied industries are carried on under<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_251" id="PAGE_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> +one general management, one cannot help realising +the vast difference between old systems and the new. +In one portion of the establishment the crude ores +are received and smelted and treated, with a small +force and with ease, until the polished metal is +complete and ready for manipulation in the manufacture +of a hundred different objects. In another +part ponderous or smaller lathes and planing machines +are turning forth many varied forms; in +quiet corners the boring, drilling, and riveting +machines are doing their work without the clang of +hammers; in another, an apparently young student +is conducting the scientific operation of coating or +gilding metals; in another, girls may be seen with +light machines, stamping, or burnishing, or assembling +the different parts of finished metal ware; and +the motive power of all this is the silent but all-powerful +electric current received from the smooth-running +dynamo giant who works with vast but unseen +energy in a den by himself, not a smoky or a +dingy den, but light, clean, polished, and beautiful +as the workshop of a god.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_252" id="PAGE_252">[Pg 252]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +ORDNANCE, ARMS AND EXPLOSIVES.</span></h2> + + +<p>Although the progress in the invention of fire-arms +of all descriptions seems slow during the ages +preceding the 19th century, yet it will be found on investigation +that no art progressed faster. No other +art was spurred to activity by such strong incentives, +and none received the same encouragement and reward +for its development. The art of war was the trade +of kings and princes, and princely was the reward to +the subject who was the first to invent the most +destructive weapon. Under such high patronage +most of the ideas and principles of ordnance now prevailing +were discovered or suggested, but were embodied +for the most part in rude and inefficient contrivances.</p> + +<p>The art waited for its success on the development +of other arts, and on the mental expansion and freedom +giving rise to scientific investigation and results.</p> + +<p>The cannon and musket themselves became the +greatest instruments for the advancement of the new +civilisation, however much it was intended otherwise +by their kingly proprietors, and the new civilisation +returned the compliment through its trained +intellects by giving to war its present destructive +efficiency.</p> + +<p>To this efficiency, great as the paradox may seem, +Peace holds what quiet fields it has, or will have, +until most men learn to love peace and hate the arts +of war.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_253" id="PAGE_253">[Pg 253]</a></span></p> + +<p>As to the Chinese is given the credit for the invention +of gunpowder, so they must also be regarded +as the first to throw projectiles by its means. But +their inventions in these directions may be classed as +fireworks, and have no material bearing on the modern +art of Ordnance. It is supposed that the word +“cannon,” is derived from the same root as “cane,” +originally signifying a hollow reed; and that these +hollow reeds or similar tubes closed at one end were +used to fire rockets by powder.</p> + +<p>It is also stated that the practice existed among +the Chinese as early as 969 A. D. of tying rockets to +their arrows to propel them to greater distances, as +well as for incendiary purposes.</p> + +<p>This basic idea had percolated from China through +India to the Moors and Arabs, and in the course of a +few centuries had developed into a crude artillery +used by the Moors in the siege of Cordova in 1280. +The Spaniards, thus learning the use of the cannon, +turned the lesson upon their instructors, when under +Ferdinand IV. they took Gibraltar from the Moors +in 1309. Then the knowledge of artillery soon +spread throughout Europe. The French used it at +the siege of Puy Guillaume in 1338, and the English +had three small guns at Crecy in 1346. These antique +guns were made by welding longitudinal bars +of iron together and binding them by iron rings +shrunk on while hot. Being shaped internally +and externally like an apothecary’s mortar, they +were called mortars or bombards. Some were +breech-loaders, having a removable chamber at +the breech into which the charge of powder was +inserted behind the ball. The balls were stone. +These early cannon, bombards, and mortars were +mounted on heavy solid wooden frames and moved<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_254" id="PAGE_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> +with great difficulty from place to place. Then in +the fifteenth century they commenced to make +wrought-iron cannon, and hollow projectiles, containing +a bursting charge of powder to be exploded by a +fuse lit before the shell was fired. In the next century +cannon were cast.</p> + +<p>The Hindoos, when their acquaintance was made +by the Europeans, were as far advanced as the latter +in cannon and fire-arms. One cannon was found at +Bejapoor, in India, cast of bronze, bearing date +1548, and called the “Master of the Field,” which +weighed 89,600 pounds, and others of similar size of +later dates. Great cast bronze guns of about the +same weight as the Hindoo guns were also produced +at St. Petersburg, Russia, in the sixteenth century.</p> + +<p>Many and strange were the names given by Europeans +to their cannon in the fifteenth and sixteenth +centuries to denote their size and the weight of the +ball they carried: such as the Assick, the Bombard, +the Basilisk, the cannon Royal, or Carthoun, the Culverin, +Demi-culverin, Falcon, Siren, Serpentine, etc.</p> + +<p>The bombards in the fifteenth century were made +so large and heavy, especially in France, that they +could not be moved without being taken apart.</p> + +<p>When the heavy, unwieldy bombards with stone +balls were used, artillery was mostly confined to +castles, towns, forts, and ships. When used in the +field they were dragged about by many yokes of oxen. +But in the latter part of the fifteenth century, when +France under Louis XI. had learned to cast lighter +brass cannon, to mount them on carriages that could +be drawn by four or six horses, and which carriages +had trunnions in which the cannon were swung so as +to be elevated or depressed, and cast-iron projectiles<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_255" id="PAGE_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> +were used instead of stones, field artillery took its +rise, and by its use the maps of the world were +changed. Thus with their artillery the French under +Charles VIII., the successor of Louis XI., conquered +Italy.</p> + +<p>In the sixteenth century Europe was busy in +adopting these and other changes. Cannon were +made of all sizes and calibres, but were not arranged +in battle with much precision. Case shot were invented +in Germany but not brought into general use. +Shells were invented by the Italians and fired from +mortars, but their mode of construction was preserved +in great secrecy. The early breech-loaders had been +discarded, as it was not known how to make the +breech gas-tight, and the explosions rendered the +guns more dangerous to their users than to the +enemy.</p> + +<p>In the seventeenth century Holland began to make +useful mortar shells and hand grenades. Maurice +and Henry Frederick of Nassau, and Gustave Adolphus, +made many improvements in the sizes and +construction of cannon. In 1674, Coehorn, an officer +in the service of the Prince of Orange, invented +the celebrated mortar which bears his name, and the +use of which has continued to the present time. The +Dutch also invented the howitzer, a short gun in +which the projectiles could be introduced by hand. +About the same time Comminges of France invented +mortars which threw projectiles weighing 550 +pounds. In this part of that century also great improvements +were made under Louis XIV. Limbers, +by which the front part of the gun carriage was made +separable from the cannon part and provided with the +ammunition chest; the prolonge, a cord and hook by +which the gun part could be moved around by hand;<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_256" id="PAGE_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> +and the elevating screw, by which the muzzle of the +gun could be raised or depressed,—were invented.</p> + +<p>In the early part of the eighteenth century it was +thought by artillerists in England that the longer the +gun the farther it would carry. One, called “Queen +Ann’s Pocket Piece” still preserved at Dover, is +twenty-five feet long and carries a ball only twenty-five +pounds in weight. It was only after repeated +experiments that it was learned that the shorter guns +carried the projectile the greatest distance.</p> + +<p>The greatest improvements in the eighteenth century +were made by Gribeauval, the celebrated French +artillerist, about 1765. He had guns made of such +material and of such size as to adapt them to the +different services to which they were to be put, as +field, siege, garrison, and sea coast. He gave greater +mobility to the system by introducing six-pound +howitzers, and making gun carriages lighter; he introduced +the system of fixed ammunition, separate +compartments in the gun carriages for the projectiles, +and the charges of powder in paper or cloth +bags or cylinders; improved the construction of the +elevating screw, adapted the tangent scale, formed +the artillery into horse batteries, and devised new +equipments and a new system of tactics.</p> + +<p>It was with Gribeauval’s improved system that +“Citizen Bonaparte, young artillery officer,” took +Toulon; with which the same young “bronze artillery +officer” let go his great guns in the Cul-de-Sac +Dauphin against the church of St. Roch; on the +Port Royal; at the Theatre de la Republique; “and +the thing we specifically call French Revolution is +blown into space by it, and became a thing that was.”</p> + +<p>It was with this system that this same young officer +won his first brilliant victories in Italy. When<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_257" id="PAGE_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> +the fruit of these victories had been lost during his +absence he reappeared with his favorite artillery, and +on the threshold of the century, in May 1800, as +“First Consul of the Republic” re-achieved at Marengo +the supremacy of France over Austria.</p> + +<p>As to <i>small arms</i>, as before suggested, they doubtless +had their origin in the practice of the Chinese +in throwing fire balls from bamboo barrels by the +explosion of light charges of powder, as illustrated to +this day in what are known as “Roman Candles.” +Fire-crackers and grenades were also known to the +Chinese and the Greeks.</p> + +<p>Among ancient fire-arms the principal ones were +the arquebus, also bombardelle, and the blunderbuss. +They were invented in the fourteenth century but +were not much used until the fifteenth century. +These guns for the most part were so heavy that they +had to be rested on some object to be fired. The +soldiers carried a sort of tripod for this purpose. +The gun was fired by a slow-burning cord, a live +coal, a lit stick, or a long rod heated at one end, and +called a match. The blunderbuss was invented in +Holland. It was a large, short, funnel-shaped muzzle-loader, +and loaded with nails, slugs, etc. The injuries +and hardships suffered by the men who used +it, rather than by the enemy, rendered its name significant. +Among the earliest fire-arms of this period +one was invented which was a breech-loader and revolver. +The breech had four chambers and was rotated +by hand on an arbour parallel to the barrel. +The extent of its use is not learned. To ignite the +powder the “wheel-lock” and “snap-haunce” were +invented by the Germans in the sixteenth century. +The wheel lock consisted of a furrowed wheel and was +turned by the trigger and chain against a fixed piece<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_258" id="PAGE_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> +of iron on the stock to excite sparks which fell on to +the priming. The snap-haunce, a straight piece of +furrowed steel, superseded the wheel-lock. The sixteenth +century had got well started before the English +could be induced to give up the cross-bow and +arrow, and adopt the musket. After they had introduced +the musket with the snap-haunce and +wooden ramrod, it became known, in the time of +Queen Elizabeth, as the “Brown Bess.”</p> + +<p>The “old flint-lock” was quite a modern invention, +not appearing until the seventeenth century. It +was a bright idea to fix a piece of flint into the cock +and arrange it to strike a steel cap on the priming +pan when the trigger was fired; and it superseded the +old match, wheel-lock, and snap-haunce. The flint-lock +was used by armies well into the nineteenth century, +and is still in private use in remote localities. +As the arquebus succeeded the bow and arrow, so the +musket, a smooth and single-barrel muzzle-loader +with a flint-lock and a wooden ramrod, succeeded the +arquebus. Rifles, which were the old flint-lock +muskets with their barrels provided with spiral +grooves to give the bullet a rotary motion and cause it +to keep one point constantly in front during its flight, +is claimed as the invention of Augustin Kutler of +Germany in 1520, and also of Koster of Birmingham, +England, about 1620. Muskets with straight +grooves are said to have been used in the fifteenth century.</p> + +<p>The rifle with a long barrel and its flint-lock was +a favourite weapon of the American settler. It was +made in America, and he fought the Indian wars and +the war of the Revolution with it.</p> + +<p>It would not do to conclude this sketch of antique +cannon and fire-arms without referring to Puckle’s<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_259" id="PAGE_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> +celebrated English patent No. 418, of May 15, 1718, +for “A Defence.” The patent starts out with the +motto:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +<span class="line">“Defending King George, your Country, and Lawes,<br></span> +<span class="line">Is defending Yourselves and Protestant Cause.”<br></span> +</p> + +<p>It proceeds to describe a “Portable Gun or Machine” +having a single barrel, with a set of removable +chambers which are charged with bullets before +they are placed in the gun, a handle to turn the +chambers to bring each chamber in line with the +barrel, a tripod on which the gun is mounted and +on which it is to be turned, a screw for elevating +and turning the gun in different directions, a set of +square chambers “for shooting square bullets against +Turks,” a set of round chambers “for shooting round +bullets against the Christians;” and separate drawings +show the square bullets for the Turks and the +round bullets for the Christians. History is silent as +to whether Mr. Puckle’s patent was put in practice, +but it contained the germs of some modern inventions.</p> + +<p>Among the first inventions of the century was a +very important one made by a clergyman, the Rev. +Mr. Forsyth, a Scotchman, who in 1803 invented the +percussion principle in fire-arms. In 1807 he patented +in England detonating powder and pellets +which were used for artillery. About 1808 General +Shrapnel of the English army invented the celebrated +shell known by his name. It then consisted +of a comparatively thin shell filled with bullets, having +a fuse lit by the firing of the gun, and adapted +to explode the shell in front of the object fired at. +This fuse was superseded by one invented by General +Bormann of Belgium, which greatly added to the +value of case shot.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_260" id="PAGE_260">[Pg 260]</a></span></p> + +<p>In 1814 Joshua Shaw of England invented the +percussion cap. Thus, by the invention of the percussion +principle by Forsyth, and that little copper +cylinder of Shaw, having a flake of fulminating +powder inside and adapted to fit the nipple of a gun +and be exploded by the fall of the hammer, was +sounded the death knell of the old flint-locks with +which the greatest battles of the world had been and +were at that time being fought. The advantages +gained by the cap were the certain and instantaneous +fire, the saving in time, power, and powder obtained +by making smaller the orifice through which the ignition +was introduced, and the protection from +moisture given by the covering cap. And yet so slow +is the growth of inventions sometimes that all +Europe continued to make the flint-locks for many +years after the percussion cap was invented; and +General Scott, in the war between the United States +and Mexico in 1847, declined to give the army the +percussion cap musket. The cap suggested the necessity +and invention of machines for making them +quickly and in great quantities.</p> + +<p>The celebrated “Colt’s” revolver was invented by +Colonel Samuel Colt of the United States, in 1835. +He continued to improve it, and in 1851 exhibited +it at the World’s Fair, London, where it excited great +surprise and attention. Since then the revolver has +become a great weapon in both private and public +warfare. The next great inventions in small arms +were the readoption and improvement of the breech-loader, +the making of metallic cartridges, the magazine +gun, smokeless powder and other explosives, to +which further reference will be made.</p> + +<p>To return to cannons:—In 1812 Colonel Bomford, +an American officer, invented what is called the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_261" id="PAGE_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> +“Columbiad,” a kind of cannon best adapted for sea-coast +purposes. They are long-chambered pieces, +combining certain qualities of the gun, howitzer and +mortar, and capable of projecting shells and solid +shot with heavy charges of powder at high angles of +elevation, and peculiarly adapted to defend narrow +channels and sea-coast defences. A similar gun was +invented by General Paixhans of the French army in +1822. The adoption of the Paixhans long-chambered +guns, designed to throw heavy shells horizontally as +well as at a slight elevation and as easily as solid +shot, was attended with great results. Used by the +French in 1832, in the quick victorious siege of Antwerp, +by the allies at Sebastopol, where the whole +Russian fleet was destroyed in about an hour, and +in the fight of the Kearsarge and the doomed Alabama +off Cherbourg in the American civil war, it +forced inventors in the different countries to devise +new and better armour for the defence of ships. +This was followed by guns of still greater penetrative +power. Then as another result effected by these +greater guns came the passing away of the old-fashioned +brick and stone forts as a means of defence.</p> + +<p>In an interesting address by Major Clarence E. +Dutton of the Ordnance Department, U.S.A., at the +Centennial Patent Congress at Washington in 1891, +he thus stated what the fundamental improvements +were that have characterised the modern ordnance +during the century:</p> + +<p>1. The regulation and control of the action of gunpowder +in such a manner as to exert less strain upon +the gun, and to impart more energy to the projectile.</p> + +<p>2. To so construct the gun as to transfer a portion +of the strain from the interior parts of the walls +which had borne too much of it, to the exterior parts<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_262" id="PAGE_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> +which had borne too little, thus nearly equalising +the strain throughout the entire thickness of the +walls.</p> + +<p>3. To provide a metal which should be at once +stronger and safer than any which had been used before.</p> + +<p>In the United States General Rodman, “one of +the pioneers of armed science,” commenced about +1847 a series of investigations and experiments on +the power and action of gunpowder and the strains +received by every part of the gun by the exploding +gases, of very great importance; and in this matter he +was assisted greatly by Dr. W. E. Woodbridge, who +invented an ingenious apparatus termed a “piezometer,” +or a pressure measurer, by which the pressure +of the gases at the various parts of the gun was determined +with mathematical certainty.</p> + +<p>Dr. Woodbridge also added greatly to the success +of rifled cannon. The success in rifling small arms, +by which an elongated ball is made to retain the same +end foremost during its flight, led again to the attempts +of rifling cannon for the same purpose, which +were finally successful. But this success was due +not to the spiral grooves in the cannon bore, but in +attachments to the ball compelling it to follow the +course of the grooves and giving it the proper initial +movement. The trouble with these attachments was +that they were either stripped off, or stripped away, +by the gun spirals. Woodbridge in 1850 overcame the +difficulty by inventing an improved <i>sabot</i>, consisting +of a ring composed of metal softer than the projectile +or cannon, fixed on the inner end of the projectile +and grooved at its rear end, so that when +the gun is fired and the ball driven forward these +grooves expand, acting valvularly to fill the grooves<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_263" id="PAGE_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> +in the gun, thus preventing the escape of the gases, +while the ring at the same time is forced forward on +to the shell so tightly and forcibly that the projectile +is invariably given a rotary motion and made to +advance strictly in the line of axis of the bore, and +in the same line during the course of its flight. This +invention in principle has been followed ever since, +although other forms have been given the sabot, and +it is due to this invention that modern rifled cannon +have been so wonderfully accurate in range and efficient +in the penetrating and destructive power both +on sea and land.</p> + +<p>Woodbridge also invented the <i>wire-wound cannon</i>, +and a machine for winding the wire upon the gun, +thus giving the breach part, especially, immense +strength.</p> + +<p>In England, among the first notable and greater +inventors in ordnance during the latter half of the +century, a period which embraces the reduction to +practice of the most wonderful and successful inventions +in weapons of war which the world had up +to that time seen, are Lancaster, who invented +the elliptical bore; Sir William Armstrong, who, +commencing in 1885, constructed a gun built of +wrought-iron bars twisted into coils and applied +over a steel core and bound by one or more wrought-iron +rings, all applied at white heat and shrunk on +by contraction due to cooling, by which method +smooth-bore, muzzle-loading cannon of immense calibre, +one weighing one hundred tons, were made. +They were followed by Armstrong, inventor of +breech-loaders; Blakely, inventor of cannon made of +steel tubes and an outer jacket of cast iron; and Sir +Joseph Whitworth, inventor of most powerful steel +cannon and compressed steel projectiles.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_264" id="PAGE_264">[Pg 264]</a></span></p> + +<p>In Germany, Friedrich Krupp at Essen, Prussia, +invented and introduced such improvements in +breech-loading cannon as revolutionised the manufacture +of that species of ordnance, and established +the foundation of the greatest ordnance works in the +world. The first of his great breech-loading steel +guns was exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1867. +A Krupp gun finished at Essen in the 70’s was then +the largest steel gun the world had ever seen. It +weighed seventy-two tons, and was thirty-two feet +long. The charge consisted of 385 pounds of powder, +the shell weighed 1,660 pounds, having a bursting +charge of powder of 22 pounds, and a velocity of +1,640 feet per second. It was estimated that if the +gun were fired at an angle of 43° the shell would be +carried a distance of fifteen miles. It was in the +Krupp guns, and also in the Armstrong breech-loaders, +that a simple feature was for the first time +introduced which proved of immense importance in +giving great additional expansive force to the explosion +of the powder. This was an increase in the +size of the powder chamber so as to allow a vacant +space in it unfilled with powder.</p> + +<p>In the United States, Rodman, commencing in +1847, and Dahlgren in 1850, and Parrott in 1860, +invented and introduced some noticeable improvements +in cast-iron, smooth-bore, and rifled cannon.</p> + +<p>In France General Paixhans and Colonel Treuille +de Beaulieu improved the shells and ordnance.</p> + +<p>The latest improvements in cannon indicate that +the old smooth-bore muzzle-loader guns are to be entirely +superseded by breech-loaders, just as in small +arms the muzzle-loading musket has given way to +the breech-loading rifle.</p> + +<p>A single lever is now employed, a single turn of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_265" id="PAGE_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> +which will close or open the breech, and when opened +expel the shell by the same movement. Formerly +breech-loaders were confined to the heaviest ordnance; +now they are a part of the lightest field pieces.</p> + +<p>As to the operation of those immense guns above +referred to, which constitute principally sea-coast +defences and the heavy armament for forts, gun +carriages have been invented whereby the huge guns +are quickly raised from behind immense embrasures +by pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders, quickly fired +(the range having been before accurately ascertained) +and then as quickly lowered out of sight, the +latter movement being aided by the recoil action of +the gun.</p> + +<p>It is essential that the full force of the gases of explosion +shall be exerted against the base of the projectile, +and therefore all escape of such gases be prevented. +To this end valuable improvements in <i>gas +checks</i> have been made,—one kind consisting of an +annular canvas sack containing asbestos and tallow +placed between the front face of the breech block +and a mushroom-shaped piece, against which the explosion +impinges.</p> + +<p>As among projectiles and shells for cannon those +have been invented which are loaded with dynamite +or other high explosive, a new class of <i>Compressed +air ordnance</i> has been started, in which air or gas is +used for the propelling power in place of powder, +whereby the chances of exploding such shells in the +bore of the gun are greatly lessened.</p> + +<p>The construction of metals, both for cannon to resist +most intense explosives and for plates to resist +the penetration of the best projectiles, have received +great attention. They are matters pertaining to +metallurgy, and are treated of under that head. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_266" id="PAGE_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> +strife still continues between impenetrable armour +plate and irresistible projectiles. Within the last +decade or so shells have been invented with the design +simply to shatter or fracture the plate by which the +way is broken for subsequent shots. Other shells +have been invented carrying a high explosive and capable +of penetrating armour plates of great thickness, +and exploding after such penetration has taken place.</p> + +<p>A great accompaniment to artillery is “The +Range Finder,” a telescopic apparatus for ascertaining +accurately the location and distance of objects to +be fired at.</p> + +<p>Returning to <i>small arms</i>,—at the time percussion +caps were invented in England, 1803-1814, John +H. Hall of the United States invented a breech-loading +rifle. It was in substance an ordinary musket +cut in two at the breech, with the rear piece connected +by a hinge and trunnion to the front piece, the bore +of the two pieces being in line when clamped, and +the ball and cartridge inserted when the chamber +was thrown up. A large number were at once manufactured +and used in the U.S. Army. A smaller +size, called <i>carbines</i>, were used by the mounted troops. +After about twenty years’ use these guns began to be +regarded as dangerous in some respects, and their +manufacture and use stopped, although the carbines +continued in use to some extent in the cavalry. A +breech-loading rifle was also invented by Colonel +Pauly of France in 1812, and improved by Dreyse +in 1835; also in Norway in 1838, and in a few years +adopted by Sweden as superior to all muzzle-loading +arms. About 1841 the celebrated “Needle +Gun” was invented in Prussia, and its superiority +over all muzzle-loaders was demonstrated in 1848 in +the first Schleswig-Holstein war.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_267" id="PAGE_267">[Pg 267]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Cartridges</i>, in which the ball and powder were secured +together in one package, were old in artillery, +as has been shown, but their use for small arms is a +later invention. <i>Metallic</i> cartridges, made of sheet +metal with a fulminate cap in one end and a rim +on the end of the shell by which it could be extracted +after the explosion, were invented by numerous +persons in Europe and America during the +evolution of the breech-loader. Combined metal case +and paper patented in England in 1816, and numerous +wholly metallic cartridge shells were patented +in England, France, and United States between +1840 and 1860. M. Lefaucheux of France, +in the later period, devised a metal <i>gas check</i> cartridge +which was a great advance.</p> + +<p>A number of inventors in the United States besides +Hall had produced breech-loading small arms before +the Civil War of 1861, but with the exception of +Colt’s revolver and Sharp’s carbine, the latter used +by the cavalry to a small extent, none were first adopted +in that great conflict. Later, the Henry or Winchester +breech-loading rifle and the Spencer magazine +gun were introduced and did good service. But +the whole known system of breech-loading small +arms was officially condemned by the U.S. Military +authorities previous to that war. The absence of +machines to make a suitable cartridge in large quantities +and vast immediate necessities compelled the +authorities to ignore the tested Prussian and Swedish +breech-loaders and those of their own countrymen +and to ransack Europe for muskets of ancient pattern. +These were worked by the soldiers under the +ancient tactics, of load, ram, charge and fire, until +a stray bullet struck the ramrod, or the discharge of +a few rammed cartridges so over-heated the musket<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_268" id="PAGE_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> +as to thereby dispense with the soldier and his gun +for further service in that field. However, private +individuals and companies continued to invent and +improve, and the civil war in America revolutionised +the systems of warfare and its weapons. The wooden +walls of the navies disappeared as a defence after the +conflict between the Monitor and the Merrimac, and +muzzle-loading muskets became things of the past.</p> + +<p>Torpedoes, both stationary and movable, then became +a successful weapon of warfare. Soon after +that war, and when the United States had adopted the +Springfield breech-loading rifle, the works at Springfield +were equipped with nearly forty different machines, +each for making a separate part of a gun in +great quantities. Many of these had been invented +by Thomas Blanchard forty years before. That great +inventor of labour-saving machinery had then designed +machines for the shaping and making of gun +stocks and for forming the accompanying parts. +Blanchard was a contemporary of Hall, and Hall, to +perfect his breech-loader, was the first to invent machines +for making its various parts. His was the +first interchangeable system in the making of small +arms.</p> + +<p>Army officers had come to regard “the gun as only +the casket while the cartridge is the jewel;” and to +this end J. G. Gill at the U.S. Arsenal at Frankford, +Philadelphia, devised a series of cartridge-making +machines which ranked among the highest triumphs +of American invention.</p> + +<p>The single breech-loader is now being succeeded +by the magazine gun, by which a supply of cartridges +in a chamber is automatically fed into the barrel. +The Springfield, has been remodelled as a magazine +loader. Among later types of repeating rifles, known +from the names of their inventors, are the “Krag-<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_269" id="PAGE_269">[Pg 269]</a></span>Jorgensen,” +and the “Mauser,” and the crack of +these is heard around the world. Modern rifles are +rendered more deadly by the fact that they can be +loaded and fired in a recumbent position, and with +smokeless powder, by which the soldier and his +location remain concealed from his foe.</p> + +<p>The recoil of the gun in both large and small arms +is now utilised to expel the fired cartridge shell, and +to withdraw a fresh one from its magazine and place +it in position in the chamber. <i>Compressed air and explosive +gases</i> have been used for the same purpose. +A small <i>electric battery</i> has been placed in the stock +to explode the cartridge when the trigger is pulled.</p> + +<p>Sporting guns have kept pace with other small +arms in improvements, and among modern forms are +those which discharge in alternative succession the +two barrels by a single trigger. Revolvers have been +improved and the Smith and Wesson is known +throughout the world.</p> + +<p>The idea of <i>Machine Guns</i>, or <i>Mitrailleuses</i>, was +not a new one, as we have seen from Puckle’s celebrated +patent of 1718. Also history mentions a gun +composed of four breech-loading tubes of small calibre, +placed on a two-wheeled cart used in Flanders as +early as 1347, and of four-tubed guns used by the +Scotch during the civil war in 1644. The machine +gun invented by Dr. Gatling of the United States +during the Civil War and subsequently perfected, +has become a part of the armament of every civilised +nation. The object of the gun is to combine in one +piece the destructive effect of a great many, and to +throw a continuous hail of projectiles. The gun is +mounted on a tripod; the cartridges are contained in +a hopper mounted on the breech of the gun and are +fed from locks into the barrels (which are usually<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_270" id="PAGE_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> +five or ten in number) as the locks and barrels are revolved +by a hand crank. As the handle is turned +the cartridges are first given a forward motion, which +thrusts them into the barrels, closes the breech and +fires the cartridges in succession, and then a backward +motion which extracts the empty shells. The gun +weighs one hundred pounds and firing may be kept +up with a ten-barreled gun at one thousand shots a +minute.</p> + +<p>The <i>Hotchkiss</i> revolving cannon is another celebrated +American production named from its inventor, +and constructed to throw heavier projectiles +than the Gatling. It also has revolving barrels and +great solidity in the breech mechanism. It has +been found to be of great service in resisting the attacks +of torpedo boats. It is adapted to fire long-range +shells with great rapidity and powerful effect, +and is exceedingly efficient in defence of ditches and +entrenchments.</p> + +<p><i>Explosives.</i>—The desire to make the most effective +explosives for gunnery led to their invention not only +for that purpose but for the more peaceful pursuit +of blasting. <i>Gun Cotton</i>, that mixture of nitric +acid and cotton, made by Schönbein in 1846, and experimented +with for a long time as a substitute for +gunpowder in cannon and small arms and finally discarded +for that purpose, is now being again revived, +but used chiefly for blasting. This was followed by +the discovery of nitro-glycerine, a still more powerful +explosive agent—too powerful and uncontrollable for +guns as originally made. They did not supersede +gunpowder, but smokeless powders have come, containing +nitro-cellulose, or nitro-glycerine rendered +plastic, coherent and homogeneous, and converted into +rods or grains of free running powder, to aid the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_271" id="PAGE_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> +breech-loaders and magazine guns, while the high explosives, +gun-cotton, nitro-glycerine, dynamite, dualine, +etc., have become the favorite agencies for those +fearful offensive and defensive weapons, the <i>Torpedoes</i>. +From about the time of the discovery of gunpowder, +stationary and floating chambers and mines +of powder, to be discharged in early times by fuses +(later by percussion or electricity), have existed, but +modern inventions have rendered them of more fearful +importance than was ever dreamed of before this +century. The latest invention in this class is the +<i>submarine torpedo boat</i>, which, moving rapidly towards +an enemy’s vessel, suddenly disappears from +sight beneath the water, and strikes the vessel at its +lowest or most vulnerable point.</p> + +<p>To the inquiry as to whether all this vast array +of modern implements of destruction is to lessen the +destruction of human life, shorten war, mitigate its +horrors and tend toward peace, there can be but one +answer. All these desirable results have been accomplished +whenever the new inventions of importance +have been used. “Warlike Tribes” have been +put to flight so easily by civilised armies in modern +times that such tribes have been doubted as possessing +their boasted or even natural courage. Nations +with a glorious past as to bravery but with a poor +armament have gone down suddenly before smaller +forces armed with modern ordnance. The results +would have been reversed, and the derision would +have proceeded from the other side, if the conditions +had been reversed, and those tribes and brave peoples +been armed with the best weapons and the knowledge +of their use. The courage of the majority of men on +the battle-field is begot of confidence and enthusiasm, +but this confidence and enthusiasm, however great<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_272" id="PAGE_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> +the cause, soon fail, and discretion becomes the better +part of valour, if men find that their weapons are +weak and useless against vastly superior arms of the +enemy. The slaughter and destruction in a few +hours with modern weapons may not be more terrible +than could be inflicted with the old arms by far +greater forces at close quarters in a greater length of +time in the past, but the end comes sooner; and the +prolongation of the struggle with renewed sacrifices of +life, and the long continued and exhausting campaigns, +giving rise to diseases more destructive than +shot or shell, are thereby greatly lessened, if not altogether +avoided.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_273" id="PAGE_273">[Pg 273]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +PAPER AND PRINTING.</span></h2> + + +<p><i>Paper-making.</i>—“The art preservative of all arts”—itself +must have means of preservation, and hence +the art of paper-making precedes the art of printing.</p> + +<p>It was Pliny who wrote, at the beginning of the +Christian era, that “All the usages of civilised life +depend in a remarkable degree upon the employment +of paper. At all events the remembrance of past +events.”</p> + +<p>Naturally to the Chinese, the Hindoo, and the +Egyptian, we go with inquiries as to origin, and find +that as to both arts they were making the most delicate +paper from wood and vegetable fibres and printing +with great nicety, long before Europeans had +even learned to use papyrus or parchment, or had +conceived the idea of type.</p> + +<p>So far as we know the wasp alone preceded the +ancient Orientals in the making of paper. Its gray +shingled house made in layers, worked up into paper +by a master hand from decayed wood, pulped, and +glutinised, waterproofed, with internal tiers of chambers, +a fortress, a home, and an airy habitation, is +still beyond the power of human invention to reproduce.</p> + +<p>Papyrus—the paper of the Egyptians: Not only +their paper, but its pith one of their articles of food, +and its outer portions material for paper, boxes, baskets, +boats, mats, medicines, cloths and other articles +of merchandise.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_274" id="PAGE_274">[Pg 274]</a></span></p> + +<p>Once one of the fruits of the Nile, now no longer +growing there. On its fragile leaves were recorded +and preserved the ancient literatures—the records of +dynasties—the songs of the Hebrew prophets—the +early annals of Greece and Rome—the vast, lost +tomes of Alexandria. Those which were fortunately +preserved and transferred to more enduring forms +now constitute the greater part of all we have of the +writings of those departed ages.</p> + +<p>In making paper from papyrus, the inner portion +next to the pith was separated into thin leaves; these +were laid in two or more layers, moistened and +pressed together to form a leaf; two or more leaves +united at their edges if desired, or end to end, beaten +smooth with a mallet, polished with a piece of iron or +shell, the ends, or sides, or both, of the sheet sometimes +neatly ornamented, and then rolled on a wooden +cylinder. The Romans and other ancient nations +imported most of their papyrus from Egypt, although +raising it to considerable extent in their own swamps.</p> + +<p>In the seventh century, the Saracens conquered +Egypt and carried back therefrom, papyrus, and the +knowledge of how to make paper from it to Europe.</p> + +<p>Parchment manufactured from the skins of young +calves, kids, lambs, sheep, and goats, was an early +rival of papyrus, and was known and used in Europe +before papyrus was there introduced.</p> + +<p>The softening of vegetable and woody fibre of various +kinds, flax and raw cotton and rags, and reducing +it into pulp, drying, beating, and rolling it into paper, +seem to have been suggested to Europe by the +introduction of papyrus, for we learn of the first +appearance of such paper by the Arabians, Saracens, +Spaniards and the French along through the eighth, +ninth, and tenth and eleventh centuries. Papyrus<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_275" id="PAGE_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> +does not, however, appear to have been superseded +until the twelfth century.</p> + +<p>Public documents are still extant written in the +twelfth century on paper made from flax and rags; +and paper mills began to put in an appearance in +Germany in the fourteenth century, in which the +fibre was reduced to pulp by stampers. England began +to make paper in the next century. Pulping the +fibre by softening it in water and beating the same +had then been practised for four centuries. Rollers +in the mills for rolling the pulp into sheets were introduced +in the fifteenth century, and paper makers +began to distinguish their goods from those made by +others by water marks impressed in the pulp sheets. +The jug and the pot was one favourite water mark in +that century, succeeded by a fool’s cap, which name +has since adhered to paper of a certain size, with or +without the cap. So far was the making of paper +advanced in Europe that about 1640 wall paper began +to be made as a substitute for tapestry; although +as to this fashion the Chinese were still ahead some +indefinite number of centuries.</p> + +<p>Holland was far advanced in paper-making in the +seventeenth century. The revolution of 1688 having +seriously interrupted the art in England, that country +imported paper from Holland during that period +amounting to £100,000. It was a native of Holland, +Rittenhouse, who introduced paper-making in America +and erected a mill near Philadelphia in the early +years of the eighteenth century, and there made paper +from linen rags.</p> + +<p>The Dutch also had substituted cylinders armed +with blades in place of stampers and used their windmills +to run them. The Germans and French experimented +with wood and straw.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_276" id="PAGE_276">[Pg 276]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the latter part of the eighteenth century some +manufacturers in Europe had learned to make +white paper from white rags, and as good in quality, +and some think better, than is made at the present +day. The essentials of paper making by hand from +rags and raw vegetable fibres, the soaking of fibres in +water and boiling them in lyes, the beating, rolling, +smoothing, sizing and polishing of the paper, were +then known and practised. But the best paper was +then a dear commodity. The art of bleaching coloured +stock was unknown, and white paper was made alone +from stock that came white into the mill. The +processes were nearly all hand operations. “Beating” +was pounding in a mortar. The pulp was laid +by hand upon moulds made of parallel strands of +coarse brass wire; and the making of the pulp by +grinding wood and treating it chemically to soften it +was experimental.</p> + +<p>The nineteenth century produced a revolution. It +introduced the use of modern machinery, and modern +chemical processes, by which all known varieties and +sizes of paper, of all colours, as well as paper vessels, +are made daily in immense quantities in all civilised +countries, from all sorts of fibrous materials.</p> + +<p>Knight, in his <i>Mechanical Dictionary</i>, gives a list +of nearly 400 different materials for paper making +that had been used or suggested, for the most part +within the century and up to twenty years ago, and +the number has since increased.</p> + +<p>The modern revolution commenced in 1799, when +Louis Robert, an employee of François Didot of +Essones, France, invented and patented the first machine +for making paper in a long, wide, continuous +web. The French government in 1800 granted him +a reward of 8,000 francs. The machine was then<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_277" id="PAGE_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> +exhibited in England and there tested with success. +It was there that Messrs. Fourdrinier, a wealthy stationery +firm, purchased the patents, expended +£60,000 for improvements on the machine, and first +gave to the world its practical benefits. This expenditure +bankrupted them, as the machines were not +at once remunerative, and parliament refused to +grant them pecuniary assistance. Gamble, Donkin, +Koops, the Fourdriniers, Dickenson, and Wilkes, +were the first inventors to improve the Robert machine, +and to give it that form which in many essential +features remains to-day. They, together with +later inventors, gave to the world a new system of +paper making.</p> + +<p>By 1872 two hundred and ninety-nine Fourdrinier +machines were running in the United States alone. +In the improved Fourdrinier machine or system, rags, +or wood, or straw are ground or otherwise reduced to +pulp, and then the pulp, when properly soaked and +drained, is dumped into a regulating box, passing +under a copper gate to regulate the amount and +depth of feed, then carried along through strainers, +screeners or dressers, to free the mass from clots and +reduce it to the proper fineness, over an endless wire +apron, spread evenly over this apron by a shaking +motion, subjected to the action of a suction box by +which the water is drawn off by air-suction pumps, +carried between cloth-covered rollers which press and +cohere it, carried on to a moving long felt blanket to +further free it from moisture, and which continues +to hold the sheet of pulp in form; then with the +blanket through press rolls adjustable to a desired +pressure and provided with means to remove therefrom +adhering pulp and to arrest the progress of +the paper if necessary; then through another set of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_278" id="PAGE_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> +compression rollers, when the condensed and matted +pulp, now paper, is carried on to a second blanket, +passed through a series of steam cylinders, where the +web is partially dried, and again compressed, thence +through another series of rollers and drying cylinders, +which still further dry and stretch it, and now, +finally completed, the sheet is wound on a receiving +cylinder. The number of rollers and cylinders and +the position and the length of the process to fully dry, +compact, stretch and finish the sheet, may be, and +are, varied greatly. If it is desired to impress on or +into the paper water marks, letters, words, or ornamental +matter, the paper in its moist stage, after it +passes through the suction boxes, is passed under a +“dandy” or fancy scrolled roll provided on its surface +with the desired design. When it is desired to +give it a smooth, glossy surface, the paper, after its +completion, is passed through animal sizing material, +and then between drying and smoothing rollers. Or +this sizing may be applied to the pulp at the outset +of the operation. Colouring material, when desired, +is applied to the pulp, before pressing. By the use +of machines under this system, a vast amount of material, +cast-off rags, etc., before regarded as waste, +was utilised for paper making.</p> + +<p>The modern discoveries of the chemists of the +century as to the nature of fibres, best modes and materials +for reducing them to pulp, and bleaching +processes, have brought the art of paper making from +wood and other fibrous materials to its present high +and prosperous condition.</p> + +<p>What are known as the soda-pulp and the sulphite +processes are examples of this. The latter and other +acid processes were not successful until cement-lined +digesters were invented to withstand their corroding<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_279" id="PAGE_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> +action. But now it is only necessary to have a convenient +forest of almost any kind of wood to justify +the establishment of a paper mill.</p> + +<p>It was the scarcity of rags, especially of linen +rags, that forced inventors to find other paper-producing +materials.</p> + +<p>It would be impossible and uninteresting in a +work of this character to enumerate the mechanical +details constituting the improvements of the century +in paper-making machinery of all kinds. Thousands +of patents have been granted for such inventions. +With one modern Fourdrinier machine, and a few +beating engines, a small paper mill will now turn out +daily as much paper as could be made by twelve +mills a hundred years ago.</p> + +<p>In moulding pulp into articles of manufacture, +satisfactory machines have been invented, not only +for the mere forming them into shape, but for water-proofing +and indurating the same. From the making +of a ponderous paper car wheel to a lady’s delicate +work basket, success has been attained.</p> + +<p><i>Paper bag machines</i>, machines for making <i>paper +boxes</i>, applying and staying corners of such boxes, for +making <i>cell cases</i> used in packing eggs and fruit, and +for wrapping fruit; machines for affixing various +forms of labels and addresses, are among the wonders +of modern inventions relating to paper. It is +wonderful how art and ingenuity united about thirty +years ago to produce attractive <i>wall papers</i>. +Previous to that time they were dull and conventional +in appearance. Now beautiful designs are rolled out +from machines.</p> + +<p><i>Printing.</i>—We have already seen how paper +making and printing grew up together an indefinite +number of centuries ago in the Far East. Both block<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_280" id="PAGE_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> +printing and movable types were the production of +the Chinese, with which on their little pages of many-coloured +paper they printed myriads of volumes of +their strange literature in stranger characters during +centuries when Europeans were painfully inscribing +their thoughts with the stylus and crude pens upon +papyrus and the dried skins of animals.</p> + +<p>But the European and his descendants delight to +honour most the early inventors of their own countries. +Italy refers with pride to the printing from +blocks practised by the Venetians, and at Ravenna, +from 1280 to 1300; from type at Subiaco in the +Roman territory in 1465, and to the first Roman +book printed in 1470; the Dutch to Laurens Coster, +whom they allege invented movable type in 1423. +Some of the Dutch have doubted this, and pin their +faith on Jacob Bellaert, as the first printer, and +Gerard Leeu, his workman, who made the types at +Haarlem, in 1483. The Germans rely with confidence +on John Guttenberg, who at Strasburg, as early +as 1436, had wooden blocks, and wooden movable +types, and who, two or three years after, printed several +works; on the partnership of Faust and Guttenberg +in 1450 at Mentz, and their Bible in Latin +printed in 1456 on vellum with types imitating +manuscript in form, and illustrated by hand; and, +finally, on Peter Schoeffer of Gernsheim, who then +made matrices in which were cast the letters singly, +and who thereby so pleased his master, Faust, that +the latter gave him his daughter, Christina, in marriage.</p> + +<p>From Germany the art spread to Paris and thence +to England. About 1474 Caxton was printing his +black-letter books in England. Spain followed, and +it is stated that in 1500 there were two hundred<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_281" id="PAGE_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> +printing offices in Europe. The religious and political +turmoils in Germany in the sixteenth century +gave an immense impetus to printing there. The +printing press was the handmaid of the Reformation. +In America the first printing press was set +up in Mexico in 1536, and in Lima, Brazil, in 1586. +In 1639, nineteen years after the landing of the Pilgrims +on the bleak rock at Plymouth, they set up a +printing press at Cambridge, Mass.</p> + +<p>The art of printing soon resolved itself into two +classes: first, <i>composition</i>, the arranging of the type +in the proper order into words and pages; and second, +<i>press work</i>; the taking of impressions from the +types, or from casts of types in plates—being a <i>facsimile</i> +of a type bed. This was <i>stereotyping</i>—the invention +of William Ged, of Edinburgh, in 1731.</p> + +<p>Types soon came to be made everywhere of uniform +height; that of England and America being +92-100 of an inch, and became universally classified +by names according to their sizes, as pica, small +pica, long primer, minion, nonpareil, etc.</p> + +<p>After movable types came the invention of +<i>Presses</i>. The earliest were composed of a wooden +frame on which were placed the simple screw and a +lever to force a plate down upon a sheet of paper +placed on the bed of type which had been set in the +press, with a spring to automatically raise the screw +and plate after the delivery of the impression. This +was invented by Blaew of Amsterdam in 1620. +Such, also, was the Ramage press, and on such a one +Benjamin Franklin worked at his trade as a printer, +both in America and in London. His London press, +on which he worked in 1725, was carried to the +United States, and is now on exhibition in Washington. +This was substantially the state of the art at +the beginning of the century.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_282" id="PAGE_282">[Pg 282]</a></span></p> + +<p>Then Earl Stanhope in England invented a press +entirely of iron, and the power consisted of the combination +of a toggle joint and lever. The first +American improvement was invented by George +Clymer, of Philadelphia, in 1817, the power being an +improved lever consisting of three simple levers of +the second order. This was superseded by the +“Washington” press invented by Samuel Rust in +1829. It has as essential parts the toggle joint and +lever, and in the frame work, as in the Stanhope, +type bed, rails on which the bed was moved in and +out, means to move the bed, the platen, the tympan +on which the sheet is placed, the frisket, a perforated +sheet of paper, to preserve the printed sheet, an inking +roller and frame. In this was subsequently introduced +an automatic device for inking the roller, as +it was moved back from over the bed of type on to an +inking table. This, substantially, has been the hand +press ever since.</p> + +<p>With one of these hand-presses and the aid of two +men about two hundred and fifty sheets an hour +could be printed on one side. The increase in the circulation +of newspapers before the opening of the 19th +century demanded greater rapidity of production and +turned the attention of inventors to the construction +of power or machine presses. Like the paper-making +machine, the power press was conceived in the +last decade of the eighteenth century, and like that +art was also not developed until the nineteenth century. +William Nicholson of England is believed to +have been the first inventor of a machine printing +press. He obtained an English patent for it in 1720. +The type were to be placed on the face of one cylinder, +which was designed to be in gear, revolved with, +and press upon another cylinder covered with<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_283" id="PAGE_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> +soft leather, the type cylinder to be inked by +a third cylinder to which the inking apparatus, +was applied, and the paper to be printed +by being passed between the type and the impression +cylinder. These ideas were incorporated into the +best printing machines that have since been made. +But the first successful machine printing press was +the invention of two Saxons, König and Bauer, in +1813, who introduced their ideas from Germany, +constructed the machine in London, and on which on +the 28th of November, 1814, an issue of the <i>London +Times</i> was printed. The <i>Times</i> announced to +its readers that day that they were for the first time +perusing a paper printed upon a machine driven +by steam power. What a union of mighty forces was +heralded in this simple announcement! The union +of the steam engine, the printing press, and a great +and powerful journal! An Archimedean lever had +been found at last with which to move the world.</p> + +<p>The production of printed sheets per hour over the +hand-press was at once quadrupled, and very shortly +1800 sheets per hour were printed. This machine +was of that class known as cylinder presses. In this +machine ordinary type was used, and the type-form +was flat and passed beneath a large impression cylinder +on which the paper was held by tapes. The +type-form was reciprocated beneath an inking apparatus +and the paper cylinder alternately. The inking +apparatus consisted of a series of rollers, to the +first of which the ink was ejected from a trough and +distributed to the others. In 1815 Cowper patented +in England electrotype plates to be affixed to a cylinder. +Applegath and Cowper improved the König +machine in the matter of the ink distributing rollers, +and in the adaptation of four printing cylinders to<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_284" id="PAGE_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> +the reciprocating type bed, whereby, with some other +minor changes, 5000 impressions on one side were +produced per hour. Again Applegath greatly +changed the arrangement of cylinders and multiplied +their number, and the number of the other parts, so +that in 1848 the sheets printed on one side were first +8000 and then 12,000 an hour.</p> + +<p>In the United States, Daniel Treadwell of Boston +invented the first power printing machine in 1822. +Two of these machines were at that time set up in +New York city. It was a flat bed press and was long +used in Washington in printing for the government. +David Bruce of New York, in 1838, invented the +first successful type-casting machine, which, when +shortly afterward it was perfected, became the model +for type-casting machines for Europe and America. +Previous to that time type were generally made by +casting them in hand-moulds—the metal being +poured in with a spoon.</p> + +<p>Robert Hoe, an English inventor, went to New +York in 1803, and turned his attention to the making +of printing presses. His son, Richard March Hoe, +inherited his father’s inventive genius. While in +England in 1837-1840, obtaining a patent on and introducing +a circular saw, he became interested in +the printing presses of the London Times. Returning +home, he invented and perfected a rotary machine +which received the name of the “Lightning +Press.” It first had four and then ten cylinders arranged +in a circle. As finally completed, it printed +from a continuous roll of paper several miles in +length, and on both sides at the same time, cutting off +and folding ready for delivery, 15,000 to 20,000 +newspapers an hour, the paper being drawn through +the press at the rate of 1,000 feet in a minute. Before +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_285" id="PAGE_285">[Pg 285]</a></span>it was in this final, completed shape, it was +adopted by the <i>London Times</i>. John Walter of +London in the meantime invented a machine of a +similar class. He also used a sheet of paper miles +long. It was first damped, passed through blotting +rolls, and then to the printing cylinders. It gave +out 11,000 perfected sheets, or 22,000 impressions an +hour, and as each sheet was printed, it was cut by +a knife on the cylinder, and the sheets piled on the +paper boards. It was adopted by the London <i>Times</i> +and the New York <i>Times</i>.</p> + +<p>A German press at Augsburg, and the Campbell +presses of the United States, have also become celebrated +as web perfecting presses, in which the web is +printed, the sheets cut, associated, folded, and delivered +at high speed. One of the latest quadruple +stereotype perfecting presses made by Hoe & Co. +of New York has a running capacity of 48,000 +papers per hour. On another, a New York paper +has turned off nearly six hundred thousand copies +in a single day, requiring for their printing ninety-four +tons of paper. Among other celebrated inventors +of printing presses in the United States were +Isaac Adams, Taylor, Gordon, Potter, Hawkins, Bullock, +Cottrell, Campbell, Babcock, and Firm.</p> + +<p><i>Mail-marking Machines</i>, in which provision is +made for holding the printing mechanism out of +operative position in case a letter is not in position +to be stamped; address-printing machines, including +machines for printing addresses by means of a +stencil; machines for automatically setting and distributing +the type, including those in which the +individual types are caused to enter the proper receptacle +by means of nicks in the type, which engage +corresponding projections on a stationary guard<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_286" id="PAGE_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> +plate, and automatic type justifying machines. All +such have been invented, developed, and perfected +in the last half century.</p> + +<p>Another invention which has added wonderfully +to push the century along, is the <i>Typewriter</i>. It +has long been said that “The pen is mightier than +the sword,” but from present indications, it is proper +to add that the typewriter is mightier than the pen.</p> + +<p>A machine in which movable types are caused to +yield impressions on paper to form letters by means +of key levers operated by hand, has been one of +slow growth from its conception to its present practical +and successful form.</p> + +<p>Some one suggested the idea in England in a +patent in 1714. The idea rested until 1840, when a +French inventor revived it in a patent. At the same +time patents began to come out in England and the +United States; and about forty patents in each of +these two countries were granted from that time until +1875. Since that date about 1400 patents more have +been issued in the United States, and a large number +in other countries. It was, however, only that year +and before 1880, that the first popular commercially +successful machines were made and introduced.</p> + +<p>The leading generic idea of all subsequent successful +devices of this kind was clearly set forth in +the patent of S. W. Francis of the United States in +1857. This feature is the arranging of a row of hammers +in a circle so that when put in motion they will +all strike the same place, which is the centre of that +circle. The arrangement of a row of pivoted hammers +or type levers, each operated by a separate key +lever to strike an inked ribbon in front of a sheet +of paper, means to automatically move the carriage +carrying the paper roll from right to left as the letters +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_287" id="PAGE_287">[Pg 287]</a></span>are successfully printed, leaving a space between +each letter and word, and sounding a signal when the +end of a line is reached, so that the carriage may be +returned to its former position—all these and some +other minor but necessary operations may seem simple +enough when stated, but their accomplishment +required the careful study of many inventors for +years.</p> + +<p>One of the most modern of typewriters has a single +electro-magnet to actuate all the type bars of a set, +and to throw each type from its normal position to +the printing centre. By an extremely light touch +given to each key lever the circuit is closed and +causes the lever to strike without the necessity of +pressing the key down its whole extent and releasing +it before the next key strikes. By this device, the +operator is relieved of fatigue, as his fingers may +glide quickly from one key to another, the printing +is made uniform, and far greater speed attained by +reason of the quick and delicate action. Mr. Thaddeus +Cahill of Washington appears to be the first +to have invented the most successful of this type of +machines.</p> + +<p><i>Book-binding Machinery</i> is another new production +of the century. It may be that the old hand +methods would give to a book a stronger binding +than is found on most books to-day, but the modern +public demands and has obtained machinery that will +take the loose sheets and bind them ready for delivery, +at the rate of ten or fifteen thousand volumes a +day.</p> + +<p>The “quaint and curious volumes of forgotten +lore,” the Latin folios in oak or ivory boards with +brass clasps, or bound in velvet, or in crimson satin, +ornamented with finest needlework or precious<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_288" id="PAGE_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> +stones, or the more humble beech boards, and calf +and sheep skins with metal edges and iron clasps, in +all of which the sheets were stoutly sewed together +and glued, when glue was known, to the covers, are +now but relics of the past. Machinery came to the +front quite rapidly after 1825, at which time cloth +had been introduced as cheaper than leather, and as +cheap and a more enduring binder than paper. +The processes in book-binding are enumerated as +follows; and for each process a machine has been +invented within the last sixty years to do the work:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +<span class="line">Folding the sheets;<br></span> +<span class="line">Gathering the consecutive sheets;<br></span> +<span class="line">Rolling the backs of folded sheets;<br></span> +<span class="line">Saw cutting the backs for the combs;<br></span> +<span class="line">Sewing;<br></span> +<span class="line">Rounding the back of the sewed sheets.