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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:06:31 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:06:31 -0700 |
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diff --git a/36768-h/36768-h.htm b/36768-h/36768-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b964a1f --- /dev/null +++ b/36768-h/36768-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,10438 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Triumphs of Invention and Discovery in Art and Science, by J. Hamilton Fyfe. + </title> + + <style type="text/css"> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + +h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; +} + +h2.primary { font-family:sans-serif; } + +p { + margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; +} + +ul { list-style-type: none; } + +ul.TOC { + position: relative; + left: -3%; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + width: 50%; +} + +.chapterTOC { + font-weight:bold; + list-style-type: upper-roman; + margin-left: 30%; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; +} + +li.chapter { + margin-top: 1.5em; + text-align: center; +} + +span.ralign { /* use absolute positioning to move page# right */ + position: absolute; + right: 0; /* right edge against container's right edge */ + top: auto; /* vertical align to original text baseline */ +} +.floatright {float:right;} + +hr { + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; +} + +hr.cb { width: 80%; } +hr.tb { width: 35%; } + +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} + +.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; +} /* page numbers */ + +.blockquot { + margin-left: 5%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + +.ads { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + +.center {text-align: center;} +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +img.cap { float:left; + margin: 0 0.5em 0 0; + position:relative; } +p.cap_1 { text-indent: -1em; } +div.drop p:first-letter { color:Window; } +div.drop p { margin-bottom:0; } + +p.adscap:first-letter { + vertical-align:text-top; + float: left; clear: left; + margin: 0 0.1em 0 0; + padding:0; + line-height: 1.2em; font-size: 150%; } + +.caption {font-weight: bold;} +.pageref {float:right; font-weight:normal; font-size:smaller;} + +/* Images */ +.figcenter { + margin: auto; + margin-bottom: 1.5em; + text-align: center; +} + +.figleft { + float: left; + clear: left; + margin-left: 0; + margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-right: 1em; + padding: 0; + text-align: center; +} + +.figright { + float: right; + clear: right; + margin-left: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-right: 0; + padding: 0; + text-align: center; +} + +/* Footnotes */ +.footnotes {border: dashed 1px; padding: 2em;} + +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: + none; +} + +/* Poetry */ +.poem { + text-align: left; + margin-left:30%; + margin-right:30%; +} +.poem br {display: none;} +.poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + +.poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em;} +.poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em;} +.poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em;} +.poem span.i6 {display: block; margin-left: 6em;} +.poem span.i10 {display: block; margin-left: 10em;} + +a,img { border: none; text-decoration: none; } + +.tnote { width: 40em; + border: 1px dashed #808080; + background-color: #f6f6f6; + text-align: justify; + padding: 0.5em; + margin: 80px auto 80px auto; +} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Triumphs of Invention and Discovery in Art +and Science, by J. Hamilton Fyfe + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Triumphs of Invention and Discovery in Art and Science + +Author: J. Hamilton Fyfe + +Release Date: July 17, 2011 [EBook #36768] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TRIUMPHS *** + + + + +Produced by Sharon Joiner, Jana Srna, Bill Keir, Erica +Pfister-Altschul and the Online Distributed Proofreading +Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from +images generously made available by The Internet +Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 312px;"> + <a href="images/cover-800.jpg"> + <img src="images/cover.jpg" width="312" height="500" alt="" title="" /></a> +</div> + +<h1>TRIUMPHS OF<br /> +INVENTION AND DISCOVERY<br /> +IN ART AND SCIENCE.</h1> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 398px;"> +<a href="images/fig-frontispiece-1200.png"> +<img src="images/fig-frontispiece-600.png" width="398" height="600" alt="" title="" /> +</a> +<span class="caption">GEORGE STEPHENSON'S HOME.<br /> +<span class="pageref">Page 120</span></span> +</div> + + +<hr class="cb" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/header-tp.png" width="400" height="108" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h1>TRIUMPHS OF<br /> +INVENTION AND DISCOVERY<br /> +IN ART AND SCIENCE.</h1> + +<h4>BY</h4> +<h2>J. HAMILTON FYFE.</h2> + +<h4>"PEACE HATH HER VICTORIES NO LESS THAN WAR."</h4> + +<h3>LONDON:<br /> +T. NELSON AND SONS, PATERNOSTER ROW;<br /> +EDINBURGH; AND NEW YORK.</h3> + +<h4>1871.</h4> + + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/header-v.png" width="600" height="117" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 175px;"> +<a name="Preface" id="Preface"></a> +<img src="images/title-preface.png" width="175" height="34" alt="Preface" title="" /> +</div> + + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"<i>Peace hath her victories, no less renowned than war.</i>"—<span class="smcap">Milton.</span></span> +</div></div> + + +<p>It is not difficult to account for the pre-eminence, +generally assigned to the victories of war over the +victories of peace in popular history. The noise and +ostentation which attend the former, the air of +romance which surrounds them,—lay firm hold of +the imagination, while the directness and rapidity +with which, in such transactions, the effect follows +the cause, invest them with a peculiar charm for +simple and superficial observers. As Schiller says,—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i10">"Straight forward goes</span><br /> +<span class="i0">The lightning's path, and straight the fearful path</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Of the cannon ball. Direct it flies, and rapid,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Shattering that it <i>may</i> reach, and shattering what it reaches.</span><br /> +<span class="i0">My son! the road the human being travels,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">That on which blessing comes and goes, doth follow</span><br /> +<span class="i0">The river's course, the valley's playful windings:</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Curves round the corn-field and the hill of vines,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Honouring the holy bounds of property!</span><br /> +<span class="i0">And thus secure, though late, leads to its end."</span> +</div></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span> +The path of peace is long and devious, now dwindling +into a mere foot-track, now lost to sight in some +dense thicket; and the heroes who pursue it are often +mocked at by the crowd as poor, half-witted souls, +wandering either aimlessly or in foolish chase of +some Jack o' lantern that ever recedes before them. +The goal they aim at seems to the common eye so +visionary, and their progress towards it so imperceptible,—and +even when reached, it takes so long +before the benefits of their achievement are generally +recognised,—that it is perhaps no wonder we should +be more attracted by the stirring narratives of war, +than by the sad, simple histories of the great pioneers +of industry and science.</p> + +<p>Picturesque and imposing as deeds of arms appear, +the victories of peace—the development of great +discoveries and inventions, the performance of serene +acts of beneficence, the achievements of social reform—possess +a deeper interest and a truer romance for +the seeing eye and the understanding heart. Wounds +and death have to be encountered in the struggles +of peace as well as in the contests of war; and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span> +peace has her martyrs as well as her heroes. The +story of the cotton-spinning invention is at once as +tragic and romantic as the story of the Peninsular +war. There were "forlorn hopes" of brave men in +both; but in the one case they were cheered by sympathy +and association, in the other the desperate +pioneers had to face a world of foes, "alone, unfriended, +solitary, slow."</p> + +<p>The following pages contain sketches of some of +the more momentous victories of peace, and the +heroes who took part in them. The reader need +hardly be reminded that this brief list does not +exhaust the catalogue either of such events or persons, +and that only a few of a representative character +are here selected.</p> + +<p>In the present edition the different sections have +been carefully revised, and the details brought down +to the latest possible date.</p> + +<p class="floatright">J. H. F.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/footer-vii.png" width="300" height="98" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + + + +<hr class="cb" /> + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/header-ix.png" width="600" height="116" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 175px;"> +<img src="images/title-contents.png" width="175" height="28" alt="Contents." title="" /> +</div> + + +<ul class="TOC"> +<li><a href="#The_Art_of_Printing"> +<span class="smcap">The Art of Printing</span></a>— + <ul> + <li>1. <a href="#JOHN_GUTENBERG">John Gutenberg</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></span></li> + <li>2. <a href="#WILLIAM_CAXTON">William Caxton</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></span></li> + <li>3. <a href="#THE_PRINTING_MACHINE">The Printing Machine</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></span></li> + </ul></li> + +<li><a href="#The_Steam_Engine"> +<span class="smcap">The Steam Engine</span></a>— + <ul> + <li>1. <a href="#THE_MARQUIS_OF_WORCESTER">The Marquis of Worcester, and his Successors,</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></span></li> + <li>2. <a href="#JAMES_WATT">James Watt</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></span></li> + </ul></li> + +<li><a href="#The_Manufacture_of_Cotton"> +<span class="smcap">The Manufacture of Cotton</span></a>— + <ul> + <li>1. <a href="#KAY_AND_HARGREAVES">Kay and Hargreaves</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></span></li> + <li>2. <a href="#SIR_RICHARD_ARKWRIGHT">Sir Richard Arkwright</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></span></li> + <li>3. <a href="#SAMUEL_CROMPTON">Samuel Crompton</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></span></li> + <li>4. <a href="#DR_CARTWRIGHT">Dr. Cartwright</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></span></li> + <li>5. <a href="#SIR_ROBERT_PEEL">Sir Robert Peel</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></span></li> + </ul></li> + +<li><a href="#The_Railway_and_the_Locomotive"> +<span class="smcap">The Railway and the Locomotive</span></a>— + <ul> + <li>1. "<a href="#THE_FLYING_COACH">The Flying Coach</a>," + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></span></li> + <li>2. <a href="#THE_STEPHENSONS_FATHER_AND_SON">The Stephensons: Father and Son</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></span></li> + <li>3. <a href="#THE_GROWTH_OF_RAILWAYS">The Growth of Railways</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></span></li> + </ul></li> + +<li><a href="#The_Lighthouse"> +<span class="smcap">The Lighthouse</span></a>— + <ul> + <li>1. <a href="#THE_EDDYSTONE">The Eddystone</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></span></li> + <li>2. <a href="#THE_BELL_ROCK">The Bell Rock</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></span></li> + <li>3. <a href="#THE_SKERRYVORE">The Skerryvore</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></span></li> + </ul></li> + +<li><a href="#Steam_Navigation"> +<span class="smcap">Steam Navigation</span></a>— + <ul> + <li>1. <a href="#JAMES_SYMINGTON">James Symington</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></span></li> + <li>2. <a href="#ROBERT_FULTON">Robert Fulton</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></span></li> + <li>3. <a href="#HENRY_BELL">Henry Bell</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></span></li> + <li>4. <a href="#OCEAN_STEAMERS">Ocean Steamers</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></span></li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span></div> + +<ul class="TOC"> +<li><a href="#Iron_Manufacture"> +<span class="smcap">Iron Manufacture</span></a>— + <ul> + <li><a href="#HENRY_CORT">Henry Cort</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></span></li> + </ul></li> + +<li><a href="#The_Electric_Telegraph"> +<span class="smcap">The Electric Telegraph</span></a>— + <ul> + <li>1. <a href="#MR_COOKE">Mr. Cooke</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></span></li> + <li>2. <a href="#PROFESSOR_WHEATSTONE">Professor Wheatstone</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></span></li> + <li>3. <a href="#THE_SUBMARINE_TELEGRAPH">The Submarine Telegraph</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></span></li> + </ul></li> + +<li><a href="#The_Silk_Manufacture"> +<span class="smcap">The Silk Manufacture</span></a>— + <ul> + <li>1. <a href="#JOHN_LOMBE">John Lombe</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></span></li> + <li>2. <a href="#WILLIAM_LEE">William Lee</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></span></li> + <li>3. <a href="#JOSEPH_MARIE_JACQUARD">Joseph Marie Jacquard</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></span></li> + </ul></li> + +<li><a href="#The_Potters_Art"> +<span class="smcap">The Potter's Art</span></a>— + <ul> + <li>1. <a href="#LUCA_DELLA_ROBBIA">Luca Della Robbia</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_237">237</a></span></li> + <li>2. <a href="#BERNARD_PALISSY">Bernard Palissy</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></span></li> + <li>3. <a href="#JOSIAH_WEDGWOOD">Josiah Wedgwood</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></span></li> + </ul></li> + +<li><a href="#The_Miners_Safety_Lamp"> +<span class="smcap">The Miner's Safety Lamp</span></a>— + <ul> + <li>1. <a href="#SIR_HUMPHREY_DAVY">Sir Humphrey Davy</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_263">263</a></span></li> + <li>2. George Stephenson's Lamp, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></span></li> + </ul></li> + +<li><a href="#Penny_Postage"> +<span class="smcap">Penny Postage</span></a>— + <ul> + <li>1. Sir Rowland Hill, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_279">279</a></span></li> + <li>2. New Departments of the Postal System, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_292">292</a></span></li> + </ul></li> + +<li><a href="#The_Overland_Route"> +<span class="smcap">The Overland Route</span></a>— + <ul> + <li>1. <a href="#LIEUTENANT_WAGHORN">Lieutenant Waghorn</a>, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_299">299</a></span></li> + <li>2. The Suez Canal, + <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></span></li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/footer-x.png" width="300" height="109" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<a name="The_Art_of_Printing" id="The_Art_of_Printing"></a> +<img src="images/title-p011.png" alt="The Art of Printing." title="" /></h2> + + +<ol class="chapterTOC"> + <li> — JOHN GUTENBERG.</li> + <li> — WILLIAM CAXTON.</li> + <li> — THE PRINTING MACHINE.</li> +</ol> + + + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/header-013.png" width="600" height="117" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2 class="primary"> +<img src="images/title-p013.png" alt="The Art of Printing." title="" /></h2> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"A creature he called to wait on his will,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Half iron, half vapour—a dread to behold—</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Which evermore panted, and evermore rolled,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">And uttered his words a millionfold.</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Forth sprung they in air, down raining in dew,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">And men fed upon them, and mighty they grew."</span><br /> +<span class="floatright"><span class="smcap">Leigh Hunt</span>, <i>Sword and Pen</i>.</span> +</div> +</div> + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="JOHN_GUTENBERG" id="JOHN_GUTENBERG"></a>I.—JOHN GUTENBERG.</h2> + + +<div class="drop"> +<img src="images/dropcap-013.png" alt="S" width="80" height="164" class="cap" /> +<p class="cap_1">Some Dutch writers, inspired by a not unnatural +feeling of patriotism, have endeavoured +to claim the honour of inventing +the Art of Printing for a countryman of +their own, Laurence Coster of Haarlem. +Their sole reliance, however, is upon the statements +of one Hadrian Junius, who was born at Horn, in +North Holland, in 1511. About 1575 he wrote a +work, entitled "Batavia," in which the account of +Coster first appeared. And, as an unimpeachable +authority has remarked, almost every succeeding +advocate of Coster's pretensions has taken the liberty +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +of altering, amplifying, or contradicting the account +of Junius, according as it might suit his own line of +argument; but not one of them has succeeded in +producing a solitary fact in confirmation of it. The +accounts which are given of Coster's discovery by +Junius and his successors present many contradictory +features. Thus Junius says: "Walking in a neighbouring +wood, as citizens are accustomed to do after +dinner and on holidays, he began to cut letters of +beech-bark, with which, for amusement—the letters +being inverted as on a seal—he impressed short +sentences on paper for the children of his son-in-law." +A later writer, Scriverius, is more imaginative: +"Coster," he says, "walking in the wood, +picked up a small bough of a beech, or rather of an +oak-tree, blown off by the wind; and after amusing +himself with cutting some letters on it, wrapped it +up in paper, and afterwards laid himself down to +sleep. When he awoke, he perceived that the paper, +by a shower of rain or some accident having got +moist, had received an impression from these letters; +which induced him to pursue the accidental discovery."</p> +</div> + +<p>Not only are these accounts evidently deficient in +authenticity, but it should be remarked that the +earliest of them was not put before the world until +Laurence Coster had been nearly a hundred and fifty + +years in his grave. The presumed writer of the +narrative which first did justice to his memory had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +been also twelve years dead when his book was +published. His information, or rather the information +brought forward under cover of his name, was +derived from an old man who, when a boy, had +heard it from another old man who lived with Coster +at the time of the robbery, and who had heard the +account of the invention from his master. For, to +explain the fact of the early appearance of +typography in Germany, the Dutch writers are forced to +the hypothesis that an apprentice of Coster's stole +all his master's types and utensils, fleeing with them +first to Amsterdam, second to Cologne, and lastly to +Mentz! The whole story is too improbable to be +accepted by any impartial inquirer; and the best +authorities are agreed in dismissing the Dutch fiction +with the contempt it deserves, and in ascribing to +<span class="smcap">John Gutenberg</span>, of Mentz, the honour to which +he is justly entitled.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>Of the career of Gutenberg we shall speak presently, +but let us first point out that the invention +of typography, like all great inventions, was no +sudden conception of genius—not the birth of some +singularly felicitous moment of inspiration—but the +result of what may be called a gradual series of +causes. Printing with movable types was the +natural outcome of printing with blocks. We must +go back, therefore, a few years, to examine into the +origin of "block books."</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +Mr. Jackson observes that there cannot be a +doubt that the principle on which wood engraving +is founded—that of taking impressions on paper or +parchment, with ink, from prominent lines—was +known and practised in attesting documents in the +thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Towards the +end of the fourteenth, or about the beginning of the +fifteenth century, he says, there seems reason to believe +that this principle was adopted by the German +card-makers for the purpose of marking the outlines +of the figures on their cards, which they afterwards +coloured by the practice called <i>stencilling</i>.</p> + +<p>It was the Germans who first practised card-making +as a trade, and as early as 1418 the name +of a <i>kartenmacher</i>, or card-maker, occurs in the +burgess-books of Augsburg. In the town-books of +Nuremburg, the designation <i>formschneider</i>, or figure-cutter, +is found in 1449; and we may presume that +block books—that is, books each page of which was +cut on a single block—were introduced about this +time. These books were on religious subjects, and +were intended, perhaps, by the monks as a kind of +counterbalance against the playing-cards; "thus +endeavouring to supply a remedy for the evil, and +extracting from the serpent a cure for his bite."</p> + +<p>The earliest woodcut known—one of St. Christopher—bears +the date of 1432, and was found in a +convent situated within about fifty miles of the city +of Augsburg—the convent of Buxheim, near +Mem<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>mingen. +It was pasted on the inside of the right +hand cover of a manuscript entitled <i>Laus Virginis</i>, +and measures eleven and a quarter inches in height, +by eight and one-eighth inches in width.</p> + +<p>The following description of it by Jackson is +interesting:—</p> + +<p>"To the left of the engraving the artist has introduced, +with a noble disregard of perspective, what +Bewick would have called a 'bit of nature.' In +the foreground a figure is seen driving an ass loaded +with a sack towards a water-mill; while by a steep +path a figure, perhaps intended for the miller, is seen +carrying a full sack from the back-door of the mill +towards a cottage. To the right is seen a hermit—known +by the bell over the entrance to his dwelling—holding +a large lantern to direct St. Christopher +as he crosses the stream. The couplet at the foot +of the cut,—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">'Cristofori faciem die quacunque tueris,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Illa nempe die morte mala non morieris,'</span><br /> +</div></div> + +<p>may be translated as follows,—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Each day that thou the image of St. Christopher shall see,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">That day no frightful form of death shall chance to fall on thee.</span><br /> +</div></div> + +<p>These lines allude to a superstition, once popular in +all Catholic countries, that on the day they saw a +figure or image of St. Christopher, they would be +safe from a violent death, or from death unabsolved +and unconfessed."</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +Passing over some other woodcuts of great antiquity, +in all of which the figures are accompanied +by engraved letters, we come to the block books +proper. Of these, the most famous are called, the +<i>Apocalypsis, seu Historia Sancti Johannis</i> (the +"Apocalypse, or History of St. John"); the <i>Historia +Virginis ex Cantico Canticorum</i> ("Story of +the Virgin, from the Song of Songs"); and the <i>Biblia +Pauperum</i> ("Bible of the Poor"). The first is a +history, pictorial and literal, of the life and revelations +of St. John the Evangelist, partly derived from +the book of Revelation, and partly from ecclesiastical +tradition. The second is a similar biography of the +Virgin Mary, as it is supposed to be typified in the +Song of Solomon; and the third consists of subjects +representing many of the most important passages +in the Old and New Testaments, with texts to illustrate +the subject, or clinch the lesson of duty it may +shadow forth.</p> + +<p>With respect to the engraving, we are told that +the cuts are executed in the simplest manner, as +there is not the least attempt at shading, by +means of cross lines or hatchings, to be detected +in any one of the designs. The most difficult +part of the engraver's task, says Jackson, supposing +the drawing to have been made by another +person, would be the cutting of the letters, +which, in several of the subjects, must have +occupied a considerable portion of time, and have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +demanded no small degree of perseverance, care, +and skill.</p> + +<p>These block books were followed by others in +which no illustrations appeared, but in which the +entire page was occupied with text. The Grammatical +Primer, called the "Donatus," from the +name of its supposed compiler, was thus printed, or +engraved, enabling copies of it to be multiplied at +a much cheaper rate than they could be produced +in manuscript.</p> + +<p>And thus we see that the art of printing—or, +more correctly speaking, engraving on wood—has +advanced from the production of a single figure, +with merely a few words beneath it, to the impression +of whole pages of text. Next, for the engraved +page were to be substituted movable letters of metal, +wedged together within an iron frame; and impressions, +instead of being obtained by the slow and +tedious process of friction, were to be secured by +the swift and powerful action of the press.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>About the year 1400, John Gænsfleisch, or Gutenberg, +was born at Mentz. He sprung from an +honourable family, and it is said that he himself +was by birth a knight. He seems to have been a +person of some property.</p> + +<p>About 1434 we find him living in Strasburg, +and, in partnership with a certain Andrew Drytzcher, +endeavouring to perfect the art of typography. How +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +he was induced to direct his attention towards this +object, and under what circumstances he began his +experiments, it is impossible to say; but there can +be no doubt that he was the first person who conceived +the idea of <i>movable types</i>—an idea which is +the very foundation of the art of printing.</p> + +<p>An old German chronicler furnishes the following +account of the early stages of the great printer's +discovery:—</p> + +<p>"At this time (about 1438), in the city of Mentz, +on the Rhine, in Germany, and not in Italy as some +persons have erroneously written, that wonderful +and then unheard-of art of printing and characterizing +books was invented and devised by John Gutenberger, +citizen of Mentz, who, having expended most +of his property in the invention of this art, on account +of the difficulties which he experienced on all +sides, was about to abandon it altogether; when, +by the advice and through the means of John Fust, +likewise a citizen of Mentz, he succeeded in bringing +it to perfection. At first they formed or engraved +the characters or letters in written order on blocks +of wood, and in this manner they printed the vocabulary +called a 'Catholicon.' But with these forms or +blocks they could print nothing else, because the +characters could not be transposed in these tablets, +but were engraved thereon, as we have said. To +this invention succeeded a more subtle one, for they +found out the means of cutting the forms of all the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +letters of the alphabet, which they called <i>matrices</i>, +from which again they cast characters of copper or +tin of sufficient hardness to resist the necessary pressure, +which they had before engraved by hand."</p> + +<p>This is a very brief and summary account of a +great invention. By comparison of other authorities +we are enabled to bring together a far greater number +of details, though we must acknowledge that many +of these have little foundation but in tradition or +romance.</p> + +<p>Let us, therefore, take a peep at the first printer, +working in seclusion and solitude in the old historic +city of Strasburg, and endeavouring to elaborate in +practice the grand idea which has been conceived +and matured by his energetic brain. Doubtlessly +he knew not the full importance of this idea, or of +how great a social and religious revolution it was to +be the seed, and yet we cannot believe that he was +altogether unconscious of its value to future generations.</p> + +<p>Shutting himself up in his own room, seeing no +one, rarely crossing the threshold, allowing himself +hardly any repose, he set himself to work out the +plan he had formed. With a knife and some pieces +of wood he constructed a set of movable types, on +one face of each of which a letter of the alphabet +was carved in relief, and which were strung together, +in the order of words and sentences, upon a +piece of wire. By means of these he succeeded in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +producing upon parchment a very satisfactory impression.</p> + +<p>To be out of the way of prying eyes, he took up +his quarters in the ruins of the old monastery of St. +Arbogaste, outside the town, which had long been +abandoned by the monks to the rats and beggars of +the neighbourhood; and the better to mask his +designs, as well as to procure the funds necessary for +his experiments, he set up as a sort of artificer in +jewellery and metal-work, setting and polishing +precious stones, and preparing Venetian glass for +mirrors, which he afterwards mounted in frames +of metal and carved wood. These avowed labours +he openly practised, along with a couple of assistants, +in a public part of the monastery; but in +the depths of the cloisters, in a dark secluded spot, +he fitted up a little cell as the <i>atelier</i> of his secret +operations; and there, secured by bolts and bars, +and a thick oaken door, against the intrusion of any +one who might penetrate so far into the interior of +the ruins, he applied himself to his great work. He +quickly perceived, as a man of his inventiveness was +sure to perceive, the superiority of letters of metal +over those of wood. He invented various coloured +inks, at once oily and dry, for printing with; brushes +and rollers for transferring the ink to the face of the +types; "forms," or cases, for keeping together the +types arranged in pages; and a press for bringing +the inked types and the paper in contact.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 403px;"> +<a href="images/fig-p022-1200.png"> +<img src="images/fig-p022-600.png" width="403" height="600" alt="" title="" /> +</a> +<span class="caption">GUTENBERG IN THE OLD MONASTERY.<br /> +<span class="pageref">Page 22.</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +Day and night, whenever he could spare an +instant from his professed occupations, he devoted +himself to the development of his great design. At +night he could hardly sleep for thinking of it, and +his hasty snatches of slumber were disturbed by +agitating dreams. Tradition has preserved the story +of one of these for us as he afterwards told it to his +friends. He dreamt that, as he sat feasting his +eyes upon the impression of his first page of type, +he heard two voices whispering at his ear—the one +soft and musical, the other harsh, dull, and bitter in +its tones. The one bade him rejoice at the great +work he had achieved; unveiled the future, and +showed the men of different generations, the peoples +of distant lands, holding high converse by means of +his invention; and cheered him with the hope of an +immortal fame. "Ay," put in the other voice, +"immortal he might be, but at what a price! Man, +more often perverse and wicked than wise and good, +would profane the new faculty this art created, and +the ages, instead of blessing, would have cause to +curse the man who gave it to the world. Therefore +let him regard his invention as a seductive but fatal +dream, which, if fulfilled, would place in the hands +of man, sinful and erring as he was, only another +instrument of evil." Gutenberg, whom the first +voice had thrown into an ecstasy of delight, now +shuddered at the thought of the fearful power to corrupt +and to debase his art would give to wicked men, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +awoke in an agony of doubt. He seized his +mallet, and had almost broken up his types and +press, when he paused to reflect that, after all, God's +gifts, although sometimes perilous and capable of +abuse, were never evil in themselves, and that to give +another means of utterance to the piety and reason +of mankind was to promote the spread of virtue and +intelligence, which were both divine. So he closed +his ears to the suggestions of the tempter, and persisted +in his work.</p> + +<p>Gutenberg had scarcely completed his printing +machine, and got it into working order, when the +jealousy and distrust of his associates in the nominal +business he carried on, brought him into trouble with +the authorities of Strasburg. He could have saved +himself by the disclosure of all the secrets of his +invention; but this he refused to do. His goods +were confiscated; and he returned penniless, with a +heavy heart, to his native town Mentz. There, in +partnership with a wealthy goldsmith named John +Fust, and his son-in-law Schoeffer, he started a +printing office; from which he sent out many works, +mostly of a religious character. The enterprise +throve; but misfortune was ever dogging Gutenberg's +steps, and he had but a brief taste of prosperity. +The priests looked with suspicion upon the +new art, which enabled people to read for themselves +what before they had to take on trust from them. +The transcribers of books,—a large and influential +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +guild,—were also hostile to the invention, which +threatened to deprive them of their livelihood. +These two bodies formed a league against the printers; +and upon the head of poor Gutenberg were emptied +all the vials of their wrath. Fust and Schoeffer, +with crafty adroitness, managed to conciliate their +opponents, and to offer up their partner as a sacrifice +for themselves. By the zeal of his enemies, +and the treachery of his friends, Gutenberg was +driven out of Mentz. After wandering about for +some time in poverty and neglect, Adolphus, the +Elector of Nassau, became his patron; and at his +court Gutenberg set up a press, and printed a number +of works with his own hands. Though poor, +his last years were spent in peace; and when he +died, he had only a few copies of the productions +of his press to leave to his sister.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, at Strasburg, some of his former +associates pieced together the revelations that had +fallen from him, while at the old monastery, as to +his invention; and not only worked it with success, +but claimed all the credit of its origin. In the +same way, Fust and Schoeffer, at Mentz, grew rich +through the invention of the man they had betrayed, +and tried to rob of his fame.</p> + +<p>There is a curious, but not very well authenticated +story about a visit Fust made to Paris to push the +sale of his Bibles. "The tradition of the Devil and Dr. +Faustus," writes D'Israeli in the "Curiosities of +Litera<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>ture," +"was said to have been derived from the odd +circumstances in which the Bibles of the first printer, +Fust, appeared to the world. When Fust had discovered +this new art, and printed off a considerable +number of copies of the Bible to imitate those which +were commonly sold as MSS., he undertook the sale +of them at Paris. It was his interest to conceal this +discovery and to pass off his printed copies for MSS. +But, enabled to sell his Bibles at sixty crowns, while +the other scribes demanded five hundred, this raised +universal astonishment; and still more when he produced +copies as fast as they were wanted, and even +lowered his price. The uniformity of the copies +increased the wonder. Informations were given in +to the magistrates against him as a magician; and +on searching his lodgings, a great number of copies +were found. The red ink, and Fust's red ink is +peculiarly brilliant, which embellished his copies, was +said to be his blood; and it was solemnly adjudged +that he was in league with the Infernal. Fust at +length was obliged, to save himself from a bonfire, +to reveal his art to the Parliament of Paris, who +discharged him from all prosecution in consideration +of the wonderful invention."</p> + +<p>The edition of the Bible, which was one of the +very first productions of Gutenberg and Fust's press, +is called the Mazarin, in consequence of the first +known copy having been discovered in the famous +library formed by Cardinal Mazarin. It seems to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +have been printed as early as August 1456, and is +a truly admirable specimen of typography; the +characters being very clear and distinct, and the +uniformity of the printing perfectly remarkable. +A copy in the Royal Library at Paris is bound in +two volumes, and every complete page consists of +two columns, each containing forty-two lines. The +reader will recognize the appropriateness of the fact +that from the first printing press the first important +work produced should be a copy of God's Word. +It sanctified the new art which was to be so fruitful +of good and evil results—the good superabounding, +and clearly visible—the evil little, and destined, +perhaps, to be directed eventually to good—for successive +generations of mankind. It was a fitting +forerunner of the long generation of books which +have since issued so ceaselessly from the printing +press; books, of the majority of which we may say, +with Milton, that "they contain a potency of life in +them to be as active as those souls were whose progeny +they are; to preserve, as in a vial, the purest +efficacy and extraction of the living intellects that +feed them."</p> + +<p>Gutenberg's career was dashed with many lights +and shadows, but it closed in peace. In 1465, the +Archbishop-elector of Mentz appointed him one of +his courtiers, with the same allowance of clothing +as the remainder of the nobles attending his court, +and all other privileges and exemptions. It is +pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>bable +that from this time he abandoned the practice +of his new invention. The date of his death is +uncertain; but there is documentary evidence extant +which proves that it occurred before February +24, 1468. He was interred in the church of the +Recollets at Mentz, and the following epitaph was +composed by his kinsman Adam Gelthaus:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="center"><img src="images/title-p028.png" alt=""D. O. M. S." title="" /></p> + +<p>"Joanni Gesnyfleisch, artis impressoriae repertori, de +omni natione et lingua optime merito, in nominis sui memoriam +immortalem Adam Gelthaus posuit. Ossa ejus +in ecclesia D. Francisci Moguntina feliciter cubant."</p></div> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="WILLIAM_CAXTON" id="WILLIAM_CAXTON"></a>II.—WILLIAM CAXTON.</h2> + + +<p>During the last thirty or forty years of the fifteenth +century, while printing was becoming gradually more +and more practised on the Continent, and the presses +of Mentz, Bamberg, Cologne, Strasburg, Augsburg, +Rome, Venice, and Milan, were sending forth numbers +of Bibles, and various learned and theological works, +chiefly in Latin, an English merchant, a man of substance +and of no little note in Chepe, appeared at +the court of the Duke of Burgundy at Bruges, to +negotiate a commercial treaty between that sovereign +and the king of England; which accomplished, the +worthy ambassador seems to have liked the place +and the people so well, and to have been so much +liked in return, that for some years afterwards he took +up his residence there, holding some honourable, easy +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> +appointment in the household of the Duchess of +Burgundy. This was William Caxton, who here +ripened, if he did not acquire, his love of literature +and scholarship, and began, from hatred of idleness, +to take pen in hand himself.</p> + +<p>"When I remember," says he, in his preface to +his first work, a translation of a fanciful "Recueil +des Histoires de Troye," "that every man is bounden +by the commandment and counsel of the wise man +to eschew sloth and idleness, which is mother and +nourisher of vices, and ought to put himself into +virtuous occupation and business, then I, having no +great charge or occupation, following the said counsel, +took a French book, and read therein many strange +marvellous histories. And for so much as this book +was new and late made, and drawn into French, and +never seen in our English tongue, I thought in myself, +it should be a good business to translate it into +our English, to the end that it might be had as well +in the royaume of England as in other lands, and +also to pass therewith the time; and thus concluded +in myself to begin this said work, and forthwith +took pen and ink, and began boldly to run forth, as +blind Bayard, in this present work."</p> + +<p>While at work upon this translation, Caxton found +leisure to visit several of the German towns where +printing presses were established, and to get an +insight into the mysteries of the art, so that by the +time he had finished the volume, he was able to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +print it. At the close of the third book of the +"Recuyell," he says: "Thus end I this book which +I have translated after mine author, as nigh as God +hath given me cunning, to whom be given the laud +and praise. And for as much as in the writing of +the same my pen is worn, mine hand weary and not +steadfast, mine eyen dimmed with overmuch looking +on the white paper, and my courage not so prone +and ready to labour as it hath been, and that age +creepeth on me daily, and feebleth all the body; and +also because I have promised to divers gentlemen +and to my friends, to address to them as hastily as +I might, this said book, therefore I have practised +and learned, at my great charge and dispense, to +ordain this said book in print, after the manner and +form you may here see; and is not written with pen +and ink as other books are, to the end that every man +may have them at once. For all the books of this +story, named the "Recuyell of the Historyes of +Troye," thus imprinted as ye here see, were begun in +one day, and also finished in one day" (that is, in +the same space of time).</p> + +<p>By the year 1477, Caxton had returned to London, +and set up a printing establishment within the precincts +of Westminster Abbey; had given to the +world the three first books ever printed in England,—"The +Game and Play of the Chesse" (March +1474); "A boke of the hoole Lyf of Jason" (1475); +and "The Dictes and Notable Wyse Sayenges of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +Phylosophers" (1477),—and was fairly started in +the great work of supplying printed books to his +countrymen, which, as a placard in his largest type +sets forth, if any one wanted, "emprynted after the +forme of this present lettre whiche ben well and +truly correct, late hym come to Westmonster, in to +the Almonesrye, at the reed pale, and he shal have +them good chepe." From the situation of the first +printing office, the term chapel is applied to such +establishments to this day.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;"> +<a href="images/fig-p030-1200.png"> +<img src="images/fig-p030-600.png" width="390" height="600" alt="" title="" /> +</a> +<span class="caption">WILLIAM CAXTON.<br /> +<span class="pageref">Page 30.</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Caxton published between sixty and seventy different +works during the seventeen years of his career as +a printer, all of them in what is called black letter, and +the bulk of them in English. He had always a view +to the improvement of the people in the works he +published, and though many of his productions may +seem to us to be of an unprofitable kind, it is clear +that in the issue of chivalrous narratives, and of +Chaucer's poems (to whom, says the old printer, +"ought to be given great laud and praising for his +noble making and writing"), he was aiming at the +diffusion of a nobler spirit, and a higher taste than +then prevailed.</p> + +<p>In 1490, Caxton, an old, worn man, verging on +fourscore years of age, wrote, "Every man ought to +intend in such wise to live in this world, by keeping +the commandments of God, that he may come to a +good end; and then, out of this world full of +wretchedness and tribulation, he may go to heaven, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +unto God and his saints, unto joy perdurable;" and +passed away, still labouring at his post. He died +while writing, "The most virtuous history of the +devout and right renouned Lives of Holy Fathers +living in the desert, worthy of remembrance to all +well-disposed persons."</p> + +<p>Wynkyne de Worde filled his master's place in the +almonry of Westminster; and the guild of printers +gradually waxed strong in numbers and influence. +In Germany they were privileged to wear robes +trimmed with gold and silver, such as the nobles +themselves appeared in; and to display on their +escutcheon, an eagle with wings outstretched over +the globe,—a symbol of the flight of thought +and words throughout the world. In our own +country, the printers were men of erudition and +literary acquirements; and were honoured as became +their mission.</p> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="THE_PRINTING_MACHINE" id="THE_PRINTING_MACHINE"></a> +III.—THE PRINTING MACHINE.</h2> + + +<p>Between the rude screw-press of Gutenberg or +Caxton, slow and laboured in its working, to the +first-class printing machine of our own day, throwing +off its fifteen or eighteen thousand copies of a large +four-page journal in an hour, what a stride has been +taken in the noble art! Step by step, slowly but +surely, has the advance been made,—one improvement +suggested after another at long intervals, +and by various minds. With the perfection of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> +printing press, the name of Earl Stanhope is chiefly +associated; but, although when he had put the +finishing touches to its construction, immensely superior +to all former machines, it was unavailable for +rapid printing. In relation to the demand for literature +and the means of supplying it, the world had, +half a century ago, reached much the same deadlock +as in the days when the production of books +depended solely on the swiftness of the transcriber's +pen, and when the printing press existed only in the +fervid brain and quick imagination of a young German +student. Not only the growth, but the spread of +literature, was restricted by the labour, expense, +and delay incident to the multiplication of copies; +and the popular appetite for reading was in that +transition state when an increased supply would +develop it beyond all bounds or calculation, while a +continuance of the starvation supply would in all +likelihood throw it into a decline from want of +exercise.</p> + +<p>Such was the state of things when a revolution in +the art of printing was effected which, in importance, +can be compared only to the original discovery of +printing. In fact, since the days of Gutenberg to +the present hour, there has been only one great +revolution in the art, and that was the introduction +of steam printing in 1814. The neat +and elegant, but slow-moving Stanhope press, was +after all but little in advance of its rude prototype +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +of the fifteenth century, the chief features of which +it preserved almost without alteration. The steam +printing machine took a leap ahead that placed it at +such a distance from the printing press, that they are +hardly to be recognised as the offspring of the same +common stock. All family resemblance has died out, +although the printing machine is certainly a development +of the little screw press.</p> + +<p>Of the revolution of 1814, which placed the +printing machine in the seat of power, <i>vice</i> the press +given over to subordinate employment, Mr. John +Walter of the <i>Times</i> was the prominent and leading +agent. But for his foresight, enterprise, and perseverance, +the steam machine might have been even +now in earliest infancy, if not unborn.</p> + +<p>Familiar as the invention of the steam printing +machine is now, in the beginning of the present +century it shared the ridicule which was thrown +upon the project of sailing steam ships upon the sea, +and driving steam carriages upon land. It seemed +as mad and preposterous an idea to print off 5000 +impressions of a paper like the <i>Times</i> in one hour, +as, in the same time, to paddle a ship fifteen miles +against wind and tide, or to propel a heavily laden +train of carriages fifty miles. Mr. Walter, however, +was convinced that the thing could be done, and lost +no time in attempting it. Some notion of the +difficulties he had to overcome, and the disappointments +he had to endure, while engaged in this +enter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>prise, +may be gathered from the following extracts +from the biography of Mr. Walter, which appeared in +the <i>Times</i> at the time of his death in July 1847:—</p> + +<p>"As early as the year 1804, an ingenious compositor, +named Thomas Martyn, had invented a self-acting +machine for working the press, and had produced +a model which satisfied Mr. Walter of the +feasibility of the scheme. Being assisted by Mr. +Walter with the necessary funds, he made considerable +progress towards the completion of his work, +in the course of which he was exposed to much personal +danger from the hostility of the pressmen, who +vowed vengeance against the man whose inventions +threatened destruction to their craft. To such a +length was their opposition carried, that it was found +necessary to introduce the various pieces of the +machine into the premises with the utmost possible +secresy, while Martyn himself was obliged to shelter +himself under various disguises in order to escape +their fury. Mr. Walter, however, was not yet permitted +to reap the fruits of his enterprise. On the +very eve of success he was doomed to bitter disappointment. +He had exhausted his own funds in +the attempt, and his father, who had hitherto assisted +him, became disheartened, and refused him any +further aid. The project was, therefore, for the time +abandoned.</p> + +<p>"Mr. Walter, however, was not the man to be +deterred from what he had once resolved to do. He +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> +gave his mind incessantly to the subject, and courted +aid from all quarters, with his usual munificence. +In the year 1814 he was induced by a clerical friend, +in whose judgment he confided, to make a fresh experiment; +and, accordingly, the machinery of the +amiable and ingenious Kœnig, assisted by his young +friend Bower, was introduced—not, indeed, at first +into the <i>Times</i> office, but into the adjoining premises, +such caution being thought necessary upon the +threatened violence of the pressmen. Here the +work advanced, under the frequent inspection and +advice of the friend alluded to. At one period these +two able mechanics suspended their anxious toil, and +left the premises in disgust. After the lapse, however, +of about three days, the same gentleman discovered +their retreat, induced them to return, showed +them, to their surprise, their difficulty conquered, +and the work still in progress. The night on which +this curious machine was first brought into use in its +new abode was one of great anxiety, and even alarm. +The suspicious pressmen had threatened destruction +to any one whose inventions might suspend their +employment. 'Destruction to him and his traps.' +They were directed to wait for expected news from +the Continent. It was about six o'clock in the +morning when Mr. Walter went into the press-room, +and astonished its occupants by telling them that +'The <i>Times</i> was already printed by steam! That +if they attempted violence, there was a force ready +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> +to suppress it; but that if they were peaceable, their +wages should be continued to every one of them till +similar employment could be procured,'—a promise +which was, no doubt, faithfully performed; and +having so said, he distributed several copies among +them. Thus was this most hazardous enterprise +undertaken and successfully carried through, and +printing by steam on an almost gigantic scale given +to the world."</p> + +<p>On that memorable day, the 29th of November +1814, appeared the following announcement,—"Our +journal of this day presents to the public the practical +result of the greatest improvement connected with +printing since the discovery of the art itself. The +reader now holds in his hands one of the many +thousand impressions of the <i>Times</i> newspaper which +were taken off last night by a mechanical apparatus. +That the magnitude of the invention may be justly +appreciated by its effects, we shall inform the public +that after the letters are placed by the compositors, +and enclosed in what is called a form, little more +remains for man to do than to attend and watch this +unconscious agent in its operations. The machine is +then merely supplied with paper; itself places the +form, inks it, adjusts the paper to the form newly +inked, stamps the sheet, and gives it forth to the +hands of the attendant, at the same time withdrawing +the form for a fresh coat of ink, which itself +again distributes, to meet the ensuing sheet, now +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> +advancing for impression; and the whole of these +complicated acts is performed with such a velocity and +simultaneousness of movement, that no less than +1100 sheets are impressed in one hour."</p> + +<p>Kœnig's machine was, however, very complicated, +and before long, it was supplanted by that of Applegath +and Cowper, which was much simpler in construction, +and required only two boys to attend it—one +to lay on, and the other to take off the sheets. +The vertical machine which Mr. Applegath subsequently +invented, far excelled his former achievement; +but it has in turn been superseded by the +machine of Messrs. Hoe of New York. All these +machines were first brought into use in the <i>Times'</i> +printing office; and to the encouragement the proprietors +of that establishment have always afforded +to inventive talent, the readiness with which they +have given a trial to new machines, and the princely +liberality with which they have rewarded improvements, +is greatly due the present advanced state of +the noble craft and mystery.