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diff --git a/36619.txt b/36619.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fb11d9d --- /dev/null +++ b/36619.txt @@ -0,0 +1,24917 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Colonization of North America, by +Herbert Eugene Bolton and Thomas Maitland Marshall + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Colonization of North America + 1492-1783 + +Author: Herbert Eugene Bolton + Thomas Maitland Marshall + +Release Date: July 5, 2011 [EBook #36619] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marc D'Hooghe + + + + +THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA + +1492-1783 + +BY + +HERBERT EUGENE BOLTON, Ph.D. + +PROFESSOR OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA + +AND + +THOMAS MAITLAND MARSHALL, Ph.D. + +PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY + +THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + +1920 + + + + +PREFACE + + +This book represents an attempt to bring into one account the story of +European expansion in North America down to 1783. Text-books written in +this country as a rule treat the colonization of the New World as the +history, almost solely, of the thirteen English colonies which formed +the nucleus of the United States. The authors have essayed to write a +book from a different point of view. It has been prepared in response to +a clear demand for a text written from the standpoint of North America +as a whole, and giving a more adequate treatment of the colonies of +nations other than England and of the English colonies other than the +thirteen which revolted. This demand is the inevitable result of the +growing importance of our American neighbors and of our rapidly growing +interest in the affairs of the whole continent, past as well as present. + +The book is divided into three main parts: I. The Founding of the +Colonies; II. Expansion and International Conflict; III. The Revolt of +the English Colonies. The keynote is expansion. The spread of +civilization in America has been presented against a broad European +background. Not only colonial beginnings but colonial growth has been +traced. This method accounts for the development of all geographical +sections, and shows the relation of each section to the history of the +continent as a whole. When thus presented the early history of +Massachusetts, of Georgia, of Arkansas, of Illinois, or of California is +no longer merely local history, but is an integral part of the general +story. The colonies of the different nations are treated, in so far as +practicable, in the chronological order of their development, the desire +being to give a correct view of the time sequence in the development of +the different regions. + +A principal aim of the authors has been to make the book comprehensive. +The activities of the Dutch and Swedes on the Atlantic mainland are +given a large setting in both Europe and the New World. The account of +French expansion in North America has been extended beyond the +conventional presentation to embrace the West Indies, the founding of +Louisiana, and the advance of the French pioneers across the Mississippi +and up its tributaries, and up the Saskatchewan to the Rocky Mountains. +The story of English expansion embraces not only the thirteen colonies +which revolted, but also the Bermudas, the West Indies, Hudson Bay, +Canada, and the Floridas. The treatment of the new British possessions +between 1763 and 1783 aims to present in one view the story of the +expansion of the whole English frontier, from Florida to Hudson Bay. + +The Spanish colonies of North America, in particular, have been accorded +a more adequate treatment than is usual in textbooks. To writers of +United States history the Spaniards have appeared to be mere explorers. +Students of American history in a larger sense, however, know that Spain +transplanted Spanish civilization and founded vast and populous +colonies, represented to-day by some twenty republics and many millions +of people. The notion, so widely current in this country, that Spain +"failed" as a colonizer, arises from a faulty method. In treating +Spain's part in the New World it has been customary, after recounting +the discovery of America, to proceed at once to territory now within the +United States--Florida, New Mexico, Texas--forgetting that these regions +were to Spain only northern outposts, and omitting the wonderful story +of Spanish achievement farther south. This book being a history of the +colonization of North America, Spain's great colonies in South America, +now powerful nations, fall beyond our geographical limits. + +When approached from a new viewpoint many familiar things appear in a +new light. Hitherto, for example, the inter-colonial wars in North +America have been regarded mainly as a struggle between France and +England, and as confined chiefly to the Canadian border. By following +the larger story of European expansion, however, it becomes plain that +there was an Anglo-Spanish and a Franco-Spanish, as well as a +Franco-English struggle for the continent, not to mention the ambitions +and efforts of Dutch, Swedes, Russians, and Danes. In nearly all the +general inter-colonial wars the Caribbean area and the Carolina-Florida +frontier were scenes of frequent conflicts quite as important as those +waged on the Canadian border. Between France and Spain a border contest +endured for more than a century and extended all the way from the Lesser +Antilles to the Platte River. The Anglo-French contest ended in 1763; +but the Anglo-Spanish conflict, which began in the sixteenth century, +endured to the end of the eighteenth and, in the hands of the American +offspring of Spain and England, to the middle of the nineteenth century. + +Some teachers may for special reasons wish to treat the development of +the colonies of a single nation as a continuous movement, or in longer +periods, less frequently broken by happenings in the colonies of other +nations. This can be done conveniently by grouping the chapters in the +desired order. A continuous account of Spanish expansion is given in +Chapters II, III, XIII, XVI, and XXI. A connected story of French +America is told in Chapters IV, XIV, XV, XX. By omitting these and +Chapter IX a continuous narrative of English expansion is obtained. + +August, 1920. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS + + +THE FOUNDING OF THE COLONIES + + + I. THE BACKGROUND AND THE DISCOVERY + Growth of Geographical Knowledge + Portuguese Discoveries + Columbus and the Discovery of America + + II. THE FOUNDING OF NEW SPAIN (1492-1543) + Spain during the Conquest + The Occupation of the West Indies + Beginnings of Colonial Administration and Policy + Exploration of the Mainland Coasts and the Search for a Strait + The Mayas and the Nahuas + The Conquest of Central America + The Conquest of the Valley of Mexico + The Spread of the Conquest + Explorations in the Northern Interior and on the Pacific + The Establishment of the Viceroyalty of New Spain + + III. THE EXPANSION OF NEW SPAIN (1543-1609) + Old and New Spain under Philip II + The Mines of Northern Mexico + The Settlement of the Atlantic Seaboard + Foreign Intrusions in the Atlantic + The Philippines and California + The Founding of New Mexico + Spanish Achievements in the 16th Century + + IV. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FRENCH COLONIES (1500-1700) + The French Background + Early Explorations and Colonizing Efforts + Acadia + The St. Lawrence Valley + Reorganization and the Iroquois Wars + The West Indies + Opening the Upper Lake Region and the Mississippi Valley + + V. THE BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH EXPANSION (1485-1603) + The Tudor Period + Commercial Expansion + The Elizabethan Sea-dogs + The Search for a Northwest Passage + Attempts at Colonization + + VI. THE CHESAPEAKE BAY AND INSULAR COLONIES (1603-1640) + England under the Early Stuarts, 1603-1640 + The Colonial Administrative System of the Early Stuarts + The Founding of Virginia + The Founding of Maryland + The Bermudas + Guiana + The Lesser Antilles + The Providence Island Company + + VII. THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND (1606-1640) + The Puritan Movement in England + The Plymouth Colony + Colonizing Activities on the New England Coast + The Massachusetts Bay Colony + Expansion of the Massachusetts Bay Colony + Rhode Island + Settlements in the Connecticut Valley + + VIII. THE ENGLISH COLONIES DURING THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD (1640-1660) + Politics, Administration, and Expansion + New England Development + Virginia and Maryland + + IX. THE DUTCH AND SWEDISH COLONIES (1609-1664) + Dutch Expansion + New Netherlands + The Dutch and the Swedes on the Delaware + Absorption of New Netherlands by the English + + X. THE OLD ENGLISH COLONIES UNDER THE LATER STUARTS (1660-1689) + Colonial Policy and Administration + Machinery of Government + Misrule and Rebellion in Virginia + Discontent in Maryland + Royal Interference in New England + + XI. EXPANSION UNDER THE LATER STUARTS (1660-1689) + New York + The Jerseys + Pennsylvania + The Insular Colonies + The Carolinas + Western Trade and Exploration + Hudson's Bay Company + + XII. THE ENGLISH MAINLAND COLONIES AT THE CLOSE OF THE SEVENTEENTH + CENTURY + New England + New York and East New Jersey + Colonies along Delaware River and Bay + The Chesapeake Bay Region + South Carolina + + + EXPANSION AND INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT + + XIII. THE SPANISH ADVANCE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY + Spain and the Colonies in the Seventeenth Century + Frontier Administration + The Missions + The Jesuits in Sinaloa and Sonora + Efforts to Occupy Lower California + The Settlement of Chihuahua + New Mexico in the Seventeenth Century + Coahuila Occupied + First Attempts in Eastern Texas + The Struggle with Rivals in the West Indies + The Struggle with the English on the Carolina Border + + XIV. THE WARS OF THE ENGLISH AND SPANISH SUCCESSIONS (1684-1713) + The Preliminary Struggle for the Northern Fur Country. + The War of the English Succession + The War of the Spanish Succession + The Peace of Utrecht + + XV. THE FRENCH IN LOUISIANA AND THE FAR NORTHWEST (1699-1762) + The Founding of Louisiana + Louisiana under the Company of the Indies + Louisiana under the Royal Governors + The Trans-Mississippi West + The Advance Toward New Mexico + The Far Northwest + + XVI. TEXAS, PIMERIA ALTA, AND THE FRANCO-SPANISH BORDER CONFLICT + (1687-1763) + Northeastward Advance of the Spanish Frontier + The Founding of Texas + War with France + The Expansion of Texas + The Franco-Spanish Border + Pimeria Alta + The Jesuits in Lower California + + XVII. THE ENGLISH ADVANCE INTO THE PIEDMONT (1715-1750) + The Westward Movement + Defence of the Northern Frontier + Reorganization of the Carolinas + The Founding of Georgia + The German and Swiss Migration + The Scotch-Irish + Significance of the Settlement of the Piedmont + + XVIII. ENGLISH COLONIAL SOCIETY IN THE MIDDLE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY + General Features + New England Industry + The Middle Colonies + The Southern Colonies + Labor Systems + Features of Society + Barbados, the Leeward Isles, and Jamaica + + XIX. THE ENGLISH COLONIAL SYSTEM (1689-1763) + The First Reorganization of William III + William's Second Reorganization + The Colonial System During the Reign of Anne + The Colonial System Under the Whigs + + XX. A QUARTER-CENTURY OF CONFLICT: THE EXPULSION OF THE FRENCH + (1715-1763) + Spain and the Powers, 1715-1739 + The War of Jenkins' Ear + The War of the Austrian Succession + The Approach of Another Conflict + The French and Indian War + + XXI. THE RUSSIAN ADVANCE: THE OCCUPATION OF ALTA CALIFORNIA AND + LOUISIANA BY SPAIN (1763-1783) + Readjustment in Spanish North America + The Russian Menace + The Founding of Alta California + Northern Explorations + Louisiana under Spain, 1762-1783 + + XXII. THE NEW BRITISH POSSESSIONS (1763-1783) + Provisions for Defence, Government, and the Fur Trade + The Occupation of the Floridas + Military Occupation of the Illinois Country + Land Speculation and Plans for Western Colonies + Trans-Alleghany Settlement + The Province of Quebec + The Northern Fur Traders + + + THE REVOLT OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES + + XXIII. THE CONTROVERSY OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES WITH THE HOME + GOVERNMENT (1763-1775) + The Background of the Contest + Reforms of the Grenville Ministry + Repeal of the Stamp Act + The Townshend Acts + Beginning of Organized Resistance + The Tea Controversy + Lord North's Coercive Policy + The First Continental Congress + + XXIV. FROM LEXINGTON TO INDEPENDENCE (1775-1776) + The Opening of Hostilities + The Second Continental Congress + Progress of the War + The Loyalists + The Declaration of Independence + + XXV. THE STRUGGLE FOR THE MIDDLE STATES (1776-1777) + The Contest for New York + The New Jersey Campaign + The Struggle with Burgoyne + The Contest for Philadelphia + + XXVI. THE WAR AS AN INTERNATIONAL CONTEST (1778-1781) + The French Alliance + The War in the West + Spain in the War + The War on the Sea and the Dutch Alliance + + XXVII. THE CLOSING YEARS OF THE REVOLUTION (1778-1783) + The War in the South + The Yorktown Campaign + The Treaty of Peace + + XXVIII. GOVERNMENTAL DEVELOPMENT DURING THE REVOLUTION + The Second Continental Congress + Financial Affairs + State Governments during the Revolution + The Articles of Confederation + Governmental Reorganization + + + +LIST OF MAPS + + Portuguese Expansion and Magellan's Voyage + The Four Voyages of Columbus + The Unification of Spain + The Development of the West Indies, 1492-1519 + The Development of Central America, 1500-1543 + The Development of Southern Mexico, 1519-1543 + Explorations in the Northern Interior, 1513-1543 + The Advance into Northern Mexico, 1543-1590 + Spanish Florida + Explorations on the California Coast, 1542-1603 + New Mexico in Onate's Time + Cartier's Explorations, 1534-1542 + The French in Canada in the Seventeenth Century + The Caribbean Area in the Seventeenth Century + La Salle's Colony on the Texas Coast, 1684-1689 + Settlements in Virginia, 1634 + Settlements in Maryland, 1634 + The Bermudas + Principal Settlements in Massachusetts, 1630 + Settled Areas in New England, about 1660 + Settled Areas in Virginia and Maryland, about 1660 + Van Der Donck's Map of New Netherland, 1656 + New Sweden + The Delaware River Region, 1665-1774 + The Southern Colonies, 1607-1735 + Hudson's Bay Company Posts + Settled Areas in New England and on Long Island, about 1700 + Settled Areas in the Middle Colonies, about 1700 + Settled Areas in the Southern Colonies, about 1700 + Sinaloa and Sonora in the Seventeenth Century + A Dutch Map Illustrating the Insular Theory of California's Geography + (1624-1625) + New Mexico in the Seventeenth Century + The Beginnings of Coahuila and Texas + The Intercolonial Wars + The French in Louisiana and the Far Northwest + Texas in the 18th Century + Father Kino's Map of Pimeria Alta + Mainland Regions occupied by the English, 1700-1760 + Principal Areas of German Settlement before 1763 + The Areas Largely Populated by Scotch-Irish before 1763 + The Western English Frontier, 1763 + Alta California Settlements + The Spanish Frontier in the Later Eighteenth Century + The New British Possessions, 1763-1783 + Boston with Environs During the Revolution + Northern New Jersey, New York and Its Environs during the Revolution + The Region of Burgoyne's Invasion (1777) + Morristown, New Jersey, to Head of Elk, Maryland (1777) + The War in the South (1778-1781) + + + + +THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA + + + +THE FOUNDING OF THE COLONIES + + + + +CHAPTER I + +THE BACKGROUND AND THE DISCOVERY + + +The fifteenth century witnessed the culmination of the Renaissance, the +rise of the Turkish Empire, the shifting of the commercial center from +the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, the discovery of America and the +opening of the Cape route to India. Portugal and Spain started on their +careers as great commercial and colonizing nations, the former destined +for a time to control the commerce of the Far East, the other to possess +more than half of the Americas and to dominate the Pacific. + + +GROWTH OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE + +Classical ideas of the world.--The discoveries of the century completely +transformed the conceptions of geography. Greek and Roman scholars had +agreed that there were three continents, Europe, Asia, and Africa, +encircled by the ocean. Aristotle, Strabo, and others accepted the +theory that the earth was a sphere, but they usually underestimated its +size. Ptolemy, the greatest of the ancient geographers, made two +fundamental errors, which most of the Arab and Christian scholars +accepted. He depicted the Indian Ocean as an inland sea, and greatly +extended Africa until it filled the entire southern hemisphere, China +and Africa being connected. + +Arab theories and Christian scholars.--The Arabs believed that the earth +was a disc or ball, which was the center of the universe. The center of +the earth's surface they called Arim, meaning the cupola of the earth. +At the eastern extremity stood the pillars of Alexander, at the western +the pillars of Hercules, while the north and south poles were equally +distant from Arim. The Ptolemaic idea of Africa was accepted by most of +the Arabs, but many of their later map makers decreased its size, +cutting it off in the neighborhood of Cape Bojador on the African coast, +and calling the region beyond the "Green Sea of Darkness." Others +sketched in a great southern continent below Africa. The "Green Sea of +Darkness" was filled with terrors, whirlpools ready to destroy the +adventurous mariner, a sea of mist, fog, and vapor, peopled by monsters. +If he escaped these as he ventured southward, he would come to a zone of +torrid heat where no man could survive. Roger Bacon, the great Christian +scientist, accepted the Arabian theories but supplemented them by a +study of the classics. He believed that the habitable world was more +than half of the whole circuit, an idea which was repeated in the _Imago +Mundi_ of Pierre d'Ailly, a work which may have influenced Columbus. + +Early Asiatic contact with America.--Some scholars believe that the +western coast of North America was visited by Asiatics long before the +eastern shores were reached by Europeans. In 499 a Buddhist priest +returned from a voyage claiming to have been to a country called Fusang, +lying far to the east. The location of Fusang has interested numerous +students, whose conjectures have been marshalled by Vining to prove that +it was Mexico. Some have attributed the remarkable sporadic growth of +cypress trees below Monterey, California, to this episode. The trend of +opinion accepts ethnographic and linguistic similarities as of greater +conclusiveness than recorded Chinese history. Belief in early Japanese +contact with America rests on a similar basis. + +The Northmen.--The first Europeans to venture far out on the Atlantic +were the Northmen, a people but little touched by classical, Arabic, or +Christian culture before their great period of expansion. The western +sea to them had no terrors. Near the close of the eighth century they +appeared in England; in 860 they sighted Iceland and in 874 commenced +its colonization. Three years later they discovered Greenland, but it +was not until 986 that Eric the Red colonized it. In the year 1000, +Leif, the son of Eric, went in quest of a land to the west, of which he +had heard report. The result of the voyage was the discovery of +Vinland, the exact whereabouts of which has been one of the puzzles of +history, some scholars claiming it to have been Nova Scotia, others New +England. Wherever it may have been, it probably played no part in the +Columbian discovery of America, for though the settlements in Greenland +continued until early in the fifteenth century, scientists and mariners +remained in almost complete ignorance of the far-off activities of the +Northmen. + +Mediaeval travelers.--During the period of the Crusades, travel became +more and more extensive. Returning crusaders told of their adventures +and of the lands which they had visited. Pilgrims returning from the +East increased the store of geographical knowledge and repeated +marvelous tales of Russia, China, and India, although none of them had +first-hand knowledge. But during the thirteenth century accurate +information was obtained. John de Plano Carpini, a Neapolitan +Franciscan, went as a legate of Pope Innocent IV to the Great Khan in +Tartary. His _Book of the Tartars_ is the first reliable account of the +empire of the Great Mogul. A few years later William de Rubruquis was +sent by St. Louis of France to the same court, and returned to tell a +tale of wonders. + +Between 1255 and 1265 two Venetians, Nicolo and Matteo Polo, were +trading in southern Russia, and eventually they visited the court of +Kublai Khan in Mongolia, later returning to Europe. In 1271 they again +visited the Far East, this time accompanied by their nephew, Marco, +whose account of their journeyings is the most famous book of travel. +Marco became an official at the Mongol court and was sent on various +missions which carried him over a large part of China. He also learned +of the wonders of Cipango or Japan. In 1292 the Polos left China, +visited Java, India, and Ceylon, and eventually returned to Europe. +Their travels made known a vast region which had previously lain almost +outside the reckoning of geographers, and gave to Europeans a fairly +accurate as well as a fascinating account of the Far East. + +Early maritime activities on the African coast.--While the Polos were in +Asia, mariners were beginning to explore outside the Pillars of +Hercules. In 1270 the Canaries were discovered by Malocello and a few +years later Genoese galleys reached Cape Nun. In 1341 the Canaries were +again visited, this time by an expedition from Lisbon, and in 1370 an +Englishman, Robert Machin, who had eloped from Bristol with Anne +d'Arfet, was driven from the French coast in a storm and came to Madeira +where they both died from exposure. Some of the crew, however, returned +to tell the tale. In 1402 a Norman, De Bethencourt, reached the Canaries +and several of the islands were soon colonized. + +Advance of maritime science.--As sea voyaging progressed, maritime +science was also advancing. A large number of coast charts called +Portolani were made, which plotted with remarkable accuracy the coast +lines of Europe and northern Africa. Over four hundred of these charts +are still in existence. Their accuracy was largely due to the use of the +compass and astrolabe, which are known to have been invented before +1400. + + +PORTUGUESE DISCOVERIES + +The rise of Portugal.--In the work of geographical and commercial +expansion Portugal now took the lead. The little kingdom, from a small +territory to the north of the Douro, had gradually extended its domain +to the southward by driving out the Moors. Its commercial importance +began by the opening of a trade with England. From 1383 to 1433 Portugal +was ruled by John the Great, and during his reign the oversea expansion +of the country began. + +Henry the Navigator.--The greatness of Portugal was largely due to one +of King John's sons, Prince Henry. He was born in 1394 and at an early +age became interested in furthering trade with the interior of Africa. +In 1410 or 1412 he is said to have sent caravels down the coast. In 1415 +he assisted in the capture of the Moorish stronghold of Ceuta, where he +gained great military renown. In 1419 he was made governor of Algarve, +the southern province of Portugal. He established himself at Sagres, on +Cape St. Vincent, where he enlarged the old naval arsenal, built a +palace, chapel, study, and observatory, and here it was that he spent +the greater portion of his life. + +Henry had three main objects: first, to open trade with the interior of +Africa; second, to found a colonial empire; third, to spread the +Christian faith. A tale was current that somewhere in Africa lived a +Christian king called Prester John, who was cut off from the world by +Islam. To find his kingdom and unite with him in the overthrow of the +Mohammedans was a natural ambition in a prince who had already assisted +in the capture of Ceuta. + +Henry gathered about him a group of trained mariners, some of whom were +Italians, made a study of geography and navigation, instructed his +captains, and sent them out from Lagos to find new markets. Between 1420 +and 1430 Cape Blanco was discovered and the first slaves were brought +back, this being the beginning of an extensive traffic. Four years later +Cape Verde was reached, and in 1455 the Cape Verde Islands were +discovered and the coast of Senegal explored. The results of the +Portuguese explorations under Prince Henry were incorporated in a map of +the world, made by Fra Mauro in the convent of Murano, near Venice. + +Discovery of a route to India.--During the sixty years which followed +the death of Prince Henry, 1460-1520, the Portuguese completed the +exploration of the west coast of Africa, discovered a route to India, +explored a considerable part of the eastern coast of North and South +America, and founded a colonial empire. In 1486 Bartholomew Diaz passed +the Cape of Good Hope and in 1498 Vasco da Gama, spurred on by the +discoveries of Columbus, crossed the Indian Ocean to Calicut. + +It has been customary to ascribe the diversion of trade from the eastern +Mediterranean to the Cape of Good Hope route to the rise of the Turkish +Empire, which was supposed to have cut the old lines of communication to +the Far East. Recent investigation has shown that such is not the case. +As Professor Lybyer says, "They [the Turks] were not active agents in +deliberately obstructing the routes.... Nor did they make the discovery +of new routes imperative. On the contrary they lost by the discovery of +a new and superior route." This superiority was due to the fact that the +Cape route was an all-water route which did not require the rehandling +of goods and expensive caravan transportation. Not the Turk, but cheap +freight rates, diverted trade from the Mediterranean to the Cape route. + +[Illustration: Portuguese Expansion and Magellan's Voyage.] + + +COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA + +Early life of Columbus.--Meanwhile America had been discovered by +Christopher Columbus, in the service of Spain. Much that was formerly +believed to be true concerning the early life of Columbus recent +research has proved to be false or to rest upon doubtful evidence. He +was born at or near Genoa, probably in 1452, and was the son of a woolen +weaver. Little is known of his education, but in some manner he acquired +a knowledge of Latin, read the principal geographical works then +accessible, and acquired a wide knowledge of navigation. Three books +which he studied with care were the _General History and Geography_ by +AEneas Sylvius, the _Imago Mundi_ of Pierre d'Ailly, and the _Travels_ of +Marco Polo. + +He entered the marine service of Portugal, probably lived for a time on +the island of Porto Santo, one of the Madeiras, visited the coast of +Guinea, and sailed as far north as England. He married Felipa Moniz, a +niece of Isabel Moniz, whose husband was Bartholomew Perestrello, who +served under Prince Henry. It is probable that a correspondence occurred +between Columbus and the Florentine geographer, Toscanelli, who is said +to have suggested to the navigator the possibility of reaching the +Indies by sailing west and to have sent him a copy of a chart which he +had prepared. The Toscanelli map has not come down to us, the so-called +reproduction of it being an adaptation of Behaim's globe of 1492. +Through these various influences Columbus conceived the plan of seeking +new lands in the Atlantic and became convinced of the feasibility of +opening a western route to the Indies. + +His sojourn in Spain.--After unsuccessfully urging his views in +Portugal, in 1484 Columbus went to Spain, where he presented himself at +the court and made the acquaintance of many influential persons. He also +sent his brother Bartholomew to obtain assistance in western exploration +from Henry VII of England. Columbus met with slight encouragement in +Spain, and decided to seek French aid, but just as he was making his +departure he was recalled, Queen Isabella having been brought to a +favorable decision by Fray Juan Perez, a former confessor, by Luis de +Santangel, the treasurer of Aragon, by the Count of Medina-Celi, and by +the Marquesa de Moya. + +His commission.--Columbus was given a commission authorizing him to +explore and trade. It said nothing of a route to the Indies. The +enterprise of discovery was essentially a new one, and it was natural +that the first patent should contain only general provisions. Indeed, +the document was so brief and incomplete that many supplementary orders +had to be issued before the expedition was ready. In return for services +and to provide a representative of Spanish authority in anticipated +discoveries, Columbus was ennobled and made admiral, viceroy, and +governor-general in such lands as he might add to the Castilian realm. +These offices were patterned after well-known institutions then in use +in Spain. The titles were to be hereditary in Columbus's family. The +admiral was to have a tenth of the net profits of trade and precious +metals within his discoveries. By contributing an eighth of the expense +of commercial ventures, he was entitled to an additional eighth of the +profits from trade. To encourage the expedition all duties on exports +were remitted. + +Outfitting the expedition.--The story that Isabella pawned her jewels to +equip the expedition is now disproved, the royal share of the money +apparently being loaned to the Castilian treasury by Luis de Santangel. +The total cost of outfitting was probably somewhat less than $100,000, +of which Columbus or his friends furnished an eighth. Three vessels, the +_Santa Maria_, the _Pinta_, and the _Nina_, were provided. The number +who sailed is variously estimated at from ninety to one hundred and +twenty men. + +The discovery.--In August, 1492, the three vessels sailed from Palos to +the Canaries, those islands then being a possession of Spain which she +had acquired from Portugal in 1479. During the entire colonial period +they were an important factor in navigation, being a place for refitting +before the long trans-Atlantic voyage. The vessels left the Canaries on +September 6 and sailed almost due west. They met with fair weather, but +the length of the voyage caused much complaint, which resulted in a plot +to get rid of Columbus. The Admiral succeeded in quelling the mutiny, +however, and shortly afterward land was sighted. + +On the evening of October 11 a light in the distance was twice seen by +the commander, and before morning the moonlight disclosed to the lookout +of the _Pinta_ a sandy beach. The landfall was a small coral island of +the Bahamas, which Columbus named San Salvador and which was probably +the one now called Watling's Island. Believing that he had reached the +Indies, he called the inhabitants Indians, a name which has clung ever +since to American aborigines. + +[Illustration: The Four Voyages of Columbus.] + +Sojourn in the West Indies.--Through all of his sojourn in the West +Indies, Columbus was filled with the idea that he had found the Indies. +Hearing of Cuba and believing that it was Cipango, he planned to visit +the mainland and go to the city of Guisay, the Quinsai of Marco Polo. +From the Bahamas he proceeded to Cuba and explored the eastern third of +its northern coast. He despatched an interpreter to the Grand Khan, but +instead of a mighty city, an Indian village was discovered. There +Europeans first saw the smoking of tobacco. From Cuba the expedition +went to Haiti, which Columbus named Espanola (Little Spain), corrupted +in English to Hispaniola, and there the _Santa Maria_ was wrecked. + +The return voyage.--Having built a fort on the northern shore of +Espanola not far from its westernmost point, which he named La Navidad +(the Nativity) because the neighboring harbor was entered on Christmas +day, Columbus left forty-four of the crew with ample provisions, +implements, and arms, and began the return voyage on January 4, 1493. +Two violent storms were encountered, but both were weathered, and on +March 4 the vessels came to anchor in the mouth of the Tagus. + +His reception.--In Lisbon the news of the discovery created great +excitement. The King of Portugal invited Columbus to court and +entertained him royally. On March 13 he sailed for Spain, arriving at +Palos two days later. The citizens adjourned business for the day; bells +were rung, and at night the streets were illumined with torches. From +there he proceeded to Seville and then to the court at Barcelona, where +the greatest honors were bestowed upon him. He was allowed to be seated +in the presence of the sovereigns, who showed the keenest interest in +his specimens of flora and fauna, pearls and golden trinkets, but +especially in the Indians whom he had brought from Espanola. The theory +that he had reached the outlying parts of the Indies was readily +accepted, and the sovereigns at once prepared to take possession of the +newly discovered lands. + +The line of Demarcation.--The king of Portugal, jealous of Spain's +triumph, is said to have planned to send a fleet across the Atlantic to +dispute the Spanish claims. Ferdinand and Isabella hurried a messenger +to Rome asking the pope to confirm their rights to the new discoveries. +Accordingly, on May 4, 1493, Pope Alexander VI assigned to Spain all +lands west of a meridian one hundred leagues west of the Azores and Cape +Verde Islands. King John was not satisfied, and a year later, by the +treaty of Tordesillas, a division line was fixed at 370 leagues west of +Cape Verde Islands. This change gave Portugal title to her later +discoveries on the Brazilian coast, though it lessened her possessions +in the Orient. + + +READINGS + +GROWTH OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE + +Beazley, C.R., _The Dawn of Modern Geography; Prince Henry the +Navigator_, 1-105; Fischer, J., _The Discoveries of the Northmen in +America_; Fiske, John, _The Discovery of America_, I, 151-255, 363-381; +Hovgaard, W., _The Voyages of the Norsemen to America_, 221-255; Marco +Polo, _The Book of Ser Marco Polo the Venetian_, Yule ed.; Olson, J.E., +and Bourne, E.G., eds., _The Northmen, Columbus, and Cabot (Original +Narratives of Early American History)_, 3-84; Vining, E.J., _An +Inglorious Columbus; or evidence that Hwi Shan ... discovered America in +the Fifth Century_; Winsor, Justin, _Narrative and Critical History of +America_, I, 1-58; Fossum, A., _The Norse Discovery of America_; +Steensby, H.P., _The Norsemen's Route to Wineland_; Larson, L.M., "The +Church in North America (Greenland) in the Middle Ages," in _The +Catholic Historical Review_, V, 175-194. + +PORTUGUESE DISCOVERIES + +Beazley, C.R., _Prince Henry the Navigator_, 123-307; Bourne, E.G., +"Prince Henry the Navigator," in _Essays in Historical Criticism_, +173-189; Cheyney, E.P., _European Background of American History_, +60-70; Helps, Arthur, _The Spanish Conquest in America_, I, 1-54; Jayne, +K.G., _Vasco da Gama and his Successors_, 7-240; Lybyer, A.H., "The +Ottoman Turks and the Routes of Oriental Trade," in _The English +Historical Review_, XXX, 577-588; Major, R.H., The Discoveries of Prince +Henry the Navigator; Martins, J.P.O., _The Golden Age of Prince Henry +the Navigator_, 66-84, 205-231; Stephens, H.M., _Portugal_, 115-248; +Vander Linden, H., "Alexander VI., and the Demarcation of the Maritime +and Colonial Dominions of Spain and Portugal," in _American Historical +Review_, XXII, 1-20. + +COLUMBUS + +Biggar, H.P., "The New Columbus," in Am. Hist. Assoc., _Ann. Rpt., +1912_, pp. 97-104; Bourne, E.G., _Spain in America_, 8-32; Channing, +Edward, History of the United States, I, 14-25; Hart, A.B., _American +History told by Contemporaries_, I, 28-48; Helps, Arthur, _The Spanish +Conquest in America_, I, 55-88; Herrera, Antonio, _Historia General_; +Las Casas, Bartholomew, _Historia de las Indias_; Major, R.H., _Select +Letters of Columbus_; Markham, Clements, _Life of Columbus_; Navarrete, +M.F., _Coleccion de los Viages y Descubrimientos_; Olson, J.E., and +Bourne, E.G., eds., _The Northmen, Columbus, and Cabot (Original +Narratives)_, 80-383; Peter Martyr, _De Orbe Novo_ (F.A. McNutt, +trans.); Richman, L.B., _The Spanish Conquerors_, 1-63; Thacher, J.B., +_Columbus_; Vignaud, Henry, _Toscanelli and Columbus_: Winsor, Justin, +_Columbus_. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE FOUNDING OF NEW SPAIN (1492-1543) + + +SPAIN DURING THE CONQUEST + +The discoveries of Columbus opened to Spain the opportunity to found a +great colonial empire in the new world. For this work Spain had been +prepared by the welding of the nation which was perfected during the +reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. + +The Christian reconquest.--In the eighth century the Mohammedan Berbers +had overthrown the Visigothic kingdom, the unconquered Christian princes +retiring to the mountain regions of the north. Gradually they +reconquered the country. By 910 they had established the kingdoms of +Leon and Navarre, and the county of Barcelona. By 1037 Leon and Castile +had united and conquered a wide tract south of the Douro River. Aragon, +originally a Frankish country, had also become an independent kingdom. +By 1150 almost two-thirds of the peninsula had been conquered; Portugal +now extended from the Minho River to the Tagus; Castile occupied the +central region, and Aragon had incorporated Barcelona and Catalonia. +During the next two centuries the rest of the peninsula, except the +small kingdom of Granada, was conquered, and Aragon established her +power in the Balearic Isles, Sardinia, and southern Italy. In 1469 +Isabella of Castile married Ferdinand of Aragon, thus uniting the two +great states. In 1481 they made war upon Granada, completing its +conquest in the year of the discovery of America. All of these changes +had been chiefly of rulers, the great body of the people remaining of +the original Iberian stock. + +Lack of unity.--But there was neither unity of speech, customs, nor +institutions. There were three main religious groups, Christians, +Mohammedans, and Jews. The people were also divided into social classes, +nobility, clergy, common people, and slaves. The ranks and privileges of +the nobility varied greatly, some having immense estates and almost +sovereign powers, others being landless soldiers of fortune. Castile +was the land of castles. The nobles were turbulent and warlike. They +delighted in chivalry, which probably attained a higher development in +Spain than in any other country. Furthermore, there were three great +military orders, which had grown in strength during the Moorish wars; +these were the Knights of Santiago, of Calatrava, and of Alcantara, at +the head of each of which was a grand master. The orders, the landed +nobility, and the church owned about one-third of the land and +controlled large military forces. The cities were also powerful; they +were strongly fortified, regulated their own affairs, and many of them +had great fleets and extensive commerce. Life outside of the cities was +largely pastoral, wool, growing being the principal industry. Both +Castile and Aragon contained governing bodies called _Cortes_, to which +some of the larger cities sent representatives, but they were of little +importance, most of the work of lawmaking being done by the sovereign +acting with his Council of State. + +Establishment of unity.--To bring the entire country into religious and +political unity was the great task of Ferdinand and Isabella. This was +accomplished partly through the _Hermandad_ and the organization of +several royal councils. The _Hermandad_, originally a local police, was +organized as a state police; captured offenders were punished before +local officers of the crown called _alcaldes_. Turbulent nobles and +brigands were made to feel the long arm of the royal power. The nobles +were also curbed by transferring the grand masterships of the military +orders to the crown and the sovereigns resumed control of many estates +which had been granted to churches and nobles. The royal council of +twelve had been the principal governing body. Under Ferdinand and +Isabella it was divided into three councils, justice, state, and +finance. Other councils were added from time to time; among these was +the Council of the Inquisition, whose business it was to stamp out +heresy. By its efforts unbaptized Jews and Moors were expelled. The +rulers also sent royal officers called _corregidores_ into the local +communities, who gradually extended the powers of the crown at the +expense of local government. Thus were laid the foundations of an +absolute monarchy, which, in the sixteenth century, became the most +influential in Europe. + +Charles V.--The prestige of Spain was greatly enhanced in the +sixteenth century by the Emperor Charles V, the grandson of Ferdinand +and Isabella. From his mother he inherited Spain, Naples, and Sicily, +and possessions in the new world and the Far East; from his father the +Netherlands; from his grandfather, Maximilian I, the Hapsburg +inheritance in Germany. By election he became Holy Roman Emperor. The +larger part of the reign was occupied by three great European contests; +a series of struggles with Francis I of France for the control of Italy, +the Reformation in Germany, and the curbing of the westward advance of +the Turks. The almost constant wars of the Emperor kept him away from +Spain nearly his entire time, but he used the centralized system of +Ferdinand and Isabella to supply him with soldiers and money. The +constant drain of treasure overtaxed the resources of Spain, but the +rich mines of the new world furnished the surplus for his vast +undertakings. The fact that Charles was successful in retaining his +power in Italy, coupled with his struggle against the Protestants and +the Turks, made him the recognized protector of the Catholic church. His +reign, marked by many sad failures in Europe, witnessed a phenomenal +expansion of Spain's colonies. + +[Illustration: The Unification of Spain. (Based on Maps in Shepherd, +W.R., _Historical Atlas_, pp. 82-83.).] + + +THE OCCUPATION OF THE WEST INDIES + +The rule of Columbus in the Indies.--When Columbus discovered a new +world for Spain, that country was placed in a new situation, and a +settled colonial policy was developed only with experience. A department +of Indian affairs was created at once and put in charge of Fonseca, a +member of the royal council. A combined interest in commerce, religion, +and colonization was shown in all the arrangements for a second voyage +by Columbus, but commerce was the primary object. At first it was +planned to send a thousand colonists, but so eager were the applicants +that fifteen hundred embarked. The expedition was equipped at the +queen's expense, and most of the colonists were in her pay. + +Reaching Espanola in November, 1493, Columbus found Navidad destroyed by +Indians; he accordingly established a new settlement, named Isabella, at +a point farther east. Leaving his brother Diego in charge, Columbus +explored the southern coast of Cuba, discovered Jamaica, and +circumnavigated Espanola. Complaints being made against his +administration, in 1495 Columbus returned to Spain to defend himself. +Shortly after his departure, gold being found in the southern part of +Espanola, the new town of Santo Domingo was founded there and became the +capital. Other men were eager for commercial adventure, and, in response +to their demands, in 1495 trade in the Indies was opened to all +Spaniards, at their own expense. Columbus regarded this an infringement +upon his rights, and on his return to Spain he protested, but to little +purpose. + +In 1498 Columbus sailed on a third voyage, taking some two hundred +colonists. On the way he discovered the mainland of South America near +the Orinoco River, and, farther west, valuable pearl fisheries. During +his absence a civil war had occurred in Espanola, and, at the end of two +years of trouble with the contending factions, Columbus was sent to +Spain in chains by Bobadilla, a royal commissioner, who remained to +govern in his place. The charges against Columbus were dismissed, but he +was not restored to his rule in the Indies. In 1502 Nicolas de Ovando +was sent to replace Bobadilla, taking with him 2500 new colonists. + +Spread of settlement in the West Indies.--After 1496 Santo Domingo +became the chief town of Espanola and the seat of Spanish rule in +America. In rapid succession posts and mining camps were established in +various parts of the island, and by 1513 there were seventeen chartered +towns in Espanola alone. Santo Domingo at that time had a population of +fifteen hundred persons. It was some fifteen years after the settlement +of Espanola before the other islands began to be occupied, attention +being first given to making cruises along the southern mainland. Ovando +began the conquest of the other islands, however, and Diego Columbus, +his successor, prosecuted the work with more vigor. In 1508 Ponce de +Leon was sent to conquer Porto Rico, and in 1511 the present city of San +Juan was founded. The settlement of Jamaica was begun in 1509 by +Esquivel, under orders of Diego Columbus. Several towns were soon +established, and a shipyard opened. In 1537 Jamaica became a possession +of the family of Columbus, with the title of Marquis till 1557, then of +Duke of La Vega. In 1508 Ocampo circumnavigated Cuba and in 1511 +Velasquez began the conquest of the island. Santiago was founded in +1514 and Havana a year later. Thus the West Indies became the nursery of +Spanish culture and institutions in America. + +[Illustration: The Development of the West Indies, 1492-1519.] + +Gold mining was important in Espanola for a time, but the mines were +soon exhausted. In all the islands cotton, sugar, and cattle raising +soon acquired some proportions, but the native population rapidly +decreased, negro slaves were expensive, and rich profits attracted the +settlers to the mainland; consequently, after the first quarter century +the islands declined in prosperity and Porto Rico was for a time +actually abandoned. + + +BEGINNINGS OF COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION AND POLICY + +The Casa de Contratacion.--For ten years Fonseca remained at the head of +American affairs, being in effect colonial minister. In 1503 the Casa de +Contratacion or House of Trade was established at Seville, to direct +commerce, navigation, and all related matters of the Indies. In charge +of the Casa was a board of officials, including factors, treasurer, +auditor, and notary. They maintained a warehouse for receiving all goods +and treasure going to or from the islands. They were required to keep +informed of the needs of the Indies, assemble and forward supplies, +organize trading expeditions, and instruct and license pilots. Later on +a professorship of cosmography was established for the purpose of +instructing pilots, who were required to keep diaries of their voyages. +This provision resulted in the accumulation of a vast amount of +historical and geographical information in the government archives, much +of which is still extant. + +The Council of the Indies.--Spanish America was a possession of the +sovereigns of Castile, as heirs of Queen Isabella, under whose patronage +America had been discovered. At first, legislative and political matters +relating to the Indies had been considered by the sovereigns in +consultation with Fonseca and other personal advisors, but to supervise +these matters a new board was gradually formed. In 1517 it was formally +organized, among the members being Fonseca and Peter Martyr, the +historian. In 1524 the board was reorganized as the Council of the +Indies. This body was the supreme legislative and judicial authority, +under the king, of Spanish-America. The Casa de Contratacion was +subordinate to the Council, which likewise supervised all civil and +ecclesiastical appointments in the colonies. Usually some of the members +of the Council had served in the Indies. + +The governors-general and the audiencia.--Ovando ruled in Espanola until +1509, when Diego Columbus, son of Christopher, after a struggle for his +hereditary rights, was made admiral and governor-general of the Indies. +Complaint against Diego's administration led to the establishment at +Santo Domingo of a superior court with appeals from the decisions of the +governor-general. This was the germ of the Audiencia of Santo Domingo, +which, for a time, was the administrative head of the greater part of +the Indies. By decree of September 14, 1524, the Audiencia was formally +established, with a president, four judges, a fiscal, a deputy +grand-chancellor, and other officers. + +The towns.--In the early sixteenth century the colonial towns showed +some political activity. In 1507 the municipalities of Espanola sent +delegates to Spain to petition for the rights enjoyed by Spanish towns. +The request was granted, and, among other privileges, fourteen towns +were granted coats-of-arms. Conventions of delegates from the towns were +often held in these early days, to consider common needs and to draw up +memorials to the home government. In 1530 Charles V decreed that such +conventions should not be held without his consent, and the tendency +thereafter was toward stronger absolutism and away from local political +life. But there never was a time when the right of petition was not +freely exercised, and with great effect on actual administration. In the +sixteenth century the towns sometimes elected proctors to represent them +before the Council of the Indies. In the seventeenth century they +sometimes employed residents of Spain for this purpose. + +In the colonial towns, both Spanish and native, there was some degree of +self-government. Each Spanish town had its _cabildo_ composed of +_regidores_. In 1523 the _regidores_ were made elective, but the +tendency was to secure the office by purchase or inheritance, as was the +case in Spain. The functions of the _cabildos_ were similar to those of +a New England town council, embracing legislation, police matters, care +of highways, sanitation, and analogous functions. + +Emigration.--The notion sometimes voiced that Spain did not "colonize" +America is unfounded. Emigration to America was encouraged by subsidies +and other means, and in early days large colonies were sent by +government authority. It has been seen, for example, that on his first +three voyages Columbus took over about 100, 1500, and 200 colonists +respectively, and that Ovando took 2500. During the entire sixteenth +century the emigration to America averaged from 1000 to 2000 persons per +year. In general, emigration was restricted to Spaniards of undoubted +orthodoxy, hence Jews, Moors, and recent converts were excluded. +Naturalization was relatively easy, however, and by means of it many +foreigners were admitted. Portuguese, for example, were numerous in the +Indies, especially among the seamen. Charles V adopted the liberal +policy of opening the Indies to subjects of all parts of his empire, but +Philip II returned to the more exclusive practice. Later on, as the +trade monopoly broke down, it became necessary to admit foreign traders +to American ports, but they were required to return within specified +periods. + +Married Spaniards emigrating from Spain were urged or even required to +take their families but the emigration of unmarried Spanish women was +discouraged. Intermarriage of Spaniards with native women was favored by +the authorities and, as a large majority of the immigrants were single +men, the practice was common, either with or without formal sanction. An +effort to supply the lack of women by sending white slaves to the +islands failed, and in 1514 marriage with Indian women was approved by +royal order. With the opening of Mexico and Peru the island colonies +were in danger of depopulation. To prevent this from happening, +migration to the mainland was forbidden under heavy penalties +(1525-1526), and the recruiting of new conquering expeditions in the +islands was prohibited. To secure settlers for Espanola, in 1529 +attractive feudal lordships were offered to founders of colonies. + +Agriculture.--Agriculture in the West Indies was encouraged by all means +available. Duties on imports were remitted for a term of years. In 1497 +the sovereigns ordered a public farm established to provide loans of +stock and seed, to be paid back by colonists within a term of years. +Free lands were granted to settlers, with a reservation of the precious +metals to the crown. Special orders were given for mulberry and silkworm +culture. These efforts to promote agriculture in the West Indies, +however, were made largely nugatory by commercial restrictions and the +superior attractions of the mainland. + +Indian policy.--Columbus found Espanola inhabited, it was estimated, by +a quarter of a million of Indians, and the other islands similarly +populated. He was instructed to treat the natives well and to do all in +his power to convert them. The sovereigns frequently repeated these +orders, and commanded that the natives be treated as free men and paid +for their work. But the shortage of a labor-supply and the relative +position of the two races led quickly and almost inevitably to the +practical enslavement of the weaker. + +Encomiendas.--Following the rebellion of 1495, the subdued natives were +put under tribute in the form of specified amounts of products, +commutable to labor. In 1497 a practice was begun of allotting lands to +Spaniards, the forced labor of the natives going with the land. +Complaint being made by priests and seculars that the Indians could +neither be made to work, nor be taught or converted without restraint, +in 1503 it was ordered that they should be congregated (_congregados_) +in permanent villages and put under protectors (_encomenderos_), who +were obliged to teach and protect them, and were empowered to exact +their labor, though for pay and as free men. This provision contained +the essence of the encomienda system, which was designed to protect and +civilize the native, as well as to exploit him. But there was always +danger that the former aim would yield to the latter, and, contrary to +royal will, the condition of the natives fast became one of practical +slavery. + +Depopulation of the islands.--Moreover, in a very short time the islands +became nearly depopulated of natives. Many were slain in the wars of +conquest and during rebellions, or died of starvation while in hiding. +Perhaps a greater number died of smallpox, measles, and other diseases +brought from Europe. The result was that by 1514 the native population +of Espanola was reduced to 14,000. A similar reduction of native +population occurred in the other islands as they were successively +occupied. + +Indian slavery.--Indian slavery was not generally allowed in theory. +But the Lesser Antilles, the Bahamas, and Florida were found to be +inhabited by hostile cannibals, who were regarded as fair prize for +enslavement. As early as 1494 Columbus suggested that permission be +given to sell Caribs. In 1498 he took a cargo of six hundred of them to +Spain. Soon it became an accepted legal principle that cannibals and +rebellious Indians could be enslaved. The idea was encouraged by the +lack of Spanish laborers, and by the disappearance of the native +population of Espanola. Slave-hunting was soon extended, therefore, to +the coasts of Florida, Panuco, and other parts of the mainland. The +practice was continued, as the frontier advanced, to the eighteenth +century when, for example, Apaches of Texas and Pawnees of Kansas were +often sold to Work on plantations in Louisiana or Cuba. + +Las Casas.--Numerous prominent Spaniards in the Indies early opposed +encomiendas on moral grounds. Among them the most aggressive was Father +Bartolome de las Casas. He had come to the Indies as a layman, had held +an encomienda after becoming a priest, but in 1514 had renounced it. In +the following year he went to Spain, secured the appointment of a +commission of Geronymite friars to enforce the laws regarding Indians in +the islands, and was himself made Protector of the Indians. In 1516 he +returned to Espanola, but, being dissatisfied with the work of the +commission, he returned to Spain, where he favored negro slavery as a +means of sparing the natives. In 1521 he tried to found a Utopian colony +on Tierra Firme, to furnish an humane example, but through unfortunate +circumstances it failed completely. + + +EXPLORATION OF THE MAINLAND COASTS AND THE SEARCH FOR A STRAIT + +Voyages toward the South.--The discovery by Columbus (1498) of pearls on +the southern mainland, combined with the Portuguese successes in India, +gave new incentive to voyages, and within the next few years many +thousands of miles of coastline of South and Central America were +explored in the interest of trade, discovery, and international rivalry. +In 1499 Ojeda explored from near Paramaribo to the Gulf of Maracaibo. In +1500 Pinzon and DeLepe sailed north to the Pearl Coast from points near +8 deg. and 10 deg. south, respectively, and Bastidas made known the coast from +the Gulf of Maracaibo to Nombre de Dios, on the Isthmus of Panama. The +chain of discoveries was carried in 1502 from the north shore of +Honduras to Nombre de Dios by the fourth voyage of Columbus, made +primarily in search of a strait through the troublesome lands which he +had discovered. In 1504 La Cosa and Vespucius, during a trading voyage +on the Gulf of Uraba, ascended the Atrato River two hundred miles by a +route which has since been proposed as an interoceanic canal. Meanwhile +numerous other voyages were made to the Pearl Coast for commercial +purposes. They added little more to geographical knowledge, but led to +colonization on the southern mainland. + +Portuguese competition.--Spanish efforts to find a passage to the Indian +Ocean by going to the southward were stimulated by the Portuguese +voyages in the same direction. In 1500 Cabral, on his way to India, took +possession for Portugal at a point near 18 deg. south latitude on the +Brazilian coast. In the following year a Portuguese expedition, in which +Americus Vespucius was pilot, explored the coast from 5 deg. to 32 deg. south +latitude, discovering the La Plata River on the way. It was to this +voyage of Vespucius, made in the interest of Portugal, that America owes +its name. First applied to South America, it was soon extended to the +northern continent. A Portuguese voyage made in 1503 by Jaques, in +search of a passage to the East, is said to have reached 52 deg. south. + +Establishment of the Portuguese Empire in the East.--Gama's voyage was +promptly followed by the founding of Portuguese colonies in the East. +The chief actor in this work was Alburquerque, who accompanied an +expedition to India in 1503 and became viceroy in 1509, an office which +he held until his death in 1515. During his rule the Portuguese +established themselves at Goa, which gave them control of the Malabar +coast, and at Malacca, from which point they were able to control the +trade of the Malay Peninsula and the Spice Islands. Ormuz was captured, +making them supreme in the commerce of the Persian Gulf. In succeeding +years they acquired Ceylon and established trading settlements in Burma, +China, and Japan. + +Continued quest for a strait.--These Portuguese successes were an +incentive to further Spanish efforts to find the strait. In 1506 Vicente +Yanez Pinzon, accompanied by Juan de Solis, in search of a passage +explored the Gulf of Honduras and eastern Yucatan from Guanaja Islands, +the western limit of Columbus's voyage, to the Island of Caria. In 1509 +Solis, in the service of Spain, reached 42 deg. south, while in search of +the desired route. The discovery of the Pacific Ocean by Balboa in 1513 +aroused Spain to renewed efforts to find the strait. Exploration was at +once undertaken on the southern shores of Panama, and in 1515 Solis +again was sent down the Brazilian coast. Reaching the La Plata River, he +was killed and eaten by the savages. + +Magellan and Elcano.--The solution of the problem of the southern strait +was left for Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese who had seen service in +the Far East. Returning to Portugal, he proposed to the king the opening +of a route to the East by going west. His offer being refused, like +Columbus he turned to Spain, where his plan found favor. Sailing with +five vessels in 1519, he discovered the Straits of Magellan and crossed +the Pacific Ocean to the Philippines, where he was killed in 1521. Part +of the crew, led by Elcano, continued round the world and reached Spain +in September, 1522, after one of the most remarkable voyages in all +history. + +The mapping of the Gulf coast.