<br></span> +<span class="line">Edge cutting;<br></span> +<span class="line">Binding, securing the books to the sides, covering with muslin, leather or paper. Tooling and lettering.<br></span> +<span class="line">Edge gilting.<br></span> +</p> + +<p>One of the best modern illustrations of human +thought and complicated manual operations contained +in automatic machinery is the <i>Linotype</i>.</p> + +<p>It is a great step from the humble invention of +Schoeffer five hundred and fifty years ago of cast +movable type to that of another German, Mergenthaler, +in 1890-92.</p> + +<p>The Linotype (a line of type) was pronounced by +the <i>London Engineering</i> “as the most remarkable +machine of this century.” It was the outcome of +twelve years of continuous experiment and invention, +and the expenditure of more than a million dollars. +A brief description of this invention is given in the +report of the United States commissioner of patents +for 1895 as follows: “In the present Mergenthaler<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_289" id="PAGE_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> +construction there is a magazine containing a series +of tubes for the letter or character moulds, each of +which moulds is provided with a single character. +There are a number of duplicates of each character, +and the moulds containing the same character are +all arranged in one tube. The machine is provided +with a series of finger keys, which, when pressed +like the keys of a typewriter, cause the letter moulds +to assemble in a line in their proper order for print. +A line mould and a melting pot are then brought into +proper relation to the assembled line of letter moulds +and a cast is taken, called the linotype, which represents +the entire line, a column wide, of the matter to +be printed. The letter moulds are then automatically +returned to their proper magazine tube. The Mergenthaler +machine is largely in use in the principal +newspaper offices, with the result that a single operator +does at least the work of four average compositors.”</p> + +<p>Mr Rogers obtained a United States patent, September +23, 1890, for a machine for casting lines of +type, the principal feature of which is that the letter +moulds are strung on wires secured on a hinged +frame. “When the frame is in one position, the letter +moulds are released by the keys, slide down the +wires by gravity and are assembled in line at the +casting point. After the cast is taken, the lower ends +of the guide wires are elevated, which causes the +letter moulds to slide back on the wires to their original +position, when the operation is repeated for the +next line.” Operated by a single person, the Mergenthaler +produces and assembles linotypes ready +for the press or stereotyping table at the rate of from +3,600 to 7,000 ems (type characters) per hour. It +permits the face or style of type to be changed at will<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_290" id="PAGE_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> +and it permits the operator to read and correct his +matter as he proceeds.</p> + +<p>To the aid of the ordinary printing press came +<i>electrotyping</i>, stenographic colour printing, engraving, +and smaller job and card presses, all entirely +new creations within the century, and of infinite +variety, each in itself forming a new class in typographic +art, and a valuable addition to the marvellous +transformation.</p> + +<p>The introduction of the linotype and other modern +machines into printing offices has without doubt +many times reduced and displaced manual labour, +and caused at those times at least temporary suffering +among employees. But statistics do not show +that as a whole there are fewer printers in the land. +On the contrary, the force seems to increase, just as +the number of printing establishments increase, with +the multiplication of new inventions. As in other +arts, the distress caused by the displacement of hand-labour +by machinery is local and temporary. The +whole art rests for its development on the demand +for reading matter, and the demand never seems to +let up. It increases as fast as the means of the consumers +increase for procuring it. One hundred +years ago a decent private library, consisting of a +hundred or so volumes, one or two weekly newspapers, +and an occasional periodical, was the badge +and possession alone of the wealthy few. Now +nearly every reading citizen of every village has +piled up in some corner of his house a better supply +than that, of bound or unbound literature, and of a +far superior quality. Besides the tons of reading +matter of all kinds turned out daily by the city +presses, every village wants its own paper and its +town library, and every one of its business men has<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_291" id="PAGE_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> +recourse to the typewriter and the printer for his +letters, his cards, and his advertisements.</p> + +<p>To supply the present demand for printed matter +with the implements of a hundred years ago, it would +be necessary to draw upon and exhaust the supply of +labourers in nearly every other occupation. Printing +would become the one universal profession.</p> + +<p>The roar of the guns at Waterloo and the click +of the first power printing press in London were +nearly simultaneous. The military Colossus then +tumbled, and the Press began to lead mankind. +Wars still continue, and will, until men are civilised; +but the vanguard of civilisation are the printers, and +not the warriors. The marvellous glory of the nineteenth +century has proceeded from the intelligence of +the people, awakened, stimulated, and guided by the +press. But the press itself, and its servitors and +messengers, speeding on the wings of electricity, are +the children of the inventors.</p> + +<p>These inventions have made the book and the newspaper +the poor man’s University. They are mirrors +which throw into his humble home reflections of the +scenes of busy life everywhere. By them knowledge +is spread, thought aroused, and universal education +established.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_292" id="PAGE_292">[Pg 292]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +TEXTILES.</span></h2> + + +<p><i>Spinning</i>:—A bunch of combed fibre fixed in the +forked end of a stick called a distaff, held under the +left arm, while with the right forefinger and thumb +the housewife or maiden deftly drew out and twisted +a thread of yarn of the fibre and wound it upon a stick +called a spindle, was the art of spinning that came +down to Europe from Ancient Egypt or India without +a change through all the centuries to at least the +middle of the fourteenth century, and in England +to the time of Henry VIII. Then the spinning +wheel was introduced, which is said to have also been +long in use in India. By the use of the wheel the +spindle was no longer held in the hand, but, set upon +a frame and connected by a cord or belt to the wheel, +was made to whirl by turning the wheel by hand, or +by a treadle. The spindle was connected to the +bunch of cotton by a cord, or by a single roving of +cotton or wool attached to the spindle, which was held +between the finger and thumb, and as the spindle +revolved the thread was drawn out and twisted and +wound by the spindle upon itself.</p> + +<p>In the cloth of the ancient East the warp and weft +were both of cotton. In England the warp was linen +and the weft was cotton. The warp was made by the +cloth and linen manufacturers, and the weft yarns +furnished by the woman spinsters throughout the +country. By both these methods only a single thread<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_293" id="PAGE_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> +at a time was spun. The principle of the spinning +operation, the drawing out and twisting a thread or +cord from a bunch or roll of fibre, has remained the +same through all time.</p> + +<p>The light and delicate work, the pure and soft material, +and the beauty and usefulness of raiments produced, +have all through time made woman the natural +goddess, the priestess, the patroness, and the +votary of this art. The object of all modern machinery, +however complicated or wonderful, has simply +been to increase the speed and efficiency of the ancient +mode of operation and to multiply its results. +The loom, that antique frame on which the threads +were laid in one direction to form the warp, and +crossed by the yarns in the opposite direction, carried +through the warp by the shuttle thrown by hand, to +form the woof, or weft, comprised a device as old as, +if not older than, the distaff and spindle.</p> + +<p>The ancient and isolated races of Mexico had +also learned the art of spinning and weaving. When +the Spaniards first entered that country they found +the natives clothed in cotton, woven plain, or in +many colours.</p> + +<p>After forty centuries of unchanged life, it occurred +to John Kay of Bury, England, that the weaving +process might be improved. In 1733 he had succeeded +in inventing the picker motion, “picker peg,” +or “fly.” This consisted of mechanical means for +throwing the shuttle across the web by a sudden jerk +of a bar—one at each side—operated by pulling a +cord. He could thus throw the shuttle farther and +quicker than by hand—make wider cloth, and do +as much work in the same time as two men had done +before. This improvement put weaving ahead of +spinning, and the weavers were continually calling<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_294" id="PAGE_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> +on the spindlers for more weft yarns. This set the +wits of inventors at work to better the spinning +means.</p> + +<p>At the same time that Kay was struggling with his +invention of the flying shuttle, another poor man, but +with less success, had conceived another idea, as to +spinning. John Wyatt of Lichfield thought it would +be a good thing to draw out the sliver of cotton or +wool between two sets of rollers, one end of the +sliver being held and fed by one set of rollers, while +the opposite end was being drawn by the other set of +rollers moving at a greater speed. His invention, although +not then used, was patented in 1738 by Lewis +Paul, who in time won a fortune by it, while Wyatt +died poor, and it was claimed that Paul and not +Wyatt was the true inventor.</p> + +<p>About 1764 a little accident occurring in the home +of James Hargreaves, an English weaver of Blackburn, +suggested to that observant person an invention +that was as important as that of Kay. He was studying +hard how to get up a machine to meet the weavers’ +demands for cotton yarns. One day while Hargreaves +was spinning, surrounded by his children, +one of them upset the spinning wheel, probably in +a children’s frolic, and after it fell and while lying +in a horizontal position, with the spindle in a +vertical position, and the wheel and the spindle +still running, the idea flashed into Hargreaves’ +mind that a number of spindles might be placed +upright and run from the same power. Thus +prompted he commenced work, working in secret and +at odd hours, and finally, after two or three years, +completed a crude machine, which he called the spinning +jenny, some say after his wife, and others that +the name came from “gin,” the common abbreviated<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_295" id="PAGE_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> +name of an engine. This machine had eight or ten +spindles driven by cords or belts from the same +wheel, and operated by hand or foot. The rovings +at one end were attached to the spindles and their +opposite portions held together and drawn out by a +clasp held in the hand. When the thread yarn was +drawn out sufficiently it was wound upon the spindles +by a reverse movement of the wheel. Thus finally +were means provided to supply the demand for the +weft yarns. One person with one of Hargreaves’ +machines could in the same time spin as much as +twenty or thirty persons with their wheels. But +those who were to be most benefited by the invention +were the most alarmed, for fear of the destruction +of their business, and they arose in their wrath, and +demolished Hargreaves’ labours. It was a hard time +for inventors. The law of England then was that +patents were invalid if the invention was made known +before the patent was applied for, and part of the +public insisted on demolishing the invention if it was +so made known, so that to avoid the law and the +lawless the harassed inventors kept and worked +their inventions in secret as long as they could. +Hargreaves fled to Nottingham, where works were +soon started with his spinning jennys. The ideas +of Kay, Wyatt and Hargreaves are said to have +been anticipated in Italy. There were makers of +cloths at Florence, and also in Spain and the Netherlands, +who were far in advance of the English and +French in this art, but the descriptions of machinery +employed by them are too vague and scanty to sustain +the allegation.</p> + +<p>And now the long ice age of hand working was +breaking up, and the age of machine production was +fast setting in. Hargreaves was in the midst of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_296" id="PAGE_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> +troubles and his early triumphs, in 1765-1769, +when Richard Arkwright entered the field. Arkwright, +first a barber, and then a travelling buyer +of hair, and finally a knight, learned, as he travelled +through Lancashire, Lichfield, Blackburn and Nottingham, +of the inventions and labours of Wyatt, +Kay and Hargreaves. Possessed as he was of some +mechanical skill and inventive genius, and realising +that the harvest was ripe and the labourers few, entered +the field of inventions, and with the help of Kay, +revived the old ideas of John Wyatt and Lewis Paul +of spinning by rollers, which had now slumbered for +thirty years. Kay and Arkwright constructed a +working model, and on this Arkwright by hard pushing +and hard work obtained capital, and improved, +completed and patented his machine. The machine +was first used by him in a mill erected at Nottingham +and worked by horses; then at Cromford, and +in this mill the power used to drive the spinning +machine was a water wheel. His invention was +therefore given the name of the <i>water</i> frame, which +it retained long after steam had been substituted for +water as the driving power. It was also named the +<i>throstle</i>, from the fact that it gave a humming or +singing sound while at work; but it is commonly +known as the <i>drawing</i> frame. Arkwright patented +useful improvements. He had to contend with mobs +and with the courts, which combined to destroy his +machines and his patent, but he finally succeeded in +establishing mills, and in earning from the Government, +manufacturers, and the public a great and +well-merited munificence.</p> + +<p>It is a remarkable coincidence that Watt’s steam +engine patent and Arkwright’s first patent for his +spinning machine were issued in the same year<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_297" id="PAGE_297">[Pg 297]</a></span>—1769. +The new era of invention was dawning fast.</p> + +<p>Then, in 1776, came Samuel Crompton of Bolton, +who invented a combination of the jenny of Hargreaves +and the roller water frame of Arkwright, and +to distinguish his invention from the others he named +it the “mule.” The mule was a carriage on wheels +to which the spindles were attached. When the +mule was drawn out one way on its frame the rovings +were drawn from bobbins through rollers on a +stationary frame, stretched and twisted into threads, +and then as the mule was run back the spun threads +were wound on spools on the spindles. The mule entirely +superseded the use of the jenny. Notwithstanding +the advantage in names the mule did more +delicate work than the jenny. It avoided the continuous +stretch on the thread of the jenny by first +completing the thread and then winding it. Crompton’s +mule was moved back and forth by hand. Roberts +subsequently made it self-acting. Next, followed +in England the Rev. Edward Cartwright, who, +turning his attention to <i>looms</i>, invented the first loom +run by machinery, the <i>first power loom</i>, 1784-85. +Then the rioters turned on him, and he experienced +the same attentions received by Hargreaves and Arkwright. +The ignorance of ages died in this branch +of human progress, as it often dies in others, with +a violent wrench. But the age of steam had at last +come, and with it the spinning machine, the power +loom, the printing press, and the discovery among +men of the powers of the mind, their freedom to +exercise such powers, and their right to possess the +fruits of their labours.</p> + +<p>The completed inventions of Arkwright and others, +combined with Watt’s steam engine, revolutionised<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_298" id="PAGE_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> +trade, and resulted in the establishment of mills and +factories. A thousand spindles whirled where one +hummed before. The factory life which drew the +women and girls from their country homes to heated, +and closely occupied, ill ventilated buildings within +town limits, was, however, not regarded as an improvement +in the matter of health; and it was a long +time before mills were constructed and operated with +the view to the correction of this evil.</p> + +<p>The great increase in demand for cotton produced +by these machine inventions could not have been met +had it not been for Eli Whitney’s invention of the +saw gin in America in 1793. The cleaning of the +seed from the cotton accomplished by this machine +produced as great a revolution in the culture of cotton +in America as the inventions of Arkwright and others +accomplished in spinning and weaving in England. +America had also learned of Arkwright’s machinery. +Samuel Slater, a former employee of Arkwright, introduced +it to Rhode Island in 1789, and built a great +cotton mill there in 1793. Others followed in Massachusetts. +Within twenty years after the introduction +of Arkwright’s machines in the United States +there were a hundred mills there with a hundred +thousand spindles.</p> + +<p>As has been said, it was customary for weavers to +make the warp on their looms at one place, and the +spinners to furnish the yarns for the weft from their +homes, and even after the spinning machines were invented +the spinning and weaving were done at +separate places. It remained for Francis C. Lowell +of Boston, who had been studying the art of spinning +and weaving in England and Scotland and the inventions +of Arkwright and Crompton, to establish in +1813 at Waltham, Mass., with the aid of Paul<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_299" id="PAGE_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> +Moody, machinist, the first factory in the world +wherein were combined under one roof all the processes +for converting cotton into cloth.</p> + +<p>The task of the century in this art has been to +greatly extend the dominion of machinery in the +treatment of cotton and wool in all stages, from the +reception of the raw material at the door of the factory +to its final completion in the form of the choicest +cloth, and to increase the capacity of machines sufficiently +to meet an ever-increasing and enormous +consumption. There are from twenty to forty separate +and distinct operations performed both in spinning +and weaving and the completion of a piece of +cloth from cotton or wool, and nearly all of these operations +are accomplished by machinery.</p> + +<p>The century’s improvements and inventions in +machines for treating and spinning cotton comprise +machines for first opening and tearing the matted +mass apart as it is taken from the bales, then cleaning, +carding, drawing, roving, stretching, spinning, +winding, doubling, dressing, warping, weaving, etc. +Formerly, the opening machines were simply cylinders +armed with spikes, to which the cotton was led +through nipping rollers, and then delivered in a loose, +fluffy condition. When such a machine was associated +with a blowing machine to blow out the dust and +cleanse the fibre, the loose and scattered condition +in which the cotton was left gave rise to a great danger +from fire, and destructive fires often occurred. +The object of the later opening machinery is to confine +the cotton within a casing in its passage through +the machine, during which passage it is thoroughly +stretched, beaten and blown and then rolled into a +continuous sheet or lap. At the same time, +by nice devices, it is evened, that is, freed from<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_300" id="PAGE_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> +all knots, and made of uniform thickness, while a +certain quantity only of cotton of known weight is +allowed to pass through to constitute the required +lap. Finally the lap is wound upon a roller, which +when filled is removed to the carder. Although the +cotton is now a white, soft, clean, downy sheet, still +the fibres cross each other in every direction, and +they require to be straightened and laid parallel before +the spinning. This is done by carding. Paul, +Hargreaves, Robert Peel, and Arkwright had worked +in constructing a machine to take the place of hand +carding, and it was finally reduced by Arkwright, +towards the close of the 18th century, to its present +form and principle.</p> + +<p>But to make those narrow, ribbon-like, clean, long +lines of rolled cotton, known as slivers, by machinery +with greater precision and uniformity than is possible +by hand, and with a thousand times greater +rapidity, has been the work of many inventors at different +times and in different countries. The machine +cards are cylinders clothed with leather and +provided with separate sets of slender, sharp, bent +fingers. The different cards are arranged to move +past each other in opposite directions, so as to catch +and disentangle the fibres. Flat, overhead stationary +cards are also used through which the cotton is carried. +As one operation of carding is not sufficient for most +purposes the cotton is subjected to one or more successive +cardings. So ingenious is the structure in +some of its parts that as the stream of cotton passes +on, any existing knots do not fail to excite the attention +of the machine, which at once arrests them and +holds them until disentangled. In connection with +the cards, combers and strippers are used to assist +in further cleaning and straightening the fibre, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_301" id="PAGE_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> +is finally removed from the cards and the combs by +the doffer. The cotton is stripped from the doffer by +the doffer knife and in the form of delicate, flat +narrow ribbons, which are drawn through a small +funnel to consolidate them, and finally delivered in +a coiled form into a tall tin can. The material is +then carried to a drawing frame, which takes the +spongy slivers, and, carrying them through successive +sets of rollers moving at increased speed, elongates, +equalises, straightens and “doubles” them, and finally +condenses them into two or more rolls by passing +the same through a trumpet-shaped funnel. As the +yarns still need to be twisted, they are passed through +a roving frame similar to a drawing frame. An ingenious +device connected with the winding of the roving +yarns upon bobbins may be here noted. Formerly +the bobbins on which the yarns were wound increased +in speed as they were filled, thus endangering +and often breaking the thread, and at all times increasing +the tension. In 1823 Asa Arnold of Rhode +Island invented “a differential motion” by which +the velocity of the bobbin is kept uniform. The +roving having been reduced to proper size for the intended +number of yarns, now goes to the spinning +machine, to still further draw out the threads and +give to them a more uniform twist and tenuity. +The spinning machine is simply an improved form +of Crompton’s mule, already described.</p> + +<p>Great as have been the improvements in many matters +in spindle structure, the drawing, the stretching +and the twisting still remain fundamentally the same +in principle as in the singing throstle of Arkwright +and the steady mule of Crompton. And yet so great +and rapid has been the advancement of inventions as +to details and to meet the great demand, that the machinery +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_302" id="PAGE_302">[Pg 302]</a></span>of half a century ago has been almost entirely +discarded and supplanted by different types. A great +improvement on the spinning frame of the 18th century +is the ring frame invented by Jenks. In this +the spindles, arranged vertically in the frame, are +driven by bands from a central cylinder, and project +through apertures in a horizontal bar. A flanged +ridge around each aperture forms a ring and affords +a track for a little steel hoop called a traveller, which +is sprung over the ring. The traveller guides the +thread on to the spool. As the spindles revolve, the +thread passing through the traveller revolves it rapidly, +and the horizontal bar rising and falling has the +effect of winding the yarn alternately and regularly +upon the spools.</p> + +<p>The bobbins of the spindle frame were found not +large enough to contain a sufficient amount of yarn +to permit of a long continuous operation when the +warp came to be applied, and besides there were occasional +defects in the thread which could not be +detected until it broke, if the yarn was used directly +from the bobbins. So to save much time and trouble +spooling machines were invented which wind the +yarn from the bobbins holding 1200 to 1800 yards, +to large spools, each holding 18,000 to 20,000 yards; +and then by passing the yarn through fine slots in +guides which lead to the spool, lumps or weak places, +which would break the yarns at the guide, could at +once be discovered and the yarn retied firmly, so +that there would be no further breaking in the +warper. After the yarn is finally spooled it is +found that its surface is still rough and covered with +fuzz. It is desirable, therefore, that it shall be +smoothed out and be given somewhat of a lustre before +weaving. These final operations are performed<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_303" id="PAGE_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> +by the warping and dressing machines. In the warping +machine the threads are drawn between rollers, +the tension of which can be regulated, and then +through a “reed,” a comb-shaped device which +separates the threads, and then finally wound upon +a large cylinder. In this machine a device is also +arranged which operates to stop the machine at once +if any thread is broken. When the cylinder is filled +it is then taken to the dresser, which in its modern +and useful form is known as the “slusher,” by which +the yarns are drawn through hot starch, the superfluous +starch squeezed out, and the yarns, kept separated +all the time, dried by passing them around large +drying cylinders, or through a closed box heated by +steam pipes, and then wound upon the loom beam or +cylinder.</p> + +<p>In weaving, as in spinning, however advanced, +complicated and improved the means may be beyond +the hand methods and simple looms of past ages, +the general principles in the process are still the +same. These means, generally and broadly speaking, +consist of a frame for two sets of threads, a roller, +called the warp beam, for receiving and holding the +threads which form the warp, a cloth beam upon +which the cloth is wound as it is woven, the warp +threads, being first laid parallel, carried from the +warp beam and attached to the cloth beam; means +called heddles, which with their moving frames constitute +“a harness,” consisting of a set of vertical +strings or rods having central loops through which the +threads are passed, two or more sets of which receive +alternate threads, and by the reciprocation of which +the threads are separated into sets, <i>decussated</i>, forming +between them what is called a shed through which +the shuttle is thrown; means for throwing the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_304" id="PAGE_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> +shuttle; and means, called the batten, lay or lathe, +for forcing or packing the weft tight into the angle +formed by the opened warp and so rendering the +fabric tight and compact, and then the motive power +for turning the cloth beam and winding the cloth as +fast as completed. It is along these lines that the inventors +have wrought their marvellous changes from +hand to power looms.</p> + +<p>Prior to 1800, in the weaving of figures into cloths, +it was customary to employ boys to pull the cords in +the loom harness in order to arrange the coloured +threads in their relative positions. In that year appeared +at the front Joseph Marie Jacquard, a French +mechanician and native of Lyons, whose parents were +weavers, a prolific inventor in his youth, a wayward +wanderer after fortune and a wife, a soldier in the +Revolution, losing a son fighting by his side, eking +out a poor living with his wife’s help at straw weaving, +finally employed by a silk manufacturer, and +while thus engaged, producing that loom which has +ever since been known by his name. This loom +was personally inspected by Napoleon, who rewarded +the inventor with honours and a pension. It was +then demolished by a mob and its inventor reviled, +but it afterward became the pride of Lyons and the +means of its renown and wealth in the weaving of +silks of rich designs.</p> + +<p>The leading feature of the Jacquard loom consists +of a chain of perforated pattern cards made to +pass over a drum, through which cards certain needles +pass, causing certain threads of the warp to rise and +fall, according to the holes in the cards, and thus admitting +at certain places in the warp coloured weft +threads thrown by the shuttle, and reproducing the +pattern which is perforated in the cards. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_305" id="PAGE_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> +Jacquard device could be applied to any loom, and +it worked a revolution in the manufacture of figured +goods. The complexity and expensiveness of Jacquard’s +loom were greatly reduced by subsequent improvements. +In 1854 M. Bonelli constructed an +electric loom in which the cards of the Jacquard apparatus +are superseded by an endless band of tin-foiled +paper, which serves as an electrical conductor +to operate the warp thread needles, which before had +each been actuated by a spiral spring. The Jacquard +loom was also greatly improved by the English inventors, +Barlow, Taylor, Martain and others.</p> + +<p>Radcliffe and Johnson, also of England, had invented +and introduced the machines for dressing the +yarns in one operation before the weaving; Horrocks +and Marsland of Stockport greatly improved the +adaptation of steam to the driving of looms, and Roberts +of Manchester made striking advances in their +mechanical parts and in bringing them to their present +state of wonderful efficiency.</p> + +<p>In America, in 1836, George Crompton of Taunton, +Massachusetts, commenced a series of inventions +in power looms for the manufacture of fancy woollen +goods, and in the details of such looms generally, +particularly in increasing the speed of the shuttle, +which vastly increased the production of such goods +and gave to his looms a world-wide reputation.</p> + +<p>E. B. Bigelow of Massachusetts in 1848 invented a +power loom, which was exhibited at the Exhibition +at London in 1851, and astonished the world by his +exhibition of carpets superior to any woven by hand. +By the later improvements, and the aid of steam +power, a single American Bigelow carpet loom can +turn out now one hundred yards of Brussels carpet in +a day, far superior in quality to any carpet which<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_306" id="PAGE_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> +could possibly be made by hand, when a man toiled +painfully to produce five yards a day. Mr. Bigelow +was also a pioneer inventor of power machines for +weaving coach lace, and cotton checks and ginghams. +James Lyall of New York invented a power loom +applicable either to the weaving of very wide and +heavy fabrics, such as jute canvas for the foundation +of floor oil cloth, or to fabrics made of the finest +and most delicate yarns.</p> + +<p>It would be interesting, if space permitted, to describe +the great variety of machines that have been +invented for dressing, finishing and treating cloths +after they are woven: The <i>teasling</i> machine, by +which the nap of woollen cloth is raised; the cloth +<i>drying</i> machine, with heated rollers, over which the +cloth is passed to drive off the moisture acquired in +dyeing, washing, etc., the cloth <i>printing</i>, <i>figuring</i>, +<i>colouring</i> and <i>embossing</i> machines, with engraved +cylinders; cloth pressing and <i>creasing</i> machines, and +the <i>cloth</i> cutting machines for cutting the cloth into +strips of all lengths, or for cutting piles of cloth in a +single operation into parts of garments corresponding +to the prearranged pattern; machines for making +<i>felt</i> cloth, and stamping or moulding different articles +of apparel from felt, etc., etc.</p> + +<p>For the making of ribbons and other kind of narrow +ware, the needle power loom has been invented, +in which the fine weft thread is carried through the +web by a needle instead of a shuttle. This adaptation +of the needle to looms has placed ribbons within +the reach of the poor as well as the rich girl.</p> + +<p>What a comparison between the work of the virtuous +Penelopes and the weavers of a century ago and +to-day! Then with her wheel, and by walking to and +from it as the yarn was drawn out, and wound up, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_307" id="PAGE_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> +maiden could spin twelve skeins of thread in ten +hours, producing a thread a little more than three +miles in length, while the length of her walk to and +fro was about five miles. Now one Penelope can attend +to six or eight hundred spindles, each of which +spins five thousand yards of thread a day, or, with the +eight hundred spindles, four million yards, or nearly +twenty-one hundred miles of thread in a day, while +she need not walk at all.</p> + +<p>It was when the weaver threw the shuttle through +the warp by hand that Job’s exclamation, “My days +are like a weaver’s shuttle” was an appropriate text +on the brevity of human life. It may be just as appropriate +now, but far more striking, when it is realised +that machines now throw the shuttle one hundred +and eighty times a minute, or three times a +second. Flying as fast as it does, when the shuttle +becomes exhausted of yarn a late invention presents +a new bobbin and a new supply of yarn to the shuttle +without stopping the machine.</p> + +<p>As to <i>knitting</i>, the century has seen the day pass +when all hosiery was knit by hand. First, machines +were invented for knitting the leg or the foot of the +stocking, which were then joined by hand, and then +came machines that made the stocking complete. +The social industry so quietly but slowly followed by +the good women in their chimney corners with their +knitting needles, by which a woman might possibly +knit a pair a day, was succeeded a quarter of a century +ago by machines, twelve of which could be attended +to by a boy, which would knit and complete +five thousand pairs a week. Such a machine commences +with the stocking at the top, knits down, +widening and narrowing, changes the stitch as it goes +on to the heel, shapes the heel, and finishes at the end<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_308" id="PAGE_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> +of the toe, all one thread, and then it recommences the +operation and goes on with another and another. +Fancy stockings, with numerous colours blended, are +so knit, and if the yarn holds out a mile of stockings +may be thus knit, without a break and without an +attendant. By these machines the astounding result +was reached of making the stockings at the cost of +one-sixth of a mill per pair.</p> + +<p>The wonderful reduction in the cost of all kinds +of textile fabrics due to the perfection of spinning +and loom mechanisms, and its power to meet the +resulting enormous increase in demand, has enabled +the poor of to-day to be clad better and with a far +greater variety of apparel than it was possible for the +rich a hundred years ago; and the increased consumption +and demand have brought into these fields +of labour, and into other fields of labour created by +these, great armies of men and women, notwithstanding +the labour-saving devices.</p> + +<p>The wants of the world can no longer be supplied +by skilled hand labour. And it is better that machines +do the skilled labour, if the product is increased +while made better and cheaper, and the number +of labourers in the end increased by the development +and demands of the art.</p> + +<p>Among the recent devices is one which dispenses +with the expensive and skilful work by hand of +drawing the warp threads into the eyes of the heddles +and through the reed of the loom.</p> + +<p>Cane-backed and bottomed chairs and lounges only +a few years ago were a luxury of the rich and made +slowly by hand. Now the open mesh cane fabric, +having diagonal strands, and other varieties, are +made rapidly by machinery. Turkish carpets are +woven, and floors the world over are carpeted with<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_309" id="PAGE_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> +those rich materials the sight of which would +have astonished the ordinary beholder a half century +ago. Matting is woven; wire, cane, straw, spun +glass; in fact, everything that can be woven by hand +into useful articles now finds its especially constructed +machine for weaving it.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_310" id="PAGE_310">[Pg 310]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +GARMENTS.</span></h2> + + +<p>“Man is a tool-using animal. Weak in himself, +and of small stature, he stands on a basis, at most for +the flattest-soled, of some half square foot, insecurely +enough; has to straddle out his legs lest the very +wind supplant him. Feeblest of bipeds! Three +quintals are a crushing load for him; the steer +of the meadow tosses him aloft, like a waste rag. +Nevertheless he can use tools, can devise tools; +with these the granite mountain melts into light +dust before him; he kneads glowing iron as if it were +paste; seas are his smooth highway, winds and fire +his unwearying steeds. Nowhere do you find him +without tools; without tools he is nothing, with tools +he is all.... Man is a tool-using animal, of which +truth, clothes are but one example.”—<i>Sartor Resartus.</i></p> + +<p>In looking through the records of man’s achievements +to find the beginnings of inventions, we discover +the glimmering of a change in the form of the +immemorial needle, in an English patent granted to +Charles F. Weisenthal, June 24, 1775. It was a +needle with a centrally located eye, and with both +ends pointed, designed for embroidery work by hand, +and the object of the two points was to prevent the +turning of the needle end for end after its passage +through the cloth. But it was not until the 19th<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_311" id="PAGE_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> +century that the idea was reduced to practice in +sewing machines.</p> + +<p>To Thomas Saint, a cabinet maker by trade, of +Greenhills Rents, in the Parish of St. Sepulchre, +Middlesex County, England, the world is indebted +for the first clear conception of a sewing machine. +Saint’s attention was attracted to the slow way of +sewing boots and shoes and other leather work, so he +determined to improve the method. He took out a +patent September 17, 1790, and although the germs +of some of the leading parts of the modern sewing +machine are there described, it does not appear that +his patent was applied to practice. In fact, it slumbered +in the archives of the British patent office for +two generations, and after the leading sewing machines +of the century had been invented and introduced, +before it was rediscovered, and its contents +appreciated in the light of more recent developments. +Probably Saint’s machine, if constructed in +accordance with his plans, would not have done much +good work, certainly not with woven cloth, as he proposed +to employ a hooked needle to carry a loop +through the material, which would have been snarled +by the cloth threads; but from his drawings and description +it is clearly established that he was first to +conceive of a vertically reciprocating needle for +forming a seam from a continuous thread drawn +from a spool; a seam in which each loop is locked, +or enchained with a subsequent loop, to form what +is known as the chain, or single thread stitch; and a +horizontal sliding plate, to support the material to +be sewed, and by which the material was also moved +sideways after each stitch.</p> + +<p>May 30, 1804, John Duncan received an English +patent for “tamboring on cloth.” He proposed to employ +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_312" id="PAGE_312">[Pg 312]</a></span>a series of hooked needles attached in a straight +line to a horizontal bar, which, when threaded, +were first thrust forward and their hooked ends carried +through the cloth, where each needle hook was +supplied with a thread by a thread carrier. Then +the motion of the bar was reversed, which drew the +thread back through the cloth in the form of loops, +and through the loops first formed, thus producing +a chain stitch. The cloth was automatically shifted +to correspond to the pattern to be produced, and thus +was chain stitch embroidery first manufactured. +From this point of time successful embroidery machines +were made.</p> + +<p>In 1807 another Englishman patented a machine +for making a sort of rope matting, in which he describes +two eye-pointed, thread-carrying, perforating +needles, each held in a reciprocating needle bar, +and designed to unite several small ropes laid parallel, +by a reciprocating movement.</p> + +<p>A German publication, the <i>Kunst</i> and <i>Generbe +Blatt</i>, for 1817, and <i>Karmarsch’s History of Technology</i>, +made mention of a sewing machine invented +by one Mr. Joseph Madersperger of Vienna, formerly +from Kuefstein in the Tyrol, and for which +he received royal letters patent in 1814. From +these descriptions it appears Madersperger used a +needle pointed at both ends, and the eye in the centre, +invented many years before by Weisenthal, as +above stated, which was moved vertically up and +down, piercing alternately the top and bottom of the +stuff, and which carried a short thread, enough to +make about one hundred and thirty stitches, which +machine was driven by a crank and handle, on which +sewing was made of many different shaped forms, by +slight changes, and which sewed with far greater accuracy +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_313" id="PAGE_313">[Pg 313]</a></span>and rapidity than hand work. The inventor +was striving to simplify the machine, but to what extent +it had been used or had been improved, or what +finally became of it, does not appear. Yet it is a bit +of evidence showing that Germany came next to +England in the earlier ideas, conceptions of, and +struggles after a sewing machine.</p> + +<p>France then entered the list, and it was in 1830 that +Barthelmy Thimonnier there produced and patented +a sewing machine, which he continued to improve +and to further patent in 1848 and in 1850 +in France, England, and the United States. The +Thimonnier resembled in some prominent respects +the machine that had been described in the Saint patent, +but unlike Saint’s, it was reduced to successful +practice, and possessed some points in common with +more modern machines. These were the flat cloth +plate, vertical post, overhung arm, vertically reciprocating +needle, and continuous thread. The crochet +or barbed needle was worked by a treadle, and upon +pushing the needle down through the cloth, it there +caught a thread from a carrier, carried the loop to +and laid it upon the upper surface of the cloth. +Again descending, it brought up another loop, enchained +it with the one last made, making a chain +stitch, consisting of a series of loops on the upper side.</p> + +<p>Thimonnier made quite a large number of machines, +constructed mostly of wood, and which were +used to make army clothing at Paris. They were +best adapted to work on leather and in embroidering. +They were so far successful as to arouse the jealousy +and fear of the workmen and working women, and, +as in the case of Hargreaves, Jacquard, and others, a +mob broke into his shop, destroyed his machines, +ruined his business, and he died penniless in 1857.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_314" id="PAGE_314">[Pg 314]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the meantime an English patent, No. 8948, of +May 4, 1841, had been issued to Newton and Archbold +for a machine for embroidering the backs of +gloves, having an eye-pointed needle, worked by a +vibrating lever, and adapted to carry a thread +through the back of the glove, held on a frame—the +frame and glove moving together after each +stitch.</p> + +<p>The germs of inventions often develop and +fructify simultaneously in distant places, without, +so far as any one can ascertain, the slightest mutual +knowledge or co-operation on the part of the separate +inventors. Between 1832 and 1834, while +Thimonnier was in the midst of his early struggles +in Paris, Walter Hunt was inventing a sewing machine +in New York, which he completed at that time +and on which he sewed one or two garments. But as +it was experimental in form, and Hunt was full of +other inventions and schemes, he put it aside, and it +probably would never have been heard of had not +Elias Howe of Massachusetts, ten years after Hunt +had abandoned his invention, but without knowledge +of Hunt’s efforts, made the first practical successful +sewing machine for commercial purposes the world +had ever seen, obtained his patent, and made claims +therein which covered not only his special form of +improvements, but Hunt’s old device as well.</p> + +<p>Howe’s patent was issued September 10, 1846. +In that he claimed to be the first and original inventor +of “A sewing machine, constructed and +operated to form a seam, substantially as described.”</p> + +<p>Also “The combination of a needle and a shuttle, +or equivalent, and holding surfaces, constructed and +operating substantially as described.”</p> + +<p>Also “The combination of holding surfaces with<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_315" id="PAGE_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> +a baster plate or equivalent, constructed and operating +substantially as described.”</p> + +<p>Also “A grooved and eye-pointed needle, constructed +and adapted for rapid machine sewing substantially +as described.”</p> + +<p>When the machine commenced to be a practical +success this patent was infringed, and when Howe +sued upon it a few years after its issue, it woke up +Hunt and all other alleged prior inventors; and all +prior patents and publications the world over, relating +to sewing machines, were raked up to defeat +Howe’s claims.</p> + +<p>But the courts, after long deliberation, held that +although, so far as Hunt was concerned he had +without doubt made a machine in many respects like +Howe’s machine, that it had a curved, eye-pointed +needle similar to Howe’s operated by a vibrating +arm and going through the cloth, a shuttle carrying +the thread that passed through the loop made by the +needle thread, thus making a lock stitch by drawing +it up to one side of the cloth, and that this machine +did, to a certain extent, sew, yet that it ended in an +experiment, was laid aside, destroyed, and never perfected +nor used so as to give to the public the knowledge +and benefit of a completed invention, and was +not therefore an anticipation in the eye of the law of +Howe’s completed, more successful and patented machine.</p> + +<p>Public successful use is the fact in many cases +which alone establishes the title of an inventor, when +all other tests fail. And this is right in one sense, +as the laws of all countries in respect to protection +by patents for inventions are based upon the primary +condition of benefit to society. This benefit is not +derived from the inventor who hides his completed<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_316" id="PAGE_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> +invention for years in his closet, or throws it on a +dust heap. As to previous patents and publications, +some were not published before Howe’s inventions +were made, and others were insufficient in showing +substantially the same machine and mode of operation. +And as to prior use abroad, it was not regarded +under the law of his country as competent evidence.</p> + +<p>Seldom have the lives of great inventors presented +a more striking example of the vicissitudes, the despair, +and the final triumphs of fortune, which are +commonly their lot, than is shown in the case of +Howe. A machinist with a wife and children to +support, his health too feeble to earn hardly a scanty +living, he watches his faithful wife ply her constant +needle, and wonders why a machine cannot be made +to do the work. The idea cannot be put aside, and +with such poor aids as he can command he commences +his task.</p> + +<p>At last, amid the trials of bitter poverty, he brings +his invention to that stage in which he induces a +friend to advance some money, by the promise of a +share in the future patent, and thereby gains a temporary +home for his family and a garret for his workshop. +Day after day and night after night he labours, +and finally, in April, 1845, the rather crude +machine is completed, and two woollen suits of clothing +are sewed thereon, one for a friend, and one for +himself.</p> + +<p>Then came the effort to make more machines and +place them on the market. People admired the machines +as a curiosity, but none were induced to buy +them or help him pecuniarily. Finally, in September, +1846, he obtained his patent, but by that time +his best friends had become discouraged, and he was +compelled to return with his family to his father’s<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_317" id="PAGE_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> +house in Cambridge, Mass. To earn his bread he +sought and found employment on a railway locomotive. +By some means his brother sold one of his machines +to Mr. William Thomas, a corset maker of +London, and Howe was induced to go there to make +stays, and his machines. He took his wife and children +with him. The arrangement made with his employer +was not such as to enable him to keep his +family there, and he soon sent them home.</p> + +<p>Unable to sell his machines, he was soon reduced +to want. He pawned his patent and his last machine, +and procured money to return to New York, +where he arrived penniless in 1849. He then +learned that his wife was dying of consumption at +Cambridge. He was compelled to wait until money +could be sent him to pay his passage home, and +reached there just before his wife’s death.</p> + +<p>He then learned that during his absence his patent +and machine had attracted attention, that others had +taken the matter up, added their improvements to +his machines, and that many in various places were +being made and sold which were infringements of +his patent. A great demand for sewing machines +had sprung up. He induced friends to again help +him. Suits were commenced which, although bitterly +fought for six years, were finally successful.</p> + +<p>Now fortune turned her smiling face upon him. +Medals and diplomas, the Cross of the Legion of +Honour, and millions of money became his. When +the great civil war broke out in 1861, he entered the +army as a private soldier, and advanced the money to +pay the regiment to which he belonged, when the +Government paymaster had been long delayed. His +life was saddened by the fact that his wife had not +lived to share his fortune. He died in Brooklyn,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_318" id="PAGE_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> +New York, October 3, 1867, in the midst of life, +riches, and honour, at the comparatively early age of +forty-eight.</p> + +<p>In referring to the early inventors of sewing machines +in America who entered the field about the +same time with Howe, mention should be made +of J. J. Greenough and George Corliss, who had +machines patented respectively in 1842 and 1843, +for sewing leather, with double pointed needles; and +the running stitch sewing machine used for basting, +made and patented by B. W. Bean in 1843. About +this time, both in England and America, machines +had been devised for sewing lengths of calico and +other cloths together, previous to bleaching, dyeing +or printing. The edges of the cloths were first +crimped or fluted and then sewed by a running +stitch.</p> + +<p>The decade of 1849-1859, immediately following +the development of the Howe machine, was the +greatest in the century for producing those successful +sewing machines which were the foundation of +the art, established a new industrial epoch, and converted +Hood’s “Song of the Shirt” into a lament +commemorative of the miseries of a slavish but dying +industry.</p> + +<p>It was during that decade that, in the United +States, Batcheller invented the perpetual feed for +moving the cloth horizontally under and past the +needle. In Howe’s the cloth could be sewed but a +certain distance at a time, and then the machine +must be readjusted for a new length. Then Blodgett +and Lerow imparted to the eye-pointed needle +what is called the “dip motion,”—the needle being +made to descend completely through the material, +then to rise a little to form a loop; the shuttle then<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_319" id="PAGE_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> +entered the loop, the needle descended again a short +distance, while the shuttle passed through the loop of +the needle thread, and then the needle was raised +above the cloth.</p> + +<p>It was then that Allen B. Wilson invented the +still more famous “four-motion feed” for feeding +the cloth forward. He employed a bar having saw +like teeth on one edge which projected up through +a slotted plate and engaged the cloth. He then first +moved the bar forward carrying the cloth; second, +dropped the bar; third, moved it back under the +plate; and fourth, raised it to its first position to +again engage the cloth. These motions were so +timed with the movement of the needle and so +quickly done that the cloth was carried forward while +the needle was raised, the passage and quick action +of the needle was not interfered with, and the feeding +and the sewing seem to be simultaneous. The +intermittent grasp and feed of the cloth were hardly +perceptible, and yet it permitted the cloth to be +turned to make a curved seam. Wilson also invented +the rotating hook which catches the loop of the +upper thread, and drops a disk bobbin through it to +form the stitch. The shuttle was thus dispensed +with, and an entirely new departure was made in the +art. These with other improvements made up the +celebrated “Wheeler and Wilson” machine.</p> + +<p>Now also appeared “the Singer,” consisting +chiefly of the invention of T. M. Singer. He improved +the operation of the needle bar, devised a +roughened feed wheel, as a substitute for Wilson’s +serrated bar, introduced a spring presser foot, alongside +the needle, to hold the work down in proper position +while permitting it to be moved forward or in +any other direction. A “friction pad” was also placed<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_320" id="PAGE_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> +between the cloth seam and the spool, to prevent the +thread from kinking or twisting under the point of +the descending needle. He was the first to give the +shuttle an additional forward movement after it had +once stopped, to draw the stitch tight,—such operation +being taken while the feed moved the cloth in +the reverse direction, and while, the needle completed +its upward motion, so that the two threads +were simultaneously drawn, and finally a spring +guide upon the shuttle to control the slack of the +thread, and prevent its catching by the needle.</p> + +<p>By reason of these improvements it is thought by +many that Singer was the first to furnish the people +with a successful operating and practical sewing machine. +At any rate, the world at last so highly +appreciated his machines, that it lifted him from +poverty to an estate which was valued at between +eight and ten millions of dollars at the time of +his death in 1875. Singer was also the first to invent +the “ruffler,” a machine for ruffling or gathering +cloth, and a device which laid an embroidering +thread upon the surface of the cloth under the needle +thread.</p> + +<p>The “Grover and Baker” another celebrated +American machine, was invented by William O. +Grover and William E. Baker in 1851. By certain +changes they made in the thread carrier and connections, +they were enabled to make a double looped +stitch. This required more thread, but the stitch +made was unexcelled in strength.</p> + +<p>And so the work went on, from step to step, and +from the completion of one machine after another, +until when the Centennial Exhibition came to be +held in Philadelphia in 1876, a fine array of excellent +sewing machines was had, from the United<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_321" id="PAGE_321">[Pg 321]</a></span> +States, principally, but also those of inventors and +manufacturers in Great Britain, Canada, France, +Germany, Belgium, Sweden and Denmark.</p> + +<p>Up to that time about twenty-two hundred patents +had been granted in the United States, all of +which, with the exception of a very few, were for inventions +made within the preceding quarter of a +century. And during the last quarter of the century +about five thousand more United States patents +have been issued for devices in this art. This number +includes many, of course, to inventors of other +countries. When it is remembered that these patents +were issued only after an examination in each +case as to its novelty, and although slight as may +have been the changes or additions, yet substantially +different they must have been in nearly all respects, +it may to some extent be realized how great and incessant +has been the exercise of invention in this useful +class of machines.</p> + +<p>On this point of the exercise of invention in sewing +machines, as well as on some others growing out +of the subject, Knight, writing in his <i>Mechanical +Dictionary</i>, about twenty years ago, remarks: “If +required to name the three subjects on which the +most extraordinary versatility of invention has been +expended, the answer would be without hesitation, +the <i>sewing machine</i>, <i>reaping machine</i> and <i>breech-loading +firearm</i>. Each of these has thousands of +patents, and although each is the growth of the +last forty years, it is only during the last twenty-five +years that they have filled any notable place +in the world. It was then only by a combination +of talents that any of these three important +inventions was enabled to achieve remarkable +success. The sewing machine previous to 1851,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_322" id="PAGE_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> +made without the admirable division of labour +which is a feature in all well conducted factories, +was hard to make, and comparatively hard to +run. The system of <i>assembling</i>, first introduced +in the artillery service of France by General +Gribeauval in 1765 and brought to proximate +perfection by Colonel Colt in the manufacture +of the revolver at Hartford, Connecticut, has economised +material and time, improved the quality +as well as cheapened the product. There is +to-day, and in fact has been for some years, more +actual invention in the special machines for <i>making</i> +sewing machines than in the machines themselves. +The assembling system, that is, making the +component parts of an article in distinct pieces of +pattern, so as to be interchangeable, and the putting +them together, is the only system of order. How +else should the Providence Tool Company execute +their order for 600,000 rifles for the Turkish Government? +How otherwise could the Champion +Harvesting Machine Company of Springfield, Ohio, +turn out an equipped machine every four minutes +each working day of ten hours? Or, to draw the illustration +from the subject in hand, how by any +other than the nicest arrangement of detail can the +Singer Sewing Machine Company make 6,000 machines +per week at Elizabethport, New Jersey?”</p> + +<p>When sewing machines were so far completed as +to be easily run by a hand crank, or treadle, the application +of power to run them singly, or in series, +and to run machines of a larger and more powerful +description, soon naturally followed—so that garment-making +factories of all kinds, whether of +cloth or leather, have been established in many countries—in +which steam or electric power is utilised as<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_323" id="PAGE_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> +the motor, and thus human strain and labour saved, +while the amount of production is increased.</p> + +<p>No radical changes in the principle or mode of +operation of sewing machines have been made in +the last twenty-five years; but the efforts of inventors +have been directed to improve the previously established +types, and to devise attachments of all kinds, +by the aid of which anything that can be sewed, can +be sewed upon a machine. Tucking, ruffling, braiding, +cording, hemming, turning, plaiting, gaging, +and other attachment devices are numerous. Inventors +have rivalled one another in originating new +forms of stitches. About seventy-five distinct +stitches have been devised, each of which must of +course be produced by a change in mechanism.</p> + +<p>When sewing machines were in their infancy, and +confined to sewing straight seams and other plain +sewing, it was predicted that it was not possible to +take from the hands of women the making of fine embroidery +from intricate patterns, or the working of +button-holes, and the destruction of the quilting party +was not apprehended. Nor was it expected that human +hands could be dispensed with in the cutting out +of garments. And yet these things have followed. +Machines, by a beautiful but complex system of +needles, working to some extent on the Jacquard system +of perforated card boards, and by the help of +pneumatic or electrical power, will work out on +most delicate cloths embroidery of exquisite patterns.</p> + +<p>The button-hole machines will take the garment, +cut the button-hole at the desired point, and either, +as in one class of machines, by moving the fabric +about the stitch-forming mechanism, or, as in another +class, moving the stitch-forming mechanism about the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_324" id="PAGE_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> +button-hole, complete the delicate task in the nicest +and most effective manner.</p> + +<p>Quilting machines have their own bees, consisting +of a guide which regulates the spaces between the +seams, and adjusts them to any width, and a single +needle, or gang of needles, the latter under the control +of cams which force the needles to quilt certain +desired patterns.</p> + +<p>And as to cutting, it is only necessary to place the +number of pieces of fabric desired to be cut in cutting +dies, or upon a table, and over them an “over-board” +cutter, which comprises a reciprocating band-saw, +or a rotary knife, all quick, keen and delicate, +in an apparatus guided by hand, in order to produce +in the operation a great pile of the parts formerly so +slowly produced, one at a time, by scissors or shears.</p> + +<p>If men were contented with that single useful garment +of some savages, a blanket with a slit cut in it +for the passage of the head and neck, not only would +a vast portion of the joys and sorrows of social philosophy +have been avoided, but an immense strain and +trouble on the part of inventors of the century would +have been obviated.</p> + +<p>But man’s propensity for wearing clothes has led +to the invention of every variety of tools for making +them faster, cheaper, and better.</p> + +<p>No machine has yet been invented that will take the +place of the deft fingers of women in certain lines of +ornamentation, as in final completion and trimming +of their hats. The airy and erratic demands of +fashion are too nimble to be supplied by the slow +processes of machinery, although the crude ground-work, +the frame, has been shaped, moulded and sewed +by machines; and women themselves have invented +and patented <i>bonnet frames</i> and <i>patterns</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_325" id="PAGE_325">[Pg 325]</a></span></p> + +<p>But no such difficulty in invention has occurred +in <i>hat-making</i> for men. From the treating and cutting +of the raw material, from the outer bound edge, +and the band about the body, to the tip of the crown, +a machine may be found for performing each separate +step. Especially is this the case with the hard +felt and the high silk hats.</p> + +<p>Seventy-five years ago the making of hats was by +hand processes. Now in all hat factories machines +are employed, and the ingenuity displayed in the construction +of some of them is marvellous. It is exceedingly +difficult to find many of the old hand implements +existing even as relics.</p> + +<p>Wool and fur each has its special machines for +turning it into a hat. The operations of cleaning and +preparing the material, felting the fur, when fur is +used, shaping the hat body, and then the brim, washing, +dying, hardening and stiffening it, stretching, +smoothing, finishing, sizing, lining, trimming, all are +now done by machines devised for each special purpose. +A description of these processes would be interesting, +but even in an abbreviated form would fill +a book.</p> + +<p>The wonderful things done in the manufacture of +boots and shoes and rubber goods will be referred to +in subsequent chapters.</p> + +<p>Although it was old from time immemorial to colour +cotton goods, and the calico power printing cylinder +was invented and introduced into England in +the latter part of the 18th century and began to turn +out at once immense quantities of decorated calicoes +and chintz, yet <i>figured</i> woven goods were a novelty +sixty years ago.