</p> + +<p>The printing-house of the <i>Times</i>, near Blackfriars +Bridge, forms a companion picture to Gutenberg's +printing-room in the old abbey at Strasburg, and +illustrates not only the development of the art, but +the progress of the world during the intervening +centuries. Visit Printing-House Square in the day-time, +and you find it a quiet, sleepy place, with +hardly any signs of life or movement about it, except +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> +in the advertisement office in the corner, where +people are continually going out and in, and the +clerks have a busy time of it, shovelling money +into the till all day long. But come back in the +evening, and the place will wear a very different +aspect. All signs of drowsiness have disappeared, +and the office is all lighted up, and instinct with +bustle and activity. Messengers are rushing out and +in, telegraph boys, railway porters, and "devils" of +all sorts and sizes. Cabs are driving up every few +minutes, and depositing reporters, hot from the +gallery of the House of Commons or the House of +Lords, each with his budget of short-hand notes to +decipher and transcribe. Up stairs in his sanctum the +editor and his deputies are busy preparing or selecting +the articles and reports which are to appear in the +next day's paper. In another part of the building the +compositors are hard at work, picking up types, and +arranging them in "stick-fulls," which being emptied +out into "galleys," are firmly fixed therein by little +wedges of wood, in order that "proofs" may be +taken of them. The proofs pass into the hands of +the various sets of readers, who compare them with +the "copy" from which they were set up, and mark +any errors on the margin of the slips, which then +find their way back to the compositors, who correct +the types according to the marks. The "galleys" +are next seized by the persons charged with the +"making-up" of the paper, who divide them into +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> +columns of equal length. An ordinary <i>Times</i> newspaper, +with a single inside sheet of advertisements, +contains seventy-two columns, or 17,500 lines, made +up of upwards of a million pieces of types, of which +matter about two-fifths are often written, composed, +and corrected after seven o'clock in the evening. If +the advertisement sheet be double, as it frequently +is, the paper will contain ninety-six columns. The +types set up by the compositors are not sent to the +machine. A mould is taken of them in a composition +of brown paper, by means of which a "stereotype" +is cast in metal, and from this the paper is +printed. The advertisement sheet, single or double, +as the case may be, is generally ready for the press +between seven or eight o'clock at night. The rest +of the paper is divided into two "forms,"—that is, +columns arranged in pages and bound together +by an iron frame, one for each side of the sheet. +Into the first of these the person who "makes up" +the paper endeavours to place all the early news, +and it is ready for press usually about four o'clock. +The other "form" is reserved for the leading articles, +telegrams, and all the latest intelligence, and does +not reach the press till near five o'clock.</p> + +<p>The first sight of Hoe's machine, by several of +which the <i>Times</i> is now printed, fills the beholder +with bewilderment and awe. You see before you a +huge pile of iron cylinders, wheels, cranks, and +levers, whirling away at a rate that makes you +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> +giddy to look at, and with a grinding and gnashing +of teeth that almost drives you deaf to listen to. +With insatiable appetite the furious monster devours +ream after ream of snowy sheets of paper, placed in +its many gaping jaws by the slaves who wait on it, +but seems to find none to its taste or suitable to its +digestion, for back come all the sheets again, each +with the mark of this strange beast printed on one +side. Its hunger never is appeased,—it is always +swallowing and always disgorging, and it is as much +as the little "devils" who wait on it can do, to put +the paper between its lips and take it out again. +But a bell rings suddenly, the monster gives a gasp, +and is straightway still, and dead to all appearance. +Upon a closer inspection, now that it is at rest, and +with some explanation from the foreman you begin +to have some idea of the process that has been going +on before your astonished eyes.</p> + +<p>The core of the machine consists of a large drum, +turning on a horizontal axis, round which revolve +ten smaller cylinders, also on horizontal axes, in close +proximity to the drum. The stereotyped matter is +bound, like a malefactor on the wheel, to the central +drum, and round each cylinder a sheet of paper is +constantly being passed. It is obvious, therefore, that +if the type be inked, and each of the cylinders be +kept properly supplied with a sheet of paper, a single +revolution of the drum will cause the ten cylinders to +revolve likewise, and produce an impression on one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> +side of each of the sheets of paper. For this purpose +it is necessary to have the type inked ten times during +every revolution of the drum; and this is managed +by a very ingenious contrivance, which, however, is +too complicated for description here. The feeding of +the cylinders is provided for in this way. Over each +cylinder is a sloping desk, upon which rests a heap +of sheets of white paper. A lad—the "layer-on"—stands +by the side of the desk and pushes forward the +paper, a sheet at a time, towards the tape fingers of +the machine, which, clutching hold of it, drag it into +the interior, where it is passed round the cylinders, +and printed on the outer side by pressure against the +types on the drum. The sheet is then laid hold of +by another set of tapes, carried to the other end of +the machine from that at which it entered, and +there laid down on a desk by a projecting flapper of +lath-work. Another lad—the "taker-off"—is in +attendance to remove the printed sheets, at certain +intervals. The drum revolves in less than two +seconds; and in that time therefore ten sheets—for +the same operation is performed simultaneously by the +ten cylinders—are sucked in at one end and disgorged +at the other printed on one side, thus giving about +20,000 impressions in an hour.</p> + +<p>Such is the latest marvel of the "noble craft and +mystery" of printing; but it is not to be supposed +that the limits of production have even now been +reached. The greater the supply the greater has +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +grown the demand; the more people read, the more +they want to read; and past experience assures us +that ingenuity and enterprise will not fail to expand +and multiply the powers of the press, so that the +increasing appetite for literature may be fully met.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>We have briefly alluded to stereotyping; but +some fuller notice seems requisite of a process so +valuable and important, without which, indeed, the +rapid multiplication of copies of a newspaper, even +by a Hoe's six-cylinder machine, would be impossible. +If stereotyping had not been invented, the +printer would require to "set up" as many "forms" +of type as there are cylinders in the machine he +uses; an expensive and time-consuming operation +which is now dispensed with, because he can resort +to "casts." There is yet another advantage gained +by the process; "casts" of the different sheets of a +book can be preserved for any length of time; and +when additional copies or new editions are needed, +these "casts" can at once be sent to the machine, +and the publisher is saved the great expense of +"re-setting."</p> + +<p>The reader is well aware that while many books +disappear with the day which called them forth, so +there are others for which the demand is constant. +This was found to be the case soon after the invention +of printing, and the plan then adopted was the +expensive and cumbrous one of setting up the whole +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> +of the book in request, and to keep the type standing +for future editions. The disadvantages of this +plan were obvious—a large outlay for type, the +amount of space occupied by a constantly increasing +number of "forms," and the liability to injury from +the falling out of letters, from blows, and other accidents. +As early as the eighteenth century attempts +seem to have been made to remedy these inconveniences +by cementing the types together at the +bottom with lead or solder to effect their greater +preservation. Canius, a French historian of printing, +states that in June 1801 he received a letter +from certain booksellers of Leyden, with a copy of +their stereotype Bible, the plates for which were +formed by soldering together the bottom of common +types with some melted substance to the thickness +of about three quires of writing-paper; and, it is +added, "These plates were made about the beginning +of the last century by an artist named Van du Mey."</p> + +<p>This, however, was not true stereotyping; whose +leading principle is to dispense with the movable +types—to set them again, as it were, at liberty—by +making up perfect fac-similes in type-metal of the +various combinations into which they may have +entered. These fac-similes being made, the type is set +free, and may be distributed, and used for making up +fresh pages; which may once more furnish, so to speak, +the punches to the mould into which the type-metal +is poured for the purpose of effecting the fac-simile.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +The inventor of this ingenious process of casting +plates from pages of type was William Ged, a goldsmith +of Edinburgh, in 1735. Not possessing +sufficient capital to carry out his invention, he +visited London, and sought the assistance of the +London stationers; from whom he received the most +encouraging words, but no pecuniary assistance. But +Ged was a man not readily discomfited, and applying +at length to the Universities and the King's +printer, he obtained the effective patronage he +needed. He "stereotyped" some Bibles and +Prayer-books, and the sheets worked off from +his plates were admitted equal in point of appearance +and accuracy to those printed from the type +itself.</p> + +<p>But every benefactor of his kind is doomed to +meet with the opposition of the envious, the ignorant, +or the prejudiced. "The argument used by +the idol-makers of old, 'Sirs, ye know that by this +craft we have our wealth,' and, 'This our craft is in +danger to be set at nought,' was, as is usual in such +cases, urged against this most useful and important +invention. The compositors refused to set up works +for stereotyping, and even those which were set up, +however carefully read and corrected, were found +to be full of gross errors. The fact was, that when +the pages were sent to be cast, the compositors or +pressmen, bribed, it is said, by a typefounder, disturbed +the type, and introduced false letters and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> +words. Poor Ged died, and left the dangerous +secret of his art (which he did not disclose during +his life-time) to his son, who, after many struggles +for success, failed as his father had done before him." +There is a tradition current, however, that he joined +the Jacobite rebellion, was arrested, imprisoned, +tried, and sentenced, but was eventually spared in +consideration of the value of his father's admirable +invention.</p> + +<p>That invention, after being forgotten for nearly +half a century, was revived by a Dr. Tilloch, and +taken up, improved, and extended by the ingenious +Earl Stanhope. It is now practised in the following +manner:—</p> + +<p>The type employed differs slightly from that in +common use. The letter should have no shoulder, +but should rise in a straight line from the foot; the +spaces, leads, and quadrats are of the same height +as the stem of the letter; the object being to diminish +the number and depth of the cavities in the page, +and thus lessen the chances of the mould breaking +off and remaining in the form. Each page is corrected +with the utmost care, and "imposed" in a +small "chase" with metal furniture (or frame-work), +which rises to a level with the type. Of course the +number of pages in the form will vary according to +the size of the book; a sheet being folded into sixteen +leaves, twelve, eight, four, or two for 16mo, +12mo, 8vo, quarto, or folio.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +Having our pages of type in complete order, we +now proceed to rub the surface with a soft brush +which has been lightly dipped into a very thin oil. +Plumbago is sometimes preferred. A brass rectangular +frame of three sides, with bevelled borders +adapted to the size of the pages, is placed upon the +chase so as to enclose three sides of the type, the +fourth side being formed by a single brass edge, +having the same inward sloping level as the other +three sides. The use of this frame is to determine +the size and thickness of the cast, which is next +taken in plaster-of-paris—two kinds of the said +plaster being used; the finer is mixed, poured over +the surface of the type, and gently worked in with +a brush so as to insure its close adhesion to the +exclusion of bubbles of air; the coarser, after being +mixed with water, is simply poured and spread over +the previous and finer stratum.</p> + +<p>The superfluous plaster is next cleared away; the +mould soon sets; the frame is raised; and the +mould comes off from the surface of the type, on +which it has been prevented from encrusting itself +by the thin film of oil or plumbago.</p> + +<p>The next step is to dress and smoothen the +plaster-mould, and set it on its edge in one of the +compartments of a sheet-iron rack contained in an +oven, and exposed, until perfectly dry, to a temperature +of about 400°. This occupies about two hours. +A good workman, it is said, will mould ten octavo +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +sheets, or one hundred and sixty pages in a day: +each mould generally contains a couple of octavo +pages.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/fig-p048.png" width="250" height="188" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p>In the state to which it is now brought, the +mould is exceedingly friable, and requires to be +handled with becoming care. With the face downwards +it is placed upon the flat cast-iron <i>floating-plate</i>, +which, in its turn, is set at the bottom of a +square cast-iron tray, with upright edges sloping +outwards, called the "dipping pan." It has a cast-iron +lid, secured by a screw and shackles, not unlike +a copying machine. This pan having been +heated to 400°, it is plunged into an iron pot containing +the melted alloy, which hangs over a furnace, +the pan being slightly inclined so as to permit +the escape of the air. A small space is left between +the back or upper surface of the mould, and the lid +of the dipping-pan, and the fluid metal on entering +into the pan through the corner openings, <i>floats</i> up the plaster +together with the iron plate (hence called the <i>floating-plate</i>) on +which the mould is set, with this effect, that the metal +flows through the notches cut in the edge of the +mould, and fills up every part of it, forming a layer +of metal on its face corresponding to the depth of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> +the border, while on the back is left merely a thin +metallic film.</p> + +<p>The dipping-pan, says Tomlinson, is suspended, +plunged in the metal, and removed by means of a +crane; and when taken out, is set in a cistern of +water upon supports so arranged that only the +bottom of the pan comes in contact with the surface +of the water. The metal thus <i>sets</i>, or solidifies, +from below, and containing fluid above, maintains a +fluid pressure during the contraction which accompanies +the cooling.</p> + +<p>As it thus shrinks in dimensions, molten metal is +poured into the corners of the pan for the purpose of +maintaining the fluid pressure on the mould, and +thus securing a good and solid cast. For if the pan +were allowed to cool more slowly, the thin metallic +film at the back of the inverted plaster mould +would probably solidify first, and thus prevent the +fluid pressure which is necessary for filling up all +the lines of the mould.</p> + +<p>Tomlinson concludes his description of these interesting +processes by informing us that an experienced +and skilled workman will make five dips, +each containing two octavo pages, in the course of +an hour, or, as already stated, at the rate of nearly +ten octavo sheets a day.</p> + +<p>When the pan is opened, the cake of metal and +plaster is removed, and beaten upon its edges with +a mallet, to clear away all superfluous metal. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +stereotype plate is then taken by the <i>picker</i>, who +planes its edges square, "turns" its back flat upon +a lathe until the proper thickness is obtained, and +removes any minute imperfections arising from +specks of dirt and air-bubbles left among the letters +in casting the mould. Damaged letters are cut out, +and separate types soldered in as substitutes. After +all this anxious care to obtain perfection, the plate +is pronounced ready for working, and when made +up with the other plates into the proper form, it +may be worked either at the hand-press or by +machine.</p> + +<p>Other modes of stereotyping have been introduced, +but not one has attained to the popularity of +the method we have just described.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/footer-050.png" width="150" height="168" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<a name="The_Steam_Engine" id="The_Steam_Engine"></a> +<img src="images/title-p051.png" alt="The Steam Engine." title="" /></h2> + + +<ol class="chapterTOC"> + <li> — THE MARQUIS OF WORCESTER.</li> + <li> — JAMES WATT.</li> +</ol> + + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<img src="images/title-p053.png" alt="The Steam Engine." title="" /></h2> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="center">"It is said that ideas produce revolutions and truly they do—not spiritual ideas +only, but even mechanical."—<span class="smcap">Carlyle.</span></p></div> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="THE_MARQUIS_OF_WORCESTER" id="THE_MARQUIS_OF_WORCESTER"></a> +I.—THE MARQUIS OF WORCESTER.</h2> + + +<p>As the last century was drawing to its close, two +great revolutions were in progress, both of which +were destined to exercise a mighty influence upon +the years to come,—the one calm, silent, peaceful, +the other full of sound and fury, bathed in blood, +and crowned with thorns,—the one the fruit of long +years of patient thought and work, the other the +outcome of long years of oppression, suffering, and +sin,—the one was Watt's invention of the steam +engine, the other the great popular revolt in France. +These are the two great events which set their mark +upon our century, gave form and colour to its character, +and direction to its aims and aspirations. In +the pages of conventional history, of course, the +French revolution, with its wild phantasmagoria of +retribution, its massacres and martyrdoms, will no +doubt have assigned to it the foremost rank as the +great feature of the era,—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"For ever since historians writ,</span><br /> +<span class="i2">And ever since a bard could sing,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Doth each exalt with all his wit</span><br /> +<span class="i2">The noble art of murdering."</span><br /> +</div></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +But those who can look below the mere surface of +events, and whose fancy is not captivated by the +melo-drama of rebellion, and the pageantry of war, +will find that Watt's steam machine worked the +greatest revolution of modern times, and exercised +the deepest, as well as widest and most permanent +influence over the whole civilized world.</p> + +<p>Like all great discoveries, that of the motive +power of steam, and the important uses to which it +might be applied, was the work, not of any one +mind, but of several minds, each borrowing something +from its predecessor, until at last the first +vague and uncertain Idea was developed into a +practical Reality. Known dimly to the ancients, +and probably employed by the priests in their juggleries +and pretended miracles, it was not till within +the last three centuries that any systematic attempt +was made to turn it to useful account.</p> + +<p>But before we turn our attention to the persons +who made, and, after many failures and discouragements, +<i>successfully</i> made this attempt, it will be +advisable we should say something as to the principle +on which their invention is founded.</p> + +<p>The reader knows that gases and vapours, when +imprisoned within a narrow space, do struggle as +resolutely to escape as did Sterne's starling from his +cage. Their force of pressure is enormous, and if +confined in a closed vessel, they would speedily +rend it into fragments. Let some water boil in a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> +pipkin whose lid fits very tightly; in a few minutes +the vapour or steam arising from the boiling water, +overcoming the resistance of the lid, raises it, and +rushes forth into the atmosphere.</p> + +<p>Take a small quantity of water, and pour it into +the hollow of a ball of metal. Then with the aid +of a cork, worked by a metallic screw, close the +opening of the ball hermetically, and place the ball +in the heart of a glowing fire. The steam formed +by the boiling water in the inside of the metallic +bomb, finding no channel of escape, will burst +through the bonds that sought to confine it, and +hurl afar the fragments with a loud and dangerous +explosion.</p> + +<p>These well-known facts we adduce simply as a +proof of the immense mechanical power possessed +by steam when enclosed within a limited area. Now, +the questions must have occurred to many, though +they were themselves unable to answer them,—Why +should all this force be wasted? Can it not +be directed to the service and uses of man? In the +course of time, however, human intelligence <i>did</i> +discover a sufficient reply, and <i>did</i> contrive to +utilize this astonishing power by means of the +machine now so famous as the Steam Engine.</p> + +<p>Let us take a boiler full of water, and bring it +up to boiling point by means of a furnace. Attach +to this boiler a tube, which guides the steam of +the boiler into a hollow metallic cylinder, +tra<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>versed +by a piston rising and sinking in its interior. +It is evident that the steam rushing through the +tube into the lower part of the cylinder, and +underneath the piston, will force the piston, by its +pressure, to rise to the top of the cylinder. Now +let us check for a moment the influx of the steam +<i>below</i> the piston, and turning the stopcock, allow +the steam which fills that space to escape outside; +and, at the same time, by opening a second tube, +let in a supply of steam <i>above</i> the piston: the pressure +of the steam, now exercised in a downward direction, +will force the piston to the bottom of its course, +because there will exist beneath it no resistance +capable of opposing the pressure of the steam. If +we constantly keep up this alternating motion, the +piston now rising and now falling, we are in a +position to profit by the force of steam. For if the +lever, attached to the rod of the piston at its +lower end, is fixed by its upper to a crank of the +rotating axle of a workshop or factory, is it not +clear that the continuous action of the steam will +give this axle a continuous rotatory movement? +And this movement may be transmitted, by means +of bands and pulleys, to a number of different +machines or engines all kept at work by the power +of a solitary engine.</p> + +<p>This, then, is the principle on which the inventions +of Papin, the Marquis of Worcester, Newcomen, +and James Watt have been based.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +The great astronomer Huyghens conceived the +idea of creating a motive machine by exploding a +charge of gunpowder under a cylinder traversed by +a piston: the air contained in this cylinder, dilated +by the heat resulting from the combustion +of the powder, escaped into the +outer air through a valve, whereupon a +partial void existed beneath the piston, or, +rather, the air considerably rarified; and +from this moment the pressure of the +atmospheric air falling on the upper part +of the piston, and being but imperfectly +counterpoised by the rarified air beneath +the piston, precipitated this piston to the +bottom of the cylinder. Consequently, said Huyghens, if to the said +piston were attached a chain or cord coiling around a pulley, one might +raise up the weights placed at the extremity of the cord, +and so produce a genuine mechanical effect.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/fig-p057.png" width="300" height="553" alt="" title="" /> +<span class="caption">GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF THE STEAM ENGINE.</span> +</div> + +<p>But Experiment, the touchstone of Physical Truth, +soon revealed the deficiencies of an apparatus such +as Huyghens had suggested. The air beneath the +piston was not sufficiently rarified; the void produced +was too imperfect. Evidently gunpowder +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +was not the right agent. What was? Denis Papin +answered, Steam. And the first Steam Engine ever +invented was invented by this ingenious Frenchman.</p> + +<p>Papin was born at Blois on the 22nd of August +1645. He died about 1714, but neither the exact +date nor the place of his death is known. The lives +of most men of genius are heavy with shadows, but +Papin's career was more than ordinarily characterized +by the incessant pursuit of the evil spirits of adversity +and persecution. A Protestant, and devoutly +loyal to his creed, he fled from France with thousands +of his co-religionists, when Louis XIV. unwisely +and unrighteously revoked the Edict of +Nantes, which permitted the Huguenots to worship +God after their own fashion. And it was abroad, +in England, Italy, and Germany, that he realized +the majority of his inventions, among which that of +the Steam Engine is the most conspicuous.</p> + +<p>In 1707 Papin constructed a steam engine on the +principle we have already described, and placed it +on board a boat provided with wheels. Embarking +at Cassel on the river Fulda, he made his way to +Münden in Hanover, with the design of entering +the waters of the Weser, and thence repairing to +England, to make known his discovery, and test its +capabilities before the public. But the harsh and +ignorant boatmen of the Weser would not permit +him to enter the river; and when he indignantly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> +complained, they had the barbarity to break his +boat in pieces. This was the crowning misfortune +of Papin's life. Thenceforward he seems to have +lost all heart and hope. He contrived to reach +London, where the Royal Society, of which he was +a member, allowed him a small pittance.</p> + +<p>In 1690 this ingenious man had devised an +engine in which atmospheric vapour instead of steam +was the motive agent. At a later period, Newcomen, +a native of Dartmouth in Devonshire, conceived +the idea of employing the same source of +power.</p> + +<p>But, previously, the value of steam, if employed +in this direction, had occurred to the Marquis +of Worcester, a nobleman of great ability and a +quick imagination, who, for his loyalty to the cause +of Charles I., had been confined in the Tower of +London as a prisoner. On one occasion, while sitting +in his solitary chamber, the tight cover of a +kettle full of boiling water was blown off before his +eyes; for mere amusement's sake he set it on +again, saw it again blown off, and then began to +reflect on the capabilities of power thus accidentally +revealed to him, and to speculate on its application +to mechanical ends. Being of a quick, ingenious +turn of mind, he was not long in discovering how +it could be directed and controlled. When he published +his project—"An Admirable and Most Forcible +Way to Drive up Water by Fire"—he was abused +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +and laughed at as being either a madman or an impostor. +He persevered, however, and actually had +a little engine of some two horse power at work +raising water from the Thames at Vauxhall; by +means of which, he writes, "a child's force bringeth +up a hundred feet high an incredible quantity of +water, and I may boldly call it the most stupendous +work in the whole world." There is a fervent +"Ejaculatory and Extemporary Thanksgiving +Prayer" of his extant, composed "when first with +his corporeal eyes he did see finished a perfect trial +of his water-commanding engine, delightful and useful +to whomsoever hath in recommendation either +knowledge, profit, or pleasure." This and the rest +of his wonderful "Centenary of Inventions," only +emptied instead of replenishing his purse. He was +reduced to borrow paltry sums from his creditors, +and received neither respect for his genius nor +sympathy for his misfortunes. He was before his +age, and suffered accordingly.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>In 1698 his work was taken up by Thomas +Savery, a miner, who, through assiduous labour and +well-directed study, had become a skilful engineer. +He succeeded in constructing an engine on the +principle of the pressure of aqueous vapour, and +this engine he employed successfully in pumping +water out of coal mines. We owe to Savery the +invention of a vacuum, which was suggested to him, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> +it is said, in a curious manner: he happened to +throw a wine-flask, which he had just drained, upon +the fire; a few drops of liquor at the bottom of the +flask soon filled it with steam, and, taking it off the +fire, he plunged it, mouth downwards, into a basin +of cold water that was standing on the table, when, +a vacuum being produced, the water immediately +rushed up into the flask.</p> + +<p>In tracing this lineage of inventive genius, we +next come to Thomas Newcomen, a blacksmith, who +carried out the principle of the piston in his Atmospheric +Engine, for which he took out a patent in +1705. It is but just to recognize that this engine +was the first which proved practically and widely +useful, and was, in truth, the actual progenitor of +the present steam engine. It was chiefly used for +working pumps. To one end of a beam moving +on a central axis was attached the rod of the pump +to be worked; to the other, the rod of the piston +moving in the cylinder below. Underneath this +cylinder was a boiler, and the two were connected +by a pipe provided with a stop-cock to regulate the +supply of steam. When the pump-rod was depressed, +and the piston raised to the top of the cylinder, +which was effected by weights hanging to the pump-end +of the beam, the stop-cock was used to cut off +the steam, and a supply of cold water injected into +the cylinder through a water-pipe connected with +the tank or cistern. The steam in the cylinder was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +immediately condensed; a vacuum created below +the piston; the latter was then forced down by +atmospheric pressure, bringing with it the end of +the beam to which it was attached, and raising the +other along with the pump-rod. A fresh supply of +steam was admitted below the piston, which was raised +by the counterpoise; and thus the motion was constantly +renewed. The opening and shutting of the +stop-cocks was at first managed by an attendant; +but a boy named Potter, who was employed for this +purpose, being fonder of play than work, contrived +to save himself all trouble in the matter by fastening +the handles with pieces of string to some of the +cranks and levers. Subsequently, Beighton, an engineer, +improved on this idea by substituting levers, +acted on by pins in a rod suspended from the beam.</p> + +<p>Properly speaking, Newcomen's engine was not a +steam, but an atmospheric engine; for though steam +was employed, it formed no essential feature of the +contrivance, and might have been replaced by an +air-pump. All the use that was made of steam was +to produce a vacuum underneath the piston, which +was pressed down by the weight of the atmosphere, +and raised by the counterpoise of the buckets at the +other end of the beam. Watt, in bringing the +expansive force of steam to bear upon the working +of the piston, may be said to have really invented +the steam engine. Half a century before the little +model came into Watt's hands, Newcomen's engine +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> +had been made as complete as its capabilities admitted +of; and Watt struck into an entirely new +line, and invented an entirely new machine, when +he produced his Condensing Engine.</p> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="JAMES_WATT" id="JAMES_WATT"></a>II.—JAMES WATT.</h2> + + +<p>There are few places in our country where human +enterprise has effected such vast and marvellous +changes within the century as the country traversed +by the river Clyde. Where Glasgow now stretches +far and wide, with its miles of swarming streets, its +countless mills, and warehouses, and foundries, its +busy ship-building yards, its harbour thronged with +vessels of every size and clime, and its large and +wealthy population, there was to be seen, a hundred +years ago, only an insignificant little burgh, as dull +and quiet as any rural market-town of our own day. +There was a little quay at the Broomielaw, seldom +used, and partly overgrown with broom. No boat +over six tons' burden could get so high up the river, +and the appearance of a masted vessel was almost an +event. Tobacco was the chief trade of the town; +and the tobacco merchants might be seen strutting +about at the Cross in their scarlet cloaks, and looking +down on the rest of the inhabitants, who got their +livelihood, for the most part, by dealing in grindstones, +coals, and fish—"Glasgow magistrates," as herrings +are popularly called, being in as great repute then as +now. There were but scanty means of intercourse +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +with other places, and what did exist were little +used, except for goods, which were conveyed on the +backs of pack-horses. The caravan then took two +days to go to Edinburgh—you can run through now +between the two cities in little more than an hour. +There is hardly any trade that Glasgow does not +prosecute vigorously and successfully. You may see +any day you walk down to the Broomielaw, vessels +of a thousand tons' burden at anchor there, and the +custom duties which were in 1796 little over £100, +have now reached an amount exceeding one million!</p> + +<p>Glasgow is indebted, in a great part, for the +gigantic strides which it has made, to the genius, +patience, and perseverance of a man who, in his +boyhood, rather more than a hundred years ago, +used to be scolded by his aunt for wasting his +time, taking off the lid of the kettle, putting it on +again, holding now a cup, now a silver spoon over +the steam as it rose from the spout, and catching +and counting the drops of water it fell into. James +Watt was then taking his first elementary lessons in +that science, his practical application of which in +after life was to revolutionize the whole system of +mechanical movement, and place an almost unlimited +power at the disposal of the industrial classes.</p> + +<p>When a boy, James Watt was delicate and sickly, +and so shy and sensitive that his school-days were a +misery to him, and he profited but little by his +attendance. At home, though, he was a great reader, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> +and picked up a great deal of knowledge for himself, +rarely possessed by those of his years. One day a +friend was urging his father to send James to school, +and not allow him to trifle away his time at home. +"Look how the boy is occupied," said his father, +"before you condemn him." Though only six years +old, he was trying to solve a geometrical problem on the +floor with a bit of chalk. As he grew older he took to +the study of optics and astronomy, his curiosity being +excited by the quadrants and other instruments in +his father's shop. By the age of fifteen he had twice +gone through De Gravesande's Elements of Natural +Philosophy, and he was also well versed in physiology, +botany, mineralogy, and antiquarian lore. He was +further an expert hand in using the tools in his +father's workshop, and could do both carpentry and +metal work. After a brief stay with an old mechanic +in Glasgow, who, though he dignified himself with +the name of "optician," never rose beyond mending +spectacles, tuning spinets, and making fiddles and +fishing tackle, Watt went at the age of eighteen to +London, where he worked so hard, and lived so +sparingly in order to relieve his father from the +burden of maintaining him, that his health suffered, +and he had to recruit it by a return to his native +air. During the year spent in the metropolis, however, +he managed to learn nearly all that the members +of the trade there could teach, and soon showed +himself a quick and skilful workman.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> +In 1757 we find the sign of "James Watt, Mathematical +Instrument Maker to the College," stuck up +over the entrance to one of the stairs in the quadrangle +of Glasgow College. But though under the +patronage of the University, his trade was so poor, +that thrifty and frugal as he was, he had a hard +struggle to live by it. He was ready, however, for +any work that came to hand, and would never let a +job go past him. To execute an order for an organ +which he accepted, he studied harmonics diligently, +and though without any ear for music, turned out a +capital instrument, with several improvements of his +own in its action; and he also undertook the manufacture +of guitars, violins, and flutes. All this while +he was laying up vast stores of knowledge on +all sorts of subjects, civil and military engineering, +natural history, languages, literature, and art; and +among the professors and students who dropped into +his little shop to have a chat with him, he soon came +to be regarded as one of the ablest men about the +college, while his modesty, candour, and obliging +disposition gained him many good friends.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 402px;"> +<a href="images/fig-p067-1200.png"> +<img src="images/fig-p067-600.png" width="402" height="600" alt="" title="" /> +</a> +<span class="caption">JAMES WATT.<br /> +<span class="pageref">Page 67.</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Among his multifarious pursuits, Watt had experimented +a little in the powers of steam; but it was +not till the winter of 1763-4, when a model of Newcomen's +engine was put into his hands for repair, +that he took up the matter in earnest. Newcomen's +engine was then about the most complete invention +of its kind; but its only value was its power of +pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>ducing +a ready vacuum, by rapid condensation on +the application of cold; and for practical purposes +was neither cheaper nor quicker than animal power. +Watt, having repaired the model, found, on setting +it agoing, that it would not work satisfactorily. +Had it been only a little less clumsy and imperfect, +Watt might never have regarded it as more than +the "fine plaything," for which he at first took it; +but now the difficulties of the task roused him to +further efforts. He consulted all the books he could +get on the subject, to ascertain how the defects could +be remedied; and that source of information exhausted, +he commenced a series of experiments, and +resolved to work out the problem for himself. Among +other experiments, he constructed a boiler which +showed by inspection the quantity of water evaporated +in a given time, and thereby ascertained the +quantity of steam used in every stroke of the engine. +He found, to his astonishment, that a small quantity +of water in the form of steam heated a large quantity +of water injected into the cylinder for the purpose of +cooling it; and upon further examination, he ascertained +the steam heated six times its weight of well +water up to the temperature of the steam itself (212°). +After various ineffectual schemes, Watt was forced to +the conclusion that, to make a perfect steam engine, +two apparently incompatible conditions must be fulfilled—the +cylinder must always be as hot as the +steam that came rushing into it, and yet, at each +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> +descent of the piston, the cylinder must become sufficiently +cold to condense the steam. He was at his +wit's end how to accomplish this task, when, as he +was taking a walk one afternoon, the idea flashed +across his mind that, as steam was an elastic vapour, +it would expand and rush into a previously exhausted +place; and that, therefore, all he had to do to meet +the conditions he had laid down, was to produce a +vacuum in a separate vessel, and open a communication +between this vessel and the cylinder of the +steam-engine at the moment when the piston was +required to descend, and the steam would disseminate +itself and become divided between the cylinder and +the adjoining vessel. But as this vessel would be +kept cold by an injection of water, the steam would +be annihilated as fast as it entered, which would +cause a fresh outflow of the remaining steam in the +cylinder, till nearly the whole of it was condensed, +without the cylinder itself being chilled in the operation. +Here was the great key to the problem; and +when once the idea of separate condensation was +started, many other subordinate improvements, as he +said himself, "followed as corollaries in rapid succession, +so that in the course of one or two days the +invention was thus far complete in his mind".</p> + +<p>It cost him ten long weary years of patient speculation +and experiment, to carry out the idea, with +little hope to buoy him up, for to the last he used +to say "his fear was always equal to his +hope,"<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>—and +with all the cares and embarrassments of his +precarious trade to perplex and burden him. Even +when he had his working model fairly completed, +his worst difficulties—the difficulties which most distressed +and harassed the shy, sensitive, and retiring +Watt—seemed only to have commenced. To give +the invention a fair practical trial required an outlay +of at least £1000; and one capitalist, who had +agreed to join him in the undertaking, had to give +it up through some business losses. Still Watt toiled +on, always keeping the great object in view,—earning +bread for his family (for he was married by this +time), by adding land-surveying to his mechanical +labours, and, in short, turning his willing hand to +any honest job that offered.</p> + +<p>He got a patent in 1769, and began building a +large engine; but the workmen were new to the +task, and when completed, its action was spasmodic +and unsatisfactory. "It is a sad thing," he then +wrote, "for a man to have his all hanging by a +single string. If I had wherewithal to pay for the +loss, I don't think I should so much fear a failure; +but I cannot bear the thought of other people becoming +losers by my scheme, and I have the happy +disposition of always painting the worst." And just +then, to make matters still more gloomy, he learned +that some rascally linen-draper in London was plagiarizing +the great invention he had brought forth +in such sore and protracted travail. "Of all things +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +in the world," cried poor Watt, sick with hope deferred, +and pressed with little carking cares on every +side, "there is nothing so foolish as inventing."</p> + +<p>When nearly giving way to despair, and on the +point of abandoning his invention, Watt was fortunate +enough to fall in with Matthew Boulton, one of +the great manufacturing potentates of Birmingham, +an energetic, far-seeing man, who threw himself into +the enterprise with all his spirit; and the fortune of +the invention was made. An engine, on the new +principle, was set up at Soho; and there Boulton +and Watt sold, as the former said to Boswell, "what +all the world desires to have, <span class="smcap">Power</span>;"—the infinite +power that animates those mighty engines, which—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i4">"England's arms of conquest are,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">The trophies of her bloodless war:</span><br /> +<span class="i6">Brave weapons these.</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Victorious over wave and soil,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">With these she sails, she weaves, she tills,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Pierces the everlasting hills,</span><br /> +<span class="i6">And spans the seas."</span><br /> +</div></div> + +<p>Watt's engine, once fairly started, was not long in +making its way into general use. The first steam-engine +used in Manchester was erected in 1790; +and now it is estimated that in that district, within +a radius of ten miles, there are in constant work +more than fifty thousand boilers, giving a total power +of upwards of one million horses. And the united +steam power of Great Britain is considered equal to +the manual labour of upwards of four hundred millions +of men, or more than double the number of males on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +the face of the earth. From the factory at Soho, +Watt's improved engines were dispersed all over the +country, especially in Cornwall—the firm receiving +the value of a third part of the coal saved by the +use of the new machine. In one mine, where there +were three pumps at work, the proprietors thought +it worth while, it is said, to purchase the rights of +the inventors, at the price of £2500 yearly for each +engine. The saving, therefore, on the three engines, +in fuel alone, must have been at least £7500 a year.</p> + +<p>In the first year of the present century, Watt +withdrew himself entirely from business; but though +he lived in retirement, he did not let his busy mind +get rusty or sluggish for want of exercise. At one +time he took it into his head that his faculties were +declining, and though upwards of seventy years of age, +he resolved to test his mental powers by taking up +some new subject of study. It was no easy matter +to find one quite new to him, so wide and comprehensive +had been his range of study; but at length the +Anglo-Saxon tongue occurred to him, and he immediately +applied himself to master it, the facility with +which he did so, dispelling all doubt as to the failing +of his stupendous intellect. He thus busied himself +in various useful and entertaining pursuits, till close +upon his death, which took place in 1819.</p> + +<p>Extraordinary as was Watt's inventive genius, his +wide range of knowledge, theoretic and practical, was +equally so. Great as is the "idea" with which his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +name is chiefly associated, he was not a man of one +idea, but of a thousand. There was hardly a subject +which came under his notice which he did not master; +and, as was said of him, "it seemed as if every subject +casually started by him had been that he had +been occupied in studying." He had no doubt a +rapid faculty of acquiring knowledge; but he owed +the versatility and copiousness of his attainments +above all to his unwearied industry. He was always +at work on something or other, and he may truly be +called one of those who—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i4">"Could Time's hour-glass fall,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Would, as for seed of stars, stoop for the sand,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">And by incessant labour gather all."</span><br /> +</div></div> + +<p>In a recent volume of memoirs by Mrs. Schimmel +Pennick, we find the following graphic sketch of +this extraordinary man:—"He was one of the most +complete specimens of the melancholic temperament. +His head was generally bent forward or leaning on +his hand in meditation, his shoulders stooping, and +his chest falling in, his limbs lank and unmuscular, +and his complexion sallow. His utterance was slow +and impassioned, deep and low in tone, with a broad +Scotch accent; his manners gentle, modest, and unassuming. +In a company where he was not known, +unless spoken to, he might have tranquilly passed +the whole time in pursuing his own meditations. +When he entered the room, men of letters, men of +science, many military men, artists, ladies, and even +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +little children, thronged around him. I remember a +celebrated Swedish artist being instructed by him that +rat's whiskers made the most pliant painting-brushes; +ladies would appeal to him on the best modes of +devising grates, curing smoking chimneys, warming +their houses, and obtaining fast colours."</p> + +<p>His reading was singularly extensive and diversified. +He perused almost every work that came in +his way, and used to say that he never opened a +book, no matter what its subject or worth, without +learning something from it. He had a vivid imagination, +was passionately fond of fiction, and was a +very gifted story-teller himself. When a boy, staying +with his aunt in Glasgow, he used every night to +enthral the attention of the little circle with some +exciting narrative, which they would not go to bed +till they had heard the end of; and kept them in +such a state of tremor and excitement, that his aunt +used to threaten to send him away.</p> + +<p>Since Watt's time, innumerable patents have been +taken out for improvements in the steam engine; +but his great invention forms the basis of nearly all of +them, and the alterations refer rather to details than +principles of action. The application of steam to +locomotive purposes, however, led to the construction +of the high pressure engine, in which the cumbrous +condensing apparatus is dispensed with, and motion +imparted to the piston by the elastic power of the +steam being greater than that of the atmosphere.</p> + + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<a name="The_Manufacture_of_Cotton" id="The_Manufacture_of_Cotton"></a> +<img src="images/title-p075.png" alt="The Manufacture of Cotton." title="" /></h2> + + +<ol class="chapterTOC"> + <li> — KAY AND HARGREAVES.</li> + <li> — SIR RICHARD ARKWRIGHT.</li> + <li> — SAMUEL CROMPTON.</li> + <li> — DR. CARTWRIGHT.</li> + <li> — SIR ROBERT PEEL.</li> +</ol> + + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<img src="images/title-p077.png" alt="The Manufacture of Cotton." title="" /></h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Are not our greatest men as good as lost? The men who walk daily among us, +clothing us, warming us, feeding us, walk shrouded in darkness, mere mythic +men."—<span class="smcap">Carlyle.</span></p></div> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="KAY_AND_HARGREAVES" id="KAY_AND_HARGREAVES"></a>I.—KAY AND HARGREAVES.</h2> + + +<p>On the 3d of May 1734, there was a hanging at +Cork which made a good deal more noise than such +a very ordinary event generally did in those days. +There was nothing remarkable about the malefactor, +or the crime he had committed. He was a very +commonplace ruffian, and had earned his elevation to +the gallows by a vulgar felony. What was remarkable +about the affair was, that the woollen weavers +of Cork, being then in a state of great distress from +want of work, dressed up the convict in cotton garments, +and that the poor wretch, having once been a +weaver himself, "employed" the last occasion he +was ever to have of addressing his fellow creatures, +by assuring them that all his misdeeds and misfortunes +were to be traced to the "pernicious practice +of wearing cottons." "Therefore, good Christians," +he continued, "consider that if you go on to suppress +your own goods, by wearing such cottons as I am +now clothed in, you will bring your country into +misery, which will consequently swarm with such +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> +unhappy malefactors as your present Object is; and +the blood of every miserable felon that will hang +after this warning from the gallows will lie at your +doors."</p> + +<p>All which sayings were no doubt greatly applauded +by the disheartened weavers on the spot, and much +taken to heart by the citizens and gentry to whom +they were addressed.</p> + +<p>This is only one out of the many illustrations +which might be drawn from the chronicles of those +days, of the prejudice and discouragement cotton had +to contend against on its first appearance in this +country. Prohibited over and over again, laid under +penalties and high duties, treated with every sort of +contumely and oppression, it had long to struggle +desperately for the barest tolerance; yet it ended +by overcoming all obstacles, and distancing its +favoured rival wool. Returning good for evil, cotton +now sustains one-sixth of our fellow-countrymen, +and is an important mainstay of our commerce and +manufactures.</p> + +<p>First imported into Great Britain towards the +middle of the seventeenth century, cotton was but +little used for purposes of manufacture till the middle +of the eighteenth. The settlement of some Flemish +emigrants in Lancashire led to that district becoming +the principal seat of the cotton manufacture; +and probably the ungenerous nature of its soil induced +the people to resort to spinning and weaving +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> +to make up for the unprofitableness of their agricultural +labours.</p> + +<p>A nobler monument of human skill, enterprise, +and perseverance, than the invention of cotton-spinning +machinery is hardly to be met with; but it +must also be owned that its history, encouraging +as it is in one aspect, is in another sad and humiliating +to the last degree. It is difficult at first +to credit the uniform ingratitude and treachery +which the various inventors met with from the very +men whom their contrivances enriched. "There is +nothing," said James Watt in the crisis of his fortunes, +worn with care, and sick with hope deferred—"there +is nothing so foolish as inventing;" and with +far more reason the inventors of cotton-spinning +machines could echo the mournful cry. It is sad to +think that so proud a chapter of our history should +bear so dark a stain.</p> + +<p>In 1733 the primitive method still prevailed of +spinning between the finger and thumb, only one +thread at a time; and weaving up the yarn in a +loom, the shuttle of which had to be thrown from +right to left and left to right by both hands alternately. +In that year, however, the first step was +made in advance, by the invention of the fly-shuttle, +which, by means of a handle and spring, could be +jerked from side to side with one hand. This contrivance +was due to the ingenuity of John Kay, a +loom-maker at Colchester, and proved his ruin. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> +weavers did their best to prevent the use of the +shuttle,—the masters to get it used, and to cheat +the inventor out of his reward. Poor Kay was soon +brought low in the world by costly law-suits, and +being not yet tired of inventing, devised a rude +power-loom. In revenge a mob of weavers broke +into his house, smashed all his machines, and would +have smashed him too, had they laid hands on him. +He escaped from their clutches, to find his way to +Paris, and to die there in misery not long afterwards. +Kay was the first of the martyrs in this branch of +invention. James Hargreaves was the next.</p> + +<p>The use of the fly-shuttle greatly expedited the +process of weaving, and the spinning of cotton soon +fell behind. The weavers were often brought to a +stand-still for want of weft to go on with, and had +to spend their mornings going about in search of it, +sometimes without getting as much as kept them +busy for the rest of the day. The scarcity of yarn +was a constant complaint; and many a busy brain +was at work trying to devise some improvement on +the common hand-wheel. Amongst others, James +Hargreaves, an ingenious weaver at Standhill, near +Blackburn, who had already improved the mode of +cleaning and unravelling the cotton before spinning, +took the subject into consideration. One day, when +brooding over it in his cottage, idle for want of weft, +the accidental overturning of his wife's wheel suggested +to him the principle of the spinning-jenny. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> +Lying on its side, the wheel still continued in motion—the +spindle being thrown from a horizontal into +an upright position; and it occurred to him that all +he had got to do was to place a number of spindles +side by side. This was in 1764, and three years +afterwards Hargreaves had worked out the idea, and +constructed a spinning frame, with eight spindles and +a horizontal wheel, which he christened after his wife +Jenny, whose wheel had first put him in the right +track. Directly the spinners of the locality got +knowledge of this machine that was to do eight +times as much as any one of them, they broke into +the inventor's cottage, destroyed the jenny, and compelled +him to fly for the safety of his life to Nottingham. +He took out a patent, but the manufacturers +leagued themselves against them. Sole, friendless, +penniless, he could make no head against their +numbers and influence, relinquished his invention, +and died in obscurity and distress ten years after he +had the misfortune to contrive the spinning-jenny.</p> + +<p>The history of the cotton manufacture now becomes +identified with the lives of Arkwright, Crompton, +and Cartwright—the inventors of the water-frame, +the mule, and the power-loom.