--Meanwhile the outlines of the Gulf of +Mexico had been made known, and by 1525 the continued search for the +strait and efforts to settle on the mainland had carried Spanish, +explorers nearly the whole length of the North Atlantic coast. In 1508 +Ocampo had circumnavigated Cuba. Sailing from Porto Rico in 1513 Juan +Ponce de Leon, who was interested in slave-hunting and exploration, +discovered and coasted the Peninsula of Florida. + +Four years later Cordova, under a license from Velasquez, governor of +Cuba, explored Yucatan, finding signs of large cities and of wealth. The +reports aroused new interest in the mainland, and Velasquez sent out +Grijalva, who coasted the shore from Yucatan to Panuco River, securing +on the way twenty thousand dollars' worth of gold. To take advantage of +Grijalva's discoveries, Velasquez organized another expedition and put +it in charge of Hernando Cortes. Garay, governor of Jamaica, also sent +out an expedition, under Pineda, with instructions to seek new lands and +look for a strait. Sailing north to the mainland in 1519, Pineda +completed the mapping of the Gulf by coasting from Florida to Vera Cruz +and back. On the way west he discovered the Mississippi River, which he +called Rio del Espiritu Santo. On the strength of Pineda's discoveries, +Garay now secured a patent to the northern Gulf shore, and undertook to +colonize the province of Amichel. + +The North Atlantic coast.--The exploration of the North Atlantic coast +soon followed. In 1513 De Leon had rounded the Peninsula of Florida. +Eight years later Gordillo, sailing from Espanola in the employ of +Ayllon, and Quexos, a slave hunter whom Gordillo met on the way, reached +the mainland at 33 deg. 30', near Cape Fear in a region called Chicora. +Ayllon in 1523 secured a patent authorizing him to seek a strait in the +north and found a colony. In Ayllon's employ, Quexos in 1525 coasted +north perhaps to 40 deg.. In the same year Stephen Gomez, under contract to +seek a northern strait, descended the coast from Nova Scotia to Florida. +Over the northern part of his route he had been preceded by the English +explorer John Cabot (1497). With the return of Gomez the entire Atlantic +shore from the Straits of Magellan to Nova Scotia had been explored by +expeditions made in the name of Spain. + + +THE MAYAS AND THE NAHUAS + +A Double Movement.--Having subdued the islands and run the eastern +coastline, the Spaniards proceeded to take possession of the mainland. +To the southward they were attracted by trade, rumors of gold, and the +hope of finding a strait leading to the East. To the westward they were +drawn by the semi-civilized Nahuas and Mayas, who lived in substantial +towns, possessed accumulated wealth, had a stable population used to +hard labor, and were worth exploiting. The advance into the interior was +a double movement, one proceeding north from a base on the Isthmus of +Panama, the other radiating in all directions from the Valley of Mexico. + +Two Civilizations.--The Nahuas occupied Mexico south of a line drawn +roughly from Tampico through Guadalajara to the Pacific Ocean. The Mayas +lived principally in Yucatan and Guatemala. The Nahuas had acquired +much of their culture from the Mayas, and the cultural areas overlapped. +These peoples had several features in common. They lived in substantial +pueblos, or towns, and practiced agriculture by means of irrigation, +raising extensively maize, beans, potatoes, and tobacco. Maguey was a +staple crop in the Valley of Mexico and henequen in Yucatan. Mayas and +Nahuas both lacked important domestic animals. They were dominated by a +powerful priesthood and practiced slavery and human sacrifice. + +Maya Characteristics.--Certain features distinguished the two +civilizations. The Mayas had imposing architectural structures devoted +to religion, notably at Palenque, Uxmal, and Chichen Itza. They had made +considerable advance toward written records in the form of ideograms. +More than 1500 Maya manuscripts, written on henequen, have been +preserved but are as yet in the main undeciphered. + +The Nahuas.--The Nahuas had made remarkable progress in astronomical +calculations, and their worship was closely connected with the planetary +system. The most notable religious monuments were the pyramids which are +widely scattered over the country. Some of these, it is believed, are of +Maya origin. Calendars of great perfection had been devised, the famous +Calendar Stone now preserved in the National Museum at Mexico being one +of the rare treasures of archaeology. The Nahuas had achieved a more +highly developed agriculture than the Mayas, had a stronger military and +political organization, and larger and better constructed towns. Of +these the most notable was Mexico (Tenochtitlan). It was built in a lake +in the center of the great valley of Anahuac, and had a population of +perhaps 60,000 when the Spaniards came. + +Nahua History.--The Nahuas had come from the north about the time when +the Germanic tribes were overrunning southern Europe. According to their +own traditions the first Nahua tribe, the Toltecs, entered the Valley of +Mexico in 596 A.D., and were overpowered by the barbarians whom they +found there, but civilized them. In succeeding centuries they were +followed by other Nahua tribes, whose names are now borne by numerous +cities in the Valley of Mexico. Among the late comers were the Aztecs, +who, according to tradition, founded their lake-city in 1325 A.D. Their +military stronghold was the crag of Chapultepec, where the presidential +mansion of Mexico now stands. + +The Triple Alliance.--Among the numerous cities or pueblos built by +these struggling tribes four emerged into prominence. First +Atzcapotzalco, then Tezcuco, then Mexico acquired supremacy. Placing +itself at the head of a triple alliance (Mexico, Tezcuco, and Tacuba), +Mexico in the fifteenth century engaged in a series of conquests which +carried the Aztec power to the Gulf of Mexico, to the Pacific Ocean, and +well into the Maya regions of Central America. War became a national +impulse, closely identified with the religion of which human sacrifice +was a central feature. The "empire" was but a military overlordship, +however, and had for its chief objects tribute and human beings for +sacrifice. + +The hegemony was not secure, nor did it embrace all of the +semi-civilized peoples. The Tarascans and other tribes to the west had +resisted its power, and shortly before the advent of the Spaniards the +Tlascalans to the east had defeated the Aztecs in battle. At the coming +of the Europeans the "empire" was losing its hold. The subject peoples +were becoming more restless under the burden of tribute; and the ruler, +Montezuma II, was a superstitious fatalist. The Spanish conquerors +arrived at the opportune moment for success. + + +THE CONQUEST OF CENTRAL AMERICA + +Castilla del Oro.--At the same time that the islands other than Espanola +were being occupied, beginnings of settlement were made in Central +America. In 1503 Christopher Columbus had attempted to establish a +colony on the Veragua coast, but had failed. After several successful +trading voyages had been made, however, two colonies were planned for +the southern mainland. Ojeda received a grant called Uraba, east of the +Gulf of Darien, and Nicuesa obtained a grant called Veragua, lying west +of that Gulf. Ojeda founded a colony at San Sebastian (1509), which was +shortly afterward moved to Darien, where Vasco Nunez de Balboa soon +became the leading figure and governor _ad interim_ (1511). Nicuesa's +colony was founded at Nombre de Dios (1510), but it did not flourish. +The Darien region became known as Nueva Andalucia, and in 1513 the +whole southern mainland, excepting Veragua, Honduras and Yucatan, to the +west and Paria, to the east, was reorganized into one grand jurisdiction +called Castilla del Oro, and made independent of Espanola. + +Balboa.--Hearing of gold and a sea toward the south, Balboa led a band +of men in 1513 across the Isthmus of Panama and discovered the Pacific +Ocean. The discovery was an important factor in leading to Magellan's +great voyage, already recounted, and it set in motion a wave of +explorations both up and down the Pacific coast, and led to the conquest +of Peru. Balboa had made enemies, and he fell under the suspicion of the +new governor of Castilla del Oro, Pedrarias de Avila, who arrived at +Darien in 1514 with a colony of fifteen hundred persons; but a +conciliation occurred, and in 1515 Balboa was made Adelantado of the +Island of Coiba, in the South Sea. To explore that water he built +vessels on the north coast and had them transported across the Isthmus +on the backs of Indians. The vessels proved unseaworthy, and while +Balboa was building two more at the Isle of Pearls, he was summoned by +Pedrarias, charged with treason, and beheaded (1519). + +Exploration on the South Sea.--Balboa was succeeded by Espinosa in +charge of the southern coast. He at once began plundering raids westward +by land, seeking gold and slaves. The South Sea now became the chief +center of interest, and, to provide a better base, in 1519 Pedrarias +founded Panama, moved his capital thither, refounded Nombre de Dios, and +opened a road across the Isthmus between the two places. + +Rapidly now the conquerors and explorers, under Pedrarias, pushed their +way westward, by water and by land. With two of the vessels built by +Balboa, in 1519 Espinosa sent an expedition under Castaneda which +reached the Gulf of Nicoya, some five hundred miles from Panama. In 1522 +Andres Nino and Gil Gonzalez Davila fitted out a joint expedition, +planning to sail west one thousand leagues, to seek spices, gold, and +silver. After sailing one hundred leagues westward, Gonzalez proceeded +west by land, while Nino continued with the fleet. Gonzalez reached and +conquered the country bordering on the Gulf of Nicoya and Lake +Nicaragua, places so named from local chieftains. Nino sailed west to +Fonseca Bay, thus coasting the entire length of Nicaragua. When the +commanders returned to Panama they reported thirty-two thousand +baptisms, and presents in gold and pearls worth more than $112,000. + +[Illustration: The Development of Central America, 1509-1543.] + +The Conquest of Costa Rica and Nicaragua.--These profitable explorations +stimulated renewed interest, and were followed by conquest and +settlement in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Gonzalez desired to return at +once to occupy the country which he had explored, and, meeting hindrance +from Pedrarias, he went to Espanola to organize another expedition, +while awaiting royal consent. Meanwhile Pedrarias set about conquering +Nicaragua for himself. With funds borrowed from Francisco Pizarro and +others, he equipped a small expedition and sent it under Francisco +Hernandez de Cordova. One of the commanders was Hernando de Soto, who +later became famous in Peru and Florida. Proceeding westward, in 1524 +Cordova founded Bruselas, on the Gulf of Nicoya, and parceled out the +natives among the settlers. Continuing into Nicaragua, he founded the +cities of Leon and Granada. In the struggle which followed, Bruselas was +abandoned and the settlement of Costa Rica proceeded slowly. + +Gonzalez in 1524, having secured royal permission, entered Honduras from +the northeast, with an expedition destined for Nicaragua. De Soto, sent +against him by Cordova, was easily subdued, but Gonzalez was defeated by +the agents of Cortes, who was now engaged in the conquest of Mexico. In +Nicaragua Cordova revolted against Pedrarias and was executed. In 1527 +Pedrarias became governor of Nicaragua, where he ruled till 1531. During +all these wranglings the Indians were the chief sufferers. They were +granted in encomienda, employed as beasts of burden, or branded and sold +as slaves in Panama, Peru, or the West Indies. + +Guatemala, San Salvador, and Honduras.--Meanwhile the north-moving +conquerors who went out from Panama had met and struggled in Guatemala, +San Salvador, and Honduras with the companions of Cortes, moving +southward from Mexico. The history of the conquest of these disputed +regions, therefore, becomes a part of the story of the exploits of +Cortes and his lieutenants, recounted below. + +Exploration of San Juan River.--One of the acts which relieve the bloody +story of the career of Pedrarias was the sending in 1529 of an +expedition under Estete to find the outlet to Lake Nicaragua. Estete +descended the San Juan River until a glimpse was had of the sea, but +hostile Indians prevented him from reaching it. It was believed that the +lake and river drained a country rich with gold, and explorations +continued. In 1536 the San Juan, with tributary branches, was explored +by Alonso Carrero and Diego Machuco, under orders from the new governor +of Nicaragua. Soon the lake and river became the principal highway from +Nicaragua to the Atlantic Ocean, and to the Porto Bello fairs. + +The Dukedom of Veragua.--It was a long time after Nicuesa's failure in +1510 before another attempt was made to settle Veragua, one reason being +that the region was tenaciously claimed by the heirs of Columbus. In +1535 Alonso Gutierrez was made governor of Veragua, as agent of the +widow of Diego Columbus, but misfortune attended his efforts to found a +colony. Shortly afterward (1537) the discoverer's grandson, Luis, was +made Duke of Veragua; several attempts to colonize it failed, however, +and in 1556 the region was surrendered for a small pension. + +Continued struggle in Central America.--These conquests were but the +beginning of a long struggle of the Spaniards with the natives in +Central America. The first stages of the conquest were over by the +middle of the sixteenth century, but many parts of the country were +still unconquered at the end of the seventeenth. Some tribes, indeed, +are unsubdued and uncivilized to this day. + + +THE CONQUEST OF THE VALLEY OF MEXICO + +The revolt of Cortes.--In the very year of the founding of Panama +Hernando Cortes entered Mexico. The return of the expeditions of Cordova +and Grijalva to the Mexican coast had caused excitement in Cuba. +Governor Velasquez prepared an expedition to follow them up, and +appointed Cortes to lead it. Becoming distrustful of his lieutenant, +Velasquez sent messengers to recall him, but Cortes set forth, +nevertheless. In defiance of the governor, on February 18, 1519, he left +Cuba, a rebel, with eleven vessels, some six hundred men, and sixteen +horses. Proceeding to Tabasco and up the coast, he founded Vera Cruz, +by whose _cabildo_ he was chosen captain-general and _justicia mayor_, +and his position was thus given the color of legality. By this act +Cortes placed himself under the immediate protection of the king. + +The march to Mexico.--On the way and while at Vera Cruz Cortes had +learned that the Aztec "empire" was honeycombed with dissension, and +that the subject peoples were burdened with tribute and filled with +hatred for Montezuma, the native ruler at the city of Mexico. He +therefore assumed the role of deliverer, and the Indians rallied to his +standard. At Cempoalla he connived at a revolt against Montezuma's tax +gatherers. Scuttling his ships and thus cutting off all chance for +retreat, in August he set out for Mexico. His march was a succession of +audacious deeds. At Cempoalla he threw down heathen idols and imprisoned +the chiefs. At Tlascala he was attacked by several thousand warriors, +but his genius changed them into allies in his train. At Cholula, +discovering a conspiracy, he raked the streets with cannon shot and +burned the leaders at the stake. In triumph he entered the great pueblo +of Tenochtitlan or Mexico. While lodged as a guest of Montezuma in the +center of the city, he seized the Aztec ruler and held him prisoner. + +The loss and recapture of the city.--In the spring of 1520 Cortes +learned that Panfilo de Narvaez had arrived at Vera Cruz with nearly a +thousand men, under orders from Velasquez to arrest him. Leaving Pedro +de Alvarado in charge, he hastened to the coast, won over most of +Narvaez's men, and then hurried back to Mexico. During his absence the +Aztecs had revolted, through the rashness of Alvarado. Soon after the +return of Cortes the natives rose again, killed Montezuma, and replaced +him by Cuauhtemoc, a more vigorous leader. Cortes now sought safety in +flight, but during the night retreat he lost more than half his men. +This "unfortunate night" became known as "Noche Triste." But the defeat +was only temporary. Raising new allies, Cortes conquered the towns round +about Mexico, built a fleet at Tlascala, launched it on Lake Tezcuco, +besieged the city, and by a combined attack, by land and water, on +August 13, 1521, he recaptured Mexico, the most important native town in +all America. + +Cortes's contest with Velasquez.--Knowing that Velasquez would oppose +him, Cortes, while at Vera Cruz in 1519, had at once sent agents, +bearing rich presents, to represent him at the court of Charles V. Then +began a three-year contest with the agents of the Cuban governor. The +delay was fortunate for Cortes, for in the course of it he won favor by +his remarkable feats of conquest. Through the influence of Fonseca, +Velasquez secured the appointment of Cristobal de Tapia, an official of +Espanola, as governor of New Spain, to take charge of the government and +investigate Cortes. But Cortes got rid of him as he had disposed of +Narvaez. Arriving at Vera Cruz in December, 1521, Tapia was met by a +council of delegates from the conqueror and practically driven from the +country, on the ground that new orders were expected from the king. + +Cortes made Governor and Captain-General.--Before this Cortes had sent +Avila to the Audiencia of Santo Domingo to obtain its favor. Scarcely +had Tapia been ejected when Avila returned with tentative authority for +Cortes, subject to royal approval, to continue his conquests and to +grant encomiendas. This greatly strengthened Cortes's position. Having +succeeded so well in Espanola, Avila was now sent to Spain. Here he +triumphed also, for on October 15, 1522, the emperor approved the acts +of Cortes and made him governor and captain-general of New Spain. The +victory of Cortes was as complete as the discomfiture of Velasquez and +Fonseca. + +Mexico rebuilt. Encomiendas granted.--The work of conquest on the +mainland was accompanied by the evolution of government and the +establishment of Spanish civilization, just as had been the case in the +West Indies during the earlier stages of the struggle. Wherever the +Spaniards settled, they planted their political, religious, economic, +and social institutions. Mexico was rebuilt in 1522 as a Spanish +municipality, Pedro de Alvarado, the most notable of Cortes's +lieutenants, being made first _alcalde mayor_. In the regions subdued +the principal provinces were assigned to the conquerors as encomiendas. +Much of the actual work of control was accomplished through native +chiefs, who were assigned Spanish offices and held responsible for good +order and the collection of tribute. This method was later adopted by +the British in India. + +[Illustration: The Development of Southern Mexico, 1519-1543.] + + +THE SPREAD OF THE CONQUEST + +The semi-civilized tribes.--With the fall of the city the first stage of +the conquest had ended. Within the following decade most of the +semi-civilized tribes of southern Mexico and Central America were +brought under the dominion of Spain. During this period Spanish +activities were directed from the Valley of Mexico to the eastward, +southward and westward. From the south came rumors of gold and reports +of the South Sea, while to the north, among the barbarian tribes, there +was little, at this stage of the conquest, to attract the conquerors. + +Factors in the conquest.--Several factors explain the marvelous rapidity +with which Spanish rule was extended. The conquerors were looking for +gold and accumulated treasure; not finding it in one place they hastened +to another, led off by any wild tale of riches. The fame of the +Spaniards preceded them and paralyzed resistance. They were everywhere +aided by great armies of allies, eager to help destroy their hated +enemies. Finally, Cortes, himself a genius, was assisted by an able body +of lieutenants; in the spread of the conquest Cortes remained the +central figure, but the actual work fell mainly to Orozco, Alvarado, +Olid, Sandoval, Chico, Avalos, Montejo and other subordinates. + +Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, and Tehuantepec.--In the fall of 1520 Sandoval, in +search of gold and to punish rebellious Indians, invaded southern Vera +Cruz with a handful of soldiers, aided by thirty thousand Indian allies. +To hold the district he founded the towns of Medellin and Espiritu +Santo. Before the expulsion of Cortes from the city, goldseekers had +been sent to Oaxaca and Tehuantepec and were well received, but the +"Noche Triste" was followed by a reaction. Orozco was sent, therefore, +to subdue Oaxaca, which he reported to be rich in gold. In 1522 an +attack by hostile neighbors called Alvarado to Tehuantepec. Gold was +found, and as the district bordered on the South Sea, settlements were +formed to hold it. + +Olid in Michoacan.--The same year, 1522, marks the extension of Spanish +rule into Michoacan, the territory of the hitherto independent +Tarascans. The cacique Tangaxoan visited Cortes and made submission, and +in return Olid was sent to found a settlement at Patzcuaro on Lake +Chapala. Before the end of the year part of the settlers moved to the +seacoast and settled at Zacatula, in the modern state of Guerrero, where +a post had been established. + +Colima and Jalisco.--From Michoacan the conquest at once spread north +into Colima and Jalisco. Gold being reported in Colima, Avalos and +Chico, lieutenants of Olid entered the country, but were defeated by the +natives. Thereupon Olid followed, subdued the mountain region by force, +and founded the town of Colima (1524), which became a base for new +advances. On his return to Mexico, Olid brought samples of pearls from +Colima, and reports of an Amazon Island ten days up the coast, where +there were said to be great riches. To investigate these reports, in +1524 Francisco Cortes was sent north. He reached Rio de Tololotlan, and +secured the allegiance of the "queen" of Jalisco, but found little gold +and no Amazon Island. + +Amichel and Panuco.--In 1522 the Huasteca country, to the northeast, +came under the control of Cortes. It was three years before this that +Pineda, as representative of Garay, governor of Jamaica, had visited the +region. Garay applied for a grant of a province called Amichel, +extending from Florida to Mexico, and set about colonizing it. In 1520, +before the patent was secured, a party of his men met disaster near +Panuco River. Hearing of Garay's operations, in 1522 Cortes led forty +thousand allies into the country, subdued it, and founded San Esteban, +on Panuco River. In 1523 Garay led a colony to the same region, but +found himself forestalled by Cortes, by whom he was sent to Mexico, +where he soon died. The rivalry of the Spaniards encouraged an Indian +revolt, but Sandoval, as agent of Cortes, put down the disturbance with +extreme cruelty. In 1527 the Panuco district, under the name of Victoria +Garayana was separated from Mexico, Nuno de Guzman being made governor, +while the region called Florida, further north, was assigned to Panfilo +de Narvaez. Guzman's rule of six months was characterized by attempts to +extend conquests northward into Narvaez's territory, by wars with the +Huasteca chieftains, and by constant slave-hunting raids, through which +the country was nearly depopulated. + +Alvarado in Guatemala and San Salvador.--By this time the conquests of +Cortes and his lieutenants had extended into Central America, where they +encountered, the agents of Pedrarias. In 1522 embassies from the large +cities of Utatlan and Guatemala had visited Cortes and made submission. +In the following year Alvarado, with four hundred Spaniards and twenty +thousand allies, entered the region and conquered the Quiches and +Cakchiquels. This task partially completed, he continued south and +extended his conquests into San Salvador (1524). + +Olid and Casas in Honduras.--Cortes believed that Honduras was rich, and +that a strait lay between it and Guatemala. Moreover, Gil Gonzalez and +the agents of Pedrarias had begun to operate there. Consequently, at the +same time that Alvarado went to Guatemala, Olid was despatched to +Honduras. Reaching there in 1524 he tried to imitate his master's +example by making a conquest for himself. He succeeded in defeating +Gonzalez, as has been seen, but was in turn beheaded by Francisco de las +Casas, who was sent by Cortes to overthrow him. During this struggle the +city of Trujillo was founded. + +The march of Cortes to Honduras.--In doubt as to the wisdom of sending +Las Casas after Olid, in October, 1524, Cortes set out for Honduras in +person, with about one hundred and forty Spaniards and three hundred +Indians in his train, the latter led by three famous Aztec chiefs. In +his rear was driven a herd of swine. The route lay through southern Vera +Cruz, Tabasco, and Chiapas, to Golfo Dulce, his way being obstructed by +vast morasses, swollen streams, and flint-strewn mountains. In a single +province fifty bridges had to be constructed in a journey of as many +miles. In Chiapas it became necessary to bridge with trees a channel +five hundred paces wide. On the way the Aztec chieftains, including the +noble Cuauhtemoc, being charged with conspiracy, were hanged, an act +which is variously characterized as a "necessary punishment" and a "foul +murder." Leaving his cousin, Hernando Saavedra, in command as +captain-general in Trujillo, Cortes sent his men home by way of +Guatemala and returned by sea to Mexico in May, 1526. After attempting +for two years to explore on the South Sea, in 1528 he went to Spain to +refute his enemies, chief of whom was Nuno de Guzman, now president of +the recently established Audiencia of Mexico. He returned two years +later. + +Yucatan.--The conquest of Yucatan was begun in 1527 by Francisco de +Montejo, an agent of Cortes. Initial success was followed by native +revolts, and it was 1541 before the conquest was made secure. There were +frequent rebellions thereafter, but never again united resistance. + +Las Casas in Guatemala.--Thus far the conquest had been one of force. +But now an example of the power of gentleness was furnished by Father +Las Casas, the Dominican friar who had opposed encomiendas so vigorously +in Espanola. About 1532 he entered Nicaragua as a missionary, where he +attacked the ill-treatment of the Indians. Being opposed by the +governor, in 1536 he went to Guatemala. Shortly before this he had +written a treatise to prove that conversion by force was wrong, and that +only persuasion should be used. To test his views he was granted sole +control for five years of a hostile region known as "the Land of War," +and by mild means he and his companions soon converted the district into +a land of True Peace (Vera Paz), as it is still called. + +Guzman in Sinaloa.--While Cortes was in Spain Guzman, fearing his own +downfall, and hoping to save himself by offering new provinces to the +king, undertook the conquest of northern Jalisco and of Sinaloa. Leaving +Mexico in December, 1529, with ten thousand allies, he marched through +Michoacan and Jalisco, leaving behind a trail of fire and blood, for +which he has ever since been execrated. Part of Sinaloa was explored, +and Culiacan was founded as an outpost in 1531. The region subdued by +Guzman was named Nueva Galicia, of which the conqueror became governor +and Compostela the capital. + +Buffer province of Queretaro.--At the coming of the Spaniards the +country north of the valley of Mexico had never been conquered by the +Aztecs. The Spaniards, in turn, adopted the policy of entrusting its +subjugation to native caciques, treating the region as a buffer Indian +state. The leading figure in the conquest was a Christianized Otomi +chief, named Nicolas de San Luis. By Charles V he was made a knight of +the Order of Santiago and a captain-general in the army. Another Otomi +cacique who played a similar though less conspicuous part was Fernando +de Tapia. The most notable event in the conquest was the reduction of +Queretaro in 1531. For thirty years San Luis served the Spaniards in the +control of the Queretaro border. + +The Mixton War.--The first half century of expansion toward the north +was closed by a widespread native uprising in Nueva Galicia which for a +time checked advance in that direction and even caused a contraction of +the frontier. Guzman had left Nueva Galicia in a deplorable condition. +After several minor uprisings, the rebellious natives broke forth in +1541, during the absence of Governor Coronado and his army in New +Mexico. The Indians refused to pay tribute, killed their encomenderos +and the missionaries, destroyed the crops, and took refuge in the +_penoles_ or cliffs of Mixton, Nochistlan, Acatic, and other places near +Guadalajara. The defence fell to Cristobal de Onate, lieutenant governor +of Nueva Galicia. Pedro de Alvarado, who chanced to arrive from +Guatemala at Navidad with a force of men, led them against Nochistlan +and lost his life in the encounter. Viceroy Mendoza at last took the +field with four hundred and fifty Spaniards and thirty thousand allies, +and crushed the revolt. + + +EXPLORATIONS IN THE NORTHERN INTERIOR AND ON THE PACIFIC + +_FLORIDA_ + +De Leon.--While some conquerors were struggling in Central America, +Mexico, and Peru, others were trying to subdue the vast northern region +called Florida. In 1514 Juan Ponce de Leon secured a patent to colonize +Florida and Bimini, which he had explored in the previous year. Instead +of proceeding to the task, however, he engaged in a war against the +Caribs, and it was not until 1521 that he attempted to carry out his +project. In that year he led a colony of two hundred men to the +Peninsula, landed on the west coast, and tried to establish a +settlement. But he was attacked by natives, and driven back to Cuba, +mortally wounded. + +Ayllon's colony on the Carolina coast.--To carry out his contract to +colonize Chicora, in July, 1526, Ayllon sailed from Espanola with six +vessels and a colony of five hundred men and women, Dominican friars, +and supplies, prepared to find a new home in Carolina. But the +experiment was doomed to be another failure. Landing was first made on +the river called the Jordan, perhaps Cape Fear River. On another +stream; perhaps the Peedee, the settlement of San Miguel de Gualdape was +begun. But supplies gave out, and at the end of two years Ayllon died +(October, 1528). Quarrels ensued, and in midwinter the survivors, only +about one hundred and fifty now, returned to Santo Domingo. + +Narvaez.--At the same time the conquest of Florida was attempted by +Panfilo de Narvaez, the man who had been sent to Vera Cruz to arrest +Cortes. In 1526 he secured a patent to the lands of Ponce de Leon and +Garay. Raising a colony of six hundred persons in Spain, in 1528 he +reached Florida, landing near Tampa Bay. Hearing of a rich province +called Apalachen (Apalache), he sent his vessels along the coast and +himself marched up the peninsula at the head of three hundred men to +find the Promised Land. He found the place sought near modern +Tallahassee, but it proved to be a squalid Indian village of forty huts. +A few weeks having been spent in exploration and warfare, Narvaez went +to the coast near St. Marks Bay, built a fleet of horse-hide boats, and +set out for Panuco. After passing the mouth of the Mississippi a storm +arose, and all were wrecked on the coast of Texas. + +Cabeza de Vaca.--In a short time most of the survivors of Narvaez's +party died of disease, starvation, and exposure, or at the hands of the +savages. Having passed nearly six years of slavery among the Indians, +Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, the treasurer of the colony of Florida, with +three companions, escaped westward, crossed Texas, Coahuila, Chihuahua, +and Sonora, and in 1536 reached Culiacan, the northern outpost of +Sinaloa, after a most remarkable journey. + +De Soto.--Vaca went to Spain (1537) to apply for the governorship of +Florida, but it had already been conferred on Hernando de Soto, who had +taken a prominent part in the conquest of both Central America and Peru. +In 1539 De Soto reached Florida with a colony of six hundred persons. +Landing at Tampa Bay, as Narvaez had done, he soon set out to look for a +rich province called Cale. This was the beginning of an expedition +lasting nearly four years, during which the Spaniards were led on by +tales of gold and treasure from one district to another, hoping to +repeat the exploits of Cortes and Pizarro. As he passed through the +country De Soto imitated those captains by capturing the chiefs, +holding them as hostages, and compelling them to provide food and men to +carry the baggage. Going to Apalachen he wintered there, meanwhile +discovering Pensacola Bay. From Apalachen he went to the Savannah River, +thence northwest to the North Carolina Piedmont, south toward Mobile +Bay, northwest to the Mississippi near modern Memphis, westward across +Arkansas into Oklahoma, thence down the Arkansas River to its mouth, +where he died, in May, 1542, being buried in the Mississippi. + +Moscoso in Arkansas and Texas.--De Soto's followers, led by Luis de +Moscoso, now set out for Panuco, crossing Arkansas to the Red River, +then turning southwest through eastern Texas, perhaps reaching the +Brazos River. Giving up the attempt by land, they returned to the +Mississippi, built a fleet of boats, descended the river, and skirted +the Texas coast, reaching Panuco in 1543. Thus ended the fourth attempt +to colonize Florida. + +_CIBOLA AND QUIVIRA_ + +Cortes on the South Sea and in California.--Another line of advance +toward the northern interior had been made by way of the Pacific slope. +The discovery of the South Sea was followed immediately by exploration +along the western coast. Balboa himself had begun that work, before his +death in 1519. Espinosa had reached Nicaragua in 1519, and three years +later Nino had reached Guatemala. By this time Cortes had also begun +operations on the South Sea by building a shipyard at Zacatula, hoping, +to discover a strait, find rich islands and mainland, reach India by way +of the coast, and open communication with the Moluccas. In 1527 he sent +three vessels under Saavedra across the Pacific: The operations of a new +fleet built by him were hindered by the Audiencia of Mexico, but in 1532 +he sent an expedition north under Hurtado de Mendoza, which reached Rio +Fuerte in northern Sinaloa. In the following year another expedition +sent by Cortes, under Jimenez discovered Lower California, which was +thought to be an island and where pearls were found. The discovery of an +island with pearls confirmed the geographical ideas of Cortes, and in +1535 he himself led a colony to La Paz, but within a few months it was +abandoned. This was the first of a long series of efforts to colonize +California. + +[Illustration: Explorations in the Northern Interior, 1513-1543.] + +Friar Marcos discovers Cibola.--Interest in the north country, both in +Spain and America, was greatly quickened by the arrival of Cabeza de +Vaca in Mexico after his journey across the continent. He had seen no +great wonders, but he had heard of large cities to the north of his +path, and it was thought that they might be the famed Seven Cities. The +viceroy took into his service the negro Stephen, one of Vaca's +companions, and sent him with Friar Marcos, a Franciscan missionary, to +reconnoitre. In March, 1539, they set out with guides from Culiacan. +Going ahead, Stephen soon sent back reports of Seven Cities, called +Cibola, farther on. Friar Marcos hastened after him, and reached the +border of the Zuni pueblos in western New Mexico, where he learned that +Stephen had been killed. Returning to the settlement, he reported that +Cibola was larger and finer than Mexico. This story, of course, was the +signal for another "rush," like that to Peru a few years before. + +Ulloa rounds the peninsula of California.--Rivalry between Cortes and +the viceroy regarding exploration was now keen, and about the time of +the return of Fray Marcos, Cortes, hoping to forestall his competitor, +sent three vessels north to explore under Francisco de Ulloa. One of the +vessels was lost, but with two of them Ulloa succeeded in reaching the +head of the Gulf of California, and learned that California was a +peninsula. Descending the Gulf he proceeded up the outer coast of +California to Cabo del Engano. + +The contest for leadership.--While Ulloa's voyage was still in progress, +Cortes hurried to Spain to present his claim of exclusive right to +conquer the country discovered by Fray Marcos and Ulloa. He never +returned to Mexico. Other contestants arose. The agents of De Soto, who +at the time was in Florida, claimed Cibola as a part of the adelantado's +grant. Guzman claimed it on the basis of explorations in Sinaloa. Pedro +de Alvarado claimed it on the ground of a license to explore north and +west, for which purpose he had prepared a fleet. + +The Coronado expedition.--But the royal council decided that the +exploration should be made on behalf of the crown, in whose name the +viceroy had already sent out an expedition under Francisco Vasquez +Coronado, governor of Nueva Galicia. To cooeperate with Coronado by +water, Alarcon was sent up the coast from Acapulco with two vessels. + +In February, 1540, Coronado left Compostela with some two hundred +horsemen, seventy foot soldiers, and nearly one thousand Indian allies +and servants. So eager were the volunteers that it was complained that +the country would be depopulated. The expedition was equipped at royal +expense with a thousand horses, fine trappings, pack-mules, several +cannon, and with droves of cattle, sheep, goats, and swine for food. +From Culiacan Coronado went ahead with about one hundred picked men and +four friars. Following behind their leader, the main army moved up to +Corazones, in the Yaqui River valley, where the town of San Geronimo was +founded and left in charge of Melchor Diaz. + +Zuni, Moqui, the Colorado, and the Rio Grande.--In July Coronado reached +the Zuni pueblos, which he conquered with little difficulty. But the +country was disappointing and the expedition resulted only in +explorations. These, however, were of great importance. At Culiacan +Alarcon procured a third vessel, then continued to the head of the Gulf, +and ascended the Colorado (1540) eighty-five leagues, perhaps passing +the Gila River. Shortly afterward Melchor Diaz went by land from San +Geronimo to the Colorado to communicate with Alarcon, but failed and +lost his life. During the journey, however, he crossed the Colorado and +went some distance down the Peninsula of California. + +Hearing of the Moqui pueblos, to the north of Zuni, in July Coronado +sent Tobar to find them, which he succeeded in doing. Shortly afterward +Cardenas went farther northwest and reached the Grand Canyon of the +Colorado. Moving to the Rio Grande, Coronado visited the pueblos in its +valley and camped at Tiguex above Isleta. In the course of the winter +the Indians revolted and were put down with great severity. + +Gran Quivira.--Meanwhile Coronado heard of a rich country northeastward +called Gran Quivira, and in April, 1541, he set out to find it. Crossing +the mountains and descending the Pecos, he marched out into the +limitless buffalo-covered plains, the "Llanos del Cibola," inhabited by +roving Apaches. Near the upper Brazos he turned north, crossed the Texas +Panhandle and Oklahoma, and reached Quivira in eastern Kansas. It was +probably a settlement of Wichita Indians. Disappointed, and urged by +his men, Coronado now returned to Mexico. Three fearless missionaries +remained to preach the gospel, and soon achieved the crown of martyrdom. +Coronado had made one of the epochal explorations of all history. + +The Pueblo Indians of New Mexico.--Coronado found large parts of New +Mexico and adjacent regions inhabited by Indians who dwelt in +substantial towns (pueblos) and possessed a civilization similar to that +of the Aztecs. Their terraced dwellings, which were also fortifications, +were built of stone or adobe, and were several stories high. The +inhabitants lived a settled life, practiced agriculture by means of +irrigation, and raised cotton for clothing. They were constantly beset +by the more warlike tribes all about them, and were already declining +under their incursions. At the time of the conquest there were some +seventy inhabited pueblos, whose population may have been from 30,000 to +60,000. The principal pueblo regions were the upper Rio Grande, the +upper Pecos, Acoma, and the Zuni and Moqui towns. Remains of prehistoric +pueblos occupy a much wider range in the Southwest, and are now the +scene of important archaeological research. + +_CALIFORNIA AND THE PHILIPPINES_ + +Alvarado's fleet.--Shortly after Coronado left New Mexico, two important +expeditions were despatched by Viceroy Mendoza to explore in the +Pacific. Magellan's voyage had been a signal for a bitter conflict +between Spain and Portugal in the East, in which Portugal long had the +upper hand. After the failures of Loaisa (1525) and Saavedra (1527) +Charles V sold Spain's claims on the Moluccas to Portugal, but continued +to claim the Philippines. In spite of former disasters to eastern +expeditions, both Cortes and Pedro de Alvarado planned discoveries in +the South Sea. In 1532 Alvarado made a contract for the purpose, but was +led off by the gold "rush" to Peru. In 1538 he obtained a new grant, +authorizing him to explore "in the west toward China or the Spice +Islands," or toward the north at the "turn of the land to New Spain." +Early in 1539 he left Spain with equipment nor a fleet, which he +transported across Honduras and Guatemala on the backs of natives. On +hearing of the discoveries of Fray Marcos, he hastened north with his +fleet, but stopped in Mexico, where he and Mendoza, who had already sent +out Coronado, made an agreement, as mutual insurance, to divide the +profits of their respective explorations. Before continuing his +expedition Alvarado was killed in the Mixton War (1541). This left the +fleet in Mendoza's hands, and with it he carried out Alvarado's plans by +despatching two expeditions, one up the California coast, the other +across the Pacific. + +Cabrillo and Ferrelo.--The coast voyage was conducted by Juan Rodriguez +Cabrillo, and was especially designed to look for a northern strait. +Leaving Navidad in June, 1542, Cabrillo explored the outer coast of the +Peninsula, discovered San Diego Bay, reached Northwest Cape (latitude +38 deg.31'), descended to Drake's Bay, and then returned to the Santa +Barbara Channel, where he died. Sailing north again in 1543, his pilot, +Ferrelo, reached the Oregon coast (42 1/2 deg.), returning thence to +Navidad. Cabrillo and Ferrelo had explored the coast for more than +twenty-three degrees, but had missed both San Francisco and Monterey +bays. + +Villalobos.--The other expedition was led by Lopez de Villalobos, who +was instructed to explore the Philippines and to reach China, but not to +touch at the Moluccas. Sailing in November, 1542, he took possession of +the Philippines, but, being forced to leave on account of native +hostility, he was captured by the Portuguese. Villalobos died in the +Moluccas, where the enterprise went to pieces. The expeditions of +Coronado, De Soto, Cabrillo, and Villalobos brought to an end a +remarkable half century of Spanish expansion in North America and in the +Pacific Ocean. + + +THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VICEROYALTY OF NEW SPAIN + +Cortes as administrator.--Cortes was not a mere conqueror. He appointed +officers, and issued general ordinances affecting nearly all lines of +activity. Encomenderos were required to equip themselves for defense and +to promote agriculture. Cortes himself became a great planter, notably +at Oaxaca. He introduced agricultural implements, opened a port at Vera +Cruz, and established markets in Mexico City. In 1523 the king had +forbidden encomiendas, but Cortes made so strong a protest on the +grounds of policy and royal interest that the order was withdrawn. + +Royal officials arrive.--In 1524 a corps of royal officials arrived to +take the places of those appointed by Cortes. Estrada came as treasurer, +Salazar as factor, Albornoz, as contador, and Chirinos as veedor. They +came empowered to interfere in the government of Cortes, especially in +matters of finance, a policy quite in keeping with the general Spanish +practice of setting one officer to watch another. + +The powers of Cortes curtailed.--The new officials were not slow to make +trouble for Cortes. While he was in Honduras his enemies set about +undermining him, both in Mexico and Spain. Salazar and Chirinos usurped +authority, persecuted the conqueror's partisans, confiscated his +property, and spread reports that he was dead. At last the friends of +Cortes rebelled, overthrew the usurpers, Salazar and Chirinos, and sent +for Cortes to return from Honduras. In May, 1526, he reached Vera Cruz. +Two years of investigation and persecution by other crown officials +followed. + +In response to complaints in Spain, Luis Ponce de Leon was sent early in +the same year as governor and to hold a _residencia_ of Cortes, while +the latter's jurisdiction as captain-general was lessened by the +appointment of Nuno de Guzman as governor of Panuco. Ponce de Leon died +in July, leaving Aguilar as governor. Aguilar died early in 1527 and +Estrada became governor. He interfered with Cortes's explorations in the +South Sea, and banished him from Mexico City as dangerous, but the +breach was soon healed when both were threatened by the usurpations of +Guzman. It was at this time that Cortes, finding his position +unbearable, went to Spain for redress and to answer charges. + +The first Audiencia of New Spain.--In view of the disturbed conditions +in New Spain, in 1528 Charles V created an Audiencia or supreme court +for Mexico, and empowered it to investigate the disorders and hold the +_residencia_ of Cortes. It was composed of four _oidores_ and a +president. To the latter office was appointed Nuno de Guzman. He proved +to be an extreme partisan against Cortes, and so avaricious that he soon +won the hatred of almost everyone except a few favorites. The old +friends of Cortes stood by him and he secured the support of Bishop +Zumarraga. + +Cortes made Marquis of the Valley.--The arrival of Cortes in Spain +caused his detractors to slink from sight, and he was conducted to court +with almost royal honors. In consideration of his brilliant services, in +1529 he was granted twenty-two towns, with twenty-three thousand +vassals, with full civil and criminal jurisdiction and rentals for +himself and his heirs. With these honors he was given the titles of +Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca, captain-general of New Spain, and +governor of such islands as he might still discover in the South Sea. In +1530 he returned to New Spain, where he was acclaimed by the people, +though opposed by the Audiencia. + +The second Audiencia.--The abuses of the first Audiencia led to its +replacement in 1530 by a new corps of judges, of whom the president was +Sebastian Ramirez de Fuenleal. The oidores appointed were Salmeron, +Maldonado, Ceynos, and Quiroga. They were especially instructed to hold +the _residencias_ of their predecessors, restore the estates of Cortes, +and consider the abolition of encomiendas. To replace control by +encomenderos, local magistrates called _corregidores_ were introduced. A +few of these functionaries were appointed, but the colonists raised such +a cry that little change was accomplished, and the Audiencia confined +itself, in this particular, to checking abuses of the encomienda system. +Quiroga later became bishop and civilizer of Michoacan, where he is +still gratefully remembered. + +The viceroyalty established.--The difficulties of government and the +spread of conquests made closer centralization necessary, and New Spain +was now made a viceroyalty. The first incumbent of the office of viceroy +was Antonio de Mendoza, a nobleman of fine character and ability. He +arrived in 1535. As viceroy he was president of the Audiencia, governor, +and captain-general, personally representing the king in all branches of +government. + +The Audiencias of Panama and Guatemala.--Alvarado served as governor and +captain-general of Guatemala through appointment by Cortes till 1528, +when he was commissioned directly by the emperor. Though frequently +absent, he continued in office till his death in 1541. In 1537 Panama +and Veragua were erected into the Audiencia of Panama, which was later +attached to the viceroyalty of Peru, because the commerce of Peru +crossed the Isthmus. Six years later the Audiencia of the Confines of +Panama and Nicaragua was established. After various changes, by 1570 +Guatemala became the seat of an Audiencia embracing all of Central +America except Panama, Veragua, and Yucatan. + +The New Laws.--Las Casas and others continued to oppose the encomienda +system. In 1539 the great missionary returned to Spain to conduct the +fight. While there he wrote his celebrated works called _The Destruction +of the Indies_ and the _Twenty Reasons_ why Indians should not be +enslaved. His pleadings were not in vain, for in 1542 the Council issued +a new Indian code called the _New Laws_, which provided that encomiendas +should be abolished on the death of the present holders. But so great +was the opposition that in 1545 the vital clauses of the ordinance were +repealed. In Peru the attempt to enforce the laws even led to bloodshed. + +Mendoza sent to Peru.--Viceroy Mendoza continued to rule for fifteen +years. He proved to be a wise, able, and honest administrator, who tried +to improve the condition of both the colonists and the helpless natives. +He prohibited the use of the Indians as beasts of burden. In 1536 he +established the printing press in Mexico, the first book published on +the continent appearing in 1537. In that year he founded the college of +Santa Cruz de Tlatelalco for the education of noble Indians. He opened +roads from Mexico to Oaxaca, Tehuantepec, Acapulco, Michoacan, Colima, +Jalisco, and other distant points. In 1550 he was sent to rule in +troubled Peru, where the Spaniards were duplicating the brilliant +exploits of Cortes and his followers. + + +READINGS + +SPAIN DURING THE CONQUEST + +Armstrong, E., _The Emperor Charles V._; Bourne, E.G., _Spain in +America_, Ch. I; Chapman, Charles E., _A History of Spain_, 1-246, +especially Chapters X-XXII; Cheyney, E.P., _European Background of +American History_, Ch. V; Hume, M.A.S., _Spain, its Greatness and +Decay_; Hume, M.A.S., _The Spanish People_; Lane-Poole, S., _The Moors +in Spain_; Lowery, W., _Spanish Settlements within the present limits of +the United States_, 1513-1565, pp. 79-101; Merriman, R.B., _The Rise of +the Spanish Empire_; Prescott, W.H., _Ferdinand and Isabella_; Haring, +C.H., _Trade and Navigation between Spain and the Indies in the Time of +the Hapsburgs_. + +THE WEST INDIES, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND MAGELLAN + +Altolaguirre y Davale, D. Angel de, _D. Pedro de Alvarado, Conquistador +de Guatemala y Honduras_; _Vasco Nunez de Balboa_; Bancroft, H.H., +_Central America_, I, 183-247, 321-412, 478-511; Bourne, E.G., _Spain in +America_, 20-53; 115-132; Fiske, John, _The Discovery of America_, I, +465-512, II, 184-212; Fortier, A., and Ficklen, J.R., _Mexico and +Central America_, 1-102; Guardia, R.F., _History of the Discovery and +Conquest of Costa Rica_; Guillemand, F.H.H, _Life of Magellan_; Helps, +Arthur, _The Spanish Conquest_, I, 89-142, 193-320; Lowery, Woodbury, +_Spanish Settlements within the present Limits of the United States_, +102-122; Richman, L.B., _The Spanish Conquerors_, 64-91, 139-154; +Wright, L.A., _The early History of Cuba_, 1492-1586. + +CORTES AND HIS FOLLOWERS + +Bancroft, H.H., _Central America_, I, 522-643; Diaz del Castillo, +Bernal, _True History of the Conquest of New Spain_; Fortier and +Ficklen, _Mexico and Central America_, 181-238; Helps, Arthur, _Life of +Cortes_; _Life of Las Casas_; _The Spanish Conquest_, III, 23-67, +164-289; McNutt, F.A., _Cortes and the Conquest of Mexico_, 43-67; _The +Letters of Cortes to Charles V._; Prescott, W.H., _The Conquest of +Mexico_, Bks. II-IV; Bolton, H.E., The Spanish Borderlands; Means, P.A., +_History of the Spanish Conquest of Yucatan and of the Itzas_. + +EXPLORATIONS TO THE NORTH AND IN THE PACIFIC + +Bancroft, H.H., _History of California_, I, 64-81; Bandelier, A.D.F., +_The Gilded Man; Journey of Cabeza de Vaca (Trail Makers' Series)_; +Blair and Robertson, _The Philippine Islands_, I-II; Bolton, H.E., +_Spanish Exploration in the Southwest, 1542-1706 (Original Narratives +Series)_, 1-39; Bourne, E.G., _Spain in America_, 158-174; _Narratives +of the Career of Hernando de Soto (Trail Makers' Series)_; Brittain, +Alfred, _Discovery and Exploration_, 343-361; Hodge, F.W., and Lewis, +T.H., _The Spanish Explorers in the Southern United States, 1528-1543 +(Original Narratives Series)_; Irving, Theodore, _The Conquest of +Florida_; Lowery, Woodbury, _Spanish Settlements within the present +Limits of the United States_, 130-350; Richman, L.B., _California under +Spain and Mexico_, 3-11; Schafer, Joseph, _Pacific Coast and Alaska_, +3-23; Winship, G.P., _The Coronado Expedition_ (Bureau of American +Ethnology, _14th Report_, Part I.); _The Journey of Coronado (Trail +Makers' Series)_, Richman, I.B., _The Spanish Conquerors_, 91-139. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE EXPANSION OF NEW SPAIN (1543-1609) + + +OLD AND NEW SPAIN UNDER PHILIP II + +Philip's inheritance.--Charles V's stormy reign came to a close in 1556, +when he abdicated in favor of his son, Philip II, who inherited Spain +with its colonies, Naples, Milan, Franche Comte, and the Netherlands. +The imperial office and the Hapsburg possessions went to Charles's +brother, Ferdinand I. + +The Protestant movement.--The Protestant movement, which began in +Germany and Switzerland, spread into France, England, Scotland, the +Netherlands, and the Scandinavian countries. The Catholic church saw +itself in danger of losing the religious supremacy in Europe, and put +forth all its power to check it. Its three great agencies in the +Counter-Reformation were the Council of Trent, the Jesuits, and Philip +II. + +The Revolt of the Netherlands.--The Spanish king devoted all his +resources to stamping out Protestantism in the Netherlands, France, and +England. To the wealthy Dutch burghers Philip was a foreigner; they +resented the quartering of his soldiers and they objected to his regent, +the duchess of Parma, the king's half sister. The Inquisition had been +introduced into the Netherlands by Charles V. and it became more active +under his son. In 1566 the Dutch nobles headed a revolt, which was +furthered by the Protestant preachers. The Duke of Alva was sent with an +army to suppress it. William of Orange and other leaders fled the +country, as did many Flemish weavers. Alva established a special court +which became known as the Council of Blood; a reign of terror followed, +thousands being executed. William of Orange, known as the Silent, in +1568 collected a small army and began the struggle for independence. +After many years of warfare the Protestant provinces in the north gained +their autonomy. + +The Defeat of the Armada.--In France the Protestant leader, Coligny, +attempted to unite both Catholics and Protestants in a national war +against Spain. This was frustrated by the Guises. Later, when they +intrigued to place Mary Queen of Scots upon the English throne, Philip +entered into their designs, but was prevented from giving much +assistance by the revolt in the Netherlands. The English retaliated by +raiding the Spanish Main. The culmination of the struggle was the defeat +of the Spanish Armada, in 1588, which freed England from the danger of +invasion. In Spain Philip carried out his policy of expelling the rest +of the Moors, the most industrious and enlightened of his subjects, and +by rigorously pushing the work of the Inquisition. + +Spanish weakness.--The reign of Philip II had witnessed a vast change in +Europe. England had become a Protestant country. In France the wars of +religion had culminated by Henry IV ascending the throne. In the +Netherlands the northern half had risen into an independent state. +Portugal had become a Spanish province. In Spain the expulsion of the +Moors, the constant drain upon the country to carry on Philip's foreign +enterprises, and the commercial losses inflicted by the English, had +weakened the country to such an extent that it could no longer be looked +upon as preeminent in Europe. Nevertheless, the Spanish colonies +continued to develop and expand. The story of that expansion is the +subject of this chapter. + +Luis de Velasco, second viceroy (1551-1564).--Viceroy Mendoza was +succeeded by Luis de Velasco, a member of a noble Castilian family, who +took possession in Mexico in 1551 and ruled till 1564. Velasco installed +his rule by releasing 160,000 natives from forced labor in the mines. To +put down disorder and protect the natives in 1552 he established in +Mexico the Tribunal de la Santa Hermandad. A year later the royal +University of Mexico was founded, the first in North America. During +Velasco's rule the great canal of Huehuetoca for draining the City of +Mexico was begun, 6000 Indians being employed in the work. Velasco was +an expansionist, and vigorously promoted the colonization of Florida, +the Philippines, and Nueva Vizcaya. + +Martin Cortes, second Marquis of the Valley.--At the same time with +Velasco came Martin Cortes, son of the conqueror, and second Marquis of +the Valley of Oaxaca. He possessed city property in Mexico, Oaxaca, +Toluca, and Cuernavaca, and his estates were the richest in New Spain. +Other encomenderos looked to him as their protector against the royal +officials and induced him to conspire for an independent crown. He +yielded, but with six others was arrested in 1568. Two of the +conspirators were executed, Cortes and the rest being sent to Spain. + +Expansion of the frontiers.--Having exploded for the time being some of +the notions of great wonders in the far distant interior, the Spanish +pioneers fell back on the established frontiers, and by a more gradual +and rational process extended them northward, much as the English a +century later slowly pushed their settlements from the Atlantic +shoreline across the Tidewater and up into the Piedmont. + +On the Atlantic seaboard Spanish outposts were advanced from the West +Indies into what are now Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, and, +momentarily, into Virginia. In Mexico, missions, mines, farms, and stock +ranches advanced northward in regular succession or side by side. +Between the return of Coronado and the end of the century the frontiers +of actual occupation moved forward, roughly speaking, from Guadalajara, +Queretaro, and Panuco, to a line drawn irregularly through the mouth of +the Rio Grande westward to the Pacific, with many large spaces, of +course, left vacant to be filled in by subsequent advances. The Spanish +pioneers, like those of England and France, recorded their home +attachments by the place names given their new abodes, and thus the +whole northern district of Mexico was comprised within the three +provinces of New Galicia, New Vizcaya, and New Leon. During the same +period the Philippine Islands had been occupied as an outpost of Mexico. + +The Adelantados.--The latter sixteenth century was still within the age +of the _adelantados_, when the development of the Spanish frontiers was +left largely to men of means, obligated to bear most of the expense of +conquering and peopling the wilderness, in return for wide powers, +extravagant titles, and extensive economic privileges. As types of these +proprietary conquerors of the period there stand out Ibarra in Nueva +Vizcaya, Menendez in Florida, Legazpi in the Philippines, Carabajal in +Nuevo Leon, and Onate in New Mexico. The period likewise was still +within the age of the _encomienda_, when the right to parcel out the +natives was inherent in the privilege of conquest. With the turn of the +century the custom practically ceased, a fact which sharply +distinguishes Florida and New Mexico from the later frontier Spanish +provinces of Texas, California, and Louisiana. + +A new spirit.--The age of wanton bloodshed, too, had largely passed. The +New Laws, promulgated in 1543, stood for a new spirit, and royal +authority had by now become somewhat established on the frontiers. In +proportion as the _encomenderos_ were discredited for their abuses and +as their power over the Indians was checked, a larger and larger place +was found on the frontier for the missionaries, to whom passed much of +the actual work of subduing and controlling the natives. + + +THE MINES OF NORTHERN MEXICO + +Audiencia and diocese of Nueva Galicia.