</p> + +<p>In 1834, Mr. Bonjeau, a prominent wool manufacturer +in Sedan, France, and an <i>élève</i> of the Polytechnic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_326" id="PAGE_326">[Pg 326]</a></span>School, conceived the idea of modifying the +plain cloths, universally made, by the union of different +tints and patterns. This he was enabled to +do by the Jacquard loom. The manufacture of fancy +woven cloths, cassimeres, worsted coatings, etc., of +great beauty, combined with strength of fabrication, +followed in all civilised countries, but their universal +adoption as wearing apparel was due in part to the +lessening of the expense in the making them into +garments by the sewing machine.</p> + +<p>As to the effect of modern inventions on wearing +apparel, it is not apparent that they were necessary +to supply the wardrobes of the rich. The Solomons +and the Queen of Sheba of ancient days, and all +their small and great successors in the halls of Fortune, +have had their rich robes, their purple and their +fine linen, whether made in one way or another; but +modern inventions have banished the day when the +poor man’s hard labour of a long day will not suffice +to bring his wife a yard of cheapest cloth. Toil, then, +as hard as he and his poor wife and children might, +their united labours would hardly suffice to clothe +them in more than the poorly-dressed skins of animals +and the coarsest of homespun wool.</p> + +<p>Now, cottons and calicoes are made and sold at a +profit for three cents a yard; and the poorest woman +in the land may appear in neat, comfortable and tasteful +dress, the entire cost of material and labor of +which need not exceed fifty cents. The comfort, respectability +and dignity of a large family, which depend +so much on clothes, may be ensured at the cost +of a few dollars.</p> + +<p>And as to the condition of the sewing woman, trying +and poor as it is in many instances, yet she can +earn more money with less physical exhaustion than +under the old system.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_327" id="PAGE_327">[Pg 327]</a></span></p> + +<p>The epoch of good clothes for the people, with all +that it means in the fight upward from degradation, +began in this century, and it was due to the inventions +which have been above outlined.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_328" id="PAGE_328">[Pg 328]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +INDUSTRIAL MACHINES.</span></h2> + + +<p>One invention engenders another, or co-operates +with another. None lives, or stands, or dies, alone.</p> + +<p>So, in the humble but extensive art of <i>broom-making</i>, +men and women worked along through ages +binding with their hands the supple twigs of trees or +bushes, or of corn, by thongs, or cords, or wire, upon +the rudely-formed collar of a hand-smoothed stick, +until the modern lathe and hollow mandrel armed +with cutters, the power-driven shuttle, and the sewing +machine, were invented.</p> + +<p>The lathe and mandrel to hold the stick while it +was cut was used before, but it was long within the +century that a hollow mandrel was first invented, +which was provided internally with cutting bevelled +knives, and into which the stick was placed, carried +through longitudinally, and during its passage cut +smooth and finished. As broom corn became the chief +product from which brooms are made, it became desirable +to have a machine, after the corn had been +scraped of its seed, to size and prepare the stems in +regular lengths for the various sizes of brooms, and +accordingly such a machine was invented. Then a +machine was needed and invented to wind the corn-brush +with the cord or wire and tie it in a round +bunch, preparatory to flattening and sewing it.</p> + +<p>Then followed different forms of broom-sewing<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_329" id="PAGE_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> +machines. Among the pioneers was one which received +the round bunch between two compressing +jaws, and pressed it flat. While so held a needle with +its coarse thread was forced through the broom above +the binding and the cord twined around it. Then a +shuttle, also carrying a stout thread, was thrown over +the cord, the needle receded and was then forced +through the broom again <i>under</i> the binding cord. +Thus in conjunction with the shuttle the stitches were +formed alternately above and below the binding +twine, the holding jaws being raised intermittently +for that purpose. As each stitch was formed the machine +fed the broom along laterally and intermittently. +By another ingenious device the cord was tied +and cut, when the sewing was completed.</p> + +<p>It is only by such machines which treat the entire +article from the first to the last step, that the immense +number of brooms now necessary to supply +the market are made. True it is that at first labour +was displaced. At one time seventeen skilled workmen +would manufacture five hundred dozen brooms +per week.</p> + +<p>They had reduced the force of earlier times by +making larger quantities by better processes. Then +when the broom-sewing machines and other inventions +got fairly to work, nine men would turn out +twelve hundred dozen brooms per week. Thus, +while the force was reduced nearly one-half, +the quantity of product was more than doubled. But +as the cost of labour decreased and the product increased, +the product became more plentiful and +cheaper, the demand and use became greater, more +broom-corn was raised, more broom-factories started, +and soon the temporary displacement of labour was +succeeded by a permanent increase in manufacture<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_330" id="PAGE_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> +and in labourers, an increase in their wages, and an +improvement in their condition.</p> + +<p>Useful and extensive as is its use, the broom does +not compare in variety and wide application to the +<i>brush</i>. The human body, cloth, leather, metals, +wood and grains, everything that needs rubbing, +cleaning, painting and polishing, meets the acquaintance +of the brush. Nearly a hundred species of +brushes might be enumerated, each having an especial +construction for a particular use.</p> + +<p>Although the majority of brushes are still made by +hand, yet a few most ingenious machines have been +made which greatly facilitate and speed the operation, +and many mechanical appliances have been invented +in aid of hand-work. These machines and appliances, +together with those which cut, turn, bore, +smooth, and polish the handles and backs, to which +the brush part is secured, have greatly changed and +improved the art of brush-making during the last +fifty years.</p> + +<p>The first machine which attracted general attention +was invented by Oscar D. and E. C. Woodbury +of New York, and patented in 1870. As in hand-making +and before subjected to the action of the machine, +the bristles are sorted as to length and color. +A brush-back, bored with holes by a gang of bits, which +holes do not extend, however, all the way through the +back, is placed in the machine under a cone-jointed +plunger, adapted to enter the hole in the brush-back. +A comb-shaped slitted plate in the machine has +then each slit filled with bristles, sufficient in number +to form a single tuft. When the machine is started, +the bristles in a slit are forced out therefrom through +a twisted guideway, which forms them into a round +tuft, and which is laid horizontally beneath a<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_331" id="PAGE_331">[Pg 331]</a></span> +plunger, which, descending, first doubles the tuft, and +as the plunger continues to descend, forces the double +end down into the hole. The plunger is supplied with +a wire from a reel, turns as it descends, and twists +the wire around the lower end of the tuft, the wire +being directed in that way by a spiral groove within +the plunger. The continuing action of the plunger +is such as to screw the wire into the back. The wire +is cut when the rotary plunger commences its descent, +and when the tuft is thus secured the plunger ascends, +the block is moved for another hole, and another set +of bristles is presented for manipulation. Brushes +with 70 holes can be turned out by this machine at +the rate of one a minute.</p> + +<p>Another most ingenious machine for this purpose +is that of Kennedy, Diss, and Cannan, patented in +the United States in 1892. In this, brush blocks of +varying sizes, but of the same pattern, are bored by +the same machine which receives the bristles, and +the tufts are inserted as fast as the holes are bored. +Both machines are automatic in operation.</p> + +<p><i>Street-sweeping machines</i> began to appear about +1831 in England, shortly after in France, and then +in cities in other countries.</p> + +<p>The simplest form and most effective sweeper +comprises a large cylinder armed with spiral rows +of splints and hung diagonally on the under side and +across a frame having two or four wheels. This +cylinder is connected by bevelled gearing with the +wheels, and in revolving throws the dirt from the +street into a ridge on one side thereof, where it is +swept into heaps by hand sweepers, and is then +carted off. King of the United States was the inventor.</p> + +<p>A more recent improvement consists in the use of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_332" id="PAGE_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> +pneumatic means for removing the dust that is +caused by the use of revolving brooms or brushes, +such removal being effected by means of a hood that +covers the area of the street beneath the body of the +machine, and incloses an air exhaust, the sweepings +being drawn through the exhaust mechanism and deposited +in a receptacle for the purpose, or in some +instances deposited in a furnace carried by the machine +and there burned.</p> + +<p>In cities having hard, smooth, paved streets and +sufficient municipal funds, the most effective, but +most expensive way, has been found to keep a large +force of men constantly at work with hoes, shovels, +brooms, bags and carts, removing the dirt as fast as +it accumulates.</p> + + +<h4><i>Abrading Machines.</i></h4> + +<p>One of the most striking inventions of the century +is the application of the sand-blast to industrial +and artistic purposes.</p> + +<p>For ages the sands of the desert and wild mountain +plains, lifted and driven by the whirling winds, had +sheared and polished the edges and faces of rocks, +and cut them into fantastic shapes, and the sands of +the shore, tossed by the winds of the sea, had long +scratched and bleared the windows of the fisherman’s +hut, before it occurred to the mind of man that here +were a force and an agent which could be harnessed +into his service.</p> + +<p>It was due finally to the inventive genius of B. F. +Tilghman of Philadelphia, Pa., who, in 1870, +patented a process by which common sand, powdered +quartz, emery, or other comminuted sharp cutting +material, may be blown or driven with such force<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_333" id="PAGE_333">[Pg 333]</a></span> +upon the surface of the hardest materials, as to cut, +clean, engrave, and otherwise abrade them, in the +most wonderful and satisfactory manner.</p> + +<p>Diamonds are abraded; glass depolished, or engraved, +or bored; metal castings cleaned; lithographic +zinc plates grained; silverware frosted; +stone and glass for jewelry shaped and figured; the +inscriptions and ornaments of monuments and +tombstones cut thereon; engravings and photographs +copied; steel files cleaned and sharpened, and stones +and marble carved into forms of beauty with more +exactness and in far less time than by the chisel of +the artisan.</p> + +<p>The gist of the process is the employment of a jet +of sand or other hard abrading material, driven at a +high velocity by a blast of air or steam, under a certain +pressure, in accordance with the character of the +work to be done. The sand is placed in a box-like +receptacle into which the air or steam is forced, and +the sand flowing into the same chamber is driven +through a narrow slit or slits in the form of a thin +sheet, directly on to the object to be abraded.</p> + +<p>By one method the surface of the object is first +coated with tinfoil on which the artist traces his design, +and this is then coated with melted transparent +wax. Then when the wax is hardened it is cut away +along the lines already indicated, and seen through +the wax. The object now is subjected to the blast, +and as the sand will not penetrate a softened material +sufficient to abrade a surface beneath, the exposed +portions alone will be cut away. The sand +after it strikes is carried off by a blast to some receptacle, +from which it is returned to its former place +for further use. Other means may be used in the +place of a slitted box, as a small or larger blow-pipe;<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_334" id="PAGE_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> +but the driving of the sand, or similar abrading material, +with great force by the steam or air blast, is +the essential feature of the process.</p> + +<p><i>Emery</i>, that variety of the mineral corundum, +consisting of crystalline alumina, resembling in appearance +dark, fine-grained iron ore, ranking next +to the diamond in hardness, and a sister of the sapphire +and the ruby, has long been used as an abradant. +The Eastern nations have used corundum for +this purpose for ages. Turkey and Greece once had +a monopoly of it. Knight says: “The corundum +stone used by the Hindoos and Chinese is composed +of corundum powdered, two parts; lac resin, one +part. The two are intimately mixed in an earthen +vessel, kneaded and flattened, shaped and polished. +A hole in the stone for the axis is made by a heated +copper rod.”</p> + +<p>However ancient the use of artificial stones for +grinding and polishing, nevertheless it is true that +the solid emery wheel in the form that has made it +generally useful, in machines known as <i>emery +grinders</i>, is a modern invention, and of American +origin.</p> + +<p>In the manufacture of such machines great attention +and the highest scientific skill has been paid, +first, to the material composing the wheel, and to the +cementing substances by which the emery is compacted +and bound in the strongest manner, to prevent +bursting when driven at great speed; secondly, to the +construction of machines and wheels of a composition +varying from the finest to the coarsest; and +thirdly, to the proper balancing of the wheels in the +machines, an operation of great nicety, in order that +the wheel may be used on delicate tools, when driven +at high speed, without producing uneven work, marking +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_335" id="PAGE_335">[Pg 335]</a></span>the objects, or endangering the breaking, or +bursting of the wheel.</p> + +<p>Such machines, when properly constructed, although +not adapted to take the place of the file, other +steel-cutting tools, and the grindstone for many +purposes, yet have very extensively displaced those +tools for cutting edges, and the grinding and polishing +of hardened metals, by reason chiefly of their +greater convenience, speed, and general adaptability. +Not only tools of all sizes are ground and polished, +but ploughshares, stove and wrought-iron plates, iron +castings, the inner surfaces of hollow ironware, the +bearings of spindles, arbours, and the surfaces of +steel, chilled or cast-iron rolls, etc.</p> + +<p>In the great class of Industrial Mechanics, no machines +of the century have contributed more to the +comfort and cleanliness of mankind than those by +which wearing apparel in its vast quantities is +washed and ironed more thoroughly, speedily, and +satisfactorily in every way than is possible by the old +hand systems. When it is remembered how under the +old system such a large part of humanity, and this +the weaker part, devoted such immense time and +labour to the universal washing and ironing days, the +invention of these machines and appliances must be +regarded as among the great labour-saving blessings +of the century.</p> + +<p>True, the individual washerwoman and washerman, +and ironers, have by no means disappeared, +and are still in evidence everywhere, yet the universal +and general devotion of one-half the human race to +the wash-tub and ironing-table for two or more days +in the week is no longer necessary. And even for the +individual worker, the convenient appliances and +helps that have been invented have greatly relieved +the occupation of pain and drudgery.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_336" id="PAGE_336">[Pg 336]</a></span></p> + +<p>Among modern devices in the laundry, worked by +hand, is, first, the <i>washing-machine</i>, in which the +principle is adapted of rolling over or kneading the +clothes. By moving a lever by hand up and down, the +clothes are thoroughly rubbed, squeezed and lifted at +each stroke. Then comes the <i>wringer</i>, a common +form of which consists of two parallel rolls of vulcanized +and otherwise specially treated rubber, fitted +to shafts which, by an arrangement of cog-wheels, +gearing and springs in the framework at the ends of +rolls, and a crank handle, are made to roll on each +other. The clothes are passed between the rollers, +the springs permit the rollers to yield and part more +or less, according to the thickness of the clothes.</p> + +<p>Then the old-fashioned, or the new-fashioned mangle +is brought into play. The old-style mangle had +a box, weighted with stone, which was reciprocated +on rollers, and was run back and forth upon the +clothes spread upon a polished table beneath. One +of the more modern styles is on the principle of the +wringer above described, or a series of rollers arranged +around a central drum, and each having a +rubber spring attached, by which means the clothes +are not subjected to undue pressure at one or two +points, as in the first mentioned kind.</p> + +<p>Starch is also applied by a similar machine. The +cloth is dipped into a body of starch, or the same is +applied by hand, and then the superfluous starch +squeezed out as the clothes are passed through the +rollers.</p> + +<p>But for hotels and other large institutions washing +is now done by steam-power machinery.</p> + +<p>It is an attractive sight to step into a modern laundry, +operated with the latest machinery on the largest +scale. The first thing necessary in many localities is<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_337" id="PAGE_337">[Pg 337]</a></span> +to clarify the water. This is done by attaching to +the service pipe tanks filled with filtering material, +through which the water flows before reaching the +boiler. The driving engine and shafting are compactly +placed at one end or side of the room, with +boilers and kettles conveniently adjacent. The +water and clothes are supplied to the washing-machine, +and operated by the engine. Steam may be +used in addition to the engine to keep it boiling hot, +or steam may be substituted entirely for the water.</p> + +<p>The machine may be one of several types selected +especially for the particular class of goods to be +washed. There is the dash-wheel, constructed on +the principle of the cylinder churn; the outer case +being stationary and the revolving dash-wheel water-tight, +or perforated, which is the preferred form for +collars and cuffs. In place of the dash-wheel cylinders +are sometimes used, having from sixty to +seventy revolutions a minute. Another form has +vibrating arms or beaters, giving between four hundred +and five hundred strokes a minute, and by +which the clothes are squeezed between rubbing corrugated +boards. The rubbing boards also roll the +clothes over and over until they are thoroughly +washed. In another form a rotating cylinder for +the clothes is provided with an arrangement of pipes +by which either steam, water or blueing can be introduced +as desired, into the cylinder, through its +hollow journals, so that the clothes can be washed, +rinsed, and blued without removal from the machine.</p> + +<p>Another type has perforated, reciprocating pistons, +between which the clothes are alternately +squeezed and released, a supply of fresh water being +constantly introduced through one of the hollow +cylinder journals, while the used water is discharged<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_338" id="PAGE_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> +through the opposite journal; and in still another the +clothes are placed in a perforated cylinder within an +outer casing, and propeller blades, assisted by other +spiral blades, force a continuous current of water +through the clothes.</p> + +<p>In ironing, hollow polishing rolls of various sizes +are used, heated either by steam or gas. The articles +to be ironed are placed in proper position upon a +table and carried under and in contact with the rolls. +Or the goods are ironed between a heated cylinder +and a revolving drum covered with felting, and the +polishing effected by the cylinder revolving faster +than the drum. Ingenious forms of hand-operated +ironing machines for turning over and ironing the +edges of collars, and other articles, are in successful +use.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_339" id="PAGE_339">[Pg 339]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI">CHAPTER XXI.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +WOOD-WORKING.</span></h2> + + +<p>In surveying the wonderful road along which +have travelled the toiling inventors, until the splendid +fields of the present century have been reached, +the mind indulges in contrasts and reverts to the far +gone period of man’s deprivations, when man, the +animal, was fighting for food and shelter.</p> + +<p class="poem"> +<span class="line">“Poor naked wretches, wheresoe’er you are,<br></span> +<span class="line">That bide the pelting of this pitiless storm,<br></span> +<span class="line">How shall your houseless heads and unfed sides,<br></span> +<span class="line">Your loop’d and window’d raggedness, defend you<br></span> +<span class="line">From seasons such as these?”<br></span> +<br> +<span class="right">—<i>King Lear III, IV.</i></span> +</p> + +<p>When the implements of labour and the weapons of +war were chiefly made of stone, or bronze, or iron, +such periods became the “age” of stone, or bronze, or +iron; and we sometimes hear of the ages of steam, +steel and electricity. But the age of wood has always +existed, wherever forests abounded. It was, doubtless, +the earliest “age” in the industries of man, +but is not likely to be the latest, as the class of inventions +we are about to consider, although giving +complete dominion to man over the forests, are hastening +their destruction.</p> + +<p>As in every other class of inventions, there had +been inventions in the class of wood-working through +the ages preceding this century, in tools, implements +and machines; but not until near the close of +the eighteenth century had there been much of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_340" id="PAGE_340">[Pg 340]</a></span> +break in the universal toil by hand. The implements +produced were, for the most part, the result +of the slow growth of experience and mechanical +skill, rather than the product of inventive genius.</p> + +<p>True, the turning-lathe, the axe, the hammer, the +chisel, the saw, the auger, the plane, the screw, and +cutting and other wood-shaping instruments in +simple forms existed in abundance. The Egyptians +used their saws of bronze. The Greeks deified their +supposed inventor of the saw, Talus, or Perdix, and +they claimed Theodore of Lamos as the inventor of +the turning-lathe; although the main idea of pivoting +an object between two supports, so that it could be +turned while the hands were free to apply a tool to +its shaping, was old in the potter’s wheel of the +Egyptians, which was turned while the vessel resting +upon it was shaped and ornamented by the hand and +tools. It appears also to have been known by the +Hindoos and the Africans.</p> + +<p>Pliny refers to the curled chips raised by the +plane, and Ansonius refers to mills driven by the +waters of the Moselle for sawing marble into slabs. +Early records mention saw-mills run by water-power +in the thirteenth century in France, Germany and +Norway; and Sweden had them in the next century. +Holland had them one hundred years at least before +they were introduced into England.</p> + +<p>Fearful of the entire destruction of the forests by +the wood used in the manufacture of iron, and incited +by the opposition and jealousy of hand sawyers, +England passed some rigid laws on the subject in +the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, which, +although preserving the forests, gave for a long time +the almost exclusive manufacture of iron and lumber +to Germany and Holland. Even as late as 1768,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_341" id="PAGE_341">[Pg 341]</a></span> +a saw-mill, built at Limehouse, under the encouragement +of the Society of Arts, by James Stansfield, was +destroyed by a mob. Saw-mills designed to be run +by water-power had been introduced into the American +colonies by the Dutch more than a century before +they made their appearance in England. William +Penn found that they had long been at work +on the Delaware when he reached its shores in +1682.</p> + +<p>It was nothing indigenous to the climate or race +that rendered the Americans inventors. The early +colonists, drawn from the most civilised countries of +Europe, carried to the new world knowledge of the +latest and best appliances known to their respective +countries in the various arts. With three thousand +miles of water between them and the source of +such appliances, and between them and the source of +arbitrary power and laws to hamper efforts and enterprise, +with stern necessity on every hand prompting +them to avail themselves of every means to meet their +daily wants, all known inventions were put to use, +and brains were constantly exercised in devising new +means to aid, or take the place of, manual labour, +which was scarce. Surrounded, too, by vast forests, +from which their houses, their churches and their +schools must be constructed, these pioneers naturally +turned their thoughts toward wood-working machinery. +The attention to this art necessarily created +interest in and developed other arts. Thus constant +devotion to pursuits strenuously demanding labour-saving +devices evolved a race of keen inventors and +mechanics. So that when Watt had developed his +wonderful application of steam to industrial purposes, +America was ready to substitute steam for +water-power in the running of saw-mills.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_342" id="PAGE_342">[Pg 342]</a></span></p> + +<p>Steam saw-mills commenced to buzz with the +opening of the century.</p> + +<p>As to the relation of that humble machine, the +saw-mill, to the progress of civilisation, it was once +said: “The axe produces the log hut, but not until +the saw-mill is introduced do framed dwellings and +villages arise; it is civilisation’s pioneer machine; +the precursor of the carpenter, wheelwright and turner, +the painter, the joiner, and legions of other professions. +Progress is unknown where it is not. Its +comparative absence in the Southern American continent +was not the least cause of the trifling advancement +made there during three centuries and a half. +Surrounded by forests of the most valuable and variegated +timber, with water-power in mountain streams, +equally neglected, the masses of the people lived in +shanties and mud hovels, not more commodious than +those of the aborigines, nor more durable than the +annual structures of birds. Wherever man has not +fixed and comfortable homes, he is, as regards civilisation, +stationary; improvement under such circumstances +has never taken place, nor can it.”</p> + +<p>Miller, in England, in 1777, had described in his +patent a circular saw, and Hatton, in 1776, had +vaguely described a planing machine; but the inception +of the marvellous growth in wood-working machinery +in the nineteenth century occurred in England +during the last decade of the eighteenth. It +was due to the splendid efforts of General Samuel +Bentham, and of Bramah and Branch, both as to +metal-working and wood-working machinery.</p> + +<p>General Bentham, a brother of the celebrated +jurist, Jeremy Bentham, had his attention drawn to +the slow, laborious, and crude methods of working +in wood, while making a tour of Europe, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_343" id="PAGE_343">[Pg 343]</a></span> +especially in Russia, and engaged in inspecting the +art of ship-building in those countries, in behalf of +the British Admiralty. On his return, 1791-1792, +he converted his home into a shop for making wood-working +machines. These included “Planing, +moulding, rabbeting, grooving, mortising, and sawing, +both in coarse and fine work, in curved, winding, +and transverse directions, and shaping wood in +complicated forms.”</p> + +<p>Of the amount of bills presented to and paid for +by the Admiralty for these machines, General Bentham +received about £20,000.</p> + +<p>These machines were developed and in use just +as the new century approached. Thus, with the exception +of the saw-mill, it may be again said that +prior to this century the means mankind had to +aid them in their work in metals and in wood were +confined to hand tools, and these were for the most +part of a simple and crude description.</p> + +<p>The ground-work now being laid, the century advanced +into a region of invention in tools and machinery +for wood-working of every description, far +beyond the wildest dreams of all former carpenters +and joiners. Not only were the machines themselves +invented, but they gave rise in turn to a host of inventions +in metal-working for making them.</p> + +<p>In the same line of inventions there appeared in +the first decade of the century one of the most ingenious +of men, and a most fitting type of that great +class of Yankee inventors who have carved their way +to renown with all implements, from the jack-knife +to the electrically-driven universal shaping machine.</p> + +<p>Thomas Blanchard, born in Massachusetts in 1788, +while a boy, was accustomed to astonish his companions +by the miniature wind-wheels and water-wheels<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_344" id="PAGE_344">[Pg 344]</a></span> +that he whittled out with his knife. While +attending the parties of young people who gathered on +winter evenings at different homes in the country to +pare apples, the idea of a paring machine occurred +to him, and when only thirteen years of age, he invented +and made the first apple-paring machine, with +which more apples could be pared in a given time +than any twelve of his girl acquaintances could pare +with a knife.</p> + +<p>At eighteen, while working in a shop, driving the +heads down on tacks, on an anvil, with a hammer, +he invented the first tack-forming machine, which, +when perfected by him, made five hundred tacks a +minute, and which has never since been improved +in principle. He improved the steam engine, and +invented one of the first envelope machines. He +made the first metal lathe for cutting out the butts +of gun-barrels. But his greatest triumphs were in +wood-working machinery.</p> + +<p>Challenged to make a machine that would make +a gun stock, always before that time regarded an +impossible task, its every part being so irregular in +form, he secluded himself in his workshop for six +months, and after constant labour and experiments +he at the end of that time had produced a machine +that more than astonished the entire world, and +which worked a revolution in the making of all +irregular forms from wood. This was in 1819. +This machine would not only make a perfect gun-stock, +but shoe lasts, and ships’ tackle-blocks, axe-handles, +and a multitude of irregular-shaped blocks +which before had always required the most expert +hand operatives to produce. This machine became +the subject of parliamentary inquiry on the part of +England, and so great were the doubts concerning it,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_345" id="PAGE_345">[Pg 345]</a></span> +that successive commissions were appointed to examine +and report upon it. Finally the English government +ordered eight or ten of such machines for +the making of gun-stocks for its army, and paid +Blanchard about $40,000 for them. He was once +jestingly asked at the navy department at Washington +if he could turn a seventy-four? He at once replied, +“Yes, if you will furnish me the block.” Of +course infringers appeared, but he maintained his +rights and title as first and original inventor after +the most searching trials in court.</p> + +<p>The generic idea of Blanchard’s lathe for turning +irregular forms consists in the use of a pattern of +the device which is to be shaped from the rough +material, placing such pattern in a lathe, alongside +of the rough block, and having a guide wheel which +has an arm having cutters, and which guide follows +all the lines of the pattern, and which cutters, extending +to the rough material, chip it away to the +depth and in the direction imparted by the pattern +lines to the guide, thus producing from the rough +block a perfect representation of the pattern.</p> + +<p>In the midst of his studies in the construction of +his inventions Blanchard’s attention was drawn to +the operations of a boring worm upon an old oak log. +Closely examining and watching the same by the aid +of a microscope, he gained valuable ideas from the +work of his humble teacher, which he incorporated +into his new cutting and boring machines.</p> + +<p>His series of machines in gun-making were designed +to make and shape automatically every part +of the gun, whether of wood or metal. His machines, +and subsequent improvements by others, for boring, +mortising and turning, display wonderful ingenuity. +A modern mortising machine, for instance, is adapted<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_346" id="PAGE_346">[Pg 346]</a></span> +to quickly and accurately cut a square or oblong hole +to any desired depth, width, and length by cutting +blades; to automatically reciprocate the cutters both +vertically and horizontally in order to cut the mortise, +both as to length and depth, at one time, and to +automatically withdraw the cutters when they have +finished cutting the mortise. They are provided with +simple means for setting and feeding the cutters to +do this work, and while giving the cutters a positive +action, ample clearance is provided for the removal +of the chips as fast as they are cut.</p> + +<p>From what such inventions will produce in the +way of complicated and ornamental workmanship +we may conclude that it is a law of invention that +whatever can be made by hand may be made by a +machine, and made better.</p> + +<p><i>Carving Machines</i> made their appearance early in +the century. In 1800 a Mr. Watt of London produced +one, on which he carved medallions and +figures in ivory and ebony. Also subsequently, John +Hawkins of the same city, and a Mr. Cheverton, invented +machines for the same purpose. Another +Englishman, Braithwaite, in 1840, invented a most +attractive carving process in which, instead of cutting +tools, he employed <i>burning</i> as his agent. Heated +casts of previously carved models were pressed into +or on to wet wood, and the charcoal surfaces then +brushed off with hard brushes.</p> + +<p>After Blanchard’s turning-lathes and boring +apparatus, appeared machines in which a series of +cutters were employed, guided by a tracing lever +attached to a carved model, and actuating the cutter +to reproduce on material placed upon an adjusting +table a copy of the model.</p> + +<p>Machines have been invented which consist of hard<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_347" id="PAGE_347">[Pg 347]</a></span> +iron or steel rollers on the surface of which are cut +beautiful patterns, and between which wood previously +softened by steam is passed, and designs +thus impressed thereon. A similar process of embossing, +was devised in Paris and called Xyloplasty, +by which steam-softened wood is compressed in +carved moulds, which give it bas-relief impressions.</p> + +<p>But in the carving of wood by hand, a beautiful +art, which has been revived within the past generation, +there are touches of sentiment, taste and human +toil, which, like the touches of the painter and the +master of music, appeal to cultivated minds in a +higher than mechanical sense. The mills of the +modern gods, the inventors, grind with exceeding and +exact fineness, but the work of a human hand upon +a manufactured article still appeals to human sympathy.</p> + +<p>The bending of wood when heated by fire or steam +had been known and practised to a limited extent, +but Blanchard invented a <i>clamping machine</i>, to which +improvements have been added, and by which ship +timbers, furniture, ploughs, piano frames, carriage +bows, stair and house banisters and balusters, wheel +rims, staves, etc., etc., are bent to the desired forms, +and without breaking. Bending to a certain extent +does not weaken wood, but stretching the same +has been found to impair and destroy its strength.</p> + +<p>The principal problems which the inventors of the +century have solved in the class of wood-working +have been the adaptation to rapid-working machinery +of the saw and other blades, to sever; the plane +to smooth, the auger, the bit and the gimlet to bore, +the hammer to drive, and a combination of all or a +part of these to shape and finish the completed article.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_348" id="PAGE_348">[Pg 348]</a></span></p> + +<p>It was a great step from the reciprocating hand +saw, worked painfully by one or two men, to the +band saw, invented by a London mechanic, William +Newbury, in 1808. This was an endless steel belt +serrated on one edge, mounted on pulleys, and driven +continuously by the power of steam through the +hardest and the heaviest work. Pliable, to conform +to the faces of the wheels over which it is carried, it +will bend with all the sinuosities of long timber, no +time is lost in its operation, and no labour of human +hands is necessary to guide it or the object on which +it works.</p> + +<p>At the Vienna Exposition in 1873, the first mammoth +saw of this description was exhibited. The +saw itself was made by the celebrated firm of Perin +& Co., of Paris, upon machinery the drawings of +which were made by Mr. Van Pelt of New York, and +constructed by Richards, Loudon and Kelly of Philadelphia. +The saw was fifty-five feet long, and sawed +planks from a pine log three feet thick, at the rate +of sixty superficial feet per minute. The difficulty +of securing a perfectly reliable weld in the endless +steel band was overcome by M. Perin, who received +at the Paris Exhibition in 1867 the Grand Cross of +the Legion of Honour. Now gangs of such saws may +be found in America and elsewhere, and circular +saws have also been added. Saws that both cut, form, +and <i>plane</i> the boards at the same time are now known.</p> + +<p><i>Boring tools</i>, both for hand and machinery, demanded +improvement. Formerly augers and similar +boring tools had merely a curved sharpened end and +a concavity to hold the chips, and the whole tool had +to be withdrawn to empty the chips. It was known as +a <i>pod</i> auger. In 1809, L’Hommedieu, a Frenchman, +invented an auger with two pods and cutting lips, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_349" id="PAGE_349">[Pg 349]</a></span> +central screw and a twisted shank. About the same +time Lilley of Connecticut made a twisted auger, +and these screw-form, twisted, cutting tools of various +kinds, with their cutting lips, and by which the shavings +or chips were withdrawn continuously from +the hole as the cutting proceeded, became so improved +in the United States that they were known as +the American augers and bits. The planing machines +of General Bentham were improved by +Bramah, and he and Maudsley also greatly improved +other wood-working machines and tools in +England—1802-1810.</p> + +<p>We have before, in the chapter on metal-working, +shown the importance of the <i>slide-rest</i>, <i>planer</i> and +<i>lathe</i>, <i>when combined</i>, and which also are extensively +adapted to wood-working. In Bramah’s machine, +a vertical spindle carried at its lower extremity +a horizontal wheel having twenty-eight cutter +blades, followed by a plane also attached to a wheel. +A board was by these means perfectly trimmed and +smoothed from end to end, as it was carried against +the cutters by suitable moving means. William +Woodworth of New York, in 1828, patented a celebrated +planing machine which became so popular and +its use was regarded so necessary in the wood-working +trades, that the patent was looked upon as an +odious monopoly. It consisted of a combination of +rollers armed with cutters, attached to a horizontal +shaft revolving at a great speed, and of means for +feeding the boards to the cutters. With Bentham’s, +Bramah’s, Blanchard’s, and Woodworth’s ideas for a +basis, those innumerable improvements have been +made in machinery, by which wood is converted with +almost lightning rapidity into all the forms in +which we see it, whether ornamental or useful, in +modern homes and other structures.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_350" id="PAGE_350">[Pg 350]</a></span></p> + +<p>Some machines are known as “Universal Wood +Workers.” In these a single machine is provided +with various tools, and adapted to perform a great +variety of work by shifting the position of the material +and the tools. The following operations can +be performed on such a machine:—Planing, bevelling, +tapering, tenoning, tongueing and grooving +(grooves straight, circular or angular), making of +joints, twisting and a number of other operations.</p> + +<p>The later invention by Stow of Philadelphia of a +<i>flexible</i> shaft, made up of a series of coils of steel +wire, given a leather covering, and to which can be +attached augers, bits, or metal drills, the tool applied +to its work from any direction, and its direction +varied while at work, has excited great attention.</p> + +<p><i>Shingles</i> are as old in the art as the framework of +buildings. Rome was roofed with shingles for centuries, +made of oak or pine.</p> + +<p>Tiles, plain and fancy, and slates, have to a certain +extent superseded wood shingling, but the wood will +always be used where it can be found in plenty, as +machines will now turn them out complete faster +than they can be hauled away. A shingle is a thin +piece of wood, thicker at one end than at the other, +having parallel sides, about three times as long as it +is wide, having generally smooth surfaces and edges. +All these features are now given to the shingle by +modern machines.</p> + +<p>A great log is rolled into a mill at one end and +soon comes out at the other in bundles of shingles; +the logs sawed into blocks, the blocks split or sawed +again into shingle sizes, tapered, planed in the direction +of the grain of the wood, the complete shingles +collected and bound in bundles, each operation by +a special machine, or by a series of mechanisms.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_351" id="PAGE_351">[Pg 351]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Veneering</i>, that art of covering cheap or ordinary +wood with a thin covering of more ornamental and +valuable wood, known from the days of the Egyptians, +has been vastly extended by modern machinery. +The practice, however, so emphatically denounced +centuries ago by Pliny, as “the monstrous +invention of paint and dyes applied to the woods or +veneers, to imitate other woods,” has yet its practitioners +and admirers.</p> + +<p>T. M. Brunel, in 1805-1808, devised a set of circular +saws run by a steam engine, which cut sheets +of rosewood and mahogany, one-fourteenth of an +inch thick, with great speed and accuracy. Since +that day the veneer planing machine, for delicately +smoothing the sheets, the straightening machine, for +straightening scrolls that have been cut from logs, +the polishing machines for giving the sheets their +bright and glossy appearance, the pressing machine +for applying them to the surfaces to which they are +to be attached, the hammering machine for forcing +out superfluous glue from between a veneer and the +piece to which it is applied; all of these and numerous +modifications of the same have been invented, and +resulted in placing in the homes everywhere many +beautiful ornamental articles of furniture, which +before the very rich only could afford to have.</p> + +<p>Special forms of machinery for making various +articles of wood are about as numerous as the articles +themselves.</p> + +<p>We appear before the house and know before entering +that its doors and sills, clapboards and window +frames, its sashes and blinds, its cornices, its +embrasures and pillars, and shingles, each or all have +had a special machine invented for its manufacture. +We enter the house and find it is so with objects<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_352" id="PAGE_352">[Pg 352]</a></span> +within—the flooring may be adorned with the beautiful +art of marquetry and parquetry, wood mosaic +work, the wainscoting and the frescoes and ceilings, +the stairs and staircases, its carved and ornamental +supporting frames and balusters, the charming mantel +frames around the hospitable fireplaces, and every +article of furniture we see in which wood is a part. +So, too, it is with every useful wooden implement +and article within and without the house,—the trays, +the buckets, the barrels, the tubs, the clothes-pins, the +broom-handles, the mops, the ironing and bread +boards; and outside the house, the fences, railings and +posts—many of these objects entirely unknown to +the poor of former generations, uncommon with the +rich, and the machinery for making them unknown +to all.</p> + +<p>It was a noble array of woodwork and machinery +with which the nations surprised and greeted the +world, at each of its notable international Expositions +during the century. Each occasion surpassed its predecessor +in the beauty of construction of the machines +displayed and efficiency of their work. The +names of the members of this array were hard and +uncouth, such as the axe, the adze, and the bit, the +auger, bark-cutting and grinding machines, blind-slat +boring, and tenoning, dovetail, mortising, matching +and planing, wood splitting, turning, wheeling +and planing, wood-bending, rim-boring dowelling, +felly-jointing, etc., etc. These names and +the clamour of the machines were painful to the ear, +but to the thoughtful, they were converted into +sweeter music, when reflection brought to mind the +hard toil of human hands they had saved, the before +unknown comforts and blessings of civilisation they +had brought and were bringing to the human race, +and the enduring forms of beauty they had produced.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_353" id="PAGE_353">[Pg 353]</a></span></p> + +<p>To the invention of wood-working machinery we +are also indebted for the awakening of interest in the +qualities of wood for a vast number of artistic purposes. +It was a revelation, at the great Philadelphia +Exposition of 1876, to behold the specimens of different +woods from all the forests of the earth, selected +and assembled to display their wonderful +grain and other qualities, and showing how well +nature was storing up for us in its silent shades those +growths which were waiting the genius of invention +to convert into forms of use and beauty for every +home.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_354" id="PAGE_354">[Pg 354]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +FURNITURE.</span></h2> + + +<p>So far as machinery is concerned for converting +wood into furniture, the same has been anticipated in +the previous chapter, but much remains to be said +about the articles of furniture themselves.</p> + +<p>Although from ancient days the most ancient countries +provided by hand elaborate and beautiful articles +of furniture of many descriptions, yet it has +been left for modern advances in machinery and +kindred arts to yield that universal supply of convenient +and ornamental furniture which now prevails.</p> + +<p>The Egyptians used chairs and tables of a more +modern form than the Greeks or Romans, who lolled +about on couches even at their meals; but the Egyptians +did not have the convenient section tables built +in sliding sections, which permit the table to be enlarged +to accommodate an increased number of +guests. And now recently this modern form of table +has been improved, by arranging the sections and +leaves so that when the sections are slid out the leaves +are automatically raised and placed in position, +which is done either by lazy-tongs mechanism, or by a +series of parallel links: Tables constructed with +folding detachable and adjustable legs, tables constructed +for special purposes as sewing machines, and +typewriting machine tables, by which the machine +head may be dropped beneath the table top when<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_355" id="PAGE_355">[Pg 355]</a></span> +not in use; tables combined with desks wherein the +table part may be slid into the desk part when not in +use and the sliding cover pulled down to cover and +lock from sight both the table and desk; surgical +tables, adapted to be raised or lowered at either end +or at either side and to be extended; “knock down” +tables, adapted to be taken all apart for shipment or +storage; tables combined with chairs to be folded +down by the side of the chair when not in use; and +many other useful forms have been added to the list.</p> + +<p>Much ingenuity has been displayed in the construction +of desks, to save and economise space. +Mention has been made of a combined folding desk +and extensible table. Another form is an arrangement +of desk drawers, whereby when one +drawer is locked or unlocked all the rest are locked +or unlocked automatically. Whatever shape or +function anyone desires in a desk may be met, except, +perhaps, the performance of the actual work +of the occupant.</p> + +<p>In the matter of <i>beds</i>, the principal developments +have been due to the advancement of wood-working +machinery, and the manufacture of iron, steel, +and brass. The old-fashioned ponderous bedsteads, +put together by heavy screws, have given way to +those mortised and tenoned, joined and matched, +and by which they can easily be put up and taken +down; and to iron and brass bedsteads, which are +both ornamental and more healthful. No bed may +be without an inexpensive steel spring frame or +mattress for the support of the bedding. Folding +beds made to economise space, and when folded upright +become an ornamental bureau; and invalid bedsteads, +designed for shifting the position of the invalid, +are among the many modern improvements.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_356" id="PAGE_356">[Pg 356]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Kitchen Utensils.</i>—A vast amount of drudgery +in the kitchen has been relieved by the convenient +inventions in labor-saving appliances: coffee and +spice mills, can-openers, stationary washtubs, stopper +extractors, superseding the old style of hand-corkscrews +where large numbers of bottles are to be +uncorked; refrigerators and provision safes, attaching +and lifting devices and convenient culinary +dishes and utensils of great variety.</p> + +<p><i>Curtains</i>, <i>shades</i> and <i>screens</i> have been wonderfully +improved and their use made widely possible +by modern inventions and new adaptation of old +methods. Wood, cotton, silk, paper, combined or +uncombined with other materials, in many novel +ways unknown to our ancestors, have rendered these +articles available in thousands of homes where +their use was unknown and impossible a century +ago. Among the most convenient attachments to +shades is the spring roller, invented by Hartshorn +of America, in 1864, whereby the shade is automatically +rolled upon its stick to raise or lower it.</p> + +<p>Window screens for the purpose of excluding +flies, mosquitoes, and other insects, while freely admitting +the air, are now made extensible and adjustable +in different ways to fit different sizes of +windows. Curtains and shades are provided with +neat and most attractive supporting rods, to which +they are attached by brass or wooden rings, and provided +with easily manipulated devices to raise and +securely hold them in any desired position.</p> + +<p>The art of steaming wood and bending it, by iron +pattern forms adjustable to the forms desired, as +particularly devised in principle by Blanchard in +America in 1828-1840, referred to in Wood-working, +has produced great changes in the art of furniture +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_357" id="PAGE_357">[Pg 357]</a></span>making, especially in chairs. A particularly +interesting illustration of the results of this art +occurred in Austria. About forty years ago the +manufacture in Germany and Austria of furniture +by machinery, especially of bent wood-ware, became +well established there; and by the time of the Vienna +Exposition in 1873, factories on a most extensive +scale for the construction of bed furniture were +in operation among the vast mountain beech forests +of Moravia and Hungary. The greatest of these +works were located in Great Urgroez, Hungary, and +Bisritz, Moravia, with twenty or more auxiliary +establishments. Between five and six thousand +work people were employed, the greater part of +whom were females, and it was necessary to use +steam and water motors, to the extent of many +hundred horse power.</p> + +<p>The forests were felled, and the tree-tops removed +and made into charcoal for use in the glass works +of Bohemia. The trunks were hauled to the mills +and sawed into planks of suitable thickness by gang-saws. +The planks in turn were cut with circular +saws into square pieces for turning, and then the +pieces turned and cut on lathes, to give them the size +required and the rounded shape; the pieces then +steamed while in their green state for twenty-four +hours in suitable boilers, then taken out and +bent to the desired shape on a cast-iron frame by +hand, then subjected, with the desired pattern, to +the pattern-turning table, and cut; then kept locked +in the pattern’s iron embrace until the pieces were +dried and permanently set in shape, then clamped +to a bench, filed, rasped, stained, and French polished +by the deft hands of the women; then assembled +in proper position in frames of the form of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_358" id="PAGE_358">[Pg 358]</a></span> +chair or other article to be made, their contact surface +sawed to fit at the joints, and then finally the +parts glued together and further secured by the +addition of a few screws or balls.</p> + +<p>Chairs, lounges and lighter furniture were thus +made from bent pieces of wood with very few joints, +having a neat and attractive appearance, and possessing +great strength. The art has spread to other +forests and other countries, and the turned, bent, +highly polished and beautiful furniture of this generation +would have been but a dream of beauty to the +householder of a century ago.</p> + +<p>Children’s chairs are made so that the seat may +be raised or lowered, or the chair converted into a +perambulator. Dentist’s chairs have been developed +until it is only necessary for the operator to +turn a valve governing a fluid, generally oil, under +pressure to raise or lower the chair and the patient. +In the more agreeable situation at the theatre or +concert one may hang his hat on the bottom of the +chair, upturned to afford access to it through a +crowded row, and turning down the chair, sit with +pleasure, as the curtain is rolled up by compressed +air, or electricity, at the touch of a button.</p> + +<p>To the unthinking and unobserving, the subject +of <i>bottle stoppers</i> is not entrancing, but those acquainted +with the art know with what long, continuous, +earnest efforts, thousands of inventors have +sought for the best and cheapest bottle stopper to +take the place of corks—the enormous demand for +which was exhausting the supply and rendering +their price almost prohibitive.</p> + +<p>One of the most successful types is a stopper of +rubber combined with a metal disk, and hung by a +wire on the neck of the bottle, so that the stopper<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_359" id="PAGE_359">[Pg 359]</a></span> +can be used over and over again; another form +composed of glass, or porcelain, and cork; another +is a thin disk of cork placed in a thin metal cap +which is crimped over a shoulder on the neck of the +bottle, and still another is a thin disk of pasteboard +adapted for milk bottles and pressed tightly within +a rim on the inside of the neck of the bottle.</p> + +<p>In this connection should be mentioned that self-sealing +fruit jar, known from its inventor as “Mason’s +fruit jar,” which came into such universal +use—that combination of screw cap, screw-threaded +jar-neck and the rubber ring, or gasket, on which the +cap was screwed so tightly as to seal the jar hermetically.</p> + +<p>In lamplighting, what a wonderful change from +the old oil lamps of former ages! The modern lamp +may be said to be an improved means of grace, as it +will hold out much longer, and shed a far more attractive +light for the sinner, whose return, by its +genial light, is, even to the end, so greatly desired.</p> + +<p>The discovery of petroleum and its introduction +as a light produced a revolution in the construction +of lamps. Wicks were not discarded, but changed +in shape from round to flat, and owing to the coarseness +and disagreeable odour of coal oil, especially in +its early unrefined days, devices first had for their +object the easy feeding of the wick, and perfect combustion. +To this end the burner portion through +which the wick passed was perforated at its base to +create a proper draft, and later the cap over the base +was also perforated. But with refined oil the disagreeable +odour continued. It was found that this +was mainly due to the fact that both in lamps and +stoves the oil would ooze out of the wick on to the adjacent +parts of the lamps or stove, and when the wick<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_360" id="PAGE_360">[Pg 360]</a></span> +was lit the heat would burn or heat the oil and thus +produce the odour. Inventors therefore contrived +to separate the oil reservoir and wick part when the +lamp or stove were not in use; and finally, in stoves, +to dispense with the wick altogether. As wickless +oil stoves are now in successful use the wickless lamp +may be expected to follow.</p> + +<p>The lamp, however, that throws all others into the +shade is that odourless, heatless, magic, mellow, tempered +light of electricity, that springs out from the +little filament, in its hermetically sealed glass cage, +and shines with unsurpassed loveliness on all those +fortunate enough to possess it.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_361" id="PAGE_361">[Pg 361]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXIII">CHAPTER XXIII.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +LEATHER.</span></h2> + + +<p>It is interesting to speculate how prehistoric man +came to use the skin of the beasts of the field for +warmth and shelter. Originally no doubt, and for +untold centuries, the use was confined to the hairy, +undressed, fresh, or dried skins, known as pelts. +Then came the use of better tools. The garments +have perished, but the tools of stone and of bronze +survived, which, when compared with those employed +among the earliest historic tribes of men, were +found to be adapted to cut and strip the hairy covering +from the bodies of animals, and clean, pound, +scrape and otherwise adapt them to use.</p> + +<p>And ever since the story of man began to be preserved +in lasting records from farthest Oriental to +the northernmost limits of Europe and America, +memorials of the early implements of labour in the +preparation of hides for human wear have been +found. The aborigines knew how to sharpen bones +of the animals they killed to scrape, clean, soften or +roughen their skins. They knew how to sweat, dry, +and smoke the skins, and this crude seasoning process +was the forerunner of modern tanning. But +leather as we know it now, that soft, flexible, insoluble +combination of the gelatine and fibrine of the +skin with tannic acid, producing a durable and imputrescible +article, that will withstand decay from<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_362" id="PAGE_362">[Pg 362]</a></span> +the joint attack of moisture, warmth and air, was +unknown to the earlier races of men, for its production +was due to thorough tanning, and thorough tanning +was a later art.</p> + +<p>When men were skin-dressed animals they knew +little or nothing of tanning. Tannic acid is found +in nearly every plant that grows, and its combination +with the fresh skins spread or thrown thereon, may +have given rise to the observation of the beneficial +result and subsequent practice. But whether discovered +by chance, accident or experience, or invented +from necessity, the art of tanning should +have rendered the name of the discoverer immortal. +The earliest records, however, describe the art, but +not the inventor.</p> + +<p>From the time the Hebrews covered the altars of +their tabernacles with rams’ skins dyed red, as recorded +in Exodus; when they and the Egyptians +worked their leather, currying and stretching it with +their knives, awls, stones, and other implements, making +leather water buckets, resembling very much +those now made by machinery, covering their harps +and shields with leather, ornamental and embossed; +from the days of the early Africans, famous for their +yellow, red and black morocco; from the days of +the old national dress of the Persians with their +leather trousers, aprons, helmets, belts and shirts; +from the time that the ancient Scythians utilised the +skins of their enemies, and Herodotus described the +beauty and other good qualities of the human hide; +from the early days of that peculiar fine and agreeable +leather of the Russians, fragrant with the oil +of the birch; from the days of the white leather of +the Hungarians, the olive-tanned leather of the +Saracens; from the time of the celebrated Cordovan +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_363" id="PAGE_363">[Pg 363]</a></span>leather of the Spaniards; from the ancient +cold periods of the Esquimaux and the Scandinavians, +who, clad in the warm skins of the Arctic bears, +stretched tough-tanned sealskin over the frame work +of their boats; from the time of the introduction of +the art of the leather worker to the naked Briton, +down to almost the nineteenth century, substantially +the same hand tools, hard hand labour, and the old +elbow lubricant were known and practised.</p> + +<p>Hand tools have improved, of course, as other arts +in wood and iron making have developed, but the +operations are about the same. There were and +must be fleshing knives to scrape from off the hide +the adherent flesh and lime,—for this the hide is +placed over the convex edge of an inclined beam and +the work is called beaming; the curriers’ knife for +removing the hair; skiving, or the cutting off the +rough edges and fleshy parts on the border of the +hide; shaving and flattening; the cutting away of +the inequalities left after skiving; <i>stoning</i>, the rubbing +of the leather by a scouring stone to render it +smooth; <i>slicking</i>, to remove the water and grease; +or to smooth and polish, by a rectangular sharpened +stone, steel or glass tool; <i>whitening</i>, to shave off thin +strips of the flesh, leaving the leather thinner, whiter +and more pliable; <i>stuffing</i>, to soften the scraped and +pounded hides and make them porous; <i>graining</i>, the +giving to the hair or grain side a granular appearance +by rubbing with a grooved or roughened piece +of wood; <i>bruising</i> or boarding to make the leather +supple and pliable by bringing the two flesh sides +together and rubbing with a graining board; <i>scouring</i>, +by aid of a stream of water to whiten the leather +by rubbing with a slicking stone or steel.</p> + +<p>The inventions of the century consist in labour-saving +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_364" id="PAGE_364">[Pg 364]</a></span>machinery for these purposes, new tanning +and dressing processes, and innumerable machines +for making special articles of leather.</p> + +<p>As before stated, the epoch of modern machinery +commenced with the practical application of water +power to other than grinding mills, and of steam in +place of water, contemporaneously with the invention +of spinning and weaving machinery in the last +half of the eighteenth century. These got fairly +to work at the beginning of the century, and the +uses of machinery spread to the treatment of leather. +John Bull was the appropriate name of the man who +first patented a scraping machine in England, about +1780, and Joseph Weeks the next one, some years +later.</p> + +<p>One of the earliest machines of the century was +the hide mill, which, after the hand tools had scraped +and stoned, shaved and hardened the hides, was used +to rub and dub them, and soften and swell them for +tanning. Pegged rollers were the earliest form for +this purpose, and later corrugated rollers and power-worked +hammers were employed. Hundreds of hides +could be softened daily by these means.</p> + +<p>Then came ingenious machines to take the place +of the previous operations of the hand tools,—the +fleshing machine, in one form of which the hides are +placed on a curved bed, and the fleshy parts scraped +off or removed by revolving glass blades, or by +curved teeth of steel and wood in a roller under +which a table is given a to-and-fro movement; tanning +apparatus of a great variety, by which hides, +after they are thoroughly washed and softened, and +the pores opened by swelling, are subjected to movements +in the tanning liquor vats, such as rocking or +oscillating, rotary, or vertical; or treated by an air<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_365" id="PAGE_365">[Pg 365]</a></span> +exhaust, known as the vacuum process; in all of +which the object is to thoroughly impregnate in the +shortest time all the interstices and pores of the skin +with the tannic acid, by which the fibrous and gelatinous +matter is made to combine to form leather, and +by which process, also, the hide is greatly increased +in weight.</p> + +<p>Reel machines are then employed to transfer the +hides from one vat to another, thus subjecting them +to liquors of increasing strength. Soaking in vats +formerly occupied twelve or eighteen months, but +under the new methods the time has been greatly reduced. +And now since 1880, the chemists are pushing +aside the vegetable processes, and substituting +mineral processes, by which tanning is still further +shortened and cheapened. The new processes depend +chiefly on the use of chromium compounds.