</p> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="SIR_RICHARD_ARKWRIGHT" id="SIR_RICHARD_ARKWRIGHT"></a>II.—SIR RICHARD ARKWRIGHT.</h2> + + +<p>Somewhere about the year 1752, any one passing +along a certain obscure alley in Preston, then a mere +village compared with the prosperous town into +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> +which it has since expanded, might have observed +projecting from the entrance to the underground flat +of one of the houses, a blue and white pole, with a +battered tin plate dangling at the end of it, the +object of which was to indicate that if he wanted his +hair cut or his chin shaved, he had only to step down +stairs, and the owner of the sign would be delighted +to accommodate him. But either people in that +quarter had little or no superfluous hair to get rid +of, or they had it taken off elsewhere; for Dicky +Arkwright, the barber in the cellar, for whom the +pole and plate stood sponsor in the upper world, had +few opportunities of displaying his talents, and spent +most of his time whetting his razors on a long piece +of leather, one end of which was nailed to the wall, +while the other was drawn towards him, and keeping +the hot water and the soap ready for the customers +who seldom or never came. This sort of thing did +not suit Dick's notions at all; for he was of an active +temperament, and besides feeling very dull at being +so much by himself all day, he pulled rather a long +face when he counted out the scanty array of coppers +in the till after shutting up shop for the night. As +he sat one night, before tumbling into his truckle +bed that stood in a recess in one corner of the dingy +little room, meditating on the hardness of the times, +a bright idea struck him; and the next morning the +attractions of the sign-pole were enhanced by a +staring placard, bearing the urgent invitation:—</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> +COME TO THE<br /> +SUBTERRANEOUS BARBER!<br /> +HE SHAVES FOR A PENNY!!<br /> +</p> + +<p>Now twopence, as we believe all those who have +investigated the subject are agreed, was the standard +charge for a clean shave at that period; and as soon +as this innovation got wind, we can fancy how indignant +the fraternity were at the unprincipled conduct +of one of their number; how they denounced +the reprobate, and prophesied his speedy ruin, over +their pipes and beer in the parlour of the "Duke of +Marlborough," which they patronized out of respect +for that hero's enormous periwig,—in their eyes his +chief title to immortality, and a bright example for +the degenerate age, when people had not only taken +to wearing their own hair, but were even beginning +to leave off dusting it with flour! And to make +matters worse, here was a low fellow offering to shave +for a penny. A number of people, tickled with the +originality of the placard, and not unmindful of the +penny saved, began to patronize the "Subterraneous +barber," and he soon drew so many customers away +from the higher-priced shops, that they were obliged +to come down, after a while, to a penny as well. +Not to be outdone, Arkwright lowered his charge to +a halfpenny, and still retained his rank as the cheapest +barber in the place.</p> + +<p>Arkwright's parents had been very poor people; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> +and as he was the youngest of a family of thirteen, +it may be readily supposed that all the school learning +he got was of the most meagre kind,—if, indeed, +he ever was at school at all, which is very doubtful. +He was of a very ardent, enterprising temperament, +however, and when once he took a thing in hand, +stubbornly persevered in carrying it through to the +end. About the year 1760, being then about thirty +years of age, Arkwright got tired of the shaving, +which brought him but a very scanty and precarious +livelihood, and resolved to try his luck in a business +where there was more scope for his enterprise and +activity. He therefore began business as an itinerant +dealer in hair, travelling up and down the country +to collect it, dressing it himself, and then disposing +of it in a prepared state to the wig-makers. As he +was very quick in detecting any improvements that +might be made in the process of dressing, he soon +acquired the reputation amongst the wig-makers of +supplying a better article than any of his rivals, and +drove a very good trade. He had also picked up or +discovered for himself the secret of dyeing the hair +in a particular way, by which he not only augmented +his profits, but enlarged the circle of his customers. +He throve so well, that he was able to lay by a little +money and to marry. He was very fond of spending +what leisure time he had in making experiments +in mechanics; and for a while was very much taken +up with an attempt to solve the attractive problem +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> +of perpetual motion. No doubt he soon saw the +hopelessness of the effort; but although he left the +question unsolved, the bent thus given to his thoughts +was fruitful of most valuable consequences.</p> + +<p>Living in the midst of a manufacturing population, +Arkwright was accustomed to hear daily complaints +of the continual difficulty of procuring sufficient weft +to keep the looms employed; while the exportation +of cotton goods gave rise to a growing demand for +the manufactured article. The weavers generally +had the weft they used spun for them by their wives +or daughters; and those whose families could not +supply the necessary quantity, had their spinning +done by their neighbours; and even by paying, as +they had to do, more for the spinning than the price +allowed by their masters, very few could procure +weft enough to keep themselves constantly at work. +It was no uncommon thing, we learn, for a weaver +to walk three or four miles in a morning, and call +on five or six spinners, before he could collect weft +to serve him for the rest of the day. Arkwright +must have been constantly hearing of this difficulty, +and of the restrictions it placed on the manufacture +of cotton goods; and being a mechanical genius, was +led to think how it might be lessened, if not got rid +of altogether. The idea of having an automaton +spinner, instead of one of flesh and blood, had occurred +before then to more than one speculator; but the +thing had never answered, and no models or +descrip<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>tions +of the machines proposed were preserved. One +inventor had, indeed, destroyed his own machine, +after having constructed it and found it to work, for +fear that if it came into use it would deprive the poor +spinners of their livelihood,—in reality its effect +would have been to provide employment and food +for thousands more than at that time got a miserable +living from their spinning-wheels.</p> + +<p>While Arkwright was intent on the discovery of +perpetual motion, he fell in with a clockmaker of the +name of Kay, who assisted him in making wheels +and springs for the contrivance he was trying to +complete. This led to an intimate connection between +them; and when Arkwright had given up the +perpetual motion affair, and applied his thoughts to +the invention of some machine for producing cotton +weft more rapidly than by the simple wheel, Kay +continued to help him in making models. Arkwright +soon became so engrossed in his new task, and so +confident of ultimate success, that he began to neglect +his regular business. All his thoughts, and nearly +all his time, were given up to the great work he had +taken in hand. His trade fell off; he spent all his +savings in purchasing materials for models, and +getting them put together, and he fell into very distressed +circumstances. His wife remonstrated with +him, but in vain; and one day, in a rage at what +she considered the cause of all their privations, she +smashed some of his models on the floor. Such an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> +outrage was more than Arkwright could bear, and +they separated.</p> + +<p>In 1768, Arkwright, having completed the model +of a machine for spinning cotton thread, removed to +Preston, taking Kay with him. At this time he +had hardly a penny in the world, and was almost in +rags. His poverty, indeed, was such, that soon after +his arrival in Preston, a contested election for a +member of Parliament having taken place, he was +so tattered and miserable in his appearance, that the +party with whom he voted had to give him a decent +suit of clothes before he could be seen at the polling-booth. +He had got leave to set up his machine in +the dwelling-house attached to the Free Grammar +School; but, afraid of suffering from the hostility of +the spinners, as the unfortunate Hargreaves had +done some time before, he and Kay thought it best to +leave Lancashire, and try their fortune in Nottingham.</p> + +<p>Poor and friendless, it may easily be supposed +that Arkwright found it a hard matter to get any +one to back him in a speculation which people then +regarded as hazardous, if not illusory. He got a +few pounds from one of the bankers in the town; +but that was soon spent, and further advances were +refused. Nothing daunted, Arkwright tried elsewhere +for help, and at length succeeded in convincing Messrs. +Need and Strutt,<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> +large stocking-weavers in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +place, of the value of his invention, and inducing +them to enter into partnership with him. In 1769 +he took out a patent for the machine, as its inventor, +and a mill, worked by horse-power, was erected for +spinning cotton by the new machine. Two years +after, he and his partner set up another mill in Derbyshire, +worked by a water-wheel; and in 1775 he +took out another patent for some improvements on +his original scheme.</p> + +<p>The machinery which he patented consisted of a +number of different contrivances; but the chief of +these, and the one which he particularly claimed +entirely as his own invention (for he frankly admitted +that some of the other parts were only developments +of other inventors), was what is called the water-frame +throstle for drawing out the cotton from a coarse to +a finer and harder twisted thread, and so rendering +it fit to be used for the warp, or longitudinal threads +of the cloth, which were formed of linen, as well as +the weft. This apparatus was a combination of the +carding and spinning machinery; and the principle of +having two pairs of rollers, one revolving faster than +the other, was now for the first time applied to machinery.</p> + +<p>In a year or two the success of Arkwright's inventions +was fairly established. The manufacturers +were fully alive to its importance; and Arkwright +now reaped the reward of all the toil and danger he +had undergone in the shape of a diligent and +per<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>sistent +attempt to rob him of his monopoly, which +was carried on for a number of years, and was at +length successful. Some of the manufacturers, who +were greedy to profit by the new machinery without +paying the inventor, got hold of Kay, who had +quarrelled with Arkwright some time before, and +found him a willing instrument in their hands. It +would take too long to go over all the law processes +which Arkwright had now to engage in to defend +his rights. Kay got up a story that the real inventor +was a poor reed maker named Highs, who had once +employed him to make a model, the secret of which +he had imparted to Arkwright; and this was a capital +excuse for using the new machinery in defiance of +the patent, although the evidence at the various trials +is now held completely to vindicate Arkwright's title +as inventor. One law plea was lost to him, on account +of some technical omission in the specifications; +another restored to him the enjoyment of his monopoly; +and a third trial destroyed the patent, which +Arkwright never took any steps to recover.</p> + +<p>Besides trying to defraud Arkwright of his patent-rights, +the rival manufacturers, with jealous inconsistency, +did their best to discountenance the use of +the yarns he made, although much superior in quality +to what was then in use. But Arkwright not only +surmounted this obstacle, but turned it to good +account, for it set him to manufacturing the yarn +into stockings and calicoes, the duty on which being +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> +soon after lowered, in spite of the strenuous opposition +of the manufacturers, turned out a very profitable +speculation.</p> + +<p>For the first five years Arkwright's mills yielded +little or no profit; but after that, the adverse tide +against which he had struggled so bravely changed, +and he followed a prosperous and honourable career +till his death, which happened in 1792. He was +knighted, not for being, as he was, a benefactor to +his country, but because, in his capacity of high +sheriff, he chanced to read some trumpery address to +the king. He left behind a fortune of about half a +million sterling.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> +The founder of the family of Strutt of Belper, afterwards ennobled.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="SAMUEL_CROMPTON" id="SAMUEL_CROMPTON"></a>III.—SAMUEL CROMPTON.</h2> + + +<p>Excellent as was the yarn produced by the spinning-jenny +and the water-frame, compared with the +old hand-spun stuff, it was coarse and full of knots; +and when a demand arose for imitations of the fine +India muslins, the weavers found they could produce +but a very poor piece of work with such rough +materials.</p> + +<p>Among those who were inconvenienced for want of +a better sort of yarn was young Samuel Crompton, +who lived with his widowed mother and two sisters +in an old country house called Hall-in-the-Wood, near +what was then the little rural town of Bolton in the +Moors. When Samuel was only five years old his +father died, and left his widow with the three +chil<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>dren +on her hands, to struggle through the world as +best she could. A hard-working, energetic, God-fearing +woman, she buckled to the fight with a stout +heart and a resolute will. Her husband had been +both farmer and weaver, like most of the men in +that quarter; and she did her best to fill his place, +looking after the little farm and the three cows, and +working at the loom, the yarn for which she taught +the bairns to spin. Whatever she took in hand she +did with might and main, and the result was, her +webs were the best woven, her butter the richest, +her honey the purest, her home-made wines the finest +flavoured of any in the district. Small as her means +were, she gave her boy the best education that could +be got in Bolton—first at a day-school, and afterwards, +when he was old enough to take his place by +day between the treadles, at a night-school. Rigid in +her sense of duty, and resolute to do her own share +of the work, she exacted the same from others, and +kept her lad tightly to the loom. Every day he +had to do a certain quantity of work; and there +was no looking her in the face unless each evening +saw it done, and well done too. Anxious to satisfy +his mother, and yet get time for his favourite amusement +of fiddle-making and fiddle-playing, Sam grew +quickly sensitive of the imperfections of the machinery +he had to work with. "He was plagued to deeath," +he used to say, "wi' mendin' the broken threeads;" +and could not help thinking many a time whether +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +the jenny could not be improved so as to spin more +quickly, and produce a better thread. By the time +he came to man's estate, in 1774, his thoughts had +settled so far into a track, that he was able to begin +making a contrivance of his own, which he hoped +would accomplish the object he had in view. He +had a few common tools which had belonged to his +father, but his own clasp-knife served nearly every +purpose in his ready hands. He had his "bits of +things" filed at the smithy, and to get money for +materials, he fiddled at the theatre for 1s. 6d. a +night. Every minute he could spare from the task-work +of the day was spent in his little room over +the porch of the hall in forwarding his invention. +As it advanced, he grew more and more engrossed +with it, and often the dawn found him still at work +on it. The good folks down in Bolton were sorely +puzzled to think what light it was that was so often +seen glimmering at uncanny hours up at the old hall. +The story went abroad that the place was haunted, +and that the ghost of some former resident, uneasy +from the sorrows or the sins of his past life, kept +watch and ward till cock crow, with a spectral lamp. +The mystery was cleared up at last. It was discovered +that the ghost was only Sam Crompton "fashing +himself over bits of wood and iron;" and Sam was +pointed out as a "conjuror"—the cant term for +inventor—when he walked through the town.</p> + +<p>The five years of labour and anxiety bore fruit in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> +1779, when the "mule-jenny" with its spindle carriage +was finished and set to work. As its name +indicates, it was an ingenious cross between the +jenny and the water-frame, combining the best +features of both with several novel ones, which +rendered it a very valuable machine.</p> + +<p>Just as Crompton had put the finishing touches +to his mule, the weavers and spinners broke out in +open riot at Blackburn, and scoured the country with +the cry, "Men, not machines;" breaking every machine +they could lay hands on. To keep himself out +of trouble and save his mule, Crompton took it to +pieces, and hid it in the roof of the hall. When the +storm had swept past, he brought it out, put it +together, and began to use it in his daily work. +The fine yarn he turned out made quite a sensation, +and the fame of his invention spread far and wide. +People came from all quarters to get a sight of it; +and when denied admittance, brought ladders and +harrows, and climbed up to the window of the room +where it stood. One pertinacious fellow actually +ensconced himself for several days in the cockloft, from +which he watched Crompton at work in the room +below, through a gimlet hole he bored in the ceiling. +Crompton lost all patience with this constant espionage. +"Why couldn't folk let him enjoy his machine +by himself?" he asked. A friend, whose advice he +asked, urged him not to think of taking out a patent, +but to make a present of his invention to the +com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>munity +at large. Save me from my friends, Crompton +might well have cried. Simple, guileless fellow +that he was, he acted on his "friend's" advice, and +on a number of manufacturers putting down their +names for subscriptions varying from a guinea to a +crown, threw open the invention to the world. When +the time came for the subscriptions to be called in, +some of the manufacturers actually were base enough +to refuse payment of the paltry sums they had promised, +and overwhelmed with abuse the man by the +fruit of whose brain they were making their fortunes. +When all the money was collected, it amounted to +only £60, just as much as built Crompton a new +machine, with no more than four spindles.</p> + +<p>Shy, simple, confiding, innocent of the cunning +ways of the world, sadly backward in the study of +mankind, and perhaps somewhat ungenial and unpractised +to boot, Crompton, from the time when +one would have thought he had set his foot on the +first round of the ladder of fortune, went stumbling +on from one misfortune to another, ill-used on every +side, and unsuccessful in every effort to get on in the +world. Wheedled out of his patent rights, cheated +of the money promised him, his workmen lured away +from him as soon as he had taught them the construction +of the mule, he grew morbid and distrustful +of everyone. He would have no more workmen; +and as the production of his machines was thus restricted +to the labours of his own hands, he could +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> +not compete with the large factories, who drew all +the customers away from him. Peel, the father of +the statesman, offered him first a lucrative place of +trust, and afterwards a partnership; but he would +not listen to him. He grew more wretched and +discouraged every day. In despair he cut up his +spinning machines, and hacked to pieces with an axe +a carding machine he had invented, exclaiming +bitterly, "They shall not have this too."</p> + +<p>He then retired into comparative obscurity at +Oldham, where he drudged away at weaving, farming, +cow-keeping, and overseeing the poor, and found +it no easy matter withal to support his family, for +he had married some years before. Afterwards he +re-appeared at Bolton as a small manufacturer; and +there was a brief interval of sunshine. The muslin +trade was very brisk, and the weavers walked about +with five-pound notes stuck in their hats, and dressed +out in ruffled shirts and top boots, like fine gentlemen. +While this lasted Crompton found abundant +sale for his superior yarn. But trade grew depressed, +and the gloom settled over Crompton's life to its +close.</p> + +<p>The idea was started of getting Parliament to do +something for him; but he was too independent to +supplicate government officials in person. Spencer +Perceval, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, was willing +to befriend him; but Crompton's ill luck was at +his heels. On the 11th of May 1812, Crompton +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +was talking with Peel and another gentleman in the +lobby of the House of Commons, when Perceval +walked up to them, saying, "You will be glad to +know we mean to propose £20,000 for Crompton. +Do you think it will be satisfactory?" Crompton +walked away out of delicacy not to hear the answer. +An instant afterwards there was a great shout, and +a rush of people in alarm. Perceval lay bathed in +his own blood, slain by the bullet of the assassin +Bellingham. Crompton had lost his friend.</p> + +<p>When the subject of a grant to the inventor of +the spinning-mule was brought up in the House a +few days afterwards by Lord Stanley (now Lord +Derby), only £5000 was proposed. No one thought +of increasing it. "Let's give the man a £100 a-year," +said an honourable member; "it's as much as he +can drink." So the vote was agreed to; though at +that very time the duty accruing to the revenue from +the cotton wool imported to be spun upon the mule +was £300,000 a-year, or more than £1000 a working +day. The impulse which this invention gave to +the cotton manufactures of Great Britain, and the +commercial prosperity to which it led, enabled the +country to bear the heavy drain of the war taxes; and +it has been said, with no little truth, that Crompton +contributed as much as Wellington to the downfall of +Napoleon. As soon as it became known, the mule-spindle +took the lead in cotton-spinning machines. +In 1811 above 4,600,000 mule-spindles, made by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +his pattern, were in use. At the present time it is +calculated that there are upwards of 30,000,000 +in use in Great Britain; and the increase goes on at +the rate of above 1,000,000 a-year. In France +there were in 1850 about 3,000,000 spindles on +Crompton's principle; and one firm of mule makers +(Hibbert, Platt, and Company, of Oldham), make +mules at the rate of 500,000 spindles a-year. The +immense impetus given to trade, money, civilization, +and comfort by this invention is almost incalculable.</p> + +<p>The grant of £5000 was soon swallowed up in +the payment of his debts, and in meeting the losses +of his business. "Nothing more was ever done for +him. The king, who was fond of patronizing merit, +took no notice of him; his eldest son was promised +a commission, which he did not get; and some time +after, when struggling through life on only £100 +a-year, the post of sub-inspector of the factories in +Bolton became vacant; though he applied for the +office, for which he was eminently qualified, he was +passed over in favour of the natural son of one of +the ex-secretaries of state—a man who did not know +a mule from a spinning-jenny."<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a></p> + +<p>Crompton spent his last days in poverty and +privation, and died at the age of seventy-four, in +1827.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> +Athenæum.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="DR_CARTWRIGHT" id="DR_CARTWRIGHT"></a>IV.—DR. CARTWRIGHT.</h2> + + +<p>In the summer of 1784 a number of gentlemen +were chatting, after dinner, in a country house at +Matlock in Derbyshire. Some extensive cotton-mills +had recently been set up in the neighbourhood, and +the conversation turned upon the wonderful inventions +which had been introduced for spinning cotton. +There were one or two gentlemen present connected +with the "manufacturing interest," who were very +bitter against Arkwright and his schemes.</p> + +<p>"It's all very well," said one of the grumblers, +"but what will all this rapid production of yarn lead +to? Putting aside the ruin of the poor spinners, +who will be starved because they haven't as many +arms as these terrible machines, you'll find that it will +end in a great deal more yarn being spun than can +be woven into cloth, and in large quantities of yarn +being exported to the Continent, where it will be +worked up by foreign weavers, to the injury of our +home manufacture. That will be the short and the +long of it, mark my words."</p> + +<p>"Well, but, sir," remarked a grave, portly, middle-aged +gentleman of clerical appearance, after a few +minutes' reflection, "when you talk of the impossibility +of the weaving keeping up with the spinning, +you forget that machinery may yet be applied to the +former as well as the latter. Why may there not +be a loom contrived for working up yarn as fast as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +the spindle produces it. That long-headed fellow +Arkwright must just set about inventing a weaving +machine."</p> + +<p>"Stuff and nonsense," returned the "practical +man" pettishly, as though it were hardly worth +while noticing the remarks of such a dreamer. "You +might as well bid Arkwright grow the cloth ready +made. Weaving by machinery is utterly impossible. +You must remember how much more complex a process +it is than spinning, and what a variety of movements +it involves. Weaving by machinery is a mere +idle vision, my dear sir, and shows you know nothing +about the operation."</p> + +<p>"Well, I must confess my ignorance on the subject +of weaving," replied the clergyman; "but surely it +can't be a more complex matter than moving the +pieces in a game of chess. Now, there's an automaton +figure now exhibiting in London, which +handles the chess men, and places them on the proper +squares of the board, and makes the most intricate +moves, for all the world as if it were alive. If that +can be done, I don't see why weaving should baffle +a clever mechanist. A few years ago we should +have laughed at the notion of doing what Arkwright +has done; and I'm certain that before many years +are over, we shall have 'weaving Johnnies,' as well +as 'spinning Jennies.'"</p> + +<p>Dr. Cartwright, for that was the clergyman's name, +confidently as he foretold that machine-weaving +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> +would be devised before long, little dreamt at that +moment that he was himself to bring about the +fulfilment of his own prediction. A quiet, country +clergyman, of literary tastes, a scholar, and poetaster, +he had spent his life hitherto in the discharge of his +ministerial duties, writing articles and verses, and +had never given the slightest attention to mechanics, +theoretical or practical. He had never so much as +seen a loom at work, and had not the remotest notion +of the principle or mode of its construction. But +the chance conversation at the Matlock dinner table +suddenly roused his interest in the subject. He +walked home meditating on what sort of a process +weaving must be; brooded over the subject for days +and weeks,—was often observed by his family striding +up and down the room in a fit of abstraction, throwing +his arms from side to side like a weaver jerking +the shuttles,—and at last succeeded in evolving, +as the Germans would say, from "the depths of his +moral consciousness," the idea of a power-loom. +With the help of a smith and a carpenter, he set +about the construction of a number of experimental +machines, and at length, after five or six months' +application, turned out a rude, clumsy piece of work, +which was the basis of his invention.</p> + +<p>"The warp," he says, "was laid perpendicularly, +the reed fell with the force of at least half a hundredweight, +and the springs which threw the shuttle were +strong enough to have thrown a Congreve rocket. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +In short, it required the strength of two powerful +men to work the machine at a slow rate, and only +for a short time. This being done, I then condescended +to see how other people wove; and you +will guess my astonishment when I compared their +easy modes of operation with mine. Availing myself +of what I then saw, I made a loom in its general +principles nearly as they are now made. But it was +not till the year 1787 that I completed my invention."</p> + +<p>Having given himself to the contrivance of a loom +that should be able to keep pace in the working up +of the yarn with the jenny which produced it, solely +from motives of philanthropy, he felt bound, now +that he had devised the machine, to prove its utility, +and bring it into use. To have stopped with the +work of invention, would, he conceived, have been to +leave the work half undone; and, therefore, at no slight +sacrifice of personal inclination, and to the rupture of +all old ties, associations, and ways of life, he quitted +the ease and seclusion of his parsonage, abandoned +the pursuits which had formerly been his delight, +and devoted himself to the promotion of his invention. +He set up weaving and spinning factories at +Doncaster, and, bent on the welfare of his race, began +the weary, painful struggle that was to be his ruin, +and to end only with his life. "I have the worst +mechanical conception any man can have," wrote +his friend Crabbe, "but you have my best wishes. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> +May you weave webs of gold." Alas! the good +man wove for himself rather a web of dismal sack-cloth, +sore and grievous to his peace, like the harsh +shirts of hair old devotees used to vex their flesh +with for their sins. The golden webs were for other +folk's wear,—for those who toiled not with their +brain as he had done, but who reaped what they +had not sown.</p> + +<p>He had invented a machine that was to promote +industry, and save the English weavers from being +driven from the field, as was beginning to be the +case, by foreign weavers; and masters and men were +up in arms against him as soon as his design was +known. His goods were maliciously damaged,—his +workmen were spirited away from him,—his patent +right was infringed. Calumny and hatred dogged +his steps. After a succession of disasters, his prospects +assumed a brighter aspect, when a large Manchester +firm contracted for the use of four hundred +looms. A few days after they were at work, the +mill that had been built to receive them stood a +heap of blackened ruins.</p> + +<p>Still, he would not give up till all his resources +were exhausted,—and surely and not slowly that +event drew nigh. The fortune of £30,000 with +which he started in the enterprise melted rapidly +away; and at length the day came when, with an +empty purse, a frame shattered with anxiety and +toil, but with a brave, stout heart still beating in his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> +breast, Cartwright turned his back upon his mills, +and went off to London to gain a living by his pen. +As he turned from the scene of his misfortunes, he +exclaimed,—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"With firm, unshaken mind, that wreck I see,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Nor think the doom of man should be reversed for me."</span><br /> +</div></div> + +<p>The lion that has once eaten a man has ever after, +it is said, a wild craving after human blood. And +it would seem that the faculty of invention, once +aroused, its appetite for exercise is constant and insatiable. +Cartwright having discovered his dormant +powers, could no more cease to use them than to eat. +A return to his quiet literary ways, fond as he still +was of such pursuits, was impossible. An inventor +he was, and an inventor he must continue till his +eye was glazed, and his brain numbed in death. +When a clergyman he set himself to study medicine, +and acquired great skill and knowledge in the science, +solely for the benefit of the poor parishioners, and now +he gave himself up to the labours of invention with +the same benevolent motives. Gain had not tempted +him to enter the arena,—discouragement and ruin +were not to drive him from it. The resources of his +ingenuity seemed inexhaustible, and there was no +limit to its range of objects. Wool-combing machines, +bread and biscuit baking machines, rope-making +machines, ploughs, and wheel carriages, fire-preventatives, +were in turn invented or improved by +him. He predicted the use of steam-ships, and +steam-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>carriages,—and +himself devised a model of the former +(with clock-work instead of a steam-engine), which a +little boy used to play with on the ponds at Woburn, +that was to grow up into an eminent statesman—Lord +John Russell. To the very last hour of his +life his brain was teeming with new designs. He +went down to Dover in his eightieth year for warm +sea-bathing, and suggested to his bathman a way of +pumping up the water that saved him the wages of +two men; and almost the day before his death, he +wrote an elaborate statement of a new mode he had +discovered of working the steam-engine. Moved by +an irresistible impulse to promote the "public weal," +he truly fulfilled the resolution he expressed in verse,—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"With mind unwearied, still will I engage,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">In spite of failing vigour and of age,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Nor quit the combat till I quit the stage."</span><br /> +</div></div> + +<p>In 1808 he was rewarded by Parliament for his +invention of the power-loom, and the losses it brought +upon him, by a grant of £10,000. He died in +October 1823.</p> + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="SIR_ROBERT_PEEL" id="SIR_ROBERT_PEEL"></a>V.—SIR ROBERT PEEL.</h2> + + +<p>Cartwright's power-loom was afterwards taken in +hand and greatly improved by other ingenious persons—mechanics +and weavers. "The names of many +clever mechanics," says a writer in the <i>Quarterly +Review</i>, "who contributed to advance it, step by +step, through failure and disappointment, have long +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> +been forgotten. Some broke their hearts over their +projects when apparently on the eve of success. No +one was more indefatigable in his endeavours to +overcome the difficulties of the contrivance than +William Radcliffe, a manufacturer at Mellor, near +Manchester, whose invention of the dressing-machine +was an important step in advance. With the assistance +of an ingenious young weaver in his employment, +named Johnson, he also brought out the dandy-loom, +which effects almost all that can be done for +the hand-loom as to motion. Radcliffe was not, however, +successful as a manufacturer; he exhausted his +means in experiments, of which his contemporaries +and successors were to derive the benefit; and after +expending immense labour, and a considerable fortune +in his improvements, he died in poverty in Manchester +only a few years ago."</p> + +<p>To the Peel family the cotton manufacture is +greatly indebted for its progress. Robert Peel, the +founder of the family, developed the plan of printing +calico, and his successors perfected it in a variety of +ways. While occupied as a small farmer near Blackburn, +he gave a great deal of attention to the subject, +and made a great many experiments. One day, +when sketching a pattern on the back of a pewter +dinner-plate, the idea occurred to him, that if colour +were rubbed upon the design an impression might +be printed off it upon calico. He tested the plan at +once. Filling in the pattern with colour on the back +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> +of the plate, and placing a piece of calico over it, he +passed it through a mangle, and was delighted with +seeing the calico come out duly printed. This was +his first essay in calico-printing; and he soon worked +out the idea, patented it, and starting as a calico-printer, +succeeded so well, that he gave up the farm +and devoted himself entirely to that business. His +sons succeeded him; and the Peel family, divided +into numerous firms, became one of the chief pillars +of the cotton manufacture.</p> + +<p>To such perfection has calico-printing now been +brought, that a mile of calico can be printed in an +hour, or three cotton dresses in a minute; and so +extensive is the production of that article, that one +firm alone—that of Hoyle—turns out in a year +more than 10,000 miles of it, or more than sufficient +to measure the diameter of our planet.</p> + +<p>It was a favourite saying of old Sir Robert Peel, in +regard to the importance of commercial wealth in a +national point of view, "that the gains of individuals +were small compared with the national gains arising +from trade;" and there can be no doubt that the +success of the cotton trade has contributed essentially +to the present affluence and prosperity of the United +Kingdom. It has placed cheap and comfortable +clothing within the reach of all, and provided well-paid +employment for multitudes of people; and the +growth of population to which it has led, and consequent +increase in the consumption of the various +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> +necessaries and luxuries of life, have given a stimulus +to all the other branches of industry and commerce. +From one of the most miserable provinces in the +land, Lancashire has grown to be one of the most +prosperous. Within a hundred and fifty years the +population has increased tenfold, and land has risen +to fifty times its value for agricultural, and seventy +times for manufacturing purposes. From an insignificant +country town and a little fishing village have +sprung Manchester and Liverpool; and many other +towns throughout the country owe their existence to +the same source. These are the great monuments +to the achievements of Arkwright, Crompton, Peel, +and the other captains of industry who wrought this +mighty change, and the best trophies of their genius +and enterprise.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/footer-107.png" width="300" height="141" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<a name="The_Railway_and_the_Locomotive" id="The_Railway_and_the_Locomotive"></a> +<img src="images/title-p109.png" alt="The Railway and the Locomotive." title="" /></h2> + + +<ol class="chapterTOC"> + <li> — "THE FLYING COACH."</li> + <li> — THE STEPHENSONS: FATHER AND SON.</li> + <li> — THE GROWTH OF RAILWAYS.</li> +</ol> + + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<img src="images/title-p111.png" alt="The Railway and the Locomotive" title="" /></h2> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="THE_FLYING_COACH" id="THE_FLYING_COACH"></a>I.—"THE FLYING COACH."</h2> + + +<p>It is the grey dawn of a fine spring morning in the +year 1669, and early though it be, there are many +folks astir and gathering in clusters before the +ancient, weather-stained front of All Souls' College, +Oxford. The "Flying Coach" which has been so +much talked about, and which has been solemnly +considered and sanctioned by the heads of the University, +is to make its first journey to the metropolis +to-day, and to accomplish it between sunrise and +sunset. Hitherto the journey has occupied two days, +the travellers sleeping a night on the road; and the +new undertaking is regarded as very bold and +hazardous. A buzz rises from the knots of people as +they discuss its prospects,—some very sanguine, some +very doubtful, not a few very angry at the presumption +of the enterprise. But six o'clock is on the +strike—all the passengers are seated, some of them +rather wishful to be safe on the pavement again—the +driver has got the reins in his hand—the guard +sounds his bugle, and off goes the "Flying Coach" +at a rattling pace, amidst the cheering of the crowd +and the benedictions of the university "Dons," who +have come down to honour the event with their +pre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>sence. +Learned, liberal-minded men these "Dons" +are for the times they live in; but only fancy what +they would think if some old seer, whose meditation +and research had</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Pierced the future, far as human eye could see,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Seen the vision of the world, and all the wonders that would be,"</span><br /> +</div></div> + +<p>were to come forth and tell them, that before two +centuries were over men would think far less of +travelling from Oxford to London in one hour +than they then did of doing so in a day, by +means of a machine of iron, mounted upon wheels, +which should rush along the ground, and drag a load, +which a hundred horses could not move, as though it +were a feather. Roger Bacon had prophesied as +much four centuries before; the Marquis of Worcester +was propounding the same theory at that very +day, and yet who can blame them if they treated the +notion as the falsehood of an impostor, or the hallucination +of a lunatic?</p> + +<p>In these days when railways traverse the country in +every direction, and are still multiplying rapidly, when +no two towns of the least size and consideration are +unprovided with this mode of mutual communication—when +we step into a railway carriage as readily +as into an omnibus, and breakfasting comfortably in +London, are whisked off to Edinburgh, almost in time +for the fashionable dinner hour,—it requires no little +effort to realize the incredulity and contempt with +which the idea of superseding the stage-coach by the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> +steam locomotive, and having lines of iron railways +instead of the common highways, was regarded for +many years after the beginning of the present century. +Even after the practicability of the project had +been proved, and steam-engines had been seen puffing +along the rails, with a train of carriages attached, +even so late as 1825, we find one of the leading +periodicals—the <i>Quarterly Review</i>—denouncing the +gross exaggeration of the powers of the locomotive +which its promoters were guilty of, and predicting +that though it might delude for a time, it must end +in the mortification of all concerned. The fact was, +said the writer, that people would as soon suffer themselves +to be fired off like a Congreve rocket, as trust +themselves to the mercy of such a machine, going at +such a rate—the rate of eighteen miles an hour, +which people now-a-days, accustomed to dash along in +express trains at two or three times that speed, would +deem a perfect snail-pace.</p> + +<p>The "railway" had the start of the locomotive by +a couple of centuries, and derives its parentage from +the clumsy wooden way-leaves or tram-roads which +were laid down to lessen the labour of dragging the +coal-waggons to and from the place of shipment in the +Newcastle colleries. These were in use from the +beginning of the seventeenth century, but it was not +till the beginning of the nineteenth that the locomotive +steam-engine made its appearance. Watt +himself took out a patent for a locomotive in 1784, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +but nothing came of it; and the honour of having +first proved the practicability of applying steam to +the purposes of locomotion is due to a Cornishman +named Trevithick, who devised a high-pressure engine +of very ingenious construction, and actually set it to +work on one of the roads in South Wales. At first, +therefore, there was no alliance between the engine +and the rail; and though afterwards Trevithick +adapted it to run on a tram-way, something went +wrong with it, and the idea was for the time +abandoned. There was a long-headed engine-man +in one of the Newcastle collieries about this time, in +whose mind the true solution of the problem was +rapidly developing, but Trevithick had nearly forestalled +him. The stories of these two men afford a +most instructive lesson. A man of undoubted talent +and ingenuity, with influential friends both in Cornwall +and London, Trevithick had a fair start in life, +and every opportunity of distinguishing himself. But +he lacked steadiness and perseverance, and nothing +prospered with him. He had no sooner applied himself +to one scheme than he threw it up, and became +engrossed in another, to be abandoned in turn for +some new favourite. He was always beginning some +novelty, and never ending what he had begun, and +the consequence was an almost constant succession of +failures. He was always unhappy and unsuccessful. +If now and then a gleam of success did brighten on +his path, it was but temporary, and was speedily +ab<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>sorbed +in the gloom of failure. He found a man of +capital to take up his high-pressure engine, got his +locomotive built and set to work, brought his ballast +engine into use, and stood in no want of praise and +encouragement; and yet, one after another his schemes +went wrong. Not one of them did well, because he +never stuck to any of them long enough. "The +world always went wrong with him," he said himself. +"He always went wrong with the world," said +more truly those who knew him. His haste, impatience, +and want of perseverance ruined him. +After actually witnessing his steam engine at work +in Wales, dragging a train of heavy waggons at the +rate of five miles an hour, he lost conceit of his invention, +went away to the West Indies, and did not +return to England till Stephenson had solved the +difficulty of steam locomotion, and was laying out the +Stockton and Darlington Railway. The humble +engine-man, without education, without friends, without +money, with countless obstacles in his way, and +not a single advantage, save his native genius and resolution, +had won the day, and distanced his more +favoured and accomplished rival. It was reserved +for <span class="smcap">George Stephenson</span> to bring about the alliance +of the locomotive and the railroad—"man and +wife," as he used to call them—whose union, like that +of heaven and earth in the old mythology, was to +bear an offspring of Titanic might—the modern railway.</p> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="THE_STEPHENSONS_FATHER_AND_SON" id="THE_STEPHENSONS_FATHER_AND_SON"></a> +II.—THE STEPHENSONS: FATHER AND SON.</h2> + + +<p>Towards the close of the last century, a bare-legged +herd-laddie, about eight years old, might have been +seen, in a field at Dewley Burn, a little village not +far from Newcastle, amusing himself by making +clay-engines, with bits of hemlock-stalk for imaginary +pipes. The child is father of the man; and in after +years that little fellow became the inventor of the +passenger locomotive, and as the founder of the +gigantic railway system which now spreads its fibres +over the length and breadth, not only of our own +country, but of the civilized world, the true hero of +the half-century.</p> + +<p>The second son of a fireman to one of the colliery +engines, who had six children and a wife to support +on an income of twelve shillings a-week, George +Stephenson had to begin work while quite a child. +At first he was set to look after a neighbour's cows, +and keep them from straying; and afterwards he was +promoted to the work of leading horses at the +plough, hoeing turnips, and such like, at a salary of +fourpence a-day. The lad had always been fond of +poking about in his father's engine house; and his +great ambition at this time was to become a fireman +like his father. And at length, after being employed +in various ways about the colliery, he was, at the +age of fourteen, appointed his father's assistant at a +shilling a-day. The next year he got a situation as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> +fireman on his own account; and "now," said he, +when his wages were advanced to twelve shillings a-week—"now +I'm a made man for life."</p> + +<p>The next step he took was to get the place of +"plugman" to the same engine that his father attended +as fireman, the former post being rather the +higher of the two. The business of the plugman, +the uninitiated may be informed, is to watch the +engine, and see that it works properly—the name +being derived from the duty of plugging the tube at +the bottom of the shaft, so that the action of the +pump should not be interfered with by the exposure +of the suction-holes. George now devoted himself +enthusiastically to the study of the engine under his +care. It became a sort of pet with him; and he was +never weary of taking it to pieces, cleaning it, +putting it together again, and inspecting its various +parts with admiration and delight, so that he soon +made himself thoroughly master of its method of +working and construction.</p> + +<p>Eighteen years old by this time, George Stephenson +was wholly uneducated. His father's small +earnings, and the large family he had to feed, at a +time when provisions were scarce and at war prices, +prevented his having any schooling in his early +years; and he now set himself to repair his deficiencies +in that respect. His duties occupied him twelve +hours a-day, so that he had but little leisure to himself; +but he was bent on improving himself, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> +and after the duties of the day were over, went +to a night-school kept by a poor teacher in the +village of Water-row, where he was now situated, on +three nights during the week, to take lessons in +reading and spelling, and afterwards in the science +of pot-hooks and hangers as well; so that by the +time he was nineteen he was able to read clearly, and +to write his own name. Then he took to arithmetic, +for which he showed a strong predilection. He +had always a sum or two by him to work out while +at the engine side, and soon made great progress.</p> + +<p>The next year he was appointed brakesman at +Black Collerton Colliery, with six shillings added to +his wages, which were now nearly a pound a-week, +and he was always making a few shillings extra by +mending his fellow-workmen's shoes, a job at which +he was rather expert. Busy as he was with his +various tasks, he found time to fall in love. Pretty +Fanny Henderson, a servant at a neighbouring farm, +caught his fancy; and getting her shoes to mend, it +cost him a great effort to return them to the comely +owner after they were patched up. He carried them +about with him in his pocket for some time, and would +pull them out, and then gaze fondly at them with +as much emotion as the old story tells us the sight +of the dainty glass slipper, which Cinderella dropped +at the ball, excited in the breast of the young prince. +Bent upon taking up house for himself, with Fanny +as presiding genius, Stephenson now began to save +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> +up, and declared himself a "rich man" when he put +his first guinea in the box.</p> + +<p>Instead of spending the Saturday afternoon with +his fellow-workmen in the public-house, Stephenson +employed himself in taking the engine to pieces, and +cleaning it; but besides his attention to work, he was +also remarkable for his skill at putting and wrestling, +in which he beat most of his comrades. And he was +not without pluck either, as he let a great hulking +fellow, who was the bully of the village, know to his +cost, by giving him such a drubbing as made him a +"sadder and wiser man" for some time afterwards. +He still continued his attendance at the night-school, +till he had got out of the master as much instruction +in arithmetic as he was able to supply.</p> + +<p>By the time he was of age he had saved up +enough to take a little cottage and furnish it comfortably, +though, of course, very humbly; and in the +winter of 1802, Fanny, now Mrs. George Stephenson, +rode home from church on horseback, seated on +a pillion behind her husband, with her arms round +his waist; and very proud and happy, we may be +sure, he was that day, as the neighbours came to +their doors to wish him "God speed" in his new +mode of life.</p> + +<p>Having learned all he could from the village +teacher, George Stephenson now began to study +mensuration and mathematics at home by himself; +but he also found time to make a number of +experi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>ments +in the hope of finding out the secret of perpetual +motion, and to make shoe-lasts and shoes, as +well as mend them. At the end of 1803 his only +son, Robert, was born; and soon after the family +removed to Killingworth, seven miles from Newcastle, +where George got the place of brakesman. +They had not been settled long here when Fanny +died—a loss which affected George deeply, and attached +him all the more intensely to the offspring of +their union. At this time everything seemed to go +wrong with him. As if his wife's death was not +grief enough, his father met with an accident which +deprived him of his eye-sight, and shattered his +frame; George himself was drawn for the militia, +and had to pay a heavy sum of money for a substitute; +and with his father, and mother, and his own +boy to support, at a time when taxes were excessive +and food dear, he had only a salary of £50 or £60 +a-year to meet all claims. He was on the verge of +despair, and would have emigrated to America, +if, fortunately for our country, he had not been +unable to raise sufficient money for his passage. So +he had to stay in the old country, where a bright +and glorious future awaited him, dark and desperate +as the prospect then appeared.</p> + +<p>He still went on making models and experiments, +and perfecting his knowledge of his own +engine. To add to his earnings he also took to +clock-cleaning, with the view of saving up enough +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> +to give his boy the best education it was in his +power to bestow. "In the earlier period of my +career," he used afterwards to say, "when Robert +was a little boy, I saw how deficient I was in education, +and I made up my mind that he should not +labour under the same defect, but that I would put +him to a good school, and give him a liberal training. +I was, however, a poor man, and how do you think +I managed? I betook myself to mending my neighbours' +clocks and watches at nights, after my daily +labour was done, and thus I procured the means of +educating my son." George began by teaching his +son to work with him; and when the little chap +could not reach so high as to put a clock-hand on, +would set him on a chair for the purpose, and very +proud Robert was whenever he could "help father" +in any of his jobs.</p> + +<p>About this time a new pit having been sunk in +the district where he worked, the engine fixed for +the purpose of pumping the water out of the shaft +was found a failure. This soon reached George's +ears. He walked over to the pit, carefully examined +the various parts of the machinery, and turned the +matter over in his mind. One day when he was +looking at it, and almost convinced that he had discovered +the cause of the failure, one of the workmen +came up, and asked him if he could tell what was wrong.</p> + +<p>"Yes," said George; "and I think I could alter it, +and in a week's time send you to the bottom."