--In 1544 Compostela became the +seat of the new diocese of Nueva Galicia. Four years later the new +Audiencia of Nueva Galicia was established there. About 1550 Guadalajara +became the seat of both jurisdictions, and the judicial and +ecclesiastical capital of all the country to the north and northeast, a +position which it long occupied. The Audiencia district was subdivided +into _corregimientos_, each under an alcalde, subject to the Audiencia. +Within the _corregimientos_ were Indian _partidos_, each under a native +alcalde, subject to the encomenderos or the missionaries. + +The Zacatecas mines.--In spite of the check caused by the Mixton War, +northward expansion in Mexico was soon stimulated by the discovery of +rich mines, and by the ambitions of the new viceroy. Mines developed in +southern Nueva Galicia were soon eclipsed by those of Zacatecas, which +were opened in 1548 by Juan de Tolosa, Cristobal de Onate, Diego de +Ibarra, and Baltasar Trevino. These men soon became the richest in +America, and Zacatecas the first mining town in New Spain. The fame of +the "diggins" spread, and other parts of the country were for a time +nearly depopulated by the rush of miners. + +Francisco de Ibarra.--Inspired by the "boom" at Zacatecas, the Audiencia +of Nueva Galicia planned to subdue the districts of Sinaloa and Durango. +Gines Vazquez de Mercado, sent for this purpose in 1552, wasted his +energies in a fruitless search for a fabled mountain of pure silver, and +was defeated by the Indians near Sombrerete. Martin Perez, sent by the +Audiencia to the same district in 1558, came into conflict with +Francisco de Ibarra, agent of the viceroy. In 1554 Ibarra began a series +of explorations by means of which, in the course of eight years, he and +his men opened in northern Zacatecas the mines of San Martin, San Lucas, +Sombrerete, Chalchuites, Avino, Fresnillo, and other places. To make +these expeditions, he equipped himself at his own or his uncle's expense +with soldiers, horses, Negro slaves, Indian servants, and droves of +stock for food. He attracted miners and settlers by furnishing them with +outfits and by giving them free use of mineral deposits. + +Nueva Vizcaya founded.--In 1558 Velasco planned to send Ibarra northward +to pacify a region called Copala, but his departure was delayed by the +sending of the De Luna expedition to Florida. In 1562 Ibarra was made +governor and captain-general of a new province called Nueva Vizcaya, +comprising the unconquered districts beyond Nueva Galicia, to which +Zacatecas remained attached. In the following year he founded Nombre de +Dios and Durango, the latter of which became and long remained the +military capital of all the northern country. In the same year Rodrigo +del Rio de Losa was sent with soldiers and miners to open the mines of +Inde, and of Santa Barbara and San Juan in southern Chihuahua. The +shortage of Indian labor in the mines there resulted by 1580 in slave +hunting raids down the Conchos River and across the Rio Grande into +modern Texas. + +Ibarra on the Pacific slope.--Amid extreme hardships in 1564 Ibarra +crossed the mountains to the westward, and conquered Topia, which he had +hoped would prove to be "another Mexico." Disappointed in this, he spent +two or three years in developing Sinaloa. Beyond Culiacan, on the Rio +Fuerte (then called Rio Sinaloa) he founded the Villa of San Juan. From +here with new recruits from Mexico and Guadalajara, in June, 1567, he +set out northward. Ascending the Yaqui valley, at Zaguaripa he defeated +the very Indians who had destroyed Coronado's town of San Geronimo. +Crossing the sierra eastward, he emerged on the plains at the river and +ruined pueblo of Paquime (Casas Grandes) in northern Chihuahua. Turning +back along the eastern slope of the Sierras, he recrossed them, with +terrible hardship, into the lower Yaqui valley. Returning to Chiametla, +he died about 1570, after twenty years of exploring, mining, +colonizing, and administration. He was one, of the ablest of the second +generation of colonizers in New Spain. + +[Illustration: The Advance into Northern Mexico, 1543-1590.] + +Development of Nueva Vizcaya.--Shortly after Ibarra left Sinaloa the +Indians of San Juan revolted, drove out the encomenderos, and murdered +the friars; the settlement was therefore moved to the Petatlan (Sinaloa) +River, and named San Felipe. In the last decade of the century a +presidio and an Aztec-Tlascaltec colony were founded at San Felipe, and +Jesuit missions were planted in the vicinity. East of the mountains, in +Durango and southern Chihuahua, mining, stock raising, and agriculture +developed side by side. In 1586, for example, Diego de Ibarra branded +33,000 head of cattle, and Rodrigo del Rio, then governor, 42,000 head. +Several new mining districts were opened before the end of the century. +In 1574 Nueva Galicia and Nueva Vizcaya (including Zacatecas and +Sinaloa) had a population of 1500 Spanish families, perhaps 10,000 +persons living in some thirty settlements, about half of which were +mining camps. Guadalajara had a population of one hundred and fifty +families and Culiacan about thirty. The Franciscan missionaries had +played an important part in the founding of Nueva Vizcaya. They +accompanied or went before the explorers and established themselves at +the principal mining camps and towns. In 1590 the custodia of San +Francisco de Zacatecas embraced ten monasteries east of the Sierras. In +1591 the Jesuits entered the province. + +Queretaro, Guanajuato, and Aguas Calientes.--For twenty years after the +battle at Queretaro (1531) the Chichimec border was left practically +unsettled, under the control of native leaders. But the need of +communication with the Zacatecas veins made its complete subjugation +necessary, and Viceroy Velasco undertook the task. In or about 1550 the +town of Queretaro was founded, and Silao three years later. The +marvelous Guanajuato mines were now opened; in 1554 the city of Santa Fe +de Guanajuato was founded; and shortly afterward rich veins were opened +at Aguas Calientes. These "strikes" caused "rushes," just as those in +Zacatecas had done, but they were offset by others in Durango, where +Ibarra was operating. To secure further the roads to the mines, new +towns and presidios were established along the way, and thus San Miguel +el Grande (Allende), San Felipe, Santa Maria de Lagos, Aguas Calientes, +Ojuelos, Portezuelos, Jerez, and Celaya came into being. To supplement +the presidios, strong houses (_casas fuertes_) were provided as camping +stations for travelers and silver trains, and parties were equipped with +fortified wagons or movable strong houses. + +San Luis Potosi and Southern Coahuila.--For some time the region of +Charcas, now called San Luis Potosi, was a sort of No-man's-land between +the westward, eastward, and northward moving columns of frontiersmen. It +was the home of the powerful but savage Guachichiles. The definite +conquest of the region, already known to explorers and missionaries, was +begun about 1550 by Francisco de Urdinola, who operated under Velasco's +orders, and who is said to have reached the vicinity of Saltillo and +Monterey. The settlement of the district soon followed. Matehuala was +founded in 1550, San Geronimo in 1552, Charcas in 1564, and the San +Pedro mines about 1568. By 1576 San Luis Potosi, the site of rich ores, +had become a villa, and before long was the seat of an _alcaldia mayor_. + +Mining developments spread northeastward from Zacatecas to Mazapil and +Saltillo. By 1568 Mazapil was the seat of an _alcaldia mayor_, under the +Audiencia of Nueva Galicia. In that year Francisco del Cano, sent by the +"very magnificent alcalde mayor," went north and discovered the "Lake of +New Mexico," perhaps Laguna de Parras. In 1575 Francisco de Urdinola, +son of the former conqueror, is said to have settled sixty families at +Saltillo, within the jurisdiction of Nueva Vizcaya. As early as 1582 a +Franciscan monastery was established there, and in 1592 Saltillo was +created a villa. + +The Tlascaltecan colonies.--Queretaro had been the scene of one +interesting experiment in utilizing the natives as agents of control; in +San Luis Potosi another was now tried. As a means of reducing the great +central region, the plan was devised of planting in it colonies of +Tlascaltecan Indians, to defend the settlers and to teach the rude +tribes the elements of civilization. The Tlascaltecans had proved their +loyalty in the days of Cortes, and this loyalty was insured by their +exemption from tribute and by other privileges. The practice of using +them as colonists in San Luis Potosi seems to have been begun as early +as 1580. In 1591 four hundred families were sent northward, most of +them being distributed at various places in modern San Luis Potosi, but +eighty families were established at Saltillo in a separate pueblo called +San Esteban. Thence in later days little colonies were detached to all +parts of Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Texas. + +Parras; Urdinola the Younger.--In 1594 Jesuits from Durango founded the +mission of Santa Maria de Parras, and shortly afterward a colony of +Spaniards and Tlascaltecans was established there. Of this district +Urdinola the Younger, lieutenant-governor of Nueva Vizcaya, became the +magnate. He opened mines, subdued Indians, established immense ranches, +and was veritable feudal lord. His principal hacienda was at Patos, but +he had others, as at Parras and Bonanza. In 1594 he secured a commission +to conquer New Mexico which was subsequently rescinded. A female +descendant of his became the wife of the first Marquis of San Miguel de +Aguayo, a title created in 1682 and long held by the leading men of the +northeastern frontier. + +Nuevo Leon.--A new jurisdiction was now carved out on the Gulf coast. In +1579 Luis de Carabajal, a Portuguese of Jewish extraction, secured a +patent naming him governor and captain-general of the Kingdom of Nuevo +Leon, a region extending two hundred leagues north and west from Panuco, +and delimiting Nueva Vizcaya and Nueva Galicia on the north and east. +Carabajal's was the first conquistador's patent issued for New Spain +based on the general ordinance of 1573 regulating new conquests. He was +made governor and alguacil-mayor "for two lives," with a salary of +20,000 pesos and two encomiendas for himself. He had authority to grant +encomiendas, and was obligated to make new conquests and settlements. +Raising two hundred men in Spain and Mexico, he established headquarters +for a time at Panuco, whence he made exploring, gold hunting, and slave +hunting expeditions. + +Leon and Monterey.--Discovering minerals in the Sierra de San Gregorio, +near the Rio Grande, in (or by) 1583, Carabajal founded there the city +of Leon (now Cerralvo). Securing other families from Saltillo, in 1584 +he founded San Luis, near the later Monterey, and appointed Castano de +Sosa alcalde mayor. Slave hunting expeditions from Leon proved so +profitable that soon two hundred or more adventurers were attracted to +the place, for the slaves found ready market at the mines of the +interior. When the viceroy checked the abuse, Leon was gradually +abandoned. With another colony from Saltillo, Carabajal founded Nuevo +Almaden, near the present Monclova. While thus engaged he was charged +with heresy, arrested, and condemned by the Inquisition together with +almost his entire family. In 1596 Luis de Montemayor, +lieutenant-governor of the province, founded Monterey with families from +Leon and Saltillo. Three years later Montemayor was made governor, +directly under the viceroy. In 1603 a Franciscan monastery was founded +at Monterey, and became a new missionary center. Conflicts of +jurisdiction between Nuevo Leon and Nueva Vizcaya became chronic and a +serious hindrance to prosperity. + + +THE SETTLEMENT OF THE ATLANTIC SEABOARD + +Fray Luis Cancer.--Meanwhile Florida and the Philippines had been +conquered and colonized. Shortly after Coronado returned from New +Mexico, the Moscoso party reached Panuco. Viceroy Mendoza, in spite of +previous failures, was willing to try his hand in ill-fated Florida, and +he offered to equip Moscoso and his men for another attempt, but they +declined. Florida had been "running with the blood of Indians," but Fray +Luis Cancer, a disciple of Las Casas, offered to try to subdue it by +peaceful methods. With a royal license he equipped a vessel at Vera +Cruz, and with a few companions went in 1549 to Florida to convert the +natives. He was murdered by them, however, and his companions returned. + +De Luna and Villafane.--But Florida was thought to be rich, especially +at Coca, in northern Alabama, and new attempts at settlement were made. +In 1558 the new viceroy was ordered to colonize Santa Elena, the scene +of Ayllon's failure on the Carolina coast, and some other point not +specified, the missionary work to be entrusted to the Dominicans. In the +following year, therefore, Velasco sent Tristan de Luna, Coronado's +second in command, from Vera Cruz with thirteen vessels and 1500 +soldiers and colonists. Of the six captains three had been with De Soto, +a fact which indicates the continuity of frontier interests. + +The expedition landed at Pensacola Bay. Three vessels sent on to Santa +Elena were storm-driven and returned to Vera Cruz. Establishing a +garrison at Pensacola (Ichuse), De Luna moved about a thousand colonists +inland to Nanipacna on the Alabama River, whence an expedition was sent +north to Coca. In 1560 the colony returned to Pensacola, where De Luna +was replaced by Villafane, who had been sent with supplies from Mexico. +In the following year Villafane went with most of his colony to Santa +Elena, but failed to make a settlement, and the Pensacola garrison was +soon withdrawn. In view of these repeated disasters, in 1561 Philip II +declared that for the present no further attempt should be made to +colonize Florida. + +The French in Florida.--Notwithstanding this decision, there were +reasons why Florida should be occupied. The route of the treasure and +merchant ships lay through the Bahama channel, and French and English +pirates had begun to attack them. To lessen the danger, vessels were +ordered to go in company, and as early as 1552 a fleet of war vessels +was sent to escort them to Havana. But a port was needed to give aid +against the pirates, as well as to provide refuge from the violent +storms on the Florida coast. Moreover, the French were operating on the +northern Atlantic, and it was feared that they would occupy this region. + +This fear was realized in 1562 when Jean Ribaut led a French Huguenot +colony to Port Royal, South Carolina. The colony miserably failed, but +in 1564 another, led by Laudonniere, settled on St. John's River and +built Fort Caroline. Just as Laudonniere was about to abandon the place, +Ribaut arrived with a third colony, bearing instructions to fortify a +position that would enable him to command the route of the Spanish +treasure fleets. + +Menendez de Aviles, and the expulsion of the French.--Philip decided now +to eject the French and colonize Florida, and entrusted the task to +Menendez de Aviles, a great naval officer. He was made adelantado of +Florida, and promised a private estate twenty-five leagues square, or +some 300,000 acres. In return he agreed to take a colony of five hundred +persons to Florida, build at least two fortified towns, and expel +foreign "settlers and corsairs." In September, 1565, Menendez reached +Florida and founded St. Augustine. Ten days later he marched overland +against Fort Caroline, surprised and captured it, and mercilessly slew +most of its defenders. On the spot the garrison of San Mateo was +established. + +[Illustration: Spanish Florida.] + +Menendez's relentless deed caused an outburst of indignation in France, +and perhaps only Catherine's reliance on Philip in her troubles with the +Huguenots prevented war. Vengeance was left to a private individual, +Dominique de Gourgues. Getting up an expedition ostensibly to trade, in +1567 he went to Florida, and slew the garrison at San Mateo. The +prisoners taken were hanged "not as Spaniards" but "as traitors, +robbers, and murderers." + +New settlements in Florida.--Menendez planned great things. He would +fortify the Bahama Channel, occupy Santa Elena and Chesapeake Bay, and +in the latter seek the northern strait. As a base for expanding toward +Panuco, he would occupy the Bay of Juan Ponce, and he had great hopes of +agricultural prosperity. + +To carry out these plans, active steps were taken. Before Menendez +returned to Spain in 1567, several new Spanish posts were founded +between the point of the peninsula and South Carolina. San Mateo was +reoccupied. At Charlotte Bay Menendez made an alliance with the +much-feared Chief Carlos by marrying his sister, and founded there the +presidio of San Antonio. Other garrisons were established on the +peninsula at Ays, Santa Lucia, Tocobaga, and Tegesta. At Santa Elena, in +South Carolina, Menendez founded the colony of San Felipe, and in Guale +(northern Georgia) he founded a presidio. + +Explorations in the Alleghanies.--In November, 1566, Menendez sent Juan +Pardo from Santa Elena "to discover and conquer the interior country +from there to Mexico," to join the two frontiers. Going northwest, he +reached the snow covered Alleghanies in western North Carolina, +established two garrisons on the way, and returned. Boyano, left at one +of the garrisons, made expeditions into the mountains, and in 1567 +marched southwest to Chiaha near Rome, Georgia. Being joined there by +Pardo, they set out "in the direction of Zacatecas and the mines of San +Martin," in Mexico, but were turned back by Indian hostility. On his way +to San Felipe Pardo left two garrisons, which were soon massacred by +Indians. + +The Jesuit missions in Florida.--In 1566 Menendez secured three Jesuit +missionaries for Florida. Another band arrived in 1568, and went to +Santa Elena, Orista, and Guale, where they founded missions. At first +they were successful, but in 1570 they were driven out by native +opposition. By this time the garrison at Tocobaga had been massacred and +those at San Antonio and Tegesta withdrawn on account of Indian +hostility. + +The Virginia mission.--Father Segura, the Jesuit superior, now +transferred his efforts to Chesapeake Bay, whither he went in 1570 with +six missionaries. They founded a mission, perhaps on the Rappahannock, +but soon all were slain. In 1571 Menendez went in person to avenge the +outrage. Two years later his nephew explored the entire coast from the +Florida Keys to Chesapeake Bay. In 1573, the year before his death, +Menendez's grant was extended west to Panuco. + +Franciscans on the Georgia coast.--The martyrdom of Father Segura and +his band caused the Jesuits to abandon the field for Mexico, but in 1573 +Franciscans began work in the province. Twenty years later (1593) twelve +more arrived under Father Juan de Silva. From the central monastery at +St. Augustine they set forth and founded island missions all up the +Florida and Georgia coast, on Amelia, Cumberland, St. Simon, San Pedro +and Ossabua islands. Fray Pedro Chozas made inland explorations, and +Father Pareja began his famous work on the Indian languages. Owing to an +Indian uprising in 1597 the missions were abandoned for a time, but were +soon restored as a check against the English, who now entered Virginia. + + +FOREIGN INTRUSIONS IN THE ATLANTIC + +The Spanish trade monopoly.--The French had been expelled from Florida, +and the coast occupied up to Port Royal Sound, but freebooters continued +to prey on treasure and merchant vessels. Spain undertook to preserve +the trade and wealth of the Indies as an absolute monopoly. All trade +must be conducted by Spaniards in Spanish vessels, from specified +Spanish ports to specified American ports. This monopoly was +objectionable not only to the traders of other nations but to the +Spanish colonists as well. To this economic grievance was added the +bitter hatred felt by Protestant Frenchmen, Englishmen and Dutchmen for +Catholic Spain, whose subjects were regarded as lawful prey. + +The merchant fleets.--To prevent the plundering of commerce in the +Indies, by French, English, and Dutch, Spain was forced to adopt a +system of fleets sailing periodically and protected by convoys of armed +galleons. After 1561 it became unlawful for vessels to sail alone to the +Indies, except under special circumstances. Two fleets left Spain each +year, one for Tierra Firme and Nombre de Dios (later Porto Bello) and +the other for Vera Cruz. In the later sixteenth century the Nombre de +Dios fleet comprised as many as forty armed galleons, but thereafter the +number was much smaller, as foreigners cut into Spanish trade. The Vera +Cruz fleet comprised fifteen or twenty merchantmen convoyed by two +galleons. At Nombre de Dios goods and treasure from Peru and Chile were +taken on. At Vera Cruz were gathered the exports from New Spain, the +cargo from the Manila galleon brought overland from Acapulco, and the +ten or twelve million dollars of royal revenues from the mines and +taxes. + +The freebooters.--This arrangement was an improvement, but French, +Dutch, and English freebooters hung in the wake of the fleets to plunder +any vessel which fell behind the galleons, while smuggling and +town-sacking grew in frequency with the growing jealousy and hatred of +Spain. The prototype of the English freebooters was John Hawkins, whose +fleet was destroyed by the Spaniards at Vera Cruz in 1567. More famous +was Francis Drake, who in 1585, during his third marauding expedition, +went to the West Indies with twenty-five vessels, captured Santo +Domingo, held Cartagena for ransom, and in May, 1586, sacked and burned +St. Augustine, Florida. Hawkins and Drake were only two of a score of +English freebooters who in the later sixteenth century harried Spanish +commerce and plundered the coast towns. In the list are the names of +Oxenham. Raleigh. Grenville. Clifford, Knollys, Winter, and Barker. The +last exploit of the century was Clifford's capture of San Juan, Porto +Rico, in 1598. + +The English in the north Atlantic.--The voyages of Frobisher. Davis, and +Gilbert in the northern Atlantic between 1576 and 1587, in search of the +northwest passage, caused uneasiness for the security of Florida and of +the northern strait. Equally disturbing were the efforts of Raleigh and +his associates to colonize Roanoke Island and Guiana. + +Decline of the West Indies.---The raids of the freebooters, the +restrictions placed on commerce, the decline of mining and of the native +population, and the superior attractions of Peru, Central America, and +Mexico, had greatly reduced the prosperity of the West Indies. In 1574 +Espanola had ten towns with 1000 Spanish families, and 12,000 negro +slaves. The native population had dwindled to two villages. Santo +Domingo, seat of the Audiencia and of the archdiocese, had seven hundred +families. Cuba was less prosperous than Espanola, and population was +still declining. The island had eight Spanish towns with a total +population of some three hundred families and about an equal number of +Indians. Santiago, once with a population of one thousand families, now +had thirty. Havana, somewhat larger, was the residence of governor and +bishop. Jamaica had three Spanish settlements and no Indians. Porto +Rico, with three Spanish towns, had a population of some two hundred and +eighty families, of whom two hundred lived at San Juan. The principal +industries in all of the islands were sugar and cattle raising. There +being no Indians in the West Indies now, there were no encomiendas. + + +THE PHILIPPINES AND CALIFORNIA + +A new attempt in the East.--At the same time that Menendez was +establishing the province of Florida, the right wing of the Indies, +Legazpi was conquering the Philippines, the left wing. The principal +result of the Villalobos expedition (1542) had been to give the name of +the Philippines to the Lazarus, or Western Islands. For nearly two +decades thereafter nothing was done to advance the interests of Spain in +the Far East, but Portuguese profits in the spice trade were tempting to +both sovereign and subject, and the king set about making a new effort +to share in these advantages. + +The obvious base for such a trade was Mexico, and in 1559 Philip ordered +Velasco to equip two vessels for discovery in the western islands, to +test the chance for profits and the possibility of a return voyage +across the Pacific. This order was issued just at the time when Spain +was attempting to occupy the Carolina coasts, with a view, in part, to +finding a northern strait leading to the Spice Islands. Thus were all +these widely separated enterprises unified. + +The Legazpi expedition.--To lead the expedition, Miguel Lopez de Legazpi +was chosen, with Fray Andres de Urdaneta as chief navigator. The +spiritual work was entrusted to Urdaneta and a band of Augustinians. +Owing to many delays it was November, 1564, when the fleet left Navidad. +In February, 1565, seven months before Menendez reached Florida, Legazpi +reached the Philippines. Three of the vessels were sent back with +Urdaneta on board to discover a return route to New Spain. Instead of +sailing east against wind and current, he turned northward beyond the +trade belt, and entered that of the westerly winds. After a long and +hard voyage he reached the American continent off the northern +California coast, which he descended to Mexico. At last the Spaniards +had discovered a way to return from the East safe from the Portuguese +attacks. + +Meanwhile Legazpi had occupied Cebu. Portuguese resistance caused a +removal to Panay, but in 1571 Cebu was reoccupied and Manila founded. In +the previous year Legazpi had received a commission as adelantado of the +Islands, subject to the viceroy of Mexico. When Legazpi died in 1572 the +conquest of the principal islands had been effected and with little +bloodshed. In 1583 the Audiencia of Manila was established, subordinate +to Mexico. + +The Manila galleon.--In 1580 Portugal was united with Spain, and, until +1640, when Portugal regained her independence, Manila was an important +center for the commerce of the combined Spanish and Portuguese colonies. +A regular trade was established from Manila to Mexico and Spain, but was +restricted to one or two annual galleons each way between Manila and +Acapulco. + +New interest in the California coast.--The development of the Philippine +trade, the necessity of protecting it from other nations, continued +interest in the Northern Mystery, and the opening of pearl fisheries in +the Gulf of California, led to renewed exploration of the northern +Pacific coasts and to renewed attempts to settle and develop California. + +The regular course of the east-bound Manila galleon lay along the path +marked out by Urdaneta northeastward from Manila to about latitude 42, deg. +thence across the Pacific to the American continent off Cape +Mendocino, and down the coast to Acapulco. The voyage was arduous. By +the time the vessels reached the American coast half of the +scurvy-afflicted crew and passengers were dead, and the vessels needed +repairs. Hence a port of call was gravely needed for the Manila +galleons. + +The Strait of Anian.--Moreover, Spanish interests in the Pacific, were +insecure. The Portuguese were no longer rivals, but French and English +freebooters were active on the Atlantic and might venture upon the +Pacific. Besides, there was the fear that the French, English, or Dutch, +operating in the northern Atlantic, would discover the Strait of Anian +and secure control of the direct route to the Spice Islands, just as +Portugal had monopolized the African route. + +Drake and Cavendish.--These fears were made realities in 1579 when Drake +appeared on the California coast. In 1577 he had passed through the +Straits of Magellan. Reaching the Pacific with only one vessel of the +five with which he had started, he proceeded up the coast of South +America, plundering as he went. In the harbour now known as Drake's Bay, +just north of San Francisco, he refitted, claiming the country for +England and calling it New Albion. Drake then sailed to the East Indies, +obtained a cargo of spices, crossed the Indian Ocean, rounded the Cape +of Good Hope, and reached Plymouth in November, 1580. He claimed to have +discovered the Strait of Anian, and this further disturbed the minds of +the Spaniards. For his daring voyage he was knighted by Queen Elizabeth. + +In 1586 Thomas Cavendish followed Drake's course. Reaching the point of +California, he plundered the Manila galleon, the Santa Ana, and burned +it to the water's edge. The voyages of Drake and Cavendish were soon +followed by the formation of the British East India Company (1600) and +by conflicts with the Spanish merchants in the Orient. In the wake of +the English came the Dutch, who had passed the Straits of Magellan +before the end of the sixteenth century. + +Gali and Cermeno.--With the needs of the Pacific coast in, view. Viceroy +Moya Contreras (1584-1585) instructed Francisco de Gali to explore the +northwestern coasts of America on his return from Manila in the galleon. +Nothing came of Gali's orders, and Moya's successor discouraged further +exploration. The second Viceroy Velasco (1590-1595), however, took up +Moya's plan, and in 1595 Sebastian Rodriguez Cermeno undertook to carry +out the project on his return from Manila. He was wrecked at Drake's +Bay, however, and his crew made their way to Mexico in an improvised +craft. The plan of reconnoitering the coast with laden Manila galleons +was now given up for one of exploring in light vessels sent out from the +ports of Mexico. + +Vizcaino's colony.--Royal interest in the protection of California was +now combined with private interest in the pearl-fisheries of the Gulf of +California. Occasional expeditions had been made for this purpose since +the days of Cortes and Alarcon. In 1595 Sebastian Vizcaino, who had been +engaged in the Manila trade, and, indeed, had been on the _Santa Ana_ +when it was captured by Cavendish, secured a contract authorizing him to +gather pearls, in return for subduing and colonizing California. Leaving +Acapulco late in 1596 with three vessels and a good-sized company, he +established a colony at La Paz and explored some distance up the Gulf. +But disaster soon followed, and early in 1597 the survivors returned to +Mexico. + +Vizcaino's exploring expedition.--Vizcaino attributed his failure to +ignorance of the seasons, and proposed making another attempt at +settlement and pearl fishing. While this question was being discussed, +the king in 1599 ordered the outer coast of California explored again, +with a view to finding a port for the Manila galleons. To conduct the +expedition Vizcaino was chosen. Leaving Acapulco in May, 1602, with +three vessels, he ran all the coasts covered by Cabrillo and Ferrelo +sixty years before. At Magdalena Bay, Cerros Island, San Diego Bay, and +Santa Catalina Island extensive explorations were made. The capital +event of the expedition, however, was the exploration of the Bay of +Monterey (probably entered by Cermeno) and its designation as the +desired port. One of the vessels reached Cape Blanco, but San Francisco +Bay was missed, as before. + +Plans to Occupy Monterey Bay.--Plans were now made for occupying the +port of Monterey, but delays ensued and a new viceroy concluded that a +port in the mid-Pacific was more needed than one on the California +coast. Accordingly, in 1611 Vizcaino was sent to explore certain islands +called Rica de Oro and Rica de Plata, but the expedition failed. + + +THE FOUNDING OF NEW MEXICO + +Renewed exploration of New Mexico.--The expansion of Nueva Vizcaya and +renewed activities on the Pacific coast in the later sixteenth century +stimulated a new advance into New Mexico. Coronado's expedition had +proved disappointing, and for four decades no further explorations had +been made in the region. Nevertheless, the tales of great cities had not +been forgotten, and in the meantime a new line of approach to New Mexico +had been opened by way of the central plateau. By 1580 mines and +missions had reached Santa Barbara, while slave hunting expeditions had +descended the Conchos to the Rio Grande. Through reports given by the +outlying tribes, a new interest in the Pueblo region was aroused. + +Rodriguez and Espejo.--To follow up these reports, with a view to +missionary work, trade, and exploration, an expedition was organized at +Santa Barbara in 1580 by Fray Augustin Rodriguez, a Franciscan lay +brother, and Francisco Sanchez Chamuscado. In the next year the party of +three friars and nine soldiers and traders descended the Conchos River, +ascended the Rio Grande to the Pueblo region, visited the buffalo +plains, Acoma, and Zuni, and returned, leaving two friars at Puaray, one +having been killed. In the following year a rescue and trading party was +led to New Mexico over the same trail by Fray Bernaldino Beltran and +Antonio de Espejo. The friars had already been slain by the natives, but +before returning Espejo went to Zuni, Moqui, and western Arizona, where +he discovered mines, returning to Santa Barbara by way of the Pecos +River. + +Plans to colonize New Mexico.--The expeditions of Rodriguez and Espejo +aroused new zeal for northern exploration and settlement, and there were +dreams now, not only of conquering New Mexico, but of going beyond to +colonize Quivira and the shores of the Strait of Anian. The king ordered +a contract made for the purpose, and soon there was a crowd of +applicants for the honor. While these men were competing for the desired +contract, Castano de Sosa in 1590 led a colony from Nuevo Leon up the +Pecos to the Pueblos and began their conquest, but was soon arrested and +taken back. Some three years later two men named Leyva and Gutierrez de +Humana led an unlicensed expedition from Nueva Vizcaya to New Mexico, +whence Gutierrez went to northeastern Kansas, and apparently reached the +Platte River. + +Onate and the founding of New Mexico.--The contract to colonize New +Mexico was finally assigned in 1595 to Juan de Onate, son of Cristobal, +one of the founders of Zacatecas. In accordance with the ordinances of +1573 he was made governor, adelantado, and captain-general, granted +extensive privileges, lands, and encomiendas, while his colonists were +given the usual privileges of first settlers (_primeros pobladores_). It +was February, 1598, when Onate left northern Nueva Vizcaya with his +colony. It included one hundred and thirty soldiers, some with their +families, a band of Franciscans under Father Martinez, and more than +seven thousand head of stock. Previous expeditions had followed the +Conchos, but Onate opened a more direct route through El Paso. Without +difficulty he secured the submission of the tribes, settled his colony +at San Juan, and distributed the friars among the pueblos. + +Onate's explorations.--Having established his colony, Onate turned to +exploration in the east and the west. In the fall of 1598 Vicente +Zaldivar was sent to the Buffalo Plains, while the governor set out for +the South Sea. At Moqui he turned back, but Marcos Farfan continued west +with a party, and staked out mining claims on Bill Williams Fork. Acoma +rebelled at this time and as a punishment was razed. In 1599 Zaldivar +was sent to the South Sea and seems to have reached the lower Colorado. +Early in 1601 Onate, with seventy men, descended the Canadian River and +crossed the Arkansas to an Indian settlement called Quivira, apparently +at Wichita, Kansas. During Onate's absence most of the colonists +deserted, but they were brought back, with reinforcements. Still bent on +reaching the South Sea, in 1604 Onate descended Bill Williams Fork and +the Colorado to the Gulf of California, where he got the idea that +California was an island. He had reexplored most of the ground covered +by Coronado and had opened new trails. But he had lost the confidence +and support of the authorities, and in 1608 resigned and was displaced +by a royal governor. + +Santa Fe founded.--In 1609 Santa Fe was founded and became the new +capital. This event, which occurred just a hundred years after the +occupation of Darien, may be regarded as the culmination of a century of +northward expansion. + +[Illustration: New Mexico in Onate's Time (From Bancroft, _Arizona and +New Mexico_, p. 137).] + + +SPANISH ACHIEVEMENTS IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY + +Population and industries.--The heroic age of Spanish colonization had +now passed. The surprising results achieved in the New World during the +first eighty years, not counting the work of exploration, are set forth +in a description of the colonies in 1574 written by Lopez de Velasco, +official geographer. At that time there were in North and South America +about two hundred Spanish towns and cities, besides numerous mining +camps, haciendas, and stock ranches. The Spanish population was 32,000 +families, or perhaps from 160,000 to 200,000 persons. Of these about +five-eighths lived in North America. In the two Americas there were 4000 +encomenderos, the rest being mainly miners, merchants, ranchers, and +soldiers, with their families. The population included 40,000 negro +slaves, and a large element of mulattoes and mestizos. About 1,500,000 +male Indians paid tribute, representing a population of 5,000,000. In +many parts occupied by Spaniards there were no encomiendas, for the +Indians had died out. Mining, commerce, cattle ranching, grain and sugar +raising had been established on a considerable scale. + +Cities and towns.--Before the end of the sixteenth century most of the +present-day state capitals and other large cities in Spanish North +America had been founded. Mexico City had a population of over 2000 +Spanish families (perhaps 15,000 persons), Santo Domingo, Puebla, and +Guatemala 500 families each, Trinidad (in Guatemala) and Panama 400 +each, Oaxaca 350, Zacatecas 300, Toluca, Zultepec, Vera Cruz, Granada, +Chiapas, and Nombre de Dios 200 each, Guadalajara and San Salvador 150 +each, and many others lesser numbers. + +Administrative divisions.--Spanish America was now divided into two +viceroyalties, New Spain and Peru. New Spain included all of the +American mainland north of Panama, the West Indies, part of the northern +coast of South America, the Islas del Poniente, and the Philippines. It +comprised the four audiencias of Espanola, Mexico, Guatemala, and Nueva +Galicia, the Audiencia of Panama being a part of the viceroyalty of +Peru. The four northern audiencia districts were subdivided into +seventeen or eighteen gobiernos or provinces, corresponding closely to +the modern states. The provinces were divided into _corregimientos_ +embracing Indian _partidos_. North America embraced twelve dioceses and +the two archdioceses of Santo Domingo and Mexico. + +Churches and monasteries.--Many fine churches, some of them still +standing, had been built in the larger towns. The Franciscans, +Dominicans, and Augustinians were well established in New Spain, and the +Jesuits had just begun their work. The friars were subject to their +chapters and the Jesuits to their general in Spain. The Franciscans +already had four provinces in New Spain, the Dominicans and Augustinians +only one each. Hundreds of monasteries had been established, especially +wherever there were Indians in encomienda. The expense of erecting them +was borne jointly by king, encomenderos, and Indians. + +The Universities.--"Enthusiasm for education characterizes the earliest +establishment of the Spanish colonies in America. Wherever the priests +went, a school was soon established for the instruction of the natives +or a college for its clericals who were already at work as well as for +those who were soon to take holy orders. From the colleges sprang the +universities which, in all the Spanish dominions, were founded at a very +early date for the pursuit of the 'general studies' which were at that +time taught in the great peninsular universities of Alcala and +Salamanca. Half a century before Jamestown was founded by the English, +the University of Mexico was conferring degrees upon graduates in law +and theology. Before the seventeenth century closed, no less that seven +universities had been erected in Spanish America, and their graduates +were accepted on an equality with those of Spanish institutions of like +grade." (Priestley.) + + +READINGS + +THE REIGN OF PHILIP II + +Chapman, Charles E., _A History of Spain_, Chapter XXXIII; Gayarre, +C.E.A., _Philip II of Spain_; Hume, M.A.S., _Philip II of Spain_; Hume, +M.A.S., _Spain, Its Greatness and Decay_; Hume, M.A.S., _The Spanish +People_; Lea, H.C., _A History of the Inquisition of Spain_; Merriman, +R.B., _The Rise of the Spanish Empire_; Prescott, W.H., _History of the +Reign of Philip the Second_; Cheyney, E.P., _European Background of +American History_, Chapter X. + +ADVANCE INTO NORTHERN MEXICO + +Bancroft, H.H., _History of Mexico_, II, chs. 22, 24, 34; _North Mexican +States and Texas_, I, ch. 5; Cavo, Andres, _Tres Siglos de Mexico_; +Coroleu, Jose, _America, Historia de su Colonizacion_; Frejes, Fr. F., +_Conquista de los Estados_; Gonzales, J.E., _Collecion de Noticias_; +_Historia de Nuevo Leon_; Leon, A., _Historia de Nuevo Leon_; Mota +Padilla, M., _Historia de Nueva Galicia_, ch. 23; Ortega, Fr. Joseph, +_Apostolica Afanes_. + +SETTLEMENT OF FLORIDA + +Hamilton, P.J., _The Colonization of the South_, chs. 1-2; Lowery, +Woodbury, _Spanish Settlements_, I, ch. 8, II; Shea, J.G., _The Catholic +Church in Colonial Days_, pp. 100-183. + +SETTLEMENT OF NEW MEXICO + +Bancroft, H.H., _Arizona and New Mexico_, 74-146; Bandelier, A.D.F., +_Final Report of Investigations among the Indians of the Southwestern +United States_ (Papers of the Archaeological Institute of America, +III-IV); Benavides, Memorial on New Mexico (Mrs. E.E. Ayer, trans.); +Bolton, H.E., ed., _Spanish Exploration in the Southwest_, 135-278; +Davis, W.H.H., _Spanish Conquest in New Mexico_, 234-407; Farrand, +Livingston, _The Basis of American History_, 176-187; Lummis, C.F., +_Spanish Pioneers in the Southwest_, 125-143; Prince, L.B., _Historical +Sketches of New Mexico_, 149-166; Twitchell, R.E., _Leading Facts of New +Mexican History_, I, 7-45, 252-333; Vulagra, Gaspar de, _Historia de +Nuevo Mexico_. + +THE PHILIPPINES AND CALIFORNIA + +Barrows, D.P., _A History of the Philippines_; Blair and Robertson, +_Philippine Islands_, II, 23-330; Bolton, H.E., _Spanish Exploration in +the Southwest_, 41-133; Carrasco y Guisasola, Francisco, _Documentos +Referentes al Reconocimiento de las Costas de las Californias_; Hittell, +T.H., _History of California_, I, 79-111; Richman, L.B., _California +under Spain and Mexico_, 12-24; Robertson, J.A., "Legazpi and Philippine +Island Colonization," in American Historical Association, _Rpt., 1907_, +I, 145-165; Zarate, Salmeron, "Relation," in _Land of Sunshine_, XI, +336-346, XII, 39-48, 104-114, 180-187. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FRENCH COLONIES (1500-1700) + + +THE FRENCH BACKGROUND + +Mediaeval France and the Italian wars.--The history of Mediaeval France is +largely the story of the struggle of the French kings to overthrow the +feudal nobility and to perfect the governmental machinery of absolutism. +The process which began with the accession of Hugh Capet in 987 was +practically completed by the end of the reign of Louis XI, in 1483. +During the reigns of Charles VIII, Louis XII, and Francis I, the great +ambition of the French monarchs was to get control of Italy, a policy +which brought them into conflict with Spain. The wars were barren of +results as far as conquests in Italy were concerned, but the dangers to +which France was exposed united the French people into a great nation, +which was destined to be the leading continental power. + +The religious wars.--The Reformation spread into France, Calvinism being +the form of Protestantism which there took root. Calvin's religious +system had three distinguishing features: (1) the church was to be +independent of any temporal power, (2) laymen and ministers were to join +in the government of the church, and (3) a strict moral discipline was +to be enforced. This program was distinctly democratic, and was certain +to come into conflict with the absolutism of the crown. France became +divided into two great parties. The Huguenots, as the French Protestants +were called, were found mainly among the rich burghers of the towns and +the nobles of the country districts, their chief power being in +southwestern France. They were also strong in Dauphine and Normandy. +Their great leaders were Coligny and the Bourbon princes, the most +distinguished of whom was Henry of Navarre. The Catholic party was +headed by the Guises and Catherine de Medici. The kings during this +period were mere puppets, who were used by the leaders to further their +political ends. + +War broke out in 1562 and continued with occasional intermissions until +1596. The most important events were the assassination of Francis of +Guise in 1563, the ascendency of Coligny, during which he tried to unite +the nation in a war against Spain, the massacre of St. Bartholomew's in +1572, the organization of the Catholic League headed by Henry of Guise, +his assassination in 1588, and the murder of Henry III the following +year, which made the way clear for Henry of Navarre to ascend the +throne. In 1593 he accepted Catholicism. The last resistance in France +was overcome in 1596, but war with Philip II continued two years longer. +In 1598 Henry issued the Edict of Nantes, which secured toleration to +the Huguenots. + +Reforms of Henry IV.--During the religious wars, the nobles had regained +some of their former power, and the ravages of war had almost ruined the +industries of the country. Henry set to work to repair these conditions. +The lesser nobles were forced to submit and the privileges of the more +powerful were purchased. The king's great minister, Sully, carried out +many of the economic reforms. The land tax called the _taille_, which +rested most heavily upon the peasants, was more equitably distributed, +and the hunting privileges of the nobles were decreased. New lines of +agriculture were introduced, marshes were reclaimed, and restrictions on +the marketing of grain were removed. The king encouraged manufactures, +especially of the more expensive fabrics, glass, and metal work. +Commerce was stimulated by securing safe transportation along the post +roads, by a system of canals connecting the Seine and the Loire, and by +commercial treaties with foreign states. Attempts were also made to +stimulate commerce and colonization by the formation of mercantile +companies, and from this period date the first successful French +colonies in America. + +Richelieu.--Henry IV was assassinated in 1610, and his son, who ascended +the throne as Louis XIII, was a child of nine years. During the regency +of his mother, Mary de Medici, the nobles again became turbulent, the +Huguenots revolted, and the policy of hostility toward Spain was +reversed. The regent was under the influence of favorites who looted the +treasury. Under such conditions a strong leader was greatly needed; the +man of the hour was Richelieu. In 1624 he was placed in control of +public affairs, and for the next twenty years practically ruled France. +His policy aimed to make France the first power in Europe. To accomplish +this he worked at home to strengthen the power of the crown. Abroad he +aimed to weaken the power of the Hapsburgs, to extend the boundaries of +France, and to build up a colonial empire. + +The chief steps by which his policy was carried out were as follows: La +Rochelle, the great Huguenot stronghold, was captured and the power of +the Protestants was curbed effectually; the intrigues of Mary de Medici +were thwarted; an alliance was made with Sweden, and to weaken the +Hapsburgs the power of France was used to assist the Protestants in +Germany in the Thirty Years' War; a navy was built and important ports +were fortified; to extend commerce and colonies, colonial enterprises +were entrusted to exclusive corporations. During the administration of +Richelieu the French hold upon eastern Canada was strengthened, +settlements were made in Guiana and the West Indies, and an attempt was +made to occupy Madagascar. + +The Council of State.--The work of strengthening the crown at the +expense of the nobility was continued. The power of the nobles was +maintained by their fortified castles and by their position as governors +of provinces. An edict was issued for the destruction of all but the +frontier fortifications. Most of the work of administration was centered +in the _conseil d'etat_, or council of state, which was the highest +judicial tribunal. It also issued edicts, made peace or war, determined +the amount and method of taxation, and acted as a high court of justice. +In appearance this body was supreme, but in reality the power centered +in the king and the chief minister, the other ministers being merely +advisers. Local administration was taken from the nobles and was placed +almost wholly in the hands of _intendants_, who were officers of +justice, police, and finance. + +Mazarin.--Richelieu died in November, 1642, and Louis XIII a few months +later. Louis XIV was a child of five years and his mother, Anne of +Austria, became regent. Mazarin, who was probably secretly married to +her, was to rule France during the troubled minority of the king. It was +a period of civil and foreign war, in which the minister found no time +to devote to the development of colonies. The importance of the period +lies in the fact that the great nobles were effectually quelled, that +the absolutism of the crown was completely established, and that France +proved herself superior to the power of Spain and the Hapsburgs. When +Louis XIV took the reins of power in 1661 he was the most absolute and +most powerful monarch in Europe. + +Colbert.--Colonial development during the reign of Louis XIV was due +mainly to Colbert, who was given charge of the finances, of the navy, +and of the colonies. The finances had become deranged under Mazarin, and +Colbert attacked the abuses. To stimulate commerce and manufactures, he +established a protective system, furnished governmental aid to +companies, and granted monopolies. The royal navy and mercantile marine +were greatly increased. To develop foreign trade, corporations were +granted monopolies of the commerce of the West Indies, the East Indies, +Senegal, and Madagascar. Colonies were fostered by paternalistic +regulations. The system of Colbert, as time proved, was founded on +mistaken principles, for monopoly and overregulation stifled the growth +of trade and of the colonies. Although a vast area was brought under +control, the colonies never attracted a large population, or were +allowed a free growth of institutions. + + +EARLY EXPLORATIONS AND COLONIZING EFFORTS + +First French voyages.--The first Frenchmen who visited America appear to +have been Norman and Breton fishermen, who engaged in fishing off the +Newfoundland coast perhaps as early as 1500. Sailors from Dieppe also +visited the coasts of North and South America. Vague accounts have come +down to us of attempts to explore the Gulf of St. Lawrence in 1506 and +1508, and of an unsuccessful colony on Sable Island in 1518. The first +expedition under the government sanction was that of the Florentine, +Verrazano, sent out by Francis I in 1524. The details of the voyage are +somewhat obscure. He probably explored the coast from Cape Fear to +Newfoundland. + +Cartier and Roberval.--The wars between Francis I and Charles V +prevented the French king from giving further attention to exploration +until 1534, when Cartier was sent out with two ships from St. Malo. He +sighted land on the Labrador coast, passed through the straits of Belle +Isle, and explored the Gulf of St. Lawrence, locating the Bay of +Chaleurs, Cape Gaspe, and Anticosti Island, thence returning to France. + +In 1535 he again visited America in search of a passage to China. He +sailed along the northern shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and entered +the mouth of the river, soon becoming convinced that the passage did not +lead to the Far East. He stopped at the site of Quebec and later +proceeded to the La Chine rapids, and to a hill which he named Montreal. +He wintered at Quebec where twenty-five persons died of scurvy. The +return to France was made the following summer. + +Exploration was again interrupted by the wars, and it was not until 1541 +that Cartier's third expedition sailed. Francis I had granted a +commission to Roberval, a Picardy nobleman, as viceroy and +lieutenant-general in Canada, Newfoundland, Labrador, and neighboring +lands, this being the first time that the name Canada was officially +used. In the king's proclamation Canada was mentioned as the extremity +of Asia. The objects of the expedition were discovery, settlement, and +conversion of the Indians. Cartier was appointed captain-general. He +sailed in 1541, but Roberval remained in France to collect supplies and +materials for defence. Cartier wasted six weeks in Newfoundland and then +proceeded to Quebec, where the winter was spent in great hardship. + +The colonists started to return to France, but at St. Johns, +Newfoundland, they met Roberval, who ordered them to return to Quebec. +Cartier, however, disobeyed, and returned to France. Roberval proceeded +to Quebec, where habitations were erected and the forts of Cartier +repaired. Supplies, however, ran short, and during the following winter +a third of the settlers died. A mutiny threatened and Roberval checked +it with great harshness. After lingering a little longer, the +unfortunate remnant returned to France. In 1543 Francis I declared the +Western Sea to be open to his subjects, but advantage of it was not +taken, and it was over a half century before another attempt was made to +colonize in the St. Lawrence Valley. + +[Illustration: Cartier's Explorations, 1534-1542.] + +Ribaut and Laudonniere.--The next colonizing efforts were of Huguenot +origin, and were made at the suggestion of Coligny. In 1555 an attempt +was made to found a colony in Brazil, but it was destroyed by the +Portuguese. When Coligny developed his plan for an attack upon Spain, he +determined to found a colony in the region then known as Florida. A +Huguenot from Dieppe named Jean Ribaut was placed in command of the +expedition, which set sail from Havre in 1562. Land was seen not far +from the site of St. Augustine; they sailed northward and planted a +settlement on Port Royal Sound, where thirty men were left. Ribaut +explored the coast as far as the fortieth degree and returned to France. +Misfortune beset the colonists, and after great suffering they built a +rude vessel and succeeded in getting back to Europe. + +In 1564 a large expedition was sent out under Laudonniere, which erected +Fort Caroline on St. John's River. Dissensions and starvation played +havoc with the colony, and when the English Captain John Hawkins offered +to sell them a ship and provisions, they eagerly embraced the +opportunity. When they were about to depart, Ribaut with seven vessels +and six hundred soldiers hove in sight, and the idea of returning to +France was abandoned. + +Philip II learned of the French colony, probably from Catherine de +Medici, and in 1565 sent an expedition of nineteen vessels and fifteen +hundred men under Menendez to destroy it. Ribaut's fleet was found near +the mouth of the river but the larger craft escaped and Menendez, +finding the rest in a secure position, proceeded southward about fifty +miles and founded St. Augustine. + +Ribaut followed but failed to attack, and shortly afterwards a hurricane +dispersed the fleet. Taking advantage of the misfortune, Menendez +marched overland and surprised and captured Fort Caroline, putting most +of the prisoners to the sword. A little later Ribaut and his followers +fell into the hands of Menendez, and most of them were put to death. To +avenge the butchery, the Chevalier de Gourgues, at his own expense, +fitted out three small ships in 1567 and attacked the Spanish forts on +the St. John's. They were captured and the garrisons slain. His force +being too small to risk an attack on St. Augustine, De Gourgues returned +to France, and Florida ceased to be a scene of French activity. + + +ACADIA + +Colonization renewed.--The scene of the next colonization by the French +was the region about the Bay of Fundy. After the religious wars, in +1598, the Marquis de la Roche landed two shiploads of colonists on Sable +Island. Going in search of a site on the mainland, he encountered severe +storms and returned to France. Five years later the survivors were +rescued. + +The fur monopoly.--In 1600 a partnership was formed between Pontgrave, a +St. Malo mariner, and two Huguenot friends of Henry IV, Chauvin, a +merchant of Harfleur, and Sieur de Monts, the associates being granted a +fur-trading monopoly. A settlement was made at Tadoussac, on the lower +St. Lawrence, but it did not prosper; two trading voyages, however, +proved profitable. Shortly afterward the company was reorganized, the +king making De Chastes, the governor of Dieppe, his representative. An +expedition commanded by Pontgrave was sent out in 1603. Associated with +him was Samuel de Champlain, who had already gained fame by a voyage to +Spanish America and by his writings. A profitable trade in furs was +carried on, and the St. Lawrence was explored as far as the La Chine +rapids. Champlain also examined the Acadian coast as far as the Bay of +Chaleurs. + +Port Royal.--Upon the return of the traders, De Chastes having died, the +king issued a patent to De Monts granting him viceregal powers and a +trade monopoly between the fortieth and forty-sixth degrees. Settlements +were to be founded and the savages were to be instructed in +Christianity. In 1604 De Monts and Champlain sailed for Acadia. An +unsuccessful attempt at settlement was made at St. Croix Island and +later the survivors moved to Port Royal. De Monts then returned to +France to defend his rights against those who objected to his patent, +and Champlain busied himself with the exploration of the New England +coast, on one expedition rounding Cape Cod. In 1607 it became known that +De Monts's patent had been revoked, and Champlain returned to France. + +Acadia, 1610-1632.--In 1610 Poutrincourt reestablished Port Royal and +soon afterward his son, Biencourt, was placed in command. The coast was +surveyed as far as the Kennebec. Pontgrave had a trading post at St. +John, and this Biencourt captured. In 1613 Port Royal was taken and +burned by a Virginia expedition under Argall, but was soon rebuilt. In +1623 or 1624 Biencourt died and his lieutenant, Charles de la Tour, +succeeded him. Before his powers could be confirmed, Acadia, in 1628, +fell into English hands, but was restored in 1632. + +Charnisay and La Tour.--Isaac de Rezilly was sent to receive the +submission of the English, being shortly afterward succeeded by +Charnisay. La Tour soon afterward received from the company of New +France a grant at the mouth of the St. John's River, where he built Fort +St. Jean. A civil war broke out in which La Tour finally secured aid +from Boston. For a time he was successful, but Charnisay obtained help +from France and La Tour was defeated. From 1645 to 1650 Charnisay was +supreme in Acadia. Upon his death La Tour was made governor and +lieutenant-general, and the animosities of the past were dissipated by +his marriage to Charnisay's widow. + +English Rivalry.--In 1654 an English fleet captured the French forts, +and Acadia remained under English rule until 1667, when it was restored +to France by the treaty of Breda. + + +THE ST. LAWRENCE VALLEY + +The founding of Quebec.--In 1608 De Monts obtained a renewal of his +patent for one year, and, after consulting Champlain, he decided to +found a settlement at Quebec. Champlain was appointed his lieutenant +with full powers, and with two vessels he arrived at Quebec on July 3. A +storehouse and dwelling were built surrounded by a palisade and ditch. +Of the twenty-eight men who began the settlement, only eight survived +the first winter, but considerable reinforcements arrived in the spring. +In the summer of 1609 Champlain accompanied a war party of Algonquins +and Hurons up the Richelieu River to the lake which bears his name, +where a successful attack was made upon the Iroquois. The consequences +of this act were far reaching, for from that time the Iroquois +confederation was hostile to the French, crippling the colony for many +years. + +A new company formed.--De Monts's exclusive privileges were not renewed, +but he was allowed to retain his position of king's representative. +Seeing no chance for profit, he withdrew from further activities in the +New World. Another company was at once formed, composed of traders of +Rouen and St. Malo. Champlain was retained by the new company. + +Champlain's explorations.