</p> + +<p>Then came scouring machines, in which a rapidly +revolving stiff brush is used to scour the grain +or hair side, removing the superfluous colouring +matter, called the bloom, and softening and cleansing +the hide; the slicking or polishing machines to +clean, stretch and smooth the leather by glass, stone, +or copper blades on a rapidly-moving belt carried +over pulleys; whitening, buffing, skiving, fleshing +and shaving machines, all for cutting off certain portions +and inequalities of the leather, and reducing +its thickness.</p> + +<p>In one form of this class of machines an oscillating +pendulum lever is employed, carrying at its end +a revolving cylinder having thirty or more spiral +blades. The pendulum swings to and fro at the rate +of ninety movements a minute, while the cylinder +rolls over the leather at the rate of 2780 revolutions +per minute. Scarfing, skiving, chamfering, bevelling,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_366" id="PAGE_366">[Pg 366]</a></span> +feather-edging, appear to be synonymous terms for a +variety of machines for cutting the edges of leather +obliquely, for the purpose chiefly of making lap +seams, scarf-joints, and reducing the thickness and +stiffness of leather at those and certain other points.</p> + +<p>Then there are leather-splitting machines, consisting +of one or more rollers and a pressure bar, which +draw and press the leather against a horizontally +arranged and adjustable knife, which nicely splits +the leather in two parts, and thus doubles the +quantity. This thin split leather is much used in +making a cheap quality of boots and shoes and other +articles.</p> + +<p>There are also corrugating, creasing, fluting, +pebbling, piercing and punching machines; machines +for grinding the bark and also for grinding the +leather; machines for gluing sections of leather together, +and machines for sewing them; machines for +rounding flat strips of leather, for the making of +whips and tubes; machines for scalloping the edges; +and a very ingenious machine for assorting leather +strips or strings according to their size or thickness.</p> + +<p>The most important improvements of the century +in leather working relate to the manufacture of +boots and shoes. It could well be said of boots and +shoes, especially those made for the great mass of +humanity, before the modern improvements in +means and processes had been invented: “Their +feet through faithless leather met the dirt.”</p> + +<p>It is true that in the eighteenth century, both in +Europe and America, the art of leather and boot and +shoe making had so far advanced that good durable +foot wear was produced by long and tedious processes +of tanning, and by careful making up of the leather +into boots and shoes by hand; the knife, the awl, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_367" id="PAGE_367">[Pg 367]</a></span> +waxed thread, the nails and hammer and other +hand tools of the character above referred to being +employed. But the process was a tedious and costly +one and the articles produced were beyond the limits +of the poor man’s purse. Hence the wooden shoes, +and those made of coarse hide and dressed and undressed +skins, and of coarse cloth, mixed or unmixed +with leather.</p> + +<p>In 1809, David Mead Randolph of England patented +machinery for riveting soles and heels to the +uppers instead of sewing them together.</p> + +<p>The celebrated civil engineer, Isambard M. Brunel, +shortly thereafter added several machines of his own +invention to Randolph’s method, and he established +a large manufactory for the making chiefly of army +shoes. The various separate processes performed +by his machines involved the cutting out of the +leather, hardening it by rolling, securing the welt on +to the inner sole by small nails, and studding the +outer sole with larger nails. Divisions of men were +employed to work each separate step, and the shoes +were passed from one process to another until complete.</p> + +<p>Large quantities of shoes were made at reduced +prices, but complaints were made as to the nails +penetrating into the shoe and hurting the feet. The +demand for army shoes fell off, and the system was +abandoned; but it had incited invention in the direction +of machine-made shoes and the day of exclusive +hand labour was doomed.</p> + +<p>About 1818 Joseph Walker of Hopkinston, Massachusetts +invented the wooden peg. Making and +applying pegs by hand was too slow work, and +machines were at once contrived for making them. +As one invention necessitates and begets others, so<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_368" id="PAGE_368">[Pg 368]</a></span> +special forms of machines for sawing and working +up wood into pegs were devised.</p> + +<p>Such machinery was for first sawing the selected +log of wood into slices across the grain a little +thicker than the length of a peg and cutting out +knots in the wood; then planing the head of the +block smooth; grooving the block with a V-shaped +cutting tool; splitting the pegs apart, and then +bleaching, drying, polishing and winnowing them.</p> + +<p>It took forty or fifty years to perfect these and kindred +machines, but at the end of that time there was +a factory at Burlington, Vermont, which from four +cords of wood, made every day four hundred bushels +of shoe pegs.</p> + +<p>About 1858 B. F. Sturtevant of Massachusetts +made a great improvement in this line. He was a +very poor man, getting a living by pegging on the +soles of a few pair of shoes each day. He devised +a pegging machine, and out of his scanty earnings +and at odd hours, with much pain and labour, and by +borrowing money, he finally completed it. The +machine made what was called “peg wood,” a long +ribbon strip of seasoned wood, sharpened on one edge +and designed to be fed into the machine for pegging +shoes. The shoes were punctured by awls driven +by machinery, and then as the peg strip was carried +to it the machine severed the strip into chisel-edged +pegs, and peg-driving mechanism drove them into the +holes. Nine hundred pegs a minute were driven. +It soon almost supplanted all other peg-driving +machines, and after the machines were quite generally +introduced, there were made in one year alone +in New England fifty-five million pairs of boots and +shoes pegged by the Sturtevant machines.</p> + +<p>Other forms of pegs followed, such as the metal<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_369" id="PAGE_369">[Pg 369]</a></span> +screw pegs, and machines to cut them off from a +continuous spiral wire from which they were made. +Lasts on which the shoes were made had been manufactured +by the hundred thousand on the wood-turning +lathes invented by Blanchard, described in the +chapter on Wood-Working.</p> + +<p>In 1858 also, about the same time the Sturtevant +pegging machine was introduced, the shoe-sewing +machine was developed. The McKay Shoe-Sewing +Machine Co. of Massachusetts after an expenditure +of $130,000, and three years’ time in experiments, +were enabled to put their machines in practical operation. +The pegging machines and sewing machines +worked a revolution in shoemaking.</p> + +<p>A revolution in the art of shoemaking thus started +was followed up by wondrous machines invented to +meet every part of the manufacture. Lasting machines +for drawing and fitting the leather over lasts, +in which the outer edges of the leather are drawn +over the bottom of the last and tacked thereto by the +hands and fingers of the machine instead of those of +the human hand, were invented.</p> + +<p><i>Indenting machines</i>:—The welt is known as that +strip of leather around the shoe between the upper +and the sole, and machines were invented for cutting +and placing this, indenting it for the purpose of +rendering it flexible and separating the stitches, all +a work until recently entirely done by hand. Machines +for twining the seams in the uppers, and forming +the scallops; machines especially adapted to the +making of the heel, as heel trimming and compressing, +rounding and polishing, and for nailing the +finished heel to the boot or shoe; machines for treating +the sole in every way, rolling it, in place of the good +old way of pounding it on a lap stone; trimming,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_370" id="PAGE_370">[Pg 370]</a></span> +rounding, smoothing, and polishing it; machines for +cutting out gores; machines for marking the uppers +so that at one operation every shoe will be stamped +by its size, number, name of manufacture, number +of case, and any other convenient symbols; machines +for setting the buttons and eyelets; all these are simply +members in the long line of inventions in this art.</p> + +<p>The old style of boot has given way to the modern +shoe and gaiter, but for the benefit of those who still +wear them, special machines for shaping the leg, +called boot trees, have been contrived.</p> + +<p>So far had the art advanced that twenty years ago +one workingman with much of this improved machinery +combined in one machine called the “bootmaker,” +could make three hundred pairs of boots +or shoes a day. Upward of three thousand such machines +were then at work throughout the world; and +one hundred and fifty million pairs of boots were +then being made annually thereon. Now the number +of machines and pairs of boots and shoes has +been quadrupled.</p> + +<p>And the world is having its feet clothed far more +extensively, better and at less cost than was ever possible +by the hand system. The number of workers +in the art, both men and women, has vastly increased +instead of being diminished, while their wages have +greatly advanced over the old rates.</p> + +<p>As an illustration of how rapidly modern enterprise +and invention proceeds in Yankeeland, it has +been related that some years ago in Massachusetts, +after many of these shoe-making machines had got +into use, a factory which was turning out 2400 pairs +of shoes every day was completely destroyed by fire +on a Wednesday night. On Thursday the manufacturer +hired a neighbouring building and set carpenters +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_371" id="PAGE_371">[Pg 371]</a></span>at work fitting it up. On Friday he ordered a +new and complete outfit of machinery from Boston; +on Saturday the machinery arrived and the men set +it up; on Monday work was started, and on Tuesday +the manufacturer was filling his orders to the +full number of 2400 pairs a day.</p> + +<p>There are very many people in the world who still +prefer the hand-made shoe, and there is nothing to +prevent the world generally from going back to that +system if they choose; but St. Crispin’s gentle art +has blossomed into a vaster field of blessings for mankind +under the fruitful impetus of invention than if +left to vegetate under the simple processes of primitive +man.</p> + +<p>Horses, no less than man, have shared in the improvement +in leather manufacture. The harnesses +of the farmer’s and labouring man’s horses a century +ago, when they were fortunate enough to own horses, +were of the crudest description. Ropes, cords, coarse +bands of leather were the common provisions. Now +the strength and cheapness of harnesses enable the +poor man to equip his horse with a working suit impossible +to have been produced a hundred years ago.</p> + +<p>To the beautiful effects produced by the use of +modern embossing machines on paper and wood have +been added many charming patterns in <i>embossed</i> +leather. Books and leather cases, saddlery and +household ornamentation of various descriptions +have been either moulded into forms of beauty, or +stamped or rolled by cameo and intaglio designs cut +into the surface of fast-moving cylinders.</p> + +<p>The leather manufactures have become so vastly +important and valuable in some countries, especially +in the United States—second, almost to agricultural<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_372" id="PAGE_372">[Pg 372]</a></span> +products—that it would be very interesting to extend +the description to many processes and machines, +and to facts displaying the enormous traffic in +leather, now necessarily omitted for want of space.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_373" id="PAGE_373">[Pg 373]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXIV">CHAPTER XXIV.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +MINERALS—WELLS.</span></h2> + +<p class="poem"> +<span class="line">Dost thou hear the hammer of Thor,<br></span> +<span class="line">Wielded in his gloves of iron?<br></span> +</p> + + +<p>As with leather, so with stone, the hand tools and +hard labour have not changed in principle since the +ancient days. The hammer for breaking, the lever +for lifting, the saw for cutting, rubbing-stones and +irons for smoothing and polishing, sand and water +for the same purpose, the mallet and chisel, and +other implements for ornamenting, the square, the +level, and the plumb for their respective purposes, +all are as old as the art of building.</p> + +<p>And as for buildings and sculpture of stone and +marble made by hand tools, we have yet to excel the +pyramids, the Parthenon of Athens, which “Earth +proudly wears as the best gem upon her zone,” the +palaces, coliseums, and aqueducts of Rome, the grand +and polished tombs of India, the exquisite halls of +the Alhambra, and the Gothic cathedrals.</p> + +<p>But the time came when human blood and toil became +too dear to be the possession solely of the rulers +and the wealthy, and to be used alone to perpetuate +and commemorate riches, power and glory.</p> + +<p>Close on the expansion of men’s minds came the +expansion of steam and the development of modern +inventions. The first application of the steam engine +in fields of human labour was the drawing of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_374" id="PAGE_374">[Pg 374]</a></span> +water from the coal mines of England; then in drawing +the coal itself.</p> + +<p>It was only a step for the steam engine into a new +field of labour when General Bentham introduced his +system of wood-sawing machinery in 1800; and from +sawing wood to sawing stone was only one more step. +We find that taken in 1803 in Pennsylvania, when +Oliver Evans of Philadelphia drove with a high-pressure +steam engine, “twelve saws in heavy frames, +sawing at the rate of one hundred feet of marble in +twelve hours.” How long would it have taken hand +sawyers of marble at ancient Paros and Naxos to +have done the same?</p> + +<p><i>Stone-cutting</i> machines of other forms than sawing +then followed.</p> + +<p>It was desired to divide large blocks generally at +the quarries to facilitate transportation. Machines for +this purpose are called stone-channelling machines. +They consist of a gang of chisels bound together and +set on a framework which travels on a track adjacent +to the stone to be cut, and so arranged that the cutters +may be set to the stone at desired angles, moved +automatically forward and back in the grooves they +are cutting, be fed in or out, raised or lowered, detached, +and otherwise manipulated in the operation.</p> + +<p>Other stone-cutting machines had for their objects +the cutting and moulding the edges of tables, mantels +and slabs; and the cutting of circular and other +curved work. In the later style of machine the cutter +fixed on the end of a spindle is guided in the desired +directions on the surface of the stone by a pointer, +which, attached to the cutter spindle, moves in the +grooves of a pattern also connected to the rotating +support carrying the cutter.</p> + +<p>Other forms of most ingenious stone-dressing and<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_375" id="PAGE_375">[Pg 375]</a></span> +carving machines have been devised for cutting +mouldings, and ornamental figures and devices, in +accordance with a model or pattern fixed to the +under side of the table which carries the stone or +marble to be dressed; and in which, by means of a +guide moving in the pattern, the diamond cutter or +cutters, carried in a circular frame above the work +and adjusted to its surface, are moved in the varying +directions determined by the pattern. A stream +of water is directed on the stone to clear it of the +dust during the operations. The carving of stone +by machinery is now a sister branch of wood carving. +Monuments, ornamentation, and intricate forms of +figures and characters are wrought with great accuracy +by cutting and dressing tools guided by the +patterns, or directed by the hand of the operator.</p> + +<p>For the dressing of the faces of grindstones, special +forms of cutting machines have been devised.</p> + +<p>It was a slow and tedious task to drill holes through +stone by hand tools; and it was indeed a revolution +in this branch of the art when steam engines were +employed to rotate a rod armed at its end with diamond +or other cutters against the hardest stone. This +mode of drilling also effected a revolution in the art +of blasting. Then, neither height, nor depth, nor +thickness of the stone could prevent the progress of +the drill rod. Tunnels through mountain walls, and +wells through solid quartz are cut to the depth of +thousands of feet.</p> + +<p>One instance is related of the wonderful efficiency +on a smaller scale of such a machine: The immense +columns of the State Capitol at Columbus, Ohio, +were considered too heavy for the foundation on +which they rested. The American Diamond Rock +Boring Company of Providence, Rhode Island, bored<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_376" id="PAGE_376">[Pg 376]</a></span> +out a twenty-four inch core from each of the great +pillars, and thus relieved the danger.</p> + +<p>In the most economical and successful stone drills +<i>compressed air</i> is employed as the motive power to +drive the drills, which may be used singly or in +gangs, and which may be adjusted against the rock +or quarry in any direction. When in position and +ready for work a few moments will suffice to bore +the holes, apply the explosive and blast the ledge. +The cleaning away of submarine ledges in harbours, +such as the great work at Hell Gate in the harbour +of New York, has thus been effected.</p> + +<p><i>Crushing</i>:—Among the most useful inventions relating +to stone working are machines for crushing +stones and ores, and assorting them. The old way +of hammering by hand was first succeeded by powerful +stamp hammers worked by steam. Both methods +of course are still followed, but they demand too +great an expenditure of force and time.</p> + +<p>About a third of a century ago, Eli Whitney +Blake of New Haven, Connecticut, was a pioneer inventor +of a new and most successful type of stone +breaking machine, which ever since has been known +as the “Blake Crusher.” This crusher consists of +two ponderous upright jaws, one fixed and the other +movable, between which the stones or ores to be +crushed are fed. Each of the jaws is lined with the +hardest kind of chilled steel. The movable jaw is +inclined from its lower end from the fixed jaw and at +its upper end is pivoted to swing on a heavy round +iron bar. The movable jaw is forced toward the +fixed jaw by two opposite toggle levers set, in one +form of the crusher, at their inner ends in steel bearings +of a vertical vibrating, rocking lever, one of the +toggles bearing at its outer end against the movable<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_377" id="PAGE_377">[Pg 377]</a></span> +jaw and the outer toggle against a solid frame-work. +The rocking lever is operated through a crank by a +steam engine, and as it is vibrated, the toggle joint +forces the lever end of the movable jaw towards the +fixed jaw with immense force, breaking the hardest +stone like an eggshell.</p> + +<p>The setting of the movable jaw at an incline enables +the large stone to be first cracked, the movable +jaw then opens, and as the stone falls lower between +the more contracted jaws, it is broken finer, until it +is finally crushed or pulverized and falls through +at the bottom. The movable jaw is adjustable and +can be set to crush stones to a certain size.</p> + +<p>As the rock drill made a revolution in blasting and +tunnelling, so the Blake crusher revolutionised the +art of road making. “Road metal,” as the supply +of broken stones for roads is now called, is the fruit +of the crusher. Hundreds of tons of stone per day +can be crushed to just the size desired, and the machine +may be moved from place to place where most +convenient to use.</p> + +<p>Other crushers have been invented, formed on the +principle of abrasion. The stones, or ore, fall between +two great revolving disks, having corrugated +steel faces, which are set the desired distance apart, +and between which the stones are crushed by the rubbing +action. In this style of machine the principle of +a gradual breaking from a coarse to a finer grade, is +maintained by setting the disks farther apart at the +centre where the stone enters, and nearer together at +their peripheries where the broken stone is discharged. +Large smooth or corrugated rollers, conical +disks, concentric rollers armed with teeth of varying +sizes, and yet so arranged as to preserve the feature of +the narrowing throat at the bottom or place of discharge, +have also been devised and extensively used.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_378" id="PAGE_378">[Pg 378]</a></span></p> + +<p>A long line of inventions has appeared especially +adapted to break up and separate coal into different +sizes. To view the various monstrous heaps of assorted +coals at the mouth of a coal mine creates an +impression that some great witch had imposed on a +poor victim the gigantic and seemingly impossible +task of breaking and assorting a vast heap of coal +into these separate piles within a certain time—a +task which also seems to have been miraculously and +successfully performed within such an exceedingly +short time as to either satisfy or confuse the presiding +evil genius.</p> + +<p>Modern civilisation has been developed mostly +from steam and coal, and they have been to each other +as strong brothers, growing more and more mutually +dependent to meet the demands made upon them.</p> + +<p>The mining of coal, and its subsequent treatment +for burning, before the invention of the steam engine, +were long, painful, and laborious tasks, and +the steam engine could never have had its modern +wants supplied if its power had not been used to supplement, +with a hundredfold increased effect, the +labour of human hands.</p> + +<p>It being impracticable to carry steam or the steam +engine to the bottom of the mine for work there, compressed +air is there employed, which is compressed +by a steam engine up at the mouth. By this compressed +air operated in a cylinder to drive a piston, +and a connecting rod and a pick, a massive steel +pick attached to the rod may be driven in any direction +against the wall of coal at the rate of from ninety +to one hundred and twenty blows per minute; and at +the same time the discharged compressed, cold, pure, +fresh air flows into and through the mine, affording +ventilation when and where most needed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_379" id="PAGE_379">[Pg 379]</a></span></p> + +<p>In addition to these great drills, more recent inventors +have brought out small machines for single +operators, worked by the electric motor.</p> + +<p>After the coal is lifted out, broken and assorted, +it needs to be washed free of the adhering dust and +dirt; and for this purpose machines are provided, +as well as for screening, loading and weighing. The +operations of breaking, assorting and washing are +often combined in one machine, while an intermediate +hand process for separating the pieces +of slate from the coal may be employed; but additional +automatic means for separating the coal and +slate are provided, consisting in forcing with great +power water through the coal as it falls into a chamber, +which carries the lighter slate to the top of the +chamber, where it is at once drawn off.</p> + +<p>The chief of machines with <i>ores</i> is the <i>ore mill</i>, +which not only breaks up the ore but grinds or pulverises +it.</p> + +<p>Some chemical and other processes for reducing +ores have been referred to in the Chapter on Metallurgy.</p> + +<p>Other mechanical processes consist of <i>separators</i> +of various descriptions—a prominent one of which +acts on the principal of centrifugal force. The +crushed material from a spout being led to the centre +of a rapidly rotating disk is thrown off by centrifugal +force; and as the lighter portions are thrown +farther from the disk, and the heavier portions +nearer to the same, the material is automatically assorted +as to size and weight. As the disk revolves +these assorted portions fall through properly graded +apertures into separate channels of a circular trough, +from whence they are swept out by brushes secured +to a support revolving with the disk.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_380" id="PAGE_380">[Pg 380]</a></span></p> + +<p>Many forms of ore washing machines have been +invented to treat the ore after it has been reduced to +powder. These are known by various names, as +jiggers, rifflers, concentrators, washing frames, etc. +A stream of water is directed on, into, and through +the mass of pulverised ore and dirt, the dirt and +kindred materials, lighter than the ore, are raised +and floated towards the top of the receptacle and carried +away, while the ore settles.</p> + +<p>This operation is frequently carried on in connection +with amalgamated surfaces over which the +metal is passed to still further attract and concentrate +the ore. An endless apron travelling over cylinders +is sometimes employed, composed of slats the +surface of each of which is coated with an amalgam, +and on this belt the powdered ore is spread thinly +and carried forward. The vibrations of the belt +tend to shake and distribute the ore particles, the +amalgam attracts them, the refuse is thrown off as +the belt passes down over the cylinder, while the ore +particles are retained and brushed off into a proper +receptacle. <i>Amalgamators</i> themselves form a large +class of inventions. They are known as electric, +lead, mercury, plate, vacuum, vapour, etc.</p> + +<p>By the help of these and a vast number of other +kindred inventions, the business of mining in all +its branches has been revolutionised and transformed, +even within the last half century. With the +vast increase in the output of coal, and of ores, and +the incalculable saving of hand labour, the number +of operators has been increased in the same proportion, +their wages increased, their hours of labour +shortened, and their comforts multiplied in variety +and quantity, with a diminished cost. The whole +business of mining has been raised from ceaseless +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_381" id="PAGE_381">[Pg 381]</a></span> +darkness and drudgery to light and dignity. Opportunity +has been created for miners to become men of +standing in the community in which they live; and +means provided for educating their children and for +obtaining comfortable homes adorned with the refinements +of civilisation.</p> + +<p><i>Well boring</i> is an ancient art—known to the +Egyptians and the Chinese. Wells were coeval +with Abraham when his servant had the celebrated +interview with Rebecca. “Jacob’s well at Sychar—the +ancient Shechim—has been visited by travellers +in all ages and has been minutely described. It is +nine feet in diameter and one hundred and five feet +deep, made entirely through rock. When visited by +Maundrel it contained fifteen feet of water.”—<i>Knight.</i> +Some kind of a drill must have been +used to have cut so great a depth through rock. The +Chinese method of boring wells from time immemorial +has been by the use of a sharp chisel-like +piece of hard iron on the end of a heavy iron and +wood frame weighing four or five hundred pounds, +lifted by a lever and turned by a rattan cord operated +by hand, and by which wells from fifteen hundred +to eighteen hundred feet in depth and five or +six inches in diameter have been bored.</p> + +<p>This method has lately been improved by attaching +the chisel part, which is made very heavy, +to a rope of peculiar manufacture, which gives the +chisel a turn as it strikes, combined with an air +pump to suck up from the hole the accumulating dirt +and water.</p> + +<p>Artesian wells appear to have first been known in +Europe in the province of Artois, France, in the +thirteenth century. Hence their name. The previous +state of the art in Egypt, China and elsewhere +was not then known.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_382" id="PAGE_382">[Pg 382]</a></span></p> + +<p>Other modern inventions in well-making machinery +have consisted in innumerable devices to supplant +manual labour and to meet new conditions.</p> + +<p><i>Coal Oil</i>:—Reichenbach, the German chemist, discovered +paraffine. Young, soon after, in 1850, +patented paraffine oil made from coal. These discoveries, +added to the long observed fact of coal oil +floating on streams in Pennsylvania and elsewhere, +led to the search for its natural source. The discovery +of the reservoirs of petroleum in Pennsylvania +in 1855-1860, and subsequently of gas, which nature +had concealed for so long a time, gave a great +impetus to inventions to obtain and control these +riches. With earth-augurs, drills, and drill cleaning +and clearing and “fishing” apparatus, and devices +for creating a new flow of oil, and tubing, new forms +of packing, etc., inventors created a new industry.</p> + +<p>Colonel E. Drake sank the first oil well in Pennsylvania +in 1859. Since then, 125,000 oil wells +have been drilled in that and neighbouring localities. +The world has seldom seen such excitement, +except in California on the discovery of gold, as attended +the coal oil discovery. The first wells sunk +gushed thousands of barrels a day. Farmers and +other labouring men went to bed poor and woke up +rich. Rocky wildernesses and barren fields suddenly +became Eldorados. The burning rivers of oil +were a reflection of the golden treasures which flowed +into the hands and pockets of thousands as from a +perpetual fountain touched by some great magician’s +wand.</p> + +<p>Old methods of boring wells were too slow, and although +the underlying principle was the same, the +new methods and means invented enabled wells to be +bored with one-tenth the labour, in one-tenth the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_383" id="PAGE_383">[Pg 383]</a></span> +time, and at one-tenth the cost. Many great cities and +plains and deserts have been provided with these wells +owing to the ease with which they can now be sunk.</p> + +<p>Another ingenious method of sinking wells was invented +by Colonel N. W. Greene at Cortland, New +York, in 1862. It became known as the “driven +well,” and consisted of a pointed tube provided with +holes above the pointed end, and an inclosed tube to +prevent the passage of sand or gravel through the +holes in the outer tube. When the pointed tube was +driven until water was reached the inner tube was +withdrawn and a pump mechanism inserted. This +well, so simple, so cheap and effective, has been used +in all countries by thousands of farmers on dry +plains and by soldiers in many desert lands. With +these and modern forms of artesian wells the deserts +have literally been made to blossom as the rose.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_384" id="PAGE_384">[Pg 384]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXV" id="CHAPTER_XXV">CHAPTER XXV.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +HOROLOGY AND INSTRUMENTS OF PRECISION.</span></h2> + +<p class="poem"> +<span class="line">“Time measures all things, but I measure it.”<br></span> +</p> + + +<p>So far as we at present know there were four +forms of time-measuring instruments known to antiquity—the +sun-dial, the clepsydra or water clock, +the hour-glass, and the graduated candle.</p> + +<p>The sun-dial, by which time was measured by the +shadow cast from a pin, rod or pillar upon a graduated +horizontal plate—the graduations consisting +of twelve equal parts, in which the hours of the day +were divided, were, both as to the instrument and the +division of the day into hours, invented by the Babylonians +or other Oriental race, set up on the plains of +Chaldea, constructed by the Chinese and Hindoos—put +into various forms by these nations, and adapted, +but unimproved, by the learned Greeks and conquering +Romans. It appears to have been unknown to +the Assyrians and Egyptians, or if known, its knowledge +confined to their wise men, as it does not appear +in any of their monuments.</p> + +<p>The clepsydra, an instrument by which in its +earliest form a portion of time was measured by the +escape of water from a small orifice in the bottom of a +shell or vase, or by which the empty vase, placed in +another vessel filled with water, was gradually filled +through the orifice and which sank within a certain<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_385" id="PAGE_385">[Pg 385]</a></span> +time, is supposed by many to have preceded the invention +of the sun-dial. At any rate they were used +contemporaneously by the same peoples.</p> + +<p>In its later form, when the day and night were +each divided into twelve hours, the vessel was correspondingly +graduated, and a float raised by the inflowing +water impelled a pointer attached to the +float against the graduations.</p> + +<p>Plato, it is said, contrived a bell so connected with +the pointer that it was struck at each hour of the +night. But the best of ancient clepsydras was invented +by Ctesibius of Alexandria about the middle +of the third century B. C. He was the pupil of +Archimedes, and adopting his master’s idea of +geared wheels, he mounted a toothed wheel on a +shaft extending through the vessel and carrying at +one end outside of the vessel a pointer adapted to +move around the face of a dial graduated with the +24 hours. The vertical toothed rod or rack, adapted +to be raised or lowered by a float in a vessel gradually +filled with water, engaged a pinion fixed on another +horizontal shaft, which pinion in turn engaged +the larger wheel. It was not difficult to proportion +the parts and control the supply of water to make the +point complete its circuit regularly. Then the +same inventor dispensed with the wheel, rack, and +pinion, and substituted a cord to which a float was +attached, passing the cord over a grooved pulley and +securing a weight at its other end. The pulley was +fixed on the shaft which carried the hour hand. The +float was a counterbalance to the weight, and as it +was lifted by the water the weight stretched the cord +and turned the pulley, which caused the pointer to +move on the dial and indicate the hour. The water +thus acted as an escapement to control the motive<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_386" id="PAGE_386">[Pg 386]</a></span> +power. In one form the water dropped on wheels +which had their motion communicated to a small +statue that gradually rose and pointed with a rod +to the hour upon the dial.</p> + +<p>Thus the essential parts of a clock—an escapement, +which is a device to control the power in a +clock or watch so that it shall act intermittently on +the time index, a motive power, which was then water +or a weight, a dial to display the hours, and an +index to point them out—were invented at this early +age. But the art advanced practically no further +for many centuries.</p> + +<p>The hour-glass is too familiar to need description.</p> + +<p>The incense sticks of the Chinese, the combustion +of which proceeded so slowly and regularly as to render +them available for time measures, were the precursors +of the graduated candles.</p> + +<p>With the ungraduated sun-dial the Greeks fixed +their times for bathing and eating. When the +shadow was six feet long it was time to bathe, when +twice that length it was time to sup. The clepsydra +became in Greece a useful instrument to enforce the +law in restricting loquacious orators and lawyers to +reasonable limits in their addresses. And in Rome +the sun-dials, the clepsydras and the hour-glass were +used for the same purpose, and more generally than +in Greece, to regulate the hours of business and +pleasure.</p> + +<p>The graduated candles are chiefly notable as to +their use, if not invention, by Alfred the Great in +about 883. They were 12 inches long, divided into +12 parts, of which three would burn in one hour. In +use they were shielded from the wind by thin pieces +of horn, and thus the “horn lantern” originated. +With them he divided the day into three equal parts,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_387" id="PAGE_387">[Pg 387]</a></span> +one for religion, one for public affairs, and one for +rest and recreation.</p> + +<p>Useful clocks of wondrous make were described +in the annals of the middle ages, especially in Germany, +made by monks and others for Kings, monasteries +and churches. The old Saxon and Teutonic +words <i>cligga</i>, and <i>glocke</i>, signifying the striking of a +bell, and from which the name clock is derived, indicates +the early combination of striking and time-keeping +mechanism. The records are scant as to the +particulars of inventions in horology during the middle +ages and down to the sixteenth century, but we +know that weights, and trains of wheels and springs, +and some say pendulums, were used in clockwork, +and that the tones of hourly bells floated forth from +the dim religious light of old cathedrals. They all +appear to have involved in different forms the principle +of the old clepsydra, using either weights or +water as the motive power to drive a set of wheels +and to move a pointer over the face of a dial.</p> + +<p>Henry de Vick of France about 1370 constructed +a celebrated clock for Charles V., the first nearest +approach to modern weight clocks. The weight was +used to unwind a cord from a barrel. The barrel +was connected to a ratchet and there were combined +therewith a train of toothed wheels and pinions, an +escapement consisting of a crown wheel controlled by +two pallets, which in turn were operated alternately +by two weights on a balanced rod. An hour hand +was carried by a shaft of the great wheel, and a dial +plate divided into hours. This was a great advance, +as a more accurate division of time was had by improving +the isochronous properties of the vibrating +escapement. But the world was still wanting a time-keeper +to record smaller portions of the day than the +hour and a more accurate machine than Vick’s.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_388" id="PAGE_388">[Pg 388]</a></span></p> + +<p>Two hundred years, nearly, elapsed before the next +important advance in horology. By this time great +astronomers like Tycho Brahe and Valherius had +divided the time-recording dials into minutes and +seconds.</p> + +<p>About 1525 Jacob Zech of Prague invented the +fusee, which was re-invented and improved by the +celebrated Dr. Hooke, 125 years later.</p> + +<p>Small portable clocks, the progenitors of the modern +watch, commenced to appear about 1500. It +was then that Peter Hele of Nuremberg substituted +for weights as the motive power a ribbon of steel, +which he wound around a central spindle, connecting +one end to a train of wheels to which it gave motion +as it unwound.</p> + +<p>Then followed the famous observation of the +swinging lamp by the then young Galileo, about +1582, while lounging in the cathedral of Pisa. The +isochronism of the vibrations of the pendulum inferred +from this observation was not published or +put to practical application in clocks for nearly sixty +years afterward. In 1639 Galileo, then old and +blind, dictated to his son one of his books in which +he discussed the isochronal properties of oscillating +bodies, and their adaptation as time measures. He +and others had used the pendulum for dividing time, +but moved it by hand and counted its vibrations. +But Huygens, the great Dutch scientist, about 1556 +was the first to explain the principles and properties +of the pendulum as a time measurer and to apply it +most successfully to clocks. His application of it +was to the old clock of Vick’s.</p> + +<p>The seventeenth century thus opened up a new era +in clock and watch making. The investigations, discoveries, +and inventions of Huygens and other Dutch<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_389" id="PAGE_389">[Pg 389]</a></span> +clock-makers, of Dr. Hooke and David Ramsey of +England, Hautefeuille of France, and a few others +placed the art of clock and watch making on the +scientific basis on which it has ever since rested.</p> + +<p>The pendulum and watch-springs needed to have +their movements controlled and balanced by better +escapements. Huygens thought that the pendulum +should be long and swing in a cycloidal course, but +Dr. Hooke found the better way to produce perfect +isochronous movements was to cause the pendulum +to swing in short arcs, which he accomplished by his +invention of the anchor escapement.</p> + +<p>The fusee which Dr. Hooke re-invented consists +of a conical spirally-grooved pulley, around which a +chain is wound, and which is connected at one end to +a barrel, in which the main actuating spring is +tightly coiled. The fusee is thus interposed between +the wheel train and the spring to equalise the power +of the latter.</p> + +<p>To Dr. Hooke must also be credited the invention +of that delicate but efficient device, the hair-spring +balance for watches. His inventions in this line +were directed to the best means of utilising and controlling +the force of springs, his motto being “<i>ut +tensio sic vis</i>,” (as the tension is so is the force.) +Repeating watches to strike the hours, half-hours and +quarters, made their appearance in the seventeenth +century. In the next century Arnold made one for +George III., as small as an English sixpence. This +repeated the hours, halves and quarters, and in it +for the first time in the art a jewel was used as a +bearing for the arbors, and this particular one was a +ruby made into a minute cylinder.</p> + +<p>After the discovery and practical application of +weights, springs, wheels, levers and escapements to<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_390" id="PAGE_390">[Pg 390]</a></span> +time mechanisms, subsequent inventions, numerous +as they have been, have consisted chiefly, not in the +discovery of new principles, but in new methods in +the application of old ones. Prior to the eighteenth +century, however, clocks were cumbrous and expensive, +and the watches rightly regarded as costly toys; +and as to their accuracy in time-measuring, the +cheaper ones were hardly as satisfactory as the ancient +sun-dials.</p> + +<p>With the coming of the machine inventions and +the new industrial and social ideas of the eighteenth +century came an almost sudden new appreciation of +the value of time. Hours, minutes and seconds began +to be carefully prized, both by the trades and +professions, and the demand from the common people +for accurate time records became great. This demand +it has been the office of the nineteenth century +to supply, and to place clocks and watches within the +reach of the poor as well as the rich. While thus +lessening the cost of time-keepers their value has +been enhanced by increasing their accuracy and +durability.</p> + +<p>Among the other ideas for which the eighteenth +century was famous in watch-making was that of +dispensing with the key for winding, thus saving +the losing of keys and preventing access of dust, an +idea which, however, was perfected only in the last +half of the nineteenth century.</p> + +<p>The eighteenth century was chiefly distinguished +by its scientific improvements in time-keepers, to +adapt them for astronomical observations and for +use at sea, in not only accurately determining the +time, but the degrees of longitude. Chronometers +were invented, distinguished from watches and clocks, +by means by which the fluctuation of the parts caused<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_391" id="PAGE_391">[Pg 391]</a></span> +by the variations in temperature are obviated or compensated. +In clocks what are known as the mercurial +and gridiron pendulums were invented respectively +toward the close of the eighteenth century +by Graham and Harrison, and the latter also subsequently +invented the expanding and contracting balance +wheel for watches. The principle in these appliances +is the employment of two different metals +which expand unequally, and thus maintain an uniformity +of operation.</p> + +<p>The Dutch, with Huygens in the lead, were long +among the leading clock-makers. Germany ranked +next. It was in the seventeenth century that a wonderful +industry in clock-making there commenced, +which lasted for two centuries. The Black Forest +region of South Germany became a famous locality +for the manufacture of cheap wooden clocks. The +system adopted was a minute division of labour. +From fourteen to twenty thousand hands twenty years +ago were employed in the Schwarzwald district. +Labour-saving machines were ignored almost entirely. +The annual production finally reached nearly two +million clocks, of the value of about five million +dollars.</p> + +<p>Switzerland in watch-making followed precisely +the example of Germany in clock-making. It commenced +there in the seventeenth and culminated in +the nineteenth century. Many thousands of its population +were engaged in the business and it flourished +under the fostering care of the government—by the +establishment of astronomical observations for testing +the adjustment of the best watches, the giving of +prizes, and the establishment and encouragement of +schools of horology conducted on thorough scientific +methods. A quarter of a century ago it was estimated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_392" id="PAGE_392">[Pg 392]</a></span>that in Switzerland 40,000 persons out of a +population of 150,000 were engaged in watch-making, +and that the annual production sometimes reached 1,600,000 +completed movements. The whole world was +their market. The United States alone was in 1875 importing +134,000 watches annually from that country.</p> + +<p>As in Germany, so one characteristic of the Swiss +system was a minute sub-division of the labour. Individuals +and entire families had certain parts +only to make. It is said that the Swiss watch +passed through the hands of one hundred and +thirty different workmen before it was put upon the +market. The use of machines was also, as in Germany, +ignored. By this national devotion to a single +trade and its sub-division of labour, the successful +production of complicated watches became great and +their prices comparatively low.</p> + +<p>The United States in the commencement of its +career and at the opening of the century had no +clocks or watches of its own manufacture. But it +soon followed the example of Germany and Switzerland +and established cheap clock manufactories, first +of wood, and then of metal, which became famous +and of world-wide use. But it could make no headway +against the cheap labour of Europe in watch-making, +and the country was flooded with watches of +all qualities, principally from Switzerland and England. +Finally, at the half-way mark in the century, +the inquiry arose among Americans, why could not +the system of the minute sub-division of human +labour followed in watch-making countries so +cheaply and profitably, be accomplished by machinery? +The field was open, the prize was great, +and the government stood ready to grant exclusive +patents to every inventor who would devise a new and<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_393" id="PAGE_393">[Pg 393]</a></span> +useful machine. The problem was great, as the fields +abroad had been filled for generations by skilled artisans +who had reduced the complicated mechanism +of watch-making to a fine art. Fortunately the +habit had been established in America in several of +the leading industries, principally in that of fire-arms, +of fabricating separate machinery for the independent +making of numerous parts of the same +implement, whereby uniformity and interchangeability +were established. Under such a practice, +which was known as the American system, a duplicate +of the smallest part of a complicated machine, +lost or worn out thousands of miles from the factory, +could soon be furnished by simply sending the number +or name of such required part to the manufacturer, +or to the nearest dealer in such machines.</p> + +<p>With such encouragement and example the scheme +of watch-making was commenced. Soon large factories +were built, and by the time of the Centennial +Exhibition in 1876, the American Watch Company +of Waltham, Massachusetts, were enabled to present +an exhibit of watch movements made by machinery, +which astonished the world. Other great companies +in different parts of the country soon followed with +the same general system. Machines, working with +the apparent intelligence and facility of human +minds and hands, and with greater mathematical +accuracy than was possible with the hands, appeared:—for +cutting out the finest teeth from blank +wheels stamped out from steel or brass; for making +and cutting the smallest, finest threaded screws by +the thousands per hour and with greatest uniformity +and accuracy; for jewel-making; for cutting and +polishing by diamonds, or sapphire-armed tools, the +rough, unpolished diamond and ruby, crysolite,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_394" id="PAGE_394">[Pg 394]</a></span> +garnet, or aqua-marine, and for boring, finishing and +setting the same; for the formation of the most delicate +pins or arbors; for the making of the escapements, +including forks, pallets, rollers, and scape +wheels; for making springs and balances, including +the main-springs and hair-springs; for making +and setting the stem-winding parts; for making the +cases, and engraving the same, etc. The list would +be too long to simply name all the ingenious machines +there exhibited and subsequently invented +for every important operation.</p> + +<p>It was the aim of these manufacturers to locate +every great factory in some quiet and attractive spot, +free from the dust of town, and city, and divide it +into many departments, from the blacksmithing to +the packing and transportation of the completed article; +and to conduct every department with the best +mechanical and mathematical skill that money and +brains could provide.</p> + +<p>The same system was followed with equal success +in producing the first-class pocket-chronometer for +the nicest work to which chronometers can be put.</p> + +<p>Thus with every watch and its every part made +the exact duplicate of its fellow, uniformity in time-keeping +has been established; and the simile of Pope +is no longer so correct, “’Tis with our judgments +as our watches, none go just alike, yet each believes +his own.” A simple statement of this system illustrates +with greater force than an entire volume the +revolution the nineteenth century has produced in +the useful art of horology. And yet the story should +not omit reference to the application of the electric +system to clocks, whereby clocks at distant points of +a city or country are connected, automatically corrected +and set to standard time from a central observatory +or other time station.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_395" id="PAGE_395">[Pg 395]</a></span></p> + +<p>Great as were the advances in horology during the +seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the number of +inventions that have been made in the nineteenth +century is evidenced by the fact that in the United +States alone about 4,000 patents have been granted +since 1800, which, however, represent not only American +inventors but very many of other countries.</p> + +<p><i>Registering Devices.</i>—Devices for recording fares +and money have employed the keenest wits of many +inventors and is an art of quite recent origin. Attention +was first directed to fare registers in public +vehicles, the object of which is to accurately report +to the proper office of the company at the end of a +trip, or of the day, the number of passengers carried +and the fares received. Portable registers, to +be carried by the conductor and operated in front +of the passenger have been almost universally succeeded +by stationary ones set up at one end of the +vehicle in open view of all the passengers and operated +by a strap and lever by the conductor. These fare +registers have been called “A mechanical conscience +for street car conductors.”</p> + +<p><i>Cash Registers</i>, intended to compel honesty on the +part of retail salesmen, are required to be operated +by them, and when the proper lever, or levers, or it +may be a crank handle, is or are touched, the machine +automatically records the amount of the sale, +the amount of change given, and the total amount of +all the sales and money received and paid out.</p> + +<p><i>Voting Machines</i>—designed to overcome the +difficulties, expenditure of time, and the commission +of errors and frauds experienced in the reading and +counting of votes—have received great attention from +inventors, and are not yet in a satisfactory condition. +The problem involves the dispensing of printing the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_396" id="PAGE_396">[Pg 396]</a></span> +ballots, the prevention of fraudulent deposition of +ballots, the automatic correct counting of the same, +and a display of the result as soon as the balloting is +closed.</p> + +<p>Successful electrical devices have been made for +recording the votes of a great number of persons +in a large assembly by the touch of an “aye” or +“nay” button at the seat of the voter and the recording +of the same on paper at a central desk.</p> + +<p>The invention and extensive use of bicycles, automobiles, +etc., have given rise to the invention of +<i>cyclometers</i>, which are small devices connected to +some part of the vehicle to indicate to the rider or +driver the rate at which he is riding, and the number +of miles ridden.</p> + +<p><i>Speed Indicators.</i>—Many municipalities having +adopted ordinances limiting the rate of speed for +street and steam cars, bicycles, automobiles, and +other vehicles, a want was created, which has been +met, for devices to indicate to the passengers, drivers +or conductors the rate at which the vehicle is travelling, +and to sound an alarm in case of excess of +speed, so that brakes can be applied and the speed +reduced. Or to relieve persons of anxiety and +trouble in this respect, ingenious devices have been +contrived which automatically reduce the speed when +the prescribed limit has been exceeded.</p> + +<p><i>Weighing Scales and Machines.</i>—“Just balances +and just weights” have been required from the day +of the declaration, “a false weight is an abomination +unto the Lord.” And therefore strict accuracy must +always be the measure of merit of a weighing machine. +To this standard the inventions of the century +in weighing scales have come. Until this century +the ordinary balance with equal even arms suspended +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_397" id="PAGE_397">[Pg 397]</a></span>from a central point, and each carrying +means for suspending articles to be weighed, or compared +in weights, and the later steelyard with its +unequal arms, with its graduated long arms and a +sliding weight and holding pan, were the principal +forms of weighing machines. Platform scales were +described in an English patent to one Salman in +1796, but their use is not recorded. The compound +lever scale on the principle of the steelyard, but arranged +to be used with a platform, was invented and +came into use in the United States about 1831. +Thaddeus and Erastus Fairbanks of St. Johnsbury, +Vermont, were the inventors, and it was found to meet +the want of farmers in weighing hemp, hay, etc., by +more convenient means than the ordinary steelyard. +They converted the steelyard into platform scales. +The leading characteristics of such machines are, first, +a convenient platform nicely balanced on knife edges +of steel levers, and second, a graduated horizontal +beam, a sliding weight thereon connected by an upright +rod at one end to the beam, and at its opposite +end to the balance frame beneath the platform.</p> + +<p>The modification in size and adaptation of this machine +for the weighing of different commodities +amounted to some 400 different varieties—running +from the delicately-constructed apparatus for weighing +the fraction of a grain, to the ponderous machines +for weighing and recording the loaded freight car +of fifty or sixty tons, or the canal-boat or other vessel +with its load of five or six hundred tons. The adaptation +of a balance platform on which to place a light +load, or to drive thereon with heavy loads, whether of +horses, steam, or water vehicles, was a great blessing +to mankind. No wonder that they were soon sold<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_398" id="PAGE_398">[Pg 398]</a></span> +all over the world, and that monarchs and people +hastened to heap honors on the inventors.</p> + +<p>Spring weighing scales have recently been invented, +which will accurately and automatically +show not only the weight but the total price of the +goods weighed, the price per unit being known and +fixed.</p> + +<p>In the weighing of large masses of coarse material, +such as grain, coal, cotton seed, and the like, machines +have been constructed which automatically +weigh such materials and at the same time register +the weight.</p> + +<p>Previous to this century no method was known, except +the exercise of good judgment in the light of +experience, of accurately testing the strength of materials. +Wood and metals were used in unnecessarily +cumbrous forms for the purpose to which they +were put, in order to ensure safety, or else the +strength of the parts failed where it was most +needed.</p> + +<p>The idea of testing the tensile, transverse, and +cubical resisting strength of materials has been applied +to many other objects than beams and bars of +wood and metals; to belts, cloths, cables, wires, +fibres, paper, twine, yarn, cement, and to liquids. +Kiraldy, Kennedy, and others of England, Thomasset +of France, Riehle of Germany, and Fairbanks, +Thurston and Emery of the United States, are among +the noted inventors of such machines.</p> + +<p>In the Emery system of machines, consisting of +scales, gages, and dynamometers, the power exerted +on the material tested is transmitted from the load +to an indicating device by means of liquid acting on +diaphragms. The same principle is employed in his +weighing machines.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_399" id="PAGE_399">[Pg 399]</a></span></p> + +<p>By one of these hydraulic testing machines the +tensile strength of forged links has been ascertained +by the exertion of a power amounting to over +700,000 pounds before breaking a link, the chain +breaking with a loud report.</p> + +<p>The most delicate materials are tested by the same +machine—the tensile strength of a horsehair, some +of which are found to stand the strain of one and +two pounds. Eggs and nuts are cracked without +being crushed, and the power exerted and the strain +endured automatically recorded. Steel beams and +rods have been subjected to a strain of a million +pounds before breaking.</p> + +<p>Governments, municipalities, and the people generally +are thus provided with means by which they +can proceed with the greatest confidence in the safe +and economical construction and completion of their +buildings and public works.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_400" id="PAGE_400">[Pg 400]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVI" id="CHAPTER_XXVI">CHAPTER XXVI.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +MUSIC, ACOUSTICS, OPTICS, FINE ARTS.</span></h2> + + +<p>Neither the historic nor prehistoric records find +man without musical instruments of some sort. +They are as old as religion, and have been found +wherever evidence of religious rites of any description +have been found, as they constituted part of the +instrumentalities of such rites. They are found as +relics of worship and the dance, ages after the worshippers +and the dancers have become part of the +earth’s strata. They have been found wherever the +earliest civilisations have been discovered; and they +appear to have been regarded as desirable and necessary +as the weapons and the labour implements of +those civilisations. They abounded in China, in +India, and in Egypt before the lyre of Apollo was invented, +or the charming harp of Orpheus was conceived.</p> + +<p>There was little melody according to modern +standards, but the musical instruments, like all other +inventions, the fruit of the brain of man, were slowly +evolved as he wanted them, and to meet the conditions +surrounding him.</p> + +<p>There were the conch shell trumpet, the stone, bone, +wood and metal dance rattles, the beaks of birds, and +the horns and teeth of beasts, for the same rattling +purpose. The simple reed pipes, the hollow wooden +drums, the skin drum-heads, the stretched strings of +fibre and of tendons, the flutes, the harps, the guitars,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_401" id="PAGE_401">[Pg 401]</a></span> +the psalteries, and hundreds of other forms of musical +instruments, varied as the skill and fancy of man +varied, and in accordance with their taste and wants, +along the entire gamut of noises and rude melodies. +The ancient races had the instruments, but their +voices, except as they existed in the traditions of +their gods, were not harmonious.</p> + +<p>As modern wants and tastes developed and music +became a science the demands of the nineteenth century +were met by a Helmholtz, who discovered and +explained the laws of harmony, and by many ingenious +manufacturers, who so revolutionised the +pianoforte action, and the action of musical instruments +constructed on these principles, that their +predecessors would hardly be recognised as prototypes.</p> + +<p>The story of the piano, that queen of musical instruments, +involves the whole history of the art of +music. Its evolution from the ancient harp, gleaned +by man from the wind, “that grand old harper, who +smote his thunder harp of pines,” is too long a +story to here recite in detail. It must suffice to say, +it started with the harp, in its simplest form, composed +of a frame with animal tendons stretched tight +thereon and twanged by the fingers. Then followed +strings of varied length, size, and tension, to obtain +different tones, soon accompanied by an instrument +called the plectrum—a bone or ivory stick with +which to vibrate the strings, to save the fingers. This +was the harp of the Egyptians, and of Jubal, “the +father of all such as handle the harp and the organ,” +and half-brother of Tubal Cain, the great teacher +“of every artificer in brass and iron.” Then the +harp was laid prostrate, its strings stretched over a +sounding board, and each held and adapted to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_402" id="PAGE_402">[Pg 402]</a></span> +tightened by pegs, and played upon by little hammers +having soft pellets or corks at their ends. This +was the psaltery and the dulcimer of the Assyrians +and the Hebrews.</p> + +<p>The Greeks derived their musical instruments +from the Egyptians, and the Romans borrowed theirs +from the Greeks, but neither the Greeks nor the +Romans invented any.</p> + +<p>Then, after fourteen or fifteen centuries, we find +the harp, both in a horizontal and an upright position, +with its strings played upon by keys. This was the +<i>clavicitherium</i>. In the sixteenth century came the +virginal, and the spinet, those soft, tinkling instruments +favoured by Queen Elizabeth and Queen Mary, +and which, recently brought from obscurity, have +been made to revive the ancient Elizabethan melodies, +to the delight of modern hearers. These were +followed in the seventeenth century by the clavichord, +the favourite instrument of Bach. Then appeared the +harpsichord, a still nearer approach to the piano, +having a hand or knee-worked pedal, and on which +Mozart and Handel and Haydn brought out their +grand productions. The ancient Italian cembello +was another spinet.</p> + +<p>Thus, through the centuries these instruments had +slowly grown. By 1711 in Italy, under the inventive +genius of Bartolommeo Cristofori of Florence, +they had culminated in the modern piano. The +piano as devised by him differed from the instruments +preceding it chiefly in this, that in the latter +the strings were vibrated by striking and pulling on +them by pieces of quills attached to levers and operated +by keys, whereas, in the piano there were applied +hammers in place of quills.</p> + +<p>In the 1876 exhibition at Philadelphia, a piano +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_403" id="PAGE_403">[Pg 403]</a></span> +was displayed which had been made by Johannes +Christian Schreiber of Germany in 1741.</p> + +<p>Then in the latter part of the eighteenth century +Broadwood and Clementi of London and Erard of +Strasburg and Petzold of Paris commenced the +manufacture of their fine instruments. Erard particularly +made many improvements in that and in +the nineteenth century in the piano, its hammers and +keys, and Southwell of Dublin in the dampers.</p> + +<p>By them and the Collards of London, Bechstein +of Berlin, and Chickering, Steinway, Weber, Schomacher, +Decker and Knabe of America, was the +piano “ripened after the lapse of more than 2,000 +years into the perfectness of the magnificent instruments +of modern times, with their better materials, +more exact appliances, finer adjustments, greater +strength of parts, increase of compass and power, +elastic responsiveness of touch, enlarged sonority, +satisfying delicacy, and singing character in tone.”</p> + +<p>A piano comprises five principal parts: first, the +framing; second, the sounding board; third, the +stringing; fourth, the key mechanism, or action, and +fifth, the ornamental case. To supply these several +parts separate classes of skilled artisans have arisen, +the forests have been ransacked for their choicest +woods, the mines have been made to yield their +choicest stores, and the forge to weld its finest work. +Science has given to music the ardent devotion of a +lover, and resolved a confused mass of more or less +pleasant noises into liquid harmonies. In 1862 appeared +Helmholtz’s great work on the “Law and +Tones and the Theory of Music.” He it was who invented +the method of analysing sound. By the use of +hollow bodies called <i>resonators</i> he found that every +sound as it generally occurs in nature and as it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_404" id="PAGE_404">[Pg 404]</a></span> +produced by most of our musical instruments, or the +human voice, is not a single simple sound, but a +compound of several tones of different intensity and +pitch; all of which different tones combined are +heard as one; and that the difference of quality or +<i>timbre</i> of the sounds of different musical instruments +resides in the different composition of these sounds; +that different compound sounds contain the same +fundamental tone but differently mixed with other +tones. He explained how these fundamental and +compound tones might be fully developed to produce +either harmonious or dissonant sensations. His researches +were carried farther and added to by Prof. +Mayer of New Jersey. These theories were practically +applied in the pianos produced by the celebrated +firm of Steinway and Sons of New York; and +their inventions and improvements in the iron framing, +in laying of strings in relation to the centre +of the sounding-board, in “resonators” in upright +frames, and in other features, from 1866 to 1876, +produced a revolution in the art of piano making.