</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +George offered his services to the engineer. Every +expedient had been tried to repair the engine, and +all had failed. There could be no harm, if no good, +in Stephenson trying his hand at it. So he got +leave, and set to work. He took the engine entirely +to pieces, and in four days had repaired it thoroughly, +so that the workmen could get to the bottom +and proceed with their labours. George Stephenson's +skill as an engine-doctor began to be noised +abroad, and secured him the post of engine-wright +at Killingworth, with a salary of £100 a-year. +Robert was now old enough to go to school, and was +sent to one in Newcastle, to which, dressed in a suit +of coarse grey stuff cut out by his father, he rode +every day upon a donkey. Robert spent much of +his spare time in the Literary and Philosophical +Institute of Newcastle; and would sometimes take +home a volume from the library, which father and +son would eagerly peruse together. Occasionally +they tried chemical experiments together; and now +and then Robert would try his hand by himself. On +one occasion he electrified the cows in an adjacent +enclosure by means of an electric kite, making the +bewildered animals dash madly about the field, with +their tails erect on end; and another time he administered +a severe electric shock to his father's +Galloway pony, which nearly knocked it over, and +drew down upon him the affected wrath of his father, +who, coming out at the instant, shook his whip at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> +him and called him a mischievous scoundrel, though +pleased all the while at the lad's ingenuity and +enterprise. As an early proof of the former, there +still stands over the cottage door at Killingworth a +sun-dial, constructed by Robert when he was thirteen +years old, with some little help from his father.</p> + +<p>The idea of constructing a steam-engine to run on +the colliery tram-roads leading to the shipping-place +was now receiving considerable attention from the +engineering community. Several schemes had been +propounded, and engines actually made; but none +of them had been brought into use. A mistaken +notion prevailed that the plain round wheels of an +engine would slip round without catching hold of +the rails, and that thus no progress would be made; +but George Stephenson soon became convinced that +the weight of the engine would of itself be sufficient +to press the wheels to the rails, so that they could +not fail to bite. He turned the subject over and +over in his mind, tested his conceptions by countless +experiments, and at length completed his +scheme. Money for the construction of a locomotive +engine on his plan having been supplied by Lord +Ravensworth, one was made after many difficulties, +and placed upon the tram-road at Killingworth, +where it drew a load of 30 tons up a somewhat +steep gradient at the rate of four miles an hour. +Still there was very little saving in cost, and little +advance in speed as compared with horse-power; but +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> +in a second one, which Stephenson quickly set about +constructing, he turned the waste steam into the +chimney to increase the draught, and thus puff the +fuel into a brisker flame, and create a larger volume +of steam to propel the locomotive. The fundamental +principles of the engine thus formed remain in operation +to this day; and it may in truth be termed the +progenitor of the great locomotive family.</p> + +<p>In 1821 George Stephenson got the appointment +of engineer, with £300 of salary, to the Stockton and +Darlington Railway Company, in the Act of Parliament +for which power was given to use locomotive +engines, if needful, either for the conveyance of goods +or passengers. When the line was opened, it was +worked partly by horses and partly by locomotive +and stationary engines. This led to a partnership +between Mr. Edward Pease of Darlington, the chief +projector of the line, and Stephenson, in a locomotive +manufactory in Newcastle,—for many years the only +one of the kind in existence.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, young Robert Stephenson, having spent +a year or two in gaining a practical acquaintance with +the machinery and working of a colliery, went to the +University of Edinburgh, where he spent a session +in attending the courses of lectures on chemistry, +natural philosophy, and geology. He made the best +of his opportunities; and that he might profit to the +utmost by the lectures, he studied short-hand, and +took them all down <i>verbatim</i>, transcribing his notes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> +every evening before he went to bed. Robert brought +home the prize for mathematics, and showed he had +made so much progress at college that, though the +£80 which the session cost was a large sum to his +father at that time, George never failed, then or afterwards, +to declare that it was one of the best investments +he had ever made.</p> + +<p>After a year or two in his father's locomotive +factory, Robert spent two or three years in charge +of the machinery of a mining company in Columbia, +and returned to England at the close of 1827, +to find the great question, "Whether locomotives +can be successfully and profitably applied to +passenger traffic?" hotly agitated, his father, almost +alone, taking the side of the travelling, against that +of the fixed engines, and insisting that the wheel +and the rail were clearly and closely part of one +system.</p> + +<p>The success of the Darlington line induced the +Liverpool merchants to project a line between that +town and Manchester; and George Stephenson was +almost unanimously chosen engineer, though it was +still undetermined whether the new line should be +worked by steam or horse power. But, apart from +that question, a great, and, as it appeared to most of +the engineers of the time, an insurmountable difficulty +existed in the quagmire of Chat Moss,—an +enormous mass of watery pulp, which rose in height +in wet, and sank in dry weather like a sponge, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> +over whose treacherous depths it was pronounced +impossible to form a firm road. It was perfect madness +to think of such a thing, said the engineers, and +none of them would support Stephenson's scheme; +but he resolved to see what could be done. Truck-load +after truck-load of stuff was emptied into the +moss, and still the insatiable bog kept gaping as +though it had not had half a feed. The directors, +alarmed, would have abandoned the project, had they +not been so deeply involved that they were obliged +to let Stephenson continue. But he never doubted +himself—not for a moment. He only pushed on the +works more vigorously; and, before six months were +over, the directors found themselves whirling along +over the very bog they expected all their capital was +to be fruitlessly sunk to the bottom of. Still, no decision +had been come to as to whether locomotive or +fixed engines were to be adopted; and the Stephensons +were still battling bravely in favour of the locomotive +against a host of opponents. Robert did his +father good service by the able and pithy pamphlets +which he wrote on the subject; and at length their +perseverance was rewarded by the directors consenting +to employ a locomotive, if they could get one +that would run at the rate of ten miles an hour, and +not weigh more than six tons, including tender; and +offering a reward of £500 for the best engine fulfilling +these conditions. George Stephenson and his +son set to work immediately, and the product of their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> +united skill and ingenuity was the celebrated <i>Rocket</i>, +which carried off the prize, and attained a speed of +twenty-nine miles on the opening day. The practicability +and success of the locomotive was now +beyond a doubt; from that day forward public +opinion began to turn. Of course, for many a long +year afterwards there were not wanting numbers of +bigoted men of the old school who cried down the +new-fangled system, and would hear of no means of +transit but the stage-coach and the canal-boat. But +shrewd folk, like the old Duke of Bridgewater, whose +faculties were sharpened by their pockets being in +danger, could not help crying out, "There's mischief +in these tram-ways! I wish the canals mayn't +suffer;" and, within ten years of the day when the +<i>Rocket</i> went puffing triumphantly along the Liverpool +and Manchester line, most sensible people had +become convinced of the importance of the locomotive +railway, and scarcely a principal town in the country +but was supplied with a line.</p> + +<p>The Stephensons had fought a hard fight for their +protegé, "rail and wheel," and now they were to reap +the fruits of their enterprise and foresight. To nearly +all the most important of the new lines George Stephenson +acted as engineer; and thus, in the course of two +years, above 321 miles of railway were constructed +under his superintendence, at a cost of £11,000,000 +sterling. Robert at first left his father to attend to +the laying out of railways, and directed his attention +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +to the improvement of the locomotive in all its details, +experimenting incessantly, and trying now one +new device, now another. "It was astonishing," +says Mr. Smiles, "to observe the rapidity of the improvements +effected,—every engine turned out of +Stephenson's workshops exhibiting an advance upon +its predecessor in point of speed, power, and working +efficiency.</p> + +<p>By this time George had taken up his residence at +Tapton House, near Chesterfield, where he continued +to reside for the remainder of his life. Close by were +some extensive coal-pits, which he had taken in lease, +and from which he supplied London with the first +coals sent by railway. He was now a man of wealth +and fame, known and honoured throughout his own +country, and in many foreign ones, and blessed with +many a staunch, true friend. More than once he was +offered knighthood by Sir Robert Peel, but declined +the honour. As he grew up in years, he gradually +abandoned his railway business to the charge of his +son, and settled down into a quiet country gentleman +of agricultural tastes. He was very fond of gardening +and farming, and spent many a long day superintending +the operations in the fields. When a boy, +he had always been very fond of taming birds and +rabbits, and had once had flocks of robins, which, in +the hard winter, used to come hopping round his feet +for crumbs. And now, in his old age, he had special +pets among his dogs and horses, and was proud of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> +his superior breed of rabbits. There was scarcely a +nest on his estate that he was not acquainted with; +and he used to go round from day to day to look at +them, and see that they were kept uninjured.</p> + +<p>The year before his death he visited Sir Robert +Peel at Drayton Manor. Dr. Buckland, the geologist, +was of the party. One Sunday, as they were +returning from church, they observed a train speeding +along the valley in the distance.</p> + +<p>"Now, Buckland," said Mr. Stephenson, "I have +a poser for you. Can you tell me what is the power +that is driving that train?"</p> + +<p>"Well," said the other, "I suppose it is one of +your big engines."</p> + +<p>"But what drives the engine?"</p> + +<p>"Oh, very likely a canny Newcastle driver."</p> + +<p>"What do you say to the light of the sun?"</p> + +<p>"How can that be?" asked the professor.</p> + +<p>"It is nothing else," said the engineer. "It is +light bottled up in the earth for tens of thousands +of years—light, absorbed by plants and vegetables, +being necessary for the condensation of carbon during +the process of their growth, if it be not carbon in +another form; and now, after being buried in the +earth for long ages in fields of coal, that latent light +is again brought forth and liberated, made to work +as in that locomotive, for great human purposes."</p> + +<p>On the 12th of August 1848, this great, good +man—one of the truest heroes that ever lived, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +one of the greatest benefactors of our country—passed +from among us, leaving his son, Robert, to +develop and extend the great work of which he had +laid the foundation.</p> + +<p>Among one of the first railways of any extent of +which Robert Stephenson had the laying out, was +the London and Birmingham; and it is related, as +an illustration of his conscientious perseverance in +executing the task, that in the course of the examination +of the country he walked over the whole of the +intervening districts upwards of twenty times. Many +other lines, in England and abroad, were executed +by him in rapid succession; and it was stated a few +years ago, that the lines of railway constructed +under his superintendence had involved an outlay +of £70,000,000 sterling.</p> + +<p>The three great works, however, with which his +name will always be most intimately associated, and +which are the grandest monuments of his genius, are +the High Level Bridge at Newcastle, the Britannia +Bridge across the Menai Straits, and the Victoria +Bridge across the St. Lawrence at Montreal. The +first two are sufficiently well known—the one +springing across the valley of the Tyne, between the +busy towns of Newcastle and Gateshead; the other +spanning, in mid air, a wide arm of the sea, at such +a height that vessels of large burden in full sail can +pass beneath. The third great effort of Robert +Stephenson's prolific brain he did not live to see the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> +completion of. The Victoria Bridge at Montreal is +constructed on the same principle as the Britannia +Bridge, but on a much larger scale. "The Victoria +Bridge," says Mr. Smiles, "with its approaches, is +only sixty yards short of two miles in length. In +its gigantic strength and majestic proportions, there +is no structure to compare with it in ancient or +modern times. It consists of not less than twenty-five +immense tubular bridges joined into one; the +great central span being 332 feet, the others, 242 +feet in length. The weight of the wrought iron on +the bridge is about 10,000 tons, and the piers are +of massive stone, containing some 8000 tons each +of solid masonry."</p> + +<p>After the completion of the Britannia Bridge, and +again after the opening of the High Level Bridge, +Robert Stephenson was offered the honour of knighthood, +which, like his father before him, he respectfully +declined. In 1857 he received the title of +D.C.L. from the University of Oxford; and for +many years before his death he represented Whitby +in Parliament. He was passionately fond of yachting, +and almost immediately after a trip to Norway +in the summer of 1859, he was seized with a mortal +illness, and died in the beginning of October. On +the 14th October he was buried in Westminster, +amongst the illustrious dead of England.</p> + +<p>No man could be more beloved than Robert +Stephenson was by a wide circle of friends, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +none better deserved it. "In society," writes one +who had opportunities of intercourse with him, "he +was simply charming and fascinating in the highest +degree, from his natural goodness of heart and the +genial zest with which he relished life himself and +participated its enjoyment with others. He was +generous and even princely in his expenditure—not +upon himself, but on his friends. On board the +<i>Titania</i>, or at his house in Gloucester Square, his +frequent and numerous guests found his splendid +resources at all times converted to their gratification +with a grace of hospitality which, although sedulous, +was never oppressive. There was nothing of the +patron in his manner, or of the Olympic condescension +which is sometimes affected by much lesser men. +A friend (and how many friends he had!) was at +once his equal, and treated with republican freedom, +yet with the most high-bred courtesy and happy +considerateness.... His payment of half the +debt of £6000, which weighed like an incubus on +an institution at Newcastle, is generally known; but +his private charities were as boundless as his nature +was generous, and as quietly performed as that nature +was unostentatious. Such, then, was Robert Stephenson, +as complete a character in the multifarious relations +of life as probably any man has met or will +meet in the course of his experience. Not unlike, +or rather exceedingly <i>like</i>, his father in some respects, +especially in the easy, unimposing manner in which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> +he went about his life's work, he was hardly to be +accounted his father's inferior, except perhaps in the +heroic quality of combativeness. Father and son, +independently of each other, and both in conjunction, +have left grand and beneficent results to posterity, and +both recall to us Monckton Milnes's men of old, who</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"'Went about their gravest tasks</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Like noble boys at play.'"</span><br /> +</div></div> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="THE_GROWTH_OF_RAILWAYS" id="THE_GROWTH_OF_RAILWAYS"></a> +III.—THE GROWTH OF RAILWAYS.</h2> + + +<p>It was about the year 1818 that Thomas Gray +of Nottingham, travelling in the north of England, +happened to visit one of the collieries. As he stood +watching a train of loaded waggons being propelled +by steam along the tram-road which led from the +mouth of the pit to the wharf where the coals were +shipped, the idea flashed through his mind that the +same system was applicable to the ordinary purposes +of locomotion.</p> + +<p>"Why!" he exclaimed to the engineer who was +showing him over the place,—"why are there not +tram-roads laid down all over England so as to +supersede our common roads, and steam engines +employed to drag waggons full of goods, and carriages +full of passengers along them, instead of horse-power?"</p> + +<p>"Propose that to the nation," replied his companion, +"and see what you will get by it. Why, +sir, you would be worried to death for your pains."</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> +Gray was not to be balked, however. The idea +took firm possession of his mind, and became the one +great subject of his thoughts and conversation. He +talked about it to everybody whom he met, and who +had patience to listen to him, wrote letters and +memorials to public men, and afterwards appealed +to the people at large. He was laughed at as a whimsical, +crochetty fellow, and no one gave any serious +attention to his views. Mr. Jones of Gromford +Manor, and Mr. Pease of Darlington, also distinguished +themselves by their agitation in favour of railways, +at a time when they were regarded with suspicion +and alarm. The growing trade of Liverpool and +Manchester, and other large towns, however, spoke +more imperatively and forcibly in favour of the new +project than any amount of individual agitation. +The means of communication between the various +manufacturing towns had fallen far behind their +wants; and it was at length felt that some new +system must be adopted. The railroad and the +locomotive got a trial; and before long the carriers' +carts and the stage coaches were driven off the road +for want of custom, although the conveyance of goods +and passengers throughout the country went on +multiplying an hundred-fold. One can fancy the +astonishment and awe with which the country-folk +watched the progress of the first railway train through +their peaceful acres,—how old and young left their +work and rushed out to see the marvellous +spectacle,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>—how +the "oldest inhabitants" shook their heads, +and muttered about changed times,—how the horses +in the field trembled with fear, and threw up their +heels at their iron rival as it went snorting past—a +strange, iron monster, the handicraft of man, +able to drag the heaviest burdens, and yet outstrip +<i>Flying Childers</i> or <i>Eclipse</i>, as fresh at the end of a +journey as at the beginning, and never to be tired out +by any toil, if only kept in meat and drink. Just +as in the days of Charles the First, honest, short-sighted +folk prophesied the ruin of the empire and +a judgment upon the use of coaches, and bewailed +the misfortunes of the hundreds of able-bodied men +who would be thrown out of employment; so in the +early days of the railroad, great fears were entertained +that the horses' occupation would be gone, +and that the noble breed would quickly become +extinct. There was no measure to the lamentations +over the ruin of that great institution of English +life—the stage-coach, with its gallant driver and +guard, and spanking team.</p> + +<p>The extension of the railway system is one of the +wonders of our time. The few score miles of railroad +planted in 1825 have put forth offshoots and +branches, till now a mighty net-work of some ten +thousand miles in all, is spread over the three kingdoms, +with many fresh shoots in bud. Up to the end +of 1834, when not a hundred miles of railway were +open, the annual average of travellers by coach was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> +some six millions a year; ten years afterwards there +were more than four times that number, and to-day +the annual average is more than a hundred millions! +The number of persons employed upon the working +railroads of the United Kingdom amount to about +one hundred and thirty thousand, while nearly half as +many find employment in the construction of new lines.</p> + +<p>A few facts, stated by the late Mr. Robert Stephenson, +illustrate in a very striking manner the gigantic +proportion of the railway system of Great Britain:—The +railway has pierced the earth with tunnels to +the extent of more than fifty miles, and there are +about twelve miles of viaducts in the vicinity of +London alone. The earthworks which have been +thrown up would measure 550,000,000 cubic yards, +beside which St. Paul's would shrink to a pigmy, for +it would form a pyramid a mile and a half high, +with a base larger than the whole of St. James's +Park. Every moment four tons of coal flashes into +steam twenty tons of water—as much water as +would suffice to supply the domestic and other wants +of a town the size of Liverpool, and as much coal as +equals half the consumption of the metropolis. The +wear and tear is so great that twenty thousand tons +of iron have to be replaced annually, and three hundred +thousand trees, or as much as five thousand +acres could produce, have to be felled for sleepers.</p> + +<p>When George Stephenson was planning the +Liverpool and Manchester line, the directors +en<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>treated +him, when they went to Parliament, not to +talk of going at a faster rate than ten miles an hour, +or he "would put a cross on the concern." George +was sanguine, however, and spoke of fifteen miles +an hour, to the astonishment of the committee, who +began to think him crazy. The average speed is +now twenty-five miles an hour, and a mile a +minute can be done, if need be. The wind is hard +pushed to keep ahead of a good engine at its fullest +speed.<a name="FNanchor_C_3" id="FNanchor_C_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a> +The express trains on the "broad gauge" +of the Great Western travel at the rate of fifty-one +miles an hour, or forty-three, including stoppages. To +attain this rate, a speed of sixty miles an hour is +adopted midway between some of the stations, and +even seventy miles an hour have been reached in certain +experimental trips. The engines on this line can +draw a passenger-train weighing one hundred and +twenty tons at a speed of sixty miles an hour, the +engine and tender themselves weighing an additional +fifty-two tons. The ordinary luggage-trains weigh +some six hundred tons each. The locomotive, however, +goes on the principle that the labourer is +worthy of his hire; if it works hard, it eats voraciously. +At ordinary mail speed the engine consumes +about twenty lbs. of coke per mile; so that, +costing £2500 to begin with, and spending an +allowance of £2000 a year—as much as an +under-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>secretary +of state—the locomotive is rather an +extravagant customer—only, it works very hard for +the money, and earns it over and over again. With +all its strength and size, the locomotive is a much +more delicate concern than would be supposed; the +5416 different pieces of which it is composed must +be put together as carefully as a watch, and, though +guaranteed to go two years without a doctor, exacts +the most devoted attention from its guardians to +keep it in order.</p> + +<p>It would fill a volume of huge dimensions to +dilate on all the phases of the social revolution +which the modern railway has wrought in our own +and other countries; how it is daily annihilating +time and space, and making the Land's End and +John o'Groat's House next door neighbours; rubbing +down old prejudices and jealousies, both national +and provincial, promoting commerce, developing +manufacture, transforming poor little villages into +flourishing towns, and industrious towns into mighty +cities; carrying civilization into the heart of the +jungle and the desert, and, with its twin-brother, the +steam-ship, joining hands and hearts in peace and +amity all the world over. After the wonders of the +last thirty years, who can doubt that our children, at +the close of the century, will regard us as little less +backward than we now do our fathers at its dawn?</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> The wind is calculated to travel at the rate of eighty-two feet in a +second; the pace of a steam-engine, at the rate of sixty miles an hour, +would be rather more.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<a name="The_Lighthouse" id="The_Lighthouse"></a> +<img src="images/title-p139.png" alt="The Lighthouse." title="" /></h2> + +<ol class="chapterTOC"> + <li> — THE EDDYSTONE.</li> + <li> — THE BELL ROCK.</li> + <li> — THE SKERRYVORE.</li> +</ol> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"><img src="images/title-p141.png" alt="The Lighthouse." title="" /></h2> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Far in the bosom of the deep,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">O'er these wild shelves my watch I keep:</span><br /> +<span class="i0">A ruddy gleam of changeful light,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Bound on the dusky brow of night;</span><br /> +<span class="i0">The seaman bids my lustre hail,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">And scorns to strike his timorous sail."—<span class="smcap">Scott.</span></span><br /> +</div></div> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="THE_EDDYSTONE" id="THE_EDDYSTONE"></a>I.—THE EDDYSTONE.</h2> + + +<p>When worthy Mr. Phillips, the Liverpool Quaker, +taking thought in what way he could best benefit +his fellow-creatures, built the beacon on the Smalls +Rock in 1772, he could hardly have made a happier +selection of "a great good to serve and save +humanity." There are few enterprises more heroic +or beneficent than those connected with the construction +and management of lighthouses. From +first to last, from the rearing of the column on the +rock to the monotonous, nightly vigil in attendance +on the lamps—from the setting to the rising of the +sun—the valour, intrepidity, and endurance, of all +concerned are called into play, and the wild perils +and stirring adventures they experience impart to +the story of their labours a thrilling and romantic +interest. In the case of the Smalls Lighthouse, +for instance, Whiteside, the self-taught engineer, and +his party of Cornish miners had no sooner landed, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> +and got a long iron shaft worked a few feet into the +rock, than a storm arose that drove away their +cutter, and kept them clinging with the tenacity of +despair to the half-fastened rod for three days and +two nights, when the wind fell and the sea calmed, +and they were rescued, rather dead than alive, +numbed from their long immersion in the water, +which rose almost to their necks, and exhausted from +want of food. And after the lighthouse had been +erected, the engineer and some of his men again +found themselves, as a paper in a bottle they had +cast into the sea revealed to those on shore, in a +"most dangerous and distressed condition on the +Smalls," cut off from the mainland by the stormy +weather, without fuel, and almost at the end of +their stock of food and water—in which alarming +situation they had to remain some time before their +friends could get out to their relief. Most sea-girt +beacons have their own legends of similar perils and +fortitude; and the narratives of the erection of the +three great lighthouses of Eddystone, Inchcape, and +Skerryvore, which may be selected as the types of +the rest, are full of incidents as exciting as any +"hair breadth 'scapes i' the imminent deadly +breach."</p> + +<p>About fourteen miles south from Plymouth, and +ten from the Ram's Head, on the Cornish coast, lies +a perilous reef of rocks, against which the long rolling +swell of the Atlantic waves dashes with appalling +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> +force, and breaks up into those swirling eddies from +which the reef is named—the Eddystone. Upon +these treacherous crags many a gallant vessel has +foundered and gone down within sight of the shore +it had scarcely quitted or was just about to reach; and +situated in the midst of a much frequented track, +the rapid succession of calamities at the Eddystone +was not long in awakening men's minds to the +necessity of some warning light. The exposure of +the reef to the wild fury of the Atlantic, and the +small extent of the surface of the chief rock, however, +rendered the construction of a lighthouse in +such a situation a work of great and (as it was long +considered) insuperable difficulty. The project was +long talked of before any one was found daring +enough to attempt the task; and when at length in +1696 Henry Winstanley stepped forward to undertake +it, he might have been thought of all others +the very last from whose brain so serious a conception +would have emanated. The great hobby of his +life had been to fill his house at Littlebury, in Essex, +with mechanical devices of the most absurd and +fantastic kind. If a visitor, retiring to his bedroom, +kicked aside an old slipper on the floor, purposely +thrown in his way, up started a ghost of hideous +form. If, startled at the sight, he fell back into an arm +chair placed temptingly at hand, a pair of gigantic +arms would instantly spring forth and clasp him a +prisoner in their rude embrace. Tired of these +disagree<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>able +surprises, the astonished guest perhaps took +refuge in the garden, and sought repose in a pleasant +arbour by the side of a canal; but he had +scarcely seated himself, when he found himself suddenly +set adrift on the water, where he floated about +till his whimsical host came to his relief. Such was +the man who now entered upon one of the most +formidable engineering enterprises in the world.</p> + +<p>Although Winstanley's lighthouse was but a slight +affair compared with its successors, it occupied six +years in the erection—the frequent rising of the sea +over the rock, and the difficulty and danger of passing +to and from it greatly retarding the operations, and +rendering them practicable only during a short +summer season. For ten or fourteen days after a +storm had passed, and when all was calm elsewhere, +the ground-swell from the Atlantic was often so +heavy among these rocks that the waves sprang +two hundred feet, and more, in the air, burying the +works from sight. The first summer was spent in +boring twelve holes in the rock, and fixing therein +twelve large irons as a holdfast for the works that +were to be reared. The next season saw the commencement +of a round pillar, which was to form the +steeple of the tower, as well as afford protection to +the workmen while at their labours. When Winstanley +bade farewell to the rock for that year, the tower had +risen to the height of twelve feet; and resuming +operations next spring, he built at it till it reached +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> +the height of eighty feet. Having got the apartments +fit for occupation, and the lantern set up, +Winstanley determined to take up his abode there +with his men, in order that no time might be lost +in going to and from the rock. The first night they +spent on the rock a great storm arose, and for +eleven days it was impossible to hold any communication +with the shore. "Not being acquainted with +the height of the sea's rising," writes the architect, +"we were almost drowned with wet, and our provisions +in as bad a condition, though we worked +night and day as much as possible to make shelter for +ourselves." The storm abating, they went on shore +for a little repose; but soon returning, set to work +again with undiminished energy.</p> + +<p>On the 14th November of the same year (1698), +Winstanley lighted his lantern for the first time. A +long spell of boisterous weather followed, and it was +not till three days before Christmas that they were +able to quit their desolate abode, being "almost at the +last extremity for want of provisions; but by good +Providence then two boats came with provisions +and the family that was to take care of the light; +and so ended this year's work."</p> + +<p>It was soon found that the sea rose to a much +greater height than had been anticipated, the lantern, +although sixty feet above the rock, being often "buried +under water." Winstanley was, therefore, under the +necessity of enlarging the tower and carrying it to a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +greater elevation. The fourth season, accordingly, +was spent in encasing the tower with fresh outworks, +and adding forty feet to its height. This proved +too high for its strength to bear; and in the course +of three years the winds and waves had made sad +havoc in the unstable fabric.</p> + +<p>In November 1703, Winstanley went out to the +rock himself, accompanied by his workmen, to institute +the repairs. As he was putting off in the boat +from Plymouth, a friend who had for some time +before been watching the condition of the lighthouse +with much anxiety, mentioned to him his suspicion +that it was in a bad way, and could not last long. +Winstanley, full of faith in the stability of his work, +replied that "he only wished to be there in the +greatest storm that ever blew under the face of the +heavens, that he might see what effect it would have +on his structure." And with these words he shoved +off from the beach, and made for the rock.</p> + +<p>With the last gleams of daylight, before the night +fell and shrouded it from view, the tower was seen +rising proudly from the midst of the waters. Before +the dawn it had disappeared for ever, and the waves +were lashing fiercely round the bare bleak ledge of +the fatal rock. Poor Winstanley had had his presumptuous +wish only too fully realized. The storm +of the 26th November was one of the most fearful +that ever ravaged our shores. The whole coast +suffered severely from its fury, and when the +morn<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>ing +came, not a sign remained of the lighthouse, +architect, or workmen, save a fragment of chain-cable +wedged firmly into a crevice of the rock. The disappearance +of the warning light was quickly followed +by the wreck of a large homeward-bound man-of-war, +and the loss of nearly all her crew, upon the +rocks.</p> + +<p>This first Eddystone lighthouse was a strange, +fantastic looking structure, deficient in every element +of stability, and the wonder was not that it fell in +pieces as it did, but that it was able to withstand so +long the boisterous weather of the Channel. But if +of little merit as an architect, Winstanley at least +deserves respect, as Smeaton remarks, for the heroism +he displayed in undertaking "a piece of work that +before had been looked on as impossible."</p> + +<p>For four years the Eddystone remained bare and +untenanted, till, in the summer of 1706, the erection +of a new lighthouse was commenced under the superintendence +of John Rudyerd, by profession a silk-mercer +in Ludgate Hill, but by natural genius an +engineer of considerable merit. With such skill and +energy did he apply himself to the work, that before +two summers were over his tower was completed, +and its friendly light beamed over the troubled +waters and sunken crags. Rudyerd's lighthouse was +entirely of wood, weighted at the base by a few +courses of mason work, and 92 feet in height. In +form, it was a smooth, solid cone of elegant +simpli<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>city, +unbroken by any of those ornamental outworks, +which offered the wind and sea so many points to +lay hold of, in Winstanley's whimsical pagoda. +Smeaton speaks of Rudyerd's tower as a masterly +performance; and had it not been destroyed by fire, +forty-six years after its erection, there seems little +reason to suppose it might not have been standing +to this day,—although no doubt the ravages of the +worm in the wood would have demanded frequent +repairs. On the 2d December 1755, some fishermen +who happened to be on the beach very early in the +morning preparing their nets, were startled by the +sight of volumes of smoke issuing from the lighthouse. +They instantly gave the alarm, and a boat +was quickly manned for the relief of the sufferers. +It did not reach the rock till about ten o'clock, and +the fire had then been raging for eight hours. It +was first discovered by the light-keeper upon watch +who, going into the lantern about two o'clock in +the morning to snuff the candles, found the place +filled with smoke. He opened the door of the lantern +into the balcony, and a mass of flame immediately +burst from the inside of the cupola. He lost no +time in seizing the buckets of water kept at hand, +and dashing them over the fire, but without effect. +His two companions were asleep, and it was some +time before they heard his shouts for assistance. +When at length they did bestir themselves, all the +water in the house was exhausted. The +light-keeper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>—an +old man in his ninety-fourth year—urged them +to replenish the buckets from the sea; but the difficulty +of lowering the buckets to such a depth, and +their confusion and terror at the sudden catastrophe +and their impending fate, destroyed their presence +of mind, and rendered them quite powerless. The +old man did his best to prevent the advance of the +flames; but, exhausted by the unavailing labour, and +severely injured by the melting lead from the roof, +he had to desist. As the fire spread from point to +point, with rapid strides descending from the summit +to the base, the poor wretches fled before it, retreating +from room to room, till at last they were driven +to seek shelter from the blazing timbers and red hot +bars, in a cleft of the rock. There they were found +by their preservers, crouching together half dead with +suffering and fright. It was with the greatest difficulty +that they were got into the boat; and they +had no sooner reached the shore than one of them, +crazed by the terrors he had undergone, ran away, +and was never heard of more. The old man lingered +on for a few days in great agony, and died from the +injuries he had received.</p> + +<p>Such was the fate of the second lighthouse on the +Eddystone,—one element revenging, as it were, the +conquest over another.</p> + +<p>In spite of the fatality which seemed to attend +these lighthouses, the lessees of the Eddystone—for +it was then in private hands, and did not come into +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> +the hands of the Trinity House till many years after—resolved +to make another attempt; and this time +they selected as the architect one of the ablest +professional men of the day, and with sagacious +liberality, adopted his advice to build it of stone and +granite.</p> + +<p>Smeaton truly belonged to the class of heaven-born +engineers. From his earliest years the bent of his +genius unmistakably revealed itself. Before he was +six years old, he one day terrified his parents by +climbing to the top of a barn to fix up some contrivance +he had put together, after the fashion of a +windmill; and another time he constructed a pump +that raised water, after watching some workmen +sinking one. And as he grew older, his efforts took +a more ambitious range, and were all equally remarkable +for their originality and success. His father +destined him for the bar; but his inclination for +engineering was so irresistible, that he allowed him +to resign all chance of the woolsack, and set up +in business as a mathematical instrument maker. +He gradually advanced to the profession of civil +engineering,—which he was the first man in England +to pursue, and which he may be said to have +created.</p> + +<p>It was in 1756 he commenced the construction of +the great work which may be regarded as the monument +of his fame. Having decided that his lighthouse +should be of stone, the next point to be settled +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> +was its form. His thoughts, he tells us in his book, +instinctively reverted to the analogy between a +lighthouse shaft and the trunk of a stately oak. He +remarked the spreading roots taking a broad, firm +grip of the soil, the rise of the swelling base, gradually +lessening in girth in a graceful curve, till a preparation +being required for the support of the spreading +boughs, a renewed swelling of diameter takes +place; and he held that cutting off the branches we +have, in the trunk of an oak, a type of such a +lighthouse column as is best adapted to resist the +influence of the winds and waves. Whether or not +Smeaton arrived at the form of his lighthouse, which +has since become the model for all others, from this +fanciful analogy, its appearance rising from the rock +presents a strong resemblance to a noble tree stripped +of its boughs and foliage.</p> + +<p>Smeaton commenced the undertaking by visiting +the rock in the spring of 1756, accurately measuring +its very irregular surface, and in order to ensure +exactness in his plans, making a model of it. In +the summer of the same year he prepared the foundation +by cutting the surface of the rock in regular +steps or trenches, into which the blocks of stone were +to be dovetailed. The first stone was laid in June +1757, and the last in August 1759. Of that period +there were only 431 days when it was possible to +stand on the rock, and so small a portion even of +these was available for carrying on the work, that it is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> +calculated the building in reality occupied but six +weeks. The whole was completed without the +slightest accident to any one; and so well were all +the arrangements made, that not a minute was lost +by confusion or delay amongst the workmen.</p> + +<p>The tower measures 86 feet in height, and 26 +feet in diameter at the level of the first entire course, +the diameter under the cornice being only 15 feet. +The first twelve feet of the structure form a solid +mass of masonry,—the blocks of stone being held +together by means of stone joggles, dovetailed joints, +and oaken tree-nails. All the floors of the edifice are +arched; to counteract the possible outburst of which, +Smeaton bound the courses of his stone work together +by belts of iron chain, which, being set in grooves +while in a heated state, by the application of hot +lead, on cooling, of course, tightened their clasp on +the tower. Throughout the whole work the greatest +ingenuity is displayed in obtaining the greatest +amount of resistance, and combining the two great +principles of strength and weight,—technically speaking, +cohesion and inertia.</p> + +<p>On the 16th October 1759, the warning light +once more, after an interval of four years, shone +forth over the troubled waters from the dangerous +rock; but it was but a feeble illumination at the +best, for it came from only a group of tallow candles. +It was better than nothing, certainly; but the exhibition +of a few glimmering candles was but a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> +paltry conclusion to so stupendous an undertaking. +For many years, however, no stronger light gleamed +from the tower, till, in 1807, when it passed from +the hands of private proprietors into the charge of +the Trinity House, the mutton dips were supplanted +by Argand burners, with silvered copper reflectors.</p> + +<p>Imperfect, however, as used to be the lighting apparatus, +the Eddystone Beacon has always been a great +boon to all those "that go down to the sea in great +ships," and has robbed these perilous waters of much +of their terror. We can readily sympathize with the +exultation of the great engineer who reared it, when +standing on the Hoe at Plymouth, he spent many +an hour, with his telescope, watching the great +swollen waves, in powerless fury, dash against his +tower, and "fly up in a white column, enwrapping +it like a sheet, rising at the least to double the +height of the tower, and totally intercepting it from +sight." It is now more than a hundred years since +Smeaton's Lighthouse first rose upon the Eddystone; +but, in spite of the many furious storms which have +put its stability to rude and searching proof, it still +lifts its head proudly over the waves, and shows no +signs of failing strength.</p> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="THE_BELL_ROCK" id="THE_BELL_ROCK"></a>II.—THE BELL ROCK.</h2> + + +<p>The Inch Cape, or Bell Rock, is a long, narrow +reef on the east coast of Scotland, at the mouth of +the Frith of Tay, and some dozen of miles from the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> +nearest land. At high water the whole ledge is +buried out of sight; and even at the ebb the highest +part of it is only three or four feet out of the water. +In the days of old, as the tradition goes, one of the +abbots of Arbroath, among many good works, exhibited +his piety and humanity by placing upon a +float attached to the perilous reef a large bell, so +suspended as to be tolled by the rising and falling +of the waves.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"On a buoy, in the storm it floated and swung,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">And over the waves its warning rung."</span><br /> +</div></div> + +<p>Many a storm-tossed mariner heard the friendly +knell that warned him of the nearness of the fatal +rock, and changed his course before it was too late, +with blessings on the good old monk who had hung +up the bell; but after some years, one of the pirates +who infested the coast cut it down in wanton cruelty, +and was one of the first who suffered from the loss. +Not long after, he perished upon this very rock, +which a dense fog shrouded from sight, and no bell +gave timely warning of.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"And even in his dying fear,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">One dreadful sound did the rover hear;</span><br /> +<span class="i0">A sound as if with the Inch Cape Bell,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">The devil below was ringing his knell."</span><br /> +</div></div> + +<p>After the lapse of many years, two attempts were +made to raise a beacon of spars upon the rock; but +one after the other they fell a prey to the angry +waves, and were hardly set up before they disappeared. +It was not till the beginning of the century +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> +that the Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses took +up the idea of erecting a lighthouse on this reef, the +most dangerous on all the coast. Several years +elapsed before they got the sanction of Parliament +to the undertaking, and 1807 arrived before it was +actually entered upon.</p> + +<p>Mr. Robert Stevenson, to whom the work was +intrusted as engineer, had from a very early age +been employed in connection with lighthouses. He +went almost directly from school to the office of Mr. +Thomas Smith of Edinburgh, and when that gentleman +was appointed engineer to the Northern Lighthouse +Commissioners, became his assistant, and +afterwards successor. When only nineteen, Mr. +Stevenson superintended the construction of the +lighthouse on the island of Little Cumbray; and +during the time he was engineer to the Commissioners, +which post he held till 1842, he erected no +fewer than forty-two lighthouses, and introduced a +great many valuable improvements into the system. +His reputation, however, will be chiefly perpetuated +as the architect of the Bell Rock Lighthouse.</p> + +<p>On the 17th August 1807, Mr. Stevenson and his +men landed on the rock, to the astonishment and +discomposure of the seals who had, from time immemorial, +been in undisturbed possession of it, and +now floundered off into the water on the approach +of the usurpers. The workmen at once set about +preparing the rock for the erection of a temporary +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> +pyramid on which a barrack-house was to be placed +for the reception of the workmen. They could only +work on the rock for a few hours at spring-tide. +As soon as the flood-tide began to rise around them, +putting out the fire of the smith's forge, and gradually +covering the rock, they had to gather up their +tools and retreat to a floating barrack moored at a +considerable distance, in order to reach which they +had to row in small boats to the tender, by which +they were then conveyed to their quarters. The +operations of this first season were particularly trying +to the men, on account of their having to row +backwards and forwards between the rock and the +tender at every tide, which in rough weather was a +very heavy pull, and having often after that to work +on the rock knee deep in water, only quitting it for +the boats when absolutely compelled by the swelling +waves. Sometimes the sea would be so fierce for +days together that no boat could live in it, and the +men had, therefore, to remain cooped up wearily on +board the floating barrack.</p> + +<p>One day in September, when the engineer and +thirty-one men were on the rock, the tender broke +from its moorings, and began to drift away from the +rock, just as the tide was rising. Mr. Stevenson, +perched on an eminence above the rest, surveying +them at their labours, was the first, and for a while, +the men being all intent on their work, the only one, +who observed what had happened. He said nothing, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> +but went to the highest point of the rock, and kept +an anxious watch on the progress of the vessel and +the rising of the sea. First the men on the lower +tier of the works, then by degrees those above them, +struck work on the approach of the water. They +gathered up their tools and made towards the spot +where the boats were moored, to get their jackets and +stockings and prepare for quitting the rock. What +their feelings were when they found only a couple of +boats there, and the tender drifting off with the other +in tow, may be conceived. All the peril of their +situation must have flashed across their minds as +they looked across the raging sea, and saw the distance +between the tender and the rock increasing +every moment, while all around them the water rose +higher and higher. In another hour, the waves +would be rolling twelve feet and more above the +crag on which they stood, and all hope of the tender +being able to work round to them was being quickly +dissipated. They watched the fleeting vessel and +the rising tide, and their hearts sank within them, +but not a word was uttered. They stood silently +counting their numbers and calculating the capacity +of the boats; and then they turned their eyes +upon their trusted leader, as if their last hope +lay in his counsel. Stevenson never forgot the +appalling solemnity of the moment. One chance, +and but a slender one, of escape alone occurred to +him. It was that, stripping themselves of their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> +clothes, and divesting the two boats, as much as +possible, of everything that weighted and encumbered +them, so many men should take their seats in +the boats, while the others hung on by the gunwales; +and that they should then work their way, as best +they could, towards either the tender or the floating +barrack. Stevenson was about to explain this to his +men, but found that all power of speech had left +him. The anxiety of that dreadful moment had +parched his throat, and his tongue clave to the roof +of his mouth. He stooped to one of the little pools +at his feet to moisten his fevered lips with the salt +water. Suddenly a shout was raised, "A boat! A +boat!" and through the haze a large pilot boat could +dimly be discerned making towards the rock. The +pilot had observed the <i>Smeaton</i> drifting off, and, +guessing at once the critical position of the workmen +on the rock, had hastened to their relief.</p> + +<p>Next morning when the bell sounded on board the +barrack for the return to the rock, only eight out of +the twenty-six workmen, beside the foreman and seamen, +made their appearance on deck to accompany +their leader. Mr. Stevenson saw it would be useless +to argue with them then. So he made no remark, +and proceeded with the eight willing workmen to +the rock, where they spent four hours at work. On +returning to the barrack, the eighteen men who had +remained on board appeared quite ashamed of their +cowardice; and without a word being said to them, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> +were the first to take their places in the boats when +the bell rang again in the afternoon.</p> + +<p>At length the barrack was completed, and the +men were then relieved from the toil of rowing +backwards and forwards between the tender and the +rock, as well as from the constant sickness which tormented +them on board the floating barrack. They +were now able to prolong their labours, when the tide +permitted, into the night. At such times the rock +assumed a singularly picturesque and romantic aspect—its +surface crowded with men in all variety of +attitudes, the two forges and numerous torches lighting +up the scene, and throwing a lurid gleam across +the waters, and the loud dong of the anvils mingling +with the dashing of the breakers.</p> + +<p>On the 18th July 1808, the site having been +properly excavated, the first stone of the lighthouse +was laid by the Duke of Argyle; and by the end of +the second season some five or six feet of building +had been erected, and were left to the mercy of the +waves till the ensuing spring. The third season's +operations raised the masonry to a height of thirty +feet above the sea, and the fourth season saw the +completion of the tower. On the first night in +February of the succeeding year (1811) the lamp +was lit, and beamed forth across the waters.</p> + +<p>The Bell Rock Tower is 100 feet in height, 42 feet +in diameter at the base, and 15 feet at the top. The +door is 30 feet from the base, and the ascent is by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> +a massive bronze ladder. The "light" is revolving, +and presents a white and red light alternately, by +means of shades of red glass arranged in a frame. +The machinery which causes the revolution of the +lamp is also applied to the tolling of two large bells, +in order to give warning to the mariner of his +approach to the rock in foggy weather, thus reviving +the traditional practice from which the rock takes +its name.</p> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="THE_SKERRYVORE" id="THE_SKERRYVORE"></a>III.—THE SKERRYVORE.</h2> + + +<p>"Having crept upon deck about four in the +morning, I find we are beating to windward off the +Isle of Tyree, with the determination on the part of +Mr. Stevenson that his constituents should visit a +reef of rocks called Skerry Vhor, where he thought +it would be essential to have a lighthouse. Loud +remonstrances on the part of the commissioners, who +one and all declare they will subscribe to his opinion, +whatever it may be, rather than continue this dreadful +buffeting. Quiet perseverance on the part of Mr. +Stevenson, and great kicking, bouncing, and squabbling +upon that of the yacht, who seems to like the +idea of Skerry Vhor as little as the commissioners. +At length, by dint of exertion, came in sight of this +long range of rocks (chiefly under water), on which +the tide breaks in a most tremendous style. There +appear a few low broad rocks at one end of the reef +which is about a mile in length. These are never +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> +entirely under water, though the surf dashes over +them. We took possession of it in the name of the +commissioners, and generously bestowed our own +great names on its crags and creeks. The rock was +carefully measured by Mr. Stevenson. It will be a +most desolate position for a lighthouse—the Bell +Rock and Eddystone a joke to it, for the nearest land +is the wild island of Tyree, at 14 miles distance."