--In 1613 Champlain explored the Ottawa River +to a point about one hundred miles above the modern capital of Canada. +In 1615 four Recollet friars were induced to come to Quebec, this being +the beginning of missionary activities in New France. The same year +Champlain joined a Huron war party, passed up the Ottawa to Lake +Nipissing, thence by the French River to Georgian Bay, being the first +white man to find the way which eventually became the regular fur +trader's route to the interior. Lake Ontario was also seen and crossed +for the first time on this expedition. Fur trading was actively carried +on, but because of dishonest dealings the company gradually lost +influence with the Indians, a condition which also hampered the +missionaries. As the Recollets met with little success, in 1625 the +Jesuits were induced to send out five representatives, thus beginning +the activities of that order in New France. + +The Company of the Hundred Associates.--In spite of all the efforts +which had been made, the financial results were trifling. So badly were +affairs going that Richelieu determined to change the organization; in +1627 he established the Company of the Hundred Associates, who were to +send out annually from two to three hundred settlers and a sufficient +number of clergy to meet the needs. The company was to possess all lands +between Florida and the Arctic Circle, and from Newfoundland as far west +as it was able to take possession. With the exception of the cod and +whale fisheries, the company was granted a complete monopoly of trade. + +The English occupation.--Before the company could land colonists, +difficulties arose between France and England, and a fleet of privateers +under Captain David Kirke raided the French possessions off Gaspe, +capturing eighteen vessels which were carrying colonists and supplies to +Quebec; after destroying the settlements in Acadia, Kirke sailed for +England. The following year he landed at Tadoussac and sent three +vessels to Quebec to demand its surrender. The place capitulated and +over a hundred of the inhabitants were sent to England. Upon their +arrival, it was found that peace had been made. Negotiations were +terminated in 1632, Canada and Acadia being restored to France. + +Last years of Champlain. Nicolet.--Upon his return Champlain immediately +repaired the buildings at Quebec, and established a fort at Three Rivers +to protect the Hurons against the Iroquois. From time to time Champlain +had heard of a great waterway in the west. Believing that it might be a +route to China, in 1634 he sent Nicolet on an exploring expedition. +Nicolet passed up the Ottawa, traversed Georgian Bay, and reached Sault +Ste. Marie. He then explored the south shore of the upper peninsula of +Michigan, and reached the southern extremity of Green Bay. From the +Winnebagoes he learned of a "great water" three days' journey toward the +south. After visiting the Illinois country, he returned without having +reached the Mississippi. In 1635 Champlain died; there was no master +mind to direct operations, and the colony languished. + +The Jesuits.--The first Jesuit superior was Father Le Jeune, who in 1632 +was stationed at Quebec in the residence of Notre Dame des Anges, the +parent establishment of the missions of New France. Le Jeune ministered +to the Algonquins of the neighborhood. In 1633 Breboeuf headed a group +of missionaries to the Huron villages at the southern end of Georgian +Bay, and in 1641 a mission was founded at Sault Ste. Marie, but it was +not permanent. Pestilence and the war parties of the Iroquois gradually +destroyed the Hurons; the Jesuits toiled amid scenes of famine, disease, +and death, several succumbing to the hardships, others suffering +martyrdom. So constant were the attacks of the Iroquois, that in 1649 it +was determined to establish a more sheltered mission on the Island of +St. Joseph in Georgian Bay. The missions on the mainland being destroyed +by the Iroquois, and the Hurons having been greatly reduced in numbers, +in 1650 the Jesuits abandoned that region. Attempts to establish +missions among the Iroquois also failed completely at this time. In the +settlements the Jesuits were the most important social factor, until +1665 practically controlling the life of the people. At Quebec they +established schools for Huron and French boys, and at their suggestion +the Ursulines opened a convent. Private endowments made possible a +school for girls near Quebec and a hospital at Montreal. + +[Illustration: The French in Canada, 17th Century.] + +The founding of Montreal.--For the purpose of founding an evangelical +colony, a group of religious persons at Paris formed an association +called the Association of Montreal. The island on which the city now +stands was purchased, and in 1641 De Maisonneuve, with a Jesuit priest +and thirty-seven laymen, sailed from La Rochelle. After taking formal +possession of the island, the party wintered at Quebec, and the +following spring founded the town of Montreal. + +The New Company.--The Hundred Associates not having fulfilled their +agreement regarding settlers, and the colony having proved a financial +failure, an arrangement was made in 1645 between the company and the +inhabitants acting as a corporation, henceforth known as the New +Company. The old company retained its governmental rights, but the fur +trade was thrown open to the New Company on condition that it would +assume the expenses of civil administration, defence, and religion, that +it would bring in twenty settlers annually, and would pay to the old +company a thousand pounds of beaver skins every year. + +Coureurs de bois.--Up to this time the fur trade had been carried on +mainly at the settlements, but after the New Company was formed a larger +number of men began to frequent the forests, giving rise to the type +known as _coureurs de bois_. These were of two classes, those who merely +traded with the Indians for peltries, and those who attached themselves +to native tribes. This latter class lapsed into barbarism and became a +lawless element which gave great annoyance to the officials. Later a +third class of traders appeared when the governors were allowed to grant +licenses to frequent the forests. Great abuses crept into the fur trade, +large quantities of spirits being sold to the Indians, who were roundly +cheated when intoxicated. It was the intention of the French government +to restrict the trade to the settlements, but the officials usually +winked at violations of the law, and some of them shared in the illicit +trading. The most famous of the fur traders of this period were Radisson +and Groseilliers, who, in 1658-1659 and possibly earlier, traded and +explored in the country at the western end of Lake Superior. + + +REORGANIZATION AND THE IROQUOIS WARS + +A centralist system established.--As complaints arose regarding the last +governmental arrangements, the king changed the form of control, +creating a council to consist of the governor, any ex-governor who might +be in the country, and the superior of the Jesuits, who was later to +give way to a bishop when one was appointed; these were to select for +membership two inhabitants, or three if no ex-governor was in the +colony. Quebec, Montreal, and Three Rivers were each to select a syndic, +who could hold office for three years and could deliberate with but +could not vote in the council. The centralist system, which Mazarin was +perfecting in France, was thus established in Canada. + +Laval.--New France had been attached to the archbishopric of Rouen, and +De Queylus, a Sulpician priest at Montreal, had acted as vicar-general +for the whole colony. His followers hoped that he would be created +bishop, but instead, in 1659 a Jesuit, the Abbe Laval, was appointed +vicar-apostolic and Bishop of Petraea _in partibus_. After a spirited +contest with De Queylus, Laval was successful in establishing his +supremacy, the power of the Jesuits thus being assured. + +War with the Iroquois.--The following year witnessed a serious Iroquois +outbreak. News arrived that twelve hundred warriors had gathered to wipe +out the settlements. A young nobleman, popularly known as Dollard, +conceived the quixotic scheme of intercepting a large force of Iroquois +who had wintered on the Ottawa. With sixteen enlisted men and a few +Hurons and Algonquins he proceeded to a palisade at the great rapids of +the Ottawa, and there met the Indians. Dollard and his followers were +slain to a man, but so stubborn had been their resistance that the +Iroquois retired to the forests and New France was saved. A regiment was +sent out to protect the colony, forts were established along the +Richelieu, and two expeditions were sent into the Iroquois country, the +result being that a peace was made with the Indians which lasted for +several years. Later an expedition was sent to the outlet of Lake +Ontario to impress the savages with the power of France. + +The West India Company.--In 1663 the company of New France surrendered +its rights to the king, who created a council to consist of the +governor, bishop, and five councillors chosen by them jointly. The +following year, at the suggestion of Colbert, he chartered a new +corporation known as the West India Company, to which was given a +monopoly of all the trade of New France and the west coast of Africa, +with the privilege of nominating the governor of Canada. The office of +intendant was also created to act as a check upon the governor. This +official was to act as a legal and financial officer who was to report +directly to the crown. The first intendant was Talon, who was a +prominent figure for several years. The governor who was the military, +political, and administrative agent of the king, the intendant, and the +bishop were the real rulers of New France. Their divided authority and +jealousies later led to frequent disputes, which greatly retarded the +development of the colonies. + +Talon.--It was Talon who first realized the possibilities of New France. +To promote commerce he built a vessel which he despatched to the West +Indies with a cargo of fish, staves, and lumber. He planned an overland +road to Acadia and urged the occupation of the Hudson River Valley, +projects, however, which were not realized. At Quebec he erected a +brewery and tannery. Young women were brought from France as wives for +the colonists and soldiers, and bounties were offered for the birth of +children. In 1666 the total population was 3418; five years later it had +increased to 6000. + +Seignorial grants.--To aid in colonization and protection Talon +established a type of feudalism. Along the Richelieu River as high up as +Chambly and along the St. Lawrence from the neighborhood of Montreal to +a point several miles below Quebec, most of the lands were portioned +out. The majority of these seignorial grants were made to officers of +the regiment of Carrigan, which had been stationed in Canada. Discharged +soldiers were settled on the grants as tenant farmers. The seignorial +holdings varied in size from half a league to six leagues on the river +and extended back from half a league to two leagues. The buildings of +the seigniory were the "mansion," which was usually a log house, a fort, +chapel, and mill. The poverty of the proprietor, however, frequently +prevented the erection of some of the buildings, the mill sometimes +being lacking or serving the double duty of fort and mill; on other +grants chapel, mill, and fort were never built. In the more exposed +localities the houses of the tenants were built together in palisaded +villages. On other grants the dwellings lined the shore, forming what +were called _cotes_. Near Quebec Talon laid out a model seigniory and +three model villages, each village being provided with a carpenter, +mason, blacksmith, and shoemaker. But the settlers did not profit by the +example and continued to build near the rivers. With the exception of +Talon's villages, one could have seen nearly every house in Canada by +paddling a canoe up the St. Lawrence and the Richelieu. One of the most +famous seigniories in Canada was that of the Le Moyne family. + + +THE WEST INDIES + +The Company of St. Christopher.--In 1625 a small brigantine commanded by +Pierre d'Esnambuc and Urbain de Roissey, "the pirate of Dieppe," sailed +to the West Indies. After escaping from a Spanish galleon near Jamaica, +they proceeded to St. Christopher, where a settlement was begun. The +following year the Company of St. Christopher was formed, and three +vessels with over five hundred men set sail from France in 1627, but +only half of them survived the voyage. Two settlements were formed, one +at each end of the island, the English having already occupied the +middle. In 1628 and 1629 about five hundred more were sent out, and in +the latter year ten vessels were despatched to defend the colonists. In +spite of this a Spanish fleet broke up the settlements; the fugitives +fled to St. Martin, and after a vain attempt to settle Antigua and +Montserrat, most of them returned to St. Christopher, which had been +abandoned by the Spanish. Only three hundred and fifty survived. + +Santo Domingo.--A few of them went to the northern coast of Santo +Domingo, whence they carried on buccaneering enterprises against the +Spaniards. After the Spanish attack the company did little to assist, +and the colony was left to its own devices. Trade with the Dutch +immediately sprang up and the settlers began to make a profit from +tobacco. + +Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Tortuga.--In 1634 the Company of St. +Christopher was bankrupt, and the following year it was reorganized as +the Company of the Isles of America. Guadeloupe and Martinique were +immediately occupied. In 1640 the English were expelled from Tortuga, +and the island was occupied by Levasseur, who soon broke loose from the +control of the company and conducted a pirate haven. Several of the +smaller islands were also occupied. The French West Indies soon +attracted a considerable immigration, in 1642 the population being +estimated at more than seven thousand. The tobacco business not +continuing profitable, sugar began to take its place as the staple +product. Due mainly to the clash of authority among officials, a +condition which led to anarchy, by 1648 the company was bankrupt. + +Other Islands occupied.--Between 1649 and 1651 the various islands were +sold to proprietors who ruled them until 1664. Between 1648 and 1656 +settlements were made on St. Martin, St. Bartholomew, St. Croix, The +Saints, Marie Galante, St. Lucia, and Granada, and by 1664 the French +flag floated over fourteen of the Antilles. The sugar business proved to +be exceedingly profitable and cultivation of the cane made slave-labor +desirable. Population increased rapidly, in 1655 the whites numbering +about fifteen thousand and slaves being almost as numerous. During the +period of the proprietors there was little restriction on commerce, most +of the carrying trade passing into the hands of the Dutch. + +The Crown assumes control.--Colbert became controller-general of the +finances in 1662, one of his functions being the control of the +colonies. He determined to send a representative to assert the king's +authority; in 1663 De Tracy was made lieutenant-general in all the +French colonies and was given supreme executive and judicial powers. The +following year he sailed with De La Barre who was about to establish a +colony at Cayenne. De Tracy soon established the king's authority and +corrected abuses in the West Indies, and then proceeded to Quebec, where +he remained until 1667. + +[Illustration: The Caribbean Area in the Seventeenth Century.] + +The West India Company.--In 1664 Louis chartered the great company which +was granted the mainland of South America from the Orinoco to the +Amazon, the island of Cayenne, the French West Indies, Newfoundland, +Acadia, Canada, the rest of the mainland of North America as far south +as Florida, and the African coast from Cape Verde to the Cape of Good +Hope. Former proprietors were to be compensated, and with the +exception of the fisheries of Newfoundland, the company was to have a +monopoly of trade and colonization for forty years. After considerable +opposition the company succeeded in establishing its authority in the +islands, but the war which broke out in 1666 between France, and England +and Holland proved disastrous, a French fleet which was sent to protect +the Antilles being destroyed by the English. Colbert assisted the +company financially, but it failed to become a profitable undertaking +and in 1674 was dissolved. The inhabitants, however, continued to +prosper, mainly because of the increasing number of independent +merchants who traded with the islands and the growing importance of the +sugar industry. + + +OPENING THE UPPER LAKE REGION AND THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY + +Two Lines of Approach.--The French had now established themselves firmly +in the lower St. Lawrence basin and in the Caribbean area. From these +two bases they now proceeded to the Mississippi Valley and the northern +Gulf littoral. From the St. Lawrence they made their way over the +portages to the tributaries of the Father of Waters. From the West +Indies the Gulf of Mexico served as a highway. + +Occupation of the upper lakes.--After the failure of the Huron missions, +the Jesuits extended their field of operations to the shores of Lake +Superior and Lake Michigan. The mission at Sault Ste. Marie was revived; +in 1665 La Pointe mission near the western end of Lake Superior was +established by Father Allouez, who was succeeded by Marquette four years +later. Between 1670 and 1672 St. Ignace, at Michillimackinac, and St. +Xavier on Green Bay (at De Pere) were established. In 1670 Talon +despatched Saint Lusson to take possession of the Northwest; at a +meeting of the tribes at Sault Ste. Marie the following year the +sovereignty of the king over that region was proclaimed. Albanel was +also sent to open communication between the St. Lawrence and Hudson Bay. + +Marquette and Joliet.--In 1672 Count Frontenac became governor and +lieutenant-general of New France. Shortly after his arrival at Quebec, +at the suggestion of Talon, he sent the fur trader Joliet to find the +Mississippi. At Michillimackinac he met the missionary Marquette, who +decided to accompany him. On May 17, 1673, they started westward; after +reaching Green Bay, they followed the Fox and Wisconsin rivers to the +Mississippi, which they descended to the mouth of the Arkansas, just at +the time when Father Larios was founding Spanish missions near the Rio +Grande. Being convinced that the Mississippi emptied into the Gulf of +Mexico, and fearing that they might fall into the hands of the +Spaniards, they determined to turn back. The return was by the +Mississippi, the Illinois, and Chicago rivers and the western shores of +Lake Michigan. Father Marquette returned to work among the Illinois, but +was soon forced by illness to abandon the field. On his way north he +died at the site of Ludington. His work among the Illinois was taken up +by others, among them being Fathers Allouez and Hennepin. + +Fort Frontenac.--While Joliet and Marquette were exploring the +Mississippi, the governor was engaged in founding Fort Frontenac, on the +northern shore of the outlet of Lake Ontario, near modern Kingston, his +purpose being to overawe the Iroquois, and to divert their trade and +allegiance from the English. With the governor was La Salle, who later +became commandant of the new fort. + +Frontenac's quarrels.--Shortly after Frontenac became governor the king +again changed the form of government. The council was increased to seven +members who held office directly from the king. Its chief function was +judicial. A minor court called the _prevote_, having original +jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases, was reestablished, appeals +being taken from the _prevote_ to the council. Frontenac, who was of an +imperious nature and exceedingly jealous of his authority, quarreled +with the officials and clergy of Montreal, with Laval who had recently +been made Bishop of Quebec, with the new intendant Duchesneau, and with +the council. Regulation of the fur trade and questions of authority were +the fruitful sources of disagreement. Under such conditions the colony +did not advance rapidly. As Le Sueur says in his life of Frontenac, "The +great trouble in Canada was that it was an overgoverned country.... What +these people needed in the first place was freedom to seek their living +in their own way, and secondly, an extremely simple form of government." +The constant bickering finally exhausted the patience of the home +government, and in 1682 both Frontenac and Duchesneau were recalled. + +La Salle's fur trade monopoly.--During Frontenac's administration La +Salle was engaged in the exploration of the Illinois country and the +Mississippi. Having secured a royal patent to build forts and engage in +the fur trade in the interior, La Salle, with a party which included +Tonty, an Italian soldier of fortune, and the Recollet Hennepin, erected +a fort at Niagara Falls and built a vessel called the _Griffon_, on +which in 1679 they sailed up the lakes to Green Bay. The boat was sent +back with a cargo of furs, but never reached its destination. The shores +of Lake Michigan and the Illinois country were explored and Fort +Crevecoeur was erected near the site of Peoria. From there Accau and +Hennepin were sent to explore the upper Mississippi. La Salle then +returned to Fort Frontenac, crossing lower Michigan and following Lake +Erie and Lake Ontario. + +Exploration of the Mississippi.--While La Salle was gone, Tonty occupied +Starved Rock, later known as Fort St. Louis, but a mutiny and an +Iroquois invasion forced the French to return to Green Bay, so that when +La Salle returned he found the country abandoned. After a fruitless +search, he heard from the Indians of Tonty's whereabouts and hastened +north to meet him. Together they returned to Fort Frontenac. Nothing +daunted, they again sought the Mississippi. On December 21, 1681, they +were again at Fort Miami, at the mouth of the St. Joseph River. On +February 6, 1682, they reached the Mississippi, and arrived at its mouth +in April, when they took formal possession of the great valley, naming +it Louisiana in honor of the king. By the end of September they were +back at Fort Miami, and in 1683 the leader returned to Quebec. + +La Salle's Colony on the Gulf.--La Salle now planned a colony at the +mouth of the Mississippi River, as a means of developing the fur trade, +controlling the Mississippi Valley, providing a base for commanding the +Gulf, and, in case of war, for attack on the coveted mines of New Spain. +France and Spain were on the verge of war, and in 1683 French buccaneers +three times sacked the Spanish settlement of Apalache. La Salle's +proposals were favored, therefore, by Louis XIV. In the summer of 1684 +La Salle left France with a colony of some four hundred people. In the +autumn he reached the West Indies, the ketch _St. Francois_ having been +captured by the Spaniards on the way. Continuing the voyage in November, +La Salle missed the mouth of the Mississippi and landed on the Texas +coast at Matagorda Bay. Tonty descended the Mississippi to cooeperate +(1686), but did not find his chief. On the way he built a small post on +the Arkansas. + +[Illustration: La Salle's Colony on the Texas Coast, 1684-1689.] + +Failure.--The expedition rapidly went to pieces. One vessel was wrecked +in landing, and Beaujeu, the naval commander, returned to France with a +second, and part of the men and supplies. La Salle moved his colony +inland to the Garcitas River, near the head of the Lavaca Bay, where he +founded Fort St. Louis, and then began a series of expeditions +northeastward in the hope of finding the Mississippi River. While +engaged in exploring, the last of his vessels was wrecked. Through +desertion and sickness the colony rapidly dwindled. On his third +expedition northeastward, in 1687, La Salle reached the Hasinai (Cenis) +Indians, east of the Trinity River. On his fourth expedition he was +murdered by his companions near the Brazos River. The remainder of his +party, led by Joutel, made their way to the Arkansas post and to Canada. +In the fall of 1689 Tonty, in an effort to rescue La Salle's colonists, +descended the Mississippi River, and made his way to the Cadodacho and +Hasinai villages. Meanwhile the colony on the Gulf had been completely +wiped out by an Indian massacre which occurred early in 1689. La Salle's +occupation of Matagorda Bay later became a basis of the claim of the +United States to Texas. + +Explorers in the Southwest.--The failure of La Salle's colony did not +put an end to exploration in the Southwest. Interest in a passage to the +South Sea was perennial, and no tale of Spanish treasure was too +guttering to find credence on the French frontier. Mathieu Sagean told +of a golden country of the Accanibas, and Baron La Hontan of a Long +River. The _coureurs de bois_ were ever led west and southwest in their +fur trading operations. The result was that in this western country +traders from Canada roamed far and wide at an early date. A Canadian is +known to have reached the Rio Grande overland before 1688 and by 1694 +Canadian traders were among the Missouri and Osage tribes. + +The upper Mississippi--Duluth.--While La Salle was operating in the +Illinois country, others were at work in northern Wisconsin and +Minnesota. In 1678 Duluth, a cousin of Tonty, left Montreal for the +west. For several years he traded among the tribes west of Lake +Superior. Hearing in 1680 that Frenchmen were near, he went in search of +them, and found Accau and Hennepin, who had explored the upper +Mississippi. Duluth went to France, where he secured a license to trade +with the Sioux. In 1683 he returned to Wisconsin with thirty men, +proceeded to the north shore of Lake Superior, and built forts near Lake +Nipigon and Pigeon River. The highway from Brule River to the St. Croix +became known as Duluth's Portage. In 1686 he erected a temporary fort +near Detroit to bar the English traders. + +Le Sueur.--Between 1683 and 1700 Le Sueur, a prominent fur trader, +operated in Minnesota and Wisconsin. In 1683 he was at St. Anthony's +Falls. The Fox Indians of Wisconsin opposed the passage of the French to +the Sioux and practically cut off their trade route. For this reason Le +Sueur protected the Brule-St. Croix highway. To effect this, in 1693 he +built a fort at Chequamegon Bay, on the south shore of Lake Superior, +and another on the Mississippi near the mouth of the St. Croix. This +post became a center of commerce for the western posts. In 1697 Le Sueur +was in France, where he secured permission to work copper mines near +Lake Superior. In 1699 he went from France to Louisiana with Iberville. +Thence, with twenty-nine men, he ascended the Mississippi to Blue River, +Minnesota, and built Fort L'Huiller (1700) at Mankato, where he traded +with the Sioux. + +Perrot.--In 1685 Nicholas Perrot, who had been in Wisconsin as early as +1665, and had acquired great influence over the western tribes, was made +"commander of the west" and sent among the Sioux. In 1686 he built Fort +St. Antoine on the Mississippi near Trempealeau, Wisconsin. Other posts +established by him were Fort Perrot on the west side of Lake Pepin, Fort +Nicholas at Prairie du Chien, and one farther down the Mississippi near +the Galena lead mines, which he discovered and worked. + +The Illinois and Detroit.--In the Illinois country the French Jesuits +labored from the time of Marquette, among his successors being Fathers +Allouez and Hennepin. In 1699 a Sulpician mission was established at +Cahokia and in 1700 the Jesuits moved down the Illinois River to +Kaskaskia. A year later Detroit was founded to protect the route from +Lake Erie to Lake Huron, cut off English trade with the Indians, and +afford a base for the Illinois trade. Missionaries entered the region of +the lower Mississippi and the lower Ohio, where Tonty and other +Frenchmen maintained a considerable trade. + +Traders on the Tennessee.--Because of Iroquois control of the country +south of the Great Lakes and as far as the Tennessee River, the French +in La Salle's time had little knowledge of the Ohio and its tributaries. +At that period the Shawnee of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers were +declining under Iroquois attacks. On the upper Tennessee lived the +Cherokees. In spite of the Iroquois, however, by the end of the century +several _coureurs de bois_ of Canada had ascended the Ohio and Tennessee +Rivers, crossed the divide, and descended the Savannah River into South +Carolina, in defiance of the government, which tried to maintain a trade +monopoly. Their activities brought them into rivalry with the English on +the Carolina frontier. + +Couture and Bellefeuille.--Among these pathfinders was Jean Couture, who +had been left by Tonty at the Arkansas post. As early as 1693 he +deserted the French colony and made his way overland to the English. In +1699 he was on the Savannah, where he proposed to lead the English to +certain mines in the west. Returning, he led a party of English traders, +sent by Governor Blake of South Carolina, up the Savannah, and down the +Tennessee and Ohio, in an attempt to divert the western trade from +Canada to the English. In February, 1700, they reached the Arkansas +River, where they were met by Le Sueur on his way up the river to +Minnesota. At the request of Iberville, the new governor of Louisiana, +the government now permitted Illinois traders to sell their peltry in +Louisiana, to prevent them from earning it over the mountains to the +English. In 1701 a party of Frenchmen under Bellefeuille and Soton +crossed the mountains to South Carolina, and attempted to open up trade. +Returning they descended the Mississippi and visited Biloxi. It was now +proposed, in order to stop the road to Carolina, that posts be +established on the Miami and the lower Ohio. For this purpose Juchereau +de St. Denis established a post at Cairo in 1702. Through the +establishment of Louisiana and the opening of trade with Canada, this +danger was largely averted. + + +READINGS + +EARLY EXPLORATIONS AND COLONIZING EFFORTS + +Baird, C.W., _Huguenot Emigration_; Brevoort, J.C., _Verrazano the +Navigator_; Channing, Edward, _History of the United States_, I, 90-112; +De Costa, B.F., _Verrazano the Explorer_; French, B.F., _Historical +Collections of Louisiana and Florida_, 117-362; Hamilton, P.J., _The +Colonization of the South_, 27-41; Hart. A.B., _Contemporaries_, I, +102-112; Leacock, Stephen, _The Mariner of St. Malo_; Lescarbot, Marc, +_History of New France_; Munro, W.B., _Crusaders of New France_, 11-32; +Murphy, H.C., _Voyage of Verrazano_; Parkman, Francis, _The Pioneers of +France in the New World_, 1-228; Shea, J.G., in Winsor, _Narrative and +Critical History_, II, 260-283; Tracy, F.B., _Tercentenary History of +Canada_, I, 20-37; Winsor, Justin, _Cartier to Frontenac_, 1-47; Biggar, +H.P., _The Precursors of Jacques Cartier_. + +ACADIA AND THE ST. LAWRENCE VALLEY + +Biggar, H.P., _Early Trading Companies of New France_; Bourne, E.G., +_Voyages and Explorations of Champlain (Trail Makers' Series)_; +Champlain, Samuel, _Oeuvres_ (Laverdiere, ed.); Colby, C.W., _The +Founder of New France_; Dionne, N.E., _Champlain_; Grant, W.L., _Voyages +of Champlain (Original Narratives Series)_; Kingsford, William, _The +History of Canada_, I, 147-294; Le Sueur, W.D., _Frontenac_, 1-60; +Marquis, T.G., _The Jesuit Missions_; Parkman, Francis, _Old Regime in +Canada_, 3-168; _Pioneers of New France_, 324-454; _The Jesuits in North +America_; Thwaites, R.G., _France in America_, 10-48; Tracy, F.B., +_Tercentenary History of Canada_, I, 41-279; Winsor, Justin, _From +Cartier to Frontenac_, 77-183; Munro, W.B., _Crusaders of New France_. + +REORGANIZATION AND THE WEST INDIES + +Chapais, Thomas, _The Great Intendant_; Haring, C.H., _The Buccaneers in +the West Indies in the XVII Century_; Mims, S.L., _Colbert's West India +Policy_; Munro, W.B., _The Seigneurs of Old Canada_; Parkman, Francis, +_The Old Regime_, 169-330. + +THE UPPER LAKES AND THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY + +Bolton, H.E., "The Location of La Salle's Colony on the Gulf of Mexico," +in _Mississippi Valley Historical Review_, II, 165-182; Charlevoix, +P.F.X., _Histoire Generale de la Nouvelle France_ (J.G. Shea, trans.): +Cox, I.J., _Journeys of La Salle (Trail Makers' Series)_; Folwell, W.W., +_Minnesota_, 59-65; Hamilton, P.J., _The Colonization of the South_, +187-196; Kellogg, L.P., ed., _Early Narratives of the Northwest +(Original Narratives Series)_: Le Sueur, W.D., _Frontenac_, 61-169; Ogg, +F.A., _The Opening of the Mississippi_, 59-163; Parish, J.C., _The Man +with the Iron Hand_; Parkman, Francis, _La Salle and the Discovery of +the Great West_; Phelps, Albert, _Louisiana_, 6-20; Shea, J.G., +_Exploration of the Mississippi Valley_; Thwaites, R.G., _France in +America_, 48-71; _Wisconsin_, 40-71; Winsor, Justin, _Cartier to +Frontenac_, 183-295. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH EXPANSION (1485-1603) + + +THE TUDOR PERIOD + +Periods of English activities.--While the French were colonizing Canada +and the West Indies, and the Spaniards were opening mines and ranches in +northern Mexico, the English were founding still more vigorous +settlements on the Atlantic seaboard, in the islands, and in the region +of Hudson Bay. + +The history of English activities in America before 1783 may be divided +into four periods: (1) The Tudor epoch (1485-1603), which was a period +of commercial expansion, exploration, and attempted colonization; (2) +the Stuart and Cromwellian era (1603-1689), the period of colony +planting; (3) the international struggle for territory (1689-1763); and +(4) the struggle of a part of the English colonists for independence +(1763-1783). + +Henry VII.--When Henry Tudor ascended the throne of England a new era +was ushered in. The continental possessions except Calais had been swept +away in the Hundred Years' War. The Wars of the Roses had broken the +power of the feudal barony, and the middle class Englishman had become +the most important political element in the nation. The general form of +the constitution had become fixed, the functions of the three branches +of the government, the king and his council, parliament, and the courts, +having become fairly well defined. The work of Henry Tudor was to +restore the finances, to build up commerce and industry, to keep England +at peace, and at the same time, by a series of marriage alliances and by +adroit diplomacy to raise England to her former position as a great +European power. He also built up the kingship at the expense of a +subservient parliament. + +The English Reformation.--During the three succeeding reigns, England +played little part in exploration. While Spain was founding her vast +colonial empire, the attention of Englishmen was centered on the +European situation created by Charles V and on the great religious +controversy, which resulted in the break with Rome and the establishment +of the Anglican church. + +Queen Elizabeth.--With the accession of Queen Elizabeth a new situation +arose. To the Catholic powers, Elizabeth had no right to the throne of +England. Philip II of Spain hoped to restore the country to the Catholic +fold; his first wife was Queen Mary of England, and under his influence +a short-lived Catholic reaction had been produced; if Elizabeth could +now be induced to turn Catholic and marry Philip, England might be won +back to the Roman church. Elizabeth, however, followed an independent +course, dangling before the eyes of the Spanish ambassador the +possibility of a marriage with Philip, while perfecting the organization +of the Anglican church, increasing her hold upon the affections of her +subjects, strengthening her treasury, army, navy, and defences, and +stimulating industry and commerce. Her path was beset with additional +difficulties, for the powerful Catholic party in France was intriguing +to place Mary Stuart, the queen of Scotland, on the English throne. To +weaken her foes, Elizabeth aided the Huguenots, assisted the Dutch in +their war against Spain, and connived with English mariners to raid the +Spanish Main. In 1588 the patience of Philip was exhausted, and he +sought to humble the haughty queen by sending the Invincible Armada +against England. A running fight occurred in the Channel and several of +the galleons were sunk or driven on shore. The Armada entered the roads +of Calais but a great storm shattered the fleet. Of the original one +hundred and thirty vessels only one-third returned to Spain. The defeat +of the Armada marks a turning point in Spanish and English history. From +that time Spain was thrown on the defensive and her power on the +continent gradually declined, though her colonies continued to expand. +England followed up her success by taking the offensive; an era of +greater commercial activity followed, and she soon entered upon her role +of a colonizing nation. + + +COMMERCIAL EXPANSION + +John Cabot.--The discovery of new lands in the west soon became known in +England, and when the Venetian citizen, John Cabot, applied for letters +patent to go on a western voyage, Henry VII readily complied. In May, +1497, his single ship with eighteen men set sail from Bristol and +crossed the north Atlantic. It is impossible to state with certainty +what part of the coast was visited, but it appears to have been in the +neighborhood of Cape Breton Island. The idea that Sebastian Cabot +accompanied his father is generally rejected by the best authorities. +The importance of the voyage lies in the fact that it was used at a +later date to strengthen the English claim to a large part of North +America. The following year John Cabot sailed for the new found land but +never returned. + +The Newfoundland fisheries.--Cabot's voyage had another important +result. He had discovered a convenient trade route to the fisheries of +Newfoundland, and English, French, Spanish, and Portuguese fishing +vessels soon swarmed the region. English ships are thought to have +traded there regularly after 1502. Expeditions are known to have been +made thither in 1527 and 1536, and before 1550 fishing fleets went from +southern England to Newfoundland every spring and autumn. + +The Muscovy Company.--The latter half of the Tudor period witnessed the +formation of great companies which reached out for foreign trade. In +1553 a group of London merchants decided to make an attempt to reach +China and the East Indies by a northern route. Under the command of +Willoughby and Chancellor, three ships sailed along the Norway coast and +rounded the North Cape. Willoughby and the crews of two of the ships +perished on the coast of Lapland, but Chancellor entered the White Sea +and penetrated to Moscow, where he was promised trading privileges by +Ivan the Terrible. In 1555 the merchants who were interested in the +expedition were granted a royal charter, the company being familiarly +known as the Muscovy Company. Annual fleets were despatched to the White +and Baltic seas; warehouses were established at various points in +Russia, and the agents of the company extended their activities to the +Caspian Sea, to Bokhara, and to Persia. In 1580 the Turks cut them off +from the region outside of European Russia. Occasional unsuccessful +attempts were also made by the company to reach China by the northern +route. In 1579 the Eastland Company, a rival organization, was chartered +to trade in the Baltic, and developed an extensive trade in Poland. + +The Levant Company.--English merchants also turned their attention to +the Mediterranean to renew a trade which had formerly been of some +importance. In 1581 a charter was issued to the Levant Company, which +engaged in trading with the Turkish ports along the southern and eastern +shores of the Mediterranean. The same year a charter was granted to the +Venetian Company and in 1592 the two were combined as the Levant +Company. Among those interested in the Mediterranean commerce were Sir +Thomas Smythe and Sir Walter Raleigh, both of whom were important +figures in the colonization of Virginia. Other groups of merchants +opened trade with Morocco, and the Senegambia and Guinea coasts. In all +of these enterprises Englishmen were reaching out for the trade with the +East Indies, which had long been monopolized by the Portuguese. In 1581, +the year in which the Levant Company was chartered, Portugal was +incorporated with Spain, and hostility to that power added another +incentive to reach the East. + + +THE ELIZABETHAN SEA-DOGS + +John Hawkins.--Among those interested in the African trade was William +Hawkins, who filled the important positions of mayor of Plymouth and +member of parliament. He made three voyages to Guiana and Brazil. His +son, John Hawkins, became one of the most famous mariners of his time. +In 1562 he sailed for Africa to obtain slaves, which he disposed of in +Espanola. In 1564-1565 he engaged in a second voyage which resulted in +great profit. A third voyage in 1567-1568 ended disastrously. The +Spanish government had sent a fleet to stop the traffic; but in spite of +it he forced an entrance to the West Indian ports and disposed of his +cargo. Being driven by a storm into the harbor of Vera Cruz, he was +attacked by a Spanish fleet and but two of the English vessels escaped. + +Drake and Cavendish.--Francis Drake, a nephew of John Hawkins, had +accompanied him on his third expedition and had suffered the loss of his +investment. He soon began a series of reprisals. In 1572 he made an +unsuccessful attack on Nombre de Dios and ascended the Chagres River +where he waylaid a train of mules laden with bullion. The example set by +him was frequently followed by raids of English mariners in the +following decade. In 1577 another fleet sailed under Drake's command. +After capturing several Spanish and Portuguese vessels on the African +coast, the fleet crossed the Atlantic and attempted to pass through the +Straits of Magellan. Only one vessel reached the Pacific. Drake +proceeded up the western coast, plundering as he went. In a harbor known +as Drake's Bay, north of San Francisco Bay, he refitted, and claimed the +California region for the queen, calling it New Albion. He then sailed +to the East Indies where a cargo of spice was obtained. From Java, Drake +crossed the Indian Ocean, rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and proceeded +to England, entering the harbor of Plymouth in November, 1580, having +completed the first English circumnavigation of the globe. In 1586 +Thomas Cavendish followed almost the same course, plundered the Spanish +commerce in the Pacific, and in 1588 completed the circumnavigation of +the world. Besides Hawkins, Drake, and Cavendish a score of English +mariners engaged in raiding the Spanish Main. They were assisted +financially by the queen and by many of her councillors who considered +the raiding of Spanish commerce good business as well as good state +policy. + +East Indian trade.--A party of English merchants had also succeeded in +penetrating from the Syrian coast to India. The report of their journey +and the voyages of Drake and Cavendish stimulated the desire to open +trade with the Far East. The result was that in 1591 an expedition was +fitted out which rounded the Cape of Good Hope and reached Ceylon, +India, and the Malay Peninsula. Reports of the successes of the Dutch in +the East Indies increased the interest of the English merchants, and in +1600 the East India Company was formed. + + +SEARCH FOR A NORTHWEST PASSAGE + +Frobisher.--The unsuccessful attempts of the Muscovy Company to reach +the East by a northeast passage led to the search for a northwestern +route. The great exponent of the idea was Martin Frobisher. After vainly +seeking many years for a patron who would furnish funds, in 1574 he +received the support of Michael Lock, a member of the Muscovy Company, +and the following year a royal license was granted to undertake the +work. + +In June, 1576, Frobisher sailed from England in command of three small +vessels, only one of which reached America. The vessel passed along the +Labrador coast, crossed the entrance of Hudson Strait, and coasted +Baffin Land, entering the inlet now known as Frobisher's Bay. Upon his +return to England, Frobisher took back a large stone, which an assayer +claimed contained gold. In consequence the queen and many influential +men subscribed liberally for another voyage. The Company of Cathay was +formed which was to have a monopoly in all lands to the westward where +Englishmen had not traded before. Expeditions in search of gold were +sent out under Frobisher in 1577 and 1578, but the rocks which were +brought back proved to be worthless. + +Gilbert.--Among those interested in the search for a northwest passage +was Raleigh's half-brother, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who believed that a +colony might be established on the American coast. In 1578 he obtained a +six-year monopoly of discovery and settlement in America. A fleet was +equipped, but being twice scattered by storms, the attempt was +abandoned. In 1583 Gilbert made a second venture. Arriving at St. Johns, +Newfoundland, Gilbert informed the crews of the fishing fleet of his +commission, and took possession in the name of Elizabeth. On the return +voyage the _Squirrel_ with Gilbert and all on board was lost in a storm +just north of the Azores. + +Davis.--In 1584 John Davis, Walter Raleigh, and others were granted a +charter to explore a route to China and to trade in lands which might be +discovered. Command of an expedition was given to Davis, who sailed from +Dartmouth in 1585. The southern coast of Greenland was explored and +Davis Strait was crossed, but the illusive opening was not found. In +1586 and 1587 Davis sought the passage but without success. + + +ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZATION + +Raleigh and the attempted colonization of Virginia.--England's struggle +with Spain for empire did not end with an attack on her fleets and her +colonies. Men soon arose who dared to dispute Spain's monopoly by +planting colonies in the lands claimed by His Catholic Majesty. The +leader in the enterprise was Sir Walter Raleigh. In 1584 he received a +patent similar to that of Gilbert. Two vessels were soon despatched +under Amadas and Barlowe. They followed the southern route by the +Canaries and the West Indies, and finally landed on Roanoke Island, +taking possession of that region, which was named Virginia in honor of +Elizabeth, a name which was soon applied to the country from the Spanish +settlements to Newfoundland. In April of the following year Grenville +commanded a second expedition which took out the first colonists, who +made a settlement on Roanoke Island. In 1586 supply ships were sent out, +but they found the settlement deserted. Wearied by the hard winter, the +settlers had accepted an offer from Sir Francis Drake, who had been +raiding in the Caribbean, to carry them back to England. + +In 1587 another group of colonists including almost a hundred men, +seventeen women, and several children, was sent out under Governor John +White and landed at Roanoke. White returned to England, but owing to the +naval war with Spain and other difficulties he was unable to go to +Virginia again until 1591, when he found only deserted ruins. News of +the English intrusion caused alarm on the Spanish frontier, and the +governor of Florida in person led a counter expedition up the coast as +far as Chesapeake Bay. To this day the fate of the Roanoke colony is a +mystery, but light on the matter may yet be shed by the Spanish +archives. + +Raleigh's Orinoco expedition.--The discoveries of the Spaniards in +Mexico and Peru spurred the Englishman to attempt to find similar lands +of treasure. A story became current that in the interior of South +America on the upper waters of the Amazon and the Orinoco was a great +kingdom, which contained a powerful city called Manoa. It was also +believed that in the interior there was a mountain of sapphire and a +land ruled by female warriors called Amazons. After the failure of the +Roanoke enterprise, Raleigh became interested in this land of wonders, +and in 1594 sent a vessel to the Guiana coast to obtain information. The +following year Raleigh himself made an exploration of the delta of the +Orinoco and ascended the main stream a considerable distance. But the +city of Manoa proved elusive, supplies ran short, and the expedition +returned to England. + + +READINGS + +CABOT + +Bourne, E.G., _Spain in America_, 54-61; Channing, Edward, _History of +the United States_, I, 33-42; Fiske, John, _Discovery of America_, II, +2-15; Markham, C.R., _Columbus_, 226-233; Olson, J.E., ed., _The +Northmen, Columbus and Cabot_. + +COMMERCIAL COMPANIES + +Cheyney, E.P., _A History of England from the Defeat of the Armada to +the Death of Elizabeth_, I, 309-348, 375-422, 433-459; Cunningham, +William, _The Growth of English Industry and Commerce in Modern +Times--The Mercantile System_, 214-279; Scott, W.R., _The Constitution +and Finance of English, Scottish and Irish Joint-Stock Companies to +1720_, II, 3-11, 36-52, 83-89; Tilby, A.W., _The English People +Overseas_, I, 38-43. + +SEA ROVERS, THE NORTHWEST PASSAGE, AND RALEIGH + +Buchan, J., _Sir Walter Ralegh_; Channing, Edward, _History of the +United States_, I, 115-140; Cheyney, E.P., _A History of England from +the Defeat of the Armada to the Death of Elizabeth_, I, 349-374, +423-459; Corbett, J.S., _Drake and the Tudor Navy; Sir Francis Drake_; +Hume, M.A.S., _Sir Walter Ralegh_; Nuttall, Zelia, _New Light on Drake_; +Payne, E.J., _Elizabethan Sea-men_; Scott, W.R., _The Constitution and +Finance of English, Scottish and Irish Joint-Stock Companies to 1720_, +II, 76-82, 241-245; Tilby, A.W., _The English People Overseas_, I, +24-38; Woodward, W.H., _A Short History of the Expansion of the British +Empire_, 17-63; Wood, W., _Elizabethan Sea-Dogs_. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE CHESAPEAKE BAY AND INSULAR COLONIES (1603-1640) + + +ENGLAND UNDER THE EARLY STUARTS, 1603-1640 + +James I.--When James Stuart came to the throne, he had an exalted idea +of the kingship, believing that he ruled by divine right. The Tudors had +wielded almost absolute power, the privy council overshadowing +parliament. James naturally intended to rule in a similar manner, and +resented any legislative action which tended to decrease his +prerogative. He also stood as a staunch supporter of the English church. +His foreign policy was based upon a sincere desire for peace. With this +in view he ended the war with Spain and projected a marriage between his +son and a Spanish princess. In the latter part of James' reign, when the +Thirty Years' War broke out, the king hoped to become the arbiter of +Europe. Though he failed in this, he at least had the satisfaction of +keeping his country out of war. + +Charles I.--The Parliamentarians who had nursed their wrath during the +reign of James, soon clashed with his successor. Charles I was a man of +staunch self-righteousness, who had little of pliability and much of +stubbornness in his nature. His idea of the royal prerogative was fully +as exalted as that of his father. From the beginning of the reign, king +and parliament clashed. When a war, which broke out with France and +Spain, went badly, the unpopularity of the king increased. When he +summoned parliament in 1628 to ask for supplies, he found that body +unwilling to comply with his demands until he had signed the Petition of +Right. + +The experience which the king had with parliament determined him to rule +without it, and from 1629 to 1640 he carried on a personal government. +Acting through his privy council, the king ruled England. His chief +difficulty was to secure sufficient revenue to carry on the government. +Ancient feudal laws were resurrected and put into force. So long as no +extraordinary emergency arose the king was able to carry on the +government. During this period the religious controversy was also +becoming acute, the tyranny of Laud, the Archbishop of Canterbury, +constantly adding fuel to the fire. Puritans and Parliamentarians found +a common ground of opposition. When the king attempted to force the +English prayer book and church organization on the Scotch Prebysterians, +war broke out. Charles found it necessary to summon parliament, +whereupon he found religious and political opponents united against him. + + +THE COLONIAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM OF THE EARLY STUARTS + +Early experiments.--During the reigns of the first two Stuarts a +colonial administrative policy was developed. With James I permanent +settlements began. They were regarded as dependent upon the crown rather +than as an integral part of the state. The king created a Council of +Virginia which was to have general control over settlements between 34 deg. +and 45 deg. north latitude. But the council was short lived and the privy +council soon became the center of the colonial system. The connecting +links between the settlers and the crown were the corporations which +were granted jurisdiction over more or less definite areas. Both king +and parliament claimed to have jurisdiction over the colonies, but the +first two Stuarts were able to keep control in their hands. + +The privy council in charge.--The charters of the commercial companies +could be annulled by the courts in suits brought by the crown. Such was +the method followed when the charter of the Virginia Company was +revoked; the work of administration then passed into the hands of the +privy council. As this council was large and its duties numerous, the +actual work was usually done by committees, such a committee being +appointed to look after Virginia. Late in the reign of James I the crown +also appointed commissioners to examine the state of the colony, and +report on a form of government. + +Policy of Charles I.--Under Charles I, though the commissioners +continued to attend to some business, most of the work of administration +devolved upon the privy council. In 1631 the commission was revived, but +in 1634 it was superseded by another at whose head was Archbishop Laud. +This was made up of the highest officers of church and state, and it was +given jurisdiction over all dependencies. Its chief acts required the +approval of the crown, and as this could only be obtained through the +privy council, it was responsible to that body. A standing committee of +the privy council for foreign plantations was also appointed, the +membership of this committee and the commission headed by Laud being +identical. Sub-committees composed of men of lower rank but who had +expert knowledge of colonial affairs were also appointed to assist the +higher bodies. + +Special administrative bodies.--From time to time special bodies were +created for aiding the development of commerce and industry. In 1622 +James constituted a council of trade for investigating commerce, +shipping, and industry. Charles I, in 1625, created a similar council, +but it did not become very active, and soon its duties devolved upon a +committee of the privy council, which investigated all phases of +economic activity, the regulation of the tobacco industry of Virginia +being one of the important subjects which occupied its attention. + + +THE FOUNDING OF VIRGINIA + +Opposition of the Early Stuarts to Spain.--The settled policy of Spain +was to maintain a territorial and commercial monopoly in all the lands +west of the line of the treaty of Tordesillas. During the reign of +Elizabeth, the mariners of England had struck at Spanish commerce and +had made unsuccessful attempts at colonization; in the reigns of the +first two Stuarts, serious attempts were made by Englishmen to wrest +from the Spanish colossus some of his island possessions, and to occupy +Guiana and portions of North America. The attitude of James I toward +these enterprises depended upon the state of his negotiations with +Spain. In 1604 a treaty was signed which brought the long war between +the countries to an end. By the treaty the English crown surrendered the +right of trade to the Indies. The English mariners snapped their fingers +at the treaty and continued to visit the Indies, either running the +chance of being taken as pirates, or registering their vessels under the +flags of Holland or Savoy. The difficulties besetting this trade led +some of the merchants to invest their capital in enterprises of +colonization. + +[Illustration: Settlements in Virginia, 1634.] + +The charter of 1606.--Between 1602 and 1606 several voyages were made to +America, the most important being that of George Weymouth, who visited +the New England coast in 1604; his favorable report greatly stimulated +the desire to plant colonies. In April, 1606, a charter was drawn up +which provided for two companies; one composed of men from London, +familiarly known as the London Company, which was to operate between the +thirty-fourth and forty-first degrees of latitude; the other made up of +men from Plymouth, Bristol, and Exeter, known as the Plymouth Company, +which was to plant colonies between the thirty-eighth and forty-fifth +degrees. Each company was to have control of fifty miles both north and +south of its first settlement, a hundred miles out to sea, and a hundred +miles inland. Neither was to settle within one hundred miles of the +other. Each company was to have a council of thirteen persons, and each +was to have the right to mine gold, silver, and copper; the king was to +receive one-fifth of all the precious metals and one-fifteenth of the +copper. No import duties were to be levied for seven years. The charter +also provided that the Christian religion was to be spread among the +natives. Colonists who went to the New World were guaranteed all the +privileges of Englishmen. + +Founding of Jamestown.--In August, 1606, Henry Challons was sent ahead +in the _Richard_ to select a site for the London Company, but was +captured off Florida by a Spanish fleet and taken a prisoner to Seville. +In December, three vessels, which belonged to the Muscovy Company, the +_Susan Constant_, the _Godspeed_, and the _Discovery_, sailed for +Virginia under the command of Sir Christopher Newport. They followed the +southern route by the Canaries and the West Indies, arriving in +Chesapeake Bay in May, 1607. Of the hundred and twenty colonists who had +embarked, sixteen died during the voyage. Sealed instructions had been +sent for the government and management of Virginia. When opened, they +disclosed the names of the members of the council, a body possessed of +executive, legislative, and judicial powers, presided over by a +president. A site was to be selected on an island in a navigable river, +marshy or heavily wooded ground to be avoided. Contrary to instructions, +the site selected was on a swampy peninsula, located near the mouth of +the James River. Near the western end of the peninsula a triangular log +fort was laid out. The settlement was in the district known to the +Spaniards as Axacan, and not far from the site of the Jesuit mission +founded in 1570. While the fortification was being built, Newport +explored the James River as far as the site of Richmond. While he was +gone, the Indians attacked the fort but were driven off. Besides the +fortification, a church and storehouse were erected. In July Newport +sailed for England, taking with him worthless specimens of rock which +were believed to contain gold. + +Early difficulties.--Shortly after the departure of Newport the +colonists began to suffer from famine, malaria, and Indian attacks. +President Wingfield husbanded the stores left by Newport, an action +which angered the settlers, and he was soon deposed. John Smith was sent +to secure food from the Indians, and succeeded in obtaining a +considerable supply. When Newport returned in January, 1608, he found +only forty survivors. During 1608 and 1609 the little settlement was +barely able to hold its own. The few additional settlers who came merely +offset the ravages of disease and starvation. During this period John +Smith appears to have been the chief factor in keeping the colony alive. +So precarious had conditions become by May, 1609, that he dispersed the +colonists in groups, one being sent to live among the Indians, another +to fish at Point Comfort, and a third to obtain oysters. In July a +vessel commanded by Samuel Argall arrived with supplies, bringing the +news that the first charter had been repealed and a new one granted. + +Charter of 1609.--The lack of success in the original venture had caused +those interested to make an effort to enlarge the company. The +incorporators of the charter of 1609 were fifty-six of the guilds and +companies of London, and six hundred and fifty-nine persons, among whom +were included twenty-one peers, ninety-six knights, eleven professional +men, and fifty-three captains. The new company was to have the land two +hundred miles north and two hundred miles south of Point Comfort and +stretching from sea to sea west and northwest, and the islands within +one hundred miles of the coast. The government was vested in a council, +which was given power to appoint its own officers, to make laws for the +government of the colony, and to take in new stockholders. The English +church was established as the religion of the colony. + +The starving time.