</p> + +<p>If the piano is properly the queen of musical instruments, +the organ may be rightly regarded, as it +has been named, “King in the realm of music.” It +is an instrument, the notes of which are produced +by the rush of air through pipes of different lengths, +the air being supplied by bellows or other means, and +controlled by valves which are operated by keys, and +by which the supply of air is admitted or cut off.</p> + +<p>The earliest description appears to be that in the +“Spiritalia” of Hero of Alexandria (150-200 B. C.) +and Ctesibius of Alexandria was the inventor. A +series of pipes of varying lengths were filled by an +air-pump which was operated by a wind-mill. Organs +were again originated in the early Christian<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_405" id="PAGE_405">[Pg 405]</a></span> +centuries; and a Greek epigram of the fourth century +refers to one as provided with “reeds of a new +species agitated by blasts of wind that rush from a +leathern cavern beneath their roots, while a robust +mortal, running with swift fingers over the concordant +keys, makes them smoothly dance and emit harmonious +sounds.”</p> + +<p>The same in principle to-day, but more complicated +in structure, “yet of easy control under the +hands of experts, fertile in varied symphonious +effects, giving with equal and satisfying success the +gentlest and most sympathetic tones as well as complete +and sublimely full utterances of musical inspiration.”</p> + +<p>The improvements of the century have consisted +in adding a great variety of stops; in connections and +couplers of the great keyboard and pipes; in the pedal +part; in the construction of the pipes and wind +chests; and principally in the adaptation of steam, +water, air, and electricity, in place of the muscles of +men, as powers in furnishing the supply of air. Some +of the great organs of the century, having three or +four thousand pipes, with all the modern improvements, +and combining great power with the utmost +brilliancy and delicacy of utterance, and with a +blended effect which is grand, solemn and most impressive, +render indeed this noble instrument the +“king” in the realm of music.</p> + +<p>In the report of 1895 of the United States Commissioner +of patents it is stated that “the <i>autoharp</i> +has been developed within the past few years, having +bars arranged transversely across the strings and +provided with dampers which, when depressed, silence +all the strings except those producing the desired +chords.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_406" id="PAGE_406">[Pg 406]</a></span></p> + +<p>“An ingenious musical instrument of the class having +keyboards like the piano or organ has been recently +invented. All keyboard instruments in +ordinary use produce tones that are only approximately +correct in pitch, because these must be limited +in number to twelve, to the octave, while the +tones of the violin are absolute or untempered. The +improved instrument produces untempered tones +without requiring extraordinary variations from the +usual arrangement of the keys.”</p> + +<p>Self-playing musical instruments have been known +for more than forty years, but it is within the past +twenty-five years that devices have been invented +for controlling tones by pneumatic or electrical appliances +to produce expressions. Examples of the +later of these three kinds of musical instruments +may be found in the United States patents of Zimmermann +in 1882, Tanaka, 1890, and Gally, 1879.</p> + +<p>The science of <i>acoustics</i> and its practical applications +have greatly advanced, chiefly due to the researches +of Helmholtz, referred to above.</p> + +<p>When the nature and laws of the waves of sound +became fully known a great field of inventions was +opened. Then came the telephone, phonograph, +graphophone and gramophone.</p> + +<p>The telephone depends upon a combination of electricity +and the waves of the human voice. The +phonograph and its modifications depend alone on +sound waves—the recording of the waves from one +vibrating membrane and their exact reproduction on +another vibrating membrane.</p> + +<p>The acoustic properties of churches and other +buildings were improved by the adaptation of banks +of fine wires to prevent the re-echoing of sounds. +<i>Auricular tubes</i> adapted to be applied to the ears and<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_407" id="PAGE_407">[Pg 407]</a></span> +concealed by the hair, and other forms of aural instruments, +were devised.</p> + +<p>The <i>Megaphone</i> of Edison appeared, consisting of +two large funnels having elastic conducting tubes +from their apices to the aural orifice. Conversation +in moderate tones has been heard and understood by +their use at a distance of one and a half miles. The +megaphone has been found very useful in speaking +to large outdoor crowds.</p> + +<p>But let us go back a little: In 1845, Chas. Bourseuil +of France published the idea that the vibrations +of speech uttered against a diaphragm might break +or make an electric contact, and the electric pulsations +thereby produced might set another diaphragm +vibrating which should produce the transmitted +sound waves. In 1857, another Frenchman, Leon +Scott, patented in France his <i>Phonautograph</i>—an +instrument consisting of a large barrel-like mouth-piece +into which words were spoken, a membrane +therein against which the voice vibrations were received, +a stylus attached to this vibrating membrane, +and a rotating cylinder covered with blackened +paper, against which the stylus bore and on which +it recorded the sound waves in exact form received +on the vibrating diaphragm. Then came the researches +and publications of Helmholtz and König +on acoustic science, 1862-1866. Then young Philip +Reis of Frankfort, Germany, attempted to put all +these theories into an apparatus to reproduce speech, +but did not quite succeed. Then in 1874-1875, Bell +took up the matter, and at the Philadelphia exhibition, +1876, astonished the world by the revelations +of the telephone. In April, 1877, Charles Cros, a +Frenchman, in a communication to the Academy of +Sciences in Paris, after describing an apparatus like<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_408" id="PAGE_408">[Pg 408]</a></span> +the Scott phonautograph, set forth how traced undulating +lines of voice vibrations might be reproduced +in intaglio or in relief, and reproduced upon a +vibrating membrane by a pointed stylus attached +thereto and following the line of the original pulsations. +The communication seems to have been +pigeon-holed, and not read in open session until +December, 1877, and until after Thomas A. Edison +had actually completed and used his phonograph in +the United States. Cros rested on the suggestion. +Edison, without knowing of Cros’ suggestion, was +first to make and actually use the same invention. +Edison’s cylinder, on which the sounds were recorded +and from which they were reproduced, was covered +by tin foil. A great advance was made by Dr. Chichester +A. Bell and Mr. C. S. Tainter, who in 1886 +patented in the United States means of cutting or +engraving the sound waves in a solid body. The +solid body they employed was a thin pasteboard +cylinder covered with wax. This apparatus they +called the <i>graphophone</i>. Two years thereafter, Mr. +Emile Berliner of Washington had invented the +<i>gramophone</i>, which consists in etching on a metallic +plate the record of voice waves. He has termed his +invention, “the art of etching the human voice.” He +prepares a polished metal plate, generally zinc, with +an extremely thin coating of film or fatty milk, +which dries upon and adheres to the plate. The +stylus penetrates this film, meeting from it the +slightest possible resistance, and traces thereon the +message. The record plate is then subjected to a +particularly constituted acid bath, which, entering the +groove or grooves formed by the stylus, cuts or etches +the same into the plate. The groove thus formed +may be deepened by another acid solution. When<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_409" id="PAGE_409">[Pg 409]</a></span> +thus produced, as many copies of the record as desired +may be made by the electrotyper or print +plater.</p> + +<p>The public is now familiar with the different forms +of this wonderful instrument, and like the telephone, +they no longer seem marvellous. Yet it is only +within the age of a youth or a maiden when the allegations +or predictions that the human voice would +soon be carried over the land, and reproduced across +a continent, or be preserved or engraven on tablets +and reproduced at pleasure anywhere, in this or any +subsequent generation, were themselves regarded +as strange messages of dreamers and madmen.</p> + +<p><i>Optical Instruments.</i>—There were practical inventions +in optical instruments long before this century. +Achromatic and other lenses were known, and +the microscope, the telescope and spectacles.</p> + +<p>The inventive genius of this century in the field +of optics has not eclipsed the telescope and microscope +of former ages. They were the fruits of the +efforts of many ages and of many minds, although +Hans Lippersheim of Holland in 1608 appears to +have made the first successful instrument “for seeing +things at a distance.” Galileo soon thereafter greatly +improved and increased its capacity, and was the +first to direct it towards the heavens. And as to the +microscope, Dr. Lieberkulm, of Berlin, in 1740, made +the first successful solar microscope. As well known, +it consisted essentially of two lenses and a mirror, +by which the sun’s rays are reflected on the first lens, +concentrated on the object and further magnified by +the second lens.</p> + +<p>The depths of the stars and the minutest mote that +floats in the sun beam reflect the glory of those inventions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_410" id="PAGE_410">[Pg 410]</a></span></p> + +<p>The invention of John Dolland of London, about +1758, of the achromatic lens should be borne in mind +in connection with telescopes, microscopes, etc. He +it was who invented the combination of two lenses, +one concave and the other convex, one of flint glass +and the other of crown glass, which, refracting in +contrary ways, neutralised the dispersion of colour +rays and produced a clear, colourless light.</p> + +<p>Many improvements and discoveries in optics and +optical instruments have been made during the century, +due to the researches of such scientists as Arago, +Brewster, Young, Fresnel, Airy, Hamilton, Lloyd, +Cauchy and others, and of the labours of the army +of skilled experts and mechanicians who have followed +their lead.</p> + +<p>Sir David Brewster, born in Scotland in 1781, +made (1810-1840) many improvements in the construction +of the microscope and telescope, invented +the kaleidoscope, introduced in the stereoscope the +principles and leading features which those beautiful +instruments still embody, and rendered it popular +among scientists and artists.</p> + +<p>It is said that Prof. Eliot of Edinburgh in 1834 +was the first to conceive of the idea of a stereoscope, +by which two different pictures of the same object, +taken by photography, to correspond to the two different +positions of an object as viewed by the two +eyes, are combined into one view by two reflecting +mirrors set at an angle of about 45°, and conveying +to the eyes a single reflection of the object as a solid +body. But Sir Charles Wheaton in 1838 constructed +the first instrument, and in 1849 Brewster introduced +the present form of lenticular lenses.</p> + +<p>Brewster also demonstrated the utility of dioptric +lenses, and zones in lighthouse illumination; and in<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_411" id="PAGE_411">[Pg 411]</a></span> +which field Faraday and Tyndall also subsequently +worked with the addition of electrical appliances. +The labours of these three men have illuminated the +wildest waters of the sea and preserved a thousand +fleets of commerce and of war from awful shipwreck.</p> + +<p>As illustrating the difficulties sometimes encountered +in introducing an invention into use, the +American Journal of Chemistry some years ago related +that the Abbé Moigno, in introducing the +stereoscope to the savants of France, first took it +to Arago, but Arago had a defect of vision +which made him see double, and he could only +see in it a medley of four pictures; then the +Abbé went to Savart, but unfortunately Savart had +but one eye and was quite incapable of appreciating +the thing. Then Becquerel was next visited, but he +was nearly blind and could see nothing in the new +optical toy. Not discouraged, the Abbé then called +upon Puillet of the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers. +Puillet was much interested, but he was +troubled with a squint which presented to his +anxious gaze but a blurred mixture of images. Lastly +Brot was tried. Brot believed in the corpuscular +theory of light, and was opposed to the undulatory +theory, and the good Abbé not being able to +assure him that the instrument did not contradict +his theory, Brot refused to have anything to do with +it. In spite, however, of the physical disabilities of +scientists, the stereoscope finally made its way in +France.</p> + +<p>Besides increasing the power of the eye to discover +the secrets and beauties of nature, modern invention +has turned upon the eye itself and displayed the +wonders existing there, behind its dark glass doors. +It was Helmholtz who in 1851 described his <i>Ophthalmoscope</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_412" id="PAGE_412">[Pg 412]</a></span>. +He arranged a candle so that its rays of +light, falling on an inclined reflector, were thrown +through the pupil of the patient’s eye, whose retina +reflected the image received on the retina back to the +mirror where it could be viewed by the observer. +This image was the background of the eye, and its +delicate blood vessels and tissues could thus be observed. +This instrument was improved and it gave +rise to the contrivance of many delicate surgical instruments +for operating on the eye.</p> + +<p>The <i>Spectroscope</i> is an instrument by which the +colours of the solar rays are separated and viewed, +as well as those of other incandescent bodies. By it, +not only the elements of the heavenly bodies have +been determined, but remarkable results have been +had in analysing well-known metals and discovering +new ones. Its powers and its principles have been so +developed during the century by the discoveries, inventions +and investigations of Herschel, Wollaston, +Fraunhofer, Bronsen and Kirchoff, Steinheil, Tyndall, +Huggins, Draper and others, that spectrum +analysis has grown from the separation of light into +its colours by the prism of Newton, to what Dr. +Huggins has aptly termed “a new sense.”</p> + +<p>We have further referred to this wonderful discovery +in the Chapter on Chemistry.</p> + +<p>The inventions and improvements in optical instruments +gave rise to great advances in the making +of lenses, based on scientific principles, and not resting +alone on hard work and experience. Alvan +Clark a son of America, and Prof. Ernst Abbe +of Germany, have within the last third of the century +produced a revolution in the manufacture of +lenses, and thereby extended the realms of knowledge +to new worlds of matter in the heavens and on earth.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_413" id="PAGE_413">[Pg 413]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Solarmeter.</i>—In 1895 a United States patent was +granted to Mr. Bechler for an instrument called a +solarmeter. It is designed for taking observations +of heavenly bodies and recording mechanically the +parts of the astronomical triangle used in navigation +and like work. Its chief purpose is to determine the +position of the compass error of a ship at sea independently +of the visibility of the sea horizon. If +the horizon is clouded, and the sun or a known star +is visible, a ship’s position can still be determined by +the solarmeter.</p> + +<p><i>Instruments for Measuring the Position and Distances +of Unseen Objects.</i>—Some of the latest of such +instruments will enable one to see and shoot at an +object around a corner, or at least out of sight. Thus +a United States patent was granted to Fiske in 1889, +wherein it is set forth that by stationing observers at +points distant from a gun, which points are at the +extremities of a known base line, and which command +a view of the area within the range of the +gun, the observers discover the position and range of +the object by triangulation and set certain pointers. +By means of electrical connection between those +pointers and pointers at the gun station based on the +system of the Wheatstone bridge, the latter pointers, +or the guns themselves serving as pointers, may be +placed in position to indicate the line of fire. By a +nice arrangement of mirror and lenses attached to a +firearm the same object may be accomplished. Similar +apparatuses in which the reflectory surfaces of +mirrors mounted on an elevated frame-work, and +known as <i>Polemoscopes</i> and <i>Altiscopes</i> and <i>Range-Finders</i>, +have also been invented, and used with artillery. +But such devices may be profitably used for +more peaceful and amusing purposes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_414" id="PAGE_414">[Pg 414]</a></span></p> + +<p>Born with the ear attuned to music and the eye +to observe beauty, the hand of Art was to trace and +make permanent the fleeting forms which melody and +the eye impressed upon the soul of man.</p> + +<p>In fact modern science has demonstrated that +tones and colours are inseparable. Bell and Tainter +with their <i>photophone</i> have converted the undulatory +waves of light into the sweetest music. Reversing +the process, beautiful flashes of light have been produced +from musical vibrations by the <i>phonophote</i> of +M. Coulon and the <i>phonoscope</i> of Henry Edmunds.</p> + +<p>Entrancing as the story is, we can only here allude +to a few of those discoveries and inventions that have +become the handmaidens of the art which guided the +chisel of Phidias and inspired the brush of Raphael.</p> + +<p><i>Photography.</i>—The art of producing permanent +images of the “human face divine,” natural scenes, +and other objects, by the agency of light, is due more +to the discoveries of the chemist than to the inventions +of the mechanic; and to the chemists of this century. +At the same time a mechanical invention of old +times became a necessary appliance in the reduction +of the theories of the chemists to practice:—The +<i>Camera Obscura</i>, that dark box in which a mirror +is placed, provided also with a piece of ground glass +or white cardboard paper, and having a projecting +part at one end in which a lens is placed, whereby +when the lens part is directed to an object an image +of the same is thrown by the rays of light focused by +the lens upon the mirror, and reflected by the mirror +to the glass or paper board, was invented by Roger +Bacon about 1297, or by Alberta in 1437, described +by Leonardo da Vinci in 1500 as an imitation of the +structure of the eye, again by Baptista Porta in 1589, +and remodelled by Sir Isaac Newton in 1700. Until<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_415" id="PAGE_415">[Pg 415]</a></span> +the 19th century it was used only in the taking of +sketches and scenes on or from the card or glass on +which the reflection was thrown.</p> + +<p>Celebrated chemists such as Sheele of the 18th century, +and Ritter, Wollaston, Sir Humphry Davy, +Young, Gay-Lussac, Thenard, and others in the early +part of the 19th century, began to turn their attention +to the chemical and molecular changes which the sunlight +and its separate rays effected in certain substances, +and especially upon certain compounds of +silver. In sensitising the receiving paper, glass, or +metal with such a compound it must necessarily be +protected from exposure to sunlight, and this fact, +together with the desire to sensitise the image produced +by the camera, not only suggested but seemed +to render that instrument indispensable to photography. +Nevertheless the experiments of chemists +fell short of the high mark, and it was reserved for +an artist to unite the efforts of the sun and the chemists +in a successful instrument.</p> + +<p>It was Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre, born at +Corneilles, France, in 1789, and who died in 1851, +who was the first to reduce to practice the invention +called after his name. He was a brilliant scene +painter, and especially successful in painting panoramas. +In 1822, assisted by Bouton, he had invented +the <i>diorama</i>, by which coloured lights representing +the various changes of the day and season were +thrown upon the canvasses in his beautiful panoramas +of Rome, London, Naples and other great cities. +Several years previous to 1839 he and Joseph N. +Niepce, learning of the efforts of chemists in that +line, began independently, and then together, to develop +the art of obtaining permanent copies of objects +produced by the chemical action of the sun.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_416" id="PAGE_416">[Pg 416]</a></span> +Niepce died while they were thus engaged. Daguerre +prosecuted his researches alone, and toward +the close of 1838 his success was such that he made +known his invention to Arago, and Arago announced +it in an eloquent and enthusiastic address +to the French Academy of Sciences in January 1839. +It at once excited great attention, which was +heightened by the pictures produced by the new +process. The French Government, in consideration +of the details of the invention and its improvements +being made public and on request of Daguerre, +granted him an annuity and one also to Niepce’s son.</p> + +<p>At first only pictures of natural objects were +taken; but in learning of Daguerre’s process Dr. +John William Draper of New York, a native of England +and adopted son of America, the brilliant author +of <i>The Intellectual Development of Europe</i>, +and other great works, in the same year, 1839, took +portraits of persons by photography, and he was the +first to do this. Draper was also the first in America +to reveal the wonders of the spectroscope; and he +was first to show that each colour of the spectrum had +its own peculiar chemical effect. This was in 1847.</p> + +<p>The sun was now fairly harnessed in the service of +man in the new great art of Photography. Natural +philosophers, chemists, inventors, mechanics, all now +pressed forward, and still press forward to improve +the art, to establish new growths from the old art, +and extend its domains. Those domains have the +generic term of <i>Photo-Processes</i>. Daguerreotypy, +while the father of them all, is now hardly practised +as Daguerre practised it, and has become a small +subordinate sub-division of the great class. Yet +more faithful likenesses are not yet produced than +by this now old process. Among the children of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_417" id="PAGE_417">[Pg 417]</a></span> +Photo-Process family are the <i>Calotype</i>, <i>Ambrotype</i>, +<i>Ferreotype</i>, <i>Collodion</i> and <i>Silver Printing</i>, <i>Carbon +Printing</i>, <i>Heliotype</i>, <i>Heliogravure</i>, <i>Photoengraving</i> +(relief intaglio-Woodburytype), <i>Photolithography</i>; +<i>Alberttype</i>; <i>Photozincograph</i>, <i>Photogelatine-printing</i>; +<i>Photomicrography</i> (to depict microscopic objects), +<i>Kinetographs</i>, and <i>Photosculpture</i>. A world +of mechanical contrivances have been invented:—<i>Octnometers</i>, +<i>Baths</i>, <i>Burnishing tools</i>, <i>Cameras and +Camera stands</i>, <i>Magazine and Roll holders</i>; <i>Dark +rooms</i> and <i>Focussing devices</i>, <i>Heaters</i> and <i>Driers</i>; +<i>Exposure Meters</i>, etc. etc.</p> + +<p>The <i>Kinetograph</i>, for taking a series of pictures of +rapidly moving objects, and by which the living object, +person or persons, are made to appear moving +before us as they moved when the picture was taken, +is a marvellous invention; and yet simple when the +process is understood. Photography and printing +have combined to revolutionise the art of illustration. +Exact copies of an original, whether of a +painting or a photograph, are now produced on paper +with all the original shades and colours. The long-sought-for +problem of photographing in colours has +in a measure been solved. The “three <i>colour processes</i>” +is the name given to the new offspring of the +inventors which reproduces by the camera the natural +colours of objects.</p> + +<p>The scientists Maxwell Young and Helmholtz +established the theory that the three colours, red, +green, and blue, were the primary colours, and from a +mixture of these, secondary colours are produced. +Henry Collen in 1865 laid down the lines on which +the practical reduction should take place; and within +the last decade F. E. Ives of Philadelphia has invented +the <i>Photochromoscope</i> for producing pictures<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_418" id="PAGE_418">[Pg 418]</a></span> +in their natural colours. The process consists in +blending in one picture the separate photographic +views taken on separate negative plates, each sensitised +to receive one of the primary colours, which are +then exposed and blended simultaneously in a triple +camera.</p> + +<p>Plates and films and many other articles and +processes have helped to establish the Art of Photography +on its new basis.</p> + +<p>Among the minor inventions relating to Art, mention +may be made of that very useful article the lead +<i>pencil</i>, which all have employed so much time in +sharpening to the detriment of time and clean hands. +Within a decade, pencils in which the lead or crayon +is covered instead of with wood, with slitted, perforated +or creased paper, spirally rolled thereon, and +on which by unrolling a portion at a time a new +point is exposed; or that other style in which a number +of short, sharpened marking leads, or crayons, +are arranged in series and adapted to be projected +one after the other as fast as worn away.</p> + +<p><i>In Painting</i> modern inventions and discoveries +have simply added to the instrumentalities of genius +but have created no royal road to the art made +glorious by Titian and Raphael. It has given to +the artists, through its chemists, a world of new +colours, and through its mechanics new and convenient +appliances.</p> + +<p><i>Air Brushes</i> have proved a great help by which the +paint or other colouring matter is sprayed in heavy, +light, or almost invisible showers to produce backgrounds +by the force of air blown upon the pigments +held in drops at the end of a fine spraying tube. +Made of larger proportions, this brush has been used +for fresco painting, and for painting large objects,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_419" id="PAGE_419">[Pg 419]</a></span> +such as buildings, which it admits of doing with great +rapidity.</p> + +<p>A description of modern methods of applying +colours to porcelain and pottery is given in the chapter +treating of those subjects.</p> + +<p><i>Telegraphic pictures</i>:—Perhaps it is appropriate +in closing this chapter that reference be made to that +process by which the likeness of the distant reader +may be taken telegraphically. A picture in relief +is first made by the swelled gelatine or other process; +a tracing point is then moved in the lines across the +undulating surface of the pictures, and the movements +of this tracer are imparted by suitable electrical +apparatus to a cutter or engraving tool at the +opposite end of the line and there reproduced upon +a suitable substance.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_420" id="PAGE_420">[Pg 420]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVII" id="CHAPTER_XXVII">CHAPTER XXVII.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +SAFES AND LOCKS.</span></h2> + + +<p>Prior to the century safes were not constructed to +withstand the test of intense heat. Efforts were numerous, +however, to render them safe against the entrance +of thieves, but the ingenuity of the thieves +advanced more rapidly than the ingenuity of safe-makers. +And the race between these two classes of +inventors still continues. For with the exercise of +a vast amount of ingenuity in intricate locks, aided +by all the advancement of science as to the nature of +metals, their tough manufacture and their resistance +to explosives, thieves still manage to break in and +steal. The only sure protection against burglars at +the close of the nineteenth century appears to consist +of what it was at the close of any previous century—the +preponderance of physical force and the +best weapons. Among the latest inventions are electrical +connections with the safe, whereby tampering +therewith alarms one or more watchmen at a near +station.</p> + +<p>A classification of safes embraces, <i>Fire-proof</i>, +<i>Burglar-proof</i>, <i>Safe Bolt Works</i>, <i>Express and Deposit +Safes and Boxes</i>, <i>Circular Doors</i>, <i>Pressure +Mechanism</i>, and <i>Water and Air Protective Devices</i>.</p> + +<p>The attention of the earliest inventors of the century +were directed toward making safes fire-proof. +In England the first patent granted for a fire-proof +safe was to Richard Scott in 1801. It had two casings, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_421" id="PAGE_421">[Pg 421]</a></span>an inner and outer one, including the door, and +the interspace was filled in with charcoal, or wood, +and treated with a solution of alkaline salt.</p> + +<p>This idea of interspacing filled in with non-combustible +material has been generally followed ever +since. The particular inventions in that line consist +in the discovery and appliance of new lining materials, +variations in the form of the interspacing, +and new methods in the construction of the casings, +and the selection of the best metals for such construction.</p> + +<p>In 1834 William Marr of England patented a +lining for a double metallic chest, filled with non-combustible +materials such as mica, or talc clay, +lime, and graphite. Asbestos commenced to be used +about the same time.</p> + +<p>The great fire in New York City in 1835, destroying +hundreds of millions of dollars’ worth of property +of every description, gave a great impetus to the +invention of fire-proof safes in America.</p> + +<p>B. G. Wilder there patented in 1843 his celebrated +safe, now extensively used throughout the +world. It consisted of a double box of wrought-iron +plates strengthened at the edges with bar iron, with +a bar across the middle; and as a filling for the interspaces +he used hydrated gypsum, hydraulic cement, +plaster of paris, steatite, alum, and the dried +residuum of soda water.</p> + +<p>Herring was another American who invented celebrated +safes, made with a boiler-iron exterior, a +hardened steel inner safe, with the interior filled +with a casting of franklinite around rods of soft +steel. Thus the earth, air and water were ransacked +for lining materials, in some cases more for the +purpose of obtaining a patent than to accomplish +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_422" id="PAGE_422">[Pg 422]</a></span>any real advance in the art. Water itself +was introduced as a lining, made to flow through +the safes, sometimes from the city mains, and so +retained that when the temperature in case of +fire reached 212° F. it became steam; and +an arrangement for introducing steam in place of +water was contrived. Among other lining materials +found suitable were soapstone, alumina, ammonia, +copperas, starch, Epsom salts, and gypsum, paper, +pulp, and alum, and a mixture of various other materials.</p> + +<p>After safes were produced that would come out +of fiery furnaces where they had been buried for +days without even the smell of fire or smoke upon +their contents, inventors commenced to direct their +attention to burglar-proof safes.</p> + +<p>Chubb, in 1835, patented a process of rendering +wooden safes burglar proof by lining them with steel, +or case-hardened iron plate. Newton in 1853 produced +one made of an outer shell of cast iron, an +interior network of wrought iron rods, and fluid +iron poured between these, so that a compound mass +was formed of different degrees of resistance to turn +aside the burglar’s tools. Chubb again, in 1857, and +in subsequent years, and Chartwood, Glocker, and +Thompson and Tann and others in England invented +new forms to prevent the insertion of wedges and the +drilling by tools. Hall and Marvin of the United +States also invented safes for the same purpose. +Hall had thick steel plates dovetailed together; and +angle irons tenoned at the corners. Marvin’s safe +was globeshaped, to present no salient points for the +action of tools, made of chrome steel, mounted in this +shape on a platform, or enclosed in a fire-proof safe. +Herring also invented a safe in which he hinged and<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_423" id="PAGE_423">[Pg 423]</a></span> +grooved the doors with double casings, and which he +hung with a lever-hinge, provided the doors with separate +locks and packed all the joints with rubber to +prevent the operation of the air pump—which had +become a dangerous device of burglars with which to +introduce explosives to blow open the doors.</p> + +<p>Still later and more elaborate means have been +used to frustrate the burglars. Electricity has been +converted into an automatic warder to guard the +castle and the safe and to give an alarm to convenient +stations when the locks or doors are meddled with +and the proper manipulation not used. Express safes +for railroad cars have been made of parts telescoped +or crowded together by hydraulic power, requiring +heavy machinery for locking and unlocking, and this +machinery is located in machine shops along the route +and not accessible to burglars.</p> + +<p>About 1815 inventors commenced to produce devices +to show with certainty if a lock had been +tampered with. The keyhole was closed by a revolving +metallic curtain, and paper was secured over +the keyhole. As a further means of detection photographs +of some irregular object are made, one of +which is placed over the keyhole and the other is retained. +This prevents the substitution of one piece +of paper for another piece without detection. A +large number of patents have been taken out on glass +coverings for locks which have to be broken before +the lock can be turned. These are called seal locks.</p> + +<p>Locks of various kinds, consisting at least of the +two general features of a bolt and a key to move the +bolt, have existed from very ancient days. The +Egyptians, the Hebrews and the Chinese, and Oriental +nations generally had locks and keys of ponderous +size. Isaiah speaks of the key of the house<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_424" id="PAGE_424">[Pg 424]</a></span> +of David; and Homer writes sonorously of the lock +in the house of Penelope with its brazen key, the respondent +wards, the flying bars and valves which,</p> + +<p class="poem"> +<span class="line">“Loud as a bull makes hills and valley ring,<br></span> +<span class="line">So roared the lock when it released the spring.”<br></span> +</p> + +<p>The castles, churches and convents of the middle +ages had their often highly ornamental locks and +their warders to guard and open them. Later, locks +were invented with complex wards. These are +carved pieces of metal in the lock which fit into +clefts or grooves in the key and prevent the lock from +being opened except by its own proper key.</p> + +<p>As early as 1650 the Dutch had invented the Letter +lock, the progenitor of the modern permutation +lock, consisting of a lock the bolt of which is surrounded +by several rings on which were cut the letters +of the alphabet, which by a prearrangement on +the part of the owner were made to spell a certain +word or number of words before the lock could be +opened. Carew, in verses written in 1621, refers to +one of these locks as follows:—</p> + +<p class="poem"> +<span class="line">“As doth a lock that goes with letters; for, till every one be known,<br></span> +<span class="line">The lock’s as fast as though you had found none.”<br></span> +</p> + +<p>The art had also advanced in the eighteenth century +to the use of <i>tumblers</i> in locks, the lever or latch +or plate which falls into a notch of the bolt and prevents +it from being shot until it has been raised +or released by the action of the key. Barron in +England in 1778 obtained a patent for such a lock.</p> + +<p>Joseph Bramah, who has before been referred to +in connection with the hydraulic press he invented, +also in 1784 invented and patented in England a +lock which obtained a world-wide reputation and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_425" id="PAGE_425">[Pg 425]</a></span> +century’s extensive use. It was the first, or among +the first of locks which troubled modern burglars’ +picks. Its leading features were a key with longitudinal +slots, a barrel enclosing a spring, plates, +called sliders, notched unequally and resting against +the spring, a plate with a central perforation and +slits leading therefrom to engage the notches of the +slides simultaneously and allow the frame to be +turned by the key so as to actuate the bolt. Chubb +and Hobbs of England made important improvements +in tumbler locks, which for a long time were +regarded as unpickable.</p> + +<p>Most important advances have been made during +the century in <i>Combination</i> or <i>Permutation Locks</i> +and <i>Time Locks</i>. For a long time permutation or +combination locks consisted of modifications of one +general principle, and that was the Dutch letter lock +already referred to, or the wheel lock, composed of a +series of disks with letters around their edges. The +interior arrangement is such as to prevent the bolt +being shot until a series of letters were in line, forming +a combination known only to the operator. Time +locks are constructed on the principle of clockwork, +so that they cannot be opened even with the proper +key until a regulated interval of time has elapsed.</p> + +<p>Among the most celebrated combination and time +locks of the century are those known as the Yale +locks, chiefly the inventions of Louis Yale, Jr., of +Philadelphia. The Yale double dial lock is a double +combination bank or safe lock having two dials, each +operating its own set of tumblers and bolts, so that +two persons, each in possession of his own combination, +must be present at a certain time in order to +unlock it. If this double security is not desired, one +person alone may be possessed of both combinations,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_426" id="PAGE_426">[Pg 426]</a></span> +or the combinations may be set as one. In their +time locks a safe can be set so as to not only render +it impossible to unlock except at a predetermined +time each day, but the arrangement is such that on +intervening Sundays the time mechanism will entirely +prevent the operation of the lock or the opening of +the door on that day.</p> + +<p>Another feature of the lock is the thin, flat keys +with bevel-edged notchings, or with longitudinal +sinuous corrugations to fit a narrow slit of a cylinder +lock. To make locks for use with the corrugated keys +machines of as great ingenuity as the locks were devised. +In such a lock the keyhole, which is a little +very narrow slit, is formed sinuously to correspond to +the sinuosities of the key. No other key will fit it, nor +can it be picked by a tool, as the tool must be an exact +duplicate of the key in order to enter and move in +the keyhole.</p> + +<p>Of late years numerous locks have been invented +for the special uses to which they are to be applied. +Thus, one type of lock is that for safety deposit +vaults and boxes, in which a primary key in the keeping +of a janitor operates alone the tumblers or guard +mechanism to set the lock, while the box owner may +use a secondary key to completely unlock the box or +vault.</p> + +<p>Master, or secondary key locks, are now in common +use in hotels and apartment-houses, by which +the key of the door held by a guest will unlock only +his door, but the master key held by the manager or +janitor will unlock all the doors. This saves the duplication +and multiplicity of a vast number of extra +keys.</p> + +<p>The value of a simple, cheap, safe, effective lock +in a place where its advantages are appreciated by all<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_427" id="PAGE_427">[Pg 427]</a></span> +classes of people everywhere is illustrated in the application +of the modern rotary registering lock to the +single article of mail bags. Formerly it was not unusual +that losses by theft of mail matter were due in +part to the extraction of a portion of the mail matter +by unlocking or removing the lock and then restoring +it in place.</p> + +<p>The United States, with its 76,000,000 of people, +found it necessary to use in its mail service hundreds +of thousands of mail pouches, having locks for securing +packages of valuable matter. But these locks are +of such character that it is impossible for anyone to +break into the bag and conceal the evidence of his +crime. The unfortunate thief is reduced to the necessity +of stealing the whole pouch. Losses under +this system have grown so small “as to be almost incapable +of mathematical calculation.”</p> + +<p>Safe and convenient locks for so very many purposes +are now so common, even to prevent the unauthorised +use of an umbrella, or the unfriendly taking +away of a bicycle or other vehicle, that notwithstanding +the nineteenth century dynamite with +which burglars still continue to blow open the best +constructed safes and vaults, still a universal sense +of greater security in such matters is beginning to +manifest itself; and not only the loss of valuables +by fire and theft is becoming the exception, but the +temptation to steal is being gradually removed.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_428" id="PAGE_428">[Pg 428]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVIII" id="CHAPTER_XXVIII">CHAPTER XXVIII.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +CARRYING MACHINES.</span></h2> + + +<p>The reflecting observer delights occasionally to +shift the scenes of the present stage and bring to the +front the processions of the past. That famous triumphal +one, for instance, of Ptolemy of Philadelphus, +at Alexandria, about 270 B. C., then in the +midst of his power and glory, in which there were +chariots and cumbrous wagons drawn by elephants +and goats, antelopes, oryxes, buffaloes, ostriches, +gnus and zebras; then a tribe of the Scythians, when +with many scores of oxen they were shifting their +light, big round houses, made of felt cloth and +mounted on road carts, to a new camping place; next +a wild, mad dash of the Roman charioteers around the +amphitheatre, or a triumphal march with chariots +of carved ivory bearing aloft the ensigns of victory; +and now an army of the ancient Britons driving +through these same charioteers of Cæsar with their +own rude chariots, having sharp hooks and crooked +iron blades extending from their axles; now a +“Lady’s Chair” of the fourteenth century—the state +carriage of the time—with a long, wooden-roofed and +windowed body, having a door at each end, resting +on a cumbrous frame without springs, and the axles +united rigidly to a long reach; next comes a line of +imposing clumsy state coaches of the sixteenth century, +with bodies provided with pillars to support the +roof, and adorned with curtains of cloth and leather,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_429" id="PAGE_429">[Pg 429]</a></span> +but still destitute of springs; and here in stately approach +comes a line of more curious and more comfortable +“royal coaches” of the seventeenth century, +when springs were for the first time introduced; and +now rumbles forward a line of those famous old English +stage coaches originated in the seventeenth century, +which were two days flying from Oxford to +London, a distance of fifty-five miles; but a scene in +the next century shows these ponderous vehicles +greatly improved, and the modern English stage +mail-coaches of Palmer in line. Referring to +Palmer’s coaches, Knight says: “Palmer, according +to De Quincey, was twice as great a man as Galileo, +because he not only invented mail-coaches (of more +general practical utility than Jupiter’s satellites), +but married the daughter of a duke, and succeeded in +getting the post-office to use them. This revolutionised +the whole business.” The coaches were built +with steel springs, windows of great strength and +lightness combined, boots for the baggage, seats for +a few outside passengers, and a guard with a grand +uniform, to protect the mail and stand for the dignity +of his majesty’s government.</p> + +<p>By the system of changing horses frequently great +speed was attained, and the distance from Edinburgh +to London, 400 miles, was made in 40 hours. Other +lines of coaches, arranged to carry double the number +of passengers outside than in, fourteen to six, were +made heavier, and took the road more leisurely.</p> + +<p>The carts and conveyances of the poor were cumbrous, +heavy contrivances, without springs, mostly +two-wheel, heavy carts.</p> + +<p>The middle classes at that time were not seen riding +in coaches of their own, but generally on horseback, +as the coaches of the rich were too expensive,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_430" id="PAGE_430">[Pg 430]</a></span> +and the conveyances of the poor were too rude in construction, +and too painful in operation.</p> + +<p>Let the observer now pass to the largest and most +varied exhibition of the best types of modern vehicles +of every description that the world had ever seen, +the International Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876, +and behold what wonderful changes art, science, invention, +and mechanical skill had wrought in this domain. +Here were the carriages of the rich, constructed +of the finest and most appropriate woods that +science and experience had found best adapted for +the various parts, requiring the combination of +strength and lightness, the best steel for the springs, +embodying in themselves a world of invention and +discovery, and splendid finish and polish in all parts +unknown to former generations.</p> + +<p>Here, too, were found vehicles of a great variety +for the comfort and convenience of every family, +from the smallest to the largest means.</p> + +<p>The farmer and the truckman were especially provided +for. One establishment making an exhibition +at that time, employed some six hundred or seven +hundred hands, four hundred horse-power of steam, +turning out sixty wagons a day, or one in every ten +minutes of each working day in the year.</p> + +<p>Here England showed her victoria, her broughams, +landaus, phætons, sporting-carts, wagonettes, +drays and dog-carts; Canada her splendid sleighs; +France her superb barouches, carriages, double-top +sociables, the celebrated Collinge patent axle-trees +and springs; Germany the best carriage axles, +springs and gears; Russia its famous low-wheeled +fast-running carriages; Norway its carryalls, or +sulkies, and sleighs strongly built, and made of wood +from those vast forests that ever abound in strength<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_431" id="PAGE_431">[Pg 431]</a></span> +and beauty. One ancient sleigh there was, demurely +standing by its modern companions, said to have +been built in 1625, and it was still good. America +stood foremost in carriage wheels of best materials +and beautiful workmanship, bent rims, turned and +finished spokes, mortised hubs, steel tires, business +and farm wagons, carts and baby carriages. Each +trade and field of labour had its own especially +adapted complete and finished vehicle. There were +hay wagons and hearses; beer wagons and ice carts; +doctors’ buggies, express wagons, drays, package delivery +wagons; peddlers’ wagons with all the shelves +and compartments of a miniature store, skeleton +wagons, and sportsmen’s, and light and graceful two +and four “wheelers.” Beautiful displays of bent +and polished woods, a splendid array of artistic, elegant, +and useful harnesses, and all the traps that go +to make modern means of conveyance by animal +power so cheap, convenient, strong and attractive +that civilisation seemed to have reached a stop in +principles of construction of vehicles and in their +materials, and since contents itself in improving details.</p> + +<p>To this century is due the development of that +class of carriages, the generic term for which is +<i>Velocipedes</i>—a word which would imply a vehicle +propelled by the feet, although it has been applied +to vehicles propelled by the hands and steered by the +feet. This name originated with the French, and +several Frenchmen patented velocipedes from 1800 +to 1821.</p> + +<p>Tricycles having three wheels, propelled by the +hands and steered with the feet, were also invented in +the early part of the century.</p> + +<p>The term <i>Bicycle</i> does not appear to have been +used until about 1869.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_432" id="PAGE_432">[Pg 432]</a></span></p> + +<p>Although such structures had been referred to in +publications before, yet the modern bicycle appears +to have been first practically constructed in Germany. +In 1816 Baron von Drais of Manheim made a vehicle +consisting of two wheels arranged one before the +other, and connected by a bar, the forward wheel +axled in a fork which was swiveled to the front end +of the bar and had handles to guide the machine, +with a seat on the bar midway between the two +wheels, and arranged so that the driver should bestride +the bar. But there was no support for the +rider’s feet, and the vehicle was propelled by thrusting +his feet alternately against the ground. This +machine was called the “Draisine” and undoubtedly +was the progenitor of the modern bicycle. Denis +Johnson patented in England in 1818 a similar vehicle +which he named the “Pedestrian Curricle.” +Another style was called the “Dandy Horse.” Another +form was that of Gompertz in England in 1821, +who contrived a segmental rack connected with a +frame over the front wheel and engaging a pinion +on the wheel axle. With some improvements added +by others, the vehicle came into quite extensive and +popular use in some of the cities in Europe and +America. It was also named the “Dandy” and the +“Hobby Horse.” Treadles were subsequently applied, +but after a time the machine fell into disuse +and was apparently forgotten. In 1863, however, +the idea was revived by a Frenchman, Michaux, who +added the crank to the front wheel axle of the +“Draisine” (also called the “célérifèré.”) In 1866 +Pierre Lallement of France, having adapted the +idea of the crank and pedal movement and obtained +a patent, went to America, where after two years of +public indifference the machine suddenly sprung<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_433" id="PAGE_433">[Pg 433]</a></span> +into favour. In 1869 a popular wave in its favour +also spread over part of Europe, and all classes of +people were riding it.</p> + +<p>But the wheels had hard tires, the roads and many +of the streets were not smooth, the vehicle got the +name of the “bone-breaker” and its use ceased. During +the few years following some new styles of frames +were invented. Thus some very high wheels, with a +small wheel in front, or one behind, wheels with levers +in addition to the crank, etc., and then for a time the +art rested again.</p> + +<p>Some one then recalled the fact that McMillan, +a Scotchman, about 1838-1841, had used two low +wheels like the “Draisine” with a driving gear, and +that Dalzell, also of Scotland, had in 1845 made a +similar machine. Parts of these old machines were +found and the wheel reconstructed. Then in the +seventies the entire field was thrown open to women +by the invention in England of the “drop frame,” +which removed completely the difficulty as to arrangement +of the skirts and thus doubled the interest in +and desire for a comfortable riding machine. But +they were still, to a great degree, “bone-breakers.”</p> + +<p>Then J. B. Dunlop, a veterinary surgeon of +Belfast, Ireland, in order to meet the complaints of +his son that the wheel was too hard, thought of the +<i>pneumatic rubber tire</i>, and applied it with great success. +This was a very notable and original re-invention. +A re-invention, because a man “born before his +time” had invented and patented the pneumatic tire +more than forty years before. It was not wanted +then and everybody had forgotten it. This man was +Robert William Thomson, a civil engineer of Adelphi, +Middlesex county, England. In 1845 he obtained +a patent in England, and shortly after in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_434" id="PAGE_434">[Pg 434]</a></span> +United States. In both patents he describes how he +proposed to make a tire for all kinds of vehicles consisting +of a hollow rubber tube, with an inner mixed +canvas and rubber lining, a tube and a screw cup +by which to inflate it, and several ways for preventing +punctures. To obviate the bad results of punctures +he proposed also to make his tire in sectional +compartments, so that if one compartment was punctured +the others would still hold good. He also proposed +to use vulcanised rubber, thus utilising the +then very recent discovery of Goodyear of mixing +sulphur with soft rubber, and to apply the same to +the canvas lining.</p> + +<p>And, now, when the last decade of the century had +been reached, and after a century’s hard work by the +inventors, the present wonderful vehicle, known as +the “safety bicycle,” had obtained a successful and +permanent foothold among the vehicles of mankind. +Proper proportions, low wheels, chain-gearing, +treadles, pedals and cranks, cushion and pneumatic +tires, drop frames, steel spokes like a spider’s web, +ball-bearings for the crank and axle parts, a spring-supported +cushioned seat which could be raised or +lowered, adjustable handles, and the clearest-brained +scientific mechanics to construct all parts from the +best materials and with mathematical exactness—all +this has been done. To these accomplishments have +been added a great variety of tires to prevent wear and +puncturing, among which are <i>self-healing</i> tires, having +a lining of viscous or plastic rubber to close up automatically +the air holes. Many ways of clamping the +tire to the rim have been contrived. So have brakes +of various descriptions, some consisting of disks on +the driving shaft, brought into frictional contact by +a touch of the toe on the pedal, as a substitute for<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_435" id="PAGE_435">[Pg 435]</a></span> +those applied to the surface of the tire, known as +“spoon brakes”; saddles, speed-gearings, men’s machines +in which by the removal of the upper bar the +machine is converted into one for the use of women; +the substitution of the direct action, consisting of +beveled gearing for the sprocket chain, etc., etc.</p> + +<p>The ideas of William Thomson as to pneumatic +and cushioned tires are now, after a lapse of fifty +years, generally adopted. Even sportsmen were glad +to seize upon them, and wheels of sulkies, provided +with the pneumatic tires, have enabled them to +lower the record of trotting horses. Their use on +many other vehicles has accomplished his objects, +“of lessening the power required to draw carriages, +rendering the motion easier, and diminishing the +noise.”</p> + +<p>It is impossible to overlook the fact in connection +with this subject that the processes and machinery +especially invented to make the various parts of a +bicycle are as wonderful as the wheel itself. Counting +the spokes there are, it is estimated, more than +300 different parts in such a wheel. The best and +latest inventions and discoveries in the making of +metals, wood, rubber and leather have been drawn +upon in supplying these useful carriers. And what +a revolution they have produced in the making of +good roads, the saving of time, the dispatch of business, +and more than all else, in the increase of the +pleasure, the health and the amusement of mankind!</p> + +<p>It was quite natural that when the rubber cushion +and pneumatic tires rounded the pleasure of easy +and noiseless riding in vehicles that <i>Motor vehicles</i> +should be revived and improved. So we have the +<i>Automobiles</i> in great variety. Invention has been +and is still being greatly exercised as to the best motive +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_436" id="PAGE_436">[Pg 436]</a></span>power, in the adaption of electric motors, oil +and gasoline or vapour engines, springs and air +pumps, in attempts to reduce the number of complicated +parts, and to render less strenuous the mental +and muscular strain of the operator.</p> + +<p><i>Traction Engines.</i>—The old road engines that antedated +the locomotives are being revived, and new +ideas springing from other arts are being incorporated +in these useful machines to render them more +available than in former generations. Many of the +principles and features of motor vehicles, but on a +heavier scale, are being introduced to adapt them to +the drawing of far heavier loads. Late devices comprise +a spring link between the power and the traction +wheel to prevent too sudden a start, and permit +a yielding motion; steering devices by which the +power of the engine is used to steer the machine; and +application of convenient and easily-worked brakes.</p> + +<p>An example of a modern traction engine may be +found attached to one or more heavy cars adapted for +street work, and on which may be found apparatus +for making the mixed materials of which the roadbed +is to be constructed, and all of which is moved +along as the road or street surface is completed. +When these fine roads become the possession of a +country light traction engines for passenger traffic +will be found largely supplanting the horse and +the steam railroad engines.</p> + +<p><i>Brakes</i>, railway and electric, have already been +referred to in the proper chapters. In the latest +system of railroading greater attention has been +paid to the lives and limbs of those employed as +workmen on the trains, especially to those of brakemen. +And if corporations have been slow to adopt +such merciful devices, legislatures have stepped in to<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_437" id="PAGE_437">[Pg 437]</a></span> +help the matter. One great source of accidents in +this respect has been due to the necessity of the +brakemen entering between the cars while they are in +motion to couple them by hand. This is now being +abolished by <i>automatic couplers</i>, by which, when the +locking means have been withdrawn from connection +or thrown up, they will be so held until the cars meet +again, when the locking parts on the respective cars +will be automatically thrown and locked, as easily +and on the same principle as the hand of one man +may clasp the hand of another.</p> + +<p>The comfort of passengers and the safety of +freight have also been greatly increased by the invention +of <i>Buffers</i> on railroad cars and trains to prevent +sudden and violent concussion. Fluid pressure +car buffers, in which a constant supply of fluid under +pressure is provided by a pump or train pipe connected +to the engine is one of a great variety.</p> + +<p>Another notable improvement in this line is the +splendid vestibule trains, in which the cars are connected +to one another by enclosed passages and which +at their meeting ends are provided with yieldingly +supported door-like frames engaging one another by +frictional contact, usually, whereby the shock and +rocking of cars are prevented in starting and stopping, +and their oscillation reduced to a minimum.</p> + +<p>As collisions and accidents cannot always be prevented, +car frames are now built in which the frames +are trussed, and made of rolled steel plates, angles, +and channels, whereby a car body of great resistance +to telescoping or crushing is obtained.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_438" id="PAGE_438">[Pg 438]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIX" id="CHAPTER_XXIX">CHAPTER XXIX.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +SHIPS AND SHIP-BUILDING.</span></h2> + +<p class="poem"> +<span class="line">“Far as the breeze can bear, the billows foam,<br></span> +<span class="line">Survey our empire, and behold our home.”<br></span> +</p> + + +<p>“Ships are but boards,” soliloquised the crafty +Shylock, and were this still true, yet this present +period has seen wonderful changes in construction.</p> + +<p>The high castellated bows and sterns and long +prows of <i>The Great Harry</i>, of the seventeenth +century, and its successors in the eighteenth, with +some moderation of cumbersome matter, gave way to +lighter, speedier forms, first appearing in the quick-gliding +Yankee clippers, during the first decade of +the nineteenth century.</p> + +<p>Eminent naval architects have regarded the proportions +of Noah’s ark, 300 cubits long, 50 cubits +broad and 30 cubits high, in which the length was six +times the breadth, and the depth three-fifths of the +breadth, as the best combination of the elements of +strength, capacity and stability.</p> + +<p>Even that most modern mercantile vessel known +as the “whale-back” with its nearly flat bottom, +vertical sides, arched top or deck, skegged or spoon-shaped +at bow and stern, straight deck lines, the +upper deck cabins and steering gear raised on hollow +turrets, with machinery and cargo in the main +hull, has not departed much from the safe rule of +proportions of its ancient prototype.</p> + +<p>But in other respects the ideas of Noah and of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_439" id="PAGE_439">[Pg 439]</a></span> +Phœnicians, the best of ancient ship-builders, as well +as the Northmen, the Dutch, the French, and the English, +the best ship-builders of later centuries, were +decidedly improved upon by the Americans, who, as +above intimated, were revolutionizing the art and +building the finest vessels in the early part of the +century, and these rivalled in speed the steam vessels +for some years after steamships were ploughing the +rivers and the ocean.</p> + +<p>Discarding the lofty decks fore and aft and ponderous +topsides, the principal characteristics of the +American “clippers” were their fine sharp lines, +built long and low, broad of beam before the centre, +sharp above the water, and deep aft. A typical +vessel of this sort was the clipper ship <i>Great Republic</i>, +built by Donald McKay of Boston during +the first half of the century. She was 325 feet long, +53 feet wide, 37 feet deep, with a capacity of about +4000 tons. She had four masts, each provided with +a lightning rod. A single suit of her sails consisted +of 15,563 yards of canvas. Her keel rose for 60 +feet forward, gradually curved into the arc of a circle +as it blended with the stern. Vessels of her +type ran seventeen and eighteen miles an hour at a +time when steam vessels were making only twelve or +fourteen miles an hour, the latter speed being one +which it was predicted by naval engineers could not +with safety be exceeded with ocean steamships.</p> + +<p>These vessels directed the attention of ship-builders +to two prominent features, the shape of the +bow and the length of the vessel. For the old convex +form of bow and stern, the principal of an +elongated wedge was substituted, the wedge slightly +hollowed on its face, by which the waters were more +easily parted and thrown aside.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_440" id="PAGE_440">[Pg 440]</a></span></p> + +<p>A departure was early made in the matter of +strengthening the “ribs of oak” to better meet the +strains from the rough seas. In 1810 Sir Robert +Seppings, surveyor of the English navy, devised and +introduced the system of diagonal bracing. This +was an arrangement of timbers crossing the ribs on +the inside of the ship at angles of about 45°, and +braced by diagonals and struts.</p> + +<p>Of course the great and leading event of the nineteenth +century in the matter of inventions relating +to ships was the introduction of steam as the motive +power. Of this we have treated in the chapter on +steam engineering. The giant, steam, demanded +and received the obeisance of every art before devoting +his inexhaustible strength to their service. Systems +of wood-working and metal manufacture must +be revolutionised to give him room to work, and to +withstand the strokes of his mighty arm. Lord +Dundas at the beginning of the century had an iron +boat built for the Forth and Clyde Canal, which was +propelled by steam.</p> + +<p>But the departure from the adage that “ships are +but boards” did not take place, however, until about +1829-30, when the substitution of iron for wood +in the construction of vessels had passed beyond the +experimental stage. In those years the firm of John +Laird of Birkenhead began the building of practical +iron vessels, and he was followed soon by Sir William +Fairbairn at Manchester, and Randolph, Elder +& Co., and the Fairfield Works on the Clyde.</p> + +<p>The advantage of iron over wood in strength, and +in power to withstand tremendous shocks, was early +illustrated in the <i>Great Britain</i> built about 1844, +the first large, successful, seagoing vessel constructed. +Not long thereafter this same vessel lay<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_441" id="PAGE_441">[Pg 441]</a></span> +helpless upon the coast of Ireland, driven there by a +great storm, and beaten by the tremendous waves of +the Atlantic with a force that would have in a few +hours or days broken up and pulverised a “ship of +boards,” and yet the <i>Great Britain</i> lay there several +weeks, was finally brought off, and again restored to +successful service.</p> + +<p>Wood and iron both have their peculiar advantages +and disadvantages. Wood is not only +lighter, but easily procured and worked, and cheaper, +in many small and private ship-yards where an iron +frame and parts would be difficult and expensive to +produce. It is thought that as to the fouling of +ships’ bottoms a wooden hull covered with copper +fouls less, and consequently impedes the speed less; +that the damage done by shocks or the penetration +of shot is not so great or difficult to repair, and that +the danger of variation of the compass by reason of +local attraction of the metal is less.</p> + +<p>But the advantages of iron and steel far outnumber +those of wood. Its strength, its adaptability for +all sizes and forms and lines, its increased cheapness, +its resistance to shot penetration, its durability, +and now its easy procurement, constitute +qualities which have established iron ship-building +as a great new and modern art. In this modern revolution +in iron-clad ships, their adaptation to naval +warfare was due to the genius of John Ericsson, and +dates practically from the celebrated battle between +the iron-clads the <i>Merrimac</i> and the <i>Monitor</i> in +Hampton Roads on the Virginia coast in the Civil +war in America in April, 1862.