</p> + +<p>Such is an entry in the diary of Sir Walter Scott's +Yacht Tour, on the 27th August 1814; but although +the necessity of a lighthouse on the Skerry Vhor, or, +as it is now generally called, Skerryvore, was fully +acknowledged by the authorities, it was not till +twenty-four years afterwards that the undertaking +was actually commenced, under the superintendence +of Mr. Alan Stevenson, the son of the eminent engineer +who erected the Bell Rock Lighthouse.</p> + +<p>In the execution of this great work, if the son +had, as compared with his father, certain advantages +in his favour, he had also various disadvantages to +contend with at Skerryvore from which the engineer +of the Bell Rock was free. Mr. Alan Stevenson +had steam power at his command, and the benefit +of all the experience derived from the experiments +of his predecessors in similar operations; but at +the same time, the rock on which he had to work +was at a greater distance from the land, and separated +from it by a more dangerous passage than that of +either the Bell or the Eddystone; and the geological +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> +formation of which the rock is composed, was much +more difficult to work upon. The Skerryvore is +distant from Tyree, the nearest inhabited island, +about 11 miles; even in fine weather the intervening +passage is a trying one, and in rough weather no +ship can live in such a sea, studded as it is with +treacherous rocks. The sandstone of the Bell Rock +is worn into rugged inequalities, which favoured the +operations of the engineer; but the action of the +waves on the igneous formation of the Skerryvore +has given it all the smoothness and slippery polish +of a mass of dark coloured glass. Indeed, the foreman +of the masons, on first visiting the rock, not +unjustly compared the operation of ascending it to +that of "climbing up the neck of a bottle."</p> + +<p>The 7th August 1838 was the first day of entire +work on the rock, and with succeeding ones was +spent in the erection of a temporary barrack of wood, +for the men to lodge in on the rock. It was completed +before the season closed; but one of the first +heavy gales in November wrenched it from its holdings, +and swept it into the sea, leaving nothing to +mark the site but a few broken and twisted stanchions, +attached to one of which was a portion of a great beam +which had been shaken and rent, by dashing against +the rocks, into a bundle of ribands. Thus in one night +were obliterated the results of a whole season's toil, +and with them, the hopes the men cherished of +having a dwelling on the rock, instead of on board +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> +the brig, where they suffered intensely from the +miseries of constant sickness.</p> + +<p>The excavation of the foundations occupied the +whole of the summer season of 1839, from the 6th +May to the 3d September. The hard, nitrified rock +held out stoutly against the assaults of both iron +and gunpowder; and much time was spent in hollowing +out the basin in which the lighthouse was to +be fixed. From the limited extent of the rock and +the absence of any place of shelter, the blasting was +an operation of considerable danger, as the men had +no place to run to, and it had to be managed with +great caution. Only a small portion of the rock +could be blown up at a time, and care had to be +taken to cover the part over with mats and nettings +made of old rope to check the flight of the stones. +The excavation of the flinty mass occupied nearly +two summers.</p> + +<p>The operations of 1840 included, much to the +delight of the workmen, the reconstruction of the +barrack, to which they were glad to remove from +the tossing vessel. The second edifice was more +substantial than the first, and proved more enduring. +Rude and narrow as it was, it offered, after the discomforts +of the vessel, almost a luxurious lodging to +its hardy inmates.</p> + +<p>"Packed 40 feet above the weather-beaten rock, +in this singular abode," writes the engineer, Mr. +Alan Stevenson, "with a goodly company of thirty +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> +men, I have spent many a weary day and night, at +those times when the sea prevented any one going down +to the rock, anxiously looking for supplies from the +shore, and earnestly longing for a change of weather +favourable to the recommencement of the works. For +miles around nothing could be seen but white foaming +breakers, and nothing heard but howling winds and +lashing waves. Our slumbers, too, were at times fearfully +interrupted by the sudden pouring of the sea +over the roof, the rocking of the house on its pillars, +and the spurting of water through the seams of the +doors and windows; symptoms which, to one suddenly +aroused from sound sleep, recalled the appalling fate +of the former barrack, which had been engulphed in +the foam not twenty yards from our dwelling, and +for a moment seemed to summon us to a similar +fate. On two occasions in particular, these sensations +were so vivid as to cause almost every one to +spring out of bed; and some of the men fled from +the barrack by a temporary gangway to the more +stable, but less comfortable shelter afforded by the +bare walls of the lighthouse tower, then unfinished, +where they spent the remainder of the night in the +darkness and the cold."</p> + +<p>In spite of their anxiety to get on with the work, +and their intrepidity in availing themselves of every +opportunity, these gallant men were often forced by +stress of weather into an inactivity which we may +be sure they felt sadly irksome and against the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> +grain. "At such seasons," says Mr. Stevenson, +"much of our time was spent in bed, for there alone +we had effectual shelter from the winds and the +spray which reached every cranny in the walls of +our barrack." On one occasion they were for fourteen +days without communication with the shore, and +when at length the seas subsided, and they were +able to make the signal to Tyree that a landing at +the rock was practicable, scarcely twenty-four hours' +stock of provisions remained on the rock. In spite +of hardships and perils, however, the engineer declares +that "life on the Skerryvore Rock was by no means +destitute of its peculiar pleasures. The grandeur of +the ocean's rage—the deep murmur of the waves—the +hoarse cry of the sea birds, which wheeled continually +over us, especially at our meals—the low +moaning of the wind—or the gorgeous brightness of +a glossy sea and a cloudless sky—and the solemn +stillness of a deep blue vault, studded with stars, or +cheered by the splendours of the full moon,—were +the phases of external things that often arrested our +thoughts in a situation where, with all the bustle +that sometimes prevailed, there was necessarily so +much time for reflection. Those changes, together +with the continual succession of hopes and fears connected +with the important work in which we were +engaged, and the oft recurring calls for advice or +direction, as well as occasional hours devoted to +reading and correspondence, and the pleasures of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> +news from home, were more than sufficient to reconcile +me to—nay, to make me really enjoy—an uninterrupted +residence, on one occasion, of not less than +five weeks on that desert rock."</p> + +<p>The Skerryvore Lighthouse was at length successfully +completed. The height of the tower is 138 +feet 6 inches, of which the first 26 feet is solid. It +contains a mass of stone work of more than double +the quantity of the Bell Rock, and nearly five times +that of the Eddystone. The entire cost, including +steam tug and the building of a small harbour at +Hynish for the reception of the little vessel that +now attends the lighthouse, was £86,977. The +light is revolving, and reaches its brightest state once +every minute. It is produced by the revolution of +eight great annular lenses around a central light, with +four wicks, and can be seen from the deck of a vessel +at the distance of 18 miles. Mr. Alan Stevenson +sums up his deeply interesting narrative in the following +words: "In such a situation as the Skerryvore, +innumerable delays and disappointments were +to be expected by those engaged in the work; and +the entire loss of the fruit of the first season's labour +in the course of a few hours, was a good lesson in +the school of patience, and of trust in something +better than an arm of flesh. During our progress, +also, cranes and other materials were swept away +by the waves; vessels were driven by sudden gales +to seek shelter at a distance from the rocky shores +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> +of Mull and Tyree; and the workmen were left on +the rock desponding and idle, and destitute of many +of the comforts with which a more roomy and +sheltered dwelling, in the neighbourhood of friends, +is generally connected. Daily risks were run in +landing on the rock in a heavy surf, in blasting the +splintery gneiss, or by the falling of heavy bodies +from the tower on a narrow space below, to which +so many persons were necessarily confined. Yet had +we not any loss of either life or limb; and although +our labours were prolonged from dawn to night, and +our provisions were chiefly salt, the health of the +people, with the exception of a few slight cases of +dysentery, was generally good throughout the six +successive summers of our sojourn on the rock. The +close of the work was welcomed with thankfulness +by all engaged in it; and our remarkable preservation +was viewed, even by many of the most thoughtless, +as, in a peculiar manner, the gracious work of +Him by whom the very hairs of our heads are all numbered!"</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/footer-167.png" width="300" height="122" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<a name="Steam_Navigation" id="Steam_Navigation"></a> +<img src="images/title-p169.png" alt="Steam Navigation." title="" /></h2> + + +<ol class="chapterTOC"> + <li> — JAMES SYMINGTON.</li> + <li> — ROBERT FULTON.</li> + <li> — HENRY BELL.</li> + <li> — OCEAN STEAMERS.</li> +</ol> + + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<img src="images/title-p171.png" alt="Steam Navigation." title="" /></h2> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="JAMES_SYMINGTON" id="JAMES_SYMINGTON"></a>I.—JAMES SYMINGTON.</h2> + + +<p>Of the many triumphs of enterprise achieved by the +agency of that tremendous power which James Watt +tamed and put in harness for his race, perhaps the +greatest and most momentous is that which has reversed +the old proverb, that "time and tide wait for +no man," given ten-fold meaning to the truth that +"seas but join the regions they divide," and enabled +our ships to dash across the trackless deep in spite +of opposing elements,—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Against wind, against tide,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Steadying with upright keel,"</span><br /> +</div></div> + +<p>in a fraction of the time, and with a fraction of the +cost and peril of the old mode of naval locomotion. +How amply realized has been James Bell's prediction +more than half a century ago, "I will venture to +affirm that history does not afford an instance of +such rapid improvement in commerce and civilization, +as that which will be effected by steam vessels!"</p> + +<p>Towards the close of the last century, a number +of ingenious minds were in travail with the scheme +of steam navigation. The Marquis de Jouffroy in +France, and Fitch and Rumsey in America, were +successful in experiments of its feasibility; but it is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> +to the efforts of Miller and Symington in Scotland, +followed up by those of Fulton and Bell, that we are +chiefly and more immediately indebted for the practical +development of the project.</p> + +<p>Having a natural bent for mechanical contrivances, +and abundance of leisure and money to indulge his +tastes, Mr. Miller of Dalswinton, in Dumfriesshire, +somewhere about the year 1785, was full of schemes +for driving ships by means of paddle-wheels,—by no +means a novel idea, for it was known to the Romans, +if not to the Egyptians, and had often been tried +before.</p> + +<p>All he aimed at originally was, to turn the wheels +by the power of men or horses; and this he managed +to do successfully enough. Single, double, and treble +boats were often to be seen driving along Dalswinton +Lake, moved by paddle-wheels instead of oars. On +one occasion, at Leith, one of the double boats, sixty +feet long, propelled by two wheels, each of which +was turned by a couple of men, was matched against +a Custom-house boat, which was reckoned a fast +sailer. The paddle-wheels did duty very well; +but the men were soon knocked up with turning +them, and the want of some other motive power +was strongly felt. A young man named Taylor, +who was tutor to Mr. Miller's boys, is said to have +suggested the use of steam; but whether this be so +or not, it was not till Miller met with James +Symington that the idea assumed a practical form.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> +In 1786 James Symington, then joint-engineer +with his brother George, to the Wanlockhead Mines, +was struck with the idea which, as we have seen, +several other ingenious minds were also busy with +about the same time,—of rendering the steam-engine +available for locomotion both on land and sea. +After much study and reflection, he succeeded in +embodying the idea in a working model. It was +supported on four wheels, which were moved in any +direction by means of a small steam-engine, and +could carry 16 cwt., besides coals, water, &c. It +was exhibited in Edinburgh in the summer of 1786, +and made a considerable sensation. Mr. Miller, fond +of all such inventions, did not fail to get a sight of +Symington's locomotive engine, the first time he +was in town. He was delighted with its ingenuity +and completeness, and procured an interview with +the author. Of course, Miller was full of his +own experiments, and told Symington the whole +story of his efforts to propel vessels by paddle-wheels, +and the want of some stronger, and more constant +power than that of men to turn the capstan, upon +which the motion of the wheels depended. Symington +at once expressed the opinion he had formed,—that +steam was equally available for vessels as for +carriages, and showed him how the steam-engine +which he had devised for his locomotive could be +applied to the paddle-wheels. Miller was so much +struck by his statements, which he illustrated by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> +reference to the model, that he determined to have +an engine made on the same plan, and fitted into +one of his double boats. Accordingly, an engine +was built under Symington's directions and superintendence, +sent to Dalswinton, and put together in +October 1788. The engine, in a strong oak frame, +was placed in the one half of a double pleasure-boat, +the boiler occupying the other half, and the +paddle-wheels being fixed in the middle.</p> + +<p>The autumn was withering into winter, the yellow +leaves were swirling to the ground with every little +breath of wind, and the boughs were beginning to +show forth bare and grim, when the little boat was +launched upon the bosom of Dalswinton Loch. At +length all the preparations were finished, and on the +14th November Mr. Miller had the delight of seeing +the vessel gliding over the mimic waves of the lake +at the rate of five miles an hour. The company on +board the boat on that memorable occasion were—Mr. +Miller himself, of course, nervous with pleasure +and exultation; Taylor, the tutor; Alexander Nasmyth +(the well-known landscape painter, and father +of the man who, in the next generation, was to +invent the wonderful steam-hammer, that knocks +masses of iron about like putty, and can yet so +moderate its force as to crack a nut without bruising +the kernel); a brisk stripling with strongly marked +features, by name Harry Brougham, afterwards to +be Lord Chancellor of England, and perhaps the most +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> +many-sided genius of his time; and—last and +greatest of the group—there was one of Mr. Miller's +tenants, the farmer of Ellisland,—Robert Burns, the +great bard of Scotland, enjoying to the full, no +doubt, the novelty of the expedition, but, we must +suppose, unconscious of its import and grand future +consequences, since he has accorded it no commemorative +verse. "Many a time," says Mr. James +Nasmyth, son of the distinguished painter, "I have +heard my father describe the delight which this first +and successful essay at steam navigation yielded the +party in question. I only wish Burns had immortalized +it in fit, clinking rhyme, for, indeed, it was a +subject worthy of his highest muse."</p> + +<p>The experiment was next tried on a large scale +with a canal boat, on the Forth and Clyde Canal, +but one of the wheels broke. Not to be balked, +Symington had stronger wheels made, and the next +time the steam was put on, the vessel went off at the +rate of seven miles an hour. The experiment was +several times repeated with success. The vessel, +however, was so slight, that many more trips would +have knocked it to pieces; and it was therefore +dismantled. The fitting up of these vessels, and the +working of them, formed a heavy drain upon Mr. +Miller's purse; and having laid satisfactory proof +before the world that the thing could be done, +he relinquished the enterprise, and left it to be +worked out by others. Just then, however, no one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> +came forward to fill his place; and for some years +the idea slumbered.</p> + +<p>In 1801 Symington could not afford to indulge +in further efforts at his own expense, but he found +a patron in Lord Dundas, who commissioned him to +construct a steam-tug for dragging canal boats. A +stout, serviceable tug was built; and a series of +experiments entered upon to test her efficiency, +which cost upwards of £3000. One bleak, stormy +spring-day in 1802, the people on the banks of the +Forth and Clyde Canal might have been seen +staring with wonder, at the short, stumpy little +tug pushing gallantly on at the rate of three or +four miles an hour, with a strong wind right in her +teeth, that no other vessel could make head against, +and two loaded vessels (each of more than 70 +tons burden) in tow. By itself, the tug could do +six miles an hour without any great strain. The +company made some objection, however, about the +banks of the canal being injured, and the tug fell +into disuse. It served an important end, though, in +giving both Fulton and Bell a basis for their operations, +and must be considered the parent of our +modern steam-craft.</p> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="ROBERT_FULTON" id="ROBERT_FULTON"></a>II.—ROBERT FULTON.</h2> + + +<p>After Dr. Cartwright, the inventor of the power-loom, +had retired penniless from his manufacturing +enterprises, and had taken up his abode in London, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> +one of the constant visitors at his modest residence +in Marylebone Fields, was a thin, sharp-featured +American, about twenty-eight years of age, an artist +by profession, and formerly student of Benjamin +West, who, however, was now much more interested +in the art of engineering than the art of painting. +From an early age he had shown a taste for +mechanics, and was fond of spending his play-hours +at school loitering about workshops and factories, +watching the men at their work, and studying the +machines and instruments they used. This sojourn +in England had brought him into contact with the +Duke of Bridgewater, the great canal projector, and +Lord Stanhope, well known for his improvements in +the printing press and other contrivances, in whose +company his boyish bent towards mechanics was +revived, and became quite a passion with him. He +threw aside his brushes and palette, and applied himself +to his favourite pursuit with heart and soul. +Having formed the acquaintance of Cartwright, he +became a daily visitor at his house, and the enthusiastic, +good-natured doctor and he would sit debating +for hours the great problem: "Whether it were +practicable to move vessels by steam?" Fulton, +eager, restless, vivacious, with pencil in hand, was perpetually +sketching plans of paddle-wheels; while the +doctor, calm, dignified, and earnest, equally engrossed +in the subject, was contriving various modes of +bringing steam to act upon them. Neither of them +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> +had any doubt that the thing could be done, but the +"how" long baffled them; and even though the +doctor constructed "the model of a boat, which, +being wound up like a clock, moved on the water in +a highly satisfactory manner," nothing practical +came of their cogitations till some years after.</p> + +<p>While on a visit to Paris, Fulton was struck with +the injury which standing navies of men-of-war inflicted +on the mercantile marine, and gave his whole +attention, as he says, "to find out the means of +destroying such engines of oppression, by some method +which would put it out of the power of any nation +to maintain such a system, and compel every government +to adopt the simple principles of education, +industry, and a free circulation of its produce." The +means presented itself to his mind in the shape of +an explosive shell, called the torpedo, by which any +ship of war could be blown to pieces; and for six +or seven years he occupied himself in fruitless +attempts to get first the government of France, and +then that of England, to take up his project. He +did not abandon his schemes with regard to steam-vessels, +however; but, under the auspices of Mr. +Livingstone, the American ambassador, made several +experiments. One vessel of considerable size broke +through the middle when the engines were placed +on board, but a second one was rather more successful, +though but a slow rate of movement was +attained. His project came under the notice of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> +Napoleon, then First Consul, who did not fail to +appreciate its value. "It was," he said, "capable +of changing the face of the world;" and he directed +a commission to inquire into its merits. Nothing +came of it, however.</p> + +<p>Shortly after, Fulton visited Scotland, and got an +introduction to Symington, whom he pressed for a +sight of his boat. Symington generously consented, +and gave him a short sail on board the steam-tug. +Fulton made no concealment of his intention of starting +steamboats in his own country, whither he was +about to return, and asked Symington to allow him +to make a few notes of his observations on board. +Symington had no objections; and, therefore, he +says, "Fulton pulled out a memorandum book, and +after putting several pointed questions respecting +the general construction and effect of the machine, +which I answered in a most explicit manner, he +jotted down particularly everything then described, +with his own remarks upon the boat while moving +with him on board along the canal." Fulton was +very liberal in his promises not to forget his assistance, +if he got steamboats established in America; +but Symington never heard anything more of him.</p> + +<p>Fulton was at New York in 1806, and busy +getting a steamboat put together. It was a costly +undertaking, and he had little spare cash of his own; +so he offered shares in the concern to his friends, but +no one would have anything to do with so ridiculous +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> +a scheme, as they thought. "My friends," says +Fulton, "were civil, but shy. They listened with +patience to my explanations, but with a settled cast +of incredulity on their countenances. I felt the full +force of the lamentation of the poet,—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">'Truths would you teach, to save a sinking land,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">All shun, none aid you, and few understand.'</span><br /> +</div></div> + +<p>As I had occasion to pass daily to and from the building-yard +while my boat was in progress, I have often +loitered, unknown, near the idle groups of strangers, +gathering in little circles, and heard various inquiries +as to the object of this new vehicle. The language +was uniformly that of scorn, sneer, or ridicule. The +loud laugh rose at my expense, the dry jest, the wise +calculation of losses and expenditure, the dull, but +endless repetition of 'the Fulton Folly.' Never did +a single encouraging remark, a bright hope, or a +warm wish, cross my path."</p> + +<p>Let them laugh that win. The success which +shortly attended Fulton's scheme turned the tables +upon those who had mocked at him. The <i>Clermont</i> +was completed in August 1807, and the +day arrived when the trial was to be made on the +Hudson river. "To me," wrote Fulton, "it was a +most trying and interesting occasion. I wanted +some friends to go on board to witness the first +successful trip. Many of them did me the favour +to attend as a mark of personal respect; but it was +manifest they did it with reluctance, fearing to be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> +partners of my mortification, and not of my triumph. +The moment arrived in which the word was to be +given for the vessel to move. My friends were in +groups on the deck. There was anxiety mixed with +fear among them. They were silent, sad, and weary. +I read in their looks nothing but disaster, and almost +repented of my efforts. The signal was given, and +the boat moved on a short distance, and then stopped +and became immovable. To the silence of the preceding +moment now succeeded murmurs of discontent +and agitation, and whispers and shrugs. I could +hear distinctly repeated—'I told you so; it is a +foolish scheme; I wish we were well out of it.' I +elevated myself on a platform, and stated that I +knew not what was the matter; but if they would +be quiet, and indulge me for half an hour, I would +either go on or abandon the voyage. I went below, +and discovered that a slight misadjustment was the +cause. It was obviated. The boat went on; we +left New York; we passed through the Highlands; +we reached Albany! Yet even their imagination +superseded the force of fact. It was doubted if it +could be done again, or if it could be made, in any +case, of any great value."</p> + +<p>The simple-minded country folk on the banks of +the Hudson were almost frightened out of their wits +at the awful apparition which they saw gliding along +the river, and which, especially when seen indistinctly +looming through the night, looked to their bewildered +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> +eyes, "a monster moving on the water, defying the +winds and tide, and breathing flames and smoke." +Pine-wood was used for fuel, and whenever the fire +was stirred, a great burst of sparks issued from the +chimney. "This uncommon light," says Colden, the +biographer of Fulton, "first attracted the attention +of the crews of other vessels. Notwithstanding the +wind and tide were adverse to its approach, they +saw with astonishment that it was rapidly coming +towards them; and when it came so near that the +noise of the machinery and paddles were heard, the +crews in some instances shrunk beneath their decks +from the terrific sight, and others left their vessels to +go on shore; while others, again, prostrated themselves, +and besought Providence to protect them from +the approach of the horrible monster which was +marching on the tides, and lighting its path by the +fires which it vomited."</p> + +<p>With the novelty of the spectacle its terror died +away, and people soon got tired of rushing out to +see the remarkable machine that had once seemed so +miraculous to them. The <i>Clermont</i> soon began to +travel regularly as a passage-boat between Albany +and New York, other steam-vessels were constructed +on its model, and by degrees the steam marine of +America grew into the host it is at present. Thirty +years after the first experiment on the Hudson, it +was calculated 1300 steamboats had been built in +the States.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> +Fulton did not live long to enjoy his triumphs. +He died in 1815, having been actively engaged in +promoting steam navigation to his last hours.</p> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="HENRY_BELL" id="HENRY_BELL"></a>III.—HENRY BELL.</h2> + + +<p>The honour which in America attached to Fulton +as the man who first brought the steamboat into +use, and to the River Hudson as being the scene of +the experiment, in our own country fell (in a somewhat +less degree, being subsequent), to Henry Bell, +and the River Clyde.</p> + +<p>Brought up as a millwright, Bell, from want of +funds to start in business, was obliged for many +years to gain his living as a common carpenter in +Glasgow, where he was noted among the trade as +being very fond of "schemes," and suspected on that +account by narrow-minded folk of being not very +reliable in the lower branches of his craft. Scheme +after scheme issued from his fertile mind; but he +was rash and hasty in working them out, and few +proved of much worth. Steam navigation being one +of the vexed problems of the time, had every fascination +for his peculiar genius; and he seems to have +been brooding over it as the last century was closing, +and the present opening upon the world. When +Fulton visited Symington's invention, Bell appears +to have accompanied him, and to have afterwards +corresponded with him on the subject. "This," he +says, "led me to think of the absurdity of writing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> +my opinions to other countries, and not putting it +in practice myself in my own country; and from +these considerations I was roused to set on foot a +steamboat, for which I made a number of different +models before I was satisfied." Having removed to +the little village of Helensburgh, on the banks of the +Clyde, and there established a hotel and bath-house, +which his wife managed, he endeavoured to work +the passage-boats by which visitors were brought to +the place, by means of paddle-wheels worked by the +hand, instead of oars; but the plan did not succeed +very well, for the same reason that led to Mr. Miller's +abandonment of it—the inefficiency of manual power, +which could not be applied with sufficiently sustained +and continuous force. He therefore gave it +up, and turned his attention to the employment of +steam power for the same purpose. Of course, he +was laughed at for his pains; and Henry Bell's project +for having steamers on the Clyde became a +standing joke among the frequenters of the watering-place. +Even after the permanent success of Fulton's +scheme was known, people would not moderate their +incredulity; but Bell's faith, which had never wavered, +was now confirmed, and he set about the work with +redoubled energy.</p> + +<p>In 1811, Bell, having procured the necessary +funds, had a steam-boat built of twenty-five tons +and four horse power. He named it the <i>Comet</i>, +because a comet had just then appeared in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> +north-west of Scotland. The <i>Comet</i> began to run +regularly between Glasgow and Helensburgh in +January 1812, and continued to ply successfully +during the summer of that year. At first, however, +she brought rather loss than gain to her projector. +People were shy of trusting themselves +on board, and parties interested in the stage-coaches +and sailing vessels, spread all sorts of +absurd reports about her. It was not till she had +gone for some time without accident, that tourists began +to think they might as well save their money +and their time by patronizing the new mode of conveyance. +In the second year Bell took the <i>Comet</i> +off the Clyde, and sent her on a tour round the open +coasts of the three kingdoms. Before long the safety +and utility of steam navigation was admitted on +all hands, and numerous rival enterprises were on +foot. In 1820 the <i>Comet</i> was lost between Glasgow +and Fort William; and in the following year +another of Bell's vessels was burnt to the water-edge—two +misfortunes that carried £3000 out of +his pocket. His rivals, with abundant capital, soon +drove him out of the field, and Bell sank into poverty +and neglect. A small annuity from the Clyde trustees, +and a subscription among his friends, to keep +him from starving, were all the rewards he ever received +for his enterprise and perseverance. He died +in 1830 in the sixty-fourth year of his age.</p> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="OCEAN_STEAMERS" id="OCEAN_STEAMERS"></a>IV.—OCEAN STEAMERS.</h2> + + +<p>In the quarter of a century which elapsed between +1812, when the <i>Comet</i> first began to churn the +waters of the Clyde, and 1837, steam navigation +progressed steadily and surely. At first, content +with plying along rivers and quiet bays, steamers +by-and-by ventured out upon the open sea. We +owe the regular establishment of deep-sea packets to +the courage and enterprise of Mr. David Napier of +Glasgow, "who," says Mr. Scott Russell, "has effected +more for the improvement of steam navigation than +any other man." He was quick to appreciate the +capabilities of steam-vessels, and saw that they were +fit for something more than mere inland voyages. +Before starting one of them upon the open sea, however, +he carefully estimated the danger to be encountered +and the difficulties to be overcome. He +took passage at the worst season of the year in one +of the sailing vessels which formerly plied between +Glasgow and Belfast, and which often required a +week to perform a journey that is now done by +steam in a few hours.</p> + +<p>Stationing himself on an elevated part of the deck, +he kept a close watch on the movements of the vessel, +observing the tossing to which she was subjected +by the waves, the extent of the dip when she sank +into a trough, the height of elevation when lifted on +the summit of a wave, and calculating in his mind +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> +how all this would tell on the paddle-wheels. +Through the roughest of the storm, when the vessel +was pitching worst, and the wind blowing at its +fiercest, he kept his place on deck, regardless of the +drenching spray and the blast that almost carried +him off his legs. When at length he had satisfied +himself by the observation of his own eyes and +inquiries of the captain and crew, that there was nothing +in the voyage which a steamer could not encounter, +he retired contentedly to his cabin, leaving +everybody astonished at his strange curiosity respecting +the effect of rough weather on the ship.</p> + +<p>Not long after David Napier started the <i>Rob +Roy</i> steam-packet between Greenock and Belfast, +and afterwards between Dover and Calais. In the +course of two or three years more he had established +steam communication between Holyhead and Dublin, +Liverpool and Greenock, and various other parts. +The length of each unbroken passage was then considered +the great difficulty; but as steamers got +improved both in form and machinery, passages +of greater length were successfully accomplished. +Steamers traversed in all directions the German +Ocean, the Mediterranean, the Baltic, and, in short, +all the waters on the eastern side of the Atlantic; +and were in use upon all the rivers and lakes of any +size in Europe.</p> + +<p>At length, in 1836, the startling project was set +on foot of superseding the far-famed New York and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> +Liverpool packet ships by a fleet of steam-ships. +Before this the <i>Savannah</i>, a steam vessel of 300 tons, +had, in 1819, crossed from New York to Liverpool +in twenty-six days, partly with sails and partly with +steam; and another steam vessel had, in 1825, made +the voyage from England to Calcutta; but one +swallow does not make a summer, and many learned +folks, on both sides of the Atlantic, shook their heads +doubtfully at the daring scheme of regular steam +communication across 13,000 miles of ocean. The +experiment was to be made, however; and on the +4th April 1838, the <i>Sirius</i>, of 700 tons and 320 +horse power, sailed from Cork for the far West. +Four days after the <i>Great Western</i> followed in her +wake from Bristol.</p> + +<p>Great was the excitement in New York as the +time drew nigh when the <i>Sirius</i> was considered due. +For days together the Battery was crowded with +anxious watchers, from the first breaking of the cold, +grey dawn till night dropped its dark curtain on the +scene. At that time a telescope was a thing to be +begged, borrowed, or stolen,—to be got, somehow or +other, if only for a minute,—and a man who possessed +one was to be looked up to, made much of, and, if +possible, coaxed out of the loan of it. All day long +a hundred telescopes swept the sea. The ocean +steamer was the great topic of the hour, and "any +appearance of her?" the constant question when two +people met. On St. George's day, the 23d April, a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> +dim, dusky speck on the far horizon grew under the +eye of the thousands of breathless watchers into a +long train of smoke, beneath which, as the hours wore +on, appeared the black prow of a huge steam-boat. +There she was, long looked for come at last; and with +the American colours at the fore, and the flag of Old +England rustling at the stern, the <i>Sirius</i> swept into +the harbour amidst the cheers of the multitude, the +ringing of the city bells, and the firing of salutes. +The excitement reached its climax, and the shouting +and firing grew deafening, when, some few hours later +on the same auspicious day, the <i>Great Western</i> came +to anchor alongside of her rival.</p> + +<p>Twenty-two years have passed since then, and the +marvel of 1838 has become a mere everyday affair. +There are some fourteen different lines of steamers, +comprising more than fifty vessels, running between +the United States and Europe, to say nothing of +the magnificent steam fleets of the Peninsular and +Oriental, the Royal West India, British and North +American, Pacific, Australian, South Western, and +other companies.</p> + +<p>The employment of iron in the construction of +ships, thus securing at once lightness and strength, +and the invention of the screw propeller, in 1836, +by Mr. J. P. Smith, a farmer at Hendon, by means +of which a vessel can combine all the qualities of a +first-rate sailing ship with the use of steam power, +gave a great impulse to steam navigation, which is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> +still making steady and continuous progress. From +one steam vessel in 1812 the number in the kingdom +has risen successively to 20 in 1820, 824 in +1840, and over 2000 in 1860. During 1858, 153 +steamers were built in the United Kingdom, of which +112 were of iron. It is interesting to observe the +advance in size of the steam vessels from their first +introduction on the Clyde.</p> + +<table> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td>Length.</td> + <td>Breadth.</td> +</tr><tr> + <td>1812. Comet</td> + <td>40 feet</td> + <td>10-1/2 feet.</td> +</tr><tr> + <td>1825. Enterprise (built expressly to go to India, coaling at intermediate stations)</td> + <td>122 "</td> + <td>27 "</td> +</tr><tr> + <td>1835. Tagus (for Mediterranean)</td> + <td>182 "</td> + <td>28 "</td> +</tr><tr> + <td>1838. Great Western (the first ship built expressly for Transatlantic service)</td> + <td>236 "</td> + <td>35-1/2 "</td> +</tr><tr> + <td>1844. Great Britain (the first large screw ship, and largest iron ship up to that time)</td> + <td>322 "</td> + <td>51 "</td> +</tr><tr> + <td>1853. Himalaya (iron)</td> + <td>370 "</td> + <td>43-1/2 "</td> +</tr><tr> + <td>1856. Persia (do.)</td> + <td>390 "</td> + <td>45 "</td> +</tr><tr> + <td>1859. Great Eastern (do.)</td> + <td>680 "</td> + <td>83 "</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>In the interval between 1812 and 1870 the number +of steamers in the United Kingdom has increased +from one to nearly three thousand; and the ocean-going +steamer of 1870 is nearly six times the length +of that of 1825, and seventeen times the length +of the <i>Comet</i>, while the difference in tonnage is still +greater. How Fulton or Bell would open their eyes +at the sight of a vast moving city, such as the Big +Ship, an eighth of a mile in length, propelled by both +paddle-wheels and screw, each worked by four huge +engines!</p> + + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<a name="Iron_Manufacture" id="Iron_Manufacture"></a> +<img src="images/title-p191.png" alt="Iron Manufacture." title="" /></h2> + +<ul class="chapterTOC"> + <li>HENRY CORT.</li> +</ul> + + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<img src="images/title-p193.png" alt="Iron Manufacture." title="" /></h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="HENRY_CORT" id="HENRY_CORT"></a>HENRY CORT.</h2> + + +<p>The multifarious use of iron in our day has given +its name to the age. We have got far beyond the +primitive applications of that metal—every day it +is supplanting some other substance, and there is no +saying where the wide-spread and varied service we +exact from it will stop. The invention of the steam-engine, +and the improvement of manufacturing +machines, would be comparatively valueless, unless +we had at command a cheap and abundant supply +of iron for their construction. The land is covered +with a net-work of iron rails, traversed by iron +steeds—gulfs and valleys are spanned by iron arches +and iron tubes—huge ships of iron ride upon the +deep. Even stones and bricks are being discarded +for this all-useful substance, and of iron we are building +houses, palaces, theatres, churches, and spacious +domes. There is no end to its uses.</p> + +<p>And yet, it is only between seventy and eighty +years ago since Britain, the richest of all countries +in native ore, was dependent upon others for her +supply of the manufactured metal. We wanted but +little iron in those days, compared with the present +demand, and yet that little we could not furnish +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> +ourselves with. As much as a million and a half +a-year went out of our pockets to purchase wrought +iron from Sweden alone, and we were good customers +to Russia as well. All the iron that our country +could then produce was some 17,000 tons. The +man who showed us how to turn our own ore to +account, who rendered us independent of all other +countries for our supply, and made us the great purveyors +of wrought iron to the world, who opened up +to us this great source of national wealth, was +Henry Cort of Gosport.</p> + +<p>The great difficulty which he solved was how to +get wrought iron out of the crude iron as it came +from the smelting furnace, without using charcoal. +With but a small tract of country, densely peopled, +we had but a scant supply of wood at our command. +The great forests which once overspread the land were +gradually vanishing, partly before the spread of population +and the growth of towns, and partly from the +inroads made on them by the demand for timber. +Formerly, the first transformation of the ore into pig +iron (the crude form of the manufactured metal) was +effected by means of wood; and the consumption was +so great that an Act was passed in 1581 restraining +its use. Soon afterwards Lord Dudley discovered +that coal would answer the purpose just as well, and +obtained a patent of monopoly. He reaped but little +profit from his invention, however, for his iron-works +were destroyed by a mob; and it was not till a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> +century afterwards, when people got more alarmed +at the growing scarcity of timber, and the increased +demand for it, that the plan was generally adopted. +This was one step in the right direction, but another +yet remained to be made, for the manufacture was +still hampered in our country by the want of wood +for the second process—the conversion of crude +into malleable iron, in which state alone it is fit for +service.</p> + +<p>About the year 1785, Henry Cort, iron-master, +of Gosport, after many years of patient and wearisome +research, of anxious thought, and indefatigable +experiment, in which he spent a private fortune +of some £20,000, perfected a couple of inventions +of priceless value. The first was the process +of converting pig iron into wrought iron by the +flame of pit coal in a puddling furnace, thus dispensing +with the use of charcoal,—the cost and +scarcity of which had before formed such a dead +weight on the trade, and placed us at such a disadvantage +compared with Sweden and Russia. The +second was a further process for drawing the iron +into bars by means of grooved rollers. Till then, +this operation had to be performed with hammer +and anvil, and was very tedious and laborious. The +new system not only reduced the cost and labour of +producing iron to one-twentieth of what they were +previously, but greatly improved the quality of the +article produced.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> +It is not easy to estimate all that Henry Cort's +inventions have done for this country. Without +them we should have lost an overflowing and inexhaustible +source of national wealth, and, moreover, +large sums would have been taken out of the country +in the purchase of wrought metal; we should never +have been able to give full scope to the great mechanical +inventions brought forth towards the close +of the last, and the opening of the present century; +we should have been debarred from taking rank as +the great engineers and engine-makers for the rest +of the world. The direct gain to this country from +the inventions of Henry Cort, which enabled us to +work up our own iron, has been calculated as equal +by this time to not less than a hundred millions; +and it is hardly possible to exaggerate the benefits +which it has conferred. Lord Sheffield's prophecy, +that the adoption of these processes would be worth +more to Britain than a dozen colonies, may be said +to have been fulfilled.</p> + +<p>Like many another benefactor of his country, Cort +got little good out of his invention for himself. He +took out a patent for his process, and arranged with +the leading iron-masters to accept a royalty of ten +shillings a ton for the use of them. With a large +fortune in prospect, his purse was just then exhausted +by the expenses he had incurred in experiments and +researches; and he had to look out for a capitalist +to aid him in working the patent on his own account. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> +As ill luck would have it, he entered into partnership +with a certain Adam Jellicoe, then deputy-paymaster +of the navy. Jellicoe was considered a man of substance, +and a "thoroughly respectable" character. +He was to advance the ready money, and to receive +in return half of the profits of the trade, Cort assigning +to him, by way of collateral security, his patent +rights. For a year or two all went well. The +patent was everywhere adopted, and Cort's own iron +works drove a lucrative and growing trade. He +seemed in a fair way of getting back the fortune he +had spent in bringing out the inventions, doubled or +trebled, as he well deserved. The respectable Jellicoe +was seized with a mortal sickness: at his death his +desk was filled by another, his books were examined, +and it turned out that he had been robbing the +government for many a year back, and was a large +defaulter. Cort, of course, had nothing to do with +this villany, but he had to pay the penalty of it. +As Jellicoe's partner he was responsible, in those +days of unlimited liability, for all Jellicoe's debts; +but that was not the worst of it. The treasurer of +the navy was not content to exact only the payment +of Jellicoe's defalcations, as he had no doubt a right +to do, but confiscated the whole of Cort's patent +rights, business, and property, which would have paid +the debt seven or eight times over, had it been fairly +valued.</p> + +<p>This incident has never been properly cleared up, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> +but what glimpses of its secret passages have been +obtained, seem to indicate clearly enough that poor +Cort was the victim, not of one, but of two or more +swindlers. To the day of his death he never could +obtain a distinct account of the proceedings; and +when, after his death, a Royal Commission was appointed +to inquire into the matter, the treasurer of +the navy and his deputy took care, a week or two +before the Commission met, to indemnify each other +by a joint release, and to burn their accounts for +upwards of a million and a half of public money, for +the application of which they were responsible, as +well as all papers relating to Cort's case. When the +Commission met, and the treasurer and his deputy +were called before it, they refused to answer questions +which would criminate themselves.</p> + +<p>His connection with Jellicoe was, of course, the +ruin of Henry Cort. He had no means of re-establishing +himself in business; he was robbed of all +income from his patents; and he died ruined and +broken-hearted ten years after, leaving a family of +nine children, without a sixpence in the world. Four +of these children now survive—old, infirm, and indigent—only +saved from being dependent upon parish +bounty by pensions, amounting in the aggregate to +£90 per annum. Well may it be said, "There +should be more gratitude in our Iron Age to the +children of <span class="smcap">Henry Cort</span>."</p> + + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<a name="The_Electric_Telegraph" id="The_Electric_Telegraph"></a> +<img src="images/title-p199.png" alt="The Electric Telegraph." title="" /></h2> + +<ol class="chapterTOC"> + <li> — MR. COOKE.</li> + <li> — PROFESSOR WHEATSTONE.</li> + <li> — THE SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH.</li> +</ol> + + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<img src="images/title-p201.png" alt="The Electric Telegraph." title="" /></h2> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Speak the word and think the thought,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Quick 'tis as with lightning caught—</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Over, under lands or seas,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">To the far antipodes;</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Here again, as soon as gone,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Making all the earth as one;</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Moscow speaks at twelve o'clock,—</span><br /> +<span class="i0">London reads ere noon the shock."</span><br /> +</div></div> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="MR_COOKE" id="MR_COOKE"></a>I.—MR. COOKE.</h2> + + +<p>Of all the marvels of our time, the most marvellous is +the subjugation of the electric fluid, that potent elemental +force,—twin brother of the fatal lightning,—to +be our submissive courier, to bear our messages from +land to land, and "put a girdle round about the earth +in forty minutes." The Prospero that tamed this Ariel +was no individual genius, but "two single gentlemen +rolled into one." The idea of employing the electric +current for the conveyance of signals between distant +points, can be traced pretty far back in date; but +to Mr. Cooke and Professor Wheatstone is undoubtedly +due the credit of having made the electric +telegraph an actual and accomplished fact, and rendered +it practicable for everyday uses.</p> + +<p>Having served for a number of years as an officer +in our Indian army, Mr. Cooke came back to Europe +to recruit his health in the beginning of 1836, and +took up his abode at Heidelberg. He found +agree<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>able +occupation for his leisure in the study of +anatomy, and in the construction of anatomical +models for his father's museum at Durham, where he +was a professor in the university. Entirely self-taught +in this delicate art, Mr. Cooke applied himself +to it with characteristic ardour, and attained remarkable +skill. One day he happened to witness some +experiments which were made by Professor Möncke, +to illustrate the feasibility of electric signalling. +A current of electricity was passed through a long +wire, and set a magnetic needle at the end quivering +under its influence. The experiment was a very +simple one, and not at all novel; but Cooke had +never paid any attention to the subject before, and +was much struck with what he saw. He became +strongly impressed with the possibility of employing +electricity in the transmission of telegraphic intelligence +between distant places. From the day he +witnessed the experiments in Professor Möncke's classroom, +he forsook the dissecting knife, threw aside +his modelling tools, and applied himself to the realization +of his conception. With such ardour and +devotion did he labour, and such skill and ingenuity +did he bring to the work, that within three weeks +he had constructed a telegraph with six wires, forming +three complete metallic currents, and influencing +three needles, by the varied inclination of which +twenty-six different signals were designated. In +that short time he had also invented the detector, by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> +which injuries to the wires, whether from water, +fracture, or contact with substances capable of diverting +the current, were readily traced, and the alarum, +by which notice is given at one end of the wire that +a message is coming from the other. Both these +contrivances were of the utmost value,—indeed, +without them electric telegraphy would be impracticable,—and +are still in use. Possessing more of a +mechanical than a scientific genius, Mr. Cooke bestowed +more of his time and ingenuity on the perfection +of a telegraph to be worked by clock +mechanism, set in action by the withdrawal of a +detent by an electro magnet than in the completion +of the electric telegraph pure and simple.</p> + +<p>Soon after having invented his telegraph, he +came over to London, and spent the rest of the year +in making a variety of instruments, and in efforts to +get his telegraph introduced on the Liverpool and +Manchester Railway. He found an obstacle to the +complete success of his mechanical telegraph, in the +difficulty of transmitting to a distance sufficient +electric power to work the electro magnet upon +which its action depended. A friend advised him +to consult Professor Wheatstone, then known to be +deeply engaged in electrical experiments, with a +view to telegraphy; and accordingly, an interview +between them took place in February 1837.</p> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="PROFESSOR_WHEATSTONE" id="PROFESSOR_WHEATSTONE"></a>II.—PROFESSOR WHEATSTONE.</h2> + + +<p>Mr. Charles Wheatstone, F.R.S., and Professor of +Experimental Philosophy in King's College at the +time of that interview, had made considerable advances +in the scientific part of the enterprise. At +the commencement of his career as a maker and +seller of musical instruments in London, he was led +to investigate the science of sound; and from his +researches in that direction, he was led—much as +Herschel was led—to devote himself to optics, and to +study the philosophy of light. He was the first to +point out the peculiarity of binocular vision, and to +describe the stereoscope, which has since become so +popular an instrument. Gradually, however, his +thoughts and researches came to be steadfastly +directed to the application of electricity to the communication +of signals. In determining the rate at +which the electric current travels through a wire he +had laid down, he made an important stride towards +the end in view. He proved by a series of most +ingenious experiments, that one spark of electricity +leaps on before another, and that its progress is a +question of time. He found that electricity travels +through a <i>copper</i> wire as fast as, if not faster, than +light, that is, at the rate of 200,000 miles in a +second; but through an <i>iron</i> wire, electricity +moves at the rate of only 15,400 miles in a second. +In 1836 Mr. Wheatstone had begun experiments in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> +the vaults of King's College, with four miles of wire, +properly insulated, and was working out the details +of a telegraph, the scientific principles of which he +had already laid down. He had discovered an +original method of converting a few wires into a +considerable number of circuits, so that the greatest +number of signals could be transmitted by a limited +number of wires, by the deflection of magnetic +needles. Mr. Wheatstone, however, was somewhat +backward in the mechanical parts of the scheme, and +the meeting between him and Cooke was therefore of +the greatest benefit to both, and an admirable illustration +of the old proverb, that two heads are better +than one. Had they never been brought together,—had +they kept on working out their own ideas +apart—each would, no doubt, have been able to produce +an electric telegraph; but a great deal of time +would have been lost, and their respective efforts +less complete and valuable than the one they effected +in conjunction. Cooke wanted sound, scientific +knowledge; Wheatstone wanted mechanical ingenuity; +and their union supplied mutual deficiencies. +A partnership was immediately formed between +them. Before their combined genius all difficulties +vanished; and in the June of the same year they +were able to take out a patent for a telegraph with +five wires and five needles. Their respective shares +in its invention are clearly marked out by Sir J. +Brunel and Professor Daniell, who, as arbiters +be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>tween +the two upon that delicate question, gave the +following award in 1841:—</p> + +<p>"Whilst Mr. Cooke is entitled to stand alone as +the gentleman to whom this country is indebted for +having practically introduced and carried out the +electric telegraph as a useful undertaking, promising +to be a work of national importance; and Professor +Wheatstone is acknowledged as the scientific man +whose profound and successful researches had already +prepared the public to receive it as a project +capable of practical application,—it is to the +united labours of two gentlemen so well qualified +for mutual assistance, that we must attribute the +rapid progress which this important invention has +made during the five years since they have been +associated."