--In June, 1609, nine vessels commanded by Newport +sailed from England with the new governor, Sir Thomas Gates, and about +five hundred emigrants. Beset by pestilence and storms, many died on the +voyage, about four hundred being landed at Jamestown in August. The +vessel carrying the governor was stranded in the Bermudas, and he did +not arrive at Jamestown until May, 1610. There he found the colonists in +a frightful condition, dissensions among the officers, Indian attacks, +disease, and starvation having brought the colony to the brink of +destruction. Gates decided to give up the ill-fated attempt, and taking +all the settlers on board, sailed down the James River, but met a vessel +bearing the news that a new governor, Lord Delaware, had arrived at +Point Comfort with supplies and a hundred and fifty emigrants. Gates +immediately returned to Jamestown. Of the nine hundred persons who had +been landed in Virginia during the first three years, only one hundred +and fifty were alive upon the arrival of Delaware. + +Spanish resistance.--Spain regarded the Jamestown colony as an intruder, +and both Spaniards and Englishmen considered it as a menace to Spain's +northern outposts, and to her merchant fleets, which passed close by on +their homeward voyage. Dale remarked that the settlement "wyll put such +a byt in our ainchent enemyes mouth as wyll curb his hautynes of +monarchie." Zuniga, Spanish ambassador to England, urged that "such a +bad project should be uprooted now, while it can be done so easily." + +At Jamestown fear of a Spanish attack was almost constant, and Newport +sought aid in England lest the "all devouring Spaniard lay his ravenous +hands" upon the infant colony. Spanish resistance had already been felt +by way of vigorous diplomatic protest and through the capture of the +_Richard_ in 1606. In 1609 a Spanish expedition was sent to Jamestown +under Captain Ecija, commander of the garrison at St. Augustine. On July +24 Ecija entered Chesapeake Bay. Concluding that the settlement was too +strong to capture with one small vessel, he withdrew, but on his way +down the coast he conferred with the Indian tribes, and sent a +delegation of natives overland to spy upon the English. On Ecija's +return to St. Augustine another native delegation was sent to Virginia +from Florida by Governor Ybarra. The success of these embassies has been +inferred from the Indian massacres at Jamestown in the following winter. +Two years later another Spanish expedition was sent to Jamestown. +Captures were made on both sides and the episode was followed by a +demand at the English settlement for reinforcements. + +Zuniga continued to urge the destruction of the colony, but Philip III +temporized, allured by the hope of an English alliance and encouraged by +his informants to believe that the struggling colony would fail through +misery. Instead of dying out, however, as time went on Virginia waxed +stronger, and soon became a base for attacks on Spanish commerce, as had +been predicted. The founding of Jamestown in Axacan was the first +English nibble at the Spanish mainland possessions, a process which +continued for a century and a half. + +Delaware's governorship.--Delaware remained in Virginia less than a +year, during which period new colonists arrived, the settlement at +Jamestown was rebuilt, the Indians were driven from Kecoughtan, and +forts Charles and Henry were established at the mouth of the James +River. An expedition was also sent to the falls in search of a gold +mine, but it found none. Delaware was unable to check the ravages of +disease, and during the summer a hundred and fifty died. The governor +left the colony in March, 1611, but remained in office until his death +in 1618, during which period the government was administered by deputy +governors. + +Dale's strong hand.--Sir Thomas Dale was left in charge. He was a +brusque old soldier who had seen service in the Netherlands, and during +his administration, the colony was governed by military law. The men +were forced to work like slaves, and those who rebelled were punished +with the greatest severity, several captured runaways being burned at +the stake. The Indians along the James and York rivers were attacked; +Pocahontas, the daughter of Powhatan, was captured, and the hostage was +used to force that powerful chief to make peace. Hearing of the French +occupation of Acadia, Dale sent Captain Argall to destroy the +settlements. + +Charter of 1612.--During the administration of Dale, a change was made +in the charter, the powers of the council being considerably enlarged. +The Bermudas were also placed under its jurisdiction. The rights in the +islands, however, were subsequently sold to some of the members of the +London Company, who obtained a charter in 1614 under the name of the +Somers Island Company. + +Change in the management of the company.--Sir Thomas Smythe had been the +moving spirit of the company, but in spite of his efforts, the colony +had proved a financial failure, and he was willing to let others carry +on the enterprise. The central figure in the company after 1618 was Sir +Edwin Sandys. Smythe had realized that it was necessary to change the +communal form of ownership to one of landed proprietorship, and had +issued instructions that fifty acres of land be assigned to every person +who would transport one person to the colony. This policy was carried +out by Sandys, and the "old colonists" were allowed to obtain larger +tracts of land. + +House of Burgesses.--In April, 1619, Sir George Yeardley assumed control +as governor of Virginia. He brought out instructions by which the +inhabitants of each place and plantation were to elect two burgesses, +who were to meet at Jamestown in a general assembly. This first +representative assembly in America met in the church at Jamestown on +July 30. It was composed of the governor, councilors, and twenty-two +burgesses. At the first session, the assembly sat in the two-fold +capacity of law makers and court of law. + +Agricultural development.--The original instructions had provided that +the products of labor should belong to the community instead of to the +individual, an arrangement by which the slothful profited at the expense +of the industrious. During the first season, only four acres were +cleared and planted. The insufficiency of the supply of grain made it +necessary to depend upon the Indians for maize. In 1608 John Smith +succeeded in getting forty acres of land broken, and the following year +this was planted to maize. Just before the arrival of Delaware, the +attempts at agriculture were abandoned, the colonists relying for +subsistence on roots, herbs, nuts, berries, and fish. Delaware +immediately set to work to right conditions, the hours of labor being +set from six to ten in the morning, and from two to four in the +afternoon. + +When Dale took charge he forced the men to plant seed and assigned to +each a garden. Livestock had been imported, and were allowed to roam at +large in the woods. Dale erected a blockhouse on the mainland to protect +them, and warned the settlers against letting stock wander. Henrico was +selected as the site for another settlement and the town site of seven +acres he caused to be fenced in. Other palings back of the settlement +were erected and within the fenced areas corn was planted. On the south +side of the river fences were built which protected a circuit of twelve +miles, the enclosed land being used for a hog range. The lands of the +Indians near the mouth of the Appamatox River were seized, fenced, and +planted with maize. + +In 1612 the cultivation of tobacco began, the first tobacco planter +being John Rolfe, who had married Pocahontas. Tobacco soon became the +only export, its cultivation absorbing the economic fife of the colony. +To make certain of the food supply, Dale commanded that no one should be +permitted to plant tobacco until he had planted two acres of grain. To +encourage industry, Dale allowed some of the "old colonists" to lease +three acres. He also put in force a rule that every man with a family +who arrived in the colony should be provided with a house free of rent, +tools, and livestock, and with subsistence for himself and family for +the first year. If he confined himself to the planting of grain and +vegetables, he was given twelve acres of fenced land. At the time of +Dale's departure in 1616 there were three hundred and fifty inhabitants +settled at Henrico, Bermuda, West and Shirley Hundreds, Jamestown, +Kecoughtan, and Dale's Gift. + +Immigration.--In 1619 twenty negroes were brought into Virginia, the +first blacks to be introduced. Up to this time there were few women in +the colony, but the company succeeded in sending over several ship-loads +of unmarried women. Upon arrival there was a speedy courtship, and the +lucky swain gladly paid a hundred and twenty pounds of the best tobacco +for the cost of transportation. In general the type of settler was +excellent, but in the later years of the company convicted felons and a +large number of waifs and vagabonds from the streets of London were +sent. The emigrants who had no capital were usually indented servants, +the terms of indenture varying from two to seven years. + +Growth of large estates.--In this early period began the formation of +great estates. The company retained twelve thousand acres for itself. As +new officers were created lands were set aside to support them. The +treasurer, marshal, and cape merchant were each granted fifteen hundred +acres, the physician and secretary five hundred acres each. The large +estates were worked by tenants, the number on each estate being fixed by +the company. Grants of large tracts were also made to groups of +capitalists who agreed to bring out settlers. + +The Indian massacre of 1622.--The reaching out for new lands for tobacco +culture resulted in encroachment upon the fields of the Indians. Angered +by this the Indians suddenly attacked the outlying plantations, killing +between three and four hundred persons, nearly one-fourth of the entire +population. The planting of the crops was interrupted and a winter of +hardship followed. When the Indian maize crop was nearly ripe, the +settlers retaliated, almost exterminating the natives along the lower +courses of the James and York rivers. + +Crown regulation of the tobacco industry.--To free himself from +parliamentary control and to regulate industry, James I granted +monopolies to private individuals. Royal commissioners were appointed to +inspect the tobacco and to prevent smuggling, and planting in England +was prohibited. In 1620 the London Company petitioned the king to do +away with the tobacco monopoly and as a result the London and Bermuda +companies were allowed to import fifty-five thousand pounds annually. +The companies immediately attempted to ship Virginia tobacco to Holland; +this led to a dispute with the privy council and the matter was +discussed in parliament, where Sandys defended the right of free +shipment. The dispute was settled by a compromise, by which the +companies agreed to ship the entire product to England, and no +restriction was placed upon the amount which they might import. + +Neither side was entirely pleased with the arrangement and in November, +1622, an agreement was reached by the Lord Treasurer and the companies. +The companies were given the sole right for seven years to import +tobacco into England and Ireland; they were to pay into the royal +exchequer the net proceeds of one-third of all tobacco imported; no +tobacco was to be planted in England and Ireland, and a small amount of +Spanish tobacco was to be imported for three years. Like previous +arrangements, this did not meet with the approval of all, and it was +annulled in 1623, the companies being allowed the exclusive right to +import tobacco into England and Ireland, except a small amount of +Spanish tobacco, and to pay a duty of nine pence a pound. + +End of the London Company.--The king had looked with scant favor upon +the administration of Sandys, for popular government was not to the +liking of James. Friction between the king and the company also added to +the royal displeasure. James, who was personally opposed to the use of +tobacco, was also trying to please the Spanish court, which made +frequent protests against the Virginia enterprise. Internal dissensions +also disturbed the company, a group headed by Sir Thomas Smythe being +opposed to the Sandys faction. Royal commissioners were appointed to +examine the condition of affairs, and as a result of their report, in +1624 the charter of the London Company was annulled, the colony passing +under the direct control of the crown. + +Increase of population by 1625.--When Charles I came to the throne +Virginia contained about twelve hundred inhabitants, of whom nearly five +hundred were servants, and about a hundred were children. They were +scattered through nineteen settlements, the largest being Elizabeth +City, which contained two hundred and fifty-seven inhabitants. Jamestown +had thirty-three houses and a population of one hundred and +seventy-five. + +Population in 1635.--By 1635 the population had increased to five +thousand. The country had been divided into shires, which later were +called counties. The six counties along the James River contained about +four thousand inhabitants; Charles River County on the York River five +hundred, and Accomac County on the opposite side of the bay four +hundred. By 1640 the population had increased to seven thousand five +hundred. + +Tobacco lands.--The most desirable lands for tobacco were the bottoms +along the streams. Tobacco exhausted the soil rapidly, three years +being the usual life of a field. This made it necessary for the planter +to take up new lands and increased his desire for larger holdings. Land +patents were issued for large tracts, usually of from one hundred to +three hundred acres, although many obtained patents for a thousand +acres. + +Charles I and the tobacco business.--Charles was opposed to the tobacco +business, but he realized that it was necessary to the colony. The king +favored Virginia by reducing the duty on tobacco and excluding the +Spanish leaf from England and Ireland. But in 1627, when parliament had +not granted adequate supplies to the crown, he renewed the monopoly. To +put it in force, a proclamation was issued which forbade the annual +importation of more than fifty thousand pounds of Spanish tobacco, +prohibited the growing of the plant in England and Ireland, and made +London the only port of entry. As the colonists objected to the +monopoly, the king issued another proclamation, which provided that no +colonial tobacco should be imported without special license and should +be delivered to tobacco commissioners, who were to have the sole right +of disposing of the product. The price was to be fixed by agreement +between the shippers and commissioners. Efforts were made to have the +colony engage in the production of more substantial commodities, the +planters being commanded to produce pitch, tar, potash, timber, iron, +and salt, to plant vines and grain, and to search for minerals. The +efforts of the king, however, were but partially successful, and tobacco +remained the great staple. It had also become the medium of exchange, +and though attempts were made to introduce a metallic currency, they did +not succeed, in spite of the fact that the fluctuating price of the +staple made financial transactions difficult. + +Harvey's tobacco policy.--In 1630 Governor Harvey commenced his +administration. He immediately began to encourage the planting of grain +and the raising of stock. The low price of tobacco at this time assisted +him, and in 1631 the colony was able to export a large quantity of +grain. Efforts were also made to improve the quality of tobacco. A law +of the colonial legislature of 1632 provided for five points of +inspection. Storehouses were built where inspectors examined the stock +and condemned the poorer qualities. The number of plants to be raised by +each family was limited to two thousand, and not more than nine leaves +were allowed to be taken from a plant. In 1633 the number of plants per +family was reduced to fifteen hundred. English merchants trading to the +colonies purchased a considerable amount of tobacco, which they took in +exchange for other commodities, for which they charged abnormally high +prices. To right this and to increase the royal revenues, in 1634 the +king again renewed the monopoly. When Governor Harvey attempted to +contract for the crop, an acrimonious debate ensued. This, coupled with +the fact that the governor attempted to assist Lord Baltimore's +colonists, caused the council illegally to depose the governor. + +Continued efforts to enforce the monopoly.--The king continued to make +efforts to enforce the monopoly. In 1638 he issued another proclamation, +stating that it was necessary to regulate tobacco planting, to decide +how much was to be imported, and to handle the product. The colony as +usual objected. Owing to the troublous times in England, the +proclamation was not strictly enforced and much tobacco was sold to +other than government agents. + + +THE FOUNDING OF MARYLAND + +Calvert's attempted settlement in Newfoundland.--The northern end of +Chesapeake Bay was soon occupied by a rival tobacco colony, the +proprietary province of Lord Baltimore. In 1609 George Calvert became a +stockholder of the Virginia Company, and ten years later was made +secretary of state by James I. His new office gave him an opportunity to +begin an independent colony. In 1620 he bought the southeastern +peninsula of Newfoundland from Sir William Vaughan, to whom it had +previously been granted, and the following year sent out a few +colonists. In 1623 the king granted him a charter for his colony, which +was called Avalon. Two years later Calvert resigned the secretaryship. +In spite of the fact that he had recently become a Catholic, he was +raised to the Irish peerage with the title of Baron of Baltimore. In +1627 he visited Newfoundland with his family, but the inclemency of the +climate convinced him of the undesirability of Avalon. + +Application for land in Virginia.--In 1629 Baltimore applied for a grant +in Virginia, to which colony he immediately proceeded. There he met +with a cold reception and shortly departed for England, where he made +every effort to obtain a charter. The Virginians opposed him strongly, +but in April, 1632, his suit was successful and the grant was made. +George Calvert died the same month and the charter was drawn in the name +of his son Cecilius. + +[Illustration: Settlements In Maryland, 1634.] + +The charter.--The province was named Maryland in honor of Henrietta +Maria, the wife of Charles I. In general it extended from the fortieth +parallel to the southern bank of the Potomac River, and from the +meridian which crossed the source of that river to the Atlantic; but the +description of boundaries was so indefinite, because of the lack of +precise geographical knowledge, that many disputes soon arose over +ownership of territory. + +The government of Maryland was modeled upon that of the Palatinate of +Durham, a feudatory on the border of Scotland in which the bishop had +almost absolute powers; but the lord proprietor of Maryland was +restricted by several clauses in the charter. He was given the right to +ordain, make, and enact laws, provided they were approved by the freemen +of the province, or by a majority of them, or by their delegates, and +were not contrary to the laws of England. Baltimore was given very large +judicial powers, such as the creation of courts and the pardoning of +criminals. He was also given the right to make ordinances, provided they +did not deprive any person of use, limb, or property. The proprietor +could collect taxes, make grants of lands, and create manors, over which +the lord of the manor would have the rights of a feudal baron. The +proprietor was also given control of ecclesiastical matters such as the +power of appointing ministers and founding churches, which were "to be +dedicated and consecrated according to the Ecclesiastical Laws of our +Kingdom of England." The charter did not prohibit him from permitting +the establishment of other churches, an omission which Baltimore used to +assist the Catholics. The proprietor's motives, however, were not +entirely religious; he no doubt desired to found an asylum for people of +his own faith, but he was also a keen business man and desired to +increase his worldly goods. + +The first settlers.--In October, 1633, Baltimore sent two small vessels, +the _Ark_ and the _Dove_, to Maryland. On board there were about twenty +gentlemen, most of whom were Catholics, and probably two hundred +laborers, the majority of whom were Protestants. Among the influential +members were the governor, Leonard Calvert, the brother of Lord +Baltimore, and the two councilors who were to assist him in the +government. Three Jesuit priests accompanied the expedition, which +arrived at the mouth of the Potomac in March, 1634. The site for a +settlement was selected nine miles up St. George's River, a small stream +which flows into the north side of the Potomac near its mouth, the place +being named St. Mary's. The location was favorable, for it was +surrounded by fields cleared by the Indians. The tribes in the +neighborhood had been at war with the Susquehannas, and were glad to +sell their lands and move across the Potomac. + +Trouble with Virginia.--William Claiborne had been the principal +opponent of George Calvert, when he attempted to obtain the charter for +Maryland. In 1631 Claiborne had established a settlement on Kent Island +in Chesapeake Bay, which fell within the bounds of Maryland. In 1634 +Governor Calvert informed Claiborne that he would not molest the +settlement, but that the owner of Kent Island must be considered as a +tenant of the proprietor. Claiborne laid the matter before the Virginia +council, which decided that the Maryland charter infringed upon the +rights of Virginia. A miniature war followed which was ended by a +decision of the king, who ruled that the Virginia charter of 1609 had +become null when the crown took over the colony in 1624, and that Kent +Island belonged to Maryland. + +Religious, economic, and social life.--The religious life of the colony +was greatly influenced by the presence of the Jesuits. Father White and +his colleagues labored incessantly to convert the Protestant colonists +and to establish missions among the Indians. In 1641 the Catholics made +up about one-fourth of the population but included most of the +influential families. The economic life of the colony developed much +like that of Virginia, although unaccompanied by the great hardships of +the James River settlements. Nor did the Indians prove as troublesome, +although from 1639 to 1644 an expedition was sent against them each +year. Tobacco cultivation became the principal occupation. The +plantations developed along the rivers and the shore of the bay, for +many years extending but a few miles inland. The manors usually +contained from one thousand to two thousand acres, although a few +contained five thousand acres or more, the lords of the manors being +granted lands in proportion to the number of colonists they provided. +Many of the large grants were later divided, and small proprietors +increased in number. There was practically no town life, the seat of +government containing only a few houses. There were few mills and no +factories. Few roads were built, the water courses and the bay affording +the principal means of communication. + +The government.--Cecilius Calvert never visited the colony, but he +appointed all the important officers, who resided in the province. The +chief of these was the governor, to whom the proprietor delegated most +of his powers. He was at the head of military affairs. As chancellor he +was the keeper of the seal and issued patents for land, commissions for +office, and other legal documents. As chief magistrate he appointed +officers for the preservation of peace and the administration of +justice, and had power to issue and enforce ordinances, to establish +ports, fairs and markets, to remit fines, and pardon all offenses except +high treason. He could summon the legislative assembly, prepare bills +for its consideration, assent to the laws, and dissolve the assembly. He +also acted as chief justice. Leonard Calvert occupied the position until +1647. Assisting the governor was a council. In 1636 it contained three +members, but was gradually increased in size in later years. Before this +body the governor brought matters of importance, such as the creation of +offices, establishment of courts, granting of pardons, levying of taxes, +issuing of ordinances, and military expeditions. + +The legislative assembly at first was made up of all the freemen, but as +the colonists took up more distant lands, a custom of giving proxies +grew up. The first assembly met in 1635, but about all that is known of +it is that it attempted to initiate legislation, to which the proprietor +objected. The second assembly, which met in 1638, consisted of the +governor and council, freemen especially summoned by the governor, +freemen present of their own will, and proxies. The governor presented a +code approved by the proprietor, but it was rejected by the assembly. +The same year the proprietor temporarily yielded the right of initiating +legislation, authorizing the governor to consent to laws enacted by the +assembly until the proprietor could examine them. In 1639 the local +divisions, which were called hundreds, sent representatives. This +assembly fixed its own membership, which was to be composed of +councilors, persons especially summoned, and burgesses elected in +hundreds. The assembly sat at times as a law court, but most of the +cases were brought before the governor and his councilors, who acted as +associate justices, or before the local courts. + + +THE BERMUDAS + +The Somers Islands Company.--Almost simultaneously with the occupation +of the Atlantic seaboard, the English had been establishing vigorous +colonies in the islands adjacent to North America. In 1609 a Virginia +supply ship commanded by Sir George Somers was wrecked on one of the +Bermuda Islands. Upon his return to England, he interested people in +the islands and in 1612 the Somers Islands Company was formed, most of +the stockholders being members of the Virginia Company. + +Settlement and economic development of the Bermudas.--Settlers were +immediately sent out and the colony prospered from the first. In 1614 it +contained six hundred persons. Fortifications were built, some tobacco +was shipped, and a land survey begun which was completed in 1617. By +1625 the population had increased to between two and three thousand and +a larger supply of tobacco was being produced than in Virginia. As in +the James River settlements, there was considerable opposition to the +government monopoly of tobacco, and in 1628 a petition against it was +addressed to the crown. In 1631 the privy council decreed that only a +moderate amount of tobacco should be planted, and the company succeeded +in getting a complete monopoly of the trade. The low price of tobacco at +that time caused the colonists to devote themselves less exclusively to +that business, and corn, potatoes, hogs, fowls, and fruit were produced +in such quantities that the islands were able to export large amounts to +the colonies on the mainland. The cedar forests also began to be +utilized for ship-building. With the growth of the mainland colonies, +the Bermudas became of relatively less economic importance, but they +continued to be considered an important naval base. + +Representative government.--The Bermudas were the second English colony +to receive representative government. Besides the governor and council +there was a general assembly, the first being held but a year after the +establishment of the Virginia house of burgesses. + +[Illustration: The Bermudas.] + + +GUIANA + +For a hundred years the Caribbean had been a Spanish sea. Hardy English +mariners had frequently penetrated it, but always at their peril, and +they had never seriously injured the Spanish colossus. To gain a +foothold on its shores and to appropriate a portion of the commerce of +tropical America became powerful forces in English activities. + +Expeditions.--During the closing years of the reign of Elizabeth, many +English ships visited the coast of Venezuela to procure salt, and after +the treaty of 1604 with Spain, to obtain tobacco. Several attempts +were also made to explore and colonize Guiana. In 1604 Captain Charles +Lea planted a colony on the Wyapoco, but in two years abandoned the +enterprise. During 1606-1607 Sir Thomas Roe traded along the Guiana +coast and explored the swamps of the Cuyuni and Wyapoco. In 1608 Robert +Harcourt and two associates received a patent to lands between the +Amazon and Essequibo rivers. Harcourt with ninety-seven men landed in +Guiana, but after a sojourn of three years he returned to England. Part +of the settlers remained and scattered among the Indians. Harcourt +attempted to obtain more capital, and in 1616 another expedition was +sent out but without success. + +Raleigh's last attempt.--Since the first year of the reign of James I, +Raleigh had been imprisoned on a charge of conspiring against the king. +But in 1616 he was released, and having obtained a commission as +admiral, sailed for Guiana the following year with a fleet of fourteen +vessels. Attacked by the Spaniards, he lost several vessels and returned +to England, where, upon complaint of the Spanish ambassador, Gondomar, +he was again imprisoned and soon after executed. + +North's expedition.--In 1620 an attempt was made to reorganize Raleigh's +company, and Captain Roger North was sent with one hundred and twenty +men to Guiana, where they joined the remnant of Harcourt's colonists. +But the attempt again failed because of opposition of the Spanish +ambassador. + + +THE LESSER ANTILLES + +The English occupation.--In a great half circle at the eastern end of +the Caribbean are the Lesser Antilles. After the failures on the South +American coast, the English grasped these outposts of the tropics and, +side by side with the French, were soon firmly established across one of +the principal highways of Spanish commerce. In 1623 St. Christopher was +temporarily occupied and was actually settled in 1625. The same year +(1625) Sir William Courten started the first colony in Barbados. In 1627 +Lord Carlisle received a grant which covered the Caribbees, and the +following year the Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery also obtained rights +to Trinidad. Tobago, and Barbados. In the contest between the claimants +Carlisle won. He ejected Courten's settlers and established his own +colonists. In 1628 Nevis was occupied. The following year the settlers +on St. Christopher and Nevis were evicted by the Spaniards, but upon the +retirement of the fleet the colonists returned to their plantations. In +1632 settlements were made on Antigua and Montserrat. As in the +Bermudas, tobacco became the leading crop, but later the production of +sugar cane superseded it. Barbados soon contained 6,000 inhabitants and +in 1639, when Virginia had a total population of about 7,000, there were +20,000 planters in the islands governed by Carlisle. In the Lesser +Antilles the proprietary form of government prevailed for half a +century. + + +THE PROVIDENCE ISLAND COMPANY + +The Puritan leaders.--During the great struggle between king and +parliament, several of the merchant princes were on the Puritan side. +One of the most powerful of these was Robert Rich, Lord Warwick. He had +been an active member of the Virginia and Somers Islands companies, of +the Guinea and Guiana companies, and of the Council of New England. +Closely associated with Warwick were Lord Saye and Sele, Lord Brooke, +Sir Nathaniel Rich, and John Pym. As the parliamentary contest increased +in intensity, these leaders decided to plant a Puritan colony in the +Caribbean. + +The Providence Island Company.--The site selected was on one of the +Mosquito Islands off the coast of Nicaragua. In 1629 a company was +formed which was granted the greater part of the Caribbean Sea, from +Haiti to the coast of Venezuela and to the mainland of Central America. +Besides Jamaica, then in the possession of Spain, the Cayman Islands +fell within these limits. The English fleet which was sent out in 1630 +temporarily occupied Tortuga, where colonists from Nevis had recently +arrived, and the company asked that this island be included in the +patent. The request was granted, but the English were able to hold the +island only until 1635 when they were driven out by the Spaniards. The +islands along the Mosquito coast were occupied by the company, and a +project was formed to colonize the mainland. In 1635 Providence Island +was unsuccessfully attacked by a Spanish fleet, but in 1641 the +Spaniards succeeded in overcoming the colony, thus for the time ending +English operations on the Central American coast. + + +READINGS + +VIRGINIA + +Becker, Carl, _The Beginnings of the American People_, pp. 65-80; Beer, +G.L., _The Origins of the British Colonial System_, 78-175; Brown, +Alexander, _Genesis of the United States; The First Republic in +America_; Bruce, P.A., _Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth +Century_, I, 189-330; _Institutional History of Virginia in the +Seventeenth Century_, II, 229-262; Channing, Edward, _History of the +United States_, I, 143-224; Doyle, J.A., _English Colonies in America_, +I, 101-184; Eggleston, Edward, _The Beginners of a Nation_, 25-97; +Fiske, John, _Old Virginia and her Neighbors_, I, 40-222; Hamilton, +P.J., _Colonization of the South_, 55-119; MacDonald, William, _Select +Charters Illustrative of American History_, 1-23; Osgood, H.L., _The +American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century_, I, 23-97; Scott, W.R., +_The Constitution and Finance of English, Scottish, and Irish +Joint-Stock Companies to 1720_, II, 246-289; Tyler, L.G., _England in +America_, 34-103; Tyler, L.G., ed., _Narratives of Early Virginia_; +Wertenbaker, T.J., _Virginia under the Stuarts_, 1-84; Johnston, Mary, +_Pioneers of the Old South_; Flippin, P.S., _The Royal Government in +Virginia, 1624-1775_. + +MARYLAND + +Brown, W.H., _Maryland_, 1-50; Channing, Edward, _History of the United +States_, I, 241-268; Doyle, J.A., _English Colonies in America_, I, +275-296; Eggleston, Edward, _Beginners of a Nation_, 220-257; Fiske, +John, _Old Virginia and her Neighbors_, I, 255-275; Hall, C.C., ed., +_Narratives of Early Maryland_; MacDonald, William, _Select Charters_, +53-59; Mereness, N.D., _Maryland as a Proprietary Province_; Osgood, +H.L., _The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century_, II, 58-79; +Tyler, L.G., _England in America_, 118-132. + +THE BERMUDAS AND THE CARIBBEAN + +Beer. G.L., _The Origins of the British Colonial System_, 12-20; +Cunningham, William, _The Growth of English Industry and Commerce in +Modern Times_, I, 331-339: Lucas, C.P., _A Historical Geography of the +British Colonies_, II, 5-14, 43-50; Newton, A.P.. _The Colonizing +Activities of the English Puritans_, 13-282; Scott, W.R., _The +Constitution and Finance of English, Scottish, and Irish Joint-Stock +Companies to 1720_, II, 259-299, 327-337; Tilby, A.W., _Britain in the +Tropics_, 44-50. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND (1606-1640) + + +THE PURITAN MOVEMENT IN ENGLAND + +The Puritans.--While the planting of colonies on the shores of +Chesapeake Bay and on the Caribbean islands was in progress, other +settlements were being formed in New England by English Separatists and +Puritans. By the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth the Anglican church +was firmly established, but it was not long before groups within the +church began to show dissatisfaction. At first protests were made +against some of the ceremonies and formulas of the service. After 1570 +the Puritans, as they were derisively called, began to object to the +episcopal form of government and to advocate the Presbyterian or +Calvinistic system, which was based upon the idea of a representative +form of church government. During the later years of the reign the +Puritans laid more and more stress on morals. They believed that life +should be sternly ascetic, that the Sabbath should be kept strictly, and +that pleasures and extravagance should be suppressed. + +The Independents.--Most of the Puritans had no wish to withdraw from the +church, but desired to reform it. A more radical group, however, who +became known as Independents, looked upon the national church as an +unholy institution contrary to scripture. They wished to reestablish the +church as it was believed to be in the days of the Apostles. There were +several groups of Independents or Separatists, the various groups being +named after their leaders, the followers of Robert Brown being known as +Brownists, those of Henry Barrow as Barrowists. They met in small groups +which were called conventicles. The English church, through the Court of +High Commission, proceeded with considerable severity against the +Puritans, whom they attempted to make conform, but against the +Separatists they showed no mercy, breaking up the conventicles, +imprisoning many, and hanging some of the leaders. + +James I and the Non-Conformists.--Soon after James I became king, the +Puritans presented a petition asking for changes in the church. The king +called the Hampton Court Conference that he might hear the views of the +various parties. James soon found that many of the Puritans believed in +presbyteries, a form of government with which he had had unpleasant +experiences in Scotland, and he angrily ended the conference. Shortly +afterward, because of the so-called "Gunpowder Plot," the king became +convinced that he was personally in danger. From this time on he +supported the Anglican church. Severe laws were passed against the +Catholics, and the laws against Non-Conformists were enforced with +greater vigor. + + +PLYMOUTH COLONY + +Failures of the Plymouth Company.--The Plymouth Company, which received +its charter in 1606, took immediate measures to occupy its territories. +In that year two unsuccessful attempts were made to found colonies. The +information brought back, however, so interested the company that +another expedition was fitted out the following year. Colonists were +landed at the mouth of the Kennebec River; but great hardships were +experienced during the winter, and in the spring the discouraged +settlers abandoned the enterprise. + +Activity on the New England Coast, 1607-1619.--No successful settlement +in New England was made until 1620, but in the meantime the coast was +frequently visited. In 1613 Captain Argall attacked the French +settlements at Mount Desert, Port Royal, and St. Croix. The following +year John Smith explored and mapped the New England coast. In 1615 he +was made Admiral of New England by the Plymouth Company and he attempted +to found a colony, but it proved a failure. Several fishing and trading +voyages were also made under the direction of Sir Ferdinando Gorges, an +influential member of the Plymouth Company. + +The Council for New England.--The failure of the company to plant a +colony led Gorges and others who were still interested to petition for a +new charter; on November 13, 1620, the document passed the seals +incorporating the Council for New England, which was given jurisdiction +over the territory from 40 deg. to 48 deg. north latitude. + +Origin of the Pilgrims.--The first permanent settlement in New England +was not the work of the Council, but of a group of Independents. +Separatist congregations were located at Scrooby, Gainsborough, and +Austerfield, villages in Nottinghamshire, Lincolnshire, and Yorkshire. +In the Scrooby congregation were three men of unusual ability, Pastor +John Robinson, Elder William Brewster, and William Bradford. To avoid +persecution many Separatists had migrated to Amsterdam, and there in +1608 Robinson and his followers gathered, removing later to Leyden. From +time to time a few others joined them, among the late comers being John +Carver and Miles Standish. Most of the congregation found the making of +a livelihood among the Dutch extremely difficult. In spite of this, some +of them enrolled in the University of Leyden and Brewster set up a +printing press from which appeared several theological works. + +Reasons for removal from Holland.--By 1617 the leaders determined to +seek new lands. Bradford in his _History of Plymouth Plantation_ gives +the following reasons for removal: (1) Daily life was so hard in Holland +that few cared to emigrate there and in consequence the congregation did +not grow; (2) many were growing old, and there was fear that the +congregation would soon break up; (3) life was too hard for the +children, and in addition many were slipping away, some becoming +soldiers and sailors; it was also found that the morals of the young +were endangered in the gay city of Leyden; (4) it was hoped to spread +the gospel in remote lands. In addition, intermarriage with the Dutch +had begun and it was evident that the little community would soon lose +its English identity. + +Removal to America.--Guiana, New Netherlands, and Virginia were +discussed as possible places for settlement, the last named being the +final choice. A patent was obtained from the Virginia Company, and John +Carver was made governor. Seven thousand pounds were raised by Thomas +Weston and other merchant adventurers to back the enterprise. A portion +of the Leyden congregation sailed for England, and at Southampton met +with others from London, who had determined to join them. The company, +including Carver, Brewster, Bradford, and Standish, left England in the +_Mayflower_ and the _Speedwell_, but the latter proving unseaworthy, +about twenty abandoned the enterprise. The _Mayflower_ arrived at Cape +Cod in November, 1620. + +The Mayflower Compact.--As the region was outside of the jurisdiction of +the Virginia Company, the colonists on their own initiative drew up what +is known as the Mayflower Compact, by which they combined into a civil +body politic, and agreed to enact such just and equitable laws as were +for the general welfare of the colony. After the signing of the compact, +Governor Carver was confirmed in his office. The Mayflower Compact marks +the origin of the English colony based upon a social compact the basis +of which was the will of the colonists rather than that of the +sovereign. Of a similar nature were Rhode Island, Connecticut, New +Haven, and New Hampshire in their inception, and in the latter half of +the eighteenth century, when the frontiersman had crossed the mountains +and freed himself from the restraints of the tidewater governments, the +social compact became the basis of western state making. + +Settlement at Plymouth.--Exploring parties were sent along the shores of +Massachusetts Bay, and Plymouth was selected as the site for the colony, +but the classic story of the landing on Plymouth Rock is now known to be +only a romance. From the first, settlers suffered exceedingly. Bradford +describes the situation as follows: "But that which was most sadd and +lamentable was, that in 2. or 3. moneths time halfe of their company +dyed, espetialy in Jan: and February, being the depth of winter, and +wanting houses and other comforts; being infected with the scurvie and +other diseases...; so as ther dyed some times 2. or 3. of a day, in the +foresaid time; that of 100 and odd persons, scarce 50. remained. And of +these in the time of most distres, ther was but 6. or 7. sound persons." + +Indians, fur trade and maize.--The region which the Pilgrims had +selected for their first settlement was almost deserted by the Indians, +many of them having been swept away by a plague. At some distance to the +southward lived the Wampanoags, whose chief was Massasoit. Shortly after +the arrival of the Pilgrims an Indian named Squanto, who previously had +been carried to Europe by one of Smith's captains, appeared in the +settlement. Squanto prevailed upon Massasoit to come to Plymouth, where +a treaty of peace was made which lasted for fifty years. This led to the +opening of a fur trade, which became the chief source of wealth for the +colony. Squanto proved to be of great service, teaching the settlers the +planting of maize and instructing them in hunting and fishing. Carver +died in the spring of 1621, and William Bradford was elected governor, a +position which he held almost continually until 1657. In the fall the +_Fortune_, poorly provisioned, arrived with thirty-five settlers, an +influx which led to another winter of hardship. The boat also brought a +patent from the Council for New England. + +"Weston's rude fellows."--In May, 1622, sixty-seven persons arrived, +having been sent out by Thomas Weston, who had obtained a grant from the +Council for New England. Later they moved to Wessagusset, where they +lived a turbulent life. In 1623 the Indians to the northward planned to +exterminate the Wessagusset settlers, who appealed to Plymouth for aid. +Captain Miles Standish led a force against the Indians, who were so +severely punished that peace was established. + +Expansion of Plymouth.--At first the wealth of the colony was held in a +common stock. Bradford determined to assign a tract of land to each +family, an experiment which greatly stimulated industry. From this time +the colonists were never in danger of starvation, and in a few years +they were able to pay off their debts to the English merchants. To +increase the fur trade, posts were established on Buzzard's Bay, on the +Kennebec River, at Penobscot, and at Machias Bay, the two latter posts, +however, being soon broken up by the French. A group of traders who +established themselves at Merry Mount under Thomas Morton shocked the +austere people of Plymouth, who in 1628 broke up Morton's establishment. +A trade was opened with the Dutch, and in 1636 a fur trading post was +established on the Connecticut River. In 1624 there were one hundred and +eighty settlers in the Plymouth colony, and in 1630 only three hundred; +but after that the number increased rapidly, by 1642 the population +being three thousand. + +Government of the colony.--The first governor exercised executive and +judicial powers, and the same powers were vested in Bradford and an +assistant. The number of assistants was increased in 1624 to five and +in 1633 to seven. The freemen composed the legislative body, which was +called the General Court, one of its sessions being devoted annually to +the election of officers. In 1638 a representative system was +introduced, Plymouth being allowed four delegates and other towns two +each. Legally every freeman could vote, but in practice the suffrage was +restricted to church members. Pastors and elders were elected by the +adult males of each congregation, and attendance at church meetings was +vigorously enforced. + + +COLONIZING ACTIVITIES ON THE NEW ENGLAND COAST + +Land grants and settlements.--While Plymouth was developing, the Council +for New England was attempting to settle the New England coast. The +region from the Bay of Fundy to Narragansett Bay was divided among +twenty patentees. Captain John Mason and Sir Ferdinando Gorges procured +a patent to lands between the Kennebec and Merrimac rivers; Mason +received lands between Salem and the Merrimac; Sir Robert Gorges ten +miles of coast lands along "the north east side of Boston Bay," and Lord +Sheffield and Lord Edward Gorges extensive tracts to the south of Sir +Robert Gorges's lands. Lord Warwick also received lands on Massachusetts +Bay. The grantees obtained the assistance of English merchants, who, in +1623 established small settlements at Portsmouth and Dover, within the +present state of New Hampshire, and at Saco Bay, Monhegan Island, and +Casco Bay, within the modern state of Maine. Sir Robert Gorges made an +unsuccessful attempt to plant a settlement at Weymouth, and a group of +Dorchester merchants planted a settlement on Cape Ann. + +Lyford, Oldham, and Morton.--In 1624 a group of colonists, including a +minister named John Lyford, arrived at Plymouth. There he joined with +John Oldham to get control of the government. They were banished from +the colony and went to Weymouth, where they joined with Roger Conant and +others, and moved to Nantasket. The following year, on the invitation of +the Dorchester men, Lyford, Conant, and Oldham moved to Cape Ann. This +angered the Plymouth people, who had obtained a tract on Cape Ann from +Lord Sheffield. Difficulties over fishing rights soon developed, and +Miles Standish was sent to the cape with a troop of soldiers. A +compromise was effected, but the Plymouth men soon abandoned the +enterprise. The Dorchester men found little profit in the business and +in 1626 most of them departed. Oldham returned to Plymouth. Conant and +three others remained, but shortly afterward removed to Naumkeag, the +modern Salem. In 1625 a settlement was established a little north of +Weymouth, where Thomas Morton became the leader. He established the +Episcopalian service, set up a May-pole which became the scene of +gaiety, and engaged in the fur trade, but Plymouth men soon broke up the +settlement. + +The Canada and Laconia companies.--When war broke out between England +and France in 1628, Sir Ferdinando Gorges and Captain John Mason +organized the Canada Company to conquer the French fur-trading colonies +of Acadia and Canada, and in 1629 a fleet under Captain Kirke captured +the French colonies, but in 1632 they were restored to France. The Maine +proprietors also attempted to tap the fur trade of the Lake Champlain +region and accordingly, in 1629, obtained a grant embracing the lake +country and a thousand acres of sea coast land, the territory being +known as Laconia. A governor was appointed and attempts made to +penetrate the fur country in the interior, but the efforts proved +abortive. + + +THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY + +Rev. John White's association.--The Reverend John White of Dorchester +interested people in Lincolnshire and London, and formed an association, +which, through the assistance of Warwick, in 1628 procured a patent for +lands between the parallel which passed three miles north of the source +of the Merrimac to that which passed three miles south of the head of +the Charles River, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In September, +1628, John Endicott with about fifty followers arrived at Salem. + +The Massachusetts Bay Company.--Trouble for the new association was +brewing in England. Members of the Gorges family attempted to interfere +with the new settlement, and Morton and Oldham joined with them. The new +association, however, succeeded in defeating the former patentees, and +in March, 1629, a royal charter was obtained which confirmed the grant +made to Endicott and his partners. The new corporation was called the +"Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay in New England." The +administration was placed in the hands of a governor, deputy governor, +and eighteen assistants, who were to be elected annually by the freemen +or members of the corporation. Four times a year the officers and +freemen were to meet in a general court at which new freemen might be +admitted to membership, subordinate officers might be appointed, and +laws and ordinances enacted. On June 27, 1629, five ships with about +four hundred settlers arrived at Salem. + +The Cambridge agreement.--At this time Laud had begun his persecution of +the Puritans and the king had started on his career of personal +government. Under these circumstances the Puritan leaders looked to the +New World for an asylum. John Winthrop, a wealthy gentleman of Groton in +Suffolk, who had been a follower of Warwick in parliament, now became +interested in the Massachusetts enterprise. Winthrop and several +prominent men of Cambridge met and agreed to emigrate to New England +provided the charter and government might be legally transferred to +America. The company decided to transfer the government. Winthrop was +made governor, and Thomas Dudley deputy governor. + +The "Great Migration."--In June, 1630, eleven ships anchored at Salem +and before the winter six more arrived, bringing in all over a thousand +people. They found Endicott's followers in a deplorable condition. About +one-fourth had died during the previous winter; many of the survivors +were sick and there was a shortage of provisions. The new arrivals had +brought only a limited supply and for the first year famine stalked in +the land. The dreary prospect caused about a hundred of the newcomers to +return immediately to England. Winthrop and most of his followers +removed to Charlestown. By December two hundred had died. Believing that +the inadequate water supply at Charlestown was the main cause of +sickness, the settlers began to scatter, and before the new year +settlements had been started at Dorchester, Boston, Watertown, Roxbury, +Mystic, and Lynn. + +The hardships endured by the followers of Endicott and Winthrop +prevented many from coming during 1631 and 1632, but in 1633 a new wave +of migration set in. Laud became arch-bishop in that year and began a +rigorous enforcement of the laws against nonconformists. Many ministers +with their congregations in consequence migrated. By the end of 1634 +there were nearly four thousand settlers in Massachusetts. The migration +continued until the outbreak of war in 1642, by which time the +population had increased to about sixteen thousand. + +The form of government.--The charter vested the government in the +governor, deputy governor, assistants, and freemen of the company but +not more than twelve of the colonists were legally eligible to +membership in the general court. Before disembarking this little group +decided that each of the assistants should exercise the same powers as +an English justice of the peace. The colony was to be governed by the +common law of England, which was to be supplemented by biblical law. At +the first general court, held at Boston, October 19, 1630, one hundred +and nine men applied for admission as freemen of the corporation. This +Winthrop and his associates hesitated to grant, but finally they agreed +to admit them, allowing them to elect assistants, but not to hold +office. It was also provided that in future no person should be admitted +as a freeman unless a member of some church within the colony. Though +Winthrop and his followers at first claimed to be members of the Church +of England, the necessities of the frontier soon asserted themselves, +and each community became a political, economic, and a religious unit. + +The New England towns.--The New England towns were based upon the idea +of group settlement and wherever New Englanders migrated the local +organization was reproduced. As Professor Osgood says, "The settlement +of a town normally began with the laying out of a village plot and the +assignment of home lots. This to an extent determined the location of +highways, of the village common, and of some of the outlying fields. On +or near the common the church was built, and in not a few cases the site +that was chosen for this building went far toward determining the entire +lay-out of the town. The idea of a home lot was a plot of ground for a +dwelling-house and outbuildings, for a dooryard and garden, and usually +also an enclosure for feeding cattle and raising corn." + +The first settlers located wherever they pleased, but the Massachusetts +general court soon took over the superintendence of town founding and +prescribed more or less definitely the boundaries of each town. The +grants were made in tracts of thirty-six square miles or more. Within a +town there were many common fields which were handled by associated +proprietors. The fields were surrounded by common fences and were +cultivated by a joint system. The herds were also held in common. The +original grantees and their legal heirs or successors made up the +commoners or proprietors. Originally the town and the proprietors were +approximately the same. An important function of the town meeting was in +allotting land. Soon each community began to receive newcomers who were +freemen but not proprietors. At first the proprietors were in control, +but as the freemen increased in number frequent struggles occurred over +the arrangement of town lands. + +[Illustration: Principal Settlements in Massachusetts, 1630.] + +The meeting house was the center of local life. There the town meeting +was held and there the people repaired on the Sabbath. In early days the +military stores and equipment were usually kept in the edifice and the +men attended service with arms in hand. The town constructed and took +care of the meeting house and the minister was supported by taxation. +One of the early acts of each town was to establish a school, the +meeting house frequently being used as a school-house. + +A representative system introduced.--The governor and assistants soon +found their power challenged. In 1632 a tax was voted for fortifying +Newtown, the modern Cambridge. The tax caused considerable grumbling, +and the general court decided that, in future, the governor and +assistants should be advised in matters of taxation by two delegates +from each town, and that all magistrates should be elected by the entire +body of freemen. In 1634 a committee of two freemen from each town +demanded larger rights. The result was a representative system, each +town sending representatives according to its size to meet with the +general court. This system was in no sense a popular government, the +franchise continuing to be restricted to a limited number of church +members, the leaders of whom were distinctly aristocratic. + +The struggle with Laud.--The patentees who had been deprived of their +rights found a ready listener in Archbishop Laud, who disliked the +Puritan commonwealth growing so lustily on the shores of Massachusetts +Bay. Grounds for accusation were found in the fact that the +Massachusetts magistrates expelled those who disagreed with their +religious ideas. Complaints were filed with the privy council by Gorges +and Mason, but a committee of the council in 1633 made a report which +was favorable to the colony. In 1634 the attack was renewed, and this +time with better success, for the king appointed the Commission for +Foreign Plantations, headed by Laud, to take over the general +supervision of all the colonies. Immediately a demand was made for the +charter of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Governor Dudley and the +assistants replied that the charter could not be returned except by +order of the general court, which was not in session. They immediately +fortified Castle Island, Dorchester, and Charlestown. + +In 1635 the coast of New England was reapportioned, Sir Ferdinando +Gorges receiving the lands in Maine between the Penobscot and the +Piscataqua, Mason receiving New Hampshire and northern Massachusetts as +far as Cape Ann, and Lord Edward Gorges from Cape Ann to Narragansett +Bay. The same year the Council for New England resigned its charter, and +the king decided to seize the charter of the Massachusetts Bay Company. +The pecuniary difficulties of the king, the destruction of a boat which +was built by Mason and Gorges, and the death of Mason combined to help +the colony. Though the charter was again demanded in 1638 by the lord +commissioners, the general court refused to recognize the order, and the +increasing difficulties of the king made it possible for the +Massachusetts authorities to continue their independent course. + + +EXPANSION OF THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY + +RHODE ISLAND + +Roger Williams.--The power of the Massachusetts magistrates was +exercised to maintain the ideal of a biblical commonwealth, whose +principles were expounded by John Cotton of the Boston church. Those who +did not agree were in danger. Among the dissenters was Roger Williams, a +brilliant young student from Cambridge, who arrived at Boston in 1631, +where he was invited to become one of the ministers. He refused to +commune with those who had not broken with the English church and +repaired to Salem where he was invited to become the minister, but the +general court prevented his ordination. Williams soon departed for +Plymouth, where he devoted much time to the study of the Indians. He +concluded that the title to land belonged to the natives and that the +king had no right to grant it away, a view which somewhat disturbed +Brewster and Bradford. + +He returned to Salem where, during the illness of Skelton, the pastor, +he occasionally preached; when Skelton died, Williams became the teacher +of the organization. In his sermons he argued that church and state +should be separate, and denied the right of the magistrates to regulate +churches. He also considered it a sin to follow the forms of the +established church. When the colony was attacked by Laud, the general +court ordered that a new oath of fidelity be taken. Williams objected to +enforced oaths, as he thought that they obliged wicked men to perform a +religious act, thus invading the freedom of the soul. + +Providence plantation.