</p> + +<p>Although the tendency at first in building iron +and steel vessels, especially for the navy, was towards +an entire metal structure, later experience resulted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_442" id="PAGE_442">[Pg 442]</a></span>in a more composite style, using wood in +some parts, where found best adapted by its capacity +of lightness, non-absorption of heat and less electrical +conductivity, etc., and at the same time protecting +such interior portions by an iron shell or +frame-work.</p> + +<p>One great improvement in ship-building, whether +in wood or metal, thought of and practised to some +extent in former times, but after all a child of this +century, is the building of the hull and hold in compartments, +water-tight, and sometimes fire-proof, so +that in case of a leakage or a fire in one or more compartments, +the fire or water may be confined there +and the extension of the danger to the entire ship +prevented.</p> + +<p>In the matter of <i>Marine Propulsion</i>, when the +steam engine was made a practical and useful servant +by Watt, and men began to think of driving +boats and ships with it, the problem was how to +adapt it to use with propelling means already known. +Paddle-wheels and other wheels to move boats in +place of oars had been suggested, and to some extent +used from time to time, since the days of the Romans; +and they were among the first devices used in steam +vessels. Their whirl may still be heard on many +waters. Learned men saw no reason why the screw of +Archimedes should not be used for the same purpose, +and the idea was occasionally advocated by French +and English philosophers from at least 1680, by +Franklin and Watt less than a century later, and +finally, in 1794, Lyttleton of England obtained a +patent for his “aquatic propeller,” consisting of +threads formed on a cylinder and revolving in a +frame at the head, stern, or side of a vessel.</p> + +<p>Other means had been also suggested prior to<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_443" id="PAGE_443">[Pg 443]</a></span> +1800, and by the same set of philosophers, and experimentally +used by practical builders, such as +steam-pumps for receiving the water forward, or +amidships, and forcing it out astern, thus creating a +propulsive movement. The latter part of the +eighteenth century teemed with these suggestions and +experiments, but it remained for the nineteenth to +see their embodiment and adaptation to successful +commercial use.</p> + +<p>The earliest, most successful demonstrations of +screw propellers and paddle wheels in steam vessels +in the century were the construction and use of a +boat with twin screws by Col. John Stevens of Hoboken, +N. J., in 1804 and the paddle-wheel steamboat +trial of Fulton on the Hudson in 1807.</p> + +<p>But it was left to John Ericsson, that great +Swedish inventor, going to England in 1826 with his +brain full of ideas as to steam and solar engines, to +first perfect the screw-propeller. He there patented +in 1836 his celebrated propeller, consisting of several +blades or segments of a screw, and based on +such correct principles of twist that they were at once +adopted and applied to steam vessels.</p> + +<p>In 1837-1839 the knowledge of his inventions had +preceded him to America, where his propeller was at +once introduced and used in the vessels <i>Frances B. +Ogden</i> and the <i>Robert E. Stockton</i> (the latter built +by the Lairds of Birkenhead and launched in 1837). +In 1839 or 1840 Ericsson went to America, and in +1841 he was engaged in the construction of the +U.S. ship of war <i>Princeton</i>, the first naval screw +warship built having propelling machinery under the +water line and out of reach of shot.</p> + +<p>The idea that steamships could not be safely run +at a greater speed than ten or twelve miles an hour +was now abandoned.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_444" id="PAGE_444">[Pg 444]</a></span></p> + +<p>Twice Ericsson revolutionised the naval construction +of the world by his inventions in America: +first by the introduction of his screw-propeller in the +<i>Princeton</i>; and second, by building the iron-clad +<i>Monitor</i>.</p> + +<p>Since Ericsson’s day other inventors have made +themselves also famous by giving new twists to the +tail of this famous fish and new forms to its iron-ribbed +body.</p> + +<p><i>Pneumatic Propellers</i> operated by the expulsion of +air or gas against the surrounding body of water, and +chain-propellers, consisting of a revolving chain provided +with paddles or floats, have also been invented +and tested, with more or less successful results.</p> + +<p>A great warship as she lies in some one of the vast +modern ship-yards of the world, resting securely on +her long steel backbone, from which great ribs of +steel rise and curve on either side and far overhead, +like a monstrous skeleton of some huge animal that +the sea alone can produce, clothed with a skin, also +of steel; her huge interior, lined at bottom with an +armoured deck that stretches across the entire breadth +of the vessel, and built upon this deck, capacious +steel compartments enclosing the engines and boilers, +the coal, the magazines, the electric plant for supplying +power to various motors for lighting the ship and +for furnishing the current to powerful search-lights; +having compartments for the sick, the apothecary +shop, and the surgeon’s hospital, the men’s and the +officers’ quarters; above these the conning tower +and the armoured pilot-house, then the great guns interspersed +among these various parts, looking like +the sunken eyes, or protruding like the bony prominences +of some awful sea monster, is a structure +that gives one an idea of the immense departure<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_445" id="PAGE_445">[Pg 445]</a></span> +which has occurred during the last half century, not +only from the wooden walls of the navies of all the +past, but from all its mechanical arts.</p> + +<p>What a great ocean liner contains and what the +contributions are to modern ship-building from +other modern arts is set forth in the following extract +from <i>McClure’s Magazine</i> for September, 1900, +in describing the <i>Deutschland</i>. “The <i>Deutschland</i>, +for instance has a complete refrigerating plant, +four hospitals, a safety deposit vault for the immense +quantities of gold and silver which pass between +the banks of Europe and America, eight +kitchens, a complete post-office with German and +American clerks, thirty electrical motors, thirty-six +pumps, most of them of American and English +make, no fewer than seventy-two steam engines, a +complete drug store, a complete fire department, with +pumps, hose and other fire-fighting machinery, a +library, 2600 electric lights, two barber shops, room +for an orchestra and brass band, a telegraph system, +a telephone system, a complete printing establishment, +a photographic dark room, a cigar store, an +electric fire-alarm system, and a special refrigerator +for flowers.”</p> + +<p>We have seen, in treating of safes and locks, how +burglars keep pace with the latest inventions to protect +property by the use of dynamite and nitro-glycerine +explosions. The reverse of this practice +prevails when those policemen of the seas, the <i>torpedo +boats</i>, guard the treasures of the shore. It is +there the defenders are armed with the irresistible +explosives. These explosives are either planted in +harbours and discharged by electricity from the shore, +or carried by very swift armoured boats, or by boats +capable of being submerged, directed, and propelled<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_446" id="PAGE_446">[Pg 446]</a></span> +by mechanisms contained there and controlled +from the shore, or from another vessel; or by boats +containing all instrumentalities, crew, and commander, +and capable of submerging and raising itself, +and of attacking and exploding the torpedo +when and where desired. The latter are now considered +as the most formidable and efficient class of +destroyers.</p> + +<p>No matter how staunch, sound and grand in dimensions +man may build his ships, old Neptune can +still toss them. But Franklin, a century and a half +ago, called attention to his experiments of oiling his +locks when in a tempestuous mood, and thus rendering +the temper of the Old Man of the Sea as placid +as a summer pond. Ships that had become unmanageable +were thus enabled, by spreading oil on the +waves from the windward side, to be brought under +control, and dangerous surfs subdued, so that boats +could land. Franklin’s idea of pouring oil on the +troubled waters has been revived during the last +quarter of the century and various means for doing +it vigorously patented. The means have varied in +many instances, but chiefly consist of bags and other +receptacles to hold and distribute the oil upon the +surrounding water with economy and uniformity.</p> + +<p>At the close of the century the world was still +waiting for the successful <i>Air-ship</i>.</p> + +<p>A few successful experiments in balloon navigation +by the aid of small engines of different forms +have been made since 1855. Some believe that +Count Zeppelin, an officer of the German army has +solved the great problem, especially since the ascent +of his ship made on July 2, 1900, at Lake Constance.</p> + +<p>It has been asserted that no vessel has yet been<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_447" id="PAGE_447">[Pg 447]</a></span> +made to successfully fly unless made on the balloon +principle, and Count Zeppelin’s boat is on that principle. +According to the description of Eugen Wolf, +an aeronaut who took part in the ascent referred to +and who published an account of the same in the November +number of <i>McClure’s</i>, 1900, it is not composed +of one balloon, but of a row of them, and these +are not exposed when inflated to every breeze that +blows, but enclosed and combined in an enormous +cylindrical shell, 420 feet in length, about 38 feet in +diameter, with a volume of 14,780 cubic yards and +with ends pointed like a cigar. This shell is a framework +made up of aluminium trellis work, and divided +into seventeen compartments, each having its own gas +bag. The frame is further strengthened and the +balloons stayed by a network of aluminium wire, +and the entire frame covered with a soft ramie fibre. +Over this is placed a water-tight covering of pegamoid, +and the lower part covered with light silk. +An air space of two feet is left between the cover +and the balloons. Beneath the balloons extends a +walking bridge 226 feet long, and from this bridge +is suspended two aluminium cars, at front and rear +of the centre, adapted to hold all the operative machinery +and the operator and other passengers.</p> + +<p>The balloons, provided with proper valves, served +to lift the structure; large four-winged screws, one +on each side of the ship, their shafts mounted on a +light framework extending from the body of the +ship, and driven backward and forward by two light +benzine engines, one on each car, constituted the +propelling force. Dirigibility (steering) was provided +for by an apparatus consisting of a double pair +of rudders, one pair forward and one aft, reaching out +like great fins, and controlled by light metal cords<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_448" id="PAGE_448">[Pg 448]</a></span> +from the cars. A ballast of water was carried in a +compartment under each car. To give the ship an +upward or a downward movement the plane on which +the ship rests was provided with a weight adapted to +slip back and forth on a cable underneath the balloon +shell. When the weight was far aft the tip of +the ship was upward and the movement was upward, +when at the forward end the movement was downward, +and when at the centre the ship was poised and +travelled in a horizontal plane. The trip was made +over the lake on a quiet evening. A distance of three +and three-quarter miles, at a height of 1300 feet, was +made in seventeen minutes. Evolutions from a +straight course were accomplished. The ship was +lowered to the lake, on which it settled easily and +rode smoothly.</p> + +<p>The other great plan of air navigation receiving +the attention of scientists and aeronauts is the aeroplane +system. Although the cohesive force of the +air is so exceedingly small that it cannot be relied +upon as a sufficient resisting medium through which +propulsion may be accomplished alone by a counter-resisting +agent like propeller blades, yet it is known +what weight the air has and it has been ascertained +what expanse of a thin plane is necessary without +other means to support the weight of a man in the +air.</p> + +<p>To this idea must be added the means of flight, of +starting and maintaining a stable flight and of directing +its course. Careful observation of the manner +of the flight of large heavy birds, especially in +starting, has led to some successful experiments. +They do not rise at once, but require an initiative +force for soaring which they obtain by running on the +ground before spreading their wings. The action of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_449" id="PAGE_449">[Pg 449]</a></span> +the wings in folding and unfolding for maintaining +the flight and controlling its direction, is then to be +noted.</p> + +<p>It is along these lines that inventions in this system +are now working. An initiative mechanism to +start the ship along the earth or water, to raise it at +an angle, to spread planes of sufficient extent to support +the weight of the machine and its operators on +the body of the air column, light engines to give the +wing-planes an opening and closing action, rudders +to steer by, means for maintaining equilibrium, and +means when landing to float upon the water or roll +upon the land, these are the principal problems that +navigators of the great seas above us are now at work +upon.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_450" id="PAGE_450">[Pg 450]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXX" id="CHAPTER_XXX">CHAPTER XXX.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +ILLUMINATING GAS.</span></h2> + + +<blockquote><p>“How wonderful that sunbeams absorbed by vegetation +in the primordial ages of the earth and buried +in its depths as vegetable fossils through immeasurable +eras of time, until system upon system of +slowly formed rocks have been piled above, should +come forth at last, at the disenchanting touch of +science, and turn the light of civilised man into day.”—<i>Prof. +E. L. Youmans.</i></p></blockquote> + +<blockquote><p>“The invention of artificial light has extended +the available term of human life, by giving the night +to man’s use; it has, by the social intercourse it encourages, +polished his manners and refined his +tastes, and perhaps as much as anything else, has +aided his intellectual progress.”—<i>Draper.</i></p></blockquote> + +<p>If one desires to know what the condition of +cities, towns and peoples was before the nineteenth +century had lightened and enlightened them, let him +step into some poor country town in some out-of-the-way +region (and such may yet be found) at night, +pick his way along rough pavements, and no pavements, +by the light of a smoky lamp placed here +and there at corners, and of weeping lamps and limp +candles in the windows of shops and houses, and +meet people armed with tin lanterns throwing a +dubious light across the pathways. Let him be prepared +to be assailed by the odours of undrained gutters, +ditches, and roads called streets, and escape, if<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_451" id="PAGE_451">[Pg 451]</a></span> +he can, stumbling and falling into them. Let him +take care also that he avoid in the darkness the +drippings from the overhanging eaves or windows, +and falling upon the slippery steps of the dim doorway +he may be about to enter. Within, let him overlook, +if he can, in the hospitable reception, the dim +and smoky atmosphere, and observe that the brightest +and best as well as the most cheerful illuminant +flashes from the wide open fireplace. Occasionally +a glowing grate might be met. The eighteenth century +did have its glowing grates, and its still more +glowing furnaces of coal in which the ore was melted +and by the light of which the castings were made.</p> + +<p>It is very strange that year after year for successive +generations men saw the hard black coal break +under the influence of heat and burst into flames +which lit up every corner, without learning, beyond +sundry accidents and experiments, that this <i>gast</i>, or +<i>geest</i>, or <i>spirit</i>, or <i>vapour</i>, or <i>gas</i>, as it was variously +called, could be led away from its source, ignited +at a distance, and made to give light and heat at other +places than just where it was generated.</p> + +<p>Thus Dr. Clayton, Dean of Kildare, Ireland, in +1688 distilled gas from coal and lit and burned it, +and told his learned friend, the Hon. Robert Boyle, +about it, who announced it with interest to the Royal +Society, and again it finds mention in the <i>Philosophical +Transactions</i> fifty years later. Then, in +1726, Dr. Hales told how many cubic inches of gas +a certain number of grains of coal would produce. +Then Bishop Watson in 1750 passed some gas +through water and carried it in pipes from one place +to another; and then Lord Dundonald in 1786 built +some ovens, distilled coal and tar, burned the gas, +and got a patent. In the same year, Dr. Rickel of<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_452" id="PAGE_452">[Pg 452]</a></span> +Würzburg lighted his laboratory with gas made by +the dry distillation of bones; but all these were experiments. +Finally, William Murdock, the owner of +large workshops at Redruth, in Cornwall, a practical +man and mechanic, and a keen observer, using soft +coal to a large extent in his shops, tried with success +in 1792 to collect the escaping gas and with it lit up +the shops. Whether he continued steadily to so use +the gas or only at intervals, at any rate it seems to +have been experimental and failed to attract attention. +It appears that he repeated the experiment at +the celebrated steam engine works of Boulton and +Watt at Soho, near Birmingham, in 1798, and again +illuminated the works in 1802, on occasion of a peace +jubilee.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, in 1801, Le Bon, a Frenchman +at Paris, had succeeded in making illuminating gas +from wood, lit his house therewith, and proposed to +light the whole city of Paris.</p> + +<p>Thus it may be said that illuminating gas and the +new century were born together—the former preceding +the latter a little and lighting the way.</p> + +<p>Then in 1803 the English periodicals began to take +the matter up and discuss the whole subject. One +magazine objected to its use in houses on the ground +that the curtains and furniture would be ruined by +the saturation produced by the oxygen and hydrogen, +and that the curtains would have to be wrung out the +next morning after the illumination. There doubtless +was good cause for objection to the smoky, unpleasant +smelling light then produced.</p> + +<p>In America in 1806 David Melville of Newport, +Rhode Island, lighted with gas his own house and the +street in front of it. In 1813 he took out a patent +and lighted several factories. In 1817 his process<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_453" id="PAGE_453">[Pg 453]</a></span> +was applied to Beaver Tail Lighthouse on the Atlantic +coast—the first use of illuminating gas in +lighthouses. Coal oil and electricity have since been +found better illuminants for this purpose.</p> + +<p>Murdoch, Winser, Clegg and others continued to +illuminate the public works and buildings of England. +Westminster Bridge and the Houses of Parliament +were lighted in 1813, and the streets of +London in 1815. Paris was lighted in 1820, and the +largest American cities from 1816 to 1825. But it +required the work of the chemists as well as the +mechanics to produce the best gas. The rod of +Science had touched the rock again and from the +earth had sprung another servant with power to +serve mankind, and waited the skilled brain and +hand to direct its course.</p> + +<p>Produced almost entirely from bituminous coal, +it was found to be composed chiefly of carbon, oxygen +and hydrogen; but various other gases were +mixed therewith. To determine the proper proportions +of these gases, to know which should be increased +or wholly or partly eliminated, required +the careful labours of patient chemists. They taught +also how the gas should be distilled, condensed, +cleaned, scrubbed, confined in retorts, and its flow +measured and controlled.</p> + +<p>Fortunately the latter part of the eighteenth century +and the early part of the nineteenth had produced +chemists whose investigations and discoveries +paved the way for success in this revolution in the +world of light. Priestley had discovered oxygen. +Dalton had divided matter into atoms, and shown +that in its every form, whether solid, liquid, or +gaseous, these atoms had their own independent, +characteristic, unalterable weight, and that gases +diffused themselves in certain proportions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_454" id="PAGE_454">[Pg 454]</a></span></p> + +<p>Berthollet, Graham, and a host of others in England, +France, and Germany, advanced the art. +The highest skilled mechanics, like Clegg of England, +supplied the apparatus. He it was who invented +a gas purifier, liquid gas meter, and other +useful contrivances.</p> + +<p>As the character of the gas as an illuminator depends +on the quantity of hydro-carbon, or olefiant +elements it contains, great efforts were made to invent +processes and means of carbureting it.</p> + +<p>The manufacture of gas was revolutionised by the +invention of water gas. The main principle of this +process is the mixture of hydrogen with the vapour +of some hydro-carbon: Hydrogen burns with very +little light and the purpose of the hydro-carbon is to +increase the brilliancy of the flame. The hydrogen +gas is so obtained by the decomposition of water, effected +by passing steam through highly heated coals.</p> + +<p>Patents began to be taken out in this line in England +in 1823-24; by Donovan in 1830; Geo. Lowe +in 1832, and White in 1847. But in England water +gas could not compete with coal gas in cheapness. +On the contrary, in America, especially after the +petroleum wells were opened up, and nature supplied +the hydro-carbon in roaring wells and fountains, +water gas came to the front.</p> + +<p>The leading invention there in this line was that of +T. S. C. Lowe of Morristown, Pennsylvania, in 1873. +In Lowe’s process anthracite coal might be used, +which was raised in a suitable retort to a great heat, +then superheated steam admitted over this hot bed +and decomposed into hydrogen and carbonic oxide; +then a small stream of naphtha or crude petroleum +was thrown upon the surface of the burning coal, +and from these decompositions and mixtures a rich<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_455" id="PAGE_455">[Pg 455]</a></span> +olefiant product and other light-giving gases were +produced.</p> + +<p>The Franklin Institute of Philadelphia in 1886 +awarded Lowe, or his representatives, a grand medal +of honour, his being the invention exhibited that +year which in their opinion contributed most to the +welfare of mankind.</p> + +<p>A number of inventors have followed in the direction +set by Lowe. The largest part of gas manufacture, +which has become so extensive, embodies the +basic idea of the Lowe process.</p> + +<p>The competition set up by the electricians, especially +in the production of the beautiful incandescent +light for indoor illumination, has spurred inventors +of gas processes to renewed efforts—much to the +benefit of that great multitude who sit in darkness +until corporations furnish them with light.</p> + +<p>It was found by Siemens, the great German inventor +of modern gas regenerative furnace systems, +that the quality of the gas was much improved, and +a greater intensity of light obtained, by heating the +gases and air before combustion—a plan particularly +adapted in lighting large spaces.</p> + +<p>To describe in detail the large number of inventions +relating to the manufacture of gas would require +a huge volume—the generators, carburetors, +retorts, mixers, purifiers, metres, scrubbers, holders, +condensers, governors, indicators, registers, chargers, +pressure regulators, etc., etc.</p> + +<p>It was a great convenience outside of towns and +cities, where gas mains could not be laid, to have +domestic plants and portable gas apparatus, worked +on the same principles, but in miniature form, +adapted to a single house, but the exercise of great +ingenuity was required to render such adaptation +successful.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_456" id="PAGE_456">[Pg 456]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the use of liquid illuminants, which need a +wick to feed them, the <i>Argand burner</i>—that arrangement +of concentric tubes between which the wick is +confined—although invented by Argand in 1784, +yet has occupied a vast field of usefulness in connection +with the lamps of the nineteenth century.</p> + +<p>A dangerous but very extensively used illuminating +liquid before coal oil was discovered was camphene, +distilled from turpentine. It gave a good +light but was not a safe domestic companion.</p> + +<p>Great attention has recently been paid to the production +of <i>acetylene</i> gas, produced by the reaction +between <i>calcium carbide</i> and water. The making of +the calcium carbide by the decomposition of mixed +pulverised lime and coal by the use of a powerful +electric battery, is a preliminary step in the production +of this gas, and was a subsequent discovery.</p> + +<p>The electric light, acetylene, magnesium, and other +modern sources of light, although they may be more +brilliant and intense than coal gas, cannot compete +in cheapness of production with the latter. Thus +far illuminating coal gas is still the queen of artificial +lights.</p> + +<p>After gas was fairly started in lighting streets and +buildings its adaptation to lamps followed; and +among the most noted of gas lamps is that of Von +Welsbach, who combined a bunsen gas flame and a +glass chimney with a “<i>mantle</i>” located therein. +This mantle is a gauze-like structure made of refractory +quartz, or of certain oxides, which when +heated by the gas flame produce an incandescent glow +of intense brilliancy, with a reduced consumption +of gas.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_457" id="PAGE_457">[Pg 457]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXI" id="CHAPTER_XXXI">CHAPTER XXXI.</a><br><br> <span class="sub"> +BRICK, POTTERY, GLASS, PLASTICS.</span></h2> + + +<p>When the nineteenth century dawned, men were +making brick in the same way for the most part that +they were fifty centuries before. It is recorded in +the eleventh chapter of Genesis that when “the whole +earth was of one language and one speech, it came +to pass as they journeyed from the east that they +found a plain in the land of Shinar; and they dwelt +there, and they said to one another, Go to, let +us make brick and burn them thoroughly, And they +had brick for stone, and slime had they for mortar.” +Then commenced the building of Babel. Who +taught the trade to the brick-makers of Shinar?</p> + +<p>The journey from the east continued, and with it +went brick making to Greece and Rome, across the +continent of Europe, across the English channel, +until the brick work of Cæsar, stamped by the trade +mark of his legions, was found on the banks of the +Thames, and through the fields of Caerleon and +York.</p> + +<p>Alfred the Great encouraged the trade, and the +manufacture flourished finely under Henry VIII., +Elizabeth and Charles I.</p> + +<p>As to Pottery:—Could we only know who among +the peoples of the earth first discovered, used, or invented +fire, we might know who were the first makers +of baked earthenware. Doubtless the art of pottery +arose before men learned to bake the plastic clay, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_458" id="PAGE_458">[Pg 458]</a></span> +that groping time when men, kneading the soft clay +with their fingers, or imprinting their footsteps in +the yielding surface and learning that the sun’s heat +stiffened and dried those forms into durability, applied +the discovery to the making of crude vessels, as +children unto this day make dishes from the tenacious +mud. But the artificial burning of the vessels +was no doubt a later imitation of Nature.</p> + +<p>Alongside the rudest and earliest chipped stone +implements have been found the hollow clay dish +for holding fire, or food, or water. “As the fragment +of a speech or song, a waking or a sleeping vision, +the dream of a vanished hand, a draught of water +from a familiar spring, the almost perished fragrance +of a pressed flower call back the singer, the +loved and lost, the loved and won, the home of childhood, +or the parting hour, so in the same manner there +linger in this crowning decade of the crowning century +bits of ancient ingenuity which recall to a whole +people the fragrance and beauty of its past.” <i>Prof. +O. T. Mason.</i> The same gifted writer, adds: “Who +has not read, with almost breaking heart, the story of +Palissy, the Huguenot potter? But what have our +witnesses to say of that long line of humble creatures +that conjured out of prophetic clay, without wheels +or furnace, forms and decorations of imperishable +beauty, which are now being copied in glorified material +in the best factories of the world? In ceramic +as well as textile art the first inventors were women. +They quarried the clay, manipulated it, constructed +and decorated the ware, burned it in a rude furnace +and wore it out in a hundred uses.”</p> + +<p>From the early dawn of human history to its present +noonday civilisation the progress of man may be +traced in his pottery. Before printing was an art, he<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_459" id="PAGE_459">[Pg 459]</a></span> +inscribed on it his literature. Poets and painters have +adorned it; and in its manufacture have been embodied +through all ages the choicest discoveries of the +chemist, the inventor and the mechanic.</p> + +<p>It would be pleasant to trace the history of pottery +from at least the time of Homer, who draws a metaphor +from the potter seated before his wheel and +twirling it with both hands, as he shapes the plastic +clay upon it; to dwell upon the clay tablets and many-coloured +vases, covered with Egyptian scenes and +history; to re-excite wonder over the arts of China, +in her porcelain, the production of its delicacy and +bright colours wrapped in such mystery, and stagnant +for so many ages, but revived and rejuvenated +in Japan; to recall to mind the styles and composition +of the Phœnician vases with mythological +legends burned immortally therein; the splendid +work of the Greek potteries; to lift the Samian enwreathed +bowl, “filled with Samian wine”; to look +upon the Roman pottery, statues and statuettes of +Rome’s earlier and better days; the celebrated +<i>Faience</i> (enamelled pottery) at its home in Faenza, +Italy, and from the hands of its master, Luca della +Robia; to trace the history of the rare Italian majolica; +to tread with light steps the bright tiles of the +Saracens; to rehearse the story of Bernard Palissy, +the father of the beautiful French enamelled ware; +to bring to view the splendid old ware of Nuremberg, +the raised white figures on the deep blue +plaques of Florence, the honest Delft ware of Holland; +and finally to relate the revolution in the production +of pottery throughout all Europe caused by +the discoveries and inventions of Wedgwood of England +in the eighteenth century. All this would be +interesting, but we must hasten on to the equally<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_460" id="PAGE_460">[Pg 460]</a></span> +splendid and more practical works of the busy nineteenth +century, in which many toilsome methods +of the past have been superseded by labour-saving +contrivances.</p> + +<p>The application of machinery to the manufacture +of brick began to receive attention during the latter +part of the eighteenth century, after Watt had harnessed +steam, and a few patents were issued in England +and America at that time for such machinery +of that character, but little was practically done.</p> + +<p>The operations in <i>brickmaking</i>, to the accomplishment +of which by machines the inventors of the nineteenth +century have devoted great talent, relate:</p> + +<p>First, to the preparation of the clay.—In ancient +Egypt, in places where water abounded, it appears +that the clay was lifted from the bottoms of ponds +and lakes on the end of poles, was formed into bricks, +then sun-dried, modernly called <i>adobes</i>. The clay +for making these required a stiffening material. For +this straw was used, mixed with the clay; and stubble +was also used in the different courses. Hence the +old metaphor of worthlessness of “bricks without +straw,” but of course in burning, and in modern processes +of pressing unburnt bricks, straw is no longer +used. Sand should abound in the clay in a certain +proportion, or be mixed therewith, otherwise the +clay, whether burned or unburned, will crumble. +Stones, gravel and sticks must be removed, otherwise +the contraction of the clay and expansion of +the stones on burning, produce a weak and crumbling +structure.</p> + +<p>Brick clay generally is coloured by the oxide of +iron, and in proportion as this abounds the burned +brick is of a lighter or a deeper red. It may be desired +to add colouring matter or mix different forms<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_461" id="PAGE_461">[Pg 461]</a></span> +of clay, or add sand or other ingredients. Clay +treated by hand was for ages kneaded as dough is +kneaded, by the hand or feet, and the clay was often +long subjected, sometimes for years, to exposure to +the air, frost and sun to disintegrate and ripen it. As +the clay must be first disintegrated, ground or pulverised, +as grain is first ground to flour to make and +mould the bread, so the use of a grinding mill was +long ago suggested. The first machine used to do all +this work goes by the humble name of <i>pug mill</i>.</p> + +<p>Many ages ago the Chilians of South America +hung two ponderous solid wood or stone wheels on an +axis turned by a vertical shaft and operated by animal +power; the wheels were made to run round on +a deep basin in which ores, or stones, or grain were +placed to be crushed. This Chilian mill, in principle, +was adopted a century or so ago in Europe to +the grinding of clay. The pug mill has assumed +many different forms in this age; and separate preliminary +mills, consisting of rollers of different +forms for grinding, alone are often used before the +mixing operation. In one modern form the pug mill +consists of an inverted conical-shaped cylinder provided +with a set of interior revolving blades arranged +horizontally, and below this a spiral arrangement of +blades on a vertical axis, by which the clay is thoroughly +cut up and crushed against the surrounding +walls of the mill, in the meantime softened with +water or steam if desired, and mixed with sand if +necessary, and when thus ground and tempered is +finally pressed down through the lower opening of +the cylinder and directly into suitable brick moulds +beneath.</p> + +<p>Second.—The next operation is for moulding and +pressing the brick. To take the place of that ancient<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_462" id="PAGE_462">[Pg 462]</a></span> +and still used mode of filling a mould of a certain +size by the hands with a lump of soft clay, scraping +off the surplus, and then dumping the mould upon a +drying floor, a great variety of machines have been +invented.</p> + +<p>In some the pug mill is arranged horizontally to +feed out the clay in the form of a long horizontal +slab, which is cut up into proper lengths to form the +bricks. Some machines are in the form of a large +horizontal revolving wheel, having the moulds arranged +in its top face, each mould charged with clay +as the wheel presents it under the discharging spout +of the grinding mill, and then the clay is pressed by +pistons or plungers worked by a rocking beam, and +adapted to descend and fit into the mould at stated +intervals; or the moulds, carried in a circular direction, +may have movable bottom plates, which may +be pressed upwards successively by pistons attached +to them and raised by inclines on which they travel, +forcing the clay against a large circular top plate, +and in the last part of the movement carrying the +pressed brick through an aperture to the top of the +plate, where it is met by and carried away on an endless +apron.</p> + +<p>In some machines two great wheels mesh together, +one carrying the moulds in its face, and the other the +presser plate plungers, working in the former, the +bricks being finally forced out on to a moving belt by +the action of cam followers, or by other means.</p> + +<p>In others the moulds are passed, each beneath a +gravity-descending or cam-forced plunger, the clay +being thus stamped by impact into form; or in other +forms the clay in the moulds may be subjected to +successive pressure from the cam-operated pistons +arranged horizontally and on a line with the discharging +belt.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_463" id="PAGE_463">[Pg 463]</a></span></p> + +<p>Third, the drying and burning of the brick.—The +old methods were painfully slow and tedious. +A long time was occupied in seasoning the clay, and +then after the bricks were moulded, another long +time was necessary to dry them, and a final lengthy +period was employed to burn them in crude kilns. +These old methods were too slow for modern wants. +But they still are in vogue alongside of modern inventions, +as in all ages the use of old arts and implements +have continued along by the side of later inventions +and discoveries.</p> + +<p>No useful contrivances are suddenly or apparently +ever entirely supplanted. The implements of +the stone age are still found in use by some whose environment +has deprived them of the knowledge of +or desire to use better tools. The single ox pulling +the crooked stick plough, or other similar ancient +earth stirrer, and Ruth with her sickle and sheaves, +may be found not far from the steam plough and the +automatic binder.</p> + +<p>But the use of antiquated machinery is not followed +by those who lead the procession in this industrial +age. Consequently other means than the +slow processes of nature to dry brick and other ceramics, +and the crude kilns are giving way to modern +heat distributing structures.</p> + +<p>Air and heat are driven by fans through chambers, +in which the brick are openly piled on cars, the surplus +heat and steam from an engine-room being often +used for this purpose, and the cars so laden are slowly +pushed on the tracks through heated chambers. Passages +and pipes and chimneys for heat and air controlled +by valves are provided, and the waste moisture +drawn off through bottom drains or up chimneys, +the draft of which is increased by a hot blast, or blasts<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_464" id="PAGE_464">[Pg 464]</a></span> +of heated air are driven in one direction through a +chamber while the brick are moved through in the opposite +direction, or a series of drying chambers are +separated from each other by iron folding-doors, the +temperature increasing as cars are moved on tracks +from one chamber to another.</p> + +<p>Dr. Hoffmann of Berlin invented different forms +of drying and burning chambers which attracted +great attention. In his kiln the bricks are stacked +in an <i>annular</i> chamber, and the fire made to progress +from one section of the chamber to another, +burning the brick as the heat advances; and as fast +as one section of green brick is dried, or burned, +it is withdrawn, and a green section presented. Austria +introduced most successful and thorough +systems of drying brick about 1870. In some great +kilns fires are never allowed to cease. One kiln had +been kept thus heated for fifteen years. Thus great +quantities of green brick can at any time be pushed +into the kiln on tracks, and when burned pushed out, +and thus the process may go on continuously day and +night.</p> + +<p>To return to pottery: As before stated, Wedgwood +of England revolutionised the art of pottery in +the eighteenth century. He was aided by Flaxman. +Before their time all earthenware pottery was what +is now called “soft pottery.” That is, it was unglazed, +simply baked clay; <i>lustrous</i> or <i>semi-glazed</i> +and <i>enamelled</i> having a harder surface. Wedgwood +invented the hard porcelain surface, and very +many beautiful designs. To improve such earthenware +and to best decorate it, are the objects around +which modern inventions have mostly clustered.</p> + +<p>The “<i>regenerative</i>” principle of heating above +referred to employed in some kilns, and so successfully +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_465" id="PAGE_465">[Pg 465]</a></span>incorporated in the regenerators invented since +1850 by Siemens, Frank, Boetius, Bicheroux, +Pousard and others, consisting in using the intensely +hot wasted gases from laboratories or combustion +chambers to heat the incoming air, and carrying the +mingled products of combustion into chambers and +passages to heat, dry or burn materials placed therein, +has been of great service in the production of modern +pottery; not only in a great saving in the amount +of fuel, but in reduction in loss of pieces of ware +spoiled in the firing.</p> + +<p>The old method of burning wood, or soft coal, or +charcoal at the bottom of a small old-fashioned cylindrical +fire brick kiln attended to by hand, and +heating the articles of pottery arranged on shelves +in the chamber above, is done away with to a great +extent in large manufactories for the making of +stone and earthenware—although still followed in +many porcelain kilns.</p> + +<p>Inventions in the line of pottery kilns have received +the aid of woman. Susan Frackelton of the +United States invented a portable kiln for firing +pottery and porcelain, for which she obtained a patent +in 1886.</p> + +<p>As in drying clay for brick, so in drying clay for +porcelain and pottery generally, great improvements +have been made in the drying of the clay, and other +materials to be mixed therewith. A great step was +taken to aid drying by the invention of the <i>filter +press</i>, in which the materials, after they are mixed +and while still wet, are subjected to such pressure +that all surplus water is removed and all air squeezed +out, by which the inclosure of air bubbles in the +clay is prevented.</p> + +<p>Despairing of excelling the China porcelain, although +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_466" id="PAGE_466">[Pg 466]</a></span>French investigators having alleged their discovery +of such methods, modern inventors have contented +themselves in inventing new methods and +compositions. Charles Aoisseau, the potter of Tours, +born in 1796, rediscovered and revived the art of +Palissy. About 1842, Thomas Battam of England +invented the method of imitating marble and other +statuary by a composition of silica, alumina, soda, +and traces of lime, magnesia, and iron, reducing it +to liquid form and pouring it into plaster moulds, +forming the figure or group. His plaster casts soon +became famous. In the use of materials the aid of +chemists was had in finding the proper ingredients +to fuse with sand to produce the best forms of common +and fine <i>Faience</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Porcelain Moulding</i>, and its accompanying ornamentation +and the use of apparatus for moulding by +compression and by exhaustion of the air has become +since that time a great industry.</p> + +<p><i>Porcelain Colours.</i>—Chemists also aided in discovering +what metallic ingredients could best be used +when mixed with the clay and sand to produce the +desired colours. As soon as a new metal was discovered, +it was tested to find, among other things, +what vitrifiable colour it would produce. In the production +of metallic glazes, the oxides generally are +employed. The colours are usually applied to ware +when it is in its unglazed or <i>biscuit</i> form. In the +<i>biscuit</i> or <i>bisque</i> form pottery is bibulous, the prepared +glaze sinks into its pores and when burned +forms a vitreous coating.</p> + +<p>The application of oil colours and designs to ware +before baking by the “bat” system of printing originated +in the eighteenth and was perfected in the +nineteenth century. It consists of impressing oil<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_467" id="PAGE_467">[Pg 467]</a></span> +pictures on a bat of glue and then pressing the bat on +to the porous unbaked clay or porcelain which transferred +the colours. This was another revolution in +the art.</p> + +<p>One manner for ages of applying colours to ware +is first to reduce the mixture to a liquid form, +called “slip,” and then, if the Chinese method is +followed, to dip the colour up on the end of a hollow +bamboo rod, which end is covered with wire gauze, +then by blowing through the rod the colour was +sprayed or deposited on the ware. Another method +is the use of a brush and comb. The brush being +dipped into the coloured matter, the comb is passed +over the brush in such manner as to cause the paint +to spatter the object with fine drops or particles. A +very recent method, by which the beautiful background +and blended colours of the celebrated Rookwood +pottery of Cincinnati, Ohio, have become distinguished, +consists in laying the colour upon the +ware in a cloud or sheet of almost imperceptible +mist by the use of an air atomiser blown by the +operator. By the use of this simple instrument, the +laying on a single colour, or the delicate blending +and shadings of two or more colours in very beautiful +effects is easily produced.</p> + +<p>This use of the atomiser commenced in 1884, and +was claimed as the invention of a lady, Miss Laura +Fry, who obtained a patent for thus blowing the +atomised spray colouring matter on pottery in 1889; +but it was held by the courts that she was anticipated +by experiments of others, and by descriptions in +previous patents of the spraying of paint on other +objects by compressed air apparatus known as the air +brush. However, this introduction of the use of the +atomiser caused quite a revolution in the art of applying +colours to pottery in the forming of backgrounds.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_468" id="PAGE_468">[Pg 468]</a></span></p> + +<p>Enamelled ware is no longer confined to pottery. +About 1878 Niedringhaus in the United States began +to enamel sheet iron by the application of glaze and +iron oxide, giving such articles a granite appearance; +and since then metallic cooking vessels, bath tubs, +etc., have been converted in appearance into the +finest earthenware and porcelain, and far more durable, +beautiful and useful than the plain metal alone +for such purposes.</p> + +<p>When we remember that for many centuries, wood +and pewter, and to some extent crude earthenware, +were the materials from which the dishes of +the great bulk of the human family were made, as +well as their table and mantel ornaments, and compare +them in character and plenteousness with the +table and other ware of even the poorest character +of to-day, we can appreciate how much has been done +in this direction to help the human family by +modern inventions.</p> + +<p><i>Artificial Stone.</i>—The world as yet has not so far +exhausted its supply of stone and marble as to compel +a resort to artificial productions on a great scale, +and yet to meet the demands of those localities +wherein the natural supplies of good building stones +and marble are very scarce, necessitating when used +a long and expensive transportation, methods have +been adopted by which, at comparatively small cost, +fine imitations of the best stones and marbles have +been produced, having all the durable and artistic +qualities of the originals, as for the most part, they +are composed of the same materials as the stone and +marbles themselves.</p> + +<p>The characteristic backgrounds, the veins and +shadowings, and the soft colours of various marbles +have been quite successfully imitated by treating dehydrated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_469" id="PAGE_469">[Pg 469]</a></span>gypsum with various colouring solutions. +Sand stones have been moulded or pressed from the +same ingredients, and with either smooth or undressed +faces. When necessary the mixture is coloured, +to resemble precisely the original stones.</p> + +<p>One of the improvements in the manufacture and +use of modern <i>cements</i> and artificial stones consists +in their application to the making of streets and +sidewalks. Neat, smooth, hard, beautiful pavements +are now taking the place everywhere of the +unsatisfactory gravel, wood, and brick pavements of +former days. We know that the Romans and other +ancient peoples had their hydraulic cements, and +the plaster on some of their walls stands to-day to +attest its good quality. Modern inventors have +turned their attention in recent years to the production +of machines to grind, crush, mix and set the +materials, and to apply them to large wall surfaces, in +place of hand labour. <i>Ready-made plaster</i> of a fine +quality is now manufactured in great quantities. +It needs only the addition of a little water to reduce +it to a condition for use; and a machine operated +by compressed air may be had for spreading it +quickly over the lath work of wood or sheet metal, +slats, or over rough cement ceilings and walls.</p> + +<p><i>Glass.</i>—The Sister of Pottery is Glass. It may +have been an accidental discovery, occurring when +men made fire upon a sandy knoll or beach, that fire +could melt and fuse sand and ashes, or sand and lime, +or sand and soda or some other alkali, and with +which may also have been mixed some particles of +iron, or lead, or manganese, or alumina to produce +that hard, lustrous, vitreous, brittle article that we +call <i>glass</i>.</p> + +<p>But who invented the method of blowing the viscid<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_470" id="PAGE_470">[Pg 470]</a></span> +mass into form on the end of a hollow tube? Who +invented the scissors and shears for cutting and trimming +it when soft? Or the use of the diamond, or +its dust, for polishing it when hard? History is +silent on these points. The tablets of the most ancient +days of Egypt, yet recovered, show glass +blowers at work at their trade—and the names of the +first and original inventors are buried in oblivion. +Each age has handed down to us from many countries +specimens of glass ware which will compare +favourably in beauty and finish with any that can +be made to-day.</p> + +<p>Yet with the knowledge of making glass of the +finest description existing for centuries, it is strange +that its manufacture was not extended to supply the +wants of mankind, to which its use now seems so indispensable. +And yet as late as the sixteenth and +seventeenth centuries glass windows were found only +in the houses of the wealthy, in the churches and +palaces, and glass mirrors were unknown except to +the rich, as curiosities, and as aids to the scientists +in the early days of telescopy. Poor people used +oiled paper, isinglass, thinly shaved leather, resembling +parchment, and thin sheets of soft pale +crystalised stone known as talc, and soapstone.</p> + +<p>The nineteenth century has been characterised as +the scientific century of glass, and the term commercial, +may well be added to that designation.</p> + +<p>Its commercial importance and the advancement +in its manufacture during the first half of the century +is illustrated in the fact that the Crystal Palace +of the London Industrial Exhibition of 1851, although +containing nearly 900,000 square feet of +glass, was furnished by a single firm, Messrs. Chance +& Co. of London, without materially delaying their<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_471" id="PAGE_471">[Pg 471]</a></span> +other orders. In addition to scientific discoveries, +the manufacture of glass in England received a great +impetus by the removal of onerous excise duties +which had been imposed on its manufacture.</p> + +<p>The principal improvements in the art of glass-making +effected during the nineteenth century may +be summarised as follows:</p> + +<p>First, Materials.—By the investigations of chemists +and practical trials it was learned what +particular effect was produced by the old ingredients +employed, and it was found that the +colours and qualities of glass, such as clearness, +strength, tenacity, purity, etc., could be greatly modified +and improved by the addition to the sand of certain +new ingredients. By analysis it was learned +what different metallic oxides should be employed to +produce different colours. This knowledge before +was either preserved in secrecy, or accidentally or +empirically practised, or unknown. Thus it was +learned and established that lime hardens the glass +and adds to its lustre; that the use of ordinary ingredients, +the silicates of lime, magnesia, iron, soda and potash, +in their impure form, will produce the coarser +kinds of glass, such as that of which green bottles are +made; that silicates of soda and lime give the common +window glass and French plate; that the beautiful +varieties of Bohemian glass are chiefly a silicate +of potash and lime; that crystal or flint glass, so +called because formerly pulverised flints were used +in making it, can be made of a suitable combination +of potassia plumbic silicate; that the plumbic +oxide greatly increases its transparency, brilliancy, +and refractive power; that <i>paste</i>—that form of glass +from which imitations of diamonds are cut, may be +produced by adding a large proportion of the oxide<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_472" id="PAGE_472">[Pg 472]</a></span> +of lead; that by the addition of a trace of ferric oxide +or uranic acid the yellow topaz can be had; that +by substituting cobaltic oxide the brilliant blue sapphire +is produced; that cuperic oxide will give the +emerald, gold oxide the ruby, manganic oxide the +royal purple, and a mixture of cobaltic and manganic +oxides the rich black onyx.</p> + +<p>Professor Faraday as early as 1824 had noticed +a change in colour gradually produced in glass containing +oxide of manganese by exposure to the rays +of the sun. This observation induced an American +gentleman, Mr. Thomas Gaffield, a merchant of Boston, +to further experiment in this direction. His experiments +commenced in 1863, and he subjected +eighty different kinds of glass, coloured and uncoloured, +and manufactured in many different countries, +to this exposure of the sun’s rays. He found +that not only glass having manganese as an element, +but nearly every species of glass, was so affected, +some in shorter and some in longer times; that this +discoloration was not due to the heat rays of the sun, +but to its actinic rays; and that the original colour +of the glass could be reproduced by reheating the +same.</p> + +<p>Mr. Gaffield also extended his experiments to ascertain +the power of different coloured glasses to +transmit the actinic or chemical rays, and found that +blue would transmit the most and red and orange +the least.</p> + +<p>Others proceeded on lines of investigation in ascertaining +the best materials to be employed in glass-making +in producing the clearest and most permanent +uncoloured light; the best coloured lights for +desired purposes; glasses having the best effects on the +growth of plants; and the best class for refracting,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_473" id="PAGE_473">[Pg 473]</a></span> +dispersing and transmitting both natural lights and +those great modern artificial lights, gas and electricity.</p> + +<p>Another illustration of modern scientific investigation +and success in glass-making materials is seen +at the celebrated German glass works at Jena under +the management of Professors Ernst Abbe and Dr. +Schott, commenced in 1881. They, too, found that +many substances had each its own peculiar effect in +the refraction and dispersion of light, and introduced +no fewer than twenty-eight new substances in glass +making. Their special work was the production of +glass for the finest scientific and optical purposes, +and the highest grades of commercial glass. They +have originated over one hundred new kinds of glass. +Their lenses for telescopes and microscopes and photographic +cameras, and glass and prisms, and for +all chemical and other scientific work, have a worldwide +reputation.</p> + +<p>So that in materials of composition the old days +in which there were substantially but two varieties +of glass—the old-fashioned standard crown, and +flint glass—have passed away.</p> + +<p><i>Methods.</i>—The revolution in the production of +glass has been greatly aided also by new methods of +treatment of the old as well as the new materials. +For instance, the application of the Siemens regenerative +furnace, already alluded to in referring +to pottery, in place of old-fashioned kilns, and by +which the amount of smoke is greatly diminished, +fuel saved, and the colour of the glass improved. +Pots are used containing the materials to be melted +and not heated in the presence of the burning fuel, +but by the heated gases in separate compartments.</p> + +<p>Another process is that of M. de la Bastie, added<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_474" id="PAGE_474">[Pg 474]</a></span> +to by others, of toughening glass by plunging it +while hot and pasty and after it has been shaped, annealed, +and reheated, into a bath of grease, whereby +the rapid cooling and the grease changes its molecular +condition so that it is less dense, resists breaking +to a greater degree, and presents no sharp edges +when broken.</p> + +<p>Another process is that of making plate glass by +the cylinder process—rolling it into large sheets.</p> + +<p>Other processes are those for producing hollow +ware by pressing in moulds; for decorating; for surface +enamelling of sheet glass whereby beautiful +lace patterns are transferred from the woven or +netted fabric itself by using it as a stencil to distribute +upon the surface the pulverised enamel, which +is afterwards burned on; of producing <i>iridescent</i> +glass in which is exhibited the lights and shadows of +delicate soap bubble colours by the throwing against +the surface of hydrochloric acid under pressure, or the +fumes of other materials volatilised in a reheating +furnace.</p> + +<p>Then there is Dode’s process for platinising glass, +by which a reflecting mirror is produced without +silvering or otherwise coating its back, by first applying +a thin coating of platinic choride mixed +with an oil to the surface of the glass and heating the +same, by which the mirror reflects from its front +face. The platinum film is so thin that the pencil +and hand of a draughtsman may be seen through it, +the object to be copied being seen by reflection.</p> + +<p>Again there is the process of making <i>glass wool +or silk</i>—which is glass drawn out into such extremely +fine threads that it may be used for all purposes +of silk threads in the making of fabrics for +decorative purposes and in some more useful purposes, +such as the filtration of water and other liquids.<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_475" id="PAGE_475">[Pg 475]</a></span></p> + +<p>We have already had occasion to refer to Tilghman’s +sand blast in describing pneumatic apparatus. +In glass manufacture the process is used in etching +on glass designs of every kind, both simple and intricate. +The sand forced by steam, or by compressed +air on the exposed portions of the glass on which the +design rests, will cut the same deeply, or most delicately, +as the hand and eye of the operator may direct.</p> + +<p><i>Machines.</i>—In addition to the new styles of furnaces, +moulds and melting, and rolling mills to +which we have alluded, mention may be made of annealing +and cooling ovens, by which latter the glass +is greatly improved by being allowed to gradually +cool. A large number of instruments have been invented +for special purposes, such as for making the +beautiful expensive cut glass, which is flint glass +ground by wheels of iron, stone, and emery into the +desired designs, while water is being applied, and +then polished by wheels of wood, and pumice, or +rottenstone; for grinding and polishing glass for +lenses; and for polishing and finishing plate glass; +for applying glass lining to metal pipes, tubes, etc.; +for the delicate engraving of glass by small revolving +copper disks, varying in size from the diameter +of a cent down to one-fifteenth of an inch, cutting +the finest blade of grass, a tiny bud, the downy wing +of an insect, or the faint shadow of an exquisite eyebrow.</p> + +<p><i>Cameo</i> cutting and incrustation; porcelain electroplating +and moulding apparatus, and apparatus for +making porcelain plates before drying and burning, +may be added to the list.</p> + +<p>It would be a much longer list to enumerate the +various objects made of glass unknown or not in common +<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_476" id="PAGE_476">[Pg 476]</a></span>use in former generations. The reader must +call to mind or imagine any article which he thinks +desirable to be made from or covered with this lustrous +indestructible material, or any practicable form +of instrument for the transmission of light, and it is +quite likely he will find it already at hand in shops +or instruments in factories ready for its making.</p> + + +<h4><i>Rubber—Goodyear.</i></h4> + +<p>The rubber tree, whether in India with its immense +trunk towering above all its fellows and wearing +a lofty crown, hundreds of feet in circumference, +of mixed green and yellow blossoms; or in South +America, more slender and shorter but still beautiful +in clustered leaves and flowers on its long, loosely +pendent branches; or in Africa, still more slender +and growing as a giant creeper upon the highest trees +along the water courses, hiding its struggling support +and festooning the whole forest with its glossy +dark green leaves, sweetly scented, pure white, star-like +flowers, and its orange-like fruit—yields from its +veins a milk which man has converted into one of the +most useful articles of the century.</p> + +<p>The modes of treating this milky juice varies +among the natives of the several countries where the +trees abound. In Africa they cut or strip the bark, +and as the milk oozes out the natives catch and +smear it thickly over their limbs and bodies, and +when it dries pull it off and cut it into blocks for +transportation. In Brazil the juice is collected in +clay vessels and smoked and dried in a smouldering +fire of palm nuts, which gives the material its dark +brown appearance. They mould the softened rubber +over clay patterns in the form of shoes, jars, vases,<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_477" id="PAGE_477">[Pg 477]</a></span> +tubes, etc., and as they are sticky they carry them +separated on poles to the large towns and sea ports +and sell them in this condition. It was some such +articles that first attracted the attention of Europeans, +who during the eighteenth century called the +attention of their countrymen to them.</p> + +<p>It was in 1736 that La Condamine described rubber +to the French Academy. He afterward resided +in the valley of the Amazon ten years, and then he +and MM. Herissent, Macquer, and Grossat, again +by their writings and experiments interested the scientific +and commercial world in the matter.</p> + +<p>In 1770 Dr. Priestley published the fact that this +rubber had become notable for rubbing out pencil +marks, bits of it being sold for a high price for that +purpose. About 1797, some Englishman began to +make water-proof varnish from it, and to take out +patents for the same. This was as far as the art had +advanced in caoutchouc, or rubber, in the eighteenth +century.</p> + +<p>In 1819 Mr. Mackintosh, of Glasgow, began experimenting +with the oil of naphtha obtained from gas +works as a solvent for India rubber; and so successfully +that he made a water-proof varnish which was +applied to fabrics, took out his patent in England in +1823, and thus was started the celebrated “Mackintoshes.”</p> + +<p>In 1825 Thomas C. Wales, a merchant of Boston, +conceived the idea of sending American boot and +shoe lasts to Brazil for use in place of their clay models. +This soon resulted in sending great quantities +of rubber overshoes to Europe and America.</p> + +<p>The importation of rubber and the manufacture +of water-proof garments and articles therefrom now +rapidly increased in those countries. But nothing<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_478" id="PAGE_478">[Pg 478]</a></span> +that could be done would prevent the rubber from +getting soft in summer and hard and brittle in the +winter. Something was needed to render the rubber +insensible to the changes of temperature.</p> + +<p>For fifty years, ever since the manufacturers and +inventors of Europe and America had learned of +the water-proof character of rubber, they had been +striving to find something to overcome this difficulty. +Finally it became the lot of one man to supply the +want. His name was Charles Goodyear.</p> + +<p>Born with the century, in New Haven, Connecticut, +and receiving but a public school education, he +engaged with his father in the hardware business in +Philadelphia. This proving a failure, he, in 1830, +turned his attention to the improvement of rubber +goods. He became almost a fanatic on the subject—going +from place to place clad in rubber fabrics, +talking about it to merchants, mechanics, scientists, +chemists, anybody that would listen, making his experiments +constantly; deeply in debt on account of +his own and his father’s business failures, thrown +into jail for debt for months, continuing his experiments +there with philosophical, good-natured persistence; +out of jail steeped to his lips in poverty; his +family suffering for the necessaries of life; selling +the school books of his children for material to continue +his work, and taking a patent in 1835 for a +rubber cement, which did not help him much. Finding +that nitric acid improved the quality of the rubber +by removing its adhesiveness, he introduced this +process, which met with great favour, was applied +generally to the manufacture of overshoes, and +helped his condition. But his trials and troubles +continued. Finally one Nathaniel Haywood suggested +the use of sulphurous acid gas, and this<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_479" id="PAGE_479">[Pg 479]</a></span> +was found an improvement; but still the rubber +would get hard in winter, and although not so +soft in summer, yet the odour was offensive. Yet +by the use of this improvement he was enabled +to raise more money to get Haywood a patent +for it, while he became its owner. In the midst +of his further troubles, and while experimenting +with the sulphur mixed with rubber he found by +accidental burning or partly melting of the two together +on a stove, that the part in which the sulphur +was embedded was hard and inelastic, and that the +part least impregnated with the sulphur was proportionately +softer and more elastic. At last the +great secret was discovered!