</p> + +<p>Shortly after the taking out of a patent, wires +were laid down between Euston Square Terminus +and Camden Town Station, on the North-Western +Railway; and the new telegraph was subjected to +trial. Late in the evening of the 25th July 1837, +in a dingy little room in one of the Euston Square +offices, Professor Wheatstone sat alone, with a hand +on each handle of the signal instrument, and an +anxious eye upon the dial, with its needles as yet in +motionless repose. In another little room at the +Camden Town Station, Mr. Cooke was seated in a +similar position before the instrument at the other +end of the wires, along with Mr., now Sir Charles +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> +Fox, Robert Stephenson, and some other gentlemen. +It was a trying, agitating moment for the two inventors,—how +Wheatstone's pulse must have throbbed, +and his heart beat, as he jerked the handle, broke +the electric current, and sent the needles quivering +on the dial; in what suspense he must have spent +the next few minutes, holding his breath as though +to hear his fellow's voice, and almost afraid to +look at the dial lest no answer should be made; with +what a thrill of joy must each have seen the needles +wag knowingly and spell out their precious message,—the +"All's well; thank God," that flashed from +heart to heart, along the line of senseless wire. +"Never," said Wheatstone, "did I feel such a tumultuous +sensation before, as when all alone in the still +room I heard the needles click; and as I spelled +the words, I felt all the magnitude of the invention +now proved to be practicable beyond cavil or +dispute."</p> + +<p>A few days before this trial of the telegraph in +London, Steinheil, of Munich, is said to have had +one of his own invention at work there; and it is a +difficult question to decide whether he or Cooke and +Wheatstone were the first inventors. It is, however, +a question of no consequence, as each worked independently. +Since the first English electric telegraph +was patented, there have been a thousand and one +other contrivances of a similar kind taken out; but +it may be doubted whether, for practical purposes, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> +the original apparatus, with the improvements which +its own inventors have made on it, is not still the +best of them all.</p> + +<p>From being used merely to carry railway messages, +the telegraph was brought into the service of the +general public; the advantages of such almost instantaneous +communication were readily appreciated; +and eight years after Messrs. Cooke and Wheatstone +took out their patent, lines of telegraph to the extent +of 500 miles were in operation in England upon the +original plan. In 1855 telegraphic correspondence +had become so general, that the Electric Telegraph +Company was started to supply the demand. In +that establishment the Needle Telegraph of Wheatstone +and Cooke is the one generally used, with the +Chemical Recording Telegraph of Bain for special +occasions. By means of the latter, blue lines of +various lengths, according to an alphabet, are drawn +upon a ribbon of paper, and as many as 20,000 +words can be sent in an hour, though the ordinary +rate is 100 per minute. In the purchase of patent +rights alone, the Company have spent £170,000, +and they are every year adding to the length of +their wires. In June 1850 they had 6730 miles +of wires, and despatched 29,245 messages a year. +In December 1853 they had 24,340 miles of wires, +and despatched 212,440 messages a-year. Their +lines now extend over a much larger mileage, and +convey a greatly increased number of messages. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> +Magnetic Telegraph Company have also a large extent +of wires, and do a considerable business.</p> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="THE_SUBMARINE_TELEGRAPH" id="THE_SUBMARINE_TELEGRAPH"></a>III.—THE SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH.</h2> + + +<p>The land telegraph having had such success, the +next step was to carry the wires across the deep, and +link continent to continent,—an all-important step +for an island kingdom such as ours, with its legion of +distant colonies. The success of a submerged cable +between Gosport and Portsmouth, and of one across +the docks at Hull, proved the feasibility of a water +telegraph, at least on a small scale, and it was not +long before more ambitious attempts were made. +On the 28th of August 1850, a cable, 30 miles long, +in a gutta percha sheathing, was stretched at the +bottom of the straits between Dover and Cape +Grisnez, near Calais. Messages of congratulation +sped along this wire between England and France; +and although a ridge of rocks filed the cable asunder +on the French coast, the suspension of communication +was only temporary. The link has once more been +established, and is in daily use. The first news sent +by the wire to England was of the celebrated <i>coup +d'etat</i> of the 2d December, which cleared the way +for Louis Napoleon's ascent of the throne. Numerous +other cables have since been sunk beneath the +waters; complete telegraphic communication has just +been established between England and India, and +will, no doubt, before long be extended to Australia.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> +The greatest enterprise of this kind, however, still +remains unaccomplished—that is, the laying of the +Atlantic cable. A company was started in 1856 to +carry out this great enterprise, the governments of +Great Britain and the United States engaging to assist +them, not only with an annual subsidy of £10,000 +a-year for twenty-five years, but to furnish the men +and ships required for laying the cable from one side +of the Atlantic to the other. The chief difficulty +which engaged the attention of Mr. Wildman Whitehouse +and the other agents of the notable enterprise +was the enormous size of the cable which, it was +thought, would be necessary. The general belief at +that time was, that the greater the distance to be traversed, +the larger must be the wire along which the +electric current was to pass, and that the rate of speed +would be in proportion to the size of the conductor. +Mr. Whitehouse, however, thought it would be as well +to begin by making sure that this was really the +case, and that a monster cable was essential; and +after some three thousand separate observations and +experiments, was delighted to find that the difficulty +which stared them in the face was imaginary. Instead +of a large cable transmitting the current faster +than a small one, he ascertained beyond a doubt, +that the bigger the wire, the slower was the passage +of the electricity. It would be needful, therefore, +to make the cable only strong enough to stand the +strain of its own weight, and heavy enough to sink +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> +to the bottom. A single wire would have been +quite sufficient, but a strand of seven wires of the +finest copper was used for the cable, so that the +fracture of one of them might not interfere with the +communication,—as long as one wire was left intact +the current would proceed. A triple coating of +gutta percha, to keep the sea from sucking out the +electricity, and a thick coating of iron wire, to sink +the cable to the bottom and give it strength, were +added to the copper rope, and then the cable was +complete. No less than 325,000 miles of iron and +copper wire were woven into this great cable,—as +much as might be wound thirteen times round the +globe; and its weight was about a ton per mile. +The length of the cable was 18,947 miles—some +600 miles being allowed to come and go upon, in +case of accidents.</p> + +<p>The end of July 1857 was selected for the sailing +of the ships that were to lay the cable, as fogs and +gales were then out of season, and no icebergs to be +met with. On the 8th of August, the <i>Agamemnon</i> +(English) and <i>Niagara</i> (American), with four smaller +steamers to attend them, and each with half of the +mighty cable in her hold, got up their steam and +left Valentia Harbour. One end of the cable was +carried by a number of boats from the <i>Niagara</i> on +shore, where the Lord-Lieutenant was in waiting +to receive it, and place it in contact with the batteries, +which were arranged in a little tent upon the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> +beach. A slight accident to the cable for a little +while delayed the departure of the ships; but by the +10th they had got 200 miles out to sea, and so far +the cable had been laid successfully. Messages passed +and repassed between the ships and the shore. The +next day the engineer discovering that too much +cable was being paid out, telegraphed to the people +on board to put a greater grip on it; the operation +was clumsily managed, and the cable snapped, sinking +to a depth of 12,000 feet.</p> + +<p>Not disheartened, however, the Company replaced +the lost portion of the cable; the Government again +furnished ships and men, and the cable was actually +laid at the bottom of the Atlantic from Valentia Bay +to Trinity Harbour.</p> + +<p>Addresses of congratulation passed between the +Queen and the President of the States, and numerous +messages were transmitted. But gradually the signals +grew fainter and more faint, till they ceased +altogether. The cable was stricken dumb. A little +to the north of the fiftieth parallel of latitude, at the +bottom of the Atlantic, where the plateau is unbroken +by any great depression, some 1500 miles of the disabled +cable were lying, on a soft bed of mud, which +was constantly thickening, at a depth of from 10,000 +to 15,000 feet.</p> + +<p>The importance of telegraphic communication between +England and the United States was, however, +so obvious that its projectors were not to be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> +daunted by the failure they had sustained. Nor +was it altogether a failure. They had proved that +a cable <i>could</i> be laid, and messages flashed through +it. What was wanted was evidently a stronger +cable, which should be less liable to injury, and more +perfect in its insulation of the telegraphic wires.</p> + +<p>From 1858 to 1864, the Company were engaged +in the difficult task of raising fresh funds, and in +endeavouring to secure grants from the British and +American Governments. Their men of science, +meanwhile, were devising improvements in the form +of cable, and contriving fresh apparatus to facilitate +its submersion. Eventually the Telegraph Construction +and Maintenance Company, an union of +the Gutta Percha Company with the celebrated firm +of Glass and Elliott, constructed an entirely new +cable, which was not only costlier, but thicker and +stronger than the preceding one. The conductor, +three hundred pounds per mile, and one-seventh of +an inch thick, consisted of seven No. 18 copper +wires, each one-twentieth of an inch in thickness. +The core or heart of the cable, says a writer in +"Chambers's Encyclopædia," was formed of four +layers of gutta percha alternating with four of +Chatterton's compound (a solution of gutta percha in +Stockholm tar); the wire and conductor being seven +hundred pounds per mile, and nine-twentieths of +an inch thick. Outside this was a coating of hemp +or jute yarn, saturated with a preservative +com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span>position; +while the sheath consisted of ten iron +wires, each previously covered with five tarred +Manilla yarns. The whole cable was an inch and +one eighth thick, weighed thirty-five and three-quarter +hundredweights per mile, and was strong enough +to endure a breaking strain of seven tons and three-quarters. +During the various processes of manufacture, +the electrical quality of the cable was tested to +an unusual extent. The portions of finished core +were tested by immersion in water at various temperatures; +next submitted to a pressure of six hundred +pounds to the square inch, to imitate the ocean +pressure at so great depth; then the conducting +power of the copper wire was tested by a galvanometer; +and various experiments were also made on +the insulating property of the gutta percha. The +various pieces having been thus severely put to the +proof, they were spliced end to end, and the joints +or splicings tested. In a word, nothing was left +undone that could insure the success or guarantee +the stability of the new cable.</p> + +<p>When completed, the cable measured two thousand +three hundred miles, and weighed upwards of +four thousand tons. It was felt that such a burden +could only be intrusted to Brunel's "big ship," the +<i>Great Eastern</i>. For this purpose three huge iron +tanks were built, in the fore, middle, and aft holds +of the vessel, each from fifty to sixty feet in diameter, +and each twenty and a half feet in depth; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> +and in these the cable was deposited in three vast +coils.</p> + +<p>On the 23rd of July 1865, the <i>Great Eastern</i> left +Valentia, the submarine cable being joined end to +end to a more massive shore cable, which was hauled +up the cliff at Foilhummerum Bay, to a telegraph-house +at the top. The electric condition of the +cable was continually tested during the ship's voyage +across the Atlantic; and more than once its +efficiency was disturbed by fragments of wire piercing +the gutta percha and destroying the insulation. +At length on August 2nd, the cable snapped by +overstraining, and the end sank to the bottom in +two thousand fathoms water, at a distance of one +thousand and sixty-four miles from the Irish coast. +Attempts were made to recover it by dredging. A +five-armed grapnel, suspended to the end of a stout +iron-wire rope five miles long, was flung overboard; +and when it reached the bottom, the <i>Great Eastern</i> +steamed to and fro in the direction where the lost +cable was supposed to be lying; but failure followed +upon failure, and the cable was never once hooked. +There remained nothing to be done but for the <i>Great +Eastern</i> to return to England with the news of her +non-success, and leaving (including the failure of +1857-8) nearly four thousand tons of electric cable +at the bottom of the ocean.</p> + +<p>The promoters of ocean telegraphy, however, were +determined to be resolute to the end. A new +Com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>pany +was formed, new capital was raised, and a +third cable manufactured, differing in some respects +from the former. The outside jacket was made of +hemp instead of jute; the iron wires of the sheath +were galvanized, and the Manilla hemp which +covered them was not tarred. Chiefly through the +absence of the tar, the weight of the cable was +diminished five hundred pounds per mile; while its +strength or breaking strain was increased. A sufficient +quantity of this improved cable was made to +cross the Atlantic, with all due allowance for slack; +and also a sufficient quantity of the 1865 cable to +remedy the disaster of that year.</p> + +<p>On July 13th, 1866, the <i>Great Eastern</i> once +more set forth on her interesting voyage, accompanied +by the steamers <i>Terrible</i>, <i>Medway</i>, and +<i>Albany</i>, to assist in the submersion of the cable, +and to act as auxiliaries whenever needed. The +line of route chosen lay about midway between those +of the 1858 and 1865 cables, but at no great distance +from either. The <i>Great Eastern</i> exchanged +telegrams almost continuously with Valentia as she +steamed towards the American continent; and great +were the congratulations when she safely arrived in +the harbour of Heart's Content, Newfoundland, on +the 27th.</p> + +<p>Operations were next commenced to recover the +end of the 1865 cable, and complete its submergence. +The <i>Albany</i>, <i>Medway</i>, and <i>Terrible</i> were despatched +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> +on the 1st of August, to the point where, "deep +down beneath the darkling waves," the cable was +supposed to be lying, and on the 9th or 10th they +were joined by the <i>Great Eastern</i>, when grappling +was commenced, and carried on through the remainder +of the month. The cable was repeatedly +caught, and raised to a greater or less height from +the ocean bed; but something or other snapped or +slipped every time, and down went the cable again. +At last, after much trial of patience, the end of the +cable was safely fished up on September 1st; and +electric messages were at once sent through to +Valentia, just as well as if the cable had not had +twelve months' soaking in the Atlantic. An additional +length having been spliced to it, the laying +recommenced; and on the 8th the squadron entered +Heart's Content, having thus succeeded in laying a +second line of cable from Ireland to America.</p> + +<p>The two cables, the old and the new, continued +to work very smoothly during the winter of 1866 +and 1867; but in May 1867, the new cable was +damaged by an iceberg, which drifted across it at a +distance of about three miles from the Newfoundland +shore. The injury was soon repaired; but again, in +July 1867, the same cable broke at about fifty miles +from Newfoundland.</p> + +<p>The earlier cable continued to work for several +years, but both cables gave way towards the close of +the autumn of 1870. No special inconvenience was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> +felt, however, as two years ago a French line of +cable was laid down between Europe and America; +the <i>Great Eastern</i> being again employed, and the +operations being conducted under the superintendence +of English electricians. The two British cables +will probably be repaired in the spring of the present +year (1871).</p> + +<p>Submarine cables have multiplied recently, and +almost every ocean flows over the mysterious wires +which flash intelligence beneath the rolling waters +from point to point of the civilized world. By a +telegraph-cable, which is partly submarine, the +India Office in Westminster is united with the +Governor-General and his Council at Calcutta. +There is also communication between Singapore and +Australia, and the network of ocean telegraphy is +being so rapidly extended that, before long, the +British Government in the metropolis will be enabled +to convey its instructions in a few hours to the +administrative authorities in every British colony. +And thus the words which the poet puts into the +mouth of "Puck" will be nearly realized in a sense +the poet never dreamed of—"I'll put a girdle round +about the world in forty minutes."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/footer-218.png" width="300" height="98" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<a name="The_Silk_Manufacture" id="The_Silk_Manufacture"></a> +<img src="images/title-p219.png" alt="The Silk Manufacture." title="" /></h2> + + +<ol class="chapterTOC"> + <li> — JOHN LOMBE.</li> + <li> — WILLIAM LEE.</li> + <li> — JOSEPH MARIE JACQUARD.</li> +</ol> + + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<img src="images/title-p221.png" alt="The Silk Manufacture." title="" /></h2> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="JOHN_LOMBE" id="JOHN_LOMBE"></a>I.—JOHN LOMBE.</h2> + + +<p>In the reign of the Emperor Justinian, a couple of +Persian monks, on a religious mission to China, +brought away with them a quantity of silkworms' +eggs concealed in a piece of hollow cane, which they +carried to Constantinople. There they hatched the +eggs, reared the worms, and spun the silk,—for the +first time introducing that manufacture into Europe, +and destroying the close monopoly which China had +hitherto enjoyed. From Constantinople the knowledge +and the practice of the art gradually extended +to Greece, thence to Italy, and next to Spain. Each +country, as in turn it gained possession of the secret, +strove to preserve it with jealous care; but to little +purpose. A secret that so many thousands already +shared in common, could not long remain so, although +its passage to other countries might be for a time +deferred. France and England were behind most of +the other states of Europe in obtaining a knowledge +of the "craft and mystery." The manufacture of +silk did not take root in France till the reign of +Francis I.; and was hardly known in England till +the persecutions of the Duke of Parma in 1585 +drove a great number of the manufacturers of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> +Antwerp to seek refuge in our land. James I. was +very anxious to promote the breed of silkworms, and +the production of silken fabrics. During his reign a +great many mulberry-trees were planted in various +parts of the country—among others, that celebrated +one in Shakspeare's garden at Stratford-on-Avon—and +an attempt was made to rear the worm in our +country, which, however, the ungenial climate frustrated. +Silk-throwsters, dyers, and weavers were +brought over from the Continent; and the manufacture +made such progress that, by 1629, the silk-throwsters +of London were incorporated, and thirty +years after employed no fewer than 40,000 hands. +The emigration from France consequent on the +revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) added not +only to the numbers engaged in the trade, but +to the taste, skill, and enterprise with which it was +conducted. It is not easy to estimate how deeply +France wounded herself by the iniquitous persecution +of the Protestants, or how largely the emigrants +repaid by their industry the shelter which Britain +afforded them.</p> + +<p>Although the manufacture had now become fairly +naturalized in England, it was restricted by our +ignorance of the first process to which the silk was +subjected. Up till 1718, the whole of the silk used +in England, for whatever purpose, was imported +"thrown," that is, formed into threads of various +kinds and twists. A young Englishman named +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> +John Lombe, impressed with the idea that our +dependence on other countries for a supply of thrown +silk prevented us from reaping the full benefit of the +manufacture, and from competing with foreign +traders, conceived the project of visiting Italy, and +discovering the secret of the operation. He accordingly +went over to Piedmont in 1715, but found +the difficulties greater than he had anticipated. He +applied for admittance at several factories, but was +told that an examination of the machinery was +strictly prohibited. Not to be balked, he resolved, +as a last resort, to try if he could accomplish by +stratagem what he had failed to do openly. Disguising +himself in the dress of a common labourer, +he bribed a couple of the workmen connected with +one of the factories, and with their connivance +obtained access in secret to the works. His visits +were few and short; but he made the best use of his +time. He carefully examined the various parts of the +machinery, ascertained the principle of its operation, +and made himself completely master of the whole +process of throwing. Each night before he went +to bed he noted down everything he had seen, and +drew sketches of parts of the machinery. This plot, +however, was discovered by the Italians. He and +his accomplices had to fly for their lives, and not +without great difficulty escaped to a ship which conveyed +them to England.</p> + +<p>Lombe had not forgotten to carry off with him +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> +his note-book, sketches, and a chest full of machinery, +and on his return home lost no time in practising the +art of "throwing" silk. On a swampy island in the +river Derwent, at Derby, he built a magnificent mill, +yet standing, called the "Old Silk Mill." Its erection +occupied four years, and cost £30,000. It was +five storeys in height, and an eighth of a mile in +length. The grand machine numbered no fewer +than 13,384 wheels. It was said that it could +produce 318,504,960 yards of organzine silk thread +daily; but the estimate is no doubt exaggerated.</p> + +<p>While the mill was building, Lombe, in order to +save time and earn money to carry on the works, +opened a manufactory in the Town Hall of Derby. +His machinery more than fulfilled his expectations, +and enabled him to sell thrown silk at much lower +prices than were charged by the Italians. A thriving +trade was thus established, and England relieved +from all dependence on other countries for "thrown" +silk.</p> + +<p>The Italians conceived a bitter hatred against +Lombe for having broken in upon their monopoly +and diminished their trade. In revenge, therefore, +according to William Hutton, the historian of Derby, +they "determined <i>his</i> destruction, and hoped that of +his works would follow." An Italian woman was +despatched to corrupt her two countrymen who +assisted Lombe in the management of the works. +She obtained employment in the factory, and gained +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> +over one of the Italians to her iniquitous design. +They prepared a slow poison, and administered it in +small doses to Lombe, who, after lingering three or +four years in agony, died at the early age of twenty-nine. +The Italian fled; the woman was seized and +subjected to a close examination, but no definite +proof could be elicited that Lombe had been poisoned. +Lombe was buried in great state, as a mark of respect +on the part of his townsmen. "He was," says +Hutton, "a man of quiet deportment, who had +brought a beneficial manufactory into the place, +employed the poor, and at advanced wages,—and +thus could not fail to meet with respect; and his +melancholy end excited much sympathy."</p> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="WILLIAM_LEE" id="WILLIAM_LEE"></a>II.—WILLIAM LEE.</h2> + + +<p>In the Stocking Weavers' Hall, in Redcross Street, +London, there used to hang a picture, representing a +man in collegiate costume in the act of pointing to +an iron stocking-frame, and addressing a woman +busily knitting with needles by hand. Underneath +the picture appeared the following inscription: "In +the year 1589, the ingenious William Lee, A.M., of +St. John's College, Cambridge, devised this profitable +art for stockings (but, being despised, went to +France), yet of iron to himself, but to us and to +others of gold; in memory of whom this is here +painted." As to who this William Lee was, and +the way in which he came to invent the +stocking-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span>frame, +there are conflicting stories, but the one most +generally received and best authenticated is as follows:—</p> + +<p>William Lee, a native of Woodborough, near Nottingham, +was a fellow of one of the Cambridge Colleges. +He fell in love with a young country lass, married +her, and consequently forfeited his fellowship. A +poor scholar, with much learning, but without money +or the knowledge of any trade, he found himself in +very embarrassed circumstances. Like many another +"poor scholar," he might exclaim:—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"All the arts I have skill in,</span><br /> +<span class="i4">Divine and humane;</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Yet all's not worth a shilling;</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Alas! poor scholar, whither wilt thou go?"</span><br /> +</div></div> + +<p>His wife, however, was a very industrious woman, and +by her knitting contributed to their joint support. It +is said—but the story lacks authentic confirmation—that +when Lee was courting her, she always appeared +so much more occupied with her knitting than with +the soft speeches he was whispering in her ear, that +her lover thought of inventing a machine that would +"facilitate and forward the operation of knitting," and +so leave the object of his love more leisure to converse +with him. "Love, indeed," says Beckmann, +"is fertile in invention, and gave rise, it is said, to the +art of painting; but a machine so complex in its +parts, and so wonderful in its effects, would seem to +require longer and greater reflection, more judgment, +and more time and patience than could be expected +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> +of a lover." But afterwards, when Lee, in his painfully +enforced idleness, sat many a long hour watching +his wife's nimble fingers toiling to support him, +his mind again recurred to the idea of a machine +that would give rest to her weary fingers. His +cogitations resulted in the contrivance of a stocking-frame, +which imitated the movements of the fingers +in knitting.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 363px;"> +<a href="images/fig-p226-1200.png"> +<img src="images/fig-p226-600.png" width="363" height="600" alt="" title="" /> +</a> +<span class="caption">WILLIAM LEE, THE INVENTOR OF THE STOCKING-FRAME.<br /> +<span class="pageref">Page 226.</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Although the invention of this loom gave a great +impulse to the manufacture of silk stockings in +England, and placed our productions in advance of +those of other countries, Lee reaped but little profit +from it. He met with neglect both from Queen +Elizabeth and James I.; and, not succeeding as a +manufacturer on his own account, went to France, +where he did very well until after the assassination +of Henri IV., when he shared the persecutions of the +Protestants, and died in great distress in Paris.</p> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="JOSEPH_MARIE_JACQUARD" id="JOSEPH_MARIE_JACQUARD"></a>III.—JOSEPH MARIE JACQUARD.</h2> + + +<p>Joseph Marie Jacquard, the inventor of the loom +which bears his name, and to whom the extent and +prosperity of the silk manufacture of our time is +mainly due, was born at Lyons in 1752, of humble +parents, both of whom were weavers. His father +taught him to ply the shuttle; but for education of +any other sort, he was left to his own devices. He +managed to pick up some knowledge of reading and +writing for himself; but his favourite occupation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> +was the construction of little models of houses, +towers, articles of furniture, and so on, which he +executed with much taste and accuracy. On being +apprenticed to a type-founder, he exhibited his aptitude +for mechanical contrivances by inventing a +number of improved tools for the use of the workmen. +On his father's death he set up as a manufacturer +of figured fabrics; but although a skilful +workman, he was a bad manager, and the end of the +undertaking was, that he had to sell his looms to pay +his debts. He married, but did not receive the dowry +with his wife which he expected, and to support his +family had to sell the house his father had left him,—the +last remnant of his little heritage. The invention +of numerous ingenious machines for weaving, +type-founding, &c., proved the activity of his genius, +but produced not a farthing for the maintenance of +his wife and child. He took service with a lime-maker +at Brest, while his wife made and sold straw +hats in a little shop at Lyons. He solaced himself +for the drudgery of his labours by spending his +leisure in the study of machines for figure-weaving. +The idea of the beautiful apparatus which he afterwards +perfected began to dawn on him, but for the +time it was driven out of his mind by the stirring +transactions of the time. The whirlwind of the +Revolution was sweeping through the land. Jacquard +ardently embraced the cause of the people, took part +in the gallant defence of Lyons in 1793, fled for his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> +life on the reduction of the city, and with his son—a +lad of sixteen—joined the army of the Rhine. +His boy fell by his side on the field of battle, and +Jacquard, destitute and broken-hearted, returned to +Lyons. His house had been burned down; his wife +was nowhere to be heard of. At length he discovered +her in a miserable garret, earning a bare +subsistence by plaiting straw. For want of other +employment he shared her labours, till Lyons began +to rise from its ruins, to recover its scattered population, +and revive its industry. Jacquard applied +himself with renewed energy to the completion of +the machine of which he had, before the Revolution, +conceived the idea; exhibited it at the National Exposition +of the Products of Industry in 1801; and +obtained a bronze medal and a ten years' patent.</p> + +<p>During the peace of Amiens, Jacquard happened +to take up a newspaper in a <i>cabaret</i> which he frequented, +and his eye fell on a translated extract from +an English journal, stating that a prize was offered +by a society in London for the construction of a +machine for weaving nets. As a mere amusement +he turned his thoughts to the subject, contrived a +number of models, and at last solved the problem. +He made a machine and wove a little net with it. +One day he met a friend who had read the paragraph +from the English paper. Jacquard drew the net +from his pocket saying, "Oh! I've got over the +difficulty! see, there is a net I've made." After that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> +he took no more thought about the matter, and had +quite forgotten it, when he was startled by a summons +to appear at the Prefectal Palace. The prefect received +him very kindly, and expressed his astonishment +that his mechanical genius should so long have +remained in obscurity. Jacquard could not imagine +how the prefect had discovered his mechanical experiments, +and began vaguely to dread that he had +got into some shocking scrape. He stammered out +a sort of apology. The prefect was surprised he +should deny his own talent, and said he had been +informed that he had invented a machine for weaving +nets. Jacquard owned that he had.</p> + +<p>"Well, then, you're the right man, after all," said +the prefect. "I have orders from the emperor to +send the machine to Paris."</p> + +<p>"Yes, but you must give me time to make it," +replied Jacquard.</p> + +<p>In a week or two Jacquard again presented himself +at the palace with his machine and a half manufactured +net. The prefect was eager to see how it +worked.</p> + +<p>"Count the number of loops in that net," said +Jacquard, "and then strike the bar with your foot."</p> + +<p>The prefect did so, and was surprised and delighted +to see another loop added to the number.</p> + +<p>"Capital!" cried he. "I have his majesty's +orders, M. Jacquard, to send you and your machine +to Paris."</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> +"To Paris! How can that be? How can I +leave my business here?"</p> + +<p>"There is no help for it; and not only must you +go to Paris, but you must start at once, without an +hour's delay."</p> + +<p>"If it must be, it must. I will go home and +pack up a little bundle, and tell my wife about my +journey, I shall be ready to start to-morrow."</p> + +<p>"To-morrow won't do; you must go to-day. A +carriage is waiting to take you to Paris; and you +must not go home. I will send to your house for +any things you want, and convey any message to your +wife. I will provide you with money for the journey."</p> + +<p>There was no help for it, so Jacquard got into the +carriage, along with a gendarme who was to take +charge of him, and wondered, all the way to Paris, +what it all meant. On reaching the capital he was +taken before Napoleon, who received him in a very +condescending manner. Carnot, who was also present, +could not at first comprehend the machine, and +turning to the inventor, exclaimed roughly, "What, +do you pretend to do what is beyond the power of +man? Can you tie a knot in a stretched string?" +Jacquard, not at all disconcerted, explained the construction +of his machine so simply and clearly, as to convince +the incredulous minister that it accomplished +what he had hitherto deemed an impossibility.</p> + +<p>Jacquard was now employed in the Conservatory +of Arts and Manufactures to repair and keep in order +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> +the models and machines. At this time a magnificent +shawl was being woven in one of the government +works for the Empress Josephine. Very +costly and complicated machinery was employed, and +nearly £1000 had already been spent on it. It +appeared to Jacquard that the shawl might be +manufactured in a much simpler and less expensive +manner. He thought that the principle of a machine +of Vaucousin's might be applied to the operation, +but found it too complex and slow. He brooded over +the subject, made a great many experiments, and at +last succeeded in contriving an improved apparatus.</p> + +<p>He returned to Lyons to superintend the introduction +of his machine for figure-weaving and the +manufacture of nets. The former invention was +purchased for the use of the people, and was brought +into use very slowly. The weavers of Lyons denounced +Jacquard as the enemy of the people, who +was striving to destroy their trade, and starve themselves +and families, and used every effort to prevent +the introduction of his machine. They wilfully +spoiled their work in order to bring the new process +into discredit. The machine was ordered to be +destroyed in one of the public squares. It was +broken to pieces,—the iron-work was sold for old +metal, and the wood-work for faggots. Jacquard +himself had on one occasion to be rescued from the +hands of a mob who were going to throw him into +the Rhone.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> +Before Jacquard's death in 1835, his apparatus +had not only made its way into every manufactory +in France, but was used in England, Switzerland, +Germany, Italy, and America. Even the Chinese +condescended to avail themselves of this invention of +a "barbarian."</p> + +<p>Jacquard's apparatus is, strictly speaking, not a +loom, but an appendage to one. It is intended to +elevate or depress, by bars, the warp threads for the +reception of the shuttle, the patterns being regulated +by means of bands of punched cards acting on needles +with loops and eyes. At first applied to silk weaving +only, the use of this machine has since been +extended to the bobbin net, carpets, and other fancy +manufactures. By its agency the richest and most +complex designs, which could formerly be achieved +only by the most skilful labourers, with a painful +degree of labour, and at an exorbitant cost, are now +produced with facility by the most ordinary workmen, +and at the most moderate price.</p> + +<p>Of late years the silk manufacture has greatly +improved, both in character and extent. The products +of British looms exhibited at the Great Exhibition +of 1862 vied with those of the Continent. +Every year upwards of £2,300,000 worth of silk is +brought to England; and the silk manufacture +engages some £55,000,000 of capital, and employs +eleven to twelve hundred thousand of our population.</p> + + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<a name="The_Potters_Art" id="The_Potters_Art"></a> +<img src="images/title-p235.png" alt="The Potter's Art." title="" /></h2> + + +<ol class="chapterTOC"> + <li> — LUCA DELLA ROBBIA.</li> + <li> — BERNARD PALISSY.</li> + <li> — JOSIAH WEDGWOOD.</li> +</ol> + + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<img src="images/title-p237.png" alt="The Potter's Art." title="" /></h2> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="LUCA_DELLA_ROBBIA" id="LUCA_DELLA_ROBBIA"></a>I.—LUCA DELLA ROBBIA.</h2> + + +<p>There can be little doubt as to the antiquity of +the pottery manufacture. It probably had its origin +in that of bricks, which at a very early date men +made for purposes of construction; but it is not impossible +that he had previously contrived to fabricate +the commoner articles of domestic economy, such as +pans and dishes, of sun-dried clay.</p> + +<p>Bricks, as everybody knows, are fashioned out of +a coarse clay, such as we meet with in very numerous +localities. After mixing up with water a kind of +paste out of these clayey earths, the moulder works +up the paste into the shape of bricks, and they are +then exposed to the heat of the kiln. Sometimes +it was thought sufficient to dry these bricks in the +rays of a burning sun; but, so dried, their solidity is +very inconsiderable. Baked bricks owe their redness +of colour to the oxide of iron which they contain. +They are either moulded with the hand or +cast in rectangular frames of wood, dusted with sand. +To bake them, they are piled up in huge stacks, in +which intervals are left for storing and kindling the +fuel. They are also baked in kilns.</p> + +<p>The commoner pottery wares are manufactured +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> +with the coarse impure clays, which are allowed to +rot in trenches for several years to render them more +plastic. Flower-pots, sugar-pans, vases, and other +and more graceful articles, are moulded on the +potter's wheel.</p> + +<p>Now, this potter's wheel is one of the most +ancient instruments of human industry, one of the +earliest inventions by which man utilized and economized +his labour. It consists of a large disc of +wood, to which a rotatory motion is given by the +workman's foot. A second and smaller disc, on +which is placed the paste for working, is fixed upon +the upper extremity of the vertical axis to which the +larger and inferior disc is attached. Seated on his +bench, the workman places in the centre of the disc +a certain quantity of soft moist clay, and turning +the wheel with his foot, moulds the said paste with +both hands, until it assumes the desired shape. You +can imagine no prettier spectacle than that of a skilful +potter causing the clay, under his nimble fingers, +to assume the most varied forms. It seems as if by +miracle the vase was created suddenly, and the rude +clay sprang into a life and beauty of its own.</p> + +<p>The Campanian potteries, improperly but commonly +called the Etruscan, and the ancient Greek +wares, belong to the class of soft and lustrous potteries +which are no longer manufactured. The +Etruscan vases are the most remarkable specimens +of the ancient potter's art; pure, simple, and elegant +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> +in form, they cannot be surpassed by any efforts of +the modern potter. The paste of which they are +made is very fine and homogeneous, coated with a +peculiar glassy lustre, which is thin but tenacious, +red or black, and formed of silica rendered fusible +by an alkali. They were baked at a low temperature. +In this ware, which was in vogue between +500 and 320 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, the Aretine and Roman +pottery originated. The former was manufactured +at Arezzo or Arretium.</p> + +<p>The knowledge of glazes, which was acquired by +the Egyptians and Assyrians, seems to have been +handed down to the Persians, Moors, and Arabs. +Fayences, and enamelled bricks and plaques, were +commonly used among them in the twelfth century, +and among the Hindus in the fourteenth. The celebrated +glazed tiles, or <i>azulejos</i>, which contribute so +much to the beauty of the Alhambra, were introduced +into Spain by the Moors about 711 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> In +Italy, it is supposed, they were made known as early +as the conquest of Majorca by the Pisans, in +1115 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> But Brongniart places their introduction +three centuries later, or in 1415, and says this +peculiar kind of ware was called <i>Majolica</i>, from Majorica +or Majorca. This, however, seems to have +been the Italian enamelled fayence, which was used +for subjects in relief by the celebrated Florentine +sculptor, Luca della Robbia.</p> + +<p>Robbia had been bred to the trade of a +goldsmith<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>—in +those days a trade of great distinction and opulence—but +his artistic tastes could not be controlled, +and he abandoned it to become a sculptor. A man of +a singularly enthusiastic and ardent nature, he applied +himself arduously to his new work. He worked +all day with his chisel, and sat up, even through the +night, to study. "Often," says Vasari, "when his +feet were frozen with cold in the night time, he kept +them in a basket of shavings to warm them, that he +might not be compelled to discontinue his drawings." +Such devotion could hardly fail to secure success. +Luca was recognised as one of the first sculptors of the +day, and executed a number of great works in bronze +and marble. On the conclusion of some important +commissions, he was struck with the disproportion +between the payment he received and the time and +labour he had expended; and, abandoning marble +and bronze, resolved to work in clay. Before he +could do that, however, it was necessary to discover +some means of rendering durable the works which +he executed in that material. Applying himself to +the task with characteristic zeal and perseverance, +he at length succeeded in discovering a mode of protecting +such productions from the injuries of time, by +means of a glaze or enamel, which conferred not only +an almost eternal durability, but additional beauty on +his works in terra cotta. At first this enamel was +of a pure white, but he afterwards added the further +invention of colouring it. The fame of these +produc<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span>tions +spread over Europe, and Luca found abundant +and profitable employment during the rest of his +days, the work being carried on, after his death, by +brothers and descendants.</p> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="BERNARD_PALISSY" id="BERNARD_PALISSY"></a>II.—BERNARD PALISSY.</h2> + + +<p>The next great master in the art was Bernard +Palissy,—a man distinguished not only for his +artistic genius, but for his philosophical attainments, +his noble, manly character, and zealous piety. Born +of poor parents about the beginning of the sixteenth +century, Bernard Palissy was taken as apprentice by +a land-surveyor, who had been much struck with the +boy's quickness and ingenuity. Land-surveying, of +course, involved some knowledge of drawing; and thus +a taste for painting was developed. From drawing +lines and diagrams he went on to copy from the +great masters. As this new talent became known +he obtained employment in painting designs on glass. +He received commissions in various parts of the +country, and in his travels employed his mind in the +study of natural objects. He examined the character +of the soils and minerals upon his route, and the +better to grapple with the subject, devoted his attention +to chemistry. At length he settled and married +at Staines, and for a time lived thriftily as a +painter.</p> + +<p>One day he was shown an elegant cup of Italian +manufacture, beautifully enamelled. The art of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> +enamelling was then entirely unknown in France, +and Palissy was at once seized with the idea, that if +he could but discover the secret it would enable him +to place his wife and family in greater comfort. "So, +therefore," he writes, "regardless of the fact that I +had no knowledge of clays, I began to seek for these +enamels as a man gropes in the dark. I reflected +that God had gifted me with some knowledge of +drawing, and I took courage in my heart, and besought +him to give me wisdom and skill."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 388px;"> +<a href="images/fig-p242-1200.png"> +<img src="images/fig-p242-600.png" width="388" height="600" alt="" title="" /> +</a> +<span class="caption">PALISSY THE POTTER.<br /> +<span class="pageref">Page 242.</span></span> +</div> + +<p>He lost no time in commencing his experiments. +He bought a quantity of earthen pots, broke them +into fragments, and covering them with various +chemical compounds, baked them in a little furnace +of his own construction, in the hope of discovering +the white enamel, which he had been told was the +key to all the rest. Again and again he varied the +ingredients of the compositions, the proportions in +which they were mixed, the quality of the clay on +which they were spread, the heat of the furnace to +which they were subjected; but the white enamel +was still as great a mystery as ever. Instead of +discouraging, each new defeat seemed to confirm his +hope of ultimate success and to increase his perseverance. +Painting and surveying he no longer practised, +except when sheer necessity compelled him to resort +to them to provide bread for his family. The discovery +of the enamel had become the great mission +of his life, and to that all other occupations must be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> +sacrificed. "Thus having blundered several times at +great expense and through much trouble, with sorrows +and sighs, I was every day pounding and grinding +new materials and constructing new furnaces, which +cost much money, and consumed my wood and my +time." Two years had passed now in fruitless effort. +Food was becoming scarce in the little household, his +wife worn and shrewish, the children thin and sickly. +But then came the thought to cheer him,—when the +enamel was found his fortune would be made, there +would then be an end to all his privations, anxieties, +and domestic unhappiness, Lisette would live at ease, +and his children lack no comfort. No, the work +must not be given up yet. His own furnace was +clumsy and imperfect,—perhaps his compositions +would turn out better in a regular kiln. So more +pots were bought and broken into fragments, which, +covered with chemical preparations, were fired at a +pottery in the neighbourhood. Batch after batch +was prepared and despatched to the kiln, but all +proved disheartening failures. Still with "great +cost, loss of time, confusion, and sorrow," he persevered, +the wife growing more shrewish, the children +more pinched and haggard. By good luck at this +time came the royal commissioners to establish the +gabelle or tax in the district of Saintonge, and +Palissy was employed to survey the salt marshes. +It was a very profitable job, and Palissy's affairs +began to look more flourishing. But the work was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> +no sooner concluded, than the "will o' the wisp," as +his wife and neighbours held it, was dancing again +before his eyes, and he was back, with redoubled +energy, to his favourite occupation, "diving into the +secret of enamels."</p> + +<p>Two years of unremitting, anxious toil, of grinding +and mixing, of innumerable visits to the kiln, +sanguine of success, with ever new preparations; of +invariable journeys home again, sad and weary, for +the moment utterly discouraged; of domestic bickerings; +of mockery and censure among neighbours, and +still the enamel was a mystery,—still Palissy, seemingly +as far from the end as ever, was eager to prosecute +the search. He appeared to have an inward conviction +that he would succeed; but meanwhile the +remonstrances of his wife, the pale, thin faces of his +bairns, warned him he must desist, and resume the +employments that at least brought food and clothing. +There should be one more trial on a grand scale,—if +that failed, then there should be an end of his +experiments. "God willed," he says, "that when I +had begun to lose my courage, and was gone for the +last time to a glass-furnace, having a man with me +carrying more than three hundred pieces, there was +one among those pieces which was melted within +four hours after it had been placed in the furnace, +which trial turned out white and polished, in a way +that caused me such joy as made me think I was +become a new creature." He rushed home, burst +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> +into his wife's chamber, shouting, "I have found +it!"</p> + +<p>From that moment he was more enthusiastic than +ever in his search. He had discovered the white +enamel. The next thing to be done was to apply it. +He must now work at home and in secret. He set +about moulding vessels of clay after designs of his +own, and baked them in a furnace which he had +built in imitation of the one at the pottery. The +grinding and compounding of the ingredients of the +enamel cost him the labour, day and night, of another +month. Then all was ready for the final process.</p> + +<p>The vessels, coated with the precious mixture, are +ranged in the furnace, the fire is lit and blazes +fiercely. To stint the supply of fuel would be to +cheat himself of a fortune for the sake of a few pence, +so he does not spare wood. All that day he diligently +feeds the fire, nor lets it slacken through the +night. The excitement will not let him sleep even +if he would. The prize he has striven for through +these weary years, for which he has borne mockery +and privation, is now all but within his grasp; in +another hour or two he will have possessed it.</p> + +<p>The grey dawn comes, but still the enamel melts +not. His boy brings him a portion of the scanty +family meal. There shall soon be an end to that +miserable fare! More faggots are cast on the fire. +The night falls, and the sun rises on the third day +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> +of his tending and watching at the furnace door, but +still the powder shows no signs of melting. Pale, +haggard, sick at heart with anxiety and dread, worn +with watching, parched and fevered with the +heat of the fire, through another, and yet another +and another day and night, through six days and six +nights in all, Bernard Palissy watches by the glaring +furnace, feeds it continually with wood, and still +the enamel is unmelted. "Seeing it was not possible +to make the said enamel melt, I was like a man +in desperation; and although quite stupified with +labour, I counselled to myself that in my mixture +there might be some fault. Therefore I began +once more to pound and grind more materials, all +the time without letting my furnace cool. In this +way I had double labour, to pound, grind, and maintain +the fire. I was also forced to go again and +purchase pots in order to prove the said compound, +seeing that I had lost all the vessels which I had +made myself. And having covered the new pieces +with the said enamel, I put them into the furnace, +keeping the fire still at its height."</p> + +<p>By this time it was no easy matter to "keep the +fire at its height." His stock of fuel was exhausted; +he had no money to buy any more, and yet fuel must +be had. On the very eve of success—alas! an eve +that so seldom has a dawn—it would never do to +lose it all for want of wood, not while wood of any +kind was procurable. He rushed into the garden, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> +tore up the palings, the trellis work that supported +the vines, gathered every scrap of wood he could find, +and cast them on the fire. But soon again the deep +red glow of the furnace began to fade, and still it had +not done its work. Suddenly a crashing noise was +heard; his wife, the children clinging to her gown, +rushed in. Palissy had seized the chairs and table, +had torn the door from its hinges, wrenched the +window frames from their sockets, and broken them +in pieces to serve as fuel for the all-devouring fire. +Now he was busy breaking up the very flooring of +the house. And all in vain! The composition would +not melt.