--To punish Salem for harboring Williams, title to +its lands on Marble Neck was refused by the general court and the town +was denied the right of representation. Endicott yielded but Williams +remained obdurate. In a letter to the churches he protested against the +arbitrary act. Williams was summoned before the magistrates and in +October, 1635, was sentenced to banishment. The sentence was not +immediately enforced and at Salem he continued to be the center of a +group of Separatists, who proposed to remove in the spring to the shores +of Narragansett Bay. This again alarmed the magistrates, and they +decided to send Williams to England. Hearing of the project, he fled +from his persecutors and found refuge among the Narragansett Indians. He +was warned away from the territory of Plymouth, and in June, 1636, +settled at Providence, where he soon had a considerable following, this +being the first settlement in Rhode Island. + +Title to the land was obtained from the Indians. As the Providence +people were outside of any special jurisdiction, they established a +government on democratic lines. Church and state were kept separate, no +one being forced to support religion. In 1640 an agreement was drawn up +which served as a form of government for several years. The governing +body was composed of five men called disposers, who were chosen four +times in each year. They disposed of the land and managed the common +stock. The freeholders retained the right to ratify or disavow, in +general meetings, the acts of the disposers. There was a lack of a +strong executive and judiciary. Disputes were usually settled by +arbitration, but as there was no authority to enforce the settlement, +disorders frequently occurred. + +Anne Hutchinson.--No sooner had Williams been driven from Massachusetts +Bay Colony than a second controversy shook the commonwealth. In the +congregation of John Cotton was Mrs. Anne Hutchinson. She became popular +by ministering to the sick, and began to hold meetings for women, where +the sermons were discussed. Mrs. Hutchinson assumed the roll of teacher, +discussing the questions of "a covenant of works" and "a covenant of +grace," By the covenant of works she referred to the practice of the +Catholic church, which considered penance, confession, and pilgrimages +as means of salvation. By a covenant of grace she meant that condition +of mind of Protestant Christians which found peace in the thought of the +holiness of Christ. She believed that the divine spirit existed in every +true Christian. John Cotton and her brother-in-law, John Wheelwright, +were held up as examples of those who lived in the covenant of grace. To +many of the Boston leaders it seemed as if Mrs. Hutchinson claimed to be +inspired, and they feared that her teachings would endanger the +authority of the church. + +The Boston congregation split into two factions. In Mrs. Hutchinson's +party was Governor Harry Vane. On the other side were John Winthrop and +the pastor, John Wilson. Cotton attempted to remain neutral but favored +the Hutchinsonian party. The question soon became a bitter political +quarrel between Winthrop and Vane. At the election in 1637 Vane was +defeated. Without the support of the chief executive the followers of +Mrs. Hutchinson soon lost power. A synod of ministers was held at +Cambridge to root out the heresies. Cotton succeeded in making his peace +with the magistrates, but Wheelwright was banished, as was Mrs. +Hutchinson. She was allowed to remain in the colony during the winter, +but early in the spring of 1638 Winthrop ordered her to depart. + +Settlements on Rhode Island.--She found a temporary asylum at +Providence, but soon went to the island of Aquidneck, afterward called +Rhode Island, where she joined her husband and some of her friends. The +little group of nineteen settlers constituted themselves a body politic, +electing William Coddington chief magistrate. Many emigrants joined the +people of Portsmouth and in 1639 a new settlement was founded at +Newport. + + +SETTLEMENTS IN THE CONNECTICUT VALLEY + +Early claimants.--One of the patentees who had received lands from the +Council of New England was the Earl of Warwick, whose grant covered a +large part of the Connecticut Valley. In 1631 he transferred his rights +to Lord Saye and Sele, Lord Brooke and others, who contemplated founding +a Puritan colony, but for several years they did nothing to settle their +domain. In 1633 the Dutch erected a fort where Hartford now stands, and +shortly afterward men from Plymouth built a trading post ten miles +farther up the river. In 1635 the English patentees, wearied with the +Providence Island project, sent out settlers under John Winthrop, Jr., +who erected Fort Saybrook at the mouth of the river. Scarcely were the +cannon in place when a Dutch vessel appeared, but finding the English +strongly posted, the Dutch made no attempt to take possession. + +The migration of 1635-36.--A more important movement came from +Massachusetts. Congregations from Watertown, Dorchester, and Cambridge, +desiring better lands, migrated to the rich Connecticut Valley. The +first Dorchester men arrived at Windsor in the summer of 1635. In June, +1636, the Rev. Thomas Hooker led the Cambridge people to Hartford, the +rest of the Dorchester congregation joined those already at Windsor, and +the people of Watertown settled at Wethersfield. By the end of 1636 +eight hundred people were living in the three towns. Another +congregation from Roxbury settled at Springfield. + +The Pequot War.--The Pequot Indians saw with chagrin the increasing +numbers of the whites. The settlers also angered them by purchasing +lands from the Mohegans, and ignoring the Pequot chiefs. In 1633 the +Pequots had murdered a Virginia sea-captain named Stone, and Governor +Winthrop had inquired concerning the homicide. In 1634, fearing the +Dutch and the Narragansetts, the Pequots had sought an alliance with +Massachusetts Bay Colony. As a price of forgiveness for Stone's murder +and for protection, Winthrop demanded heavy tribute. In 1636 John +Oldham, who had come to collect the tribute, was murdered at Block +Island. Though the Pequots were probably not guilty, Endicott led a +force against them, destroying several wigwams and seizing considerable +maize. Angered by the raid, the Pequots attempted to form an alliance +with the Narragansetts, but Williams prevented it, and in the ensuing +war Mohegans and Narragansetts fought on the white man's side. In the +spring of 1637 Pequots attacked Wethersfield. A general court was +immediately convened at Hartford to take measures for protection, and an +expedition was sent against the Pequot fort on the Mystic River, where +the defenders were exterminated. Another stronghold to the westward was +also destroyed. A remnant of the tribe was wiped out near New Haven by +Connecticut and Massachusetts troops and the captives were made slaves, +some being retained in New England, others being shipped to the West +Indies. The Indian menace was thus removed and the settlers were free to +push farther into the wilderness. + +"The Fundamental Orders."--In 1639 Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield +formed a constitution, which provided that the freemen were to hold two +general meetings each year. At one of these meetings the governor and +assistants were elected, who, with four representatives from each town, +were to make up a general court with legislative and judicial powers. + +New Haven.--The successful issue of the Pequot War opened the +Connecticut Valley to another important migration. This was led by Rev. +John Davenport and Theophilus Eaton, who had come to New England to +plant a colony on purely theocratic lines. In 1638 they founded New +Haven, and the following year drew up a form of government. Citizenship +was restricted to church membership and an annual general court of +freemen was to elect a governor and assistants, who were to conduct all +governmental affairs, the only restriction on their authority being the +law of Moses. Guilford, Milford, and Stamford sprang up in the +neighborhood, and each adopted a similar form of government. + +Settlement of Long Island.--English settlements also appeared on Long +Island. In 1632 Sir Edmund Plowden obtained a grant from Charles I of +Long Island and a portion of the adjoining coasts. Three years later the +Council for New England assigned Long Island to Sir William Alexander. +In 1640 settlers from New Haven obtained a title to Long Island from +Alexander's representative and settled at Southold. Others from +Massachusetts attempted a settlement opposite Manhattan, but, being +driven away by the Dutch, moved to Southampton at the eastern end of the +island. + + +READINGS + +GENERAL + +Andrews, C.M., _The Fathers of New England_, _passim_; Becker, Carl, +_The Beginnings of the American People_, 80-124. + +THE PURITAN MOVEMENT AND THE PLYMOUTH COLONY + +Adams, C.F., _Three Episodes of Massachusetts History_, I, 1-182; Arber, +Edward, _The Story of the Pilgrim Fathers_; Bradford, William, _History +of Plymouth Plantation_; Channing, Edward, _History of the United +States_, I, 271-321; Cheyney, E.P., _European Background of American +History_, 216-239; Dexter, Morton, _The England and Holland of the +Pilgrims_; _The Story of the Pilgrims_; Doyle, J.A., _The Puritan +Colonies_, I, 11-81; Eggleston, Edward, _The Beginners of a Nation_, +98-181; Fiske, John, _The Beginnings of New England_, 60-87; Griffis, +W.E., _The Pilgrims in their Three Homes_; Neal, D., _History of the +Pilgrims_; Osgood, H.L., _The American Colonies in the Seventeenth +Century_, I, 98-137; Palfrey, J.G., _History of New England_, I, +101-238; Tyler, L.G., _England in America_, 148-182; Weeden, W.B., +_Economic and Social History of New England_, I, 8-45; Young, Alexander, +_Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers_; Usher, R.G., _The Pilgrims and +Their History_. + +MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY + +Buffington, A.H., "New England and the Western Fur Trade, 1629-1675," in +Colonial Society of Massachusetts, _Publications_, XXVIII, 160-192; +Channing, Edward, _History of the United States_, I, 322-351; Doyle, +J.A., _The Puritan Colonies_, I, 83-112; Eggleston, Edward, _Beginners +of a Nation_, 188-215; Ellis, G.E., _The Puritan Age and Rule_; Fiske, +John, _The Beginnings of New England_, 88-111; Johnson, Edward, +_Wonder-Working Providence_; Newton, A.P., _The Colonizing Activities of +the English Puritans_; Osgood, H.L., _The American Colonies in the +Seventeenth Century_, I, 141-199, 424-467; Palfrey, J.G., _History of +New England_, I, 283-405; _A Compendious History of New England_, I, +91-133; Tyler, L.G., _England in America_, 183-209; Weeden, W.B., +_Economic and Social History of New England_, I, 47-164; Winthrop, John, +_Journal_. + +RHODE ISLAND AND THE CONNECTICUT VALLEY + +Channing, Edward, _History of the United States_, I, 362-411; Doyle, +J.A., _The Puritan Colonies_, I, 113-199; Eggleston, Edward, _Beginners +of a Nation_, 266-346; Osgood, H.L., _The American Colonies in the +Seventeenth Century_, I, 224-254, 301-370; Richman, I.B., _Rhode Island, +a Study in Separatism_, 13-61; _Rhode Island, its Making and its +Meaning_, 3-62; Tyler, L.G., _England in America_, 210-264; Weeden, +W.B., _Early Rhode Island_. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE ENGLISH COLONIES DURING THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD (1640-1660) + + +POLITICS, ADMINISTRATION, AND EXPANSION + +Attitude of the colonies during the Puritan Revolution.--The personal +rule of Charles I came to an end in 1641 and for eight years England was +convulsed with civil war. During the struggle both Royalists and +Parliamentarians claimed jurisdiction over the colonies, but neither was +able to exert authority, and each colony followed its own course. The +New England settlements were largely Puritan and naturally sided with +parliament. In Maryland two factions formed, one Protestant, the other +in favor of the Catholic proprietor. Virginia and the West Indies were +almost entirely on the king's side. Incapable of rendering assistance, +they attempted to maintain neutrality until the contest in England was +decided. + +The Bermudas and expansion in the West Indies.--In the Bermudas the +colonists were divided, but the company leaders were Puritans. In 1643 +the Independents seceded from the established Church, and two years +later parliament granted freedom of worship in the islands. Religious +feeling in the Bermudas led to a migration to a new asylum. In 1646 +Captain William Sayle, who had been governor, led a colony to Segatoo, +one of the Bahamas, which he now called Eleutheria, in allusion to the +aim of the project. Later on Bermudans conducted extensive salt works in +the Turks Islands in spite of frequent attacks by the Spaniards. + +The Commonwealth, 1649-1653.--The military party, dominated by Cromwell, +drove from parliament all those who hesitated to execute the king, the +remnant being known as the Rump Parliament. It named a Council of State +which was to carry on the executive work. The Commonwealth proceeded at +once to overthrow its enemies outside of England. Rebellions in Ireland +and Scotland were ruthlessly put down; the navy was greatly +strengthened, and Admiral Sir George Ayscue was sent to the West Indies +and Virginia to overthrow the Royalists. Friction with the Dutch had +been growing for some time, due mainly to rivalry for the commerce of +the East and West Indies and the growing trade of the Dutch along the +Atlantic seaboard. Navigation laws were passed in 1650 and 1651 which +were intended to deprive the Dutch of the trade of England and her +possessions. War followed in 1652 and lasted for two years with varying +success. + +Colonial administration during the Commonwealth.--Colonial +administration was carried on by various committees of parliament or of +the Council of State. On March 2, 1650, the Council of State ordered +that the entire council or any five of the members, should be a +Committee for Trade and Plantations. In 1652 the Council of State +appointed a standing committee of Trade, Plantations, and Foreign +Affairs of which Cromwell and Vane were members. Special committees were +also appointed from time to time to handle special colonial business or +committees already in existence discussed matters referred to them. + +Acquisition of Jamaica.--In December, 1653, Cromwell was made Lord +Protector for life and in 1654 the war with the Dutch was brought to a +close. To divert attention from home affairs Cromwell desired a foreign +war. West Indian expansion had brought England into close contact with +Spain. The aggressive acts of the latter against the Providence Island +Company and the intercepting of English ships, gave a ready excuse for +reprisals. Admiral Penn sailed from England on Christmas Day, 1654, in +command of a large fleet to attack the Spanish. An attempt to gain a +footing in Espanola was a complete failure, but Jamaica proved to be an +easy prize and became a permanent English possession. + +Colonial administration during the Protectorate.--The Council of State +lost most of its powers and became simply the advisory council of +Cromwell. The committee system of the council was continued. In 1655 a +special committee for Jamaica was appointed, and about the same time a +Committee for Foreign Plantations. The Protector also obtained the +assistance of a body of officers and merchants to advise regarding +colonial affairs. + + +NEW ENGLAND DEVELOPMENT + +The period from 1640 to 1660 was one of practical independence for the +New England colonies. This neglect and freedom from interference gave +rise to three distinct developments: the formulation of provincial codes +of law, the confederation of the colonies and of settlements within +colonies, and territorial expansion. + +[Illustration: Settled areas in New England, about 1660.] + +The Massachusetts Body of Liberties.--The first of the colonial codes to +be formulated was the Massachusetts Body of Liberties adopted by the +general court in 1641. It provided for the protection of the private and +political rights of the individual, methods of judicial procedure, +rights of women, children, servants, foreigners, and strangers, the +protection of animals, and the rights of the churches. Death penalties +were specified, the capital crimes being the worshiping of false gods, +witchcraft, blasphemy, murder, manslaughter, kidnaping, bearing false +witness, and treason. Provision was also made for trial by jury. The +code was amended from time to time, arson, cursing or smiting of +parents, burglary, and highway robbery being added to the fist of +capital crimes. The Massachusetts code became the basis of the +Connecticut code of 1650 and the New Haven code of 1656. + +Causes of federation.--The development of self-government was fostered +not only by neglect on the part of England, but also by the necessity of +protection. Being hedged in on the north by the French and on the west +by the Dutch, and with hostile Indian tribes encircling the English +frontiers, the various groups of settlements were in danger. +Massachusetts was strong enough to protect herself, but the settlements +in the Connecticut Valley and on Long Island were menaced by the Dutch +and Indians. + +One of the fruitful causes of dispute between New England and the Dutch +was the fur-trade. The choicest hunting grounds to the west were +possessed by the Dutch and Swedes. To obtain a foothold on the Delaware, +the upper Connecticut, and the Hudson became a settled economic policy +of several of the New England colonies and was a potent factor in the +formation of the New England Confederation. To exploit the Delaware +River trade a company was formed at New Haven and in 1641 a settlement +was made at Varkens Kill on the site of modern Salem, New Jersey, and +later another post was established at the mouth of the Schuylkill, above +the Dutch and Swedish forts. The Dutch, probably assisted by the Swedes, +destroyed the Schuylkill fort, and the settlement at Varkens Kill did +not prosper, most of the settlers dying or removing to New Haven. +Massachusetts also attempted to obtain a share in the Delaware trade. In +1644 prominent merchants of Boston formed a company, but when their +pinnace appeared in the Delaware, it was turned back by the Dutch, and +shortly afterwards a small group of Boston traders were severely handled +by the Indians. + +The New England Confederation.--For several years plans for a +confederation had been discussed, but the Dutch war against the Indians +in 1642 and the struggle between De la Tour and D'Aulnay in Acadia +brought matters to a head. At the general court which met at Boston on +May 10, 1643, commissioners from Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, +and New Haven signed a compact, Rhode Island and the settlements in +Maine being excluded. The government of the confederation was placed in +the hands of two commissioners from each of the four colonies. Internal +affairs were not to be interfered with, but the confederation was to +determine matters of war and foreign relations. Expenses were to be +assessed on the colonies according to population. A vote of six +commissioners was necessary to determine matters, the three small +colonies thus being able to override Massachusetts. The confederation +contained two serious defects which eventually led to its abandonment. +The central government had no authority over individuals, and the equal +vote of each colony violated the principle of representative government, +Massachusetts having no more power then her weaker neighbors. + +Work of the Confederation.--No incident occurred to require action on +the part of the confederation until 1645, when the Narragansetts +attacked the Mohegans. A force of three hundred men was raised by the +confederation, an action which brought the Narragansetts to terms +without hostilities. When a society for the propagation of the faith was +incorporated in England to assist the missionary efforts of John Eliot +and Thomas Mayhew, the commissioners handled the funds. When questions +of boundaries and customs arose, they were settled by the commissioners. +When Massachusetts assisted De la Tour against D'Aulnay, the +commissioners exerted their influence to keep the colony from +interfering in French affairs. In 1650 a treaty was made between +Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor, and the commissioners, with the result +that the Dutch retained their fort at Hartford, but were otherwise +excluded from the Connecticut Valley and the eastern part of Long +Island. The English were granted the right of colonization on the +Delaware, but when New Haven men attempted to found a settlement, they +were turned back by the Dutch and the confederation failed to take +action. When hostilities broke out between the Dutch and English in +1651, the three smaller colonies desired war, but the Massachusetts +general court refused, and when Cromwell's fleet appeared at Boston in +1654 on its way to attack the Dutch settlements, Massachusetts continued +her opposition. Possible complications were averted by the treaty of +peace. The action of Massachusetts in the relations with the Dutch so +weakened the confederation that it soon ceased to be an important factor +in New England history. + +The Puritan movement into New Hampshire.--Massachusetts took advantage +of the disturbed conditions in England to absorb the territory to the +northward. In 1629 Mason had obtained a second patent for a tract +extending sixty miles inland and lying between the Merrimac and +Piscataqua rivers, which he named New Hampshire, and Mason and Gorges +obtained title to lands between the Merrimac and Kennebec. In 1631 the +two patentees and others obtained a tract of twenty thousand acres which +included the Portsmouth settlement. In 1633 the English merchants who +had founded Dover sold their shares in the settlement to Lord Saye and +Sele, Lord Brooke, and others, a transaction which was followed by a +Puritan migration. The same noblemen also obtained title to the +Portsmouth settlement. During the Hutchinsonian controversy, Wheelwright +and others found refuge at Dover, but shortly afterward established +themselves at Exeter. Massachusetts claimed that the New Hampshire +settlements fell within her boundaries, and in 1641, upon the suggestion +of Lord Saye and Sele and Lord Brooke, extended her jurisdiction over +Portsmouth and Dover. In 1643 Exeter also came under the protection of +Massachusetts. + +The incorporation of Maine with Massachusetts.--Several conflicting +patents to lands in Maine were issued between 1630 and 1645. Few +settlers came, the only new group of importance being the three towns of +Georgiana (York), Welles, and Kittery on the Piscataqua. Massachusetts +claimed that her charter entitled her to the Maine region, and in 1639 +took the first step toward ownership by purchasing a tract on the +Androscoggin River. When the region about Saco and Casco bays became a +matter of dispute between rival patentees in 1644, the case was referred +to the Massachusetts general court, but no decision was reached. When +referred to the English commissioners for plantations, the Gorges +estate lost most of its property, being left only the settled region +near the Piscataqua. In 1647 Gorges died and the settlers were left +without guidance. Two years later the three towns declared themselves a +body politic. In 1651 Massachusetts asserted her claim to the Maine +region, and the Royalists there found themselves powerless. The +following year the Massachusetts authorities ordered the survey of the +Merrimac and established civil government at York. In 1653 all the +settlements in southern Maine accepted the jurisdiction of +Massachusetts. The settlements about Casco Bay refused to submit until +1658, when they also acknowledged the authority of Massachusetts. + +Massachusetts hopes to obtain the trade on the Hudson.--In 1657 the +general court of Massachusetts declared that the fur-trade ought to be +controlled by the commonwealth and in the following year a report was +made which showed that fur-trading privileges at Springfield, Concord, +Sudbury, Lancaster, Groton, Marlborough, and Cambridge were farmed out +to various individuals. In 1659 a company was formed whose main purpose +was to obtain access to the fur-trade of the upper Hudson, but it failed +to carry out the project. + +Connecticut.--In the Connecticut colony the period from 1640 to 1660 was +one of expansion and consolidation. Southampton and East Hampton on Long +Island, and on the mainland Farmington, Saybrook, New London, and +Norwalk were brought under the jurisdiction of the colony. + +New Haven.--In the New Haven colony the danger from the Dutch and +Indians in 1643 brought about a union of the isolated units. A +constitution was adopted which restricted the suffrage to church +membership. Minor cases were to be judged in each town, and a governor, +deputy-governor, and three associates were to judge the more important +cases. No provision for trial by jury was made. The general court, +consisting of the magistrates and two deputies from each of the towns, +was to meet at New Haven twice a year to enact laws. In 1649 Southold on +Long Island, in 1651 Bradford, and in 1656 Greenwich were added to the +New Haven confederation. + +Rhode Island.--Admission to the New England Confederation was denied to +the Narragansett Bay settlements. Providence, Portsmouth, and Newport +had all been founded by outcasts from Massachusetts, and a fourth +settlement of a similar nature was founded at Shawomet, now Warwick, in +1643 by Samuel Gorton. The danger from powerful and grasping neighbors +caused Williams to seek a patent to the lands about Narragansett Bay, +and on March 14, 1644, a patent was granted which allowed the +inhabitants of Providence, Portsmouth, and Newport to form their own +government. The Warwick settlers were asked to join the others. + +In 1647 a code remarkable for its mildness was adopted, and by 1650 the +government had been formed. The legislative powers were vested in a +general court composed of six representatives from each town, the +presiding officer of which was called a president. In executive matters +he was to be aided by an assistant from each town. Provision was also +made for a treasurer, sergeant, general recorder, attorney-general, and +solicitor-general. The president and assistants acted as a court for +important cases, which were to be tried by jury. The legislative body +and the court made the circuit of the towns. The initiative and +referendum were introduced, each settlement having the right to propose +legislation, and acts of the general court were referred to the towns +for ratification or rejection. Membership in a particular church was not +made the basis of citizenship as in the other New England colonies. The +disturbing element in Rhode Island at this time was Coddington. In 1651 +he obtained from the Council of State a commission as governor of the +islands in Narragansett Bay, but his power was short-lived, for the +following year Williams obtained a revocation of the Coddington patent +and in 1654 was elected president of the confederation. + + +VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND, 1640-1660 + +Virginia Loyalists.--During the civil war Virginia remained loyal to the +king. The large plantation owners, who were almost all members of the +Established Church, were in control of the house of burgesses. The small +landowners made up the minority. In this class were a few Puritans and +many freemen who had formerly been indented servants. Their sympathies +were on the side of parliament. Sir William Berkeley, who was appointed +in 1642, was a staunch supporter of the king. His administration seems +to have been tempered with justice, and he showed little of the +arbitrary attitude which appeared in his later career. + +Opechancanough's War.--The chief event in Berkeley's administration was +the Indian war of 1644. The plantations had gradually spread up the +James and Rappahannock, encroaching upon the Indian lands. The chief +Opechancanough planned to massacre the whites. On April 18 the outlying +settlements were attacked and five hundred people were massacred. The +governor led several expeditions against the Indians, their crops and +villages were destroyed, and their chief became a captive. While in +captivity he was foully murdered. The Indians sued for peace, and in a +treaty acknowledged the rights of the white man to all the lands between +the York and the James as far as the falls. + +Berkeley's struggle with the Commonwealth.--When the news of the death +of Charles I reached Virginia, Berkeley proclaimed Charles II as king +and the assembly declared it high treason to question his right to +Virginia. Parliament decided to punish the colony by blockading it. +Berkeley, nowise daunted, delivered a defiant address to the assembly, +which warmly supported him. The blockade proved a failure, for Dutch +traders sailed unmolested into Chesapeake Bay. A group of Virginia +parliamentarians visited England and demanded that Berkeley be +overthrown. The Council of State responded by sending out a fleet to +subdue both Barbados and Virginia. Commissioners were also sent to +Virginia to persuade the colony to submit peaceably. In the spring of +1652 when the fleet appeared in the James River, it found the governor +prepared for resistance. The commissioners intervened, and by offering +lenient terms, bloodshed was avoided. It was agreed that the colony +should "voluntarily" acknowledge the authority of the Commonwealth, that +the Virginians should have as free trade as the people of England, and +that taxation was to be in the hands of the house of burgesses. Neither +Berkeley nor his councilors were to be compelled to take the oath of +allegiance for a year, and the use of the Book of Common Prayer was +permitted for a similar length of time. Berkeley retired from the +governorship but remained in the colony. + +[Illustration: Settled Areas in Virginia and Maryland, 1660.] + +Government under the commonwealth.--The burgesses and commissioners +proceeded to remodel the government. The house of burgesses was made +the chief governing body, with unlimited powers except the veto of the +English government. It was to elect the governor and council, specify +their duties and remove them if they proved unsatisfactory. All +officials were also appointed by the burgesses. + +A period of prosperity.--The kingless period was one of prosperity for +Virginia. In 1649 the colony contained about 15,000 people; in 1666 the +population was estimated at 40,000. This great migration was recruited +from various classes: Cavaliers who sought refuge after the death of the +king, people who fled from the horrors of civil war, prisoners who were +sent as indented servants, gentlemen, tradesmen, and laborers, all found +room in the abundant lands of tide-water Virginia. + +Maryland during the civil war.--During the first part of the civil war, +Lord Baltimore leaned toward the royalist side, but in the colony there +was a strong Protestant element, augmented by this time by Puritans from +Virginia. In 1645 they got control and expelled the Jesuits. The +following year Governor Calvert, who had been in England, returned and +reestablished his authority, but his rule was shortlived, for he died in +1647. + +Puritan rule in Maryland.--Fearing that he would be deprived of +Maryland, Baltimore veered to the parliamentary side and appointed as +governor William Stone, a prominent Virginia planter, and invited +Virginia Puritans to settle in his territory. This was followed by a +religious toleration act passed by the Maryland assembly in 1649. +Baltimore's trimming, however, did not save him from trouble, for in +1650, when the Commonwealth expedition was sent out, the commissioners +were instructed to reduce all the Chesapeake Bay plantations. For a time +Stone was left in authority, but in 1654 he was deposed and the +government was placed in the hands of a council, at the head of which +was a Puritan, William Fuller. In the ensuing assembly the Royalists and +Catholics were barred. Baltimore ordered Stone to recover his authority +by force, but he was defeated and imprisoned by the forces of Fuller, +and four of his followers executed. Baltimore appears to have +ingratiated himself with Cromwell, for in 1657 he was restored to +power. + + +READINGS + +NEW ENGLAND + +Channing, Edward, _History of the United States_, I, 414-420; Doyle, +J.A., _The Puritan Colonies_, I, 220-319; Frothingham, Richard, _The +Rise of the Republic_, 33-71; James, B.B., _The Colonization of New +England_, 119-157; Mathews, L.K., _The Expansion of New England_, 31-34; +Osgood, H.L., _The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century_, I, +392-423; Palfrey, J.G., _A Compendious History of New England_, I, +247-268; Tyler, L.G., _England in America_, 266-281, 297-317. + +VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND + +Beer, G.L., _The Origins of the British Colonial System_, 340-424; +Browne, W.H., _Maryland_, 72-104; Channing, Edward, _History of the +United States_, I, 485-507; Doyle, J.A., _Virginia, Maryland, and the +Carolinas_, 207-228, 314-327; Hamilton, P.J., _The Colonization of the +South,_ 118-122; Mereness, M.D., _Maryland as a Proprietary Province_; +Osgood, H.L., _The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century_, II, +58-87; Tyler, L.G., _England in America_, 105-117, 140-148; Wertenbaker, +T.J., _Virginia under the Stuarts_, 85-114. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE DUTCH AND SWEDISH COLONIES (1609-1644) + + +DUTCH EXPANSION + +Commercial expansion of the Netherlands.--During the reign of Philip II +occurred the revolt in the Netherlands. Spanish political and commercial +restrictions, and the establishment of the Inquisition, united the great +commercial cities, the nobles, and the common people of the northeastern +provinces in a rebellion which did not cease until the Hollanders had +secured virtual independence by the truce of 1609. During the struggle +Dutch ships raided the Spanish and Portuguese trade routes. As early as +1577 a trade to the White Sea was begun. Soon Dutch ships were trading +to Italy and the Baltic, and by 1598 they had extended their commerce to +Alexandria, Tripoli on the Syrian coast, and Constantinople, to the Cape +Verde Islands and the Guinea coast. The desire to reach India influenced +Dutch statesmen to attempt to find a northeast passage. Between 1594 and +1597 four expeditions were sent out; they failed to find the passage but +gained considerable knowledge of Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen. + +East Indian trade.--For years Dutch sailors had been employed by the +Portuguese and were well acquainted with the routes to India and +America. In 1596 a company was organized to open a trade with the Far +East; their fleet sailed around the Cape of Good Hope, stopped at +Madagascar, and then proceeded to Java and the Moluccas, returning home +the next year. Several companies were immediately formed, and in 1598 +twenty-two vessels sailed by the Cape of Good Hope route for the East, +and Olivier van Noort passed through the Straits of Magellan and +circumnavigated the earth. In 1602 the States General chartered the +United East India Company. Several fleets were despatched and succeeded +in gaining a foothold in Ceylon and along the coasts of India, in Java, +the Moluccas, and various other places. The traders met with great +opposition from the Portuguese and Spaniards, but when peace was made in +1609 the Dutch were given the right of trading to Spanish ports outside +of Europe, and they soon firmly established their power in the Far East +where they absorbed much of Portugal's commerce. + +Henry Hudson.--The East India Company hoped to find a shorter route to +India and in 1609 employed an English mariner, Henry Hudson, to search +for a northwest passage. Meeting with ice and storms, he headed his +ship, the _Half Moon_, toward the west. Sighting land at Newfoundland, +he examined the New England coast, rounded Cape Cod, and sailed to +Virginia and southward. Turning north, he probably ran into Chesapeake +Bay, certainly entered Delaware Bay, and then sailed northward to what +is now New York harbor. The Hudson River was explored to a point above +Albany and friendly relations with the Iroquois were established. The +East India Company, however, was making such handsome profits in the +East that the furs of New Netherlands failed to attract it. + +The Cape Horn route discovered.--The Dutch were still hopeful of finding +another route to India, and when Jacques le Maire quarreled with the +directors of the East India Company, he planned to form a separate +corporation and seek a route south of the Straits of Magellan. The +people of Hoorn assisted him in fitting out two vessels which were +placed under the command of William Corneliaz Schouten. On the long +voyage the smaller vessel was destroyed, but Schouten with the larger +one in 1616 discovered Cape Horn. + +Dutch activities in the Hudson River region, 1610-1621.--The Hudson +River region was visited by traders in 1610-1611, and in 1612 Dutch +merchants sent Christianson and Block to Manhattan Island to engage in +the fur trade. In 1613 Cornelius May was also sent over. The next year +Fort Nassau, later named Fort Orange, was built near the present site of +Albany. An extensive exploration of the coast was also made, Block +sailing along the northern shore of Long Island, examining the lower +waters of the Connecticut River, and exploring Narragansett Bay and Cape +Cod. The result of these activities was the formation, in 1614, of the +New Netherlands Company, which was given the monopoly of the trade +between the fortieth and forty-fifth parallels. An important fur trade +was rapidly developed in the Hudson Valley and exploration of the coast +was continued. In 1616 Hendrickson examined Delaware Bay, and in 1620 +the same region and Chesapeake Bay were visited by May. The southern +extremity of New Jersey still bears the name of the Dutch explorer. + +The West India Company.--One of the most enterprising Dutch merchants +was William Usselincx, who had long hoped to profit by the opening of +West Indian trade. The idea was opposed by the East India Company and by +some of the Dutch statesmen, especially Olden Barnevelt, who feared that +it would bring about new difficulties with Spain. In spite of this, +Dutch vessels appeared in Guiana and the Antilles, and in 1613 +settlements were attempted in Guiana at Essequibo and Berbice. In 1618 +Olden Barnevelt fell from power and Usselincx immediately became active +in the formation of a company. In 1621 the West India Company was +chartered, receiving a monopoly of Dutch trade for twenty-four years on +the coast of Africa as far as the Cape, and for America and the islands +east of New Guinea. Usselincx, believing that the directors had too much +power and the shareholders too little, and desiring a colonizing rather +than a trading corporation, severed his connection with the company and +departed for Sweden, where he interested Gustavus Adolphus in commercial +enterprises. + +Dutch settlements in Brazil, Guiana, and the Antilles.--Settlements were +now established by the "Beggars of the Sea" all the way from Brazil to +Hudson River, and there were prospects that the Caribbean Sea would +become a Dutch instead of a Spanish lake. Brazil was the most important +base. Bahia, taken in 1624, lost in 1625, and recaptured in 1627 by the +celebrated Piet Heyn, was again lost, but by 1637 Olinda, Recife and +Pernambuco had been captured in spite of determined resistance. Prince +Maurice of Nassau now took possession of Brazil from Bahia to the Amazon +River, and established there a Dutch state, with its capital at +Mauritiopolis. In spite of liberal Dutch rule, however, and of an +alliance now with Holland against Spain (1641), the Brazilians arose, +and after years of heroic fighting expelled the intruders (1661). +Meanwhile the Dutch had established colonies in Guiana at Berbice, +Aprouage, and Pomeroon, as well as at Essequibo. In the Antilles they +had settlements at Curacao, Buen Aire, Aruba (1634), St. Eustatius, Saba +(1635), and St. Martin (1638). During the same period the West India +Company had established a flourishing colony on the northern mainland +and called it New Netherlands. + + +NEW NETHERLANDS + +Activities of the company.--Licenses were at once granted to several +traders, who in 1622 visited the Hudson, Delaware, and Connecticut +rivers and trafficked with the Indians as far east as Buzzard's Bay. +Thirty families of Walloons, Protestants from Flanders, were sent over +in 1623, these being the first colonists. Most of them settled on +Manhattan Island, at Brooklyn, and on Staten Island. A few migrated to +the vicinity of Fort Orange near Albany, and others settled near the +present site of Gloucester on the Delaware, where a new fort named +Nassau was erected. Other settlers soon followed; the fur trade was +developed; and by 1625 the success of the colony seemed assured. + +Government of the colony.--The West India Company was governed by a +board of directors called the College of Nineteen; of these eight were +from Amsterdam, and to them was given the control of New Netherlands. In +the colony the chief officer was the director-general. To assist him was +a council invested with local legislative, executive, and judicial +powers, subject to the supervision and appellate jurisdiction of the +Amsterdam directors. There were two minor officials, the "koopman" +acting as commissary, bookkeeper, and secretary, and the "schout-fiscal" +as an attorney and sheriff. + +Administration of Peter Minuit.--In 1626 Peter Minuit became the +director-general. One of his first acts was to secure a title to +Manhattan Island by purchasing it from the Indians at the nominal price +of twenty-four dollars' worth of goods. A fort, the location of which is +known to-day as The Battery, was immediately constructed. Near by was +built the stone counting house with a thatched roof, and thirty bark +houses straggled along the east side of the river, the meager beginnings +of a great metropolis. Fearing for the safety of the little groups of +settlers at Fort Orange and Fort Nassau, Minuit brought them to New +Amsterdam, leaving only a few soldiers and traders at Fort Orange. + +[Illustration: Van Der Donck's Map of New Netherland, 1656.] + +Minuit's preparations for defence were not confined to fortifying the +land. Conscious of foreign danger, inspired perhaps by the victories +which Heyn was just now winning over Spaniards and Portuguese in the +southern waters, and aided by two Belgian shipbuilders, the governor +built and launched the _New Netherland_, a vessel of eight hundred tons +and carrying thirty guns. The ship cost more than had been expected, and +the bills were severely criticized by the West India Company. + +The patroon system.--The returns from the southern raids made the small +income from New Netherlands appear paltry, and the company decided to +attempt an extensive colonization with a view to larger profit. A type +of feudalism known as the patroon system was decided upon. The company +reserved Manhattan Island, but other regions were opened to settlement. +Each patroon was to receive lands four leagues along one side of a +navigable river or two leagues on both sides and extending "so far into +the country as the situation of the occupiers will permit," provided +that within four years he settled fifty people over fifteen years of age +upon his lands. Patroons were forever to "possess and enjoy all the +lands lying within the aforesaid limits, together with the fruits, +rights, minerals, rivers, and fountains thereof," and were to have +complete control over "fishing, fowling, and grinding." + +The fur trade was reserved by the company, but the patroons were allowed +to trade on the coast from Newfoundland to Florida and to ship goods to +neutral powers; they could also engage in fishing and the making of +salt. They were to satisfy the Indians regarding land titles and were +given the right to establish their own courts, from which appeal might +be made to the director-general and his council. The colonists were +exempt from taxation for ten years, but they could not leave the service +of the patroon without his consent. The system was not intended to +exclude other colonists who might come over and take up as much land as +they could improve, but no colonists were to "be permitted to make any +woolen, linen or cotton cloth, nor weave any other stuffs there." +Patroons and colonists were "to find out ways and means whereby they +may support a Minister and Schoolmaster." The company promised to defend +the colonists and to endeavor to supply them "with as many Blacks as +they conveniently can." + +The patroons.--While the details of the charter were being discussed, +several directors took advantage of the intended system to secure large +grants. Samuel Godyn and Samuel Blommaert and several associates secured +practically all of what is now Delaware and that part of the Jersey +shore extending twelve miles north from Cape May and twelve miles +inland. Kiliaen van Rensselaer obtained the lands about Fort Orange, +comprising what is now a large part of Albany and Rensselaer counties. +Michael Pauw received title to Staten Island and the region where Jersey +City is now situated. Godyn and Blommaert sent colonists to Swannendael +on the present site of Lewiston, but they were massacred by the Indians, +the colonization of the grant was abandoned, and in 1635 the company +purchased the lands of the patroons on the Delaware. In 1637 Pauw sold +his holdings to the company. The Van Rensselaer tract remained in the +possession of that family until after the American Revolution. +Jealousies in the company, due to the securing of patroonships by some +of the directors, and to the fact that the patroons attempted to obtain +a share in the fur trade, and that Minuit appeared to be working in the +interest of the great land holders, led to the recall of the +director-general. + +Attempts to secure the frontiers.--The new director-general was Wouter +van Twiller. He had been a clerk in the West India Company's warehouse +at Amsterdam, and probably owed his appointment to the fact that he was +married to a niece of Van Rensselaer. One of his first acts was to +secure possession of the Delaware. In 1633 a tract along the Schuylkill +was purchased from the Indians and a trading house was erected, the +first in the present state of Pennsylvania. In 1635 a party of +Virginians attempted to gain a foothold on the Delaware, but were +expelled. On the Connecticut the Dutch had profited by the fur trade, +but had never sent colonists to that region. In 1633 lands were +purchased from the Indians, and Fort Good Hope was built at modern +Hartford, but the Puritan migration soon secured the Connecticut Valley +for the English. + +Reforms.--Van Twiller and other officials appear to have profited by +securing extensive land holdings on the islands at the mouth of the +Hudson, Governor's Island deriving its name from the fact that Van +Twiller owned it. Complaints began to be heard in the Amsterdam chamber +and in 1637 Van Twiller was removed from office, his successor being +William Kieft, who arrived in 1638. The new director-general immediately +set about correcting abuses. Illicit fur trading and the sale of +firearms to the Indians were prohibited. The Amsterdam chamber removed +some of the trade restrictions and made easier the acquisition of land. +The result was a considerable increase in the number of settlers, who +came not only from the Netherlands, but from New England and Virginia as +well. Restrictions on manufactures were abolished and the Dutch Reformed +Church was established. + +Difficulties.--Kieft's administration was beset by difficulties. In the +Connecticut Valley and on Long Island the English settlements were +increasing, and on the Delaware the Swedes had gained a footing. In the +colony a disastrous Indian war brought devastation and ruin. The Indians +on the lower Hudson and on Long Island had watched the growing +settlements with alarm, an alarm which turned to resentment when they +found the Iroquois supplied with firearms from Fort Orange, a privilege +which was denied to them at New Amsterdam. Kieft increased the +ill-feeling by demanding a contribution of corn, fur, and wampum. He +also accused the Raritans of attacking fur trading vessels, and sent an +expedition to punish them. In 1641 the Indians retaliated by killing +several settlers. + +Kieft and the twelve men.--Kieft promptly called together the settlers, +who chose a committee of twelve to advise the director-general. Much to +his disappointment, they counseled delay. In January, 1642, he again +summoned the twelve, who consented to send an expedition against the +Indians, provided Kieft should command it. At the same time they +demanded that the council should contain at least five members and that +the inhabitants should be allowed greater freedom of trade. To these +demands Kieft assented grudgingly, and to save further embarrassment, +dissolved the committee. An expedition was sent against the Indians, but +it accomplished nothing. + +Indian hostilities, 1643-1645.--Early in 1643 the Mohawks attacked the +river Indians who sought refuge near New Amsterdam. Kieft determined to +attack the fugitives, and eighty of them were massacred. The Long Island +Indians were also plundered. Aroused by these acts, the Indians united +and attacked the settlers. The colonists who escaped fled to Fort +Amsterdam. A lull occurred in the fighting while the Indians planted +their crops, but hostilities were soon renewed. Kieft again summoned the +people and a committee of eight Was chosen who counseled war. Settlers +and servants of the company were drilled, and fifty English also +enlisted. A series of expeditions were despatched against the Indians, +whose villages were ruthlessly destroyed. In 1645 treaties were made +with the various tribes, and the long war came to an end. One of the +incidents of the war was the building of a wall across the lower end of +Manhattan Island. It is from this that Wall Street takes its name. + +Stuyvesant, 1647.--Both in New Amsterdam and the Netherlands Kieft was +blamed for the war. The West India Company decided to remove him, and +Peter Stuyvesant, the director of Curacao, was appointed to succeed him. +The first important act of Stuyvesant was to organize the council. +Police regulations were made to control Sabbath-breakers, brawlers, and +the sale of liquors. The court of justice was also organized, but the +director-general required that his opinion be asked in all important +cases, and reserved the right to preside in person when he saw fit. + +Popular representation.--While Kieft was director-general, he had +appealed to the people on several occasions. In answer to the public +demand for representation, the council recommended to Stuyvesant that it +be granted. Accordingly, the director-general ordered an election at +which eighteen were chosen, from whom Stuyvesant and the council +selected nine. The nine were to advise and assist, when called upon, in +promoting the welfare of the province, and were to nominate their +successors. The director-general retained the right to preside at +meetings. + +Struggle for municipal rights.--The trade restrictions of the West India +Company were irksome to the people of New Amsterdam, who hoped to right +conditions by obtaining a larger share in the government. After +considerable trouble with Stuyvesant, the nine men submitted to the +States General a remonstrance setting forth their grievances and a +memorial suggesting remedies. They asked that the States General +establish a citizens' government, that colonists be sent over, and that +the boundaries of New Netherlands be definitely established. The +Amsterdam chamber opposed the petitioners, but in 1652 it decided to +make concessions. The export duty on tobacco was removed, the cost of +passage to New Netherlands was reduced, and the colonists were allowed +to procure negroes from Africa. A "burgher" government was allowed for +New Amsterdam, the citizens being allowed a schout, two burgomasters, +and five schepens, who were to form a municipal court of justice. They +were not to be popularly elected, however, Stuyvesant being allowed to +appoint the members. No sooner were municipal rights granted to New +Amsterdam than the settlements at the western end of Long Island +demanded a larger share in government. A convention was held at the +capital to formulate grievances. This was brought to an end by +Stuyvesant, but a little later municipal rights were granted to several +of the towns. + +A provincial assembly.--In 1664, during the war between England and the +Dutch, so great was the alarm at New Amsterdam, that a provisional +assembly was elected, composed of two delegates from each of the Dutch +settlements, twenty-four representatives in all. Little was accomplished +by this body, however, for shortly afterward the colony passed into +English hands. + +Economic development.--During the administration of Stuyvesant the +material prosperity of New Netherlands steadily increased. He found New +Amsterdam a town with straggling fences and crooked streets, and +containing about five hundred people. Under his supervision it took on +the appearance of a well-kept Dutch town. In 1656 it contained a hundred +and twenty houses and a thousand people. By 1660 it had three hundred +and fifty houses. By 1664 the population increased to fifteen hundred. +The area of settlement in New Netherlands had gradually expanded, +covering Manhattan and Staten islands, the opposite Jersey shore, the +western end of Long Island, both banks of the lower Hudson, a +considerable district about Ft. Orange, and scattering settlements on +the Delaware. The chief source of wealth was the fur trade which was +carried on largely with the Iroquois who were friendly to the Dutch and +hostile to the French. In 1656 Ft. Orange alone exported thirty-five +thousand beaver and otter skins, but soon afterward the trade began to +decline and agriculture increased in importance. When the province +passed into English hands, the population had reached ten thousand. + + +THE DUTCH AND THE SWEDES ON THE DELAWARE + +Swedish territorial and commercial expansion.--In the first half of the +seventeenth century Sweden rose to the position of a first class power. +When Gustavus Adolphus ascended the throne in 1611, Sweden was at war +with Denmark, Russia, and Poland. After defeating each power, the king +entered the Thirty Years' War as the champion of Protestantism, his +victorious career coming to an untimely end at Luetzen. Until 1654 +Christina was queen but the real ruler was Oxenstierna, who piloted +Sweden through the closing years of the war and secured advantageous +terms in the treaty of peace. From 1648 until 1654, Sweden enjoyed +peace, but the frivolities of the court ruined the possibilities of +greatness and the decline began. Charles X became king in 1654, and his +brilliant but disastrous military ventures reduced his country to a +third-rate power. At the beginning of the period of Swedish greatness, +her commerce was confined to the Baltic, but when nearly all the lands +on its shores had been acquired, Swedish statesmen looked forward to a +wider commerce, a policy which brought them into rivalry with Holland +and England. Numerous trading companies were formed, among the most +important being the African and Russian companies, and the various +organizations which operated on the Delaware River and in the West +Indies. + +Usselincx.--The attention of Sweden was drawn to the Delaware by +Usselincx, the promoter of the Dutch West India Company, who had left +Holland in disgust and who hoped to interest the Swedes. In 1624 he laid +his plans before Gustavus Adolphus; this resulted in the granting of a +charter to The South Company to establish trade "for Asia, Africa, +America and Magellanica." Usselincx experienced great difficulty in +raising money, and the directors ruined his schemes by diverting the +capital to commercial enterprises in Sweden. In 1629 the company was +reorganized and an attempt was made to trade with Spain, but this ended +in disaster. Usselincx continued his endeavors, and in 1633 The New +South Company was organized, but this like its predecessors came to +naught. + +The New Sweden Company.--The settling of the Swedes on the Delaware was +directly due to the Dutchmen, Samuel Blommaert and Peter Minuit. +Blommaert held out the idea that the West Indies would be a market for +Swedish copper; Minuit that the Delaware region offered a place for the +fur trade and colonization. Several other Dutch merchants were +interested, and half of the capital of the Swedish company was furnished +by Hollanders. By 1637 the company was organized and the first +expedition set sail. + +Fort Christina.--The two vessels arrived in the spring of 1638, lands +were purchased from the Indians, fur trade opened, and a fort +established on Christina Creek two miles from the Delaware. The Dutch at +Ft. Nassau protested, but were too weak to oust the newcomers. In 1640 +two boats arrived with settlers and goods, large tracts of land at +various points on both sides of the bay and river as far as Trenton were +purchased, and farms and tobacco plantations were started. + +Governor Printz.--In 1642 the company was reorganized, the Swedish +government taking part of the stock, the Dutch being eliminated. At the +request of the Swedish council of state Johan Printz, a prominent +officer in the army, became governor, a post which he filled until 1653. +He erected Ft. Elfsborg and established his capital at New Gothenborg, +where a fort was built. A blockhouse was also erected on the Schuylkill, +other vantage points were occupied, and the Swedes soon secured the fur +trade of the Delaware. From the first the weakness of the Swedish +project was the lack of colonists, a few hundred being the total +migration in the first ten years. In 1644 there were only one hundred +and twenty men and a few women and children in the colony. During the +next five years not a vessel arrived, and when Printz retired in 1653 +there were only two hundred people in the colony. + +[Illustration: New Sweden.] + +End of Swedish power on the Delaware.--Stuyvesant determined to get +control of the river trade. In 1651 he went to the Delaware with a +considerable force. In spite of protests from Printz, lands were +purchased from the Indians, and Ft. Casimir was built near the present +site of New Castle, the other Dutch forts being abandoned. In 1653 the +Swedish crown planned to help New Sweden. In the spring of 1654 about +three hundred and fifty colonists were sent over under John Rising. He +immediately seized Ft. Casimir. At Ft. Christina a town was laid out, +new tracts were purchased from the Indians, and lands were assigned to +the colonists. The action of the Swedes in seizing Ft. Casimir angered +Stuyvesant, and he urged the West India Company to occupy New Sweden. In +September, 1655, a Dutch fleet appeared in the Delaware, and the forts +surrendered, thus ending the colony of New Sweden. + + +ABSORPTION OF NEW NETHERLANDS BY THE ENGLISH + +Boundary treaty with New England.--On the eastern frontier Stuyvesant +had another difficult problem. English settlers were crowding into the +Connecticut Valley and onto Long Island. In 1647 Stuyvesant informed the +New England officials that the Dutch claimed all lands between the +Connecticut and Delaware rivers, but the New Englanders ignored the +claim. In 1650 Stuyvesant visited Hartford, where commissioners were +appointed who agreed that Long Island should be divided by a line +running along the western part of Oyster Bay; that on the mainland the +fine was "to begin at the west side of Greenwich Bay, being four miles +from Stamford and so to run a northerly line twenty miles up into the +country, and after as it shall be agreed by the two governments of the +Dutch and New Haven; provided the said line come not within ten miles of +Hudson's River;" and that the Dutch were to keep their holdings at +Hartford. + +The end of Dutch rule.--In 1659 Massachusetts asserted her claim to a +sea to sea grant, and in 1662 the charter of Connecticut extended the +bounds of the colony to the Pacific. In 1663 Stuyvesant visited Boston +to attempt a settlement of existing difficulties, but to no avail, and +upon his return he found that some of the Long Island settlements west +of the line claimed to be under the jurisdiction of Connecticut. Dutch +commissioners were sent to Hartford, but without result, and the +following year Connecticut asserted her rights to the whole of Long +Island. In 1664 Charles II granted to his brother, James, the Duke of +York, the whole of Long Island and all the lands from the Connecticut +River to Delaware Bay. A fleet was despatched to New Amsterdam, which +surrendered without bloodshed, and Dutch rule in North America came to +an end three years after it had failed in Brazil. + + +READINGS + +THE DUTCH + +Blok, P.J., _History of the People of the Netherlands_, III, 267-303; +Brodhead, J.R., _History of the State of New York_, I; Channing, Edward, +_History of the United States_, I, 438-484; Fiske, John, _The Dutch and +Quaker Colonies in America_, I; Goodwin, M.W., _Dutch and English on the +Hudson_; Innes, J.H., _New Amsterdam and its People_; Jameson, J.F., +ed., _Narratives of New Netherlands_; Janvier, T.A., _Dutch Founding of +New York_; MacDonald, William, _Select Charters_. 