</p> + +<p>And now at this later day, when $50,000,000 +worth of rubber goods are made annually in the +United States alone, the whole immense business is +still divided into but two classes—hard and soft—hard +or vulcanized like that called “ebonite,” or soft, +it may be, as a delicate wafer. And these qualities +depend on and vary as a greater or less amount of sulphur +is used, as described in the patents of Goodyear, +commencing with his French patent of 1844.</p> + +<p>Then of course the pirates began their attacks, and +he was kept poor in defending his patents, and died +comparatively so in 1860; but happy in his great discovery. +He had received, however, the whole +world’s honours—the great council medal at the +Nations Fair in London in 1851 the Cross of the +Legion of Honour by Napoleon III., and lesser tributes +from other nations.</p> + +<p>It can be imagined the riches that flowed into the +laps of Goodyear’s successors; the wide field opened +for new inventions in machines and processes; and +the vast added comforts to mankind resulting from<span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_480" id="PAGE_480">[Pg 480]</a></span> +Goodyear’s introduction of a new and useful material +to man.—A material which, takes its place and +stands in line with wood, and leather, and glass, and +iron, and steel!</p> + +<p>But rubber and steel as we now know them are +not the only new fabrics given to mankind by the inventors +of the Nineteenth Century.</p> + +<p>The work of the silk worm has been rivalled; and +a <i>wool</i> as white and soft as that clipped from the +cleanest lamb has been drawn by the hands of these +magicians from the hot and furious slag that bursts +from a blast furnace.</p> + +<p>The silk referred to is made from a solution of +that inflammable material of tremendous force +known as gun-cotton, or pyroxylin. Dr. Chardonnet +was the inventor of the leading form of the +article, which he introduced and patented about +1888. The solution made is of a viscous character, +allowed to escape from a vessel through small orifices +in fine streams; and as the solvent part evaporates +rapidly these fine streams become hard, flexible +fibres, which glisten with a beautiful lustre and +can be used as a substitute for some purposes for the +fine threads spun by that mysterious master of his +craft—the silk worm.</p> + +<p>The gusts of wind that drove against the molten +lava thrown from the crater of Kilauea, producing +as it did, a fall of white, metallic, hairy-like material +resembling wool, suggested to man an industrial +application of the same method. And at the +great works of Krupp at Essen, Prussia, for instance, +may be witnessed a fine stream of molten slag +flowing from an iron furnace, and as it falls is met +by a strong blast of cold air which transforms it into +a silky mass as white and fine as cotton.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="PAGE_481" id="PAGE_481">[Pg 481]</a></span></p> +<h2>INDEX.</h2> + +<div class="sblockquot"><p> +<b>A.</b><br><br> +Abbe, Prof. Ernst, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>, <a href="#PAGE_473">473</a>.<br><br> + +Abbott Museum, N.Y., <a href="#PAGE_242">242</a>.<br><br> + +Abrading machines, <a href="#PAGE_332">332</a>.<br><br> + +Acetylene, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>, <a href="#PAGE_456">456</a>.<br><br> + +Accumulators, <a href="#PAGE_177">177</a>.<br><br> + +Achromatic lens, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>.<br><br> + +Acoustics, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>.<br><br> + +Addressing machines, <a href="#PAGE_285">285</a>.<br><br> + +Aeolipile, <a href="#PAGE_74">74</a>.<br><br> + +Affixers, <a href="#PAGE_285">285</a>.<br><br> + +African inventions, <a href="#PAGE_340">340</a>, <a href="#PAGE_476">476</a>.<br><br> + +Agriculture, Chap. <a href="#PAGE_1">1</a>, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>, <a href="#PAGE_3">3</a>, <a href="#PAGE_4">4</a>, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>.<br><br> + +Agricultural chemistry, <a href="#PAGE_64">64</a>.<br><br> + +Agricultural societies, <a href="#PAGE_16">16</a>.<br><br> + +Aeronautics. (See Air Ships and Balloons, <a href="#PAGE_169">169</a>, <a href="#PAGE_445">445</a>, <a href="#PAGE_448">448</a>.)<br><br> + +Air Atomizers, <a href="#PAGE_467">467</a>.<br><br> + +Air brakes, <a href="#PAGE_89">89</a>, <a href="#PAGE_108">108</a>, <a href="#PAGE_193">193</a>.<br><br> + +Air Brushes, <a href="#PAGE_195">195</a>, <a href="#PAGE_418">418</a>.<br><br> + +Air Compressors and propellers, <a href="#PAGE_195">195</a>.<br><br> + +Air Drills, <a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>.<br><br> + +Air Engines, <a href="#PAGE_89">89</a>, <a href="#PAGE_193">193</a>, <a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>.<br><br> + +Air propellers. (See Pneumatics.)<br><br> + +Air Pumps, <a href="#PAGE_55">55</a>, <a href="#PAGE_113">113</a>, <a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>, <a href="#PAGE_195">195</a>, <a href="#PAGE_196">196</a>, <a href="#PAGE_197">197</a>, <a href="#PAGE_404">404</a>.<br><br> + +Air Ships, <a href="#PAGE_446">446</a>, <a href="#PAGE_449">449</a>.<br><br> + +Airy, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>.<br><br> + +“Alabama,” The, <a href="#PAGE_261">261</a>.<br><br> + +Alarm Locks. (See Locks.)<br><br> + +Alchemistry and alchemists. (See Chemistry.)<br><br> + +Alcohol, <a href="#PAGE_65">65</a>.<br><br> + +Alfred the Great, <a href="#PAGE_386">386</a>, <a href="#PAGE_457">457</a>.<br><br> + +Alembert, D., <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>.<br><br> + +Alhambra, <a href="#PAGE_373">373</a>.<br><br> + +Allen, Horatio, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>.<br><br> + +Allen, Dr. John, <a href="#PAGE_168">168</a>.<br><br> + +Allotropic phosphorus. (See Matches.)<br><br> + +Allen and Yates. (See Puddling.)<br><br> + +Alloys, <a href="#PAGE_237">237</a>, <a href="#PAGE_238">238</a>.<br><br> + +Altiscope, <a href="#PAGE_413">413</a>.<br><br> + +Aluminium, <a href="#PAGE_238">238</a>.<br><br> + +Amalgamators, <a href="#PAGE_380">380</a>.<br><br> + +American Inventions, <a href="#PAGE_341">341</a>.<br><br> + +Ammonia, <a href="#PAGE_191">191</a>, <a href="#PAGE_215">215</a>.<br><br> + +Ammoniacal gas engines, <a href="#PAGE_191">191</a>.<br><br> + +Ampère, <a href="#PAGE_122">122</a>, <a href="#PAGE_130">130</a>.<br><br> + +Amontons air engines, <a href="#PAGE_193">193</a>.<br><br> + +Ancient smelting. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br> + +Anæsthetics, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>, <a href="#PAGE_71">71</a>.<br><br> + +Aniline dyes, <a href="#PAGE_69">69</a>.<br><br> + +Annealing and tempering, <a href="#PAGE_248">248</a>.<br><br> + +Antiseptics, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>, <a href="#PAGE_72">72</a>.<br><br> + +Antwerp, Siege of, <a href="#PAGE_261">261</a>. (See Ordnance.)<br><br> + +Aoisseau, Chas., <a href="#PAGE_466">466</a>.<br><br> + +Apollo, <a href="#PAGE_400">400</a>.<br><br> + +Applegath, <a href="#PAGE_283">283</a>, <a href="#PAGE_284">284</a>.<br><br> + +Aqueducts, <a href="#PAGE_93">93</a>, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>, <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>.<br><br> + +Arabs, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>, <a href="#PAGE_274">274</a>.<br><br> + +Arabic notation, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br> + +Arago, <a href="#PAGE_122">122</a>, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>, <a href="#PAGE_411">411</a>, <a href="#PAGE_416">416</a>.<br><br> + +Arc Lamps, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br> + +Archimedes, <a href="#PAGE_9">9</a>, <a href="#PAGE_165">165</a>, <a href="#PAGE_185">185</a>, <a href="#PAGE_442">442</a>.<br><br> + +Aristotle, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>.<br><br> + +Argand burner, <a href="#PAGE_456">456</a>.<br><br> + +Arkwright, Richard, <a href="#PAGE_42">42</a>, <a href="#PAGE_296">296</a>, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>, <a href="#PAGE_301">301</a>.<br><br> + +Arlberg tunnel, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br> + +Armor, plate, <a href="#PAGE_262">262</a>, <a href="#PAGE_264">264</a>, <a href="#PAGE_265">265</a>, <a href="#PAGE_266">266</a>.<br><br> + +Arnold, Asa, <a href="#PAGE_301">301</a>.<br><br> + +Arnold, watchmaker, <a href="#PAGE_389">389</a>.<br><br> + +Armstrong, Sir William G., <a href="#PAGE_176">176</a>, <a href="#PAGE_263">263</a>, <a href="#PAGE_264">264</a>.<br><br> + +Arquebus. (See Ordnance.)<br><br> + +Artesian Wells, <a href="#PAGE_38">38</a>.<br><br> + +Artificial Stone. (See Pottery.)<br><br> + +Artificial Silk. (See Glass.)<br><br> + +Arts, Fine, <a href="#PAGE_197">197</a>, <a href="#PAGE_347">347</a>, <a href="#PAGE_353">353</a>, <a href="#PAGE_371">371</a>, <a href="#PAGE_400">400</a>, <a href="#PAGE_414">414</a>, <a href="#PAGE_418">418</a>.<br><br> + +Art, Scientific, <a href="#PAGE_228">228</a>.<br><br> + +Artificial Teeth. (See Dentistry.)<br><br> + +Artillery. (See Ordnance.)<br><br> + +Asbestos, <a href="#PAGE_421">421</a>.<br><br> + +Assembling machines and system. (See Sewing machines, Watch, and Ordnance.)<br><br> + +Assyrians, <a href="#PAGE_24">24</a>.<br><br> + +Astronomical inventions, <a href="#PAGE_390">390</a>. (See Horology and Optics.)<br><br> + +Athens. (See Greece.)<br><br> + +Athanor, Alchemist’s stone. (See Chemistry.)<br><br> + +Atmospheric and Gas pressure, <a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>.<br><br> + +Atoms—atomic theory, <a href="#PAGE_59">59</a>, <a href="#PAGE_60">60</a>, <a href="#PAGE_453">453</a>.<br><br> + +Atomizer, <a href="#PAGE_197">197</a>, <a href="#PAGE_467">467</a>.<br><br> + +Attraction of Gravitation, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br> + +Augurs, <a href="#PAGE_348">348</a>, <a href="#PAGE_349">349</a>.<br><br> + +Auricular instruments, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>.<br><br> + +Australia, <a href="#PAGE_40">40</a>.<br><br> + +Austria, <a href="#PAGE_24">24</a>, <a href="#PAGE_50">50</a>, <a href="#PAGE_358">358</a>.<br><br> + +Autoharps, <a href="#PAGE_405">405</a>.<br><br> + +Automobiles, <a href="#PAGE_89">89</a>, <a href="#PAGE_435">435</a>.<br><br> + +Axes, <a href="#PAGE_340">340</a>.<br><br> + + +<br><b>B.</b><br><br> + +Babbitt, Isaac, metal, <a href="#PAGE_237">237</a>.<br><br> + +Babylonians, <a href="#PAGE_384">384</a>.<br><br> + +Bach. (See Pianos.)<br><br> + +Bacon, Roger, <a href="#PAGE_214">214</a>.<br><br> + +Bacteria, <a href="#PAGE_213">213</a>.<br><br> + +Bailey, 1822; <a href="#PAGE_37">37</a>.<br><br> + +Bain, Alex., <a href="#PAGE_147">147</a>.<br><br> + +Baling and Bale ties, <a href="#PAGE_51">51</a>, <a href="#PAGE_52">52</a>, <a href="#PAGE_53">53</a>.<br><br> + +Balloons, <a href="#PAGE_169">169</a>, <a href="#PAGE_446">446</a>.<br><br> + +Band Saw, <a href="#PAGE_348">348</a>.<br><br> + +Barber, John, <a href="#PAGE_185">185</a>.<br><br> + +Barker’s Mill, <a href="#PAGE_171">171</a>.<br><br> + +Barlow looms, <a href="#PAGE_305">305</a>.<br><br> + +Barlow, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_123">123</a>.<br><br> + +Barrel making. (See Wood Working.)<br><br> + +Bartholdi, <a href="#PAGE_105">105</a>.<br><br> + +Bastie, <a href="#PAGE_473">473</a>.<br><br> + +Batcheller, <a href="#PAGE_318">318</a>.<br><br> + +Baths—closets, <a href="#PAGE_178">178</a>.<br><br> + +Bath system, Porcelain, <a href="#PAGE_466">466</a>.<br><br> + +Battam, Thomas, artificial marble, <a href="#PAGE_466">466</a>.<br><br> + +Baude, Peter, <a href="#PAGE_224">224</a>.<br><br> + +Beadlestone, metallurgist, <a href="#PAGE_231">231</a>.<br><br> + +Bean, B. W., <a href="#PAGE_318">318</a>.<br><br> + +Beaulieu, Col. (Ordnance), <a href="#PAGE_264">264</a>.<br><br> + +Beating engines. (See Paper.)<br><br> + +Becher, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>.<br><br> + +Bechler, <a href="#PAGE_413">413</a>.<br><br> + +Becquerel, <a href="#PAGE_44">44</a>.<br><br> + +Beds, <a href="#PAGE_355">355</a>.<br><br> + +Bed—printing, <a href="#PAGE_282">282</a>.<br><br> + +Beer. (See Chemistry.)<br><br> + +Bellaert, Jacob, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>.<br><br> + +Bell, Alex. Graham, <a href="#PAGE_140">140</a>, <a href="#PAGE_141">141</a>, <a href="#PAGE_142">142</a>, <a href="#PAGE_407">407</a>, <a href="#PAGE_414">414</a>.<br><br> + +Bell, C. A., <a href="#PAGE_408">408</a>.<br><br> + +Bell, Sir L., metallurgy, <a href="#PAGE_223">223</a>.<br><br> + +Bell’s history of metallurgy, <a href="#PAGE_223">223</a>.<br><br> + +Bell, Rev. Patrick, <a href="#PAGE_36">36</a>, <a href="#PAGE_38">38</a>.<br><br> + +Bells and Bell making—Metallurgy.<br><br> + +Bending wood, <a href="#PAGE_349">349</a>, <a href="#PAGE_357">357</a>. (See Woodworking.)<br><br> + +Bennett, Richard, <a href="#PAGE_46">46</a>.<br><br> + +Bentham, Sir Sam’l, <a href="#PAGE_242">242</a>, <a href="#PAGE_342">342</a>, <a href="#PAGE_349">349</a>, <a href="#PAGE_374">374</a>.<br><br> + +Bergman, <a href="#PAGE_61">61</a>.<br><br> + +Berliner, Emile, <a href="#PAGE_408">408</a>.<br><br> + +Bernoulli, D., <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>.<br><br> + +Berthollet, <a href="#PAGE_64">64</a>, <a href="#PAGE_454">454</a>.<br><br> + +Berzelius, <a href="#PAGE_60">60</a>.<br><br> + +Bessemer, Henry, and process, <a href="#PAGE_176">176</a>, <a href="#PAGE_232">232</a>, <a href="#PAGE_233">233</a>.<br><br> + +Besson, Prof. J., <a href="#PAGE_75">75</a>, <a href="#PAGE_242">242</a>.<br><br> + +Bicheroux, potter, <a href="#PAGE_465">465</a>.<br><br> + +Bicycles, <a href="#PAGE_431">431</a>.<br><br> + +Bigelow, E. B., <a href="#PAGE_305">305</a>.<br><br> + +Billings, Dr., <a href="#PAGE_210">210</a>.<br><br> + +Binding books. (See Printing.)<br><br> + +Binders, grain and twine, <a href="#PAGE_39">39</a>.<br><br> + +Bicycles, <a href="#PAGE_431">431</a> to <a href="#PAGE_435">435</a>.<br><br> + +Bischof, Simon, <a href="#PAGE_191">191</a>.<br><br> + +Blacksmithing. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br> + +Blaew of Amsterdam, <a href="#PAGE_281">281</a>.<br><br> + +Black, chemist, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>.<br><br> + +Blair, iron and steel, <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>.<br><br> + +Blakely Gun. (See Ordnance.)<br><br> + +Blake, Eli. W., Blake crusher, <a href="#PAGE_376">376</a>, <a href="#PAGE_377">377</a>.<br><br> + +Blanchard, Thos., <a href="#PAGE_268">268</a>, <a href="#PAGE_343">343</a>, <a href="#PAGE_344">344</a>, <a href="#PAGE_350">350</a>, <a href="#PAGE_356">356</a>, <a href="#PAGE_369">369</a>.<br><br> + +Blasting, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br> + +Blast, steel. (See Bessemer.)<br><br> + +Blauofen furnace. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br> + +Bleaching and Dyeing, <a href="#PAGE_69">69</a>.<br><br> + +Blenkinsop, <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>.<br><br> + +Blithe, Walter, <a href="#PAGE_14">14</a>.<br><br> + +Block Printing. (See Printing.)<br><br> + +Blodgett & Lerow, sewing machines, <a href="#PAGE_318">318</a>.<br><br> + +Bloomaries. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br> + +Blunderbuss, <a href="#PAGE_257">257</a>.<br><br> + +Bobbins—spinning, <a href="#PAGE_302">302</a>.<br><br> + +Boerhaave, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>.<br><br> + +Boetius, <a href="#PAGE_365">365</a>.<br><br> + +Bohemia, <a href="#PAGE_357">357</a>.<br><br> + +Boilers. (See Steam Engineering.)<br><br> + +“Boke of Husbandry,” 1523, <a href="#PAGE_14">14</a>.<br><br> + +Bollman bridge, <a href="#PAGE_103">103</a>.<br><br> + +Bolting. (See Milling.)<br><br> + +Bolt making. (See Metal Working.)<br><br> + +Bombards, <a href="#PAGE_254">254</a>.<br><br> + +Bombs. (See Ordnance.)<br><br> + +Bomford, Col., <a href="#PAGE_260">260</a>.<br><br> + +Bonaparte, <a href="#PAGE_89">89</a>, <a href="#PAGE_90">90</a>, <a href="#PAGE_256">256</a>.<br><br> + +Bonnets and ladies’ hats, <a href="#PAGE_324">324</a>.<br><br> + +Bonjeau, M., <a href="#PAGE_325">325</a>.<br><br> + +Bonelli, M., <a href="#PAGE_305">305</a>.<br><br> + +Book making and binding, <a href="#PAGE_287">287</a>, <a href="#PAGE_288">288</a>.<br><br> + +Boots and shoes, <a href="#PAGE_366">366</a> to <a href="#PAGE_371">371</a>.<br><br> + +Boring machines, <a href="#PAGE_345">345</a>, <a href="#PAGE_348">348</a>.<br><br> + +Boring square holes, <a href="#PAGE_346">346</a>.<br><br> + +Bormann, Genl., <a href="#PAGE_259">259</a>.<br><br> + +Bottle stoppers, <a href="#PAGE_358">358</a>.<br><br> + +Boulton and Watt, <a href="#PAGE_84">84</a>, <a href="#PAGE_452">452</a>.<br><br> + +Bouton, <a href="#PAGE_415">415</a>.<br><br> + +Bourseuil, Chas., <a href="#PAGE_407">407</a>.<br><br> + +Boyce, 1799, <a href="#PAGE_35">35</a>.<br><br> + +Boyle, Robert, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>, <a href="#PAGE_184">184</a>, <a href="#PAGE_193">193</a>, <a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>.<br><br> + +Box making. (See Woodworking Machinery.)<br><br> + +Braiding. (See Sewing Machines.)<br><br> + +Braithwaite, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>.<br><br> + +Brakes, bicycle, <a href="#PAGE_433">433</a>-<a href="#PAGE_436">436</a>.<br><br> + +Brakes, steam, Railway and Electric, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>, <a href="#PAGE_436">436</a>.<br><br> + +Brakes and gins, <a href="#PAGE_297">297</a>.<br><br> + +Bramah, Jos., <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>, <a href="#PAGE_154">154</a>, <a href="#PAGE_170">170</a>, <a href="#PAGE_242">242</a>, <a href="#PAGE_244">244</a>, <a href="#PAGE_342">342</a>, <a href="#PAGE_349">349</a>, <a href="#PAGE_424">424</a>.<br><br> + +Branch, <a href="#PAGE_342">342</a>.<br><br> + +Branco, <a href="#PAGE_75">75</a>.<br><br> + +Brahe, Tycho, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>, <a href="#PAGE_388">388</a>.<br><br> + +Brass, <a href="#PAGE_219">219</a>.<br><br> + +Brayton, G. H., <a href="#PAGE_190">190</a>.<br><br> + +Brazil, <a href="#PAGE_281">281</a>, <a href="#PAGE_476">476</a>, <a href="#PAGE_477">477</a>.<br><br> + +Breech-loaders, <a href="#PAGE_257">257</a>, <a href="#PAGE_263">263</a>, <a href="#PAGE_264">264</a>, <a href="#PAGE_265">265</a>, <a href="#PAGE_269">269</a>. (See Ordnance.)<br><br> + +Brewster, Sir David, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>.<br><br> + +Brickmaking machines, kilns and processes, <a href="#PAGE_457">457</a>, <a href="#PAGE_464">464</a>.<br><br> + +Bridges and Bridge Building, <a href="#PAGE_93">93</a> to <a href="#PAGE_104">104</a>, <a href="#PAGE_197">197</a>.<br><br> + +Bright, John, <a href="#PAGE_138">138</a>.<br><br> + +Broadwood piano, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>.<br><br> + +Bronsen, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br> + +Broom-making, <a href="#PAGE_328">328</a>, <a href="#PAGE_329">329</a>.<br><br> + +Brot, <a href="#PAGE_411">411</a>.<br><br> + +Brothers of the Bridge, <a href="#PAGE_94">94</a>.<br><br> + +Bronze, <a href="#PAGE_218">218</a>, <a href="#PAGE_219">219</a>.<br><br> + +Brooklyn bridge, <a href="#PAGE_98">98</a>, <a href="#PAGE_99">99</a>.<br><br> + +Brown, Sir Saml., <a href="#PAGE_95">95</a>, <a href="#PAGE_187">187</a>, <a href="#PAGE_188">188</a>.<br><br> + +“Brown Bess,” <a href="#PAGE_258">258</a>.<br><br> + +Bruce, David, <a href="#PAGE_284">284</a>.<br><br> + +Brunel, I. K., <a href="#PAGE_97">97</a>.<br><br> + +Brunel, I. M., <a href="#PAGE_351">351</a>, <a href="#PAGE_367">367</a>.<br><br> + +Brunton, <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>.<br><br> + +Brush—Brush light, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br> + +Brushes and Brush making, <a href="#PAGE_330">330</a>.<br><br> + +Buchanan’s Practical Essays, <a href="#PAGE_244">244</a>.<br><br> + +Buckingham, C. L., <a href="#PAGE_148">148</a>.<br><br> + +Buffing machines, <a href="#PAGE_365">365</a>.<br><br> + +Builders’ hardware, <a href="#PAGE_250">250</a>.<br><br> + +Buildings, tall, <a href="#PAGE_152">152</a>, <a href="#PAGE_153">153</a>.<br><br> + +Buffers, <a href="#PAGE_437">437</a>. (See Railways, Elevator, etc., <a href="#PAGE_160">160</a>, <a href="#PAGE_161">161</a>.)<br><br> + +Bunsen, Robt. W., <a href="#PAGE_119">119</a>, <a href="#PAGE_120">120</a>, <a href="#PAGE_230">230</a>.<br><br> + +Bunsen light, <a href="#PAGE_456">456</a>.<br><br> + +Burden, Henry, <a href="#PAGE_95">95</a>.<br><br> + +Burdett, Wm., <a href="#PAGE_188">188</a>.<br><br> + +Burke, Edmund, <a href="#PAGE_182">182</a>.<br><br> + +Burns, Robert, <a href="#PAGE_31">31</a>.<br><br> + +Butter, <a href="#PAGE_54">54</a>, <a href="#PAGE_55">55</a>.<br><br> + +Button-hole machines, <a href="#PAGE_323">323</a>.<br><br> + +Bunsen. (See Chemistry.)<br><br> + + +<br><b>C.</b><br><br> + +Cable transportation, <a href="#PAGE_109">109</a>.<br><br> + +Cæsar, <a href="#PAGE_457">457</a>.<br><br> + +Cahill, Thaddeus, <a href="#PAGE_287">287</a>.<br><br> + +Caissons, <a href="#PAGE_100">100</a>.<br><br> + +Calcium-carbide, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>, <a href="#PAGE_456">456</a>.<br><br> + +Calico making and printing, <a href="#PAGE_325">325</a>, <a href="#PAGE_326">326</a>.<br><br> + +California, <a href="#PAGE_382">382</a>.<br><br> + +Cameo cutting, <a href="#PAGE_475">475</a>.<br><br> + +<i>Camera obscura</i>, <a href="#PAGE_414">414</a>.<br><br> + +Campbell printing press, <a href="#PAGE_285">285</a>.<br><br> + +Canada, <a href="#PAGE_40">40</a>, <a href="#PAGE_430">430</a>.<br><br> + +Canals, and boats for, <a href="#PAGE_84">84</a>, <a href="#PAGE_106">106</a>, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>, <a href="#PAGE_109">109</a>, <a href="#PAGE_110">110</a>, <a href="#PAGE_440">440</a>.<br><br> + +Canal locks, <a href="#PAGE_110">110</a>.<br><br> + +Cane woven goods, <a href="#PAGE_308">308</a>.<br><br> + +Cannons and firearms, <a href="#PAGE_252">252</a>-<a href="#PAGE_272">272</a>.<br><br> + +Cantilever bridges, <a href="#PAGE_103">103</a>, <a href="#PAGE_104">104</a>.<br><br> + +Caoutchouc. (See Rubber, <a href="#PAGE_476">476</a>.)<br><br> + +Caps,—gun, <a href="#PAGE_259">259</a>.<br><br> + +Car heating, <a href="#PAGE_211">211</a>.<br><br> + +Cars, sleeping, <a href="#PAGE_431">431</a>. (See Railways.)<br><br> + +Car tracks, <a href="#PAGE_108">108</a>.<br><br> + +Car rails, <a href="#PAGE_108">108</a>.<br><br> + +Car wheels, <a href="#PAGE_108">108</a>.<br><br> + +Carbines, <a href="#PAGE_266">266</a>. (See Ordnance.)<br><br> + +Carbon—chemistry.<br><br> + +Carbonating, <a href="#PAGE_68">68</a>.<br><br> + +Carborundum, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>.<br><br> + +Cardan, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>.<br><br> + +Carding, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>, <a href="#PAGE_300">300</a>.<br><br> + +Cardova. (See Leather.)<br><br> + +Carlyle, <a href="#PAGE_310">310</a>.<br><br> + +Carnot. (See Ordnance.)<br><br> + +Carpentry, <a href="#PAGE_339">339</a>, <a href="#PAGE_352">352</a>.<br><br> + +Carpets and Looms, <a href="#PAGE_305">305</a>.<br><br> + +Carré Brothers, <a href="#PAGE_214">214</a>.<br><br> + +Carriages and carrying machines, <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>, <a href="#PAGE_428">428</a>-<a href="#PAGE_437">437</a>.<br><br> + +Carthagenians, <a href="#PAGE_164">164</a>.<br><br> + +Carts. (See Coaches and Waggons.)<br><br> + +Cartridges, <a href="#PAGE_267">267</a>.<br><br> + +Cartwright, Rev. Edwd., <a href="#PAGE_297">297</a>.<br><br> + +Carving machinery, <a href="#PAGE_346">346</a>.<br><br> + +Case-shot. (See Ordnance.)<br><br> + +Cash registers, <a href="#PAGE_395">395</a>.<br><br> + +Cast iron, <a href="#PAGE_223">223</a>.<br><br> + +Catalan furnace, <a href="#PAGE_222">222</a>. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br> + +Cauchy, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>.<br><br> + +Caus, Salomon de, <a href="#PAGE_75">75</a>.<br><br> + +Cavendish, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>.<br><br> + +Caxton, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>.<br><br> + +Centennial Exhibition. 1876; <a href="#PAGE_38">38</a>, <a href="#PAGE_39">39</a>, <a href="#PAGE_40">40</a>, <a href="#PAGE_140">140</a>, <a href="#PAGE_246">246</a>, <a href="#PAGE_320">320</a>, <a href="#PAGE_352">352</a>, <a href="#PAGE_353">353</a>, <a href="#PAGE_393">393</a>, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>, <a href="#PAGE_430">430</a>.<br><br> + +Centrifugal machines (pumps), <a href="#PAGE_172">172</a>, <a href="#PAGE_173">173</a>.<br><br> + +Charcoal. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br> + +Chairs. (See Furniture.)<br><br> + +Chaff separator. (See Milling.)<br><br> + +Chain wheels—hydraulics, <a href="#PAGE_156">156</a>.<br><br> + +Chairs, tables, desks, etc. (See Furniture, <a href="#PAGE_351">351</a>, <a href="#PAGE_358">358</a>.)<br><br> + +Challey, M., <a href="#PAGE_97">97</a>.<br><br> + +“Champion harvesters”—Harvesters.<br><br> + +Chance & Co., Glass makers, <a href="#PAGE_470">470</a>.<br><br> + +Channelling shoes. (See Leather.)<br><br> + +Chanute, Octave, <a href="#PAGE_110">110</a>.<br><br> + +Chappe, M., <a href="#PAGE_125">125</a>.<br><br> + +Charles I. (See Ordnance;<br> + Charles II., <a href="#PAGE_242">242</a>;<br> + Charles V., <a href="#PAGE_387">387</a>;<br> + Charles VIII., <a href="#PAGE_265">265</a>.)<br><br> + +Chemistry, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>.<br><br> + +Chemical Telegraph. (See Telegraphy.)<br><br> + +Chester-dial telegraph, <a href="#PAGE_146">146</a>.<br><br> + +Chili, <a href="#PAGE_461">461</a>.<br><br> + +Chill hardening, <a href="#PAGE_250">250</a>.<br><br> + +Chickering pianos, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>.<br><br> + +Chimes, <a href="#PAGE_196">196</a>.<br><br> + +China and Chinese inventions, <a href="#PAGE_24">24</a>, <a href="#PAGE_52">52</a>, <a href="#PAGE_165">165</a>, <a href="#PAGE_222">222</a>, <a href="#PAGE_241">241</a>, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>, <a href="#PAGE_257">257</a>, <a href="#PAGE_273">273</a>, <a href="#PAGE_275">275</a>, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>, <a href="#PAGE_384">384</a>, <a href="#PAGE_386">386</a>, <a href="#PAGE_400">400</a>, <a href="#PAGE_423">423</a>, <a href="#PAGE_465">465</a>.<br><br> + +Chlorates, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>.<br><br> + +Chlorine, <a href="#PAGE_237">237</a>.<br><br> + +Chlorination, <a href="#PAGE_237">237</a>.<br><br> + +Chromium, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>.<br><br> + +Chronometers, <a href="#PAGE_390">390</a>, <a href="#PAGE_394">394</a>.<br><br> + +Chubb-safes, <a href="#PAGE_422">422</a>, <a href="#PAGE_425">425</a>.<br><br> + +Cigar and cigarette machines, <a href="#PAGE_56">56</a>, <a href="#PAGE_57">57</a>.<br><br> + +Cincinnati Bridge. (See Engineering.)<br><br> + +Cincinnatus, <a href="#PAGE_17">17</a>, <a href="#PAGE_31">31</a>.<br><br> + +Circulation of blood, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br> + +Civil Engineering, <a href="#PAGE_93">93</a>-<a href="#PAGE_110">110</a>.<br><br> + +Clark, Alvan, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br> + +Clavichord, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>.<br><br> + +Clayton, Dr., 1688, <a href="#PAGE_451">451</a>.<br><br> + +Clay, Treatment of. (See Brick and Pottery making.)<br><br> + +Cleaning grain, etc. (See Mills.)<br><br> + +Clement, metal worker, <a href="#PAGE_244">244</a>.<br><br> + +Clementi, pianist, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>.<br><br> + +Clepsydra, <a href="#PAGE_384">384</a>, <a href="#PAGE_385">385</a>, <a href="#PAGE_386">386</a>.<br><br> + +“Clermont.” (See Steam Ships.)<br><br> + +Clippers, Ships, <a href="#PAGE_439">439</a>.<br><br> + +Clocks, <a href="#PAGE_384">384</a>. (See Horology.)<br><br> + +Clocks, Essential parts of, <a href="#PAGE_386">386</a>.<br><br> + +Closets. (See Baths.)<br><br> + +Cloth, Making, Finishing, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>;<br> + Drying, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>;<br> + Printing, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>;<br> + Creasing and pressing, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>;<br> + Cutting, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>-<a href="#PAGE_324">324</a>;<br> + Fancy woven, <a href="#PAGE_205">205</a>-<a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>.<br><br> + +Clothes. (See Garments.)<br><br> + +Clover Header, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>.<br><br> + +Clutches, <a href="#PAGE_161">161</a>-<a href="#PAGE_162">162</a>.<br><br> + +Clymer, of Philadelphia, press, <a href="#PAGE_282">282</a>.<br><br> + +Coaches, stages, mail, etc., <a href="#PAGE_428">428</a>-<a href="#PAGE_431">431</a>.<br><br> + +Coach lace, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>.<br><br> + +Coal, <a href="#PAGE_225">225</a>, <a href="#PAGE_378">378</a>, <a href="#PAGE_380">380</a>;<br> + Coal breakers and cleaners, <a href="#PAGE_378">378</a>-<a href="#PAGE_380">380</a>.<br><br> + +Coal gas, <a href="#PAGE_450">450</a>;<br> + Coal tar colors. (See Chemistry.)<br><br> + +Coal mining. (See Ores.)<br><br> + +Coaling Ships, <a href="#PAGE_110">110</a>.<br><br> + +Coehorn, shell, <a href="#PAGE_255">255</a>.<br><br> + +Coffin, journalist, <a href="#PAGE_25">25</a>.<br><br> + +Coke. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br> + +Cold metal punching, working and rolling, <a href="#PAGE_246">246</a>-<a href="#PAGE_247">247</a>.<br><br> + +Colding of Denmark, <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>.<br><br> + +Collards, pianos, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>.<br><br> + +Collen, Henry, <a href="#PAGE_417">417</a>.<br><br> + +Collins line. (See Steam Ships.)<br><br> + +Collinge, <a href="#PAGE_430">430</a>.<br><br> + +Coloring cloth, <a href="#PAGE_325">325</a>.<br><br> + +Colors and coloring, <a href="#PAGE_464">464</a>-<a href="#PAGE_467">467</a>.<br><br> + +Color process. (See Photography, <a href="#PAGE_417">417</a>, Printing, <a href="#PAGE_290">290</a>.)<br><br> + +Colt, revolvers, <a href="#PAGE_260">260</a>, <a href="#PAGE_267">267</a>, <a href="#PAGE_322">322</a>.<br><br> + +Columbiad, <a href="#PAGE_261">261</a>.<br><br> + +Colossus of Rhodes, <a href="#PAGE_34">34</a>.<br><br> + +Comminges of France, <a href="#PAGE_255">255</a>.<br><br> + +Comminuting machines. (See Grinding.)<br><br> + +Compartment vessels, <a href="#PAGE_442">442</a>.<br><br> + +Compass, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br> + +Compensating devices, <a href="#PAGE_391">391</a>.<br><br> + +Compound engines, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>-<a href="#PAGE_89">89</a>.<br><br> + +Compressed air drills, <a href="#PAGE_376">376</a>.<br><br> + +Compressed air and steam, <a href="#PAGE_193">193</a>, <a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>, <a href="#PAGE_378">378</a>.<br><br> + +Compressed air ordnance, <a href="#PAGE_265">265</a>, <a href="#PAGE_269">269</a>.<br><br> + +Condensers, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>.<br><br> + +Condamine, <a href="#PAGE_477">477</a>.<br><br> + +Conservation of forces, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br> + +Constitution, U.S., <a href="#PAGE_8">8</a>.<br><br> + +Convertibility of forces, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br> + +Containers, <a href="#PAGE_175">175</a>.<br><br> + +Conveyors, transportation, <a href="#PAGE_152">152</a>, <a href="#PAGE_153">153</a>, <a href="#PAGE_154">154</a>, <a href="#PAGE_158">158</a>, <a href="#PAGE_159">159</a>, <a href="#PAGE_160">160</a>.<br><br> + +Cook, Telegraphy, <a href="#PAGE_127">127</a>, <a href="#PAGE_146">146</a>.<br><br> + +Cooke, Prof. J. P., <a href="#PAGE_59">59</a>.<br><br> + +Cooke, James, <a href="#PAGE_25">25</a>.<br><br> + +Cooking. (See Stoves.)<br><br> + +Cooper, Peter, <a href="#PAGE_84">84</a>.<br><br> + +Coopering. (See Wood Working.)<br><br> + +Copernicus, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>.<br><br> + +Copper, <a href="#PAGE_218">218</a>, <a href="#PAGE_219">219</a>, etc.<br><br> + +Corliss, <a href="#PAGE_88">88</a>.<br><br> + +Corn:<br> + Cultivators, <a href="#PAGE_29">29</a>-<a href="#PAGE_30">30</a>;<br> + Mills, <a href="#PAGE_46">46</a>;<br> + Planters, <a href="#PAGE_28">28</a>.<br><br> + +Correlation of forces, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br> + +Cort, Henry, <a href="#PAGE_226">226</a>-<a href="#PAGE_231">231</a>.<br><br> + +Corundum, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>, <a href="#PAGE_334">334</a>.<br><br> + +Coster, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>.<br><br> + +Cotton, <a href="#PAGE_42">42</a>, <a href="#PAGE_43">43</a>;<br> + Gin, <a href="#PAGE_42">42</a>, <a href="#PAGE_43">43</a>, <a href="#PAGE_297">297</a>;<br> + Harvester, <a href="#PAGE_40">40</a>.<br><br> + +Cotton seed oil, <a href="#PAGE_69">69</a>.<br><br> + +Cotton and wool machinery, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>. (See Textiles.)<br><br> + +“Counterblast to Tobacco,” <a href="#PAGE_155">155</a>.<br><br> + +Couplers, <a href="#PAGE_437">437</a>.<br><br> + +Cowper, <a href="#PAGE_31">31</a>.<br><br> + +Cowper, printer, <a href="#PAGE_283">283</a>.<br><br> + +Cowley, <a href="#PAGE_77">77</a>.<br><br> + +Cradle, grain, <a href="#PAGE_33">33</a>.<br><br> + +Cranes and derricks, <a href="#PAGE_110">110</a>, <a href="#PAGE_152">152</a>, <a href="#PAGE_153">153</a>, <a href="#PAGE_171">171</a>.<br><br> + +Crecy, (1346). (See Ordnance.)<br><br> + +Cristofori, pianist, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>.<br><br> + +Crompton, Saml., <a href="#PAGE_42">42</a>, <a href="#PAGE_297">297</a>, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>, <a href="#PAGE_301">301</a>.<br><br> + +Crompton, George, <a href="#PAGE_305">305</a>.<br><br> + +Crookes, Prof. Wm., <a href="#PAGE_149">149</a>.<br><br> + +Crooke tubes, <a href="#PAGE_149">149</a>.<br><br> + +Cros, Charles, <a href="#PAGE_407">407</a>.<br><br> + +Crushers, stone and ore, <a href="#PAGE_376">376</a>.<br><br> + +Crystal Palace, <a href="#PAGE_470">470</a>.<br><br> + +Ctesibius, <a href="#PAGE_74">74</a>, <a href="#PAGE_165">165</a>, <a href="#PAGE_168">168</a>, <a href="#PAGE_385">385</a>.<br><br> + +Cultivators, <a href="#PAGE_29">29</a>, <a href="#PAGE_30">30</a>.<br><br> + +Curtet, <a href="#PAGE_121">121</a>.<br><br> + +Cugnot, 1769, <a href="#PAGE_81">81</a>.<br><br> + +Culverin. (See Cannon.)<br><br> + +Cunard line, <a href="#PAGE_86">86</a>.<br><br> + +Cuneus, <a href="#PAGE_115">115</a>.<br><br> + +Curtains Shades and Screens, <a href="#PAGE_356">356</a>.<br><br> + +Cyanide. Cyanide process, <a href="#PAGE_236">236</a>.<br><br> + +Cyclometers, <a href="#PAGE_396">396</a>.<br><br> + + +<br><b>D.</b><br><br> + +Daguerre, <a href="#PAGE_415">415</a>-<a href="#PAGE_416">416</a>.<br><br> + +Daguerreotype, <a href="#PAGE_415">415</a>.<br><br> + +Dahlgren, Cannon, <a href="#PAGE_264">264</a>.<br><br> + +Danks, Rotary puddler, <a href="#PAGE_231">231</a>.<br><br> + +Dalton, John, <a href="#PAGE_59">59</a>-<a href="#PAGE_60">60</a>, <a href="#PAGE_186">186</a>, <a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>, <a href="#PAGE_453">453</a>.<br><br> + +Damascus Steel, <a href="#PAGE_221">221</a>. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br> + +Dana, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_126">126</a>.<br><br> + +Daniell’s battery, <a href="#PAGE_119">119</a>, <a href="#PAGE_126">126</a>.<br><br> + +Darby, Abraham, 1777, <a href="#PAGE_95">95</a>, <a href="#PAGE_225">225</a>.<br><br> + +Darwin, Dr., 18th cent., <a href="#PAGE_73">73</a>.<br><br> + +Davy, Humphry, Sir, <a href="#PAGE_16">16</a>, <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>, <a href="#PAGE_64">64</a>, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>, <a href="#PAGE_118">118</a>, <a href="#PAGE_122">122</a>, <a href="#PAGE_125">125</a>, <a href="#PAGE_188">188</a>, <a href="#PAGE_209">209</a>, <a href="#PAGE_236">236</a>, <a href="#PAGE_415">415</a>.<br><br> + +David’s harp, <a href="#PAGE_6">6</a>.<br><br> + +Decker, piano, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>.<br><br> + +Delinter, <a href="#PAGE_43">43</a>.<br><br> + +Dentistry, <a href="#PAGE_72">72</a>.<br><br> + +Dental Chairs, <a href="#PAGE_72">72</a>, <a href="#PAGE_358">358</a>;<br> + Drills, <a href="#PAGE_72">72</a>;<br> + Engines, <a href="#PAGE_72">72</a>;<br> + Hammers, <a href="#PAGE_72">72</a>;<br> + Pluggers, <a href="#PAGE_72">72</a>.<br><br> + +Deoville, St. Clair, <a href="#PAGE_238">238</a>.<br><br> + +Derricks, <a href="#PAGE_110">110</a>.<br><br> + +“Deutschland,” The, <a href="#PAGE_445">445</a>.<br><br> + +Desks, <a href="#PAGE_355">355</a>.<br><br> + +De Susine, <a href="#PAGE_192">192</a>.<br><br> + +Dewar, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_216">216</a>.<br><br> + +Dial Telegraphs. (See Telegraphy.)<br><br> + +Diamonds. (See Milling; Polishing; Artificial, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>.)<br><br> + +Diamond Drill, <a href="#PAGE_375">375</a>.<br><br> + +Diana, Temple of, <a href="#PAGE_34">34</a>.<br><br> + +Diastase, <a href="#PAGE_54">54</a>.<br><br> + +Didot, Francois, 1800, <a href="#PAGE_276">276</a>.<br><br> + +Dickenson, <a href="#PAGE_277">277</a>.<br><br> + +Digesters. (See Chemistry.)<br><br> + +Differential motion, <a href="#PAGE_301">301</a>.<br><br> + +Dioptric Lens, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>.<br><br> + +Diorama, <a href="#PAGE_415">415</a>.<br><br> + +Direct Acting Engines, <a href="#PAGE_88">88</a>.<br><br> + +Direct Feed Engines, <a href="#PAGE_88">88</a>.<br><br> + +Discoveries, distinct from inventions, <a href="#PAGE_1">1</a>, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br> + +Disk Plows, <a href="#PAGE_21">21</a>, <a href="#PAGE_30">30</a>.<br><br> + +Distaff and Spindle. (See Textiles, <a href="#PAGE_292">292</a>.)<br><br> + +Dodge, James M., <a href="#PAGE_159">159</a>.<br><br> + +Doffers, <a href="#PAGE_301">301</a>.<br><br> + +Dog Carts. (See Carriages.)<br><br> + +Dollond, John, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>.<br><br> + +Donkin, <a href="#PAGE_277">277</a>.<br><br> + +Donovan, <a href="#PAGE_454">454</a>.<br><br> + +Don Quixote, <a href="#PAGE_222">222</a>.<br><br> + +Douglass, Nicholas, <a href="#PAGE_105">105</a>.<br><br> + +Draining, <a href="#PAGE_105">105</a>, <a href="#PAGE_106">106</a>, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br> + +Drags and Drays. (See Waggons, <a href="#PAGE_430">430</a>-<a href="#PAGE_431">431</a>.)<br><br> + +Drais, Baron Von, <a href="#PAGE_432">432</a>.<br><br> + +Drake, E. S., Col., <a href="#PAGE_382">382</a>.<br><br> + +Draper, J. W., Prof., <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>, <a href="#PAGE_416">416</a>, <a href="#PAGE_450">450</a>.<br><br> + +Drawing Machines, Spinning, <a href="#PAGE_296">296</a>, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>, <a href="#PAGE_301">301</a>.<br><br> + +Dredging, <a href="#PAGE_105">105</a>, <a href="#PAGE_106">106</a>, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br> + +Dressing;<br> + of thread and cloths, <a href="#PAGE_299">299</a>, <a href="#PAGE_302">302</a>;<br> + of skins. (See Leather.)<br><br> + +Drills, seeders, <a href="#PAGE_20">20</a>, <a href="#PAGE_27">27</a>.<br><br> + +Drills, stone ore and iron, <a href="#PAGE_375">375</a>, <a href="#PAGE_378">378</a>.<br><br> + +Drying apparatus. (See Kilns.)<br><br> + +Dreyse, <a href="#PAGE_266">266</a>.<br><br> + +Dualine, <a href="#PAGE_270">270</a>.<br><br> + +Duboscq, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br> + +Dudley, Dud, <a href="#PAGE_224">224</a>.<br><br> + +Duncan, John, <a href="#PAGE_311">311</a>.<br><br> + +Dundas, Charlotte, <a href="#PAGE_84">84</a>.<br><br> + +Dundonald, Lord, <a href="#PAGE_451">451</a>.<br><br> + +Dundas, Lord, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>, <a href="#PAGE_440">440</a>.<br><br> + +Dunlop, J. B., Bicycles, <a href="#PAGE_433">433</a>.<br><br> + +Duplex Engines, <a href="#PAGE_88">88</a>.<br><br> + +Dulcimer. (See Music.)<br><br> + +Dust Explosions and Collectors, <a href="#PAGE_50">50</a>.<br><br> + +Dutch Paper, <a href="#PAGE_277">277</a>;<br> + Printing, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>.<br><br> + +Dutch Canals, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br> + +Dutch Clocks, <a href="#PAGE_388">388</a>, <a href="#PAGE_391">391</a>.<br><br> + +Dutch Furnaces and Stoves, <a href="#PAGE_203">203</a>.<br><br> + +Dutch Locks, <a href="#PAGE_424">424</a>.<br><br> + +Dutch Ships, <a href="#PAGE_439">439</a>.<br><br> + +Dutch Ware, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>.<br><br> + +Dutton, Maj. C. E., <a href="#PAGE_261">261</a>.<br><br> + +Dynamometer, <a href="#PAGE_187">187</a>, <a href="#PAGE_398">398</a>.<br><br> + +Dynamite, <a href="#PAGE_270">270</a>.<br><br> + +Dynamo Electric Machines, <a href="#PAGE_130">130</a>, <a href="#PAGE_134">134</a>, <a href="#PAGE_251">251</a>.<br><br> + + +<br><b>E.</b><br><br> + +Eads, James B., <a href="#PAGE_102">102</a>.<br><br> + +Eames of U. S., <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>.<br><br> + +East River Bridge, <a href="#PAGE_98">98</a>, <a href="#PAGE_99">99</a>.<br><br> + +Eddystone Lighthouse, <a href="#PAGE_105">105</a>.<br><br> + +Edison, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>, <a href="#PAGE_144">144</a>, <a href="#PAGE_145">145</a>, <a href="#PAGE_148">148</a>, <a href="#PAGE_407">407</a>, <a href="#PAGE_408">408</a>.<br><br> + +Egyptian agriculture, arts and inventions, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_13">13</a>, <a href="#PAGE_42">42</a>, <a href="#PAGE_45">45</a>, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>, <a href="#PAGE_164">164</a>, <a href="#PAGE_184">184</a>, +<a href="#PAGE_220">220</a>, <a href="#PAGE_241">241</a>, <a href="#PAGE_273">273</a>, <a href="#PAGE_292">292</a>, <a href="#PAGE_340">340</a>, <a href="#PAGE_354">354</a>, <a href="#PAGE_400">400</a>, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>, <a href="#PAGE_423">423</a>, <a href="#PAGE_457">457</a>, <a href="#PAGE_460">460</a>, <a href="#PAGE_470">470</a>.<br><br> + +Eiffel, M., <a href="#PAGE_105">105</a>.<br><br> + +Electricity, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_111">111</a>-<a href="#PAGE_151">151</a>.<br><br> + +Electric Alarms. (See Locks.)<br><br> + +Electric Batteries, <a href="#PAGE_117">117</a>-<a href="#PAGE_132">132</a>.<br><br> + +Electric Cable, <a href="#PAGE_138">138</a>.<br><br> + +Electric Heating, <a href="#PAGE_213">213</a>.<br><br> + +Electric Lighting, <a href="#PAGE_108">108</a>, <a href="#PAGE_119">119</a>, <a href="#PAGE_121">121</a> to <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>, <a href="#PAGE_360">360</a>, <a href="#PAGE_456">456</a>.<br><br> + +Electro-Chemistry, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>.<br><br> + +Electro-magnets, <a href="#PAGE_120">120</a>-<a href="#PAGE_133">133</a>.<br><br> + +Electro Metallurgy, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>, <a href="#PAGE_238">238</a>, <a href="#PAGE_249">249</a>.<br><br> + +Electrodes, <a href="#PAGE_113">113</a>, <a href="#PAGE_135">135</a>.<br><br> + +Electrolysis, <a href="#PAGE_129">129</a>, <a href="#PAGE_131">131</a>.<br><br> + +Electrometer, <a href="#PAGE_113">113</a>, <a href="#PAGE_122">122</a>.<br><br> + +Electrical Music, <a href="#PAGE_148">148</a>.<br><br> + +Electro Plating, <a href="#PAGE_249">249</a>.<br><br> + +Electric Railway, <a href="#PAGE_143">143</a>, <a href="#PAGE_144">144</a>.<br><br> + +Electric Signals and Stops, <a href="#PAGE_160">160</a>, <a href="#PAGE_162">162</a>.<br><br> + +Electric Telegraphy, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>, <a href="#PAGE_114">114</a>, <a href="#PAGE_122">122</a>, <a href="#PAGE_123">123</a>, <a href="#PAGE_145">145</a>, <a href="#PAGE_146">146</a>, <a href="#PAGE_147">147</a>.<br><br> + +Electrotyping, <a href="#PAGE_283">283</a>, <a href="#PAGE_290">290</a>.<br><br> + +Electric Type Printing, <a href="#PAGE_147">147</a>, <a href="#PAGE_148">148</a>.<br><br> + +Electric Type Writer, <a href="#PAGE_287">287</a>.<br><br> + +Electric Voters, <a href="#PAGE_396">396</a>.<br><br> + +Elevators, <a href="#PAGE_6">6</a>, <a href="#PAGE_148">148</a>, <a href="#PAGE_152">152</a>, <a href="#PAGE_153">153</a>, <a href="#PAGE_154">154</a>, <a href="#PAGE_155">155</a>, <a href="#PAGE_156">156</a>, <a href="#PAGE_157">157</a>.<br><br> + +Eliot, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>.<br><br> + +Elizabeth, Queen, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>.<br><br> + +Elton, John, <a href="#PAGE_46">46</a>.<br><br> + +Elvean, Louis T. van, <a href="#PAGE_155">155</a>.<br><br> + +Embossing, <a href="#PAGE_346">346</a>, <a href="#PAGE_347">347</a>.<br><br> + +Embossing, weaving, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>.<br><br> + +Embroidery, <a href="#PAGE_310">310</a>, <a href="#PAGE_313">313</a>.<br><br> + +Emery, abrading, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>, <a href="#PAGE_334">334</a>.<br><br> + +Emery, testing machines, <a href="#PAGE_398">398</a>.<br><br> + +England, <a href="#PAGE_8">8</a>, <a href="#PAGE_17">17</a>, <a href="#PAGE_25">25</a>, <a href="#PAGE_50">50</a>, <a href="#PAGE_188">188</a>.<br><br> + +Engraving Machines, <a href="#PAGE_290">290</a>.<br><br> + +Enamelling. (See Pottery.)<br><br> + +Enamelled Ware, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>, <a href="#PAGE_468">468</a>.<br><br> + +Engineering. (See Civil.)<br> + Electric, <a href="#PAGE_143">143</a>;<br> + Hydraulic, <a href="#PAGE_168">168</a>;<br> + Marine, <a href="#PAGE_442">442</a>;<br> + Mining, <a href="#PAGE_373">373</a>;<br> + Steam, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br> + +Eolipile. (See Hero.)<br><br> + +Erard, pianist, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>.<br><br> + +Erasmus, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>.<br><br> + +Ericsson, John, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>, <a href="#PAGE_86">86</a>, <a href="#PAGE_441">441</a>, <a href="#PAGE_443">443</a>, <a href="#PAGE_444">444</a>.<br><br> + +Euclid, <a href="#PAGE_9">9</a>.<br><br> + +Euler, <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>, <a href="#PAGE_173">173</a>.<br><br> + +Evans, Oliver, 1755-1819; <a href="#PAGE_46">46</a>, <a href="#PAGE_47">47</a>, <a href="#PAGE_48">48</a>, <a href="#PAGE_81">81</a>, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>, <a href="#PAGE_154">154</a>, <a href="#PAGE_374">374</a>.<br><br> + +Evaporating, <a href="#PAGE_52">52</a>.<br><br> + +Evelyn, John, 1699; <a href="#PAGE_25">25</a>.<br><br> + +Evolution of modern inventions, <a href="#PAGE_153">153</a>.<br><br> + +Excavating, <a href="#PAGE_105">105</a>, <a href="#PAGE_106">106</a>.<br><br> + +Explosives, <a href="#PAGE_270">270</a>.<br><br> + +Eylewein, <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>.<br><br> + + +<br><b>F.</b><br><br> + +Fabroni, <a href="#PAGE_66">66</a>, <a href="#PAGE_118">118</a>.<br><br> + +Faience, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>, <a href="#PAGE_466">466</a>.<br><br> + +Fairbairn, Sir Wm., <a href="#PAGE_100">100</a>, <a href="#PAGE_176">176</a>, <a href="#PAGE_226">226</a>, <a href="#PAGE_440">440</a>.<br><br> + +Fairbanks, scales and testing, <a href="#PAGE_397">397</a>.<br><br> + +Fahrenheit, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>.<br><br> + +Fanning Mills, <a href="#PAGE_45">45</a>.<br><br> + +Faraday, Michael, <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>, <a href="#PAGE_118">118</a>, <a href="#PAGE_129">129</a>, <a href="#PAGE_130">130</a>, <a href="#PAGE_131">131</a>, <a href="#PAGE_133">133</a>, <a href="#PAGE_134">134</a>, <a href="#PAGE_138">138</a>, <a href="#PAGE_188">188</a>, <a href="#PAGE_209">209</a>, <a href="#PAGE_411">411</a>, <a href="#PAGE_472">472</a>.<br><br> + +Fan mills, <a href="#PAGE_41">41</a>.<br><br> + +Fare registers, <a href="#PAGE_395">395</a>.<br><br> + +Farmer, Moses G., <a href="#PAGE_133">133</a>, <a href="#PAGE_135">135</a>, <a href="#PAGE_145">145</a>.<br><br> + +Factory life, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>.<br><br> + +Faure, M. Camille, <a href="#PAGE_120">120</a>.<br><br> + +Faur, Faber du, <a href="#PAGE_230">230</a>.<br><br> + +Faust, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>.<br><br> + +Felt making, <a href="#PAGE_325">325</a>.<br><br> + +Fermentation, <a href="#PAGE_65">65</a>, <a href="#PAGE_66">66</a>, <a href="#PAGE_67">67</a>.<br><br> + +Fertilizers—machines and compositions. (See Agriculture.)<br><br> + +Field, Cyrus W., <a href="#PAGE_138">138</a>.<br><br> + +Filament-carbon, <a href="#PAGE_360">360</a>. (See Electric Lighting.)<br><br> + +Filters, filtering, <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>, <a href="#PAGE_180">180</a>, <a href="#PAGE_181">181</a>.<br><br> + +Filter Press, <a href="#PAGE_465">465</a>.<br><br> + +Fink bridge, <a href="#PAGE_103">103</a>.<br><br> + +Fire-arms, <a href="#PAGE_252">252</a>-<a href="#PAGE_272">272</a>.<br><br> + +Fire crackers, <a href="#PAGE_252">252</a>.<br><br> + +Fire engines, <a href="#PAGE_76">76</a>.<br><br> + +Fire place, <a href="#PAGE_205">205</a>.<br><br> + +Fiske, range finder, <a href="#PAGE_266">266</a>.<br><br> + +Fiske, <a href="#PAGE_148">148</a>, <a href="#PAGE_413">413</a>.<br><br> + +Fitch, John, 1784, <a href="#PAGE_81">81</a>.<br><br> + +Fitzherbert, Sir A., 1523, <a href="#PAGE_14">14</a>.<br><br> + +Fireproof safes. (See Locks.)<br><br> + +Flax machines, <a href="#PAGE_42">42</a>.<br><br> + +Flax brakes, <a href="#PAGE_42">42</a>.<br><br> + +Flaxman, <a href="#PAGE_464">464</a>.<br><br> + +Flax-threshers, <a href="#PAGE_41">41</a>, <a href="#PAGE_42">42</a>.<br><br> + +Fleming, <a href="#PAGE_247">247</a>.<br><br> + +Fleshing machines, <a href="#PAGE_364">364</a>.<br><br> + +Fletcher, <a href="#PAGE_244">244</a>.<br><br> + +Flexible shafts, <a href="#PAGE_350">350</a>.<br><br> + +Florence, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>.<br><br> + +Flour. (See Mills.)<br><br> + +Fly Shuttle. (See Spinning and Weaving.)<br><br> + +Foods, preparation of, <a href="#PAGE_53">53</a>, <a href="#PAGE_54">54</a>.<br><br> + +Force feed-seeders, <a href="#PAGE_26">26</a>.<br><br> + +Forneyron, <a href="#PAGE_171">171</a>, <a href="#PAGE_172">172</a>.<br><br> + +Forsythe, Rev. Mr., <a href="#PAGE_259">259</a>, <a href="#PAGE_260">260</a>.<br><br> + +Foucault, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br> + +Fourcroy, <a href="#PAGE_64">64</a>.<br><br> + +Fourdrinier, <a href="#PAGE_277">277</a>. (See Paper making.)<br><br> + +Frackelton, Susan, portable kiln, <a href="#PAGE_465">465</a>.<br><br> + +France, <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>, <a href="#PAGE_203">203</a>, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>, <a href="#PAGE_274">274</a>, <a href="#PAGE_275">275</a>, <a href="#PAGE_313">313</a>.<br><br> + +Francis, S. W., <a href="#PAGE_286">286</a>.<br><br> + +Frank, pottery, <a href="#PAGE_463">463</a>.<br><br> + +Franklin, Benj., <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_111">111</a>, <a href="#PAGE_112">112</a>, <a href="#PAGE_115">115</a>, <a href="#PAGE_116">116</a>, <a href="#PAGE_117">117</a>, <a href="#PAGE_121">121</a>, <a href="#PAGE_125">125</a>, <a href="#PAGE_168">168</a>, <a href="#PAGE_203">203</a>, <a href="#PAGE_281">281</a>, <a href="#PAGE_446">446</a>.<br><br> + +Franklin Institute, <a href="#PAGE_455">455</a>.<br><br> + +Fraunhofer, von, Jos., <a href="#PAGE_61">61</a>, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br> + +Frederick, Henry, <a href="#PAGE_255">255</a>.<br><br> + +Freiberg Mining Academy, Metallurgy, <a href="#PAGE_223">223</a>.<br><br> + +Fresnel, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>.<br><br> + +Frictional Electricity, <a href="#PAGE_111">111</a>.<br><br> + +Frieburg Bridge. (See Bridges.)<br><br> + +Frogs, R. R., <a href="#PAGE_108">108</a>.<br><br> + +Flintlock, firearms, <a href="#PAGE_258">258</a>.<br><br> + +Froment, <a href="#PAGE_146">146</a>.<br><br> + +Frontinus, on Roman aqueducts, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>.<br><br> + +Fruits, Preparation of, <a href="#PAGE_51">51</a>, <a href="#PAGE_53">53</a>.<br><br> + +Fruit jars, <a href="#PAGE_359">359</a>.<br><br> + +Fry, Laura, <a href="#PAGE_467">467</a>.<br><br> + +Fulton, Robt., <a href="#PAGE_84">84</a>-<a href="#PAGE_85">85</a>.<br><br> + +Furnaces, hot air; hot water, <a href="#PAGE_206">206</a>, <a href="#PAGE_207">207</a>.<br><br> + +Furniture, <a href="#PAGE_351">351</a>, <a href="#PAGE_354">354</a>, <a href="#PAGE_359">359</a>.<br><br> + +Furniture machinery, <a href="#PAGE_351">351</a>, <a href="#PAGE_352">352</a>.<br><br> + +Fuses, <a href="#PAGE_259">259</a>.<br><br> + + +<br><b>G.</b><br><br> + +Gaffield, Thos., glass, <a href="#PAGE_472">472</a>.<br><br> + +Gale, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_126">126</a>.<br><br> + +Galileo, <a href="#PAGE_1">1</a>, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>, <a href="#PAGE_388">388</a>, <a href="#PAGE_409">409</a>.<br><br> + +Gally, self-playing pianos, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>.<br><br> + +Galton, Capt. Douglas, <a href="#PAGE_205">205</a>.<br><br> + +Galvani, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_117">117</a>, <a href="#PAGE_118">118</a>, <a href="#PAGE_125">125</a>.<br><br> + +Galvanism, <a href="#PAGE_112">112</a>,121.<br><br> + +Galvanic batteries, <a href="#PAGE_121">121</a>, <a href="#PAGE_122">122</a>.<br><br> + +Galvanic music, <a href="#PAGE_148">148</a>, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>.<br><br> + +Galvanometer, <a href="#PAGE_122">122</a>, <a href="#PAGE_139">139</a>.<br><br> + +Gamble, <a href="#PAGE_277">277</a>.<br><br> + +Garay, Blasco de, <a href="#PAGE_75">75</a>.<br><br> + +Garments, <a href="#PAGE_310">310</a>-<a href="#PAGE_327">327</a>.<br><br> + +Gas, <a href="#PAGE_450">450</a>;<br> + illuminating, <a href="#PAGE_69">69</a>, <a href="#PAGE_185">185</a>, <a href="#PAGE_450">450</a>-<a href="#PAGE_456">456</a>.<br><br> + +Gases, motors, <a href="#PAGE_188">188</a>, <a href="#PAGE_190">190</a>.<br><br> + +Gas checks, <a href="#PAGE_266">266</a>.<br><br> + +Gas engines, <a href="#PAGE_76">76</a>, <a href="#PAGE_18">18</a>, <a href="#PAGE_184">184</a>-<a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>.<br><br> + +Gasoline and stoves, <a href="#PAGE_213">213</a>.<br><br> + +Gas pumps, <a href="#PAGE_190">190</a>.<br><br> + +Gatling, Dr., gun, <a href="#PAGE_269">269</a>.<br><br> + +Gaul, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>, <a href="#PAGE_33">33</a>.<br><br> + +Gauss, <a href="#PAGE_126">126</a>.<br><br> + +Gay-Lussac, <a href="#PAGE_60">60</a>, <a href="#PAGE_185">185</a>, <a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>, <a href="#PAGE_209">209</a>.<br><br> + +Ged, Wm., <a href="#PAGE_281">281</a>.<br><br> + +Geissler tubes, <a href="#PAGE_135">135</a>, <a href="#PAGE_149">149</a>.<br><br> + +Generator, Electric, <a href="#PAGE_113">113</a>.<br><br> + +Gentleman Farmer, 1768, <a href="#PAGE_20">20</a>.<br><br> + +George III., <a href="#PAGE_389">389</a>.<br><br> + +German inventions, <a href="#PAGE_50">50</a>, <a href="#PAGE_203">203</a>, <a href="#PAGE_255">255</a>, <a href="#PAGE_313">313</a>, <a href="#PAGE_387">387</a>, <a href="#PAGE_391">391</a>, <a href="#PAGE_430">430</a>, <a href="#PAGE_473">473</a>.<br><br> + +Germ theory, <a href="#PAGE_67">67</a>.<br><br> + +German clock and watch making, <a href="#PAGE_387">387</a>.<br><br> + +Gibraltar, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>.<br><br> + +Giffard-injector, <a href="#PAGE_173">173</a>.<br><br> + +Gilbert, Dr., 1600, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_113">113</a>.<br><br> + +Gill, J. G., <a href="#PAGE_268">268</a>.<br><br> + +Giers, <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>, <a href="#PAGE_250">250</a>.<br><br> + +Gin-cotton, <a href="#PAGE_297">297</a>.<br><br> + +Gladstone, inventor, 1806, <a href="#PAGE_35">35</a>.<br><br> + +Glass, <a href="#PAGE_469">469</a>, <a href="#PAGE_474">474</a>.<br><br> + +Glass, wool, and silk, <a href="#PAGE_474">474</a>, <a href="#PAGE_480">480</a>.<br><br> + +Glazes, <a href="#PAGE_475">475</a>. (See Porcelain.)<br><br> + +Glauber, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>.<br><br> + +Glycerine, <a href="#PAGE_69">69</a>.<br><br> + +Gold. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br> + +Goodyear, Chas., <a href="#PAGE_434">434</a>, <a href="#PAGE_476">476</a>, <a href="#PAGE_478">478</a>, <a href="#PAGE_479">479</a>, <a href="#PAGE_480">480</a>.<br><br> + +Googe, Barnaby, <a href="#PAGE_14">14</a>.<br><br> + +Gompertz, <a href="#PAGE_432">432</a>.<br><br> + +Gordon, <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>.<br><br> + +Gothic architecture, <a href="#PAGE_373">373</a>.<br><br> + +Governors, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>.<br><br> + +Graham (chemist), <a href="#PAGE_391">391</a>.<br><br> + +Graham. (See Horology.)<br><br> + +Grain Binder. (See Harvesters.)<br><br> + +Grain cradles, drills, and seeders. (See Agriculture.)<br><br> + +Grain elevator, <a href="#PAGE_110">110</a>.<br><br> + +Grain Separators, <a href="#PAGE_49">49</a>.<br><br> + +Gramme, Z., <a href="#PAGE_134">134</a>, <a href="#PAGE_136">136</a>, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br> + +Gramophone, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>, <a href="#PAGE_408">408</a>.<br><br> + +Graphophone, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>, <a href="#PAGE_408">408</a>.<br><br> + +Grass burning stoves, <a href="#PAGE_211">211</a>.<br><br> + +Gray, Elisha. (See Electricity.)<br><br> + +Gray, S., 1729, <a href="#PAGE_114">114</a>, <a href="#PAGE_125">125</a>.<br><br> + +“Great Britain,” The, <a href="#PAGE_440">440</a>.<br><br> + +“Great Republic,” The, <a href="#PAGE_439">439</a>.<br><br> + +Great Urgroez, <a href="#PAGE_357">357</a>.<br><br> + +Greece and Greek antiquities and inventions, <a href="#PAGE_9">9</a>, <a href="#PAGE_13">13</a>, <a href="#PAGE_18">18</a>, <a href="#PAGE_45">45</a>, <a href="#PAGE_74">74</a>, <a href="#PAGE_113">113</a>, <a href="#PAGE_164">164</a>, +<a href="#PAGE_182">182</a>, <a href="#PAGE_218">218</a>, <a href="#PAGE_257">257</a>, <a href="#PAGE_340">340</a>, <a href="#PAGE_386">386</a>, <a href="#PAGE_457">457</a>, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>.<br><br> + +Grenades, <a href="#PAGE_255">255</a>.<br><br> + +Green, N. W., driven well, <a href="#PAGE_383">383</a>.<br><br> + +Greenough, J. J., <a href="#PAGE_318">318</a>.<br><br> + +Gribeauval, <a href="#PAGE_256">256</a>.<br><br> + +Griffith, Julius, <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>.<br><br> + +Griffiths of U. S., <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>.<br><br> + +Grinding by stones, <a href="#PAGE_45">45</a> to <a href="#PAGE_49">49</a>.<br><br> + +Grinding glass, <a href="#PAGE_475">475</a>.<br><br> + +Grindstones, <a href="#PAGE_375">375</a>.<br><br> + +Grossat, <a href="#PAGE_477">477</a>.<br><br> + +Grover and Baker sewing mach., <a href="#PAGE_320">320</a>.<br><br> + +Grooving, <a href="#PAGE_245">245</a>.<br><br> + +Grove, Sir Wm. Robert, <a href="#PAGE_119">119</a>.<br><br> + +Gruner, <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>.<br><br> + +Gun carriages. (See Ordnance.)<br><br> + +Gun cotton, <a href="#PAGE_270">270</a>.<br><br> + +Gun making, <a href="#PAGE_345">345</a>.<br><br> + +Gunpowder, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>, <a href="#PAGE_262">262</a>, <a href="#PAGE_263">263</a>, <a href="#PAGE_270">270</a>.<br><br> + +Gunpowder eng., <a href="#PAGE_192">192</a>.<br><br> + +Gun-stock, <a href="#PAGE_345">345</a>.<br><br> + +Guericke, Otto von, <a href="#PAGE_113">113</a>, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>, <a href="#PAGE_193">193</a>.<br><br> + +Guillaume, Puy, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>.<br><br> + +Gurney, <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>.<br><br> + +Guttenberg, John, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>.<br><br> + + +<br><b>H.</b><br><br> + +Hales, Dr., <a href="#PAGE_451">451</a>.<br><br> + +Hall, John H., <a href="#PAGE_267">267</a>.<br><br> + +Hall safes, <a href="#PAGE_422">422</a>.<br><br> + +Hamberg, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>.<br><br> + +Hamblet, <a href="#PAGE_146">146</a>.<br><br> + +Hamilton (stove inventor), <a href="#PAGE_212">212</a>.<br><br> + +Hammers, steam and air, <a href="#PAGE_88">88</a>, <a href="#PAGE_244">244</a>.<br><br> + +Hanckwitz, Godfrey, 1680, <a href="#PAGE_199">199</a>.<br><br> + +Hancock, Walter, <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>.<br><br> + +Handel, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>.<br><br> + +Hanging Gardens, <a href="#PAGE_34">34</a>.<br><br> + +Hardening metals, <a href="#PAGE_249">249</a>.<br><br> + +Hardware. (See Metal Working.)<br><br> + +Hargreaves, Jas., <a href="#PAGE_42">42</a>, <a href="#PAGE_294">294</a>, <a href="#PAGE_297">297</a>.<br><br> + +Harnesses, <a href="#PAGE_431">431</a>.<br><br> + +Harp, The, and the Harpsichord, <a href="#PAGE_6">6</a>, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>.<br><br> + +Harvesters, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>, <a href="#PAGE_33">33</a>, <a href="#PAGE_35">35</a>, <a href="#PAGE_39">39</a>, <a href="#PAGE_40">40</a>, <a href="#PAGE_41">41</a>, <a href="#PAGE_322">322</a>.<br><br> + +Hartshorn, spring roller shades, <a href="#PAGE_356">356</a>.<br><br> + +Harveyized steel, <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>, <a href="#PAGE_249">249</a>.<br><br> + +Harrows, <a href="#PAGE_22">22</a>, <a href="#PAGE_28">28</a>.<br><br> + +Hautefeuille, <a href="#PAGE_77">77</a>.<br><br> + +Hauteville, Abbé, <a href="#PAGE_185">185</a>, <a href="#PAGE_389">389</a>.<br><br> + +Hat making, <a href="#PAGE_325">325</a>.<br><br> + +Haydn, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>.<br><br> + +Hay, rakes and tedders, <a href="#PAGE_15">15</a>, <a href="#PAGE_40">40</a>.<br><br> + +Headers, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>.<br><br> + +Heat as power, <a href="#PAGE_186">186</a>, <a href="#PAGE_187">187</a>.<br><br> + +Heating, <a href="#PAGE_86">86</a>, <a href="#PAGE_199">199</a>, <a href="#PAGE_210">210</a>.<br><br> + +Hebrews, <a href="#PAGE_45">45</a>, <a href="#PAGE_362">362</a>, <a href="#PAGE_423">423</a>.<br><br> + +Hele, P., <a href="#PAGE_388">388</a>.<br><br> + +Helmont, J. van, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>, <a href="#PAGE_184">184</a>.<br><br> + +Hell Gate, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br> + +Helmholtz, <a href="#PAGE_66">66</a>, <a href="#PAGE_131">131</a>, <a href="#PAGE_141">141</a>, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>, <a href="#PAGE_407">407</a>, <a href="#PAGE_411">411</a>, <a href="#PAGE_417">417</a>.<br><br> + +Hendley, Wm., <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>.<br><br> + +Henry, Joseph, <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>, <a href="#PAGE_123">123</a>, <a href="#PAGE_124">124</a>, <a href="#PAGE_126">126</a>, <a href="#PAGE_131">131</a>, <a href="#PAGE_146">146</a>, <a href="#PAGE_210">210</a>.<br><br> + +Henry, rifle, <a href="#PAGE_267">267</a>.<br><br> + +Henry, Wm., <a href="#PAGE_78">78</a>.<br><br> + +Herissent, M., <a href="#PAGE_477">477</a>.<br><br> + +Hermetical sealing, <a href="#PAGE_359">359</a>.<br><br> + +Herodotus, <a href="#PAGE_362">362</a>.<br><br> + +Hero of Alexander, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_9">9</a>, <a href="#PAGE_74">74</a>, <a href="#PAGE_76">76</a>, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>, <a href="#PAGE_89">89</a>, <a href="#PAGE_165">165</a>, <a href="#PAGE_171">171</a>, <a href="#PAGE_404">404</a>.<br><br> + +Herring, safes, <a href="#PAGE_421">421</a>.<br><br> + +Herschel, <a href="#PAGE_228">228</a>, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br> + +Hides, treatment of. (See Leather.)<br><br> + +Hide mills, <a href="#PAGE_364">364</a>.<br><br> + +High and low pressure engines, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>, <a href="#PAGE_88">88</a>.<br><br> + +Hindoos, <a href="#PAGE_220">220</a>, <a href="#PAGE_241">241</a>, <a href="#PAGE_254">254</a>, <a href="#PAGE_273">273</a>, <a href="#PAGE_292">292</a>, <a href="#PAGE_340">340</a>, <a href="#PAGE_384">384</a>.<br><br> + +Hodges, James, of Montreal, <a href="#PAGE_101">101</a>.<br><br> + +Hoe, Robert, and son, R. M., <a href="#PAGE_284">284</a>.<br><br> + +Hoe drill-seeders, <a href="#PAGE_27">27</a>.<br><br> + +Hoes, <a href="#PAGE_29">29</a>, <a href="#PAGE_30">30</a>.<br><br> + +Hoffman, Dr., <a href="#PAGE_464">464</a>.<br><br> + +Hoisting, conveying, and storing, <a href="#PAGE_152">152</a>-<a href="#PAGE_163">163</a>.<br><br> + +Holland, <a href="#PAGE_18">18</a>, <a href="#PAGE_255">255</a>, <a href="#PAGE_257">257</a>, <a href="#PAGE_275">275</a>.<br><br> + +Holley, A. L., <a href="#PAGE_232">232</a>.<br><br> + +Holtzapffel, J., <a href="#PAGE_241">241</a>.<br><br> + +Homer, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>.<br><br> + +Hooke, Dr., <a href="#PAGE_388">388</a>, <a href="#PAGE_389">389</a>.<br><br> + +Hoopes and Townsend, <a href="#PAGE_247">247</a>.<br><br> + +Hoppers. (See Mills.)<br><br> + +Hopper boy. (See Mills.)<br><br> + +Hoosac tunnel, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br> + +Hornblower, 1781, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>.<br><br> + +Horrocks, <a href="#PAGE_305">305</a>.<br><br> + +Horse power, <a href="#PAGE_187">187</a>.<br><br> + +Horseshoes, <a href="#PAGE_248">248</a>.<br><br> + +Horology, <a href="#PAGE_384">384</a>-<a href="#PAGE_395">395</a>.<br><br> + +Hot air engines, <a href="#PAGE_185">185</a>.<br><br> + +Hot air blast, <a href="#PAGE_231">231</a>.<br><br> + +Hot furnaces. (See Heating.)<br><br> + +Hot water circulation. (See Heating.)<br><br> + +Hotchkiss gun, <a href="#PAGE_270">270</a>.<br><br> + +Houdin regulator, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br> + +Houses, their construction, <a href="#PAGE_351">351</a>, <a href="#PAGE_352">352</a>.<br><br> + +Houston. (See Telegraphy.)<br><br> + +Howe, Elias, <a href="#PAGE_314">314</a>-<a href="#PAGE_318">318</a>.<br><br> + +Howe bridge, <a href="#PAGE_103">103</a>.<br><br> + +Howitzer. (See Ordnance.)<br><br> + +Hunt, Walter, <a href="#PAGE_314">314</a>, <a href="#PAGE_315">315</a>.<br><br> + +Hungary, <a href="#PAGE_357">357</a>.<br><br> + +Huggins, Dr., <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br> + +Hughes, D. E., <a href="#PAGE_147">147</a>.<br><br> + +Hugon, <a href="#PAGE_189">189</a>.<br><br> + +Hulls, Jonathan, <a href="#PAGE_78">78</a>.<br><br> + +Huntsman, Benj., <a href="#PAGE_225">225</a>.<br><br> + +“Husbandry, The whole art of.” (See Agriculture.)<br><br> + +Huskisson, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>.<br><br> + +Hussey, 1833, <a href="#PAGE_37">37</a>, <a href="#PAGE_38">38</a>.<br><br> + +Huxley, <a href="#PAGE_65">65</a>.<br><br> + +Huygens, <a href="#PAGE_61">61</a>, <a href="#PAGE_77">77</a>, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>, <a href="#PAGE_184">184</a>, <a href="#PAGE_192">192</a>, <a href="#PAGE_388">388</a>, <a href="#PAGE_391">391</a>.<br><br> + +Hydraulicising, <a href="#PAGE_174">174</a>.<br><br> + +Hydraulic elevators, <a href="#PAGE_156">156</a>, <a href="#PAGE_157">157</a>, <a href="#PAGE_164">164</a>, <a href="#PAGE_165">165</a>, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>.<br><br> + +Hydraulic jacks, <a href="#PAGE_174">174</a>.