</p> + +<p>"I suffered an anguish that I cannot speak, for I +was quite exhausted and dried up by the heat of the +furnace. Further to console me, I was the object of +mockery; even those from whom solace was due, +ran, crying through the town that I was burning +my floors. In this way my credit was taken from +me, and I was regarded as a madman," if not, as he +tells us elsewhere, as one seeking ill-gotten gains, and +sold to the evil one for filthy lucre.</p> + +<p>He made another effort, engaged a potter to assist +him, giving the clothes off his own back to pay him, +and afterwards receiving aid from a friendly neighbour, +and this time proved that his mixture was of the right +kind. But the furnace having been built with mortar +which was full of flints, burst with the heat, and +the splinters adhered to the pottery. Sooner than +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> +allow such imperfect specimens of his art to go forth +to the world, Palissy destroyed them, "although some +would have bought them at a mean price."</p> + +<p>Better days, however, were at hand for himself +and family. His next efforts were successful. An +introduction to the Duke of Montmorency procured +him the patronage of that nobleman, as well as of the +king. He now found profitable employment for +himself and food for his family. "During the space +of fifteen or sixteen years in all," he said afterwards, +"I have blundered on at my business. When I +had learned to guard against one danger, there came +another on which I had not reckoned. All this +caused me such labour and heaviness of spirit, that +before I could render my enamels fusible at the +same degrees of heat, I verily thought I should be at +the door of my sepulchre.... But I have found +nothing better than to observe the counsel of God, +his edicts, statutes, and ordinances; and in regard to +his will, I have seen that he has commanded his followers +to eat bread by the labour of their bodies, +and to multiply their talents which he has committed +to them."</p> + +<p>When the Reformation came, Palissy was an earnest +reformer, on Sunday mornings assembling a +number of simple, unlearned men for religious worship, +and exhorting them to good works. Court +favour exempted him from edicts against Protestants, +but could not shield him from popular prejudice. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> +His workshops at Saintes were destroyed; and to save +his life and preserve the art he had invented, the +king called him to Paris as a servant of his own. +Thus he escaped the massacre of St. Bartholomew. +Besides being a skilful potter, Palissy was a naturalist +of no little eminence. "I have had no other book +than heaven and earth, which are open to all," he +used to say; but he read the wondrous volume well, +while others knew it chiefly at second-hand, and +hence his superiority to most of the naturalists of +the day. He was in the habit of lecturing to the +learned men of the capital on natural history and +chemistry. When more than eighty years of age he +was accused of heresy, and shut up in the Bastille. +The king, visiting him in prison, said, "My good +man, if you do not renounce your views upon religious +matters, I shall be constrained to leave you +in the hands of my enemies." "Sire," replied +Palissy, "those who constrain you, a king, can never +have power over me, because I know how to die." +Palissy died in prison, aged and exhausted, in 1590, +at the age of eighty.</p> + +<p>Before his death his wares had become famous, +and were greatly prized. The enamel, which he +went through so much toil and suffering to discover, +was the foundation of a flourishing national manufacture.</p> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span></div> +<h2><a name="JOSIAH_WEDGWOOD" id="JOSIAH_WEDGWOOD"></a>III.—JOSIAH WEDGWOOD.</h2> + + +<p>Josiah Wedgwood, whose name in connection with +pottery-ware has become a household word amongst +us, was the younger son of a potter at Burslem, in +Staffordshire, who had also a little patch of ground +which he farmed. When Josiah was only eleven +years old, his father died, and he was thus left dependent +upon his elder brother, who employed him +as a "thrower" at his own wheel. An attack of smallpox, +in its most malignant form, soon after endangered +his life, and he survived only by the sacrifice +of his left leg, in which the dregs of the disease had +settled, and which had to be cut off. Weak and +disabled, he was now thrown upon the world to seek +his own fortune. At first it was very uphill work +with him, and he found it no easy matter to provide +even the most frugal fare. He was gifted, however, +with a very fine taste in devising patterns for articles +of earthenware, and found ready custom for plates, +knife-handles, and jugs of fanciful shape. He worked +away industriously himself, and was able by degrees +to employ assistance and enlarge his establishment. +The pottery manufactures of this country were then +in a very primitive condition. Only the coarsest +sort of articles were made, and any attempt to give +elegance to the designs was very rare indeed. All +the more ornamental and finer class of goods came +from the Continent. Wedgwood saw no reason why +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> +we should not emulate foreigners in the beauty of +the forms into which the clay was thrown, and +made a point of sending out of his own shop articles +of as elegant a shape as possible. This feature in +his productions was not overlooked by customers, +and he found a growing demand for them. The +coarseness of the material was, however, a great +drawback to the extension of the trade in native +pottery; and it seemed almost like throwing good +designs away to apply them to such rude wares. +Wedgwood saw clearly that if earthenware was ever +to become a profitable English manufacture, something +must be done to improve the quality of the +clay. He brooded over the subject, tested all the +different sorts of earth in the district, and at length +discovered one, containing silica, which, black in +colour before it went into the oven, came out of it a +pure and beautiful white. This fact ascertained, he +was not long in turning it to practical account, by +mixing flint powder with the red earth of the potteries, +and thus obtaining a material which became +white when exposed to the heat of a furnace. The +next step was to cover this material with a transparent +glaze; and he could then turn out earthenware +as pure in quality as that from the Continent. +This was the foundation not only of his own fortune, +but of a manufacture which has since provided profitable +employment for thousands of his countrymen, +besides placing within the reach of even the humblest +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> +of them good serviceable earthenware for household +use.</p> + +<p>The success of his white stoneware was such, that +he was able to quit the little thatched house he had +formerly occupied, and open shop in larger and more +imposing premises. He increased the number of his +hands, and drove an extensive and growing trade. +He was not content to halt after the discovery of the +white stoneware. On the contrary, the success he +had already attained only impelled him to further +efforts to improve the trade he had taken up, and +which now became quite a passion with him. When +he devoted himself to any particular effort in connection +with it, his first thought was always how to +turn out the very best article that could be made—his +last thought was whether it would pay him or +not. He stuck up for the honour of old England, +and maintained that whatever enterprise could be +achieved, that English skill and enterprise was competent +to do. Although he had never had any education +himself worth speaking of, his natural shrewdness and +keen faculty of observation supplied his deficiencies +in that respect; and when he applied himself, as he +now did, to the study of chemistry, with a view to +the improvement of the pottery art, he made rapid +and substantial progress, and passed muster creditably +even in the company of men of science and +learning. He contributed many valuable communications +to the Royal Society, and invented a +ther<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span>mometer +for measuring the higher degrees of heat +employed in the various arts of pottery.</p> + +<p>Again his premises proved too confined for his +expanding trade, and he removed to a larger establishment, +and there perfected that cream-coloured +ware with which Queen Charlotte was so delighted, +that she ordered a whole service of it, and commanding +that it should be called after her—the Queen's +Ware, and that its inventor should receive the title +of the "Royal Potter."</p> + +<p>A royal potter Wedgwood truly was; the very +king of earthenware manufactures, resolute in his +determination to attain the highest degree of perfection +in his productions, indefatigable in his labours, +and unstinting in his outlay to secure that end. He +invented altogether seven or eight different kinds of +ware; and succeeded in combining the greatest delicacy +and purity of material, and utmost elegance of +design, with strength, durability, and cheapness. +The effect of the improvements he successively introduced +into the manufacture of earthenware is thus +described by a foreign writer about this period: +"Its excellent workmanship, its solidity, the advantage +which it possesses of sustaining the action of +fire, its fine glaze, impenetrable to acids, the beauty +and convenience of its form, and the cheapness of its +price, have given rise to a commerce so active and so +universal, that in travelling from Paris to Petersburg, +from Amsterdam to the furthest port of Sweden, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> +and from Dunkirk to the extremity of the south of +France, one is served at every inn with Wedgwood +ware. Spain, Portugal, and Italy are supplied with +it, and vessels are loaded with it for the East Indies, +the West Indies, and the continent of America." +Wedgwood himself, when examined before a committee +of the House of Commons in 1785, some thirty +years after he had begun his operations, stated that +from providing only casual employment to a small +number of inefficient and badly remunerated workmen, +the manufacture had increased to an extent that +gave direct employment to about twenty thousand +persons, without taking into account the increased +numbers who earned a livelihood by digging coals for +the use of the potteries, by carrying the productions +from one quarter to another, and in many other +ways.</p> + +<p>Wedgwood did not confine himself to the manufacture +of useful articles, though such, of course, formed +the bulk of his trade, but published beautiful imitations +of Egyptian, Greek, and Etruscan vases, copies +of cameos, medallions, tablets, and so on. Valuable +sets of old porcelain were frequently intrusted to +him for imitation, in which he succeeded so well that +it was difficult to tell the original from the counterfeit, +except sometimes from the superior excellence +and beauty of the latter. When the celebrated Barberini +Vase was for sale, Wedgwood, bent upon +making copies of it, made heavy bids against the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> +Duchess of Portland for it; and was only induced to +desist by the promise, that he should have the loan of +it in order that he might copy it. Accordingly, the +duchess had the vase knocked down to her at eighteen +hundred guineas, and Wedgwood made fifty copies +of it, which he sold at fifty guineas each, and was +thus considerably out of pocket by the transaction. +He did it, however, not for the sake of profit, but to +show what an English pottery could accomplish.</p> + +<p>Besides copying from antique objects, Wedgwood +tried to rival them in the taste and elegance of original +productions. He found out Flaxman when he +was an unknown student, and employed him, upon +very liberal terms, to design for him; and thus the +articles of earthenware which he manufactured proved +of the greatest value in the art education of the +people. We owe not a little of the improved taste +and popular appreciation and enjoyment of the fine +arts in our own day to the generous enterprise of +Josiah Wedgwood, and his talented designs.</p> + +<p>In order to secure every access from the potteries +to the eastern and western coasts of the island, +Wedgwood proposed, and, with the aid of others +whom he induced to join him, carried out the Grand +Trunk Canal between the Trent and the Mersey. He +himself constructed a turnpike road ten miles in +length through the potteries, and built a village +for his work-people, which he called Etruria, and +where he established his works. He died there in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> +1795, at the age of sixty-five, leaving a large fortune +and an honoured name, which he had acquired +by his own industry, enterprise, and generosity.</p> + +<p>A remarkable memorial to the genius and artistic +labours of Wedgwood was erected in 1863, and +some reference to it should undoubtedly be made +in these pages.</p> + +<p>It is a twofold memorial: a bronze statue at +Stoke-upon-Trent, and a memorial institute, erected +close to the birth-place of the Great Potter at Burslem. +The foundation-stone was laid on the 26th of October +by the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, M.P., then Chancellor +of the Exchequer, in the presence of a very large +and enthusiastic assemblage. The Chancellor delivered +a public address, which in eloquent terms did +homage to Wedgwood's great mental qualities and +his services to his country.</p> + +<p>He described as his most signal and characteristic +merit, the firmness and fulness of his perception of +the true law of what we term industrial art, or, in +other words, of the application of the higher art to +industry—the law which teaches us to aim first at +giving to every object the greatest possible degree +of fitness and convenience for its purpose, and next +at making it the article of the highest degree of +beauty, which compatibly with that fitness and convenience +it will bear—which does not substitute the +secondary for the primary end, but recognizes as +part of the business the study to harmonize the two.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> +Mr. Gladstone observed, that to have a strong +grasp of this principle, and to work it out to its results +in the details of a vast and varied manufacture, +was a praise high enough for any man, at any time +and in any place. But he thought it was higher +and more peculiar in the case of Wedgwood than it +could be in almost any other case. For that truth +of art which he saw so clearly, and which lies at the +root of excellence, is one of which England, his +country, has not usually had a perception at all corresponding +in strength and fulness with her other +rare endowments. She has long taken a lead among +the European nations for the cheapness of her manufactures, +not so for their beauty. And if the day +should arrive when she shall be as eminent for +purity of taste as she is now for economy of production, +the result will probably be due to no other +single man in so remarkable a degree as to Josiah +Wedgwood.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>We conclude with a lively extract from the Chancellor's +exhaustive and interesting address:—</p> + +<p>"Wedgwood," he says, "in his pursuit of beauty, +did not overlook exchangeable value or practical usefulness. +The first he could not overlook, for he had +to live by his trade; and it was by the profit derived +from the extended sale of his humbler productions +that he was enabled to bear the risks and +charges of his higher works. Commerce did for him +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> +what the King of France did for Sèvres, and the Duke +of Cumberland for Chelsea, it found him in funds. +And I would venture to say that the lower works of +Wedgwood are every whit as much distinguished by +the fineness and accuracy of their adaptation to their +uses as his higher ones by their successful exhibition +of the finest arts. Take, for instance, his common +plates, of the value of, I know not how few, but +certainly of a very few pence each. They fit one +another as closely as cards in a pack. At least, I +for one have never seen plates that fit like the plates +of Wedgwood, and become one solid mass. Such +accuracy of form must, I apprehend, render them +much more safe in carriage....</p> + +<p>"Again, take such a jug as he would manufacture +for the wash-stand table of a garret. I have seen +these made apparently of the commonest material +used in the trade. But instead of being built up, +like the usual and much more fashionable jugs of +modern manufacture, in such a shape that a crane +could not easily get his neck to bend into them, and +the water can hardly be poured out without risk of +spraining the wrist, they are constructed in a simple +capacious form, of flowing curves, broad at the top, +and so well poised that a slight and easy movement +of the hand discharges the water. A round cheese-holder +or dish, again, generally presents in its upper +part a flat space surrounded by a curved rim; but the +cheese-holder of Wedgwood will make itself known +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> +by this—that the flat is so dead a flat, and the +curve so marked and bold a curve; thus at once +furnishing the eye with a line agreeable and well-defined, +and affording the utmost available space for +the cheese. I feel persuaded that a Wiltshire cheese, +if it could speak, would declare itself more comfortable +in a dish of Wedgwood's than in any other +dish."</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>The worthiest successor to Wedgwood whom +England has known was the late Herbert Minton, +who was scarcely less distinguished than his predecessor +for perseverance, patient effort, and artistic +sentiment. We owe to him in a great measure the +revival of the elegant art of manufacturing encaustic +tiles.</p> + +<p>The principal varieties of ceramic ware now in use +are:—1. Porcelain, which is composed, in England, +of sand, calcined bones, china-clay, and potash; and, +at Dresden, of kaolin, felspar, and broken biscuit-porcelain; +2. Parian, which is used in a liquid +state, and poured into plaster-of-paris moulds; +3. Earthenware, the <i>Fayence</i> of the Italians, and the +<i>Delft</i> of the Dutch, made of various kinds of clay, +with a mixture of powdered calcined flint; and, +4. Stoneware, composed of several kinds of plastic +clay, mixed with felspar and sand, and occasionally +a little lime.</p> + +<p>It is estimated that our English potteries not only +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> +supply the demand of the United Kingdom, but export +ware to the value of nearly a million and a +half annually. The establishments are about 190 +in number; employ 75,000 to 80,000 operatives; +and export 90,000,000 pieces.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 180px;"> +<img src="images/footer-260.png" width="180" height="180" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<a name="The_Miners_Safety_Lamp" id="The_Miners_Safety_Lamp"></a> +<img src="images/title-p261.png" alt="The Miner's Safety Lamp." title="" /></h2> + +<ul class="chapterTOC"> + <li>SIR HUMPHREY DAVY.</li> +</ul> + + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<img src="images/title-p263.png" alt="The Miner's Safety Lamp." title="" /></h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="SIR_HUMPHREY_DAVY" id="SIR_HUMPHREY_DAVY"></a>SIR HUMPHREY DAVY.</h2> + + +<p>"What's that? Is the house coming down?" cried +Mr. Borlase, the surgeon-apothecary of Penzance, +jumping out of his cozy arm-chair, as a tremendous +explosion shook the house from top to bottom, making +a great jingle among the gallipots in the shop +below, and rousing him from a comfortable nap.</p> + +<p>"Please, sir," said Betty, the housemaid, putting +her head into the room, "here's that boy Davy been +a-blowing of hisself up agen. Drat him, he's +always up to some trick or other! He'll be the death +of all of us some day, that boy will, as sure as my +name's Betty."</p> + +<p>"Bring him here directly," replied her master, +knitting his brow, and screwing his mild countenance +into an elaborate imitation of that of a judge he once +saw at the assizes, with the black cap on, sentencing +some poor wretch to be hanged. "Really, this sort +of thing won't do at all."</p> + +<p>Only, it must be owned, Mr. Borlase had said that +many times before, and put on the terrible judicial +look too, and yet "that boy Davy" was at his tricks +again as much as ever.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> +"I'll bring as much as I can find of him, sir," +said Betty, gathering up her apron, as if she fully +expected to discover the object of her search in a +fragmentary condition.</p> + +<p>Presently there was heard a shuffling in the passage, +and a somewhat ungainly youth, about sixteen +years of age, was thrust into the room, with the due +complement of legs, arms, and other members, and +only somewhat the grimier about the face for the explosion. +His fingers were all yellow with acids, and +his clothes plentifully variegated with stains from the +same compounds. At first sight he looked rather a +dull, loutish boy, but his sharp, clear eyes somewhat +redeemed his expression on a second glance.</p> + +<p>"Here he is, sir," cried Betty triumphantly, as +though she really had found him in pieces, and took +credit for having put him cleverly together again.</p> + +<p>"Well, Humphrey," said Mr. Borlase, "what have +you been up to now? You'll never rest, I'm afraid, +till you have the house on fire."</p> + +<p>"Oh! if you please, sir, I was only experimenting +in the garret, and there's no harm done."</p> + +<p>"No harm done!" echoed Betty; "and if there +isn't it's no fault of yours, you nasty monkey. I +declare that blow up gave me such a turn you could +ha' knocked me down with a feather, and there's a +smell all over the house enough to pison any one."</p> + +<p>"That'll do, Betty," said her master, finding the +grim judicial countenance rather difficult to keep up, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> +and anxious to pronounce sentence before it quite +wore off. "I'll tell you what it is, young Davy, +this sort of thing won't do at all. I must speak to +Mr. Tonkine about you; and if I catch you at it +again, you'll have to take yourself and your experiments +somewhere else. So I warn you. You had +much better attend to your work. It was only the +other day you gave old Goody Jones a paperful of +cayenne instead of cinnamon; and there's Joe Grimsly, +the beadle, been here half a dozen times this day +for those pills I told you to make up, and they're +not ready yet. So just you take yourself off, mind +your business, and don't let me have any more nonsense, +or it'll be the worse for you."</p> + +<p>And so the culprit gladly backed out of the room, +not a whit abashed by the reprimand, for it was no +novelty, to begin his experiments again and again, +and one day, by way of compensation for keeping +his master's household in constant terror of being +blown up, to make his name familiar as a household +word, by the invention of a little instrument that +would save thousands and thousands from the fearful +consequences of coal-pit explosions.</p> + +<p>The Mr. Tonkine that his master referred to was +the self-constituted protector of the Davy family. +Old Davy had been a carver in the town, and dying, +left his widow in very distressed circumstances, when +this generous friend came forward and took upon +himself the charge of the widow and her children. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> +Young Humphrey, on leaving school, had been placed +with Mr. Borlase to be brought up as an apothecary; +but he was much fonder of rambling about the country, +or experimenting in the garret which he had +constituted his laboratory, than compounding drugs +behind his master's counter. As a boy he was not +particularly smart, although he was distinguished +for the facility with which he gleaned the substance +of any book that happened to take his fancy, and +for an early predilection for poetry. As he grew +up, the ardent, inquisitive turn of his mind displayed +itself more strongly. He was very fond of spending +what leisure time he had in strolling along the rocky +coast searching for sea-drift and minerals, or reading +some favourite book.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"There along the beach he wandered, nourishing a youth sublime,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">With the fairy-tales of science, and the long result of time."</span><br /> +</div></div> + +<p>In after life he used often to tell how when tired +he would sit down on the crags and exercise his +fancy in anticipations of future renown, for already +the ambition of distinguishing himself in his favourite +science had seized him. "I have neither riches, nor +power, nor birth," he wrote in his memorandum-book, +"to recommend me; yet if I live, I trust I +shall not be of less service to mankind and my +friends than if I had been born with all these advantages." +He read a great deal, and though without +much method, managed, in a wonderfully short +time, to master the rudiments of natural philosophy +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> +and chemistry, to say nothing of considerable acquaintance +with botany, anatomy, and geometry; so +that though the pestle and mortar might have a +quieter time of it than suited his master's notions, +Humphrey was busy enough in other ways.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig-p267-1200.png"> +<img src="images/fig-p267-600.png" width="NNN" height="NNN" alt="" title="" /> +</a> +<span class="caption">HUMPHREY'S EXPERIMENTS ON THE DIFFUSION OF HEAT.<br /> +<span class="pageref">Page 267.</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In his walk along the beach, the nature of the air +contained in the bladders of sea-weed was a constant +subject of speculation with him; and he used to sigh +over the limited laboratory at his command, which +prevented him from thoroughly investigating the +matter. But one day, as good luck would have it, +the waves threw up a case of surgical instruments +from some wrecked vessel, somewhat rusty and sand +clogged, but in Davy's ingenious hands capable of +being turned to good account. Out of an old syringe, +which was contained in the case, he managed to construct +a very tolerable air pump; and with an old +shade lamp, and a couple of small metal tubes, he +set himself to work to discover the causes of the +diffusion of heat. At first sight the want of +proper instruments for carrying on his researches +might appear rather a hindrance to his progress +in the paths of scientific discovery; but, in +truth, his subsequent success as an experimentalist +has been very properly attributed, in no +small degree, to that necessity which is the parent +of invention, and which forced him to exercise his +skill and ingenuity in making the most of the +scanty materials at his command. "Had he," +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> +says one of his biographers, "in the commencement +of his career been furnished with all those appliances +which he enjoyed at a later period, it is more than +probable that he might never have acquired that +wonderful tact of manipulation, that ability of suggesting +expedients, and of contriving apparatus, so +as to meet and surmount the difficulties which must +constantly arise during the progress of the philosopher +through the unbeaten track and unexplored +regions of science!"</p> + +<p>While Davy was thus busily engaged qualifying +himself for the distinguished career that awaited +him, Gregory Watt, the son of the celebrated James +Watt, being in delicate health, came to Penzance for +change of air, and lodged with Mrs. Davy. At first +he and Humphrey did not get on very well together, +for the latter had just been reading some metaphysical +works, and was very fond of indulging in crude +and flippant speculations on such subjects, which +rather displeased the shy invalid. But one day +some chance remark of Davy's gave token of his extensive +knowledge of natural history and chemistry, +and thenceforth a close intimacy sprang up between +them, greatly to the lad's advantage, for Watt's +scientific knowledge set him in a more systematic +groove of study, and encouraged him to concentrate +his energies on his favourite pursuit.</p> + +<p>Another useful friend Davy also found in Mr. Gilbert, +afterwards President of the Royal Society. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> +Passing along one day, Mr. Gilbert observed a youth +making strange contortions of face as he hung over +the hutch gate of Borlase's house; and being told by +a companion that he was "the son of Davy the +carver," and very fond of making chemical experiments, +he had a talk with the lad, and discovering +his talents, was ever afterwards his staunch friend +and patron.</p> + +<p>Through his two friends, Mr. Gilbert and Mr. +Watt, Davy formed the acquaintance of Dr. Beddoes, +who was just setting up at Bristol, under the title of +Pneumatic Institution, an establishment for investigating +the medical properties of different gases; and +who, appreciating his abilities, gave him the superintendence +of the new institution.</p> + +<p>Although only twenty years of age at this time, +Davy was well abreast of the science of the day, and +soon applied his vigorous and searching intellect to +several successful investigations. His first scientific +discovery was the detection of siliceous earth in the +outer coating of reeds and grasses. A child was +rubbing two pieces of bonnet cane together, and he +noticed that a faint light was emitted; and on +striking them sharply together, vivid sparks were +produced just as if they had been flint and steel. +The fact that when the outer skin was peeled off +this property was destroyed, showed that it was confined +to the skin, and on subjecting it to analysis +silex was obtained, and still more in reeds and grasses.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> +As superintendent of Dr. Beddoe's institution, his +attention was, of course, chiefly directed to the subject +of gases, and with the enthusiasm of youth, he +applied himself ardently to the investigation of their +elements and effects, attempting several very dangerous +experiments in breathing gases, and more than +once nearly sacrificing his life. In the course of +these experiments he found out the peculiar properties +of nitrous oxide, or, as it has since been +popularly called, "laughing gas," which impels any +one who inhales it to go through some characteristic +action,—a droll fellow to laugh, a dismal one to weep +and sigh, a pugnacious man to fight and wrestle, or a +musical one to sing.</p> + +<p>At twenty-two years of age, such was the reputation +he had acquired, that he got the appointment of +lecturer at the Royal Institution, which was just then +established, and found himself in a little while not +only a man of mark in the scientific, but a "lion" in +the fashionable world. Natural philosophy and +chemistry had begun to attract a good deal of attention +at that time; and Davy's enthusiasm, his clear +and vivid explanations of the mysteries of science, +and the poetry and imagination with which he invested +the dry bones of scientific facts, caught the +popular taste exactly. His lecture-room became a +fashionable lounge, and was crowded with all sorts +of distinguished people. The young lecturer became +quite the rage, and was petted and feted as the lion +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> +of the day. It was only six years back that he was +the druggist's boy in a little country town, alarming +and annoying the household with his indefatigable +experiments. He could hardly have imagined, as one +of his day-dreams at the sea-side, that his fame would +be acquired so quickly.</p> + +<p>In spite of all the flatteries and attentions +which were showered upon him, Davy stuck manfully +to his profession; and if his reputation was +somewhat artificial and exaggerated at the commencement, +he amply earned and consolidated it by +his valuable contributions to science during the rest +of his career.</p> + +<p>The name of Humphrey Davy will always be best +known from its association with the ingenious safety +lamp which he invented, and which well entitles him +to rank as one of the benefactors of mankind. It +was in the year 1815 that Davy first turned his +attention to this subject. Of frequent occurrence +from the very first commencement of coal-mining, +the number of accidents from fire-damp had been +sadly multiplied by the increase of mining operations +consequent on the introduction of the steam engine. +The dreadful character of some of the explosions +which occurred about this time, the appalling number +of lives lost, and the wide-spread desolation in +some of the colliery districts which they had occasioned, +weighed heavily on the minds of all connected with +such matters. Not merely were the feelings of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> +humanity wounded by the terrible and constant +danger to which the intrepid miners were exposed, +but it began to be gravely questioned whether the +high rate of wage which the collier required to pay +him not only for his labour, but for the risk he ran, +would admit of the mines being profitably worked. +It was felt that some strenuous effort must be made +to preserve the miners from their awful foe. Davy +was then in the plenitude of his reputation, and a +committee of coal-owners besought him to investigate +the subject, and if possible provide some +preventative against explosions. Davy at once +went to the north of England, visited a number of +the principal pits, obtained specimens of fire-damp, +analyzed them carefully, and having discovered the +peculiarities of this element of destruction, after +numerous experiments devised the safety-lamp as its +antagonist.</p> + +<p>The principles upon which this contrivance rests, +are the modification of the explosive tendencies of +fire-damp (the inflammable gas in mines) when mixed +with carbonic acid and nitrogen; and the obstacle +presented to the passage of an explosion, if it should +occur, through a hole less than the seventh of an inch +in diameter; and accordingly, while the small oil lamp +in burning itself mixes the surrounding gas with carbonic +acid and nitrogen, the cylinder of wire-gauze +which surrounds it prevents the escape of any explosion. +It is curious that George Stephenson, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> +celebrated engineer, about the same time, hit on +much the same expedient.</p> + +<p>To control a "power that in its tremendous effects +seems to emulate the lightning and the earthquake," +and to enclose it in a net of the most slender texture, +was indeed a grand achievement; and when we +consider the many thousand lives which it has been +the means of saving from a sudden and cruel death, +it must be acknowledged to be one of the noblest +triumphs, not only of science, but of humanity, which +the world has ever seen. Honours were showered +upon Davy, from the miners and coal-owners, from +scientific associations, from crowned heads; but all +must agree with Playfair in thinking that "it is +little that the highest praise, and that even the voice +of national gratitude when most strongly expressed, +can add to the happiness of one who is conscious of +having done such a service to his fellow-men." +Davy himself said he "valued it more than anything +he ever did." When urged by his friends to take +out a patent for the invention, he replied,—"No, I +never thought of such a thing. My sole object was +to serve the cause of humanity, and if I have succeeded, +I am amply rewarded by the gratifying +reflection of having done so."</p> + +<p>The honours of knighthood and baronetage were +successively conferred on Davy as a reward for his +scientific labours; and the esteem of his professional +brethren was shown in his election to the +President-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span>ship +of the Royal Institution, in which, oddly enough, +he was succeeded by his old friend Mr. Gilbert, who +had first taken him by the hand, and whom he had +got ahead of in the race of life.</p> + +<p>Davy died at Geneva before he had completed his +fifty-first year, no doubt from over-exertion and the +unhealthy character of the researches he prosecuted +so recklessly. Assiduous as he was in his devotion +to his favourite science, he found time also +to master several continental languages; to keep +himself well acquainted with, and also to contribute +to the literature of the day; and to indulge his passion +for fly-fishing, at which he was a keen and +practised adept.</p> + +<p>Eminent as were the talents of Sir Humphrey +Davy, and valuable as his discovery of the safety-lamp +has proved, it is but fair to own that his credit +to the latter has been very openly denied. Two +persons of scientific celebrity have been put forward +as the real inventors of the safety-lamp—namely, +Dr. Reid Clanny of Newcastle, and the great railway-engineer, +George Stephenson. Of Clanny's safety-lamp +a description appeared in the <i>Philosophical +Transactions</i> in 1813—that is, ten years before +Sir Humphrey made his communication to the Royal +Society. However, it was a complicated affair, which +required the whole attention of a boy to work it, +and was based on the principle of forcing in air +through water by the agency of bellows.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> +Stephenson's was a very different apparatus. In +its general principle it resembled Davy's, the chief +difference being, that he inserted a glass cylinder +inside the wire-gauze cylinder, and inside the top of +the glass cylinder a perforated metallic chimney—the +supply of air being kept up through a triple +circle of small holes in the bottom.</p> + +<p>Stephenson's claim has, of course, been disputed +by the friends and admirers of Sir Humphrey Davy; +but Mr. Smile has conclusively proved that his lamp, +the "Geordy," was in use at the Killingworth +collieries at the very time that Davy was conducting +the experiments which led to his invention. It is not +to be inferred, however, that Davy knew aught of +what Stephenson had accomplished. It seems to be one +of those rare cases in which two minds, working independently, +and unknown each to the other, have +both arrived simultaneously at the same result.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/footer-275.png" width="300" height="140" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<a name="Penny_Postage" id="Penny_Postage"></a> +<img src="images/title-p277.png" alt="Penny Postage." title="" /></h2> + + +<ul class="chapterTOC"> + <li>SIR ROWLAND HILL.</li> +</ul> + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<img src="images/title-p279.png" alt="Penny Postage." title="" /></h2> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"He comes, the herald of a noisy world,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">News from all nations lumb'ring at his back,—</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Houses in ashes, and the fall of stocks;</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Births, deaths, and marriages; epistles wet</span><br /> +<span class="i0">With tears that trickled down the writer's cheeks</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Fast as the periods of his fluent quill;</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Or charged with am'rous sighs of absent swains,</span><br /> +<span class="i0">Or nymphs responsive."</span><br /> +<span class="smcap ralign">Cowper.</span> +</div></div> + + +<p>The growth of the postal system is a sure measure +of the progress of industry, commerce, education, and +all that goes to make up the sum of civilization; +and there is no more striking illustration to be found +of the strides which our country has made in that +direction since the century began than the introduction +of a cheap and rapid delivery of letters, and +the craving which it has at once satisfied and +augmented. Nothing gives us so forcible an idea +of the difference between the Britain of the +present day and the Britain of the Stuart or even +of the Georgian period, than the contrast between +the postal communication of these times and of our +own. The itch of writing is now so strong in us, +we are so constantly writing or receiving letters, our +appetite for them is so ravenous, that we wonder +how people got on in the days when the postman +was the exclusive messenger of the king, and when +even majesty was so badly served that, as one old +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> +postmaster<a name="FNanchor_D_4" id="FNanchor_D_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_D_4" class="fnanchor">[D]</a> +wrote in self-exculpation of some delay, +"when placards are sent (to order the immediate +forwarding of some state despatches) the constables +many times be fayne to take the horses oute of +plowes and cartes, wherein," he gravely adds, "can +be no extreme diligence." It was a sure sign that +the country was going ahead when Cromwell (1656) +found it worth while to establish posts for the people +at large, and was able to farm out the post office for +£10,000 a year. The profits of that establishment +were doubled by the time the Stuarts returned to +the throne, and more than doubled again before the +close of the seventeenth century. The country has +kept on growing out of system after system, like a +lad out of his clothes, and at different times has had +new ones made to its measure. Brian Tuke's easy +plan of borrowing farmers' horses on which to mount +his emissaries, gave place to regular relays of post-boys +and post-horses; and, in course of time, when +the robbery of the mails by sturdy highwaymen had +become almost the rule, and their safe conveyance +the exception, post-boys were in turn supplanted by +a system of stage-coaches, convoyed by an armed +guard. This was thought a great advance; and so +it was. A pushing, zealous man named Palmer +originated the scheme. Amidst many other avocations, +he found time to travel on the outside of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> +stage-coaches, for the sake of talking with the coachmen +and observing the routes, here, there, and everywhere +all over England, and thus matured all the +details of his plan from personal experience. "None +but an enthusiast," said Sheridan in a rapture of +admiration in the House of Commons, "could have +conceived, none but an enthusiast could have practically +entertained, none but an enthusiast could have +carried out such a system."</p> + +<p>Still, in spite of the exactitude with which Palmer's +scheme was declared to fit the wants of the country, +it soon began to be grown out of like the rest. It +became too short, too tight, too straitened every way, +and impeded the circulation of correspondence,—no +unimportant artery of our national system. The +cost of postage was too high, the mode of delivery +too slow, and the consequence was, that people +either repressed their desire to write letters, or sent +them through some cheaper and illegitimate channel. +Sir Walter Scott knew a man who recollected the mail +from London reaching Edinburgh with only a single +letter. Of all the tens of thousands of the modern +Babylon, only one solitary individual had got anything +to say to anybody in the metropolis of the +sister kingdom worth paying postage for. "We +look back now," writes Miss Martineau, "with a +sort of amazed compassion to the old crusading times, +when warrior-husbands and their wives, grey-headed +parents and their brave sons, parted with the +know<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span>ledge +that it must be months or years before they +could hear of one another's existence. We wonder +how they bore the depth of silence! And we feel +the same now about the families of Polar voyagers. +But, till a dozen years ago, it did not occur to many +of us how like this was the fate of the largest class +in our own country. The fact is, there was no full +and free epistolary intercourse in the country, except +between those who had the command of franks. +There were few families in the wide middle class +who did not feel the cost of postage a heavy item in +their expenditure; and if the young people sent +letters home only once a fortnight, the amount at +the year's end was a rather serious matter. But it +was the vast multitudes of the lower orders who +suffered like the crusading families of old, and the +geographical discoverers of all times. When once +their families parted off from home it was a separation +almost like that of death. The hundreds of +thousands of apprentices, of shopmen, of governesses, +of domestic servants, were cut off from family relations +as if seas or deserts lay between them and +home. If the shilling for each letter could be saved +by the economy of weeks or months at first, the +rarity of correspondence went on to increase the +rarity; new interests hastened the dying out of old +ones; and the ancient domestic affections were but +too apt to wither away, till the wish for intercourse +was gone. The young girl could not ease her heart +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> +by pouring out her cares and difficulties to her mother +before she slept, as she can now, when the penny +and the sheet of paper are the only condition of the +correspondence. The young lad felt that a letter +home was a serious and formal matter, when it must +cost his parents more than any indulgence they ever +thought of for themselves; and the old fun and +light-heartedness were dropped off from such domestic +intercourse as there was. The effect upon the morals +of this kind of restraint is proved beyond a doubt +by the evidence afforded in the army. It was a +well-known fact, that in regiments where the commanding +officer was kind and courteous about franking +letters for the privates, and encouraged them to +write as often as they pleased, the soldiers were more +sober and manly, more virtuous and domestic in +their affections, than where difficulty was made by +the indolence or stiffness of the franking officer."</p> + +<p>Under the costly postal system, the revenue of the +post office did not, as it had hitherto done, and should +have continued to do, keep pace with the progress +of the country. The appetite for communication +between distant friends or men of business was +evidently either decaying, or finding vent in an unlawful +way. The latter was chiefly the case. There +were vast numbers of people separated from each +other by long weary miles, too many to permit of +visits, who could not resist writing to each other,—the +doating parent to the child, the lover to his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> +mistress, the merchant to his agents, the lawyer to +his clients. Those who could not afford postage, +were the very class who could not get franks; for +the principle was, that those who could best afford +postage money should have plenty of franks, which +were, of course, quite out of the way of poor, humble +folks,—the fat sow had his ear well greased, the +lean, starving one had to consume his own fat, +like the bear, or go without. The consequence +was, that those who were eager to write and +could not get letters through the post, found other +means of forwarding them to the evasion of the law. +There was no limit to the exercise of ingenuity in +this direction. Three or four letters were written +on one piece of paper, to be cut up and distributed +separately by one of the recipients; newspapers were +turned into letters by underscoring or pricking with +a pin the letters required to form the various words +of the communication; some peculiarity in the style +of address on the outside was arranged between +correspondents, the sight of which was enough to +indicate a message, and the letter was then rejected, +having served its purpose; and so on, in a hundred +other ways, fraudulent means were found of evading +the law. Some carriers had a large and profitable +business in smuggling letters. In many populous +districts the number of letters conveyed by carriers +at a penny each in an illegal way far exceeded those +sent through the post. In Manchester, for every +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> +letter that went by the postman, six went by the +carrier; and in Glasgow the proportion was as one to +ten. All this was notorious. The most honourable +people saw no great harm in cheating the post to +send a word of comfort or encouragement to an absent +friend,—it was a vice that leaned to virtue's side. But +it was a bad thing for the country that people should +be driven to such devices, in obeying a natural and +proper impulse. The man who began by smuggling +letters, might end by smuggling tobacco or brandy; and +the system was morally pernicious. All felt the evil, +but remedy seemed impossible. As the urgency for +a change grew to a head, the man came to effect it,—a +man "of open heart, who could enter into family +impulses; a man of philosophical ingenuity, who +could devise a remedial scheme; a man of business, +who could fortify such a scheme with impregnable +accuracy"—that man was Rowland Hill.</p> + +<p>When quite a young man, on a pedestrian excursion +through the lake district, Rowland Hill, passing +a cottage door, observed the postman deliver a letter +to a woman, and overheard her, after looking anxiously +at the envelope, and then returning it, say she had +no money to pay the postage. The man was about +to put it back in his wallet and pass on, for it was an +every-day thing for him to receive such a reply from +the poor countryfolk, when Mr. Hill in his goodness +of heart, out of compassion for the woman, stepped +forward and paid the shilling, regardless of many +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> +shakes of the head, and hints of remonstrance from +her, which he interpreted as merely unwillingness to +trespass on a stranger's bounty. As soon as the +postman was out of sight she broke the seal, and +showed him why she did not want him to pay for +the letter. The sheet was a blank, and the envelope +had served as a means of communication between +her and her correspondent. It appeared that she +had arranged with her brother, that as long as all +went well with him he should send a blank sheet in +that way once a quarter, and thus she had tidings +of him without paying the postage.</p> + +<p>As he pursued his walk, Mr. Hill could not help +meditating on the incident, which had made a deep +impression on his mind. He could not blame the +poor woman and her brother for the trick they had +played upon the post office in order to correspond +with each other; and yet he felt there must be something +wrong in a system which put it out of their +reach, and of others similarly circumstanced, to do +so in a lawful manner. Every country post-master +had a budget of touching stories of poor folk who +were tantalized with the sight of a letter from some +dear one, full, perhaps, of kind words and cheering +news, or asking sympathy and condolence in misfortune, +or transmitting money to help them in their +straits; as well as of countless little frauds of the +sort described, which they could not always harden +themselves to circumvent and punish, so piteously +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> +eager did the poor souls appear to be to get word of +their friends. And yet, in spite of all sorts of frauds, +to people in humble life letters came like "angels' +visits, few and far between."</p> + +<p>Mr. Hill asked himself whether there was no means +of lessening the cost of postage, whether the government +could not afford to charge a lower rate, or manage +to get the work done more cheaply? Keeping his ears +and eyes open, always on the alert to pick up a fact as +regarded the present, or a hint for the future, examining +the mode of carriage and delivery, the routes chosen, +and the time occupied, Mr. Hill, after a while, arrived +at the conviction, that the postage rates might not +only be reduced, but that the transmission of letters +might be more quickly performed by a remodelling +of the system. He ascertained that the cost of mere +transit incurred upon a letter sent from London to +Edinburgh, a distance of 400 miles, was not more +than a thirty-sixth part of a penny, and that, therefore, +there was a margin, under the existing charge, +of 11-35/36d. for extra expenses and profit. He observed +that the twopenny posts of London and other large +towns were found to answer very well, although +people, being within easy distances of each other, +did not need so much as in the country to correspond +in writing, and that the carriers, in spite +of the illegality of the traffic, had loads of letters to +deliver at a penny each, and that penny paid them +for their trouble, as well as their risk of detection. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> +He therefore came to the conclusion, that what was +wanted, and what it was quite possible to establish, +was a uniform penny postage rate over the whole of +the United Kingdom. He calculated that if that +were adopted, the number of people then in the +habit of writing letters would write a great many +more than ever; that others, who had been precluded +by the expense from corresponding, would +come into the field; and that hundreds of letters +forwarded illegally would now pass through the post, +so that the number of letters sent by post would be +increased fourfold, and the revenue, at first, perhaps +a trifle curtailed, would soon mount up again.</p> + +<p>The post-office authorities were greatly shocked +and disgusted at so audacious and utopian a proposal. +But the public were greatly delighted with it, only +doubting whether it was not too good news to be +true. First by means of an anonymous pamphlet, +then by direct and personal application to the +government, Mr. Hill endeavoured to get his plans +taken into consideration—no easy matter, for circumlocution +officials had passed from contemptuous +indifference to active hostility, as they gradually +discovered how formidable an antagonist in the +truth and accuracy of his calculations, the sincerity +and earnestness of his purpose, they had to deal +with. It was a great national cause Mr. Hill was +fighting, and he was not to be put down. The +people took his side, Parliament granted an inquiry, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> +and the result was a report in favour of his scheme. +On the 17th of August 1839—why is not the +anniversary kept with rejoicings?—penny postage +became the law of the land.</p> + +<p>During the last weeks of the year a uniform fourpenny +rate was charged by way of accustoming +people to the cheap system, and saving official feelings +from the rude shock of a sudden descent from +the respectable rate of a shilling, to the vulgar one +of a penny. On the 10th January 1840 the penny +system came into force. At first Mr. Hill availed +himself of a suggestion thrown out some years before +by Mr. Charles Knight, that the best way of collecting +the penny postage on newspapers would be to +have stamped covers; but subsequently stamped +envelopes were done away with, and queen's heads +introduced. The franking privilege, of course, died +with the dear postage.</p> + +<p>Upon the adoption of the scheme, Mr. Hill +received an appointment in the post office in order +to superintend its working; but he had an uneasy +berth of it. His plan was adopted only in part,—the +postage rate was lowered, while the other compensating +and essential features were thrown aside; +official jealousy of reform showed itself in various +attempts to thwart his efforts, and to fulfil its prediction +of failure to the scheme. The consequence +was, that the immediate results were not so satisfactory +as could have been wished. The increase in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> +the number of letters was certainly very great. +During the last month of the old system the total +number of letters passing through the post office was +little more than two millions and a half, of which +only a fifth were paid letters; while a twelvemonth +after the introduction of the new system the total +number of letters had risen to nearly six millions +per month, of which the unpaid letters formed less +than a twelfth part. Very heavy expenses, however, +not connected with the new plan, had been incurred; +and the consequence was, that the profits of the +post office were only a fourth of what they had been. +Advantage was taken of this to get Mr. Hill ousted +from his post; but, after he had transferred his +services for some years to the management of the +London and Brighton Railway, the authorities were +glad to receive him back again, to place the remodelling +of the system in his hands, and to allow him to +introduce the other parts of his scheme which had +before been neglected. In this work Mr. Hill was +busily engaged for a number of years, and most of +his plans were gradually carried out with great advantage +to the public. In 1846 a public testimonial +of £13,360 was presented to Mr. Hill in +acknowledgment of his distinguished services to the +country; and at a later date he was made a Knight +of the Bath.