43-50; O'Callaghan, +E.B., _History of New Netherlands_; Roberts, E.H., _New York_, I, +10-119; Van Loon, H.W., _The Golden Book of the Dutch Navigators_. + +THE SWEDES + +Acrelius, Israel, _History of New Sweden_ (Pennsylvania Historical +Society, Memoirs, XI); Holm, T.C., _Description of the Province of New +Sweden_ (Pennsylvania Historical Society, _Memoirs_, VII); Johnson, +Amandus, _The Swedish Settlements on the Delaware_; Keen, G.B., in +Winsor, _Narrative and Critical History_, III, 469-495. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE OLD ENGLISH COLONIES UNDER THE LATER STUARTS (1660-1689) + + +COLONIAL POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION + +The Restoration.--In 1660 Charles II was restored to the English throne +and ruled until 1685, when his brother, James, the Duke of York, became +king, ruling until deposed in 1688. In England the period was +characterized by a reaction against Puritanism and the firm +establishment of the English church. Abroad the Restoration was an era +of commercial and colonial expansion. On the coasts of Asia, Africa, and +America, the great trading companies were active, and powerful English +nobles strove for possessions beyond the seas. To this era belong the +occupation of New Netherlands, the founding of the Carolinas, the +Jerseys, and Pennsylvania, and the establishment of the Hudson's Bay Fur +Company. The activities of Englishmen led to clashes with rival +commercial peoples, especially the Dutch, with whom two naval wars were +fought in which England maintained her supremacy upon the seas. In the +handling of her colonies previous to the Restoration, her efforts had +been largely experimental. Under the later Stuarts colonial management +was molded into a system. In private life Charles II was a man of +pleasure. In his dealings with parliament he was tenacious, but when +pushed to extremities, he preferred to yield rather than to "go again on +his travels.". In matters which affected the material prosperity of his +country the king was a hard-headed man of business, warmly supporting +commercial and colonial enterprises. + +The Mercantilist system.--The economic theory of the time was expressed +in the Mercantilist system. The welfare of the state was the main object +of statesmen; this they believed required a full treasury, a large +population, and extensive shipping. Specie was looked upon as the +principal form of wealth; therefore exports must exceed imports so that +coin would flow into the realm. In order that it might have a large +amount of goods to sell, the state desired to import raw materials, +which could be manufactured and exported. The ideal colony was to be a +source of supply of raw materials, and was to be a market for goods of +the mother country, but was not to be a manufacturing competitor. The +state policy was shaped to shut out the foreigner and to build up the +productivity of the colonies. + +Attitude toward emigration.--The desire for a larger population in +England caused statesmen to view emigration with disfavor. During the +period the number going to the colonies was relatively small. The +government, however, encouraged the emigration of Scotch, Irish, and +Huguenots, and sent over many political prisoners, non-conformists, and +criminals. Many of those who emigrated were too poor to pay for their +passage and bound themselves for a period of years, a form of temporary +bondage known as indenture. Many servants and children were also +kidnaped and sent to the colonies. Because the colonies in the West +Indies and the South mainly produced raw materials and used slave labor, +thus drawing relatively less population from England, they were looked +upon with the greater favor by the home government. The northern +colonies produced little except fish, furs, and naval stores, which +could be of use to England. The free labor system of the North was +likely to drain the population of England. For these reasons the +northern colonies were looked upon with scant favor. + +Navigation Act of 1660.--During the Cromwellian period, parliament had +asserted the right to legislate for the colonies and the restored +Stuarts accepted the principle. In 1660 a new navigation act was passed +which was intended to give English shipping an advantage over +competitors, especially the Dutch. The act provided that goods carried +to or from English possessions in America, Africa, or Asia, must be +carried in English, Irish, or colonial vessels. Under penalty of +forfeiture, cargoes of sugar, tobacco, indigo, and several other +products could not be shipped to any ports except in England, Ireland, +or some English colony. + +Staple Act of 1663.--Under the navigation act of 1660 alien merchants +could send foreign goods to the colonies in English ships. To obviate +this the Staple Act was passed, which, with a few exceptions, such as +Portuguese wines, salt, and horses, prohibited the importation into the +colonies of goods which had not been loaded in England. + +Plantation Duties Act of 1673.--Under the previous acts goods shipped +from colony to colony escaped paying duties. In 1673 an act was passed +which imposed duties on sugar, tobacco, and many other products of +intercolonial trade. + +Imperial defence.--The burden of defence of the empire against foreign +powers fell upon England. Ships of the navy were stationed in the West +Indies, Chesapeake Bay, and at Boston to protect the colonies, and +suppress piracy and illegal trade. The buccaneers of the West Indies +were brought under control. The Barbary pirates also were frequently +attacked, and convoys for merchant vessels and fishing fleets were often +furnished. Garrisons were usually stationed in Barbados, Jamaica, and +St. Kitts, but on the mainland soldiers were not regularly maintained. + +The fiscal system.--By the civil war parliament made good its contention +that it alone had the right to levy taxes. In 1660 a general taxation +act was passed by which Charles II was granted for life the income from +tonnage and poundage; the former being a duty on imported wines, the +latter a five per cent duty on imports and exports, whose valuation was +fixed in a book of rates. To compensate the colonies somewhat for the +resulting higher prices, a preferential system was introduced. By this +system the valuation of the principal products of the colonies was made +lower than on the same products coming from foreign countries. + + +MACHINERY OF GOVERNMENT + +Council for Foreign Plantations.--The work of enforcing the laws +devolved upon the crown and privy council. The accumulation of business +and the specialized knowledge required in colonial matters made it +desirable to have a body created which might handle the business in a +more efficient manner. Accordingly in December, 1660, a Council for +Foreign Plantations was commissioned. Members of the council were to +inform themselves regarding the colonies, were to introduce a more +uniform system of government, and were to see that the navigation acts +were enforced. + +Council of Trade.--From the English standpoint the colonies were mainly +commercial enterprises. To foster commerce a Council of Trade was +created. The work of the two bodies was to sift the mass of business so +that matters of first importance only might come before the privy +council. Lack of authority interfered with the interest of the members +of the minor councils; the sessions became less and less frequent, and +by 1665 both had ceased. + +Council for Trade and Plantations.--Supervision of the colonies again +devolved upon a committee of the privy council. In 1667 Clarendon fell +and the small group known as the Cabal came into power. The following +year the privy council was reorganized, four standing committees being +constituted, one of which had charge of trade and plantations. The need +of experts, however, continued to be felt, and in 1668 a new Council of +Trade was appointed. In 1670 the Council for Plantations was also +revived, and in 1672 the two councils were consolidated as the Council +for Trade and Plantations. The council prepared preliminary drafts of +instructions to governors, examined colonial legislation, and +investigated questions which arose. + +Lords of Trade.--Executive powers remained in the privy council, and +this necessarily curbed the Council for Trade and Plantations, which was +purely an advisory body. In 1674 the latter council was abolished, and +the following year the king again committed its work to the Committee +for Trade and Plantations of the privy council. This committee, known +henceforth as the Lords of Trade, was a permanent body with its own +clerks. William Blathwayt soon became the secretary and for twenty years +he held the position. The efficiency of the body and the development of +the colonial policy was due more to him than to any other person. The +Lords of Trade prepared the instructions to governors, supervised the +development of the colonies, examined colonial questions, and enforced +the navigation laws. + +The Admiralty.--After the Restoration the Duke of York was appointed +Lord High Admiral of England and in 1662 his powers were extended to the +colonies. Cases concerning vessels seized for violating some of the +clauses of the commercial laws were tried in admiralty courts which were +established in the crown colonies, deputies were appointed by the +admiral to attend to the business, and ships were stationed in the +colonies to seize illegal traders. + +Governors and customs officials.--In the colony the chief executive +officer was the governor. He was expected to enforce the trade laws, but +outside of the crown colonies there was great, laxity in this regard. +The work of enforcing the navigation laws was usually entrusted by the +governor to a clerk called the naval officer but at a later period these +officials were appointed by the crown. The right of collection of the +English customs was leased to certain individuals who were known as +farmers of the customs. They frequently complained that the governors +were remiss in enforcing the navigation laws. Accordingly, the farmers +of the customs were allowed to send, at their own expense, officers who +would attend to the collection of duties. The farming system was soon +abandoned and commissioners of customs were appointed, who sent out +collectors, usually one to each colony. To examine the collector's +accounts and act as a check upon him, officials called comptrollers were +placed in most of the colonies, and in 1683 a superintendent for all the +colonies, called the surveyor-general of the customs, was appointed. The +activities of these officials led to considerable friction with colonial +governors and proprietors, who resented the interference of the customs +officials. + + +MISRULE AND REBELLION IN VIRGINIA + +Effect of the trade laws.--In 1660 Sir William Berkeley began his second +administration, which proved to be as unsuccessful as his first +administration had been successful. Economic distress and arbitrary +misrule beset Virginia for sixteen years, culminating in a popular +outbreak known as Bacon's rebellion. The navigation acts fell heavily +upon the tobacco planters, who were deprived of the Dutch trade. The +population at the same time rapidly increased. In 1671 the inhabitants +numbered about forty thousand, and nearly doubled in the next decade. +The increasing population meant an increasing acreage of tobacco. The +price of tobacco fell, while freight rates increased and imported goods +went up in price. To alleviate the situation the assembly passed several +acts to encourage new industries, but the planters held to their one +great staple. Several attempts were made to limit the production of +tobacco, a policy in which the Virginians asked the people of Maryland +and the Albemarle district to the south to cooeperate, but the efforts +failed. The act of 1673 worked an added injury, for it deprived the +planters of the New England market. + +Wars and other misfortunes.--The wars with Holland increased the +economic distress. In 1667 a Dutch fleet entered the James River, +captured an English frigate, and destroyed several trading vessels. Soon +afterward a hurricane destroyed hundreds of houses and ruined the crops. +In the winter of 1672-1673 a disease carried off fifty thousand cattle, +more than half of all the stock in Virginia. A second Dutch raid in 1673 +destroyed a large part of the tobacco fleet. + +Governmental abuses.--Berkeley was a firm believer in the divine right +of kings, and looked with disfavor upon any interference from the +people. To him it seemed fitting that, as the king's representative, he +should control every branch of governmental activity. His council was +entirely subservient and he gained control of the house of burgesses by +controlling the county elections through dishonest officials. In 1670 +the assembly limited the franchise to freeholders; thus depriving the +poor of voting. In the counties the justices of the peace were appointed +by the governor. They exercised judicial, executive, and legislative +functions. The county courts settled the more important suits and the +individual justices determined minor cases. The courts also levied the +direct taxes, which were very heavy. In addition, the local church +divisions were governed by vestries which were selected by the governor. +These bodies levied the taxes to pay the church expenses. The whole +machinery of government was thus controlled by the governor. The form of +taxation aggravated the situation. Instead of a property tax, which +would throw the burden upon the great landholders, the poll-tax was the +usual method of raising money, the poor man thus having to pay as much +as the wealthy. There was also much bad judgment displayed in the use of +public funds. In a period of low prices and overproduction, the heavy +expenditures proved a serious burden, and discontent gradually developed +into rebellion. + +Proprietary grants.--The action of the English government also alarmed +the colonists. In 1660 an attempt was made to renew the old Virginia +Company. Berkeley visited England to prevent it and his mission proved +successful. In 1649 the king had granted the region between the Potomac +and the Rappahannock rivers to several of his supporters, and after the +Restoration they leased their rights to Sir Humphrey Hooke and two +others. In 1669 the grant was renewed. The Virginia assembly immediately +sent agents to England to obtain the annulment of the patent or to allow +the colony to purchase the tract. Before a settlement was made the king +in 1673 granted the whole of Virginia to the Earl of Arlington and Lord +Culpeper with full proprietory rights for thirty-one years. The assembly +was greatly alarmed and directed its agents to seek the annulment of +this patent also. The matter was finally settled by an arrangement with +the proprietors by which they agreed to relinquish the patent provided +the colony paid them the quit-rents and assured them the escheated +property. The agents then asked the government that they be assured that +no portion of the colony would be granted in future to any proprietors +and that taxation would not be imposed without the consent of the house +of burgesses. Before a settlement was reached Bacon's rebellion +occurred. + +Indian war.--The spark that kindled the rebellion was an Indian war. The +Senecas, pressing upon the Susquehannas, forced them into Maryland and +Virginia, where they committed depredations in the summer of 1675. The +settlers retaliated by killing several Indians. The Susquehannas joined +with the native tribes and harried the frontiers. Berkeley sent Colonel +John Washington in command of several hundred men to join the +Marylanders against an Indian fort on the Potomac, but after several +weeks of fighting the red men escaped. This was followed by renewed +depredations. Early in 1676 the governor prepared a second expedition +but suddenly abandoned the project. In March the assembly met and +decided to wage a defensive war. Forts were to be built upon the upper +waters of the rivers and heavy taxes were demanded to pay for them. + +Bacon's rebellion.--The people were greatly incensed at the policy, and +demanded that the assembly be dissolved and a free election held. The +frontiersmen also demanded that they be allowed to go against the +Indians. Both of these demands the governor stubbornly refused. A +rebellion immediately broke out in Charles City County, and Nathaniel +Bacon, of Henrico, a member of Berkeley's council, was induced to lead +it. The governor was asked to grant Bacon a commission to proceed +against the Indians. Without waiting for the governor's decision, Bacon +led his men against the Pamunkeys. Bacon's act angered Berkeley, who +refused the commission and ordered Bacon and his men to lay down their +arms. This they refused to do and retired beyond the frontier, where +they destroyed an Indian stronghold on an island in the Roanoke River. +Berkeley issued a proclamation declaring Bacon's acts disloyal and +rebellious. To obtain popular support he dismantled the forts, dissolved +the assembly, and called an election. + +Bacon was elected in Henrico County and an armed guard accompanied him +to the capital. Berkeley's troops fired upon Bacon's sloop, but that +night Bacon entered the town to consult with friends. He was discovered, +and eventually captured and brought before the governor, who, in view of +the popular clamor, became lenient, granting him a pardon and promising +him a commission as general. As the commission was not forthcoming, +Bacon collected several hundred men and marched upon Jamestown, which he +entered without opposition, and forced Berkeley to sign the commission +and to write a letter to the king justifying Bacon's acts. The assembly +now passed several bills which struck at the governor's power, and +repealed the act which restricted the franchise to freeholders. + +The burgesses had just completed their work when news came that the +Indians were again on the warpath, and Bacon hastened with his +volunteers to the frontier. No sooner was he gone than the governor +began to enlist troops to proceed against the popular leader. Hearing of +this Bacon returned and Berkeley fled to the eastern shore of Chesapeake +Bay. Bacon was now in full control of the larger part of the colony. To +justify his acts he took the oath of allegiance, imposed it upon his +followers, and called an election. He then organized two expeditions, +one against the governor, the other against the Indians. An English ship +was seized and two hundred men were sent to capture Berkeley, but the +governor's followers surprised the crew and captured the leaders. +Berkeley then returned to Jamestown. While these events were occurring, +Bacon marched against the Indians and captured a stronghold of the +Pamunkeys. He then captured Jamestown and burned it, soon afterward +retiring into Gloucester County, where he was taken sick and died. In a +few months the people wearied of anarchy, many of the leaders +surrendered, and Berkeley was again in control. + +Berkeley's revenge.--In June, 1676, Berkeley had tendered his +resignation to the king. Charles decided to allow him to retain the +title of governor, but to have him return to England, leaving the +government to a lieutenant-governor, Colonel Jeffreys being appointed. +He was assisted by two commissioners, Berry and Moryson. A general +pardon for the rebels was also drawn up. Berry and Moryson arrived in +the colony and found the governor intractable. Jeffreys, with about a +thousand troops, arrived soon afterward, but instead of asserting his +authority, he allowed Berkeley to ignore the pardon proclamation and +many were hung. Knowledge of Berkeley's disobedience reached the king, +who ordered him to return to England at once, but before the order +arrived Berkeley had embarked. He died soon after reaching England, and +Lord Culpeper was appointed governor, but he did not reach Virginia +until 1680. + +Culpeper and Howard.--In the meantime the commissioners investigated the +causes of the rebellion, and in July, 1677, Berry and Moryson took their +report to England where it was laid before the privy council. Jeffreys, +who was left in control, had little authority, and the government again +fell into the hands of Berkeley's friends. Culpeper arrived in 1680, but +he proved to be a weak individual who spent most of his time in England +and did little when in the colony. In 1684 a new governor, Lord Howard +of Effingham, proceeded at once to curb the powers of the house of +burgesses. The right of appealing cases from the lower courts to the +assembly was denied, henceforth the governor and council being the final +court of appeal. The right of the king to annul laws passed by the +assembly was also asserted in spite of violent opposition. The session +of 1685 proved a stormy one. An attempt was made to take the power of +taxation away from the assembly. The king, who had taken over the +proprietory rights of Arlington and Culpeper, demanded that the +quit-rents be paid in specie instead of tobacco. This the burgesses +violently opposed, but they finally compromised by agreeing to pay +somewhat less than the governor had demanded. A "bill of ports" was +introduced which was intended to fix the points at which ships might +load and unload. Another violent struggle occurred. Finally, on +recommendation of the governor, the king dissolved the assembly. Lord +Howard unseated several members and appointed the clerk of the assembly. +The governor also collected certain fees, an act which the burgesses +claimed was an encroachment upon the power of taxation. The colony was +nearing another rebellion. In 1688 the assembly drew up a statement of +grievances, which they sent to the king, but by the time it reached +England James II had been driven from the throne and Effingham was soon +recalled. + + +DISCONTENT IN MARYLAND + +Conditions in Maryland.--Economic conditions in Maryland were similar to +those in Virginia, the navigation laws affecting the colony in a similar +manner, the price of tobacco falling continually after 1660 for many +years. Political discontent also manifested itself, but the religious +element played a larger part in Maryland than in Virginia. No widespread +rebellion occurred, however, for Baltimore's government was more +temperate than that of Berkeley, the settlements were more compact, +frontier dangers were less acute, and no popular leader of great ability +arose to lead the malcontents. + +Charles Calvert's administration.--After the turmoil of the Cromwellian +period, the Restoration brought comparative security to the proprietor +of Maryland, who succeeded in ingratiating himself with Charles II. In +1675 Charles Calvert succeeded to the proprietorship. Previously for +several years he had personally directed the governorship and had worked +conscientiously to bring about prosperity in the colony. He was less +tactful than his father and was exceedingly strong-willed. He placed his +relatives in the important positions, restricted the suffrage, and +frequently summoned to the assembly only half of the elected delegates, +thus keeping out influential opponents. In 1676, while Baltimore was in +England, a few malcontents attempted an uprising, but Notley, the acting +governor, overthrew and hanged two of the leaders, nipping the rebellion +in the bud. The proprietor and assembly continued to have difficulties, +but in the main Baltimore succeeded in maintaining his power. He also +had trouble with William Penn over the northern boundary, and with the +Lords of Trade over the right of collecting the customs. Baltimore's +Catholic leanings naturally made him support James II. When that monarch +was driven from the throne, a miniature bloodless revolution occurred in +Maryland. An Association for the Defense of the Protestant Religion was +formed. In July, 1689, the leaders seized St. Mary's and held a +representative assembly. But to their chagrin, William and Mary restored +the old colonial system, and Baltimore was soon back in power. + + +ROYAL INTERFERENCE IN NEW ENGLAND + +Massachusetts and the king.--During the Cromwellian period the New +England colonies had followed their own devices, but when Charles II +came to the throne, they could not expect to pursue their independent +course. To forestall trouble, Massachusetts hastened to acknowledge the +king's authority, and none too soon, for numerous complaints had been +lodged against her. The most forceful of these came from the Quakers. In +1655 Mary Fisher and Ann Austin, two Quaker missionaries, had landed in +Barbados, the first of that sect to come to the colonies. The following +year they went to Boston from which they were promptly expelled. Rhode +Island proved hospitable. Those who had believed in Anne Hutchinson's +"covenant of grace" found the Quaker idea of the "inner fight" an +acceptable doctrine. From Rhode Island Quakers frequently penetrated the +neighboring colonies which took violent means to expel them. The +Massachusetts persecution reached its height in 1660 when three Quakers +were hanged, one of them being Mary Dyer, a former friend of Anne +Hutchinson. This high-handed proceeding reached the ear of the king, who +was in no amiable frame of mind toward the Puritan colonists, who were +believed to be sheltering two of the regicides. He accordingly ordered +the Boston authorities to send Quakers to England for trial, but +Massachusetts sent representatives to England, who succeeded in getting +the king to grant the colony free hand in dealing with Quakers. Charles +also confirmed the Massachusetts charter, but changed the basis of +voting from church membership to a property qualification. + +The Connecticut charter.--Connecticut fared well with Charles II. When +the king's messengers visited the colony in search of the regicides, +they were given assistance, while New Haven aided the fugitives in +escaping. The results of this were soon apparent. In 1661 when +Connecticut sent Governor John Winthrop to England to obtain a charter, +he was graciously received and the following year the document was +issued. It provided for a popularly elected governor, a deputy-governor, +council, and assembly. The boundaries were described as "All that part +of our Dominions ... bounded on the East by the Narrogancett River, +commonly called Narrogancett Bay..., and on the North by the lyne of the +Massachusetts Plantation, and on the South by the Sea, and ... from the +said Narrogancett Bay on the East to the South Sea on the West parte, +with the Islands thereunto adjoyneinge." The boundaries included a part +of the territory of Rhode Island and the whole of New Haven, and +entirely ignored the Dutch possessions in the Hudson Valley. New Haven +protested violently, but in 1664, when the king granted the lands +between the Connecticut and Delaware rivers to the Duke of York, the New +Haven towns submitted to Connecticut rather than be annexed to New York. + +The Rhode Island charter.--Fearful that Charles II might divide her +territory among her neighbors, Rhode Island hastened to proclaim the +king and petitioned that she be granted a charter. The Rhode Island +representative protested against the inclusion of Narragansett Bay +territory in Connecticut and the difficulty was adjusted by fixing the +boundary at the Pawtucket River, which was renamed the Narragansett. The +form of government was similar to that of Connecticut, but in Rhode +Island religious freedom was established. + +The royal commissioners.--In 1664, when the English government had +determined upon the seizure of New Netherlands, commissioners were sent +to America. Respecting New England, their duties were to settle boundary +questions, to consider local disputes, and to see how the colonies +might be made more profitable. The commissioners visited Boston in July, +1664, where they obtained troops and demanded the repeal of the law +which restricted the franchise to church membership. After the conquest +of New Netherlands, three of them returned to New England. They were +well received in Connecticut and Rhode Island. Plymouth at this time was +attempting to obtain a charter, and the commissioners suggested that the +colony might have its lands confirmed without cost if it would receive a +royal governor, an offer which was declined? In Boston their reception +was stormy, the Massachusetts authorities denying that the commission +had any right of jurisdiction. Nicolls, the fourth commissioner, soon +arrived and the debates continued, but without result. The king rebuked +Massachusetts for its lack of respect, but took no immediate steps to +coerce the colony. + +The frontier on the eve of King Philip's War.--In 1675 the Penobscot +marked the most northern settlement. Along the coasts and in the lower +valleys of the short New England streams settlements had been planted. +Eastern Massachusetts and Plymouth contained numerous towns. In Rhode +Island the island was fairly well-settled, but with the exception of +Providence and Warwick, the mainland had attracted few. Other +settlements were located near the mouth of the Thames, and in the valley +of the Connecticut as far up as Northfield. The coast lands of western +Connecticut had also been occupied. The total population of New England +did not exceed fifty thousand. The lands beyond the fringe of settlement +were occupied by powerful Indian tribes, which could muster about +thirty-five hundred fighting men. + +Causes of the war.--The encroachment of the frontiers on the Indian +hunting ground was the primary cause of the war, but other events were +contributory. By 1660 the fur trade had declined, fish and lumber having +become the important exports. This trade brought in silver, and wampum +ceased to be the medium of exchange. With the passing of furs and +wampum, the Indian became less and less useful to the white man, who +looked upon him with contempt. The christianizing of the Cape Cod +Indians by the Reverend John Eliot and other missionaries was viewed +sullenly by the Wampanoags, who saw in it an attempt to weaken their +power. Massasoit, Sachem of the Wampanoags, died in 1662, leaving two +sons, called by the whites Alexander and Philip. The sudden death of +Alexander gave rise to a belief among the Indians that he had been +poisoned. + +The war.--In the summer of 1675, outbreaks occurred in Rhode Island, and +a settler was killed. An expedition was immediately sent against the +Wampanoags, but Philip succeeded in escaping with his followers. The +Nipmucks attacked Deerfield, Northfield. Springfield, and Hatfield, +spreading terror in the Connecticut Valley. Believing that the +Narragansetts were about to enter the war, Massachusetts, Plymouth, and +Connecticut joined forces, and in December attacked their stronghold. +After a bloody battle they captured it and dispersed the tribe. The +survivors joined the other hostiles and harried the frontiers as far +north as the Maine settlements. In April, 1676, Chief Canonchet, of the +Narragansetts, was captured and shot, and the following month the +Indians were decisively defeated near the falls of the Connecticut. +After that the Indian confederation broke up and effective resistance +came to an end in August with the death of Philip. The power of the +tribes was broken and the way cleared for the advancement of the +frontier. + +Complaints against Massachusetts.--The independent course which +Massachusetts had followed in her dealings with the home government had +irritated Charles and the privy council, but the fall of Clarendon and +the Dutch war of 1673 had kept the king from taking action against the +headstrong colony. Complaints continued to be made. The heirs of Mason +and Gorges claimed that Massachusetts had usurped their rights; London +merchants complained that the colony was evading the navigation acts by +carrying tobacco and sugar directly to Europe from other colonies; lack +of respect for the king's authority, the exercising of powers not +warranted by her charter, and numerous other complaints were lodged +against her. + +Edward Randolph.--In 1676 the king sent Edward Randolph to Massachusetts +with an order that the colony send agents to England within six months +to answer the Mason and Gorges claims an order which was tardily +fulfilled. He was also empowered to collect information which might be +useful to the Lords of Trade. Randolph was not well received, being +looked upon as an agent of the Mason and Gorges heirs. When he +complained to Governor Leverett of the violation of the navigation laws, +the governor boldly asserted that parliament had no power to legislate +for Massachusetts, and denied that appeals might be made to the king. +Randolph returned to England convinced that a change of government was +necessary. + +In 1678 Randolph was appointed collector of the customs, but he did not +arrive in Boston until the following year. In the meantime the +Massachusetts title to New Hampshire had been examined. Randolph bore a +letter from the king which commanded the colony to give up its +jurisdiction over both New Hampshire and Maine. The former command +Massachusetts immediately obeyed, but the latter was ignored as the +agents of Massachusetts had recently purchased the Gorges title. + +Annulment of the charter.--As collector of the customs Randolph's course +was beset with difficulties, and his reports were filled with complaints +of frequent violations of the navigation acts. In 1681 he returned to +England and advised that the charter of Massachusetts be abrogated and +that all the New England colonies be united under one administrative +head. Randolph soon returned to the colony, but the friction continued +and his complaints became more and more violent. The king and the Lords +of Trade finally wearied of the strong-willed colony, legal action was +taken, and in 1684 the charter was annulled. + +Temporary government.--The annulment of the charter did not bring about +an insurrection in Massachusetts, for the colonial leaders realized that +the protection of the mother country was necessary to preserve them from +being conquered by the French. While the Lords of Trade were considering +a form of government, a temporary plan was put in operation. Joseph +Dudley was made president, Randolph secretary, and a council was +appointed, but no provision was made for a legislative assembly. To +enforce the laws of trade, in 1686 an admiralty court was established. + +Affairs in New Hampshire.--Since New Hampshire was separated from +Massachusetts, affairs in the northern colony had been going badly. A +president and council had been established, but when Randolph attempted +to enforce the trade laws, he had met with difficulties. The colonists +also objected to paying quit-rents to the Mason heirs. In 1682 Edward +Cranfield was appointed governor and was soon at loggerheads with the +people over the Mason right, and in 1685 he left the colony in disgust. + +Dominion of New England.--The Lords of Trade for some time had been +considering the advisability of consolidating the New England colonies +in order to cut down expense, to make the enforcement of the navigation +acts more effective, and to bring the colonies into a closer dependence +on the crown. When James became king, the plan was put into operation. +In the new form of government the central figure was a governor-general +who was to be assisted by a council, but no provision was made for a +popular assembly. + +Edmund Andros.--Andros, the former governor of New York, was appointed +governor-general and arrived at Boston in December. 1686. In a +businesslike manner he organized his government. Boston was made the +seat of power. Andros acted as commander of the army and Vice-admiral, +and exercised the pardoning power. With the advice and consent of the +council he made laws, levied taxes, and administered justice. He also +made land grants and collected quit-rents. He demanded that Plymouth, +Rhode Island, and Connecticut surrender their charters. Plymouth and +Rhode Island complied and their representatives were admitted to the +council, but Connecticut temporized. Finally Andros visited the obdurate +colony, dissolved the government, and admitted representatives to his +council. The charter, however, according to Connecticut tradition, was +hidden in an oak tree and never left the colony. In 1688 the Lords of +Trade determined to bring all the territory from the St. Croix and the +St. Lawrence to the Delaware under the supervision of Andros. + +Overthrow of Andros.--The system aroused the anger of the colonists, who +looked upon the governor-general as a tyrant. Mutterings of discontent +grew louder and louder, and when news reached Massachusetts that James +II had fled from England, the people of Boston rose in revolt, seized +the fortifications and royal frigate, and imprisoned Andros and +Randolph. A council was established, a convention was summoned, and the +old charter government was reestablished. Connecticut and Rhode Island +also restored the charter governments. + + +READINGS + +COLONIAL POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION + +Andrews, C.M., _Colonial Self-Government_, 1-40; Beer, G.L., _The Old +Colonial System_, I, 1-315; "The Commercial Policy of England toward the +American Colonies," in Columbia University, _Studies in History, +Economics, and Public Law_, III, Pt. 2, pp. 29-54; Channing, Edward, +_History of the United States_, II, 1-13; Egerton, H.E., _A Short +History of British Colonial Policy_, 66-80; MacDonald, William, _Select +Charters_, 106-115, 119-120, 133-136; Osgood, H.L., _The American +Colonies in the Seventeenth Century_, III, 143-241. + +VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND + +Andrews, C.M., _Colonial Self-Government_, 202-251; Andrews, C.M., ed., +_Narratives of the Insurrections_, 11-141, 299-314; Channing, Edward, +_History of the United States_, II, 80-91, 209-213; Fiske, John, _Old +Virginia and her Neighbors_, II, 45-107, 131-173; Osgood, H.L., _The +American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century_, III, 242-308; +Wertenbaker, T.J., _Virginia under the Stuarts_, 115-259. + +NEW ENGLAND + +Andrews, C.M., _Colonial Self-Government_, 41-73, 252-287; Andrews, +C.M., ed., _Narratives of the Insurrections_, 165-297; Andrews, C.M., +_The Fathers of New England_; Channing, Edward, _History of the United +States_, II, 65-79, 155-203; Doyle, J.A., _The Puritan Colonies_, II, +190-276; Ellis, G.W., and Morris, J.E., _King Philip's War_; Fiske, +John, _The Beginnings of New England_, 199-278; James, B.B., _The +Colonization of New England_, 213-295; Osgood, H.L., _The English +Colonies in the Seventeenth Century_, III, 309-335, 378-443; Palfrey, +J.G., _Compendious History of New England_, II, 1-20; _History of New +England_, III, chs. 3, 7-9, 12-14. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +EXPANSION UNDER THE LATER STUARTS (1660-1689) + + +NEW YORK + +The period of the later Stuarts was remarkable for colonial expansion. +New Netherlands was acquired, the Jerseys, Pennsylvania, and the +Carolinas were founded, the Hudson's Bay Fur Company was formed, and new +settlements were made in the West Indies. + +Causes of the attack upon the Dutch.--In 1664 New Netherlands was +seized. This was not an isolated event but was a part of a general plan +to weaken Dutch power. England had three main objects: to cripple the +Dutch carrying trade, to get control of the slave trade, and to obtain +New Netherlands, an acquisition which would give geographical unity to +the colonies on the Atlantic seaboard. The navigation acts were weapons +against the carrying trade. The African Company was organized to strike +at the slave trade. + +The African Company.--During the first half of the seventeenth century, +the Dutch had obtained a monopoly of the trade in slaves to the Spanish +and Portuguese colonies in America. To break this monopoly the African +Company was formed in 1660, headed by the Duke of York. During the next +two years the Dutch vigorously opposed the English Company, soon +convincing its officers that it must be organized on a larger scale if +it would succeed. In 1663 the Company of Royal Adventurers trading to +Africa was organized, being granted the coast from Sallee to the Cape of +Good Hope. Vessels sent to the African coast encountered such opposition +that in 1664 a squadron was sent to protect them and succeeded in +capturing several Dutch forts, but Admiral DeRuyter soon recaptured +them. + +Seizure of New Netherlands, 1664.--At the same time England prepared to +seize New Netherlands, a territory which she had always claimed. The +king granted to the Duke of York the northern part of Maine, Long +Island, Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket, and New Netherlands. The Duke in +turn granted the Jerseys to Carteret and Lord Berkeley. A royal +commission was despatched to America with three war vessels and several +hundred men. At Boston the expedition was reinforced and then proceeded +to New Amsterdam, which surrendered without a struggle. One member of +the commission went to the Delaware and took possession. In the Treaty +of Breda (1667) the English were given important slave trading +privileges, their conquests between the Hudson and the Delaware were +confirmed, and Lord Willoughby's colony of Surinam was ceded to the +Dutch, who had captured it in the course of the recent war. + +Administration of Nicolls.--Nicolls was made governor and his +administration was conducted with tact and firmness. In dealing with +Connecticut he insisted upon the Duke's right to Long Island. In New +Netherlands several Dutch place names were changed, New Amsterdam +becoming New York, and Ft. Orange, Albany. The right of property was not +disturbed; judicial districts were organized; and to New York City he +granted a charter which provided for a mayor, aldermen, and sheriff, +whom he appointed. Nicolls drew up a code, known as the Duke's Laws, +which was a combination of portions of the codes of Massachusetts and +New Haven, Dutch customs, and original ideas. Religious toleration was +allowed, and landholding was made the basis for voting. The lack of a +representative assembly was a noticeable feature, which led to discord +when taxes were demanded. + +Representative government demanded.--Lovelace became governor in 1668, +and during his administration of five years friction increased, but he +managed to maintain his authority. In 1673 when war broke out between +England and Holland, New York was captured by the Dutch, but the +following year it was restored to the English. Edmund Andros was then +appointed governor. He informed the proprietor of the desire for a +representative assembly, but James stubbornly refused. In 1681, when +James neglected to renew the customs duties, the merchants refused to +pay them. Because of the resulting loss of revenue Andros was ordered to +England, and during his absence the disaffection greatly increased. +Thomas Dongan was appointed governor in 1682. He was instructed to call +a representative assembly to advise the governor and council regarding +taxation and law making. In October, 1683, seventeen representatives met +at New York and drew up a Charter of Franchises and Liberties. This was +sent to the Duke, who signed it, but when he became king he rejected it. + +Dongan's administration.--Dongan administered the province of New York +with marked ability. He granted a new charter to New York City by which +the mayor, recorder, and sheriff were appointed by the governor, and the +aldermen were popularly elected. He maintained the boundaries of the +province against the claims of Penn on the west and Connecticut on the +east. In 1684 he made a treaty with the Iroquois, and henceforth they +sided with the English in the great international struggle for trade and +territory. + +Leisler's rebellion.--When James II attempted to consolidate all of the +northern provinces under one head New York was included. But when the +king was overthrown, Jacob Leisler led a rebellion and drove out +Nicholson, the royal representative. Leisler summoned a convention which +gave him dictatorial powers. He maintained authority until 1691, when +Henry Sloughter arrived as governor. Leisler surrendered, but was tried +and hanged. + + +THE JERSEYS + +Settlements in the Jerseys.--When the Jerseys passed into the hands of +Carteret and Berkeley, there were two settled areas, one of Dutch origin +about Bergen, Hoboken, and Wiehawken, the other of Dutch, Swedish, and +Finnish settlements on the Delaware. When Nicolls came to New York he +was not aware that part of the province had been granted to others. He +immediately sought to bring in settlers; about two hundred people, +descendants of New Englanders, moved from Long Island to the +neighborhood of what was later known as Elizabethtown. Others, most of +whom were Quakers, settled at Middletown and Shrewsbury under a special +grant from Nicolls. + +Government in East New Jersey.--In 1665 Philip Carteret, probably a +brother of the proprietor, arrived with a governor's commission. With +him were about thirty persons, most of whom were French people from the +Island of Jersey. Elizabethtown was made the capital. Carteret brought +with him a plan of government, which provided that the governor was to +choose a council of not less than six, nor more than twelve members. The +freemen were to choose twelve representatives, who were to join with the +governor and council in law-making. When local divisions were +established each division was to elect a representative to an assembly, +which would then take the place of the twelve. The assembly could pass +laws subject to certain restrictions, create local divisions, +incorporate towns, erect forts, provide for a militia, wage war, +naturalize foreigners, and perform many other acts. Religious liberty +and property rights were carefully protected. The enforcement of laws, +appointment of officers, and pardoning power were left in the hands of +the governor and council. + +Difficulties with New Englanders.--During 1666 many families from the +Connecticut Valley migrated to East New Jersey, most of them settling on +the Passaic River, Bradford and Guilford being founded. Newark was also +settled. The settlers drew up a form of government copied from New +Haven, which restricted the franchise to membership in the +Congregational church. In April, 1668, the first assembly was called by +Carteret, but the people from Middletown and Shrewsbury did not send +delegates. To a session held in October these towns sent +representatives, but they were not allowed to sit in the meeting. A +quarrel ensued between the governor and assembly, which soon adjourned +and did not convene again for seven years. In 1670, when Carteret +attempted to collect quit-rents, the settlers refused to pay, and for +two years the colony was in turmoil. Middletown and Shrewsbury, acting +under their original patent from Nicolls, set up an independent +government, but the governor refused to recognize it and was sustained +by the proprietors, who, however, granted some concessions, whereupon +the difficulties subsided. + +The Quakers in West New Jersey.--In 1672 George Fox, the founder of the +Quaker sect, crossed New Jersey and visited the Quakers in the eastern +part. To this visit Penn's interest in the region may be traced. In 1674 +Berkeley disposed of his share of the colony to two Quakers, Edward +Byllynge and John Fenwick, this transaction being due to a desire on the +part of the Society of Friends to establish an independent colony. +Byllynge and Fenwick became involved in a dispute over property rights, +and William Penn was made arbiter. Penn awarded one-tenth to Fenwick, +who, after considerable litigation, accepted it. Byllynge shortly +afterward conveyed his holdings to Penn, Lawrie, and Lucas, who soon +acquired Fenwick's interests. In 1676 Carteret and the Quaker +proprietors fixed the line of demarcation between East and West New +Jersey. It was to run from the most southwardly point of the east side +of Little Egg Harbor to the point where the Delaware River crossed the +forty-first parallel. The Quaker migration to West New Jersey began in +1675, when Fenwick led a group to Salem. In 1677 two hundred and thirty +more settled at Burlington. During the next two years eight hundred +arrived, and by 1681 nearly fourteen hundred had come to the colony. In +every case title to the soil was obtained by purchase from the Indians. + +[Illustration: The Delaware River Region. (From Fisher, _The Quaker +Colonies_, in the Series, "The Chronicles of America," Yale University +Press).] + +Government of West New Jersey.--The original Burlington colonists +brought with them a body of laws which have been described as "the +broadest, sanest, and most equitable charter draughted for any body of +colonists up to that time." No doubt Penn played the principal role in +the draughting. It provided for a board of commissioners to be appointed +by the proprietors and an assembly chosen by the people, which was to +have full rights of making laws if they were not contrary to the charter +or the laws of England. The charter provided for public trials by jury +and assured the right of petition. Capital punishment was prohibited. + +Trouble with the Duke of York.--After the expulsion of the Dutch in +1674, the Duke of York attempted to regain control of the Jerseys and +refused to recognize the validity of Berkeley's sale to Byllynge. When +Andros became governor of New York he attempted to assert the authority +of James over the Jerseys, but the courts refused to uphold the claims +of the Duke, and in 1680 he finally gave up the struggle. + +Later history of West New Jersey.--In 1680 Byllynge obtained a title to +West New Jersey from the Duke of York and the charter of 1677 was put +into effect, with the exception that the executive was vested in a +single person instead of in commissioners. In 1687 Byllynge died and +Daniel Coxe, a London merchant, acquired his properties. Burlington was +made the capital, and Coxe bent his efforts to make it a commercial +center. In 1688 the colony was placed under the jurisdiction of Andros +as a part of the northern administrative unit which included New York +and New England, but Coxe was restored to his rights after the +dethronement of James, though he soon sold out to the West New Jersey +Society. + +Later history of East New Jersey.--In 1682 Philip Carteret resigned, and +the board of trustees who controlled the estate of Sir George Carteret +sold East New Jersey to William Penn and eleven other Quakers. Shortly +afterwards twelve others were taken into the company, several of whom +were Scotch Presbyterians. In 1683 the twenty-four men received a deed +from the Duke of York. Under these proprietors the colony prospered, and +population increased rapidly. In 1688 the province came under royal +jurisdiction and it was annexed to New York, but after the revolution it +was restored to the proprietors. + + +PENNSYLVANIA + +The Quaker faith.--The Reformation produced many religious sects. Writh +the breaking down of one authoritative church and the substitution of +the idea that any one might read and interpret the Bible, religious +groups began forming. Among the numerous sects were the Quakers, the +followers of George Fox. Seventeenth century religion was based upon the +fundamental idea that the universe was dualistic, natural and +supernatural. The question on which men split was how the chasm was to +be bridged. Most of the Protestant sects believed that the crossing was +made by a definite revelation of the word of God. Fox believed "that it +was bridged by the communication of a supernatural Light given to each +soul." + +The coming of the Quakers.--Most of the seventeenth century religious +sects, once in power, were as intolerant as the Catholics had been. The +Quaker was looked upon with disfavor and persecution was his lot. In +America he hoped to find an abiding place. Between 1655 and 1680 Quakers +appeared in nearly all the colonies. Fox came to America in 1671 and in +the course of the following year visited the Quaker communities from +Barbados to Rhode Island. + +Penn obtains lands on the Delaware.--The desire to obtain lands where +they would be in complete control was long in the minds of the Quaker +leaders. In 1680 William Penn petitioned for lands along the Delaware +north of Maryland, in payment of a debt of 16,000 pounds. In spite of +his faith Penn stood well at court, and on March 4, 1681, the charter of +Pennsylvania was signed. The extent of the grant was defined as follows: +"All that Tract or parte of land in America, with all the Islands +therein conteyned, as the same is bounded on the East by Delaware River, +from twelve miles distance, Northwarde of New Castle Towne unto the +three and fortieth degree of Northerne Latitude if the said River doeth +extend soe farre Northwards; But if the said River shall not extend soe +farre Northward, then by the said River soe farr as it doth extend, and +from the head of the said River the Easterne Bounds are to bee +determined by a Meridian Line, to bee drawne from the head of the said +River unto the said three and fortieth degree, The said lands to extend +westwards, five degrees in longitude, to bee computed from the said +Eastern Bounds, and the said lands to bee bounded on the North, by the +beginning of the three and fortieth degree of Northern latitude, and on +the South, by a Circle drawne at twelve miles, distance from New Castle +Northwards, and Westwards unto the beginning of the fortieth degree of +Northerne Latitude; and then by a streight Line westwards, to the Limitt +of Longitude above mentioned." + +Both the northern and southern boundaries caused future disputes. Penn +claimed as far north as the forty-third parallel, while New York +insisted on the forty-second, a difference which was settled a century +later in favor of New York. On the south the boundaries conflicted with +the claims of Baltimore. In 1682 the question was further complicated by +a grant to Penn from the Duke of York of the territory on the western +shore of Delaware Bay. The difficulty was finally settled in 1760, and +seven years later two surveyors, Mason and Dixon, ran the present line +between Maryland and Pennsylvania at 39 deg. 44', and erected the present +boundaries of the state of Delaware. + +Powers of the proprietor.--By the charter Penn was made a proprietor, +having the right to make laws with the advice and consent of the +freemen. The proprietor was given power to execute the laws, issue +ordinances, appoint judges and magistrates, pardon criminals except in +cases of treason and willful murder, erect municipalities, and grant +manors. The form of government in the colony was left to the proprietor. +Laws had to be sent to the privy council for approval, but if action +were not taken within six months, they were valid. The king reserved the +right of hearing appeals. The navigation laws were to be enforced, and +if damages accrued from non-enforcement and were not settled within a +year, the king had the right to take over the government of the colony +until payment was made. + +The founding of Philadelphia.--Penn published a prospectus of his colony +which was widely circulated, and drew up a body of conditions and +concessions which dealt with the division and settlement of the province +and with Indian relations. In 1681 he sent to America as deputy-governor +his cousin, William Markham, who received the allegiance of the settlers +already within the colony. Shortly afterward the first body of colonists +arrived bearing instructions to lay out a town. The site of Philadelphia +was surveyed the following year, a symmetrical plan being adopted which +made Penn's capital the best-arranged city in colonial America. + +The "frame of government."--The government devised by Penn consisted of +"the Governor and freemen of the said province, in form of a Provincial +Council and General Assembly, by whom all laws shall be made, officers +chosen, and publick affairs transacted." An elective council was to +consist of seventy-two persons "of most note for their wisdom, virtue +and ability." This body, with the governor, was to prepare and propose +all bills, and together they were to share executive powers. They were +to erect courts of justice, elect county officers, provide schools, and +perform numerous other duties. The assembly, which was to consist at +first of not more than two hundred members, was to be elected annually. +Its chief business was to consider and pass upon bills prepared by the +governor and council. + +Penn's first sojourn in the province.--Penn arrived on the ship +_Welcome_ in the fall of 1682 and immediately called an election for an +assembly, in this case ignoring the details of the frame of government. +The first assembly annexed the territory on the western shore of +Delaware Bay, naturalized foreigners, and adopted a set of laws proposed +by the proprietor, which provided for liberty of conscience, a strict +code of morals, and for capital punishment for treason and murder only. +Penn inspected his province, watched the building of Philadelphia, and +visited New York, Maryland, and West New Jersey. He also held several +meetings with the Indians, entering in June, 1683, into a treaty with +them which had the salutary effect of keeping Pennsylvania free from +Indian war. The number of representatives provided for in the frame of +government proving too large, a new frame was drawn up by which the +council was reduced to eighteen and the lower house to thirty-six +members. + +Penn's activities in England.--In August, 1684, Penn went to England to +obtain a settlement of his disputes with Baltimore and to aid the +persecuted Quakers. His claim to the Delaware tract was confirmed and he +secured the release from English jails of more than twelve hundred +Quakers. In 1688 he also succeeded in keeping his province from being +incorporated within the jurisdiction of Andros. + +Friction in the colony.--The political peace for which Penn had hoped +was soon disturbed. Friction over the right to initiate legislation +broke out between the council and assembly. Trouble with one of the +justices also occurred. Hoping to quiet affairs, Penn took away the +executive powers of the council and appointed a commission of five +councillors who were to compel all to do their duty. As trouble +continued, he did away with the commission and appointed Captain +Blackwell, a Puritan, to act for him. This choice proved unfortunate, +for the Puritan could not get along with the Quakers. In despair, Penn +recalled Blackwell and allowed the council to select its own executive. +The council again assumed the governorship, and chose Thomas Lloyd +president. Friction also existed between the settlers along the shore of +Delaware Bay and those in the river settlements, a difficulty which +eventually led to the separation of Delaware from Pennsylvania. + +Growth of the colony.--In spite of frictions the colony prospered. When +Penn acquired his province, it contained about a thousand Swedes, +Finns, and Dutch, and a few Quakers. By 1685 the population had +increased to more than eight thousand, made up of diverse elements; +Quakers, mostly from central and southwestern England and from Wales, +Mennonites from the Rhineland, Swedes, Scotch, Irish, and French. +Philadelphia soon boasted a tannery, sawmill, and kiln; linen +manufacture began; and the colony entered upon a prosperous +intercolonial trade in flour, staves, and horses. A weekly post and a +school were established, and a printing press installed. It was evident +that Penn's "holy experiment" had justified itself. + + +THE INSULAR COLONIES + +Reorganization in the Bermudas.--Complaints by the settlers against the +rule of the Somers Islands Company in the Bermudas had been common since +its foundation. As time went on it became composed of men who had little +interest in the colony. The settlers, on the other hand, grew in numbers +and independence. Under the circumstances, in the general reorganization +by the later Stuarts, the company was dissolved, and in 1679 the +Bermudas became a crown colony. + +Reorganization in the West Indies.--Down to 1671 the English Caribbean +island possessions were all included in one government within the +Carlisle grant. In that year they were separated into two governments, +St. Kitts, Nevis. Montserrat, Antigua, Barbuda, Anguilla and "all other +the Leeward islands" to the north of French Guadeloupe were separated +from Barbados and the Windward Islands, and erected into the government +of the Leeward Islands, the islands to the south of Guadeloupe being +formed into the government of the Windward Islands. The Leeward Islands +were put under one governor-in-chief, each island being given a deputy +governor, council, assembly, and courts. In 1689 the islands together +were granted a general assembly, which first met in 1690. + +New settlements in the West Indies.