<br><br> + +Hydraulic motors, <a href="#PAGE_164">164</a>-<a href="#PAGE_181">181</a>;<br> + pumps, rams, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>, <a href="#PAGE_168">168</a>;<br> + press, <a href="#PAGE_52">52</a>, <a href="#PAGE_53">53</a>, <a href="#PAGE_154">154</a>, <a href="#PAGE_155">155</a>, <a href="#PAGE_168">168</a>, <a href="#PAGE_171">171</a>, <a href="#PAGE_175">175</a>;<br> + testing, <a href="#PAGE_398">398</a>, <a href="#PAGE_399">399</a>.<br><br> + +Hydrogen gas, <a href="#PAGE_454">454</a>.<br><br> + +Hydrostatic engines and presses, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>, <a href="#PAGE_190">190</a>, <a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>.<br><br> + + +<br><b>I.</b><br><br> + +Ida, mountains of, iron, <a href="#PAGE_218">218</a>.<br><br> + +Illuminating gas. (See Gas.)<br><br> + +Impulse pump. (See Ram.)<br><br> + +Incandescent light, <a href="#PAGE_135">135</a>, <a href="#PAGE_456">456</a>.<br><br> + +Incubators, <a href="#PAGE_207">207</a>.<br><br> + +India, <a href="#PAGE_373">373</a>, <a href="#PAGE_400">400</a>.<br><br> + +Industrial mechanics, <a href="#PAGE_328">328</a>-<a href="#PAGE_338">338</a>.<br><br> + +Injectors, <a href="#PAGE_173">173</a>.<br><br> + +Intensifiers, <a href="#PAGE_174">174</a>.<br><br> + +International Exposition, London, <a href="#PAGE_246">246</a>, <a href="#PAGE_352">352</a>.<br><br> + +Invention, what it is, how induced, distinctions, growth, protection of, <a href="#PAGE_1">1</a>-<a href="#PAGE_8">8</a>.<br><br> + +Iron, <a href="#PAGE_218">218</a>.<br><br> + +Iron Ships. (See Ships.)<br><br> + +Iridescent glass, <a href="#PAGE_474">474</a>.<br><br> + +Ironing machines, <a href="#PAGE_338">338</a>.<br><br> + +Italy, <a href="#PAGE_255">255</a>, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>.<br><br> + +Ives. F. E. (three-color process), <a href="#PAGE_417">417</a>.<br><br> + + +<br><b>J.</b><br><br> + +Jablochoff, M. Paul, <a href="#PAGE_136">136</a>.<br><br> + +Jacks, <a href="#PAGE_245">245</a>.<br><br> + +Jacobi, of Russia, <a href="#PAGE_249">249</a>.<br><br> + +Jackson, C. T., Dr., <a href="#PAGE_71">71</a>.<br><br> + +Jacquard Loom, The, <a href="#PAGE_304">304</a>, <a href="#PAGE_323">323</a>, <a href="#PAGE_326">326</a>.<br><br> + +Jacquard, Joseph Marie, <a href="#PAGE_304">304</a>, <a href="#PAGE_305">305</a>.<br><br> + +Jenk’s ring frame, <a href="#PAGE_302">302</a>.<br><br> + +Jenkins, Prof. F., <a href="#PAGE_192">192</a>.<br><br> + +Jefferson, Thos., <a href="#PAGE_16">16</a>,18.<br><br> + +Jenkin, Prof. Fleeming, <a href="#PAGE_144">144</a>.<br><br> + +Jewelry, <a href="#PAGE_333">333</a>.<br><br> + +“Jimcrow,” <a href="#PAGE_245">245</a>.<br><br> + +Johnson, Denis. (See Bicycle.)<br><br> + +Jones, iron and steel, <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>.<br><br> + +Jonval, <a href="#PAGE_172">172</a>.<br><br> + +Joule, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br> + +Jupiter, statue of, <a href="#PAGE_34">34</a>.<br><br> + + +<br><b>K.</b><br><br> + +Kaleidoscope, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>.<br><br> + +Karnes, Lord, 1768, <a href="#PAGE_20">20</a>.<br><br> + +Kaolin. (See Lighting.)<br><br> + +Kay, John, <a href="#PAGE_293">293</a>, <a href="#PAGE_295">295</a>.<br><br> + +“Kearsarge,” The, <a href="#PAGE_261">261</a>.<br><br> + +Kepler, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>.<br><br> + +Kennedy, Diss and Cannan, <a href="#PAGE_331">331</a>.<br><br> + +Kilns, <a href="#PAGE_463">463</a>, <a href="#PAGE_464">464</a>, <a href="#PAGE_465">465</a>.<br><br> + +Kinetic energy, Age of, <a href="#PAGE_86">86</a>.<br><br> + +Kinetograph, <a href="#PAGE_417">417</a>.<br><br> + +Kirchoff, G. R., <a href="#PAGE_62">62</a>, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br> + +Kitchen and table utensils, <a href="#PAGE_356">356</a>.<br><br> + +Knabe piano, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>.<br><br> + +Knight, Edward, <a href="#PAGE_36">36</a>, <a href="#PAGE_51">51</a>, <a href="#PAGE_170">170</a>, <a href="#PAGE_202">202</a>, <a href="#PAGE_232">232</a>, <a href="#PAGE_276">276</a>, <a href="#PAGE_321">321</a>, <a href="#PAGE_429">429</a>.<br><br> + +Knitting, <a href="#PAGE_307">307</a>, <a href="#PAGE_308">308</a>.<br><br> + +König and Bauer, <a href="#PAGE_283">283</a>.<br><br> + +König, acoustics, <a href="#PAGE_407">407</a>.<br><br> + +Koops, <a href="#PAGE_277">277</a>.<br><br> + +Koster, 1620, rifle, <a href="#PAGE_258">258</a>.<br><br> + +Krag-Jorgensen rifle, <a href="#PAGE_268">268</a>.<br><br> + +Kramer, <a href="#PAGE_146">146</a>.<br><br> + +Krupp, steel, <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>.<br><br> + +Krupp, Fredk., guns, <a href="#PAGE_264">264</a>.<br><br> + +Krupp, glass, <a href="#PAGE_480">480</a>.<br><br> + +Kutler, Augustin, <a href="#PAGE_258">258</a>.<br><br> + + +<br><b>L.</b><br><br> + +La Condamine, <a href="#PAGE_477">477</a>.<br><br> + +Labor organizations, <a href="#PAGE_11">11</a>.<br><br> + +Labor, how affected by inventions; reducing, and increasing, <a href="#PAGE_152">152</a>, <a href="#PAGE_153">153</a>, <a href="#PAGE_162">162</a>, +<a href="#PAGE_163">163</a>, <a href="#PAGE_293">293</a>, <a href="#PAGE_308">308</a>, <a href="#PAGE_380">380</a>, <a href="#PAGE_381">381</a>, <a href="#PAGE_460">460</a>.<br><br> + +Lace making, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>.<br><br> + +Laconium, <a href="#PAGE_202">202</a>.<br><br> + +Ladd electric machine, <a href="#PAGE_133">133</a>.<br><br> + +La Hire, <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>, <a href="#PAGE_170">170</a>.<br><br> + +Laird, John, <a href="#PAGE_440">440</a>, <a href="#PAGE_443">443</a>.<br><br> + +Lallement, P. (See Bicycle.)<br><br> + +Lamps and lamp lighting, <a href="#PAGE_359">359</a>, <a href="#PAGE_450">450</a>.<br><br> + +Lancaster, cannon, <a href="#PAGE_263">263</a>.<br><br> + +Land reclamation, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br> + +Lane, 1828, <a href="#PAGE_37">37</a>.<br><br> + +Lane-Fox light, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br> + +Langen and Otto. (See Gas Engine.)<br><br> + +Langley, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_4">4</a>.<br><br> + +L’Hommedieu, <a href="#PAGE_348">348</a>.<br><br> + +Lapping-cotton, <a href="#PAGE_299">299</a>, <a href="#PAGE_300">300</a>.<br><br> + +Lasts, making of, <a href="#PAGE_344">344</a>, <a href="#PAGE_345">345</a>.<br><br> + +Lathes, <a href="#PAGE_241">241</a>-<a href="#PAGE_243">243</a>, <a href="#PAGE_340">340</a>, <a href="#PAGE_345">345</a>, <a href="#PAGE_349">349</a>;<br> + for turning irregular forms of wood, <a href="#PAGE_344">344</a>.<br><br> + +Lattice work bridges, <a href="#PAGE_103">103</a>.<br><br> + +Laundry, <a href="#PAGE_335">335</a>.<br><br> + +Lavoisier, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>, <a href="#PAGE_60">60</a>, <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>.<br><br> + +Lawn mowers, <a href="#PAGE_40">40</a>.<br><br> + +Lazy tongs mechanism, <a href="#PAGE_160">160</a>.<br><br> + +Le Bon, 1801, <a href="#PAGE_185">185</a>, <a href="#PAGE_452">452</a>.<br><br> + +Leaching, <a href="#PAGE_236">236</a>.<br><br> + +Lead, <a href="#PAGE_219">219</a>. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br> + +Leather, <a href="#PAGE_361">361</a>-<a href="#PAGE_372">372</a>.<br><br> + +Leeuwenhoek of Holland, <a href="#PAGE_65">65</a>.<br><br> + +Leeu, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>.<br><br> + +Leckie, <a href="#PAGE_41">41</a>.<br><br> + +Le Conte, <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>.<br><br> + +Lefaucheux, M., <a href="#PAGE_267">267</a>.<br><br> + +Leibnitz, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>.<br><br> + +Lenoir, <a href="#PAGE_189">189</a>.<br><br> + +Lesage, <a href="#PAGE_121">121</a>.<br><br> + +Lescatello, 1662, <a href="#PAGE_24">24</a>.<br><br> + +Leyden jar, <a href="#PAGE_114">114</a>.<br><br> + +Libavius, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>.<br><br> + +Liebig, <a href="#PAGE_64">64</a>.<br><br> + +Lieberkulm, Dr., <a href="#PAGE_409">409</a>.<br><br> + +Light, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br> + +Lighting. (See Lamps and Gas.)<br><br> + +Light Houses, illumination, <a href="#PAGE_105">105</a>, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>.<br><br> + +Linotype, <a href="#PAGE_288">288</a>, <a href="#PAGE_289">289</a>, <a href="#PAGE_290">290</a>.<br><br> + +Linville bridge, <a href="#PAGE_103">103</a>.<br><br> + +Lippersheim, <a href="#PAGE_409">409</a>.<br><br> + +Liquid air, <a href="#PAGE_216">216</a>, <a href="#PAGE_217">217</a>.<br><br> + +Livingstone, Dr., <a href="#PAGE_221">221</a>.<br><br> + +Livingston, Robt., <a href="#PAGE_84">84</a>, <a href="#PAGE_85">85</a>.<br><br> + +Lixiviation, <a href="#PAGE_236">236</a>.<br><br> + +Locks, <a href="#PAGE_420">420</a>-<a href="#PAGE_427">427</a>.<br><br> + +Locomotives, <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>, <a href="#PAGE_84">84</a>, <a href="#PAGE_88">88</a>.<br><br> + +Looms, <a href="#PAGE_293">293</a>, <a href="#PAGE_297">297</a>, <a href="#PAGE_302">302</a>. (See Textiles.)<br><br> + +Loomis, Mahlen, <a href="#PAGE_150">150</a>.<br><br> + +“London Engineering,” <a href="#PAGE_288">288</a>.<br><br> + +London exhibition, 1851, <a href="#PAGE_470">470</a>.<br><br> + +London Times, <a href="#PAGE_283">283</a>, <a href="#PAGE_285">285</a>.<br><br> + +Lontin regulator, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br> + +Lost arts, <a href="#PAGE_219">219</a>.<br><br> + +Louis XI., XIV., <a href="#PAGE_254">254</a>, <a href="#PAGE_255">255</a>.<br><br> + +Lowell, Francis C., <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>.<br><br> + +Lowe, T. S. C., gas, <a href="#PAGE_454">454</a>, <a href="#PAGE_455">455</a>.<br><br> + +Lubricants, <a href="#PAGE_237">237</a>.<br><br> + +Lyall, James, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>.<br><br> + +Lyttleton, <a href="#PAGE_442">442</a>.<br><br> + + +<br><b>M.</b><br><br> + +MacArthur-Forrest, cyanide process, <a href="#PAGE_236">236</a>.<br><br> + +Macaulay, Lord, <a href="#PAGE_10">10</a>.<br><br> + +Mackintosh, of Glasgow, <a href="#PAGE_477">477</a>.<br><br> + +Machine guns, <a href="#PAGE_269">269</a>.<br><br> + +Madersperger, Jos., <a href="#PAGE_312">312</a>.<br><br> + +Magdeburg, <a href="#PAGE_193">193</a>.<br><br> + +Magic lantern. (See Optics.)<br><br> + +Magnets and Magnetic Electricity, <a href="#PAGE_112">112</a>, <a href="#PAGE_122">122</a>, <a href="#PAGE_123">123</a>, <a href="#PAGE_124">124</a>, <a href="#PAGE_130">130</a>, <a href="#PAGE_133">133</a>.<br><br> + +Mail bags and locks, <a href="#PAGE_427">427</a>.<br><br> + +Mail service, <a href="#PAGE_427">427</a>.<br><br> + +Mail marking, <a href="#PAGE_285">285</a>.<br><br> + +Majolica. (See Pottery.)<br><br> + +Malt, <a href="#PAGE_65">65</a>, <a href="#PAGE_66">66</a>.<br><br> + +Man a tool-using animal, <a href="#PAGE_310">310</a>.<br><br> + +Manning, 1831, <a href="#PAGE_37">37</a>.<br><br> + +Marble, artificial, <a href="#PAGE_468">468</a>, <a href="#PAGE_469">469</a>.<br><br> + +Marine propulsion, <a href="#PAGE_442">442</a>.<br><br> + +Marconi, <a href="#PAGE_151">151</a>.<br><br> + +Mariotte’s law of gases, <a href="#PAGE_184">184</a>, <a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>.<br><br> + +Markers and cutters, <a href="#PAGE_324">324</a>.<br><br> + +Markham, <a href="#PAGE_30">30</a>.<br><br> + +Marsland, looms, <a href="#PAGE_301">301</a>.<br><br> + +Marr, Wm., <a href="#PAGE_421">421</a>.<br><br> + +Martin, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>.<br><br> + +Marvin’s safes, <a href="#PAGE_421">421</a>.<br><br> + +McClure’s Magazine, <a href="#PAGE_445">445</a>, <a href="#PAGE_447">447</a>.<br><br> + +McCormick reaper, <a href="#PAGE_37">37</a>, <a href="#PAGE_38">38</a>.<br><br> + +McCallum bridge, <a href="#PAGE_103">103</a>.<br><br> + +McKay, ships, <a href="#PAGE_439">439</a>.<br><br> + +McKay, shoe machines, <a href="#PAGE_369">369</a>.<br><br> + +McMillan bicycle, <a href="#PAGE_433">433</a>.<br><br> + +Mary, Queen, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>.<br><br> + +Mason, Prof. O. T., <a href="#PAGE_458">458</a>.<br><br> + +Massachusetts, mills, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>, <a href="#PAGE_369">369</a>.<br><br> + +Massachusetts, shoe making, <a href="#PAGE_370">370</a>.<br><br> + +Master locks, <a href="#PAGE_423">423</a>, <a href="#PAGE_426">426</a>.<br><br> + +Matches, <a href="#PAGE_199">199</a>, <a href="#PAGE_200">200</a>, <a href="#PAGE_201">201</a>.<br><br> + +Matting, <a href="#PAGE_309">309</a>, <a href="#PAGE_312">312</a>.<br><br> + +Maudsley, Henry, <a href="#PAGE_243">243</a>, <a href="#PAGE_349">349</a>.<br><br> + +Maurice of Nassau, <a href="#PAGE_255">255</a>.<br><br> + +Maurice, Peter, <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>.<br><br> + +Mauser rifle, <a href="#PAGE_269">269</a>.<br><br> + +Mausoleum, <a href="#PAGE_34">34</a>.<br><br> + +Maxim electric light, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br> + +Maxwell, <a href="#PAGE_417">417</a>.<br><br> + +Mayer, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_404">404</a>.<br><br> + +Meares, 1800, <a href="#PAGE_35">35</a>.<br><br> + +Meat, Preparation of, <a href="#PAGE_55">55</a>.<br><br> + +Mechanical powers, <a href="#PAGE_4">4</a>.<br><br> + +Medicine and surgery, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>, <a href="#PAGE_71">71</a>, <a href="#PAGE_72">72</a>.<br><br> + +Meigs, General M. C., <a href="#PAGE_102">102</a>.<br><br> + +Meikle, 1786, <a href="#PAGE_41">41</a>.<br><br> + +Megaphone, <a href="#PAGE_407">407</a>.<br><br> + +Melville, David, <a href="#PAGE_452">452</a>.<br><br> + +Menai Straits bridges, <a href="#PAGE_96">96</a>.<br><br> + +Mendeljeff, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>.<br><br> + +Menzies of Scotland, <a href="#PAGE_41">41</a>.<br><br> + +Mergenthaler, <a href="#PAGE_288">288</a>.<br><br> + +Merrimac and Monitor, <a href="#PAGE_268">268</a>, <a href="#PAGE_441">441</a>.<br><br> + +Metals and Metallurgy, <a href="#PAGE_218">218</a>-<a href="#PAGE_239">239</a>.<br><br> + +Metal founding, <a href="#PAGE_249">249</a>.<br><br> + +Metal working and turning, <a href="#PAGE_240">240</a>;<br> + boring, planing, <a href="#PAGE_251">251</a>;<br> + hammering, shaping, <a href="#PAGE_240">240</a>;<br> + modern metal + working plant, <a href="#PAGE_250">250</a>.<br><br> + +Metal, personal ware, buckles, clasps, hooks, buttons, etc., <a href="#PAGE_250">250</a>.<br><br> + +Meters, gas and water, <a href="#PAGE_178">178</a>.<br><br> + +Mexico, <a href="#PAGE_281">281</a>, <a href="#PAGE_292">292</a>.<br><br> + +Microphone, <a href="#PAGE_148">148</a>.<br><br> + +Microscope, <a href="#PAGE_409">409</a>.<br><br> + +Middlings purifier, <a href="#PAGE_49">49</a>, <a href="#PAGE_50">50</a>.<br><br> + +Milk, milkers, <a href="#PAGE_54">54</a>, <a href="#PAGE_55">55</a>.<br><br> + +Millet, <a href="#PAGE_30">30</a>.<br><br> + +Mills, <a href="#PAGE_45">45</a> to <a href="#PAGE_51">51</a>.<br><br> + +Milling, high, low, <a href="#PAGE_49">49</a>.<br><br> + +Miller, wood working, <a href="#PAGE_342">342</a>.<br><br> + +Miller and Taylor, <a href="#PAGE_81">81</a>.<br><br> + +Millwright, The Young, <a href="#PAGE_47">47</a>.<br><br> + +Milton, <a href="#PAGE_105">105</a>, <a href="#PAGE_218">218</a>.<br><br> + +Mineral wool, minerals and mining, <a href="#PAGE_373">373</a>-<a href="#PAGE_383">383</a>.<br><br> + +Minneapolis mills, <a href="#PAGE_50">50</a>.<br><br> + +Mitrailleuses, <a href="#PAGE_269">269</a>.<br><br> + +Modern machinery, its commencement, <a href="#PAGE_364">364</a>.<br><br> + +Mohl, von, Hugo, <a href="#PAGE_67">67</a>.<br><br> + +Moigno, Abbé, <a href="#PAGE_411">411</a>.<br><br> + +Mold, aging. (See Chemistry.)<br><br> + +Moulding. (See Wood-working and Glass making.)<br><br> + +Monks, <a href="#PAGE_387">387</a>.<br><br> + +“Monitor,” The, <a href="#PAGE_268">268</a>, <a href="#PAGE_441">441</a>.<br><br> + +Montgolfier, <a href="#PAGE_169">169</a>.<br><br> + +Moody, Paul, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>.<br><br> + +Moors, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>.<br><br> + +Morin, Genl., <a href="#PAGE_209">209</a>, <a href="#PAGE_238">238</a>.<br><br> + +Morland, Sir Sam’l, <a href="#PAGE_77">77</a>.<br><br> + +Morrison, Chas., <a href="#PAGE_115">115</a>.<br><br> + +Morse, S. B. F., <a href="#PAGE_126">126</a>, <a href="#PAGE_127">127</a>, <a href="#PAGE_128">128</a>, <a href="#PAGE_129">129</a>.<br><br> + +Mortars, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>.<br><br> + +Mortise making, <a href="#PAGE_345">345</a>.<br><br> + +Morton, Dr. W. T. G., <a href="#PAGE_71">71</a>.<br><br> + +Motor vehicles, <a href="#PAGE_435">435</a>.<br><br> + +Mont Cenis Tunnel, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br> + +Mowers, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>, <a href="#PAGE_33">33</a>, <a href="#PAGE_35">35</a>, <a href="#PAGE_36">36</a>, <a href="#PAGE_37">37</a>, <a href="#PAGE_38">38</a>, <a href="#PAGE_39">39</a>.<br><br> + +Moxon, Jos., <a href="#PAGE_242">242</a>.<br><br> + +Mozart, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>.<br><br> + +Murdock, Wm., <a href="#PAGE_185">185</a>, <a href="#PAGE_452">452</a>.<br><br> + +Music, <a href="#PAGE_400">400</a>-<a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>.<br><br> + +Musical instruments, <a href="#PAGE_6">6</a>, <a href="#PAGE_400">400</a>.<br><br> + +Musical electrical apparatus, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>.<br><br> + +Muschenbroeck, Prof., 1745, <a href="#PAGE_114">114</a>, <a href="#PAGE_115">115</a>.<br><br> + +Mushet, iron and steel, <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>.<br><br> + +Muskets. (See Ordnance.)<br><br> + +Muzzle loaders, <a href="#PAGE_263">263</a>, <a href="#PAGE_264">264</a>.<br><br> + + +<br><b>N.</b><br><br> + +National Assembly, France, <a href="#PAGE_9">9</a>.<br><br> + +Napoleon. (See Bonaparte.)<br><br> + +Naphtha, <a href="#PAGE_454">454</a>.<br><br> + +Nasmyth, <a href="#PAGE_243">243</a>, <a href="#PAGE_245">245</a>.<br><br> + +Needle, <a href="#PAGE_310">310</a>, <a href="#PAGE_313">313</a>.<br><br> + +Needle gun, <a href="#PAGE_266">266</a>.<br><br> + +Niedringhaus, <a href="#PAGE_468">468</a>.<br><br> + +Netting. (See Spinning.)<br><br> + +Newcomen, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_77">77</a>, <a href="#PAGE_78">78</a>, <a href="#PAGE_79">79</a>, <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>, <a href="#PAGE_187">187</a>.<br><br> + +Newbold, Chas., <a href="#PAGE_19">19</a>.<br><br> + +Newbury, Wm., <a href="#PAGE_348">348</a>.<br><br> + +Newton, Sir Isaac, <a href="#PAGE_9">9</a>, <a href="#PAGE_11">11</a>, <a href="#PAGE_61">61</a>, <a href="#PAGE_114">114</a>, <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>, <a href="#PAGE_414">414</a>.<br><br> + +Niagara bridges, <a href="#PAGE_97">97</a>, <a href="#PAGE_98">98</a>, <a href="#PAGE_104">104</a>.<br><br> + +Niagara power, <a href="#PAGE_171">171</a>, <a href="#PAGE_172">172</a>.<br><br> + +Nicholson and Carlisle, <a href="#PAGE_118">118</a>.<br><br> + +Nicholson, Wm., of England, <a href="#PAGE_282">282</a>.<br><br> + +Nickel. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br> + +Niepce, Jas. N., <a href="#PAGE_415">415</a>.<br><br> + +Nitro-glycerine, <a href="#PAGE_270">270</a>.<br><br> + +Noah’s Ark, <a href="#PAGE_438">438</a>.<br><br> + +Nobel, A., <a href="#PAGE_192">192</a>.<br><br> + +Nollet, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_132">132</a>.<br><br> + +Noria, The, <a href="#PAGE_165">165</a>.<br><br> + +Norway, <a href="#PAGE_266">266</a>, <a href="#PAGE_430">430</a>, <a href="#PAGE_439">439</a>.<br><br> + +Nozzles, flexible, <a href="#PAGE_174">174</a>;<br> + water, <a href="#PAGE_179">179</a>.<br><br> + + +<br><b>O.</b><br><br> + +Oersted, <a href="#PAGE_121">121</a>, <a href="#PAGE_130">130</a>.<br><br> + +Ogle, 1822, <a href="#PAGE_36">36</a>.<br><br> + +Ohm, G. S., <a href="#PAGE_125">125</a>.<br><br> + +Oils and fats, <a href="#PAGE_69">69</a>.<br><br> + +Oil cloth, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>.<br><br> + +Oil lamps, <a href="#PAGE_359">359</a>.<br><br> + +Oil stoves and furnaces, <a href="#PAGE_190">190</a>, <a href="#PAGE_212">212</a>.<br><br> + +Oiling waves, <a href="#PAGE_446">446</a>.<br><br> + +Oil wells, <a href="#PAGE_190">190</a>, <a href="#PAGE_382">382</a>.<br><br> + +Omnibus. (See Stages and Carriers.)<br><br> + +Opening and blowing machines, cotton, <a href="#PAGE_299">299</a>.<br><br> + +Opthalmoscope, <a href="#PAGE_411">411</a>.<br><br> + +Optical instruments, <a href="#PAGE_409">409</a>-<a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br> + +Ordnance, arms, explosives, <a href="#PAGE_252">252</a> to <a href="#PAGE_272">272</a>.<br><br> + +Ores, treatment of, <a href="#PAGE_229">229</a>, <a href="#PAGE_250">250</a>, <a href="#PAGE_251">251</a>, <a href="#PAGE_373">373</a> to <a href="#PAGE_380">380</a>.<br><br> + +Ore separators, <a href="#PAGE_379">379</a>. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br> + +Organs, <a href="#PAGE_404">404</a>.<br><br> + +Ornamental iron work. (See Metal Working.)<br><br> + +Ornamental wood work. (See Wood Working.)<br><br> + +Oscillating engines. (See Steam.)<br><br> + +Osmund furnaces. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br> + +Otis elevators, <a href="#PAGE_155">155</a>.<br><br> + +Otto, Nicolaus A., Otto engine, <a href="#PAGE_190">190</a>, <a href="#PAGE_191">191</a>.<br><br> + +Oxygen, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>, <a href="#PAGE_453">453</a>. (See Priestley.)<br><br> + + +<br><b>P.</b><br><br> + +Paddle wheels and vessels, <a href="#PAGE_443">443</a>.<br><br> + +Paints, <a href="#PAGE_466">466</a>.<br><br> + +Painting, <a href="#PAGE_418">418</a>, <a href="#PAGE_419">419</a>, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>.<br><br> + +Painting machines, <a href="#PAGE_193">193</a>, <a href="#PAGE_418">418</a>, <a href="#PAGE_467">467</a>.<br><br> + +Paixhans, Genl., <a href="#PAGE_261">261</a>, <a href="#PAGE_264">264</a>.<br><br> + +Page, Prof. C. G., <a href="#PAGE_132">132</a>, <a href="#PAGE_141">141</a>.<br><br> + +Page, Ralph, <a href="#PAGE_224">224</a>.<br><br> + +Palissy, Bernard, <a href="#PAGE_458">458</a>.<br><br> + +Palmer, stage-coaches, <a href="#PAGE_429">429</a>.<br><br> + +Palladius, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>.<br><br> + +Panoramas, <a href="#PAGE_415">415</a>.<br><br> + +Paper and printing, <a href="#PAGE_273">273</a>-<a href="#PAGE_291">291</a>.<br><br> + +Paper bag machinery, <a href="#PAGE_279">279</a>.<br><br> + +Papin, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_77">77</a>, <a href="#PAGE_184">184</a>, <a href="#PAGE_192">192</a>, <a href="#PAGE_193">193</a>.<br><br> + +Papyrus, <a href="#PAGE_273">273</a>, <a href="#PAGE_274">274</a>.<br><br> + +Paraffine. (See Oils.)<br><br> + +Parchment, <a href="#PAGE_274">274</a>.<br><br> + +Parkinson, Thos., <a href="#PAGE_194">194</a>.<br><br> + +Parliament, House of, <a href="#PAGE_209">209</a>.<br><br> + +Parquetry. (See Wood-working.)<br><br> + +Parrott, gun, <a href="#PAGE_264">264</a>.<br><br> + +Parthenon, <a href="#PAGE_373">373</a>.<br><br> + +Partridge, Reuben, matches, <a href="#PAGE_200">200</a>.<br><br> + +Pascal, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>, <a href="#PAGE_168">168</a>, <a href="#PAGE_170">170</a>, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>.<br><br> + +Pasteur, <a href="#PAGE_68">68</a>.<br><br> + +Patents, their origin and purpose, <a href="#PAGE_8">8</a>, <a href="#PAGE_21">21</a>.<br><br> + +Pattern making. (See Wood, Metal, and Textiles.)<br><br> + +Pauley, Col., <a href="#PAGE_266">266</a>.<br><br> + +Pegs, <a href="#PAGE_367">367</a>, <a href="#PAGE_368">368</a>.<br><br> + +Pencils, <a href="#PAGE_418">418</a>.<br><br> + +Pendulum. (See Horology.)<br><br> + +Pendulum machines, <a href="#PAGE_365">365</a>.<br><br> + +Penelope, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>.<br><br> + +Pennsylvania fireplace, <a href="#PAGE_203">203</a>.<br><br> + +Percussion caps, <a href="#PAGE_259">259</a>, <a href="#PAGE_260">260</a>.<br><br> + +Percy. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br> + +Permutation locks, <a href="#PAGE_425">425</a>.<br><br> + +Pernot, <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>.<br><br> + +Perin & Co., saws, <a href="#PAGE_348">348</a>.<br><br> + +Persians, <a href="#PAGE_362">362</a>.<br><br> + +Petroleum, <a href="#PAGE_359">359</a>, <a href="#PAGE_382">382</a>.<br><br> + +Petzold, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>.<br><br> + +Pfaff, <a href="#PAGE_121">121</a>.<br><br> + +Pharos of Alexandria, <a href="#PAGE_34">34</a>.<br><br> + +Phelps, G. M., <a href="#PAGE_147">147</a>.<br><br> + +Phœnicians, <a href="#PAGE_439">439</a>, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>.<br><br> + +“Phœnix,” The. (See Ships.)<br><br> + +Phonautograph, <a href="#PAGE_141">141</a>, <a href="#PAGE_407">407</a>.<br><br> + +Phonograph, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>.<br><br> + +Phonophone, <a href="#PAGE_414">414</a>.<br><br> + +Phonoscope, <a href="#PAGE_414">414</a>.<br><br> + +Photophone, <a href="#PAGE_414">414</a>.<br><br> + +Phosphorus matches, <a href="#PAGE_200">200</a>.<br><br> + +Photochromoscope, <a href="#PAGE_417">417</a>.<br><br> + +Photography, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>, <a href="#PAGE_414">414</a>, <a href="#PAGE_416">416</a>, <a href="#PAGE_418">418</a>.<br><br> + +Photo-processes, <a href="#PAGE_417">417</a>.<br><br> + +Piano, <a href="#PAGE_6">6</a>, <a href="#PAGE_401">401</a>-<a href="#PAGE_404">404</a>.<br><br> + +Picking machine, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>, <a href="#PAGE_299">299</a>.<br><br> + +Picker-motion, looms, <a href="#PAGE_297">297</a>.<br><br> + +Piezometer, <a href="#PAGE_262">262</a>.<br><br> + +Pigments, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>.<br><br> + +Pitt, inventor, 1786, <a href="#PAGE_33">33</a>.<br><br> + +Pixii, <a href="#PAGE_131">131</a>.<br><br> + +Planes, <a href="#PAGE_340">340</a>, <a href="#PAGE_350">350</a>. (See Wood-working.)<br><br> + +Planing machines, <a href="#PAGE_245">245</a>, <a href="#PAGE_349">349</a>, <a href="#PAGE_350">350</a>. (See Wood-working.)<br><br> + +Planté, G., <a href="#PAGE_120">120</a>.<br><br> + +Planters. (See Chap. III.)<br><br> + +Plaster, <a href="#PAGE_469">469</a>.<br><br> + +Plato, <a href="#PAGE_385">385</a>.<br><br> + +Platt, Sir Hugh, <a href="#PAGE_14">14</a>.<br><br> + +Platt, Senator, <a href="#PAGE_35">35</a>.<br><br> + +Pliny, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>, <a href="#PAGE_164">164</a>, <a href="#PAGE_223">223</a>, <a href="#PAGE_227">227</a>, <a href="#PAGE_273">273</a>, <a href="#PAGE_340">340</a>.<br><br> + +Ploughs, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_13">13</a>, <a href="#PAGE_14">14</a>, <a href="#PAGE_15">15</a>, <a href="#PAGE_16">16</a>, <a href="#PAGE_17">17</a>, <a href="#PAGE_18">18</a>, <a href="#PAGE_19">19</a>, <a href="#PAGE_20">20</a>, <a href="#PAGE_21">21</a>, <a href="#PAGE_22">22</a>, <a href="#PAGE_24">24</a>, <a href="#PAGE_27">27</a>, <a href="#PAGE_28">28</a>, <a href="#PAGE_29">29</a>, <a href="#PAGE_30">30</a>.<br><br> + +Plucknett, 1808, <a href="#PAGE_35">35</a>.<br><br> + +Pneumatics, <a href="#PAGE_165">165</a>, <a href="#PAGE_182">182</a> to <a href="#PAGE_198">198</a>.<br><br> + +Pneumatic machines, <a href="#PAGE_195">195</a>, <a href="#PAGE_197">197</a>, <a href="#PAGE_198">198</a>.<br><br> + +Pneumatic propellers, <a href="#PAGE_444">444</a>.<br><br> + +Pneumatic tires, <a href="#PAGE_433">433</a>.<br><br> + +Pneumatic tubes and transmission, <a href="#PAGE_159">159</a>, <a href="#PAGE_196">196</a>.<br><br> + +Polemoscope, <a href="#PAGE_413">413</a>.<br><br> + +Polishing glass, <a href="#PAGE_475">475</a>.<br><br> + +Pope, Alexander, <a href="#PAGE_394">394</a>.<br><br> + +Porcelain, <a href="#PAGE_465">465</a>, <a href="#PAGE_466">466</a>.<br><br> + +Poririer (match machine), <a href="#PAGE_201">201</a>.<br><br> + +Porta Baptista, <a href="#PAGE_414">414</a>.<br><br> + +Porta G. della, <a href="#PAGE_75">75</a>.<br><br> + +Portable engines, <a href="#PAGE_88">88</a>.<br><br> + +Potato planters, <a href="#PAGE_28">28</a>.<br><br> + +Potassium, <a href="#PAGE_236">236</a>.<br><br> + +Potter, Humphrey, <a href="#PAGE_78">78</a>.<br><br> + +Pottery, <a href="#PAGE_457">457</a>-<a href="#PAGE_469">469</a>.<br><br> + +Pousard, <a href="#PAGE_465">465</a>.<br><br> + +Powder, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>.<br><br> + +Power, measure of, <a href="#PAGE_187">187</a>.<br><br> + +Prehistoric inventions. (See beginning of each Chapter.)<br><br> + +Pressing machines, <a href="#PAGE_51">51</a>, <a href="#PAGE_52">52</a>, <a href="#PAGE_53">53</a>.<br><br> + +Priestley, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>, <a href="#PAGE_453">453</a>, <a href="#PAGE_477">477</a>.<br><br> + +“Princeton,” The, <a href="#PAGE_443">443</a>.<br><br> + +Printing press, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>, <a href="#PAGE_6">6</a>, <a href="#PAGE_273">273</a>-<a href="#PAGE_291">291</a>.<br><br> + +Prince of Orange, <a href="#PAGE_255">255</a>.<br><br> + +Projectiles, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>-<a href="#PAGE_270">270</a>.<br><br> + +Prometheus, <a href="#PAGE_199">199</a>, <a href="#PAGE_200">200</a>.<br><br> + +Protoplasm, <a href="#PAGE_67">67</a>.<br><br> + +Prussia, <a href="#PAGE_266">266</a>.<br><br> + +Providence, R. I., Tool Co., <a href="#PAGE_322">322</a>.<br><br> + +Psalteries, <a href="#PAGE_401">401</a>.<br><br> + +Ptah, <a href="#PAGE_241">241</a>.<br><br> + +Puckle’s patent breech loader, <a href="#PAGE_258">258</a>, <a href="#PAGE_259">259</a>.<br><br> + +Puddling, <a href="#PAGE_226">226</a>, <a href="#PAGE_227">227</a>, <a href="#PAGE_231">231</a>.<br><br> + +Pug mills, <a href="#PAGE_461">461</a>.<br><br> + +Pullman car, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br> + +Pulp, <a href="#PAGE_275">275</a>-<a href="#PAGE_279">279</a>.<br><br> + +Pumps, <a href="#PAGE_187">187</a>.<br><br> + +Ptolemy, <a href="#PAGE_428">428</a>.<br><br> + +Puillet, <a href="#PAGE_411">411</a>.<br><br> + +Puy Guillaume, battle of, 1338, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>.<br><br> + +Pyramids, <a href="#PAGE_34">34</a>, <a href="#PAGE_93">93</a>.<br><br> + + +<br><b>Q.</b><br><br> + +Quadruplex telegraphy. (See Telegraphy.)<br><br> + +“Queen Ann’s Pocket Piece,” <a href="#PAGE_256">256</a>.<br><br> + +Queen of Sheba, <a href="#PAGE_326">326</a>.<br><br> + +Quern, <a href="#PAGE_45">45</a>.<br><br> + +Quilting machine, <a href="#PAGE_324">324</a>.<br><br> + + +<br><b>R.</b><br><br> + +Radcliffe, <a href="#PAGE_305">305</a>.<br><br> + +Radiation and radiators, <a href="#PAGE_205">205</a>, <a href="#PAGE_206">206</a>.<br><br> + +Railways, rails and tracks, <a href="#PAGE_106">106</a>, <a href="#PAGE_108">108</a>;<br> + cars, <a href="#PAGE_108">108</a>, <a href="#PAGE_109">109</a>;<br> + frogs, <a href="#PAGE_108">108</a>.<br><br> + +Railway cars, <a href="#PAGE_436">436</a>, <a href="#PAGE_437">437</a>.<br><br> + +Rakes. (See Agriculture.)<br><br> + +Ramage Press, <a href="#PAGE_281">281</a>.<br><br> + +Ramseye, David, 1630, <a href="#PAGE_76">76</a>.<br><br> + +Ramelli, Cardan, <a href="#PAGE_75">75</a>.<br><br> + +Ramsey, David, 1738, <a href="#PAGE_168">168</a>, <a href="#PAGE_389">389</a>.<br><br> + +Ram, water. (See Pumps.)<br><br> + +Randolph, David M., <a href="#PAGE_367">367</a>.<br><br> + +Randolph, Elder and Co., <a href="#PAGE_440">440</a>.<br><br> + +Ranges. (See Stoves.)<br><br> + +Range finder, <a href="#PAGE_413">413</a>.<br><br> + +Raphael, <a href="#PAGE_418">418</a>.<br><br> + +Rawhides. (See Leather.)<br><br> + +Read, Nathan, 1791, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>.<br><br> + +Reapers. (See Harvesters, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>, <a href="#PAGE_33">33</a>, <a href="#PAGE_36">36</a>, <a href="#PAGE_37">37</a>, <a href="#PAGE_38">38</a>.)<br><br> + +Reichenbach, <a href="#PAGE_382">382</a>.<br><br> + +Reis, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_141">141</a>, <a href="#PAGE_407">407</a>.<br><br> + +Refining metals, <a href="#PAGE_227">227</a>.<br><br> + +Refrigeration, <a href="#PAGE_213">213</a>, <a href="#PAGE_214">214</a>, <a href="#PAGE_216">216</a>.<br><br> + +Regenerators, <a href="#PAGE_465">465</a>.<br><br> + +Regenerative furnace. (See Metallurgy, also, <a href="#PAGE_464">464</a>.)<br><br> + +Registers, <a href="#PAGE_395">395</a>.<br><br> + +Regulators, Electric, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>;<br> + time, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br> + +Rennie, <a href="#PAGE_244">244</a>.<br><br> + +Repeating watches, <a href="#PAGE_389">389</a>.<br><br> + +Reservoirs, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>, <a href="#PAGE_180">180</a>.<br><br> + +Resonators, <a href="#PAGE_404">404</a>.<br><br> + +Revault, 1605, <a href="#PAGE_75">75</a>.<br><br> + +Revolvers. (See Fire Arms.)<br><br> + +Rhode Island, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>.<br><br> + +Ribbon making, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>.<br><br> + +Rickel, Dr., <a href="#PAGE_451">451</a>.<br><br> + +Rider bridge, <a href="#PAGE_103">103</a>.<br><br> + +Riehle, testing mach., <a href="#PAGE_398">398</a>.<br><br> + +Rifles, <a href="#PAGE_258">258</a>, <a href="#PAGE_259">259</a>, <a href="#PAGE_260">260</a>.<br><br> + +Rifled cannon, <a href="#PAGE_262">262</a>, <a href="#PAGE_263">263</a>.<br><br> + +Ring frame-spinning, <a href="#PAGE_302">302</a>.<br><br> + +Ritter, <a href="#PAGE_118">118</a>, <a href="#PAGE_121">121</a>.<br><br> + +Riveting, <a href="#PAGE_176">176</a>.<br><br> + +Road carriage, steam, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>.<br><br> + +Roads, <a href="#PAGE_106">106</a>, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br> + +Road making, <a href="#PAGE_106">106</a>.<br><br> + +Robia, Luca della, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>.<br><br> + +Robert, Louis, <a href="#PAGE_276">276</a>.<br><br> + +Roberts, <a href="#PAGE_244">244</a>.<br><br> + +Rock drilling, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br> + +Rockers, ore, <a href="#PAGE_235">235</a>.<br><br> + +Rockets, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>.<br><br> + +Rodman, General, gun, <a href="#PAGE_264">264</a>.<br><br> + +Roebling, John A., engineer, <a href="#PAGE_98">98</a>, <a href="#PAGE_99">99</a>.<br><br> + +Roebling, Washington, <a href="#PAGE_98">98</a>, <a href="#PAGE_100">100</a>.<br><br> + +Roentgen, X rays, <a href="#PAGE_149">149</a>.<br><br> + +Rohes, M. Beau de, <a href="#PAGE_189">189</a>.<br><br> + +Rogers, Saml. B., metallurgist, <a href="#PAGE_229">229</a>, <a href="#PAGE_230">230</a>.<br><br> + +Rogers, type maker, <a href="#PAGE_289">289</a>.<br><br> + +Roller press, <a href="#PAGE_283">283</a>, <a href="#PAGE_284">284</a>.<br><br> + +Roman arts, inventions, etc., <a href="#PAGE_10">10</a>, <a href="#PAGE_13">13</a>, <a href="#PAGE_14">14</a>, <a href="#PAGE_45">45</a>, <a href="#PAGE_93">93</a>, <a href="#PAGE_164">164</a>, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>, <a href="#PAGE_178">178</a>, <a href="#PAGE_202">202</a>, <a href="#PAGE_274">274</a>, <a href="#PAGE_457">457</a>, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>.<br><br> + +Rookwood pottery, <a href="#PAGE_467">467</a>.<br><br> + +Romagnosi, G. D., <a href="#PAGE_121">121</a>.<br><br> + +Roscoe, Prof. (See Chemistry.)<br><br> + +Rose, H., <a href="#PAGE_238">238</a>.<br><br> + +Rotary engines. (See Steam.)<br><br> + +Rotary printing press, <a href="#PAGE_284">284</a>. (See Printing.)<br><br> + +Rotary pumps. (See Water and Steam Eng.)<br><br> + +Roving, spinning, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>, <a href="#PAGE_299">299</a>.<br><br> + +Rubber, <a href="#PAGE_69">69</a>, <a href="#PAGE_434">434</a>.<br><br> + +Ruhmkorff coil, <a href="#PAGE_132">132</a>.<br><br> + +Rumford, Count, <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>.<br><br> + +Rumsey, James, <a href="#PAGE_81">81</a>, <a href="#PAGE_168">168</a>.<br><br> + +Russia, <a href="#PAGE_40">40</a>, <a href="#PAGE_254">254</a>, <a href="#PAGE_430">430</a>.<br><br> + +Russian leather, <a href="#PAGE_362">362</a>.<br><br> + +Rust, Saml., <a href="#PAGE_282">282</a>.<br><br> + +Ruth, <a href="#PAGE_16">16</a>.<br><br> + + +<br><b>S.</b><br><br> + +Sabot, projectiles, <a href="#PAGE_262">262</a>, <a href="#PAGE_263">263</a>.<br><br> + +Safes and locks, <a href="#PAGE_420">420</a>-<a href="#PAGE_427">427</a>.<br><br> + +Safety valves, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>.<br><br> + +Saint, Thomas, sewing machine, <a href="#PAGE_311">311</a>.<br><br> + +Salman, scales maker, <a href="#PAGE_396">396</a>.<br><br> + +Salonen, 1807, mower, <a href="#PAGE_36">36</a>.<br><br> + +Samians and Samos, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>.<br><br> + +Sand blast, <a href="#PAGE_332">332</a>, <a href="#PAGE_334">334</a>, <a href="#PAGE_475">475</a>.<br><br> + +Sand filters. (See Filters.)<br><br> + +Sandwich, Earl, 1699, <a href="#PAGE_25">25</a>.<br><br> + +Saracens, <a href="#PAGE_274">274</a>.<br><br> + +Sarnstrom, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>.<br><br> + +Savery, Thos., <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_77">77</a>.<br><br> + +Saws, <a href="#PAGE_340">340</a>, <a href="#PAGE_341">341</a>, <a href="#PAGE_342">342</a>, <a href="#PAGE_348">348</a>, <a href="#PAGE_351">351</a>.<br><br> + +Saw mills, <a href="#PAGE_341">341</a>, <a href="#PAGE_342">342</a>.<br><br> + +Saxton, Jos., <a href="#PAGE_131">131</a>.<br><br> + +Scales, <a href="#PAGE_395">395</a>.<br><br> + +Scaliger, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>.<br><br> + +Scandinavians, <a href="#PAGE_363">363</a>.<br><br> + +Scarborough, <a href="#PAGE_85">85</a>.<br><br> + +Schilling, Baron, <a href="#PAGE_126">126</a>.<br><br> + +Schönbein, <a href="#PAGE_270">270</a>.<br><br> + +Schapper, Hartman, <a href="#PAGE_241">241</a>.<br><br> + +Schoeffer, Peter, <a href="#PAGE_270">270</a>.<br><br> + +Schreiber, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>.<br><br> + +Schrotter (matches), <a href="#PAGE_200">200</a>.<br><br> + +Schweigger, S. C., <a href="#PAGE_126">126</a>.<br><br> + +Scoops, <a href="#PAGE_178">178</a>.<br><br> + +Scotland, <a href="#PAGE_19">19</a>, <a href="#PAGE_20">20</a>, <a href="#PAGE_33">33</a>.<br><br> + +Scott, phonautograph, <a href="#PAGE_141">141</a>, <a href="#PAGE_407">407</a>.<br><br> + +Scott, Sir Walter, <a href="#PAGE_45">45</a>, <a href="#PAGE_80">80</a>.<br><br> + +Scott, Gen. W., <a href="#PAGE_260">260</a>.<br><br> + +Scott, Rich’d, <a href="#PAGE_420">420</a>.<br><br> + +Scouring machines. (See Leather and Cloth, and Grain.)<br><br> + +Screw, Archimedean. (See Ships and Propeller.)<br><br> + +Screw, press, <a href="#PAGE_52">52</a>.<br><br> + +Screw propeller, <a href="#PAGE_85">85</a>, <a href="#PAGE_443">443</a>.<br><br> + +Screw making, <a href="#PAGE_245">245</a>, <a href="#PAGE_246">246</a>.<br><br> + +Scythians, <a href="#PAGE_362">362</a>, <a href="#PAGE_428">428</a>.<br><br> + +Scythes, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>, <a href="#PAGE_33">33</a>, <a href="#PAGE_35">35</a>.<br><br> + +Seed drills, <a href="#PAGE_24">24</a>, <a href="#PAGE_25">25</a>, <a href="#PAGE_26">26</a>, <a href="#PAGE_27">27</a>.<br><br> + +Seely, F. A., <a href="#PAGE_3">3</a>.<br><br> + +Self-playing Instruments, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>.<br><br> + +Seguin, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>.<br><br> + +Sellers, Wm., <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>, <a href="#PAGE_247">247</a>.<br><br> + +Separators, Grain, <a href="#PAGE_48">48</a>, <a href="#PAGE_49">49</a>;<br> + milk, <a href="#PAGE_54">54</a>;<br> + ore, <a href="#PAGE_379">379</a>. (See Mills.)<br><br> + +Seppings, Sir Robert, <a href="#PAGE_440">440</a>.<br><br> + +Serrin, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br> + +Serviere, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>.<br><br> + +Seward, Wm. H., <a href="#PAGE_3">3</a>.<br><br> + +Seven Wonders, The, <a href="#PAGE_34">34</a>, <a href="#PAGE_35">35</a>.<br><br> + +Sewing machines, <a href="#PAGE_311">311</a>-<a href="#PAGE_323">323</a>.<br><br> + +Sewer construction, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br> + +Shades and screens, <a href="#PAGE_356">356</a>.<br><br> + +Shaping machines, <a href="#PAGE_245">245</a>.<br><br> + +Sharp’s carbine, <a href="#PAGE_267">267</a>.<br><br> + +Shaw, Joshua, <a href="#PAGE_260">260</a>.<br><br> + +Sheele, <a href="#PAGE_415">415</a>.<br><br> + +Sheet metal ware, <a href="#PAGE_250">250</a>.<br><br> + +Shells, <a href="#PAGE_264">264</a>.<br><br> + +Shingle making, <a href="#PAGE_350">350</a>.<br><br> + +Shinar, Brick making in, <a href="#PAGE_457">457</a>.<br><br> + +Ships, war, and others, <a href="#PAGE_261">261</a>, <a href="#PAGE_343">343</a>, <a href="#PAGE_438">438</a>-<a href="#PAGE_449">449</a>.<br><br> + +Shoes and machinery, <a href="#PAGE_365">365</a>-<a href="#PAGE_371">371</a>.<br><br> + +Sholes, inventor, type writing, <a href="#PAGE_286">286</a>.<br><br> + +Shrapnel, <a href="#PAGE_259">259</a>.<br><br> + +Shuttles, <a href="#PAGE_293">293</a>. (See Textiles.)<br><br> + +Sickle, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>, <a href="#PAGE_33">33</a>.<br><br> + +Side wheel steamboats, <a href="#PAGE_85">85</a>.<br><br> + +Siemens, Dr. Werner, <a href="#PAGE_133">133</a>.<br><br> + +Siemens, Wm., Sir., <a href="#PAGE_144">144</a>, <a href="#PAGE_171">171</a>.<br><br> + +Siemens and Halske, <a href="#PAGE_144">144</a>, <a href="#PAGE_146">146</a>.<br><br> + +Siemens, C. L., <a href="#PAGE_147">147</a>, <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>, <a href="#PAGE_465">465</a>.<br><br> + +Silk making. (See Spinning.)<br><br> + +Silk, artificial. (See Glass.)<br><br> + +Silver, <a href="#PAGE_219">219</a>.<br><br> + +Singer, sewing machine, <a href="#PAGE_319">319</a>, <a href="#PAGE_320">320</a>.<br><br> + +Sinking shafts, Mode of, <a href="#PAGE_106">106</a>, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br> + +Skiving. (See Leather.)<br><br> + +Slade, J. T., <a href="#PAGE_155">155</a>.<br><br> + +Slater, Thomas, <a href="#PAGE_298">298</a>.<br><br> + +Slaughtering, <a href="#PAGE_55">55</a>.<br><br> + +Sleighs, <a href="#PAGE_430">430</a>, <a href="#PAGE_431">431</a>.<br><br> + +Slide, rest, <a href="#PAGE_243">243</a>, <a href="#PAGE_349">349</a>.<br><br> + +Slotting machines, <a href="#PAGE_245">245</a>.<br><br> + +Small arms, <a href="#PAGE_266">266</a>. (See Ordnance.)<br><br> + +Small, Jas., 1784, <a href="#PAGE_18">18</a>.<br><br> + +Smeaton, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>, <a href="#PAGE_105">105</a>.<br><br> + +Smelting, <a href="#PAGE_220">220</a>. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br> + +Smiles, Self Help, <a href="#PAGE_95">95</a>.<br><br> + +Smith & Wesson, revolvers, <a href="#PAGE_269">269</a>.<br><br> + +Snellus, <a href="#PAGE_234">234</a>.<br><br> + +Snow ploughs, <a href="#PAGE_109">109</a>.<br><br> + +Soda, pulp, <a href="#PAGE_278">278</a>.<br><br> + +Solarmeter, <a href="#PAGE_413">413</a>.<br><br> + +Solomon’s temple, <a href="#PAGE_242">242</a>.<br><br> + +Somerset, Marquis of Worcester. (See Steam.)<br><br> + +Sound, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>. (See Acoustics.)<br><br> + +Sowing, <a href="#PAGE_23">23</a>.<br><br> + +Spanish inventions, <a href="#PAGE_25">25</a>, <a href="#PAGE_75">75</a>, <a href="#PAGE_253">253</a>, <a href="#PAGE_274">274</a>, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>, <a href="#PAGE_292">292</a>.<br><br> + +Spectacles. (See Optics.)<br><br> + +Spectrum, analysis, <a href="#PAGE_60">60</a>, <a href="#PAGE_61">61</a>, <a href="#PAGE_62">62</a>, <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br> + +Spectroscope, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br> + +Speed Indicators, <a href="#PAGE_396">396</a>.<br><br> + +Spencer, gun, <a href="#PAGE_267">267</a>.<br><br> + +Spencer, metal coating, <a href="#PAGE_249">249</a>.<br><br> + +Spinet, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>.<br><br> + +Spinning, <a href="#PAGE_6">6</a>, <a href="#PAGE_292">292</a>, <a href="#PAGE_296">296</a>, <a href="#PAGE_300">300</a>. (See Textiles.)<br><br> + +“Spinning Jenny,” <a href="#PAGE_297">297</a>.<br><br> + +Spinning Mule, <a href="#PAGE_297">297</a>, <a href="#PAGE_300">300</a>.<br><br> + +“Spiritalia,” <a href="#PAGE_404">404</a>.<br><br> + +Splitting, leather, <a href="#PAGE_366">366</a>.<br><br> + +Spooling, <a href="#PAGE_302">302</a>.<br><br> + +Springfield musket, <a href="#PAGE_268">268</a>.<br><br> + +Spun glass. (See Spinning and <a href="#PAGE_474">474</a>.)<br><br> + +Stamp mills and metal working, <a href="#PAGE_236">236</a>, <a href="#PAGE_250">250</a>.<br><br> + +Standard time, <a href="#PAGE_394">394</a>.<br><br> + +Stanhope, Earl, <a href="#PAGE_282">282</a>.<br><br> + +St. Gothard tunnel, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br> + +St. Louis bridge, <a href="#PAGE_102">102</a>.<br><br> + +Steam engines, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_73">73</a> to <a href="#PAGE_95">95</a>;<br> + boilers, <a href="#PAGE_86">86</a>;<br> + heating, <a href="#PAGE_207">207</a>;<br> + pumps, <a href="#PAGE_79">79</a>, <a href="#PAGE_81">81</a>, <a href="#PAGE_88">88</a>.<br><br> + +Steam ships, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>, <a href="#PAGE_84">84</a>, <a href="#PAGE_85">85</a>, <a href="#PAGE_440">440</a>.<br><br> + +Stearns, <a href="#PAGE_145">145</a>.<br><br> + +Steel, manufacture of. (See Metallurgy.)<br><br> + +Steinheil, <a href="#PAGE_126">126</a>, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br> + +Steinway, pianos, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>.<br><br> + +Stenographing, <a href="#PAGE_290">290</a>.<br><br> + +Stereoscope, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>, <a href="#PAGE_411">411</a>.<br><br> + +Stereotyping, <a href="#PAGE_281">281</a>.<br><br> + +Sterilisation, <a href="#PAGE_54">54</a>, <a href="#PAGE_213">213</a>.<br><br> + +Stephenson, Geo., <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>, <a href="#PAGE_84">84</a>, <a href="#PAGE_85">85</a>, <a href="#PAGE_98">98</a>.<br><br> + +Stephenson, Robert, <a href="#PAGE_98">98</a>, <a href="#PAGE_100">100</a>, <a href="#PAGE_101">101</a>, <a href="#PAGE_155">155</a>.<br><br> + +Stevens, John C., <a href="#PAGE_84">84</a>, <a href="#PAGE_85">85</a>, <a href="#PAGE_86">86</a>, <a href="#PAGE_443">443</a>.<br><br> + +Stevinus, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>.<br><br> + +Stitching machines. (See Sewing.)<br><br> + +Stocking making, <a href="#PAGE_307">307</a>.<br><br> + +Stone cutting, carving and dressing, <a href="#PAGE_374">374</a>, <a href="#PAGE_375">375</a>.<br><br> + +Stone crushing, <a href="#PAGE_376">376</a>.<br><br> + +Stone, artificial, <a href="#PAGE_468">468</a>.<br><br> + +Storage battery, <a href="#PAGE_120">120</a>.<br><br> + +Storm, W. M. (Gunpowder Engine,) <a href="#PAGE_192">192</a>.<br><br> + +Store service, <a href="#PAGE_152">152</a>, <a href="#PAGE_153">153</a>, <a href="#PAGE_158">158</a>, <a href="#PAGE_159">159</a>.<br><br> + +Stoves, <a href="#PAGE_200">200</a>-<a href="#PAGE_206">206</a>.<br><br> + +Street, Robert, <a href="#PAGE_185">185</a>.<br><br> + +Street sweeping, <a href="#PAGE_331">331</a>.<br><br> + +Stow, <a href="#PAGE_350">350</a>.<br><br> + +Stückofen, metallurgy, <a href="#PAGE_224">224</a>.<br><br> + +Sturgeon, inventor, <a href="#PAGE_122">122</a>, <a href="#PAGE_123">123</a>, <a href="#PAGE_124">124</a>.<br><br> + +Sturtevant, B. F. (shoes), <a href="#PAGE_368">368</a>.<br><br> + +Submarine blasting, etc., <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br> + +Suez canal, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br> + +Sugar, <a href="#PAGE_69">69</a>.<br><br> + +Sun-dial, <a href="#PAGE_384">384</a>.<br><br> + +Subdivision of labor, <a href="#PAGE_392">392</a>. (See Ordnance and Sewing Machines.)<br><br> + +Surgery and instruments, <a href="#PAGE_70">70</a>.<br><br> + +Suspension bridges, <a href="#PAGE_95">95</a>, <a href="#PAGE_96">96</a>-<a href="#PAGE_100">100</a>.<br><br> + +Swan, light, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br> + +Sweden, <a href="#PAGE_266">266</a>.<br><br> + +Sweeping machines, <a href="#PAGE_331">331</a>.<br><br> + +Swiss manufactures, (See Watches, etc.)<br><br> + +Switzerland, <a href="#PAGE_16">16</a>, <a href="#PAGE_46">46</a>, <a href="#PAGE_391">391</a>.<br><br> + +Symington, <a href="#PAGE_81">81</a>, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>, <a href="#PAGE_85">85</a>.<br><br> + +Syphon recorder, <a href="#PAGE_139">139</a>.<br><br> + + +<br><b>T.</b><br><br> + +T-rail, <a href="#PAGE_108">108</a>.<br><br> + +Tables, <a href="#PAGE_354">354</a>. (See Furniture.)<br><br> + +Tachenius, <a href="#PAGE_58">58</a>.<br><br> + +Tack making, <a href="#PAGE_344">344</a>.<br><br> + +Tainter, C. S., <a href="#PAGE_408">408</a>, <a href="#PAGE_414">414</a>.<br><br> + +Takamine, <a href="#PAGE_68">68</a>.<br><br> + +Talus, or Perdix, saw inventor, <a href="#PAGE_340">340</a>.<br><br> + +Tanning. (See Leather.)<br><br> + +Tapestry, <a href="#PAGE_275">275</a>.<br><br> + +Teasling, <a href="#PAGE_306">306</a>.<br><br> + +Tedders, <a href="#PAGE_40">40</a>.<br><br> + +Telegraph, <a href="#PAGE_124">124</a>-<a href="#PAGE_128">128</a>, <a href="#PAGE_139">139</a>, <a href="#PAGE_140">140</a>.<br><br> + +Telegraphic pictures, <a href="#PAGE_419">419</a>.<br><br> + +Telephone, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>, <a href="#PAGE_140">140</a>, <a href="#PAGE_141">141</a>, <a href="#PAGE_142">142</a>, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>.<br><br> + +Telescope, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>, <a href="#PAGE_409">409</a>.<br><br> + +Telpherage, <a href="#PAGE_144">144</a>.<br><br> + +Telford, <a href="#PAGE_95">95</a>, <a href="#PAGE_96">96</a>.<br><br> + +Tennyson, <a href="#PAGE_67">67</a>.<br><br> + +Tesla, <a href="#PAGE_145">145</a>.<br><br> + +Testing machines, <a href="#PAGE_398">398</a>.<br><br> + +Textiles, <a href="#PAGE_292">292</a>-<a href="#PAGE_309">309</a>.<br><br> + +Thermo-electricity, <a href="#PAGE_112">112</a>, <a href="#PAGE_120">120</a>.<br><br> + +Theodore of Samos, <a href="#PAGE_340">340</a>.<br><br> + +Thimonnier, <a href="#PAGE_313">313</a>.<br><br> + +Thomson, Sir Wm., <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>, <a href="#PAGE_139">139</a>.<br><br> + +Thompson, Robt. Wm., <a href="#PAGE_433">433</a>, <a href="#PAGE_435">435</a>.<br><br> + +Thompson & Houston, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br> + +“Three color process,” <a href="#PAGE_417">417</a>.<br><br> + +Thread making. (See Spinning.)<br><br> + +Threshing machines, <a href="#PAGE_40">40</a>, <a href="#PAGE_41">41</a>.<br><br> + +Throstle, <a href="#PAGE_296">296</a>.<br><br> + +Thurston, Prof. R. H., <a href="#PAGE_86">86</a>.<br><br> + +Tiles, <a href="#PAGE_350">350</a>.<br><br> + +Tilghman, B. F., sand blast, <a href="#PAGE_332">332</a>, <a href="#PAGE_475">475</a>.<br><br> + +Time locks, <a href="#PAGE_425">425</a>.<br><br> + +Time measuring of the ancients, <a href="#PAGE_384">384</a>.<br><br> + +Tissier, <a href="#PAGE_238">238</a>.<br><br> + +Tobacco and machinery, <a href="#PAGE_55">55</a>, <a href="#PAGE_56">56</a>, <a href="#PAGE_57">57</a>.<br><br> + +Tools, primitive, <a href="#PAGE_310">310</a>, <a href="#PAGE_328">328</a>, <a href="#PAGE_339">339</a>.<br><br> + +Torpedo vessels, <a href="#PAGE_271">271</a>, <a href="#PAGE_445">445</a>.<br><br> + +Torpedoes, <a href="#PAGE_271">271</a>.<br><br> + +Torricelli, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>, <a href="#PAGE_183">183</a>.<br><br> + +Tour, Cagniard de la, <a href="#PAGE_65">65</a>.<br><br> + +Towne’s lattice bridge, <a href="#PAGE_103">103</a>.<br><br> + +Traction railways and engines, <a href="#PAGE_436">436</a>.<br><br> + +Transplanters, <a href="#PAGE_29">29</a>.<br><br> + +Transportation, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>, <a href="#PAGE_109">109</a>.<br><br> + +Treadwell, Daniel, <a href="#PAGE_284">284</a>.<br><br> + +Tresca, M., <a href="#PAGE_247">247</a>.<br><br> + +Trevithick, Richard, <a href="#PAGE_81">81</a>, <a href="#PAGE_82">82</a>.<br><br> + +Tripler, C. E., liquid air, <a href="#PAGE_216">216</a>.<br><br> + +Trolley lines. (See Electric, etc.)<br><br> + +Trough batteries. (See Electricity.)<br><br> + +Truss bridges, <a href="#PAGE_102">102</a>, <a href="#PAGE_103">103</a>.<br><br> + +Tubal Cain, <a href="#PAGE_218">218</a>, <a href="#PAGE_239">239</a>.<br><br> + +Tubes and tubing, making, <a href="#PAGE_248">248</a>.<br><br> + +Tubular bridges, <a href="#PAGE_100">100</a>, <a href="#PAGE_102">102</a>.<br><br> + +Tull, Jethro, 1680-1740, <a href="#PAGE_14">14</a>, <a href="#PAGE_25">25</a>.<br><br> + +Tungsten. (See Metals.)<br><br> + +Tunnels, <a href="#PAGE_106">106</a>, <a href="#PAGE_107">107</a>.<br><br> + +Turbines, <a href="#PAGE_89">89</a>, <a href="#PAGE_168">168</a>, <a href="#PAGE_171">171</a>, <a href="#PAGE_172">172</a>.<br><br> + +Turning, Art of, <a href="#PAGE_242">242</a>, <a href="#PAGE_339">339</a>, <a href="#PAGE_344">344</a>.<br><br> + +Tusser, Thomas, <a href="#PAGE_14">14</a>.<br><br> + +Tweddle, <a href="#PAGE_176">176</a>.<br><br> + +Twine binders. (See Harvesters.)<br><br> + +Twinings (inventor, refrigerator), <a href="#PAGE_215">215</a>.<br><br> + +Tympanum, <a href="#PAGE_164">164</a>.<br><br> + +Tyndall, John, <a href="#PAGE_411">411</a>, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br> + +Type, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>, <a href="#PAGE_281">281</a>.<br><br> + +Type Distributor, <a href="#PAGE_279">279</a>.<br><br> + +Type setter, <a href="#PAGE_278">278</a>, <a href="#PAGE_279">279</a>.<br><br> + +Type writers, <a href="#PAGE_6">6</a>, <a href="#PAGE_286">286</a>.<br><br> + + +<br><b>V.</b><br><br> + +Vail, Alfred, <a href="#PAGE_126">126</a>.<br><br> + +Valerius, <a href="#PAGE_388">388</a>.<br><br> + +Valves, valve gear, <a href="#PAGE_87">87</a>, <a href="#PAGE_89">89</a>.<br><br> + +Vapor engines, <a href="#PAGE_190">190</a>-<a href="#PAGE_192">192</a>.<br><br> + +Vapor stoves, <a href="#PAGE_200">200</a>-<a href="#PAGE_206">206</a>, <a href="#PAGE_212">212</a>.<br><br> + +Varley, Alfred, <a href="#PAGE_133">133</a>.<br><br> + +Varro, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>.<br><br> + +Vegetable cutters, <a href="#PAGE_51">51</a>.<br><br> + +Velocipedes, <a href="#PAGE_431">431</a>.<br><br> + +Venetians, <a href="#PAGE_280">280</a>.<br><br> + +Ventilation, <a href="#PAGE_209">209</a>.<br><br> + +Veneering, <a href="#PAGE_351">351</a>.<br><br> + +Vestibule cars, <a href="#PAGE_437">437</a>.<br><br> + +Vick, Henry de, clockmaker, <a href="#PAGE_387">387</a>.<br><br> + +Victoria bridge. (See Bridges.)<br><br> + +Vienna, <a href="#PAGE_38">38</a>.<br><br> + +Vienna exposition, <a href="#PAGE_348">348</a>.<br><br> + +Vince, Leonardo de, <a href="#PAGE_75">75</a>.<br><br> + +Virgil, <a href="#PAGE_32">32</a>.<br><br> + +Virginal, <a href="#PAGE_6">6</a>, <a href="#PAGE_402">402</a>.<br><br> + +Vitruvius, <a href="#PAGE_227">227</a>.<br><br> + +Volta, voltaic electricity, <a href="#PAGE_112">112</a>, <a href="#PAGE_117">117</a>, <a href="#PAGE_118">118</a>, <a href="#PAGE_112">112</a> to <a href="#PAGE_120">120</a>, <a href="#PAGE_125">125</a>, <a href="#PAGE_133">133</a>, <a href="#PAGE_134">134</a>, <a href="#PAGE_249">249</a>.<br><br> + +Von Alteneck, H., <a href="#PAGE_138">138</a>.<br><br> + +Von Drais, <a href="#PAGE_432">432</a>.<br><br> + +Vortex theory, <a href="#PAGE_2">2</a>;<br> + Vortex wheel, <a href="#PAGE_171">171</a>.<br><br> + +Voting machines, <a href="#PAGE_395">395</a>.<br><br> + +Vulcan, <a href="#PAGE_246">246</a>.<br><br> + +Vulcanisation. (See Rubber.)<br><br> + + +<br><b>W.</b><br><br> + +Waggons, <a href="#PAGE_431">431</a>.<br><br> + +Walker, John (matches), <a href="#PAGE_200">200</a>.<br><br> + +Walker, Joseph, <a href="#PAGE_367">367</a>.<br><br> + +Wales, Thos. C., <a href="#PAGE_477">477</a>.<br><br> + +Wallace and Maxim, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br> + +Wall paper, <a href="#PAGE_275">275</a>, <a href="#PAGE_279">279</a>.<br><br> + +Walter, John, <a href="#PAGE_285">285</a>.<br><br> + +Watches, <a href="#PAGE_391">391</a>. (See Clocks.)<br><br> + +Waltham watches, <a href="#PAGE_393">393</a>.<br><br> + +War, effect on by inventions, <a href="#PAGE_271">271</a>, <a href="#PAGE_272">272</a>.<br><br> + +Washington, <a href="#PAGE_15">15</a>, <a href="#PAGE_16">16</a>.<br><br> + +Washing and ironing machines, <a href="#PAGE_335">335</a>-<a href="#PAGE_338">338</a>.<br><br> + +Wasp, first paper maker, <a href="#PAGE_273">273</a>.<br><br> + +Watches. (See Horology.)<br><br> + +Water. (See Hydraulics.)<br><br> + +Water clocks, <a href="#PAGE_385">385</a>, <a href="#PAGE_386">386</a>.<br><br> + +Water closets, <a href="#PAGE_178">178</a>.<br><br> + +Water distribution, <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>, <a href="#PAGE_178">178</a>;<br> + gas, <a href="#PAGE_454">454</a>.<br><br> + +Water wheels, <a href="#PAGE_165">165</a>;<br> + mills, <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>;<br> + engines, <a href="#PAGE_178">178</a>.<br><br> + +Water frame. (See Spinning.)<br><br> + +Water metres, <a href="#PAGE_178">178</a>;<br> + scoops, <a href="#PAGE_178">178</a>.<br><br> + +Watts’ Dictionary of Chemistry, <a href="#PAGE_59">59</a>.<br><br> + +Watt, James, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_8">8</a>, <a href="#PAGE_78">78</a>, <a href="#PAGE_79">79</a>, <a href="#PAGE_80">80</a>, <a href="#PAGE_81">81</a>, <a href="#PAGE_86">86</a>, <a href="#PAGE_154">154</a>, <a href="#PAGE_167">167</a>, <a href="#PAGE_170">170</a>, <a href="#PAGE_176">176</a>, <a href="#PAGE_182">182</a>, <a href="#PAGE_203">203</a>, <a href="#PAGE_206">206</a>, <a href="#PAGE_296">296</a>, <a href="#PAGE_341">341</a>, <a href="#PAGE_460">460</a>.<br><br> + +Watson, Bishop, <a href="#PAGE_451">451</a>.<br><br> + +Weaving, <a href="#PAGE_6">6</a>, <a href="#PAGE_292">292</a>, <a href="#PAGE_304">304</a>. (See Textiles.)<br><br> + +Weaver’s shuttle, <a href="#PAGE_307">307</a>.<br><br> + +Weber piano, <a href="#PAGE_403">403</a>.<br><br> + +Webster, Daniel, <a href="#PAGE_91">91</a>.<br><br> + +Wedgwood, <a href="#PAGE_459">459</a>, <a href="#PAGE_460">460</a>, <a href="#PAGE_464">464</a>.<br><br> + +Weeks, Jos., <a href="#PAGE_364">364</a>.<br><br> + +Weighing, scales, etc., <a href="#PAGE_396">396</a>, <a href="#PAGE_397">397</a>, <a href="#PAGE_398">398</a>.<br><br> + +Weisenthal, C. F., <a href="#PAGE_310">310</a>, <a href="#PAGE_312">312</a>.<br><br> + +Welding, <a href="#PAGE_248">248</a>.<br><br> + +Wellington, Duke of, <a href="#PAGE_83">83</a>.<br><br> + +Wells, making and boring of, <a href="#PAGE_373">373</a>, <a href="#PAGE_379">379</a>-<a href="#PAGE_383">383</a>;<br> + driven, <a href="#PAGE_382">382</a>;<br> + Artesian, <a href="#PAGE_381">381</a>.<br><br> + +Welsbach lamp, <a href="#PAGE_456">456</a>.<br><br> + +Westinghouse, electric light, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>, <a href="#PAGE_138">138</a>.<br><br> + +Weston, Sir Richard, <a href="#PAGE_14">14</a>.<br><br> + +Weston, electrician, <a href="#PAGE_137">137</a>.<br><br> + +West (destroyer of bacteria), <a href="#PAGE_213">213</a>.<br><br> + +Whaleback ships, <a href="#PAGE_438">438</a>.<br><br> + +Wheat, its cultivation, <a href="#PAGE_25">25</a>, <a href="#PAGE_26">26</a>.<br><br> + +Wheatstone, Chas., <a href="#PAGE_127">127</a>, <a href="#PAGE_133">133</a>, <a href="#PAGE_146">146</a>, <a href="#PAGE_147">147</a>, <a href="#PAGE_410">410</a>.<br><br> + +Wheeler and Wilson, <a href="#PAGE_319">319</a>.<br><br> + +Wheelbarrow, seeder, <a href="#PAGE_24">24</a>.<br><br> + +Whewell, <a href="#PAGE_166">166</a>.<br><br> + +Whitehurst, Geo., <a href="#PAGE_168">168</a>.<br><br> + +Whitney, Eli, cotton gin, <a href="#PAGE_42">42</a>, <a href="#PAGE_43">43</a>, <a href="#PAGE_297">297</a>.<br><br> + +Whitworth, Sir J., <a href="#PAGE_244">244</a>, <a href="#PAGE_246">246</a>, <a href="#PAGE_263">263</a>.<br><br> + +Wilde, electric magnet, <a href="#PAGE_133">133</a>.<br><br> + +Wilder, safes, <a href="#PAGE_421">421</a>.<br><br> + +Wilkes, <a href="#PAGE_277">277</a>.<br><br> + +William of Malmesbury, <a href="#PAGE_75">75</a>.<br><br> + +Wilson, A. B., sewing machinery, <a href="#PAGE_319">319</a>.<br><br> + +Wilson, Genl. John M., <a href="#PAGE_180">180</a>.<br><br> + +Winchester rifle, <a href="#PAGE_267">267</a>.<br><br> + +Wind mills, wheels, etc., <a href="#PAGE_404">404</a>. (See Mills.)<br><br> + +Window glass, window screens, <a href="#PAGE_359">359</a>.<br><br> + +Wine making. (See Chemistry.)<br><br> + +Winter, Sir John, <a href="#PAGE_225">225</a>.<br><br> + +Wire working, <a href="#PAGE_250">250</a>.<br><br> + +Wire wound gun, <a href="#PAGE_263">263</a>.<br><br> + +Wireless telegraphy, <a href="#PAGE_150">150</a>, <a href="#PAGE_151">151</a>.<br><br> + +Wolf, aeronaut, <a href="#PAGE_447">447</a>.<br><br> + +Wöhler, chemist, <a href="#PAGE_238">238</a>.<br><br> + +Wollaston, <a href="#PAGE_60">60</a>, <a href="#PAGE_249">249</a>, <a href="#PAGE_412">412</a>.<br><br> + +Woodbridge, Dr. W. E., <a href="#PAGE_262">262</a>, <a href="#PAGE_263">263</a>.<br><br> + +Woodbury, Oscar D. and E. C., <a href="#PAGE_330">330</a>.<br><br> + +Woodworth, Wm., planing machinery, <a href="#PAGE_349">349</a>.<br><br> + +Wood, lathe turning, <a href="#PAGE_344">344</a>.<br><br> + +Wood, bending and trenting of, <a href="#PAGE_347">347</a>, <a href="#PAGE_352">352</a>, <a href="#PAGE_356">356</a>.<br><br> + +Wood working machinery, <a href="#PAGE_242">242</a>, <a href="#PAGE_339">339</a>, <a href="#PAGE_352">352</a>, <a href="#PAGE_369">369</a>.<br><br> + +Woods, variety and beauty, <a href="#PAGE_352">352</a>.<br><br> + +Wood carving, <a href="#PAGE_346">346</a>.<br><br> + +Wool. (See Spinning, Weaving, Textiles.)<br><br> + +Wool, mineral, <a href="#PAGE_474">474</a>, <a href="#PAGE_480">480</a>.<br><br> + +Wooden shoes, making of, <a href="#PAGE_367">367</a>.<br><br> + +Worcester, Marquis of, <a href="#PAGE_5">5</a>, <a href="#PAGE_75">75</a>, <a href="#PAGE_77">77</a>, <a href="#PAGE_81">81</a>.<br><br> + +Work shop, a modern, <a href="#PAGE_251">251</a>.<br><br> + +World’s fair, 1851, <a href="#PAGE_36">36</a>, <a href="#PAGE_38">38</a>.<br><br> + +Woven goods, variety of, <a href="#PAGE_308">308</a>, <a href="#PAGE_309">309</a>.<br><br> + +Wright (gas engine), <a href="#PAGE_188">188</a>.<br><br> + +Wren, architect, <a href="#PAGE_209">209</a>.<br><br> + +Wyatt of Lichfield, <a href="#PAGE_294">294</a>, <a href="#PAGE_295">295</a>.<br><br> + + +<br><b>X.</b><br><br> + +X rays, <a href="#PAGE_149">149</a>, <a href="#PAGE_150">150</a>.<br><br> + +Xyloplasty, <a href="#PAGE_347">347</a>.<br><br> + + +<br><b>Y.</b><br><br> + +Yale, Linus, Jr., locks, <a href="#PAGE_425">425</a>.<br><br> + +Yankee clippers, <a href="#PAGE_438">438</a>.<br><br> + +Yarn. (See Weaving, etc.)<br><br> + +Yeast, <a href="#PAGE_65">65</a>.<br><br> + +York, Duke of, <a href="#PAGE_124">124</a>, <a href="#PAGE_125">125</a>.<br><br> + +Young of America, <a href="#PAGE_63">63</a>, <a href="#PAGE_417">417</a>.<br><br> + +Young, Arthur, 1741-1800, <a href="#PAGE_14">14</a>, <a href="#PAGE_15">15</a>.<br><br> + +Youmans, Prof., <a href="#PAGE_450">450</a>.<br><br> + + +<br><b>Z.</b><br><br> + +Zanon, 1764, <a href="#PAGE_24">24</a>.<br><br> + +Zech, Jacob, <a href="#PAGE_388">388</a>.<br><br> + +Zeppelin, Count, <a href="#PAGE_446">446</a>.<br><br> + +Zimmermann, self-playing pianos, <a href="#PAGE_406">406</a>.<br><br> + +Zinc, <a href="#PAGE_236">236</a>.<br><br> + +Zinc batteries. (See Electricity.)<br><br> +</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 80%;"> +<h2>THE NINETEENTH CENTURY SERIES.</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Price 5s. each net.</i></p> + +<table class="autotable"> +<tr> +<td>Religious Progress in the Century.</td> +<td class="padLeft">By W. H. Withrow, M. A., D. D., F. R. S. C.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Literature of the Century.</td> +<td class="padLeft">By Professor A. B. de Mille, M. A.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Progress of South Africa in the Century.</td> +<td class="padLeft">By George McCall Theal, D. Lit., LL. D.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Medicine, Surgery, and Hygiene in the Century.</td> +<td class="padLeft">By Ezra Hurlburt Stafford, M. D.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Progress of India, Japan, and China in the Century.</td> +<td class="padLeft">By Sir Richard Temple, Bart., LL. D., &c.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Progress of the United States of America in the Century.</td> +<td class="padLeft">By Prof. Wm. Peterfield Trent, M. A., LL. D.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Continental Rulers in the Century.</td> +<td class="padLeft">By Percy M. Thornton, LL. B., M. P.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>British Sovereigns in the Century.</td> +<td class="padLeft">By T. H. S. Escott, M. A.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Progress of British Empire in the Century.</td> +<td class="padLeft">By James Stanley Little.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Progress of Canada in the Century.</td> +<td class="padLeft">By J. Castell Hopkins, F. S. S.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Progress of Australasia in the Century.</td> +<td class="padLeft">By T. A. Coghlan, F. S. S., and Thomas T. Ewing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Progress of New Zealand in the Century.</td> +<td class="padLeft">By R. F. Irvine, M. A., and O. T. J. Alpers, M. A.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Political Progress of the Century.</td> +<td class="padLeft">By Thomas Macknight.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Discoveries and Explorations of the Century.</td> +<td class="padLeft">By Professor C. G. D. Roberts, M. A.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Economic and Industrial Progress of the Century.</td> +<td class="padLeft">By H. de Beltgens Gibbins, D. Lit., M. A., F. R. G. S.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Inventions of the Century.</td> +<td class="padLeft">By William H. Doolittle.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Wars of the Century, and the Development of Military Science.</td> +<td class="padLeft">By Professor Oscar Browning, M. A.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Naval Battles of the Century.</td> +<td class="padLeft">By Rear-Admiral Francis John Higginson.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Naval Development of the Century.</td> +<td class="padLeft">By Sir Nathaniel Barnaby, K. C. B.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Presidents of the United States in the Century (from Jefferson to Fillmore).</td> +<td class="padLeft">By Francis Bellamy.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Presidents of the United States in the Century (from Pierce to McKinley).</td> +<td class="padLeft">Francis Knowles.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>The Fine Arts in the Century.</td> +<td class="padLeft">By William Sharp.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Progress of Education in the Century.</td> +<td class="padLeft">By James Laughlin Hughes and Louis R. Klemm, Ph. 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