</p> + +<p>Cheap postage has now been fairly tried, and +must be pronounced a grand success. It has become +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> +part and parcel of our national life, and has been +found precious as the gift of a new faculty. We +should miss the loss of cheap and rapid correspondence +with our friends and acquaintances almost as +much as the loss of speech or the loss of sight. The +postman has now to find his way to the humblest, +poorest districts, where twenty years back his knock +was never heard; and what was once a rare luxury, +has now come to be considered a common necessary +of life. Instead of only seventy-six millions of +letters passing through the post in a year, as in +1838, the number has risen to between seven and +eight hundred millions. On the average every individual +in England receives twenty-eight letters +a-year (in London the individual average is forty-six), +in Scotland eighteen, and in Ireland nine.</p> + +<p>The gross revenue derived from these sources is +over four millions; and some of the railway companies +each make more money out of the conveyance +of the mails in a year, than the annual revenue of +the whole kingdom in the days of William and +Mary.</p> + +<p>The moral and social effects of the cheap postage +are incalculable. It has tended to strengthen and +perpetuate domestic ties, to bring the most scattered +and distant members of a family under the benign +influences of home, and to foster feelings of friendship +and sympathy between man and man. Upon +the education and intelligence of the people, too, it +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> +has had, concurrently with other causes, a marked +effect. Many who looked upon the art of writing +as only a temptation to forgery, were induced to +take pen in hand and master the science of pot-hooks +and hangers, for the sake of corresponding with their +friends, and of being able to read the letters they +received. In 1839 a third of the men and half of +the women who were married, according to the +registrar's returns, could not sign their own names; +in 1857 that was the case with only a seventh of +the men, and a fifth of the women; and not a little +of this advanced education may be attributed to the +impulse given by the introduction of cheap postage.</p> + +<p>Nor have the advantages derived from the post +office by the great body of the public ended here. +It has shown itself the most progressive department +of the government, and has undertaken many +benevolent branches of work which were never contemplated +by Sir Rowland Hill. Thus it carries on +an extensive savings-bank system, worked out by +Mr. Frank Ives Scudamore, adopted by Mr. Gladstone +when Chancellor of the Exchequer, and established +by Act of Parliament in 1861. This valuable +department, whose operations are now of a very +extensive character, keeps a separate account for every +depositor, acknowledges the receipt, and, on the +requisite notice being furnished, sends out warrants +authorizing post-masters to pay such sums as depositors +may wish to withdraw. The deposits are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> +handed over to the Commissioners for the reduction +of the National Debt, and repaid to the depositors +through the post office. The rate of interest payable +to depositors is two and a half per cent. Each +depositor has his savings-bank book, which is sent +to him yearly for examination, and the increasing +interest calculated and allowed.</p> + +<p>The post office now acts, too, as a life-insurance +society, offering advantages to the operative which +no other society can offer, and which the public are +beginning to appreciate.</p> + +<p>In 1869 the entire telegraphic system of the +United Kingdom passed into the hands of the post +office, whose administrators have shown themselves +anxious to offer increased facilities to the public for +the transaction of business. The number of telegraphic +stations has been greatly increased, and the +rate reduced at which messages are flashed from one +part of the island to the other.</p> + +<p>Finally, a recent innovation, made entirely in the +interest of the public weal, is the introduction of +<i>Halfpenny Post Cards</i>. On one side of these +missives the sender writes the name and address of +his correspondent; on the other, the communication +intended for him. The card already bears a halfpenny +stamp impressed, and nothing more remains +to be done but to deposit it in the nearest office or +pillar-post. We think, then, it may fairly be said +that the post office has shown itself anxious to "keep +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> +abreast" with the ever-increasing wants of the commercial +classes of Great Britain.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>While these pages are passing through the press, +the following particulars, apparently issued under +official direction, have attracted our attention. We +append them here, as they cannot fail to interest the +reader:—"It appears that there are in the United +Kingdom 6 miles 712 yards of <i>pneumatic tubes</i> in +connection with the postal telegraphic system +(1871). Of these, 4 miles 638 yards exist in +London, and 2 miles 74 yards in the provinces—the +latter being confined to Liverpool, Manchester, +Birmingham, and Glasgow. Of the total length of +tubes now existing, only 2 miles 1324 yards +existed prior to the transfer of the telegraphs to the +post office; so that no less than 3 miles 1148 yards +have been laid since that date; or, in other words, +the system has been considerably more than doubled +in less than a year. The total length of new tubes +ordered and in progress exceeds 3 miles, and when +these are completed, the system will be nearly 10 +miles in length. All of the tubes in the provinces, +and all but two of those in London, are worked on +Clark's system. The two which form an exception +are those between Telegraph Street and St. Martin's-le-Grand, +which are worked on Siemens' system. +The former are made of lead, with a diameter varying +from 1-1/4 to 2-1/4 inches—the more frequent size +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> +being 1-1/2 inches. The latter are made of iron, and +have a diameter of 3 inches. The idea of iron tubes +worked on Siemens' principle is derived, we believe, +from Berlin, where the system is entirely of this +description; and of the new tubes in progress, that +from St. Martin's-le-Grand to Temple Bar will be +of this kind. All of the tubes now in existence are +worked in both directions by means of alternate +pressure and vacuum; the motive power, in the +shape of a steam-engine, being stationed at the +central office, with which the out-stations have communication +by this means. It is interesting to note +the difference of time occupied by the different tubes +in London in passing the "carriers" through from +one end to the other—the speed being governed by +the length and diameter of the tube, and by the +circumstance whether it is carried in a straight line, +or has to encounter sharp curves and bends on its +way. The great advantage of this means of communication, +for short distance, over the electric is, +that the tubes are not liable to sudden blocks of +work as the wires are, and that a dozen or more +messages may be sent through, at one blow, if desired. +For local telegraphs in great towns the +pneumatic system is invaluable, and is certain to be +greatly extended under the postal administration.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<p><a name="Footnote_D_4" id="Footnote_D_4"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_D_4"><span class="label">[D]</span></a> +Brian Tuke, master of the post to King Henry VIII.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<a name="The_Overland_Route" id="The_Overland_Route"></a> +<img src="images/title-p297.png" alt="The Overland Route." title="" /></h2> + +<ul class="chapterTOC"> + <li>LIEUTENANT WAGHORN.</li> +</ul> + + + +<hr class="cb" /> +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span></div> +<h2 class="primary"> +<img src="images/title-p299.png" alt="The Overland Route." title="" /></h2> + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h2><a name="LIEUTENANT_WAGHORN" id="LIEUTENANT_WAGHORN"></a>LIEUTENANT WAGHORN.</h2> + + +<p>Worthy to stand on a par with, or at lowest, in the +very next rank to, the men who originate great inventions, +are those whose foresight and energy discover +the means of extending their utility; and in shortening +the journey between Europe and India, by the establishment +of the overland route, Lieutenant Waghorn +practically achieved as great a triumph over time and +space, as if he had invented a machine for the purpose +that would have traversed the old route in the +same time.</p> + +<p>It was in 1827 that Thomas Waghorn first promulgated +the idea of steam communication between +our Eastern possessions and the mother country. He +was then twenty-seven years of age, and had just +returned to Calcutta from rough and arduous service +in the Arracan war. When a midshipman of barely +seventeen, he had passed the "navigation" examination +for lieutenant,—the youngest, it appears, who +ever did so; but although, consequently, eligible for +that rank, he had never reached it up to this time, +in spite of the distinction he had acquired in various +actions. His health had been so much shattered by +a fever caught in Arracan, that he had to return to +England; but he did not leave Calcutta without +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> +communicating his design to the government there, +and obtaining a letter of credence from Lord Combermere +(then vice-president in council) to the East +India Company, recommending him, in consequence +of his meritorious conduct in the recent war, "as a +fit and proper person to open steam navigation with +India, <i>via</i> the Cape of Good Hope."</p> + +<p>The idea, however, was just then in advance of the +time, and all Waghorn's agitation in its favour +proved of no avail. In the meantime, the idea of +saving the time spent in "doubling the Cape," by +means of a route through the Mediterranean, across +the Isthmus of Suez, and down the Red Sea, had +occurred to him; and in 1829 he procured a commission +from the East India Directory to report on +the probability of Red Sea navigation, and at the +same time to convey certain despatches to Sir John +Malcolm, Governor of Bombay.</p> + +<p>He got notice of this mission on the 24th October, +and was desired to be at Suez by the 8th December, +in order to catch the steamer <i>Enterprise</i>, and proceed +in her to India. He took only four days to +make ready for the journey, and on the 28th left +London on the top of the <i>Eagle</i> stage-coach from +Gracechurch Street. Circumstances were anything but +propitious all through this expedition of his; and yet +he defied and disregarded them all. Bridges broke +down at central points, falling avalanches had to be +kept clear of, an accident disabled the steamer, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> +he had to go some hundred and thirty miles out of +his way in consequence. In spite of all that, he +dashed through five kingdoms, and reached Trieste in +nine days, or little more than half the time occupied +by the post-office mails on the same journey. Impatient +of delay, he learned that an Austrian brig had +left for Alexandria the night before, but the breeze +had fallen, and she was still to be caught a glimpse +of from the hill-tops. A fresh posting carriage was +got out, and off he went in chase of the vessel, +hoping to make up to her at Pesano, twenty miles +down the Gulf of Venice. The calm still prevailed; +and as he went dashing along he could catch sight, now +and then, as the carriage passed some open part of +the road and disclosed the sea, of the brig creeping +lazily along. Every hour he gained on her; instead of +a dull, black speck upon the horizon, he began to +make out her hull, her sails, and rigging. He urged +the post-boys with redoubled vehemence—kept them +going at a furious pace. He was within three miles +of the vessel—it was crawling, he was flying—another +half hour would see him safe on board, and then +heigh for India. But stay, surely that was the wind +among the trees; could the breeze have risen? It +had indeed. A strong northerly wind sprang up; +gradually the sails of the brig swelled out before it, +and poor Waghorn, with his panting, jaded horses, +was left far behind. The chase was hopeless now—so +he went back mournfully to Trieste—"exhausted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> +in body with fatigue, and racked by disappointment +after the previous excitement."</p> + +<p>The next ship, a Spanish one, was not to sail for +three days. That was more than Waghorn could +endure; he went to the captain, urged him, bribed +him with fifty dollars to make it two days, instead +of three, and succeeded. In eight and forty hours +he was somewhat consoled for his former discouragement, +to find himself at length at sea. In sixteen +days he was at Alexandria, and after a rest of only +five hours there, hired donkeys and was off to +Rosetta. The donkeys were in the conspiracy +against him, as well as the wind and the avalanches. +The first day they trotted and walked +along as brisk as may be, and our indefatigable +traveller worked them well. It is well known +that the donkey of the east is a paragon of wisdom, +compared with his dunce of a brother in Europe; +and upon a night's reflection, Mr. Waghorn's donkeys +seem to have clearly perceived that he had no notion +of easy stages, and was bent on keeping them going +as fast as he could, and as long as daylight suffered. +So the second day they managed to stumble, and limp, +and fall down intentionally four or five times, and to +put on a pitiful affectation of fatigue and weariness,—a +common dodge, the drivers said, of those knowing +animals.</p> + +<p>Fortunately he was soon able to dispense with the +deceitful donkeys; and embarking on the Nile, under +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span>took +to navigate the boat himself, in order to take +soundings and make observations in regard to the +route. After brief repose at Rosetta, he set out for +Cairo on a <i>cangé</i>, a sort of boat of fifteen tons burthen, +with two large latteen sails. The captain undertook +to land him at Cairo in three days and four +nights; but the boat went aground on a shoal, and +after tacking for five days and nights, Waghorn lost +all patience, and proceeded to his destination upon +donkeys. He crossed the desert from Cairo to Suez +in four days, on two of which he travelled seventy-four +miles. He was thus able to keep his appointment +and be at Suez by the 8th December, but there +was no sign of the steamer. The wind was blowing +right in her teeth; so after waiting two days, with +feverish impatience, Mr. Waghorn determined to sail +down the centre of the Red Sea, in an open boat, in +the hope of meeting the steamer somewhere above +Cossier. All the seamen of the locality held up +their hands at the proposal of the mad Englishman, +and tried to dissuade him. It was the opinion, he +knew, of nautical authorities at the time, that the +Red Sea was not navigable. But he could not rest +quiet at Suez; he had important despatches to +deliver; he was commissioned to inquire into the +navigability of these waters; and out he would go in +an open boat, let folk say what they would, and so +he did.</p> + +<p>"He embarked," says the narrator of his "Life +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> +and Labours," in <i>Household Words</i>,<a name="FNanchor_E_5" id="FNanchor_E_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_E_5" class="fnanchor">[E]</a> "in an open +boat, and without having any personal knowledge of +the navigation of this sea, without chart, without +compass, or even the encouragement of a single precedent +for such an enterprise—his only guide the +sun by day, and the north star by night—he sailed +down the centre of the Red Sea. Of this most interesting +and unprecedented voyage Mr. Waghorn +gives no detailed account. All intermediate things +are abruptly cut off with these very characteristic +words: '<i>Suffice it</i> to say, <i>I arrived</i> at Juddah, +620 miles in six and a half days, in that boat!' You +get nothing more than the sum total. He kept a +sailor's log-journal; but it is only meant for sailors +to read, though now and then you obtain a glimpse +of the sort of work he went through. Thus: +'<i>Sunday, 13th</i>—Strong, N.W. wind, half a gale, +but scudding under storm-sail. Sunset, anchored +for the night. Jaffateen Islands out of sight to the +N. Lost two anchors during the night,' &c. The +rest is equally nautical and technical. In one of the +many scattered papers collected since the death of +Mr. Waghorn, we find a very slight passing allusion +to toils, perils, and privations, which, however, he +calmly says, were 'inseparable from such a voyage +under such circumstances,'—but not one touch of +description from first to last. A more extraordinary +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> +instance of great practical experience and knowledge, +resolutely and fully carrying out a project which +must of necessity have appeared little short of madness +to almost everybody else, was never recorded. +He was perfectly successful, so far as the navigation +was concerned, and in the course he adopted, notwithstanding +that his crew of six Arabs mutinied. +It appears (for he tells us only the bare fact) they +were only subdued on the principle known to philosophers +in theory, and to high-couraged men, accustomed +to command, by experience,—namely, that +the one man who is braver, stronger, and firmer than +any individual of ten or twenty men, is more than a +match for the ten or twenty put together. He +touched at Cossier on the 14th, not having fallen in +with the <i>Enterprise</i>. There he was told by the +governor that the steamer was expected every hour. +Mr. Waghorn was in no state of mind to wait very +long; so, finding she did not arrive, he again put to +sea in his open boat, resolved, if he did not fall in +with her, to proceed the entire distance to Juddah—a +distance of 400 miles further. Of this further +voyage he does not leave any record, even in his log, +beyond the simple declaration that he 'embarked +for Juddah—ran the distance in three days and +twenty-one hours and a quarter—and on the 23d +anchored his boat close to one of the East India +Company's cruisers, the <i>Benares</i>.' But now comes +the most trying part of his whole +undertaking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span>—the +part which a man of his vigorously constituted +impulses was least able to bear as the climax of his +prolonged and arduous efforts, privations, anxieties, +and fatigue. Repairing on board the <i>Benares</i> to +learn the news, the captain informed him that, in +consequence of being found in a defective state on +her arrival at Bombay, 'the <i>Enterprise</i> was not +coming at all.' This intelligence seems to have +felled him like a blow, and he was immediately +seized with a delirious fever. The captain and +officers of the <i>Benares</i> felt great sympathy and interest +in this sad result of so many extraordinary +efforts, and detaining him on board, bestowed every +attention on his malady."</p> + +<p>It was six weeks before he could proceed by +sailing vessel to Bombay, where he arrived on the +21st March, having, in spite of all the drawbacks in +his way, accomplished the journey in four months and +twenty-one days—quite an extraordinary rapidity +at that time. Had he escaped the fever at Juddah, +and fallen in with the <i>Enterprise</i> at the right time, +nearly two months might have been saved.</p> + +<p>He had proved the practicability of the overland +route, and he now devoted himself to its establishment. +In an address to the Home Government and +the East India Company, he thus expresses his +views:—</p> + +<p>"Of myself, I trust I may be excused when I say, +that the highest object of my ambition has ever +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> +been an extensive usefulness; and my line of life—my +turn of mind—my disposition, long ago impelled +me to give all my leisure, and all my opportunities +of observation, to the introduction of steam-vessels, +and permanently establishing them as the means of +communication between India and England including +all the colonies on the route. The vast importance +of three months' earlier information to his Majesty's +government, and to the Honourable Company,—whether +relative to a war or a peace—to abundant +or to short crops—to the sickness or convalescence +of a colony or district, and oftentimes even of an +individual; the advantages to the merchant, by enabling +him to regulate his supplies and orders +according to circumstances and demands; the +anxieties of the thousands of my countrymen in +India for accounts, and further accounts, of their parents, +children, and friends at home; the corresponding +anxieties of those relatives and friends in this +country;—in a word, the speediest possible transit of +letters to the tens of thousands who at all times in +solicitude await them, was, to my mind, a service of +the greatest general importance; and it shall not be +my fault if I do not, and for ever establish it."</p> + +<p>The scheme which he thus resolutely and enthusiastically +declared his adoption of, he lived to carry +out, but at the cost of years of weary advocacy, +agitation for help, desperate attempts on his own +account, or in conjunction with a few enterprising +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> +associates, in the teeth of constant discouragement, +official indifference, jealousy, and disguised hostility. +The East India Company told him there was no +need of steam navigation to the East at all, ordered +him to mind his own business and return to field +service, circulated reports of his insanity through +their agents in Egypt when Waghorn went there to +enlist the Pasha in his cause. The overland route, +however, was no theory, but an undoubted fact. +Waghorn never for a moment relaxed his grasp of it, +or doubted its value; and in the end, after unheard +of difficulties, disappointments, and opposition, into +the long, painful story of which we need not enter, +succeeded in establishing the overland route. When +he left Egypt in 1841, he had provided English +carriages, vans, and horses, for the conveyance of +passengers across the desert, placed small steamers on +the Nile and Alexandrian Canal, and built the eight +halting-places on the desert between Cairo and +Suez. He also set up the three hotels in the same +quarter "in which every comfort, and even some +luxuries, were provided and stored for the passing +traveller,—among which should be mentioned iron +tanks with good water, ranged in cellars beneath;—and +all this in a region which was previously a +waste of arid sands and scorching gravel, beset with +wandering robbers and their camels. These wandering +robbers he converted into faithful guides, as they +are now found to be by every traveller; and even +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> +ladies with their infants are enabled to cross and re-cross +the desert with as much security as if they +were in Europe."</p> + +<p>In acknowledgment of his services, Mr. Waghorn +received the rank of lieutenant in the Royal Navy, +a grant of £1500, and an annuity of £200 a-year +from Government, and another annuity of £200 from +the East India Company; but he did not live long +to enjoy his well-earned rewards. The care, and +anxiety, and fatigue he had undergone had shattered +his constitution. Through some misunderstanding +or mismanagement on the part of the East India +Company, rivals were allowed to step in and carry +off the chief profits of the overland system, and his +last years were embittered by various disputes with +the authorities. He died in the end of 1849, by +years only in the prime of life; but old, and worn +by his labours before his time. Such was the +career of the "pioneer of the Overland Route."</p> + +<p>But in connection with England's route to India, +the name of Monsieur de Lesseps must never be forgotten, +nor the great enterprise which, at so much +cost, and in spite of so many obstacles, he successfully +carried out—the Suez Canal. When he first +projected it he met with most of the obstacles which +are thrown in the way of great inventions. England, +jealous of a scheme which seemed likely to throw +into the hands of a foreign power the nearest route +to her beloved India, stood sullenly aloof, and refused +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> +to contribute moral or pecuniary support; while +some of the most eminent English and foreign +engineers openly declared that it could never be +carried out. M. de Lesseps, however, was one of +those men who, when they have seized a great idea, +can never be thrown off it. It had taken full possession +of his imagination, judgment, and intellect! +he felt that it <i>could</i>, and he determined that it +<i>should</i> be realized. He conquered every difficulty: +he raised funds; he secured the support of his own +government; and in 1856 he obtained from the +Pasha of Egypt the exclusive privilege of constructing +a ship-canal from Tyneh, near the ruins of the +ancient Pelusium, to Suez.</p> + +<p>M. de Lesseps determined that his canal should be +cut in a straight line, with an average width of +330 feet, and at an uniform depth of 20 feet under +low-water mark, while at each end was to be constructed +a sluice-lock, 330 feet long by 70 wide. +Further, at each end he proposed to execute a magnificent +harbour; that at the Mediterranean end was +to be extended five miles into the sea, so as to +obtain a permanent depth of water for a ship drawing +twenty-three feet, on account of the enormous +quantity of mud annually silted up by the Nile; +that at the Red Sea end was to be three miles long.</p> + +<p>In 1865 the great canal was begun. The +Mediterranean entrance is at Port Said, about the +middle of the narrow neck of land between Lake +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> +Menzaleh and the sea, in the eastern part of the +Delta. Thence it is carried for about twenty miles +across Menzaleh Lake, being 112 yards wide at the +surface, 26 yards at the bottom, and 26 feet deep. +On each side an artificial bank rises some 15 feet +high. The distance thence to Abu Ballah Lake is +11 miles, through ground which varies from 15 to +30 feet above the level of the sea. This lake being +traversed, there is land again—a troublesome and +shifty soil—to Timsah Lake, the canal being cut at +a depth below the sea-level of 50 to 100 feet. On +the shore of Timsah Lake has risen a new and busy +town, the central point of the canal, and named +Ismailia, in honour of the present Pasha of Egypt.</p> + +<p>A space of eight miles intervenes between the +Timsah Lake and the Bitter Lakes, and in this +space the cuttings are very deep and difficult. The +soil being almost purely sand, the constant labour +of powerful dredging machines is constantly required, +to prevent the channel from filling up. The deepest +cutting occurs at El Guisr, or Girsch, and is no less +than 85 feet below the surface: at the water-level +it is 112 yards wide, at the summit-level 173 yards. +In traversing the Bitter Lakes the course of the canal +is marked by embankments. From the southern +end of these lakes to Suez, a distance of about thirteen +miles, the cuttings are heavy and deep.</p> + +<p>After many discouraging failures, M. de Lesseps' +great work was completed last year, and the formal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> +opening of the canal took place in the presence of +the Prince and Princess of Wales, and a goodly +number of princes, potentates, and distinguished +personages. It is now open to navigation from end +to end, and ships of considerable tonnage have successfully +accomplished the passage. Whether the +canal is a <i>commercial</i> success may still be doubted. +The cost of further deepening and enlarging it, and +of maintaining its banks and harbours, amounts to a +sum which, as yet, the traffic charges are not at all +likely to defray. But, in an engineering sense, the +Suez Canal is one of the wonders of this wonderful +nineteenth century.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/footer-312.png" width="150" height="150" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<p><a name="Footnote_E_5" id="Footnote_E_5"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_E_5"><span class="label">[E]</span></a> +August 17, 1850.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="cb" /> + +<div class="ads"> +<h3> +<img src="images/title-ads1.png" alt="Beautifully Illustrated Works." title="" /></h3> + + +<p class="adscap">EARTH AND SEA. From the French of <span class="smcap">Louis Figuier</span>. +Translated, Edited, and Enlarged by <span class="smcap">W. H. Davenport Adams</span>, Illustrated +with Two Hundred and Fifty Engravings by <span class="smcap">Freeman, Giacomelli, +Yan D'Argent, Prior, Foulquier, Riou, Laplante</span>, and other Artists. +Imperial 8vo. Handsomely bound in cloth and gold. Price 15s.</p> + +<p>This volume is founded upon M. Figuier's "<i>La Terre et Les Mers</i>," but so +many additions have been made to the original, and its aim and scope have been +so largely extended, that it may almost be called a new work. These additions +and this extension were deemed necessary by the Editor, in order to render it +more suitable for the British public, and in order to bring it up to the standard +of geographical knowledge.</p> + + +<p class="adscap">THE DESERT WORLD. From the French of <span class="smcap">Arthur Mangin</span>. +Translated, Edited, and Enlarged by the Translator of "The Bird," by +Michelet. With One Hundred and Sixty Illustrations by <span class="smcap">W. Freeman, Foulquier</span>, +and <span class="smcap">Yan D'Argent</span>. Imperial 8vo, full gilt side and gilt edges. +Price 12s. 6d.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Saturday Review.</span>—"<i>The illustrations are numerous, and extremely well +cut. Two handsomer and more readable volumes than this and 'The Mysteries of +the Ocean' it would be difficult to produce.</i>"</p></div> + + +<p class="adscap">THE MYSTERIES OF THE OCEAN. From the French of +<span class="smcap">Arthur Mangin</span>. By the Translator of "The Bird." With One Hundred +and Thirty Illustrations by <span class="smcap">W. Freeman</span> and <span class="smcap">J. Noel</span>. Imperial 8vo, +full gilt side and gilt edges. Price 10s. 6d.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Pall Mall Gazette.</span>—"<i>Science walks to-day in her silver slippers. We have +here another sumptuously produced popular manual from France. It is an account, +complete in extent and tolerably full in detail, of the Sea. It is eminently +readable.... The illustrations are altogether excellent; and the production of +such a book proves at least that there are very many persons who can be calculated +on for desiring to know something of physical science.</i>"</p></div> + + +<p class="adscap">THE BIRD. By <span class="smcap">Jules Michelet</span>, Author of "History of France," +&c. Illustrated by Two Hundred and Ten Exquisite Engravings by +<span class="smcap">Giacomelli</span>. Imperial 8vo, full gilt side and gilt edges. Price 10s. 6d.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Westminster Review.</span>—"<i>This work consists of an exposition of various +ornithological matters from points of view which could hardly be thought of, except +by a writer of Michelet's peculiar genius. With his argument in favour of +the preservation of our small birds we heartily concur. The translation seems +to be generally well executed; and in the matter of paper and printing, the book +is almost an </i>ouvrage de luxe.<i> The illustrations are generally very beautiful.</i>"</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Art Journal.</span>—"<i>It is a charming book to read, and a most valuable +volume to think over.... It was a wise, and we cannot doubt it will be a profitable, +duty to publish it here, where it must take a place second only to that it occupies +in the language in which it was written.... Certainly natural history +has never, in our opinion, been more exquisitely illustrated by wood-engraving +than in the whole of these designs by M. Giacomelli, who has treated the subject +with rare delicacy of pencil and the most charming poetical feeling—a feeling perfectly +in harmony with the written descriptions of M. Michelet himself.</i>"</p></div> + + + +<hr class="cb" /> + +<h3>THE "SCHÖNBERG-COTTA" SERIES OF BOOKS.</h3> + +<p class="center"><i>In Cloth Binding, 6s. 6d. each; in Morocco, 12s. each.</i></p> + + +<p class="adscap">CHRONICLES OF THE SCHÖNBERG-COTTA FAMILY.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">The Times.</span>—"<i>We are confident that most women will read it with keen +pleasure, and that those men who take it up will not easily lay it down without +confessing that they have gained some pure and ennobling thoughts from the +perusal.</i>"</p></div> + + +<p class="adscap">DIARY OF MRS. KITTY TREVYLYAN: A Story of the +Times of Whitefield and the Wesleys.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Glasgow Citizen.</span>—"<i>The various characters are well discriminated, and the +story flows on naturally and pleasantly to the end.</i>"</p></div> + + +<p class="adscap">THE DRAYTONS AND THE DAVENANTS: A Story of the +Civil Wars.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Daily Review.</span>—"<i>It is the most interesting of all the authoress' productions.</i>"</p></div> + + +<p class="adscap">ON BOTH SIDES OF THE SEA: A Story of the Commonwealth +and the Restoration.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Athenæum.</span>—"<i>A good deal of ingenuity has been employed for the purpose of +grouping together many of the well-known characters of that day; and in spite +of the general gravity of the narrative, there is evidence of a considerable sense of +quiet humour both in the characters and in the language employed.</i>"</p></div> + + +<p class="adscap">WINIFRED BERTRAM, AND THE WORLD SHE LIVED IN.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Eclectic.</span>—"<i>Very acceptable to many thousands, and only needing to be mentioned +to be sought for and read.</i>"</p></div> + + +<p class="adscap">THE MARTYRS OF SPAIN AND THE LIBERATORS OF +HOLLAND; or, The Story of the Sisters Dolores and Costanza Cazalla.</p> + + +<p class="adscap">SKETCHES OF CHRISTIAN LIFE IN ENGLAND IN THE +OLDEN TIME.</p> + + +<p class="adscap">DIARY OF BROTHER BARTHOLOMEW, WITH OTHER +TALES AND SKETCHES OF CHRISTIAN LIFE IN DIFFERENT +LANDS AND AGES.</p> + + +<p class="adscap">WANDERINGS OVER BIBLE LANDS AND SEAS. With a +Photograph, and other Illustrations.</p> + + +<p class="adscap">WATCHWORDS FOR THE WARFARE OF LIFE (From the +Writings of Luther). Translated and Arranged by the Author of "The +Schönberg-Cotta Family."</p> + + +<p class="adscap">POEMS. By the Author of "Chronicles of the Schönberg-Cotta +Family." <span class="smcap">Contents</span>:—The Women of the Gospels—The Three Wakings—Songs +and Hymns—Memorial Verses. Crown 8vo, gilt edges.</p> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h3>VALUABLE WORKS.</h3> + + +<p class="center">BY THE REV. J. C. RYLE, B.A.</p> + +<p class="adscap">THE CHRISTIAN LEADERS OF THE LAST CENTURY; +or, England a Hundred Years Ago. By the Rev. <span class="smcap">J. C. Ryle</span>, B.A., Christ +Church, Oxford, Author of "Expository Thoughts," &c. Crown 8vo, cloth. +Price 7s. 6d.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Pall Mall Gazette.</span>—"<i>Mr. Ryle has evidently a complete acquaintance +with his subject, such as a mere critical historian would never be likely to acquire; +and we believe there is no book existing which contains nearly the same amount +of information upon it.</i>"</p></div> + + +<p class="center">BY THE REV. WILLIAM ARNOT.</p> + +<p class="adscap">LAWS FROM HEAVEN FOR LIFE ON EARTH—<span class="smcap">Illustrations +of the Book of Proverbs</span>. New Edition. Complete in One +Volume. Crown 8vo, cloth. Price 7s. 6d.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Family Treasury.</span>—"<i>A noble volume by one of the freshest and most vigorous +writers of the present day."</i></p></div> + +<p class="adscap">THE PARABLES OF OUR LORD. Crown 8vo, cloth antique. +Price 7s. 6d.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Rev. James Hamilton, D.D.</span>—"<i>The best family book on the Parables.</i>"</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spurgeon.</span>—"<i>Mr. Arnot is the fittest man living to expound the Parables, for +he is himself a great master of metaphorical teaching. In the valuable work before +us there is, as is usual with the author, much striking originality, and much +unparaded learning. The first will make it popular, the second will commend +it to the thoughtful. Many writers have done well upon this subject, but in +some respects, as far as space would permit him, our friend excels them all. +'The Parables' will be a fit companion to 'The Proverbs,' and both books will be +immortal.</i>"</p></div> + + +<p class="center">BY THE REV. A. A. HODGE, D.D.</p> + +<p class="adscap">OUTLINES OF THEOLOGY. Edited by the Rev. <span class="smcap">W. H. +Goold</span>, D.D., Professor of Biblical Literature and Church History, Edinburgh. +Crown 8vo. Price 6s. 6d.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Spurgeon.</span>—"<i>We can best show our appreciation of this able Body of Divinity +by mentioning that we have used it in our college with much satisfaction both to +tutor and students. We intend to make it a class-book, and urge all young men +who are anxious to become good theologians to master it thoroughly. Of course +we do not endorse the chapter on baptism. To a few of the Doctor's opinions in +other parts we might object, but as a Hand-book of Theology, in our judgment, it +is like Goliath's sword—'there is none like it.'</i>"</p></div> + +<p class="adscap">THE ATONEMENT. Edited by the Rev. W. H. Goold, D.D., +Crown 8vo. Price 5s.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Extract from Letter by the Author to the Editor of this Edition.</span>—"<i>This +work has been written with a view to meet the rationalistic speculations of +the present day as to the nature of sin, the extent of human depravity and moral +ability, the nature of our connection with Adam, the nature and extent of the +Atonement, &c. &c. So much has been written that is positively false, or fatally +defective, by Maurice, Jowett, Bushnell, and others, that it appeared high time +that those who love the truth should rouse themselves to do what they can to defend +and exalt it.</i>"</p></div> + + +<p class="center">BY THE REV. ISLAY BURNS, D.D.</p> + +<p class="adscap">HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF CHRIST: With a Special +View to the Delineation of Christian Faith and Life. With Notes, Chronological +Tables, Lists of Councils, Examination Questions, and other Illustrative +Matter. (From <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1 to <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 313.) Crown 8vo, cloth antique. Price 5s.</p> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h3> +<img src="images/title-ads2.png" alt="Beautifully Illustrated Books for the Young." title="" /></h3> + + +<p class="adscap">THE SWISS FAMILY ROBINSON; or, Adventures of a Shipwrecked +Family on a Desolate Island. A New and Unabridged Translation. +With an Introduction from the French of <span class="smcap">Charles Nodier</span>. Illustrated +with upwards of Three Hundred Engravings. Crown 8vo, cloth extra. Price 6s.</p> + +<p>This is a new and <i>unabridged translation</i> of a work which has acquired a +great and well-merited popularity from its happy combination of instruction +and amusement, of the interest of romance with the discoveries of science.</p> + + +<p class="adscap">PAUL AND VIRGINIA. From the French of <span class="smcap">Bernardin de +Saint-Pierre</span>. An Entirely New Translation, with Botanical Notes, and +upwards of Ninety Engravings. Crown 8vo, cloth extra, gilt edges. Price 4s.</p> + + +<p class="adscap">THE WORLD AT HOME: Pictures and Scenes from Far-off +Lands. By <span class="smcap">Mary</span> and <span class="smcap">Elizabeth Kirby</span>. With upwards of One Hundred +and Thirty Illustrations. Square 8vo. Cloth, richly gilt. Price 6s.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">The Times.</span>—"<i>An admirable collection of adventures and incidents in foreign +lands, gleaned largely from foreign sources, and excellently illustrated.</i>"</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">British Quarterly Review.</span>—"<i>A very charming book; one of the best +popular wonder-books for young people that we have seen. In language of singular +simplicity, and with a very profuse use of very effective woodcuts, the distinctive +features of far-off lands—their natural history, the manners and customs of +their inhabitants, their physical phenomena, &c.—are brought home to the fireside +in a way to entrance alike the children of five or six years old, and the older +folk who instruct them. No better book has appeared this season.</i>"</p></div> + + +<p class="center">BOOK FOR BOYS—ILLUSTRATED BY GUSTAVE DORÉ.</p> + +<p class="adscap">GEOFFREY THE KNIGHT. A Tale of Chivalry of the Days +of King Arthur. With Twenty Full-page Engravings by <span class="smcap">Gustave Doré</span>. +Post 8vo, cloth extra, gilt edges. Price 4s.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">The Scotsman.</span>—"<i>'Geoffrey the Knight' appears now in perhaps the most +attractive form it has yet assumed. Printed in the best style, it is still further +enriched by a number of admirable engravings by Gustave Doré, illustrating all +the most thrilling adventures related.</i>"</p></div> + + +<p class="adscap">CATS AND DOGS; or, Notes and Anecdotes of Two Great +Families of the Animal Kingdom. By Mrs. <span class="smcap">Hugh Miller</span>. New Edition. +With upwards of Forty Engravings. Crown 8vo, cloth extra, gilt edges. Price +3s. 6d.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">The Times.</span>—"<i>A full and well-written account of both the feline and the +canine species. It is filled with spirited engravings, many of which, giving pictures +of tiger and lion hunting, will have special attractions for the Gordon +Cummings and Gerrards and Livingstones of the future, who are now in our +school-rooms.</i>"</p></div> + + +<p class="center">NEW GIFT-BOOK FOR BOYS.</p> + +<p class="adscap">THE PLAYGROUND AND THE PARLOUR. A Hand-Book +of Boys' Games, Sports, and Amusements. By <span class="smcap">Alfred Elliott</span>. With +One Hundred Illustrations. Post 8vo. Price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Illustrated Times.</span>—"<i>We have not for some time seen any Book of Sports +better got up or more carefully compiled than this.</i>"</p></div> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h3>BOOKS FOR BOYS.</h3> + + +<p class="adscap">THE FOREST, THE JUNGLE, AND THE PRAIRIE; or, +Scenes with the Trapper and the Hunter in Many Lands. By <span class="smcap">Alfred +Elliott</span>. With Thirty Engravings. Post 8vo, cloth extra, gilt edges. Price 5s.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Daily News.</span>—"<i>An excellent volume, in which lessons in zoology are communicated +whilst the reader accompanies the hunter in the jungles of India, the +lairs of Africa, the prairies of America, and the plains of Ceylon.</i>"</p></div> + + +<p class="center">BY R. M. BALLANTYNE.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>New and Cheaper Editions.</i></p> + +<p class="adscap">THE YOUNG FUR-TRADERS: A Tale of the Far North. With +Illustrations. Post 8vo, cloth. Price 3s.</p> + +<p class="adscap">UNGAVA: A Tale of Esquimaux Land. With Illustrations. +Post 8vo, cloth. Price 3s.</p> + +<p class="adscap">THE CORAL ISLAND: A Tale of the Pacific. With Illustrations. +Post 8vo, cloth. Price 3s.</p> + +<p class="adscap">MARTIN RATTLER; or, A Boy's Adventures in the Forests of +Brazil. With Illustrations. Post 8vo, cloth. Price 3s.</p> + +<p class="adscap">THE DOG CRUSOE AND HIS MASTER: A Tale of the +Western Prairies. With Illustrations. Post 8vo, cloth. Price 3s.</p> + +<p class="adscap">THE GORILLA HUNTERS: A Tale of Western Africa. With +Illustrations. Post 8vo, cloth. Price 3s.</p> + +<p class="adscap">THE WORLD OF ICE; or, Adventures in the Polar Regions. +With Engravings. Post 8vo, cloth. Price 3s.</p> + + +<p class="center">BY J. H. FYFE.</p> + +<p class="adscap">MERCHANT ENTERPRISE; or, the History of Commerce +from the Earliest Times. Caravans of Old—The Phœnicians—Marts of +the Mediterranean, &c. With Eight Illustrations from designs by <span class="smcap">Clark +Stanton</span>, Esq., R.S.A. Post 8vo, cloth extra. Price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="adscap">BRITISH ENTERPRISE BEYOND THE SEAS; or, The +Planting of our Colonies. Illustrated. Post 8vo, cloth. Price 3s.</p> + +<p class="adscap">TRIUMPHS OF INVENTION AND DISCOVERY. Illustrated. +Post 8vo, cloth extra. Price 2s. 6d.</p> + + +<p class="center">BY W. H. G. KINGSTON.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>New Editions, Illustrated.</i></p> + +<p class="adscap">ROUND THE WORLD: A Tale for Boys. With Fifty-two +Engravings. Post 8vo, cloth extra. Price 5s.</p> + +<p class="adscap">OLD JACK: A Sea Tale. With Sixty Engravings. Post 8vo, +cloth extra. Price 5s.</p> + +<p class="adscap">MY FIRST VOYAGE TO SOUTHERN SEAS. With Forty-two +Engravings. Post 8vo, cloth extra. Price 5s.</p> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h3>BOOKS FOR THE YOUNG.</h3> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Art Journal.</span>—"<i>Among +the best Publishers of Books for the Young +we must rank the names of the Messrs. Nelson.</i>"</p> + + +<p class="adscap">AFAR IN THE FOREST; or, Pictures of Life and Scenery in +the Wilds of Canada. By Mrs. <span class="smcap">Traill</span>, Author of the "Canadian +Crusoes," &c. Illustrated. Foolscap 8vo, cloth. Price 2s.</p> + +<p class="adscap">FAITHFUL AND TRUE; or, The Evans Family. By the +Author of "Tony Starr's Legacy," &c. Post 8vo, cloth. Price 2s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="adscap">THINGS IN THE FOREST. By <span class="smcap">Mary and Elizabeth Kirby</span>. Foolscap 8vo, cloth. +Price 1s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="adscap">THE HISTORY OF A PIN. By F. M. S. Illustrated. Foolscap +8vo, cloth. Price 1s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="adscap">OLD ROBIN AND HIS PROVERB. By Mrs. <span class="smcap">Henry F. Brock</span>. +Foolscap 8vo, cloth. Price 1s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="adscap">TRUTH IS ALWAYS BEST; or, A Fault Confessed is Half +Redressed. By <span class="smcap">Mary and Elizabeth Kirby</span>. Foolscap 8vo, cloth. +Price 1s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="adscap">TRUTHS AND FANCIES FROM FAIRY LAND; or Fairy +Stories with a Purpose. With Four Steel Plates. Foolscap 8vo, cloth. +Price 1s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="adscap">SCENES OF THE OLDEN TIME. By the Author of "Records +of Noble Lives," "The Boy Makes the Man," &c. With Four Steel Plates. +Foolscap 8vo, cloth. Price 1s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="adscap">ALICE STANLEY, and other Stories. By Mrs. <span class="smcap">S. C. Hall</span>. +With Four Steel Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth. Price 1s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="adscap">THE PLAYFELLOW, and other Stories. By Mrs. <span class="smcap">S. C. Hall</span>. +With Four Steel Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth. Price 1s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="adscap">THE WAY OF THE WORLD, and other Tales. By Mrs. <span class="smcap">S. C. Hall</span>. With Four +Steel Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth. Price 1s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="adscap">STORIES FROM GREEK MYTHOLOGY. By the Rev. <span class="smcap">James Wood</span>. With Four Steel +Plates. Foolscap 8vo, cloth. Price 1s. 6d.</p> + + +<p class="center"><i>New Illustrated Edition.</i></p> + +<p class="adscap">PAUL AND VIRGINIA. With Seventy Cuts. Royal 32mo, +cloth, gilt edges. Price 1s.</p> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h3>BOOKS FOR THE YOUNG.</h3> + + +<p class="adscap">ISABEL'S SECRET; or, A Sister's Love. By the Author of +"The Story of a Happy Little Girl." Post 8vo, cloth. Price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="adscap">ANNA LEE: The Maiden—The Wife—The Mother. +By <span class="smcap">T. S. Arthur</span>. Post 8vo, +cloth. Price 2s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="adscap">TRUE RICHES; or, Wealth without Wings. By <span class="smcap">T. S. Arthur</span>. +With Five Engravings. Post 8vo, cloth. Price 2s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="adscap">WOODLEIGH HOUSE; or, The Happy Holidays. With Eight +Engravings. Post 8vo, cloth. Price 2s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="adscap">MISSIONARY EVENINGS AT HOME. By H. L. L. Post 8vo, +cloth extra, gilt edges. Price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="adscap">THE GOLDEN MISSIONARY PENNY, and other Addresses to +the Young. By the late Rev. <span class="smcap">James Bolton</span>, Kilburn. Foolscap 8vo, +cloth. Price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="adscap">MARION'S SUNDAYS; or, Stories on the Commandments. +With Engravings. Foolscap 8vo, cloth. Price 2s.</p> + +<p class="adscap">ANNALS OF THE POOR. With Memoir of the Author. With +Eight Plates printed in Colours. Foolscap 8vo, cloth. Price 2s.; or, +cloth extra, gilt edges, price 3s.</p> + +<p class="adscap">NELLY NOWLAN'S EXPERIENCE, and other Stories. By +Mrs. <span class="smcap">S. C. Hall</span>. Illustrated. Foolscap 8vo, cloth. Price 2s.</p> + +<p class="adscap">THE STORY OF THE WHITE-ROCK COVE. A Tale for the +Young. With Six Engravings. Post 8vo, cloth extra. Price 3s.</p> + +<p class="adscap">FAR AND NEAR; or, Stories of a Christmas Tree. By <span class="smcap">Ita</span>. +With Coloured Frontispiece. Foolscap 8vo, cloth. Price 2s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="adscap">THE FLOWER OF THE FAMILY: A Tale of Domestic Life. +Foolscap 8vo, cloth. Price 2s.</p> + +<p class="adscap">THE WORLD'S BIRTHDAY. By the Rev. Professor <span class="smcap">L. Gaussen</span>. +With Plates. Foolscap 8vo, cloth. Price 2s. 6d.</p> + +<p class="adscap">WOODRUFF; or, "Sweetest when Crushed." A Tale. By Mrs. +<span class="smcap">Veitch</span>. Foolscap 8vo, cloth. Price 2s.</p> + +<p class="adscap">THE REGULAR SERVICE; or, the Story of Reuben Inch. By +the Author of "Village Missionaries," "Under the Microscope," &c. +Illustrated. Post 8vo, cloth. Price 1s. 6d.</p> + + + +<hr class="tb" /> +<h3>THE A. L. O. E. SERIES OF BOOKS FOR YOUNG PEOPLE.</h3> + +<p class="center">BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED AND ELEGANTLY BOUND.</p> + + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Church of England Sunday-School Magazine.</span>—"<i>With A. L. O. E.'s +well-known powers of description and imagination, circumstances are described +and characters sketched, which we believe many readers will recognize as their own.</i>"</p></div> + + +<p class="center"><i>Post 8vo, Cloth.</i></p> + +<p>CLAUDIA. A Tale. Price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p>HEBREW HEROES. A Tale founded on Jewish History. Price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p>ON THE WAY; or Places Passed by Pilgrims. Illustrated. Price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p>THE TRIUMPH OVER MIDIAN. Illustrated. Price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p>HOUSE BEAUTIFUL; or, The Bible Museum. Illustrated. Price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p>RESCUED FROM EGYPT. Illustrated. Price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p>PRIDE AND HIS PRISONERS. Price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p>THE GOLDEN FLEECE. Illustrated. Price 2s. 6d.</p> + +<p>THE ROBY FAMILY. With Seven Illustrations. Gilt edges. Price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p>THE ROBBERS' CAVE: A Story of Italy. With Seven Illustrations. Gilt +edges, with beautifully illuminated side. Price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p>OLD FRIENDS WITH NEW FACES. Vignette Title. Gilt edges. Price 2s. 6d.</p> + +<p>STORY OF A NEEDLE. With Seven Illustrations. Gilt edges, with +beautifully illuminated side. Price 2s. 6d.</p> + +<p>MY NEIGHBOUR'S SHOES; or, Feeling for Others. Illustrated. Gilt edges, +with beautifully illuminated side. Price 2s. 6d.</p> + + +<p class="center"><i>Foolscap 8vo, Cloth.</i></p> + +<p>IDOLS IN THE HEART. A Tale. Price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<p>THE SILVER CASKET; or, Love not the World. A Tale. Illustrated. Price 3s.</p> + +<p>WAR AND PEACE. A Tale of the Retreat from Cabul. Illustrated. Price 3s.</p> + +<p>THE HOLIDAY CHAPLET. Illustrated. Cloth extra, gilt edges. Price 3s.</p> + +<p>THE SUNDAY CHAPLET. Illustrated. Cloth extra, gilt edges. Price 3s.</p> + +<p>MIRACLES OF HEAVENLY LOVE IN DAILY LIFE. Price 2s. 6d.</p> + +<p>WHISPERING UNSEEN; or, "Be ye Doers of the Word, and not Hearers Only." +Illustrated. Price 2s. 6d.</p> + +<p>PARLIAMENT IN THE PLAY-ROOM. Illustrated. Price 2s. 6d.</p> + +<p>THE MINE; or, Darkness and Light. Illustrated. Price 2s. 6d.</p> + +<p>FLORA; or, Self-Deception. Illustrated. Price 2s. 6d.</p> + +<p>THE CROWN OF SUCCESS; or, Four Heads to Furnish. Price 2s. 6d.</p> + +<p>ZAIDA'S NURSERY NOTE-BOOK. A Book for Mothers. Price 2s.</p> + +<p>POEMS AND HYMNS. Price 1s. 6d.</p> + +<p>RAMBLES OF A RAT. Illustrated. Price 2s.</p> + +<p>STORIES FROM THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS. Illustrated. Price 1s. 6d.</p> + +<p>WINGS AND STINGS. 18mo Edition. Illustrated. Price 1s.</p> + + +<p class="center"><i>New Editions, Illustrated. Crown 8vo, Cloth Extra.</i></p> + +<p>THE YOUNG PILGRIM. A Tale Illustrating the Pilgrim's Progress. With +Twenty-Seven Engravings. Price 4s.</p> + +<p>THE SHEPHERD OF BETHLEHEM. With Forty Engravings. Price 5s.</p> + +<p>EXILES IN BABYLON; or, Children of Light. Thirty-four Cuts. Price 5s.</p> + +<p>PRECEPTS IN PRACTICE. With Forty Engravings. Price 4s.</p> + +<p>THE GIANT-KILLER. With Forty Engravings. Price 4s.</p> + +<p>FAIRY KNOW-A-BIT. With Thirty-four Illustrations. Price 3s. 6d.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<h4>T. NELSON AND SONS, LONDON, EDINBURGH, AND NEW YORK.</h4> +</div> + +<div class="tnote"> +<h3>Transcriber's Note</h3> + +<p>Page numbers do not appear where there was a blank page in the original text.</p> + +<p>The following changes have been made to the original text:</p> + +<ul> +<li>Page 30: Changed double quotes to single quotes: 'Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye,'</li> +<li>Page 64: "reader." changed to "reader,"</li> +<li>Page 65: "home," changed to "home."</li> +<li>Page 128: Added closing quote: ... and working efficiency."</li> +<li>Page 131: Added closing quote: ... of solid masonry."</li> +<li>Page 136: "porportion" changed to "proportion"</li> +<li>Page 166: "better then an arm" changed to "better than an arm"</li> +<li>Page 187: "paddle-wheels Through" changed to "paddle-wheels. Through"</li> +<li>Page 197: "a mortal sickness:" changed to "a mortal sickness;"</li> +<li>Page 249: "own, Thus" changed to "own. Thus"</li> +<li>Page 250: "condition Only" changed to "condition. Only"</li> +<li>Page 295: Changed double quotes to single quotes: passing the 'carriers' through</li> +<li>Page 295: Added closing quote: ... under the postal administration."</li> +<li>Page 315: Added closing quote: ... present day."</li> +<li>Page 316: "Dore" changed to "Doré"</li> +</ul> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Triumphs of Invention and Discovery in +Art and Science, by J. 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