--During the period of the later +Stuarts the Leeward Islands extended their influence among the smaller +islands to the northwest In 1665 a buccaneering expedition from Jamaica +captured St. Eustatius and Saba. In 1666 settlers from the Bermudas +settled on New Providence, one of the Bahamas, and elected a governor. +Four years later six of the Carolina proprietors secured a patent to +the island but did little toward colonizing it. In 1672 Tortola was +taken from the Dutch and added to the Leeward Islands. + +Unrest in Barbados.--The first important movement to settle Carolina +came from Barbados, the most populous of the English colonies. A spirit +of unrest pervaded the island. During the Commonwealth it had been a +refuge for both Cavaliers and Roundheads, and the newcomers had taken up +lands without securing titles. When the Stuarts were restored, the +former proprietors attempted to regain their possessions. A lively +controversy ensued. The king settled it by establishing his authority in +the island, but levied a tax of four and one-half per cent. on its +products to be applied to satisfy in part the claims of the proprietors, +an arrangement which pleased no one. The navigation acts also +considerably interfered with the trade of the island which had +previously been carried on largely with the Dutch. As a result many +settlers were anxious to leave. Between 1643 and 1667 at least twelve +hundred Barbadians went to fight or settle in Jamaica, Tobago, St. +Lucia, Trinidad, Surinam, New England, Virginia, or Carolina. + + +THE CAROLINAS + +The Carolina coast.--From the James River region to the Spanish +settlements in Florida, stretched a vast territory, which, with the +single exception of a settlement on the Chowan River, was unoccupied by +white men when Charles II came to the throne. After Raleigh's +ill-starred venture it had received little attention until 1629, when +Sir Robert Heath obtained a patent to lands between 31 deg. and 36 deg. north +latitude, but he did nothing to improve the territory. The coasts were +occasionally visited by mariners, but there is no definite knowledge of +any settlement until 1653, when colonists from Virginia appear to have +started a settlement at Albemarle on the Chowan River. About 1660 some +New Englanders inspected the Cape Fear River mouth but departed soon +afterward. + +The charters.--In 1660 Sir John Colleton, a prominent resident of +Barbados, went to England where he became a member of the Council for +Foreign Plantations. He soon interested Anthony Ashley Cooper, later +known as Lord Ashley, in the Carolinas. In 1663 a charter was granted +to eight proprietors, Cooper, Clarendon, Craven, Albemarle, Carteret, +Lord Berkeley, Colleton, and Sir William Berkeley. The territory granted +extended from the thirty-sixth to the thirty-first parallel and from sea +to sea. Over this region the proprietors were given practically the same +rights as Baltimore possessed in Maryland. In 1665 a second patent was +granted to the proprietors, extending the boundaries to 36 deg. 30' on the +north and to 29 deg. on the south. + +The fundamental constitutions.--The philosopher, John Locke, drew up a +constitution for the province. It provided for a high official called +the palatine, and minor officials designated as admiral, chamberlain, +chancellor, constable chief justice, steward, and treasurer. The +province was to be divided into counties, and each county into +seigniories, baronies, and precincts. On these divisions were to be +based the ranks of the nobility to be designated as land-graves, +caciques, and lords of manors. An elaborate system of courts was +provided; also a grand council and a parliament. This archaic feudal +document is of interest mainly as a study in the political philosophy of +the time, but it was of little real importance as it was totally +unsuited to the needs of a frontier community. It was never put in force +except in certain minor particulars, the settlers themselves soon +solving their problems of government in their own way. + +Beginnings of settlement.--In 1663-1664 an expedition from Barbados +examined the Carolina coast, and in 1665 Sir John Yeamans conducted a +group of settlers to the mouth of Cape Fear River. Yeamans soon returned +to Barbados and the settlers, left to their own devices, in 1667 +abandoned the settlement, most of them going to Albemarle, Virginia, and +Boston. In 1669 vessels carrying ninety-two colonists sailed from +England to Barbados, where Sir John Yeamans, who had been appointed +governor, joined them. They then proceeded to the Bermudas, where +Yeamans handed over the authority to William Sayle and abandoned the +expedition. The colonists under Sayle then went to Port Royal, but +finally settled on the Ashley River, where they laid out old Charles +Town (1670). Political strife soon developed, owing mainly to the +incompetence of the aged executive. In 1671 he died and Joseph West was +chosen governor by the people. + +[Illustration: The Southern Colonies, 1607-1735. (From Johnston, +_Pioneers of the Old South_, in the Series, "The Chronicles of America," +Yale University Press).] + +Plans of the proprietors.--In 1670 the proprietors obtained a grant of +the Bahamas and planned to build up trade between the island and +mainland settlements. They also planned to improve the Charles Town +settlement and in 1671 secured settlers from Barbados. Yeamans came over +and claimed the governorship, but West succeeded in keeping the office +for several months. In 1672 Yeamans was again appointed governor, but he +managed things so badly that in 1674 West was reappointed and remained +governor for eight years. + +Development of the Charles Town region.--Colonists came in considerable +numbers; in 1672 there were about four hundred people in the colony, and +by 1685 the population had increased to about twenty-five hundred. Among +the immigrants were a hundred French Protestants, and a colony of Scots +who settled at Port Royal in 1683. Other colonists came from Barbados +and many from western England. In 1680 the seat of government was moved +from old Charles Town to the junction of the Ashley and Cooper Rivers. +After 1680 settlements began to expand into the back country. This soon +brought on the inevitable Indian war, which continued intermittently for +three years. In 1685 the Spaniards raided the settlements, burning many +houses, and the following year destroyed the Scotch settlement at Port +Royal. + +Unrest at Charleston.--During West's administration the colony was not +greatly disturbed by political difficulties, the proprietors making +little attempt to enforce the Locke constitution. The colony was +governed by a popularly elected "parliament," which chose a council of +five men. The chief executive was the governor commissioned by the +proprietors. From 1682 to 1689 proprietary interference increased, +bringing the colony to the verge of rebellion. The colonial parliament +had steadily refused to confirm the constitution. During 1682 it was +revised by the proprietors, more power being placed in the hands of the +people, but still the colonists refused to confirm it. This irritated +the proprietors, who retaliated by introducing a new form of land +tenure, which required the colonists to pay a cash quit-rent. When James +II came to the throne, Governor Morton demanded that they swear +allegiance to the king and accept the constitution, whereupon twelve +members of the parliament refused and were excluded. The colonists also +took with ill grace the attempt to collect the customs. In 1688 the +governor and council found themselves at complete loggerheads with +parliament, and legislation stopped. James Colleton, the governor, +proclaimed martial law. This led to an open rebellion, and in 1691 +Colleton was expelled, but the proprietary power was soon restored. + +The Albemarle colony.--During these troublous times the Albemarle +settlement was slowly developing. The colony was mainly recruited from +Virginia, but there was also a considerable influx of Quakers. In 1682 +the Albemarle settlement contained about twenty-five hundred +inhabitants. When an attempt was made in 1677 to collect the customs and +to shut off the New England trade, about a hundred colonists led by John +Culpeper rebelled and imprisoned Miller, who was the collector of +customs and acting governor. They also arrested the president of the +assembly and all but one of the deputies. The proprietors removed Miller +from office and appointed Seth Sothell governor, but the people soon +drove him from the colony. The turbulence did not quiet down until the +appointment of Governor Ludwell, who from 1691 resided at Charleston, +Albemarle being governed henceforth by a deputy. + + +WESTERN TRADE AND EXPLORATION + +By now English explorers and fur traders had crossed the Alleghanies. As +early as 1648 Governor Berkeley was preparing an expedition to the +southwest, where red capped Spaniards riding "long eared beasts," came +to trade with the natives. Twenty-five years later (1673) two +Virginians, James Needham and Gabriel Arthur, reached the Cherokees on +the Upper Tennessee. To these mountain dwellers on the "western waters" +the Englishmen were a novel sight, but they had long been acquainted +with the Spaniards and possessed "some sixty Spanish flintlocks," and +among them lived Spanish mulatto women. Before the end of the century +South Carolina traders had established the "Chickasaw Trail" through the +Creek and Chickasaw country, and had crossed the Mississippi. In +1699-1700 Carolinians ascended the Savannah, descended the Tennessee, +Ohio, and Mississippi to the mouth of the Arkansas. Frontiersmen had +gone northwest as well as southwest, and before the end of the century +had begun to make their way among the Indians on both sides of the upper +Ohio River. + + +HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY + +Continued search for the Northwest Passage.--Some of the same men who +represented the Carolinas now extended English enterprises to the region +of Hudson Bay. The English search for the Northwest Passage had not +ended with the sixteenth century. Henry Hudson, who in 1609 had explored +Hudson River in an attempt to find the passage, made further attempts in +the following year. Finding his way in the _Discovery_ through Hudson +Strait, he wintered at the southern extremity of James Bay. He paid +dearly for his discoveries, for he was cast adrift by mutinous followers +and perished. In Hudson's wake went numerous explorers, backed by +syndicates of merchants and sometimes with royal support, still seeking +the passage. In 1612 Button crossed Hudson Bay and entered the mouth of +Nelson River. At the same time a company was formed to seek the passage. +In 1616 Bylot and Baffin discovered Baffin Bay, and in 1631 Foxe made +new discoveries in Fox Channel. Denmark also entered the field of +northwestern discovery and in 1619-1620 Jens Munck explored Hudson Bay, +wintering at Churchill Harbor. + +Radisson, Groseilliers, and Gillam.--The primary purpose of the +foregoing voyages had been to find a passage to the Far East. They were +followed, after an interval, by trading enterprises. The operations of +the French fur traders. Radisson and Groseilliers, have been mentioned +previously. Having been imprisoned and fined for illicit trading, they +left Canada, went to New England, and got up an expedition to Hudson Bay +to gather furs. Sailing in 1664 with Captain Zachariah Gillam, they +reached Hudson Strait but not the bay. After another failure in 1665, +they met Sir George Carteret whom they interested in their project. +Going to England, through Carteret's influence they organized a company +among whose stockholders were the Duke of York, Prince Rupert, Carteret, +the Duke of Albemarle, and the Earls of Craven, Arlington, and +Shaftesbury, several of whom were already influential in colonial +enterprises. In 1668 the company again sent Gillam to Hudson Bay, where +he built Charles Fort on Rupert's River, and traded profitably in furs. +The part played by Radisson and Groseilliers in this enterprise became a +basis for French claims to the Hudson Bay region. + +[Illustration: Hudson's Bay Company Posts.] + +Hudson's Bay Company.--The return of Gillam to London in 1669 was +followed by the formation of a new Company. On May 2, 1670, Charles II +issued a royal charter to "The Governor and Company of Adventurers of +England trading into Hudson's Bay." The Company was made absolute +proprietor with a complete monopoly of all trade of the Hudson Bay +basin. The government was centered in a governor, deputy-governor, and +committee of seven, who were empowered to make laws and were given +judicial and military authority. They lost no time in establishing +posts, and by 1685 there were trading houses at Albany River, Hayes +Island, Rupert's River, Port Nelson, Moose River, and New Severn. + +Trading methods.--Ships were fitted out annually in London with +merchandise, and brought back rich cargoes of furs. In contrast with the +French traders and with the English of the Atlantic seaboard colonies, +the Hudson's Bay Company did not penetrate the interior, but depended +upon the natives to bring their peltry to the posts on the Bay. In the +spring, therefore, after the break-up of the ice, Crees, Chipewyans, and +Eskimos came down the rivers in fleets of canoes laden with furs, traded +them for merchandise, and returned for another season's hunt. In London +the furs were sold at auction at the Company's headquarters, where the +annual fair took on the nature of a social function. Gradually the +markets widened, agents being sent to establish trade with Holland, +Russia, and other parts of Northern Europe. Profits were large, the +dividend in 1690 being seventy-five per cent. of the original stock. + +French Rivalry.--The success of the English aroused the jealousy of the +French traders in the St. Lawrence Valley, and there ensued a rivalry +which constituted one of the important episodes of the intercolonial +wars which now occurred. In the contest Radisson, who had aided in the +formation of the Company, played fast and loose between the English and +the French. Before the end of the century French rivalry in the +interior, beyond Lake Superior, did much to shake the "H.B.C." from its +exclusive, seaboard policy. By 1691 Henry Kelsey, an employe of the +Company, had made an expedition to the Winnipeg district. + + +READINGS + +NEW YORK + +Andrews, C.M., _Colonial Self-Government_, 74-100, 273-287; Andrews, +C.M., ed., _Narratives of the Insurrections_, 315-401; Brodhead, J.R., +_History of New York_, II; Channing, Edward, _History of the United +States_, II, 31-60, 203-209; Doyle, J.A., _The Middle Colonies_, 78-223; +Fiske, John, _Dutch and Quaker Colonies_, II, 1-98, 168-208; New York +Historical Society, _Collections_, 1st Series, I, 307-428; Osgood, H.L., +_The English Colonies in the Seventeenth Century_, II, 119-168; Winsor, +Justin, _Narrative and Critical History_, III, 385-411. + +THE JERSEYS AND PENNSYLVANIA + +Andrews, C.M., _Colonial Self-Government_, 101-128, 162-201; Channing, +Edward, _History of the United States_, II, 31-62, 94-130; Clarkson, +Thomas, _Memoirs of Pennsylvania_; Doyle, J.A., _The Middle Colonies_, +287-350, 379-410; Fiske, John, _Dutch and Quaker Colonies_, II, 115-194; +Fisher, Sidney, _The Quaker Colonies_; Hodgkin, Thomas, _George Fox_; +Holder, C.F., _The Quakers in Great Britain and America_, 169-217; +Janney, S.M., _Life of Penn_; Jones, R.M., _The Quakers in the American +Colonies_, 357-371, 417-436; MacDonald, William, _Select Charters_, +139-149, 171-204; Osgood, H.L., _The English Colonies in the Seventeenth +Century_, II, 169-197, 252-276; Sharpless, Isaac, _A Quaker Experiment +in Government; Two Centuries of Pennsylvania History_, 17-77; Smith, +Samuel, _The History of the Colony of Nova-Caesaria or New Jersey_, +35-207; Tanner, E.P., _The Province of New Jersey_, 1-147; Whitehead, +W.A., _East Jersey under the Proprietary Governments_. + +THE CAROLINAS + +Andrews, C.M., _Colonial Self-Government_, 129-161; Andrews, C.M., ed., +_Narratives of the Insurrections_, 143-164; Ashe, S.A., _North +Carolina_, I; Channing, Edward, _History of the United States_, II, +13-25; Hamilton, P.J., _Colonization of the South_, 133-135; McCrady, +Edward, _The History of South Carolina under the Proprietary +Government_, I, 1-209; Osgood, H.L., _The American Colonies in the +Seventeenth Century_, II, 200-225; Ramsay, David, _South Carolina_. + +HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY + +Burpee, Laurence J., _The Search for the Western Sea_, 64-95; Bryce, +George, _The Remarkable History of the Hudson's Bay Company_, 1-55; +Laut, Agnes, _The Conquest of the Great Northwest_, I, 1-255; Laut, +Agnes, _The Adventurers of England on Hudson Bay_; Willson, Beckles, +_The Great Company_, 1-181; Winsor, J., _Narrative and Critical +History_, VIII, 1-34. + +WESTERN EXPLORATION + +Alvord and Bidgood, _First Explorations of the Trans-Alleghany Region +... 1650-1674_; Crane, V.W., "The Tennessee River as the Road to +Carolina," in _Miss. Valley Hist. Rev._, III, 3-18. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +THE ENGLISH MAINLAND COLONIES AT THE CLOSE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY + + +At the close of the Stuart period the English mainland colonies +stretched along the Atlantic coast from Pemaquid to Port Royal. The +settlements nestled close to the coasts, in the tide-water region, or +along the lower waters of the navigable streams. The total population +probably did not exceed 225,000, one-half of whom were in Massachusetts +and Virginia. At the same period Barbados alone contained over 50,000 +white settlers and more than 100,000 slaves. + + +NEW ENGLAND + +Population.--New England contained some 80,000 white inhabitants. About +5,000 were in New Hampshire; Massachusetts, including the Maine and +Plymouth settlements, contained about 55,000; Rhode Island probably +5,000, and Connecticut about 17,000. By far the larger part were of +English stock, although there were a few Huguenots, Scotch, Irish, and +Jews. The settled area extended from the Pemaquid region along the coast +in an almost unbroken line to the New York border. In Maine the settled +region seldom extended more than ten miles back from the coast, and +between Casco and Saco bays there were large unsettled tracts. In New +Hampshire the frontier line ran back from the coast fifteen to thirty +miles and eastern Massachusetts was settled fifty miles inland. All of +Rhode Island except some tracts in the southern part had been occupied. +Portions of northeastern and northwestern Connecticut were wilderness, +but in the Connecticut Valley the settlers had begun to occupy the +valley lands just to the north of the Massachusetts line. + +Agriculture.--The mass of the population was agricultural. The clearing +of the land and the securing of a food supply were the natural pursuits +of the new communities. The small farm was the prevailing type, as +neither climate, crops, nor soil were suitable for the large plantation. +Corn, wheat, fruits, and vegetables were the principal agricultural +products, and cattle, swine, sheep, and poultry were raised for domestic +use. + +Furs and fish.--The forests and the sea were the principal sources of +New England prosperity. In the early part of the century the fur trade +was an important factor, but by the end of the century it had +considerably decreased. As it declined the fishing business increased. +On the Newfoundland banks the boats of the New Englanders were the most +numerous. The catch of cod and mackerel was dried and salted, and became +a leading export. + +Lumbering and ship-building.--The uncleared back country was a continual +source of profit. Logging became a regular winter pursuit. From the +felled timber were produced lumber, staves, shingles, masts, and spars. +The fishing business conducted close to a lumbering region led to +ship-building, and almost every seacoast town engaged in the industry. +Most of the boats were small, swift-sailing craft, used in the fisheries +or in the coasting and West Indian trade. So well-built were they that +the New Englander found a ready market in the West Indies for vessel as +well as cargo. + +Commerce.--Fish, furs, and lumber were the principal products which the +New Englanders produced for outside consumption. Most of the carrying +business was conducted by Massachusetts men, although Rhode Island also +handled a considerable trade. The navigation laws were intended to keep +commerce in the hands of English merchants, but in spite of them +colonial vessels kept up a coast-wise trade, and shipped fish, lumber, +and staves to the West Indies and Madeira. Return vessels brought wine, +rum, molasses, sugar, cotton, and wool. The greater part of New England +commerce was handled through Boston, although Salem and Newport were +rivals. Newport traders carried on a large slave traffic from Guinea and +Madagascar, but most of their cargoes were sold in the West Indies. + +Manufactures.--In Massachusetts and Connecticut manufacturing for the +home market developed at an early date. Grist and saw-mills, tanneries, +glass and pottery works, brick yards, and salt works were commonly found +in the tide-water region, and at least two iron works were in operation +in Massachusetts before 1700. Every village had its cobbler and +blacksmith, and the housewives did the spinning and weaving. Most of the +people wore homespun, but finer fabrics were also in demand, and at an +early date the manufacture of cotton and woolen goods on a more +elaborate scale was undertaken in Massachusetts. + +Standard of living.--Practically all New Englanders were free settlers, +but a limited number of indented servants and a few hundred slaves were +intermixed with the population. In the regions near the coast the +standard of living had materially improved. In the larger towns the +inhabitants enjoyed even a degree of luxury in dress and table, and the +log huts of the first settlers had almost disappeared, frame, shingled, +and even brick houses having taken their place. Most of the houses of +the well-to-do had a second floor, attic, and lean-to. Every community +had its meeting house, and in 1670 Boston had three places of worship. +As the traveler passed into the back country, he found roads growing +poorer and poorer, gradually deteriorating into mere trails. The +clearings and log cabins became less and less frequent until he finally +reached the wilderness, which was penetrated only by the hunter and +trader. When the settlements extended a considerable distance from the +coast, they were usually along a navigable stream, the indispensable +means of communication in a newly settled community. + +Social standards.--Daily life was simple and devoid of ostentation, but +in the older communities social lines were rigidly drawn. An austere +aristocracy ruled. Admitted to the inner circle were the descendants of +the early leaders or of families of rank in England, Oxford and +Cambridge men, and those who were selected through natural worth to fill +high positions in church and state. Intelligence and piety were more +potent factors than wealth in the attainment of position. Of +professional men the ministers held an exalted place, exerting a +powerful influence socially, religiously, and politically. There were +few doctors and lawyers, the latter being looked upon as undesirable +trouble makers. + +[Illustration: Settled Areas in New England and on Long Island, about +1700.] + +Religion.--Throughout New England, except in Rhode Island, church and +state were united, the Congregational church being in the ascendency. +Though in 1660 Charles II commanded that the Anglican church be +tolerated in Massachusetts, the authorities resisted its introduction, +and not until 1686 was an Episcopalian church established in Boston. In +Connecticut there were a few Presbyterians and Quakers. In Rhode Island +the Baptists and Quakers were the most important element. + +Superstitions.--The seventeenth century Puritan was intolerant and +superstitious. Men must conform or be persecuted. Signs and portents +were believed in, and strange and often filthy concoctions and ointments +were administered at the suggestion of midwives or knowing housewives. +Belief in witchcraft was usual both in Europe and America, and such +learned men as Increase and Cotton Mather, prominent clergymen of +Boston, wrote treatises to prove its truth. The Massachusetts laws +recognized it as a capital offense. In 1692 occurred the famous outbreak +at Salem in which nineteen innocent persons were executed. + +Education.--In the English colonies New England took the lead in +provision for popular education. Men who believed that the Bible was the +source of authority naturally thought that every man should have +sufficient intellectual training to enable him to read the word of God. +In 1635 the first Latin grammar school in the English colonies was +started at Boston, and several other towns soon followed the example. In +1647 Massachusetts enacted a general education law which required every +town of fifty or more freeholders to appoint a teacher to instruct +children to read and write. Every town of one hundred or more +freeholders was required to support a Latin grammar school which would +prepare students for college. Connecticut and New Haven soon followed +the lead of Massachusetts. In Rhode Island and Plymouth each community +was allowed to follow its own course. In Rhode Island the few schools +were usually private enterprises. In Plymouth the first public school +was not opened until 1671. Higher education was not neglected, Harvard +being founded in 1636. In that year Massachusetts voted L400 toward the +support of a college. Two years later John Harvard bequeathed his +library and one-half of his estate for the erection of a college, and +Harvard College came into existence. For many years it was devoted +mainly to the training of religious leaders, and its curriculum +reflected the classical viewpoint of the great English universities. + +Literature.--The literature of the first century of New England was +permeated with a gloomy religious viewpoint, but it was not lacking in +dignity or power. It reflected the sternness of standards and purpose of +the founders, who saw little of the humor, or of the lighter side of +existence. The strongest of the writings were the histories, the best +being the _History of Plymouth_ by Governor Bradford and _The History of +New England_ by Governor Winthrop. Of less interest to the present day +mind are the controversial religious tracts and sermons of Roger +Williams and Cotton Mather, or the crude poetry of Mrs. Anne Bradstreet. + + +NEW YORK AND EAST NEW JERSEY + +Population.--Economically and socially New York and East New Jersey were +closely related. At the end of the Andros regime the population of New +York was probably 18,000, and that of East New Jersey about 10,000. More +than half of the New Yorkers were Dutch. The rest were mainly English, +but there were some Huguenots and a few Jews. The settled area covered +almost all of Long Island and the Hudson Valley to a point a few miles +north of Albany. Most of the population of East New Jersey was along the +coast opposite New York harbor. The English predominated, but there was +a sprinkling of Dutch, Scotch, and Huguenots. + +Industry in New York.--During the first decades of the Dutch occupation +of the Hudson Valley the fur trade had been almost the only business, +but after 1638 many settlers came who began general farming. Lumbering +also developed. The general lines of industry thus begun were carried on +after the English occupation. The fur trade was greatly stimulated by +Dongan and it was probably the chief source of wealth in the colony. +Population increased slowly. The advantageous position of New York +attracted shipping, and the merchants developed a commerce with the West +Indies and the Dutch possessions in the Caribbean to which were shipped +bread stuffs, pease, meat, and horses. The returning vessels brought +wine, rum, molasses, and various tropical products. To England the New +Yorkers shipped furs, oil, and naval supplies in return for manufactured +goods. + +[Illustration: Settled areas in the Middle Colonies about 1700.] + +A contemporary description of New York.--Governor Dongan wrote +concerning the province in 1687: "The principal towns within the Govermt +are New York Albany & Kingston at Esopus. All the rest are country +villages. The buildings in New York & Albany are generally of stone & +brick. In the country the houses are mostly new built, having two or +three rooms on a floor. The Dutch are great improvers of land. New York +and Albany live wholly upon trade with the Indians England and the West +Indies.... I believe for these 7 years last past, there has not come +over into this province twenty English Scotch or Irish familys. But on +the contrary on Settled Areas in the Middle Colonies Long Island the +people about 1700 encrease soe fast that they complain for want of land +and many remove from thence into the neighboring province." + +Religion and education in New York.--Regarding religion Dongan wrote. +"Every Town ought to have a Minister. New York has first a Chaplain +belonging to the Fort of the Church of England; secondly, a Dutch +Calvinist; thirdly a French Calvinist; fourthly a Dutch Lutheran--Here +bee not many of the Church of England; few Roman Catholicks; abundance +of Quakers preachers men & Women especially; Singing Quakers, Ranting +Quakers, Sabbatarians; anti-sabbatarians; Some Anabaptists some +Independents; some Jews; in short of all sorts of opinions there are +some, and the most part of none at all.... The most prevailing opinion +is that of the Dutch Calvinists." This description applied to religious +conditions in New York City, then as now a cosmopolitan place. On Long +Island, where New Englanders were predominant, the Congregational church +held sway, while in the Hudson Valley, where most of the settlers were +Dutch, the Dutch Reformed church was in the ascendency. The Dutch had +maintained elementary schools, but when the English occupied the +country, most of the school-masters left, and little was done by the +authorities to stimulate education. Such schools as existed were +established by the local communities. + +Large estates.--During the Dutch regime many large estates had been +created, the most important being the patroonship of Van Rensselaer +about Albany. Although the other patroons had surrendered their rights, +the Dutch governors, officials, and merchants had acquired vast estates, +which continued in their families after the English occupation. The +English governors followed the example, and several large holdings were +created, the most famous of these being the Livingston manor on the east +bank of the Hudson below the Van Rensselaer tract. + +Conditions in East New Jersey.--The people of East New Jersey came +mainly from New England and Long Island, and they built up a miniature +New England, each village being an entity surrounded by tributary farm +lands. Garden truck, fish, oysters, and fruits were the principal +products. The proprietors hoped to develop commerce, but the Duke of +York's restrictions throttled it, and East New Jersey was forced into +the position of a supply station for New York. Gawen Laurie, the +deputy-governor, described conditions as follows in 1684: "There is +great plenty of oysters, fish, fowl; pork is two pennies the pound, beef +and venison one penny the pound, a whole fat buck for five or six +shillings; Indian corn for two shillings and six pence per bushel, oats +twenty pence, and barley two shillings per bushel: We have good brick +earth, and stones for building at Amboy, and elsewhere: The country farm +houses are built very cheap: A carpenter, with a man's own servants, +builds the house; they have all materials for nothing, except nails, +their chimnies are of stones; they make their own ploughs and carts for +the most part, only the iron work is very dear: The poor sort set up a +house of two or three rooms themselves, after this manner; the walls are +of cloven timber, about eight or ten inches broad, like planks, set one +end to the ground, and the other nailed to the raising, which they +plaster within; they build a barn after the same manner, and these cost +not above five pounds a piece; and then to work they go: Two or three +men in one year will clear fifty acres, in some places sixty, and in +some more: They sow corn the first year, and afterwards maintain +themselves; and the increase of corn, cows, horses, hogs and sheep comes +to the landlord;... the servants work not so much by a third as they do +in England, and I think feed much better; for they have beef, pork, +bacon, pudding, milk, butter and good beer and cyder for drink; when +they are out of their time, they have land for themselves, and generally +turn farmers for themselves." + +Religion and education in East New Jersey.--Another letter of the same +date says: "There be people of several sorts of religions, but few very +zealous; the people, being mostly New-England men, do mostly incline to +their way; and in every town there is a meeting-house, where they +worship publickly every week: They have no publick laws in the country +for maintaining publick teachers, but the towns that have them, make way +within themselves to maintain them; we know none that have a settled +preacher, that follows no other employment, save one town, Newark." + + +COLONIES ALONG DELAWARE RIVER AND BAY + +Population.--The settlements along Delaware River and Bay formed an +industrial and social group. In 1700 the population numbered less than +20,000, from 12,000 to 15,000 being in Pennsylvania which included +Delaware. The interior of West New Jersey was unoccupied, the population +remaining close to the coast. From Barnegat to Cape May the settled area +was about ten miles wide. Along the eastern shore of the bay and river +the population belt widened to twenty-five or thirty miles. In +Pennsylvania and Delaware the settled area was continuous from the +mouth of the Lehigh River to the southern boundary of Delaware. Back +from the river the habitations extended for forty or fifty miles, but on +the bay shore none of the settlers were more than ten or fifteen miles +inland. The population of the Delaware region was composed of many +nationalities. West New Jersey contained many English, but the +descendants of the early Swedish and Dutch settlers were there in +considerable numbers. Pennsylvania contained about 1,000 Swedes, Dutch, +and Finns, the remnant of the early occupations. Penn's advertising and +reputation for philanthropy brought to his colony English, Germans, +Scotch, and Welsh. + +Conditions in West New Jersey.--The following description of West New +Jersey, written in 1698, gives an excellent picture of the colony: "In a +few Years after [1675] a Ship from _London_, and another from _Hull_, +sail'd thither with more People, who went higher up into the Countrey, +and built there a Town, and called it _Burlington_ which is now the +chiefest Town in that Countrey though _Salem_ is the ancientest; and a +fine _Market-Town_ it is, Having several Fairs kept yearly in it; +likewise well furnished with good store of most Necessaries for humane +Support, as _Bread_, _Beer_, _Beef_, and _Pork_; as also _Butter_ and +_Cheese_, of which they freight several Vessels and send them to +_Barbadoes_, and other islands. + +"There are very many fine _stately Brick-Houses_ built [at Salem], and a +_commodious Dock_ for _Vessels_ to come in at, and they claim equal +Privilege with _Burlington_ for the sake of Antiquity; tho' that is the +principal Place, by reason that the late Governor _Cox_, who bought that +Countrey of Edward _Billing_, encouraged and promoted that Town chiefly, +in settling his _Agents_ and _Deputy-governors_ there, (the same Favours +are continued by the _New-West-Jersey_ Society, who now manage Matters +there) which brings their Assemblies and chief Courts to be kept there; +and by that means it is become a very famous Town, having a great many +stately _Brick-Houses_ in it, (as I said before) with a great +_Market-House_...; It hath a noble and _spacious Hall_ over-head, where +their _Sessions_ is kept, having the Prison adjoining to it.... + +"A Ship of Four Hundred Tuns may sail up to this _Town_ in the River +_Delaware_; for I my self have been on Board a Ship of that Burthen +there: and several fine Ships and Vessels (besides Governour Cox's own +great Ship) have been built there.... There are _Water-Men_ who +constantly Ply their Wherry Boats from that Town to the City of +_Philadelphia_ in _Pensilvania_, and to other places. Besides there is +_Glocester-Town_, which is a very Fine and Pleasant Place, being well +stored with Summer Fruits, as _Cherries_, _Mulberries_, and Strawberries +whither Young People come from Philadelphia in the Wherries to eat +_Strawberries_ and _Cream_, within sight of which city it is sweetly +Situated, being but about three Miles distant from thence." + +Economic conditions in Pennsylvania.--When Penn's colonists arrived they +found many farms under cultivation. Many of the new arrivals took up +farming, and the lower counties became a supply region for Philadelphia. +Under Penn's direction. Philadelphia soon became a trading center, and +as it grew Burlington declined. Furs and food-stuffs were exchanged for +manufactured articles from Europe, and for sugar and other West Indian +produce. With the exception of the making of coarse cloth and cordage, +there was little manufacturing. Practically all of the settlers were +freemen, although slavery and indenture gradually crept in. The standard +of living was higher than in most of the colonies, for Indian wars did +not disturb pursuits, the lands were fertile, and the climatic +conditions less rigorous than along the New England coast. Most of the +early accounts tell of well-built houses, and productive gardens and +orchards. + +Religion and education.--In church affiliation the Delaware River +country was a mixture. In West New Jersey were found Presbyterians, +Baptists, Quakers, and Lutherans. In Pennsylvania there were the same +denominations, but religiously and politically the Quakers were in the +ascendency. In 1695 an Episcopal church was established at Philadelphia, +but the Anglican church made slow progress along the Delaware. The Dutch +and Swedes had established schools under the direction of the ministers. +The Quakers were also keenly interested in education, and schools were +immediately established. In 1682 the West New Jersey assembly granted +three hundred acres for the support of a school at Burlington, and one +of the first acts of the Pennsylvania assembly was intended to begin +elementary education. In 1689 the Friends' Public School at +Philadelphia was founded and was open to all sects. But most of the +schools were founded by churches or private individuals. + + +THE CHESAPEAKE BAY REGION + +The settled area.--The Chesapeake Bay country formed another economic +unit. By the end of the Stuart regime Maryland contained about 30,000 +people, Virginia nearly 60,000, and North Carolina perhaps 3,000, +practically all of English extraction. From Cape Charles northward for +fifty miles the peninsula was settled. Then came an uninhabited region +until opposite Kent Island, where the settlements began again and +extended northward to the Pennsylvania line. On the western side of the +bay a population belt about twenty-five miles wide extended from the +northern boundary of Maryland as far as the Potomac. On the right bank +of the Potomac from a point ten miles above Alexandria to the place +where the river made its great bend to the eastward the plantations +covered a strip about five miles wide. From the great bend the frontier +ran almost straight south to the neighborhood of Richmond and then +gradually curved to the southeast, enclosing a settled area about +twenty-five miles wide on the south side of the James River. + +[Illustration: Settled Areas in the Southern Colonies about 1700.] + +The frontier line crossed the North Carolina boundary about forty miles +from the coast and ran southwestward to the Chowan River, which with the +northern shore of Albemarle Sound formed the limits of the settled +region of North Carolina, then politically united but economically and +socially separated from the Charleston district. + +The plantations.--The Chesapeake Bay country was almost entirely devoted +to agriculture. The small land holdings of the early period were rapidly +disappearing and great plantations had taken their place. The average +land patent in Virginia in the last decades of the century gave title to +from six hundred to eight hundred acres, but many of the plantations +covered from ten thousand to twenty thousand acres. So plentiful was +land and so easily obtained that the planters preferred to take up new +acreage rather than resort to fertilization, the result being that the +plantations were widely scattered, an important factor in making each +estate a social and economic unit. + +Tobacco.--The great staple was tobacco. The plantations were usually +located near a creek, river, or the bay shore. Each had its wharf or +flatboat from which the trader could load his vessel. Most of the crop +was shipped to England, and the price obtained determined the year's +prosperity or depression. The large plantation owner usually dealt with +some London house, which kept an open account with him, crediting his +tobacco against orders for the manufactured articles and luxuries which +the Virginia and Maryland gentlemen demanded. + +Other industrial activity.--Some writers have held that there must have +been much poverty in the plantation country because of the uncertain +market for tobacco, but such statements do not take into account the +fact that the plantations produced an abundance of food products. Wheat, +oats, barley, and maize were grown in large quantities, the cereals +usually being planted after the third crop of tobacco. At times wheat +was exported. Almost every estate had its garden and orchard, and live +stock was abundant, horses, cattle, and hogs usually ranging in the +woods. So numerous did the hogs become that pork was an item of +exportation. New England coasting vessels ran into the rivers and took +on wheat, pork, and tobacco, which, were exchanged for West Indian +slaves, rum, and sugar. There was but little manufacturing. Cotton and +woolen cloths were made for home use, and brick-making was carried on to +a limited extent, but most of the manufactured articles were brought +from England. + +The system of labor.--The large plantations were worked either by +indented servants or slaves. In 1671 Governor Berkeley estimated that +there were 6,000 white servants and 2,000 slaves in Virginia. By 1683 +there were about 12,000 indented servants and perhaps 3,000 slaves, and +by the end of the century the slaves had probably doubled. In proportion +to population the indented servants and slaves in Maryland and North +Carolina were in similar ratio to the free white population. + +Social position of the planter.--At the top of the social and political +structure of society was the planter, his position depending largely +upon his acreage. Already in Virginia and Maryland the "great-house" or +manor house had made its appearance, a rather unpretentious rambling +frame house with a brick chimney at either end, the splendor of which +was largely due to comparison with the quarters of the slaves. Articles +of luxury such as musical instruments, mirrors, brass fixtures, +silverware, table linen, and damask hangings were frequently found in +the houses of the wealthier planters. These were by no means typical, +for pewter was far more common than silver, and in the home of recently +released indented servants or small landholders there was little more +than bare necessity demanded. + +Religion and education.--In religion there was less uniformity than in +industry. In Maryland probably three-fourths of the inhabitants belonged +to various dissenting sects. Most of the great landholders were members +of the Anglican church, but many were Catholics. Most of the Virginians +were Episcopalians, while in North Carolina the Quakers were +predominant. Popular education in the South was far below that of the +North. Public sentiment was against free schools, and the few secondary +educational institutions were conducted through private enterprise. The +planters frequently secured educated indented servants who acted as +tutors. In 1691 the Virginia legislature sent Dr. William Blair to +England to secure a charter for a college and the following year he +returned with it, this being the legal beginning of William and Mary +College. + + +SOUTH CAROLINA + +Population.--Economically and socially South Carolina was associated +with the West Indies rather than with the mainland colonies. At the +close of the seventeenth century the white population was about 5,500. +Most of the inhabitants came from Barbados, but other Caribbean Islands, +England, Ireland, the New England colonies, and France furnished +colonists. The settled area extended from the Santee to the mouth of the +Edisto, included several of the islands, and reached back from the coast +about fifty miles. The social and economic center was Charleston. In the +back country there were only two small towns, most of the people being +located on plantations along the rivers and on the islands. The +Barbadian planters had settled mainly on the Cooper River, Goose Creek, +and Ashley River, and on James, John's and Edisto Islands. Four or five +hundred Huguenots, most of whom had left their country because of the +revocation of the Edict of Nantes, had located on the Santee, where they +had received land grants aggregating over 50,000 acres, nearly half of +this being the property of two individuals, the other Huguenot estates +varying from 100 to 3,000 acres. + +The plantations.--At the end of the century rice culture, which was +destined to furnish the most important staple, was in its infancy, and a +little silk and cotton were produced. The chief business of the planters +was the raising of cattle and hogs, corn, and pease. The Barbadians +brought in the economic system of the West Indies, which was based upon +slavery, and the harsh slave code of Barbados was adopted in the colony. +Accurate statistics regarding the number of slaves are inaccessible, but +an apparently authentic letter of 1708 states that in that year there +were 4,100 negro slaves and 1,400 Indian slaves in the colony, numbers +probably in excess of those in 1700, as it was the development of the +rice industry which made slaves highly profitable. + +Commerce.--Charleston was the great market town. There the trader +stocked for the Indian trade, which, at the close of the century was the +chief source of wealth of South Carolina. Goods from Charleston are said +to have penetrated a thousand miles into the interior. To the West +Indies were shipped beef, pork, butter, tallow, and hides, rice and +pease, lumber, staves, pitch, and tar; returning vessels brought rum, +sugar, molasses, and other West Indian products. To England were shipped +furs, rice, silk, and naval stores, in return for manufactured goods. + +Religion and education.--The Episcopalian was the established church of +the colony, and probably forty-five per cent. of the population belonged +to that denomination. An equal per cent. was divided between +Congregationalists and Presbyterians, and there were a few Baptists and +Quakers. No public school system had been established, but many of the +wealthier families employed tutors. A public library was started at +Charleston in 1698, but no institution of higher learning had been +established. + +Society.--Already in South Carolina an aristocratic society was forming +which was distinctly different from that of any other mainland colony. +When the Barbadians came they brought with them the social viewpoint of +the West Indian planter. As soon as the discovery was made that the +swampy river bottoms were adapted to rice and indigo, slavery received a +great impetus and the Barbadian social system was almost duplicated. In +no other colony was such a large part of the population concentrated in +a single city. In Charleston lived the merchants, and there the planter +built his town house and remained with his family a portion of the year. +The gathering of the wealthy classes developed a social atmosphere of +gaiety which was in marked contrast to the soberness of Boston or the +conservatism of Philadelphia. + + +READINGS + +Andrews, C.M., _Colonial Self-Government_, 288-336; _Colonial Folkways_; +Brodhead, J.R., _History of the State of New York_, II; Bruce, P.A., +_Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century_; Burr, G.L., +ed., _Narratives of the Witchcraft Cases_; Dexter, E.G., _A History of +Education in the United States_, 24-71; Dexter, F.B., "Estimates of +Population in the American Colonies," in American Antiquarian Society; +_Proceedings_, New Series, V, pt. 1; Eggleston, E., _The Transit of +Civilization_; Fiske, J., _Old Virginia and her Neighbors_, II, 174-269; +McCrady, E., _South Carolina under the Proprietary Government_, I, +314-363; Mereness, N.D., _Maryland as a Proprietary Province_; Smith, +S., _The History of the Colony of Nova Caesaria, or New Jersey_; Walker, +W., _A History of the Congregational Churches in the United States_: +Weeden, W.B., _Economic and Social History of New England_, I; Phillips, +U.B., _American Negro Slavery_, 67-84, 98-114. + + + + + +EXPANSION AND INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +THE SPANISH ADVANCE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY + + +SPAIN AND THE COLONIES IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY + +Decline of Spanish power in Europe.--After the reign of Philip II the +power of Spain steadily declined. The long period of hostility with the +Dutch and the war with Cromwell greatly weakened her power upon the sea. +The continental wars sapped her military strength and France superseded +her as the first power of Europe. Gradually Spain's continental +possessions slipped from her. The first loss was the Protestant +Netherlands. Nominally independent from 1609, their complete +independence was acknowledged in 1648. By the Treaty of the Pyrenees, +Roussillon became French territory, and the Spanish power in the +Rhineland and Italy had been practically annulled. In 1640 Portugal +threw off the Spanish yoke, and when Philip IV tried to reconquer it +(1661-1665), he failed completely. With Portugal, Spain lost Brazil and +the Portuguese colonies in the Far East. + +Colonial expansion.--Nevertheless, the frontiers of the Spanish colonies +slowly expanded, and slowly Spain extended her laws, her language, and +her faith over lands and tribes more and more remote from the Mexican +capital, the struggle with the natives becoming sterner at each step in +advance. In the course of the seventeenth century northern Sinaloa and +Sonora were colonized; permanent missionary occupation, after many +failures, was effected in Lower California; southern, western, and +eastern Chihuahua were settled; the new province of Coahuila was +established athwart the Rio Grande, and a new and flourishing missionary +district was opened in western Florida. In the course of the century the +Spanish colonial frontiers began to clash with those of France and +England, on the mainland now as well as in the islands, and there ensued +a series of border struggles, all a part of the international conflict +for the continent. To restrain the encroaching French and English, Texas +was occupied temporarily and Pensacola permanently. The principal +setbacks on the borders were the loss of Jamaica to England (1655), the +contraction of the Florida frontier through the founding of Virginia and +the Carolinas, and the temporary loss of New Mexico through the Pueblo +Revolt in 1680. Thus the Spanish frontier line swung round as on a +pivot, the gains in the west being partly offset by the losses in the +east. Meanwhile the English, French, and Dutch occupied most of the +lesser islands of the Caribbean, which had been neglected by Spain. At +the same time, Spain's hold on her colonial commerce became more and +more precarious through the encroachments of her national enemies. + + +FRONTIER ADMINISTRATION + +The governors.--The old days of the _adelantados_, with unlimited +powers, had passed, and the royal arm now reached the farthest outposts. +The secular government of the frontier provinces was almost wholly +military. A few villas or towns had their elective _cabildos_, or town +councils, and a modicum of self government. The official heads of the +provinces were the governors, who held office by royal appointment; _ad +interim_ governors might be appointed by the viceroys. Governors, like +other prominent officials, frequently purchased their offices, a +practice not confined at that time to Spanish America. The governor was +also _capitan general_ of his province, and his capital was usually at +the principal presidio or garrison. In these capacities he exercised +both civil and military authority. Under the governors there were +usually lieutenant-governors in the sub-districts, who as a rule +commanded the troops of some presidio. + +The positions of governor and presidial commander were made attractive +largely by the opportunity which they afforded for making money in +addition to the fixed salaries. The payment of soldiers was made chiefly +in supplies, purchased by the governor and commanders, and charged to +the soldiers at enormous profits. Thus the post of governor or captain +was almost as much that of merchant as of soldier. Provincial +administration was often corrupt with "graft," as in English and French +America. Checks upon the governors were furnished through _visitas_ or +inspections, and through the _residencia_, or inquiry at the end of the +governor's term. As a rule the _residencia_ was formal, but sometimes it +was a serious matter. + +Central control.--All important matters of frontier administration, such +as the founding of new colonies, presidios, or missions, or the making +of military campaigns, were referred by the governors to the viceroy of +Mexico. He in turn customarily sought the advice of the fiscal of the +_real audiencia_, and of the _auditor de guerra_. In case these two +functionaries disagreed, or in matters of unusual moment, a _junta de +guerra y hacienda_, composed of the leading officials of the different +branches of the central administration, was called. In all matters of +consequence the decisions of the viceroy were made subject to royal +approval, but it frequently happened that the act for which approval was +asked had already been performed. In ordinary affairs of provincial +administration the fiscal really controlled the government, for the +viceroy usually despatched business with a laconic "as the fiscal says." + +Frontier Autonomy.--The government of New Spain was highly centralized +in theory, but the effects of centralization were greatly lessened by +distance. Through the right of petition, which was freely exercised, the +local leaders in the frontier provinces often exerted a high degree of +initiative in government, and, on the other hand, through protest and +delay, they frequently defeated royal orders. + + +THE MISSIONS + +The Missionaries on the frontiers.--In extending the sway of Spain, as +time went on a constantly larger part was played by the missionaries. +During the early days of the conquest the natives had been largely in +the hands of the _encomenderos_. But abuses arose and the encomienda +system was gradually abolished. Moreover, the wild tribes of the +northern frontier, unlike the Mayas and Aztecs, were considered hardly +worth exploiting. This left an opening for the missionary, and to him +was entrusted not only the work of conversion, but a larger and larger +share of responsibility and control. Since they served the State, the +missions were largely supported by the royal treasury, which was most +liberal when there was some political end to be gained. + +The principal missionary orders.--Under these circumstances, in the +seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, on the expanding frontiers of +Spanish America, missions became well-nigh universal. The work on the +northern borders of New Spain was conducted largely by Franciscans, +Jesuits, and Dominicans. The northeastern field fell chiefly to the +Franciscans, who entered Florida, New Mexico, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, +Nuevo Santander, and Texas. To the northwest went the Jesuits, who, +after withdrawing from Florida, worked especially in Sinaloa, Sonora, +Chihuahua, Lower California, and Arizona. After the expulsion of the +Jesuits the Dominicans and Franciscans took their places. + +The missions as civilizing agencies.--The missionaries were a veritable +corps of Indian agents, serving both Church and State. Their first duty +was to teach the Gospel. In addition they disciplined the savage in the +rudiments of civilized life. The central feature of every successful +Spanish mission was the Indian pueblo, or village. If he were to be +disciplined, the Indian must be kept in a definite spot where discipline +could be impressed upon him. The settled Indians, such as the Pueblo +Indians of New Mexico, could be instructed in their native towns, but +the wandering or scattered tribes must be assembled and established in +pueblos, and kept there by force if necessary. To make the Indians +self-supporting as soon as possible, and to afford them the means of +discipline, the missions were provided with communal lands for gardens, +farms, and ranches, and with workshops in which to practice the crafts. + +Defence of the frontier.--The missionaries were highly useful likewise +as explorers and as diplomatic agents amongst the tribes. As defenders +of the frontier they held the allegiance of the neophytes and secured +their aid against savages and foreign intruders. Sometimes the mission +plants were veritable fortresses. + +Missions designedly temporary.--Like the presidios, or garrisons, +missions were intended to be temporary. As soon as his pioneer work was +finished on one frontier the missionary was expected to move on to +another, his place being taken by the secular clergy and the mission +lands distributed among the Indians. The result, almost without fail, +was a struggle over secularization. + + +THE JESUITS IN SINALOA AND SONORA + +The Jesuit advance up the slope.--The advance up the Pacific coast +mainland was led throughout the seventeenth century by the Jesuit +missionaries, supported by presidial soldiers and small citizen +colonies. In 1591 the Jesuits entered Sinaloa. Beginning in the valley +of the Petatlan and Mocorito rivers, their progress was gradual but +steady, river by river, tribe by tribe, to the Fuerte, Mayo, Yaqui, and +Sonora valleys, till by the middle of the century they had nearly +reached the head of the last named stream. + +Fathers Tapia and Perez.--The first missionaries sent were Fathers +Gonzalo de Tapia and Martin Perez, who began their work among the tribes +of the Petatlan and Mocorito rivers, near San Felipe, then the northern +outpost of Sinaloa. From time to time they were joined by other small +bands of missionaries. The natives were generally friendly at first, +here as elsewhere, and were assembled in villages, baptized, and taught +agriculture and crafts. Father Tapia was murdered in 1594 and was +succeeded as rector by Father Perez. By 1604 there had been 10,000 +baptisms, the Jesuits had a school for boys at San Felipe, and Father +Velasco had written a grammar in the native tongue. In 1600 regular +missionary work was begun in Topia. What was done there is a good +example of the way the Spaniards often uprooted native society by trying +to improve it. Villages were transplanted at will, the chiefs replaced +by alcaldes, and native priests suppressed. + +Captain Hurdaide, defender of the Faith.--The year 1600 was marked also +by the appointment of Captain Diego Martinez de Hurdaide, as commander +of the presidio of San Felipe. By the Jesuits he was regarded as the +ideal defender of the Faith, and for a quarter of a century he and his +soldiers made way for and protected the missionaries in their northward +advance. + +[Illustration: Sinaloa and Sonora in the Seventeenth Century (From +Bancroft, North Mexican States and Texas, 1208).] + +Missions in the Fuerte valley.--The subjugation of the Suaques and +Tehuecos by Hurdaide opened the way for missions in the Fuerte River +valley in 1604. Among the founders was Father Perez de Ribas, later +famed as the historian. The initial success of these missions was +remarkable, but it was followed by apostasy, revolts, an increase of +military forces, and wars of subjugation. This, indeed, was quite the +typical succession of events. Apostates fled to the Yaquis, who defeated +Hurdaide in three campaigns. Having shown their mettle, in 1610 the +Yaquis made peace and asked for missionaries. The Yaqui war was followed +by the establishment in 1610 of the new presidio of Montesclaros near +the site of the former San Juan. In spite of this new defence, the +Tehuecos, led by native priests, revolted. Hurdaide went to the rescue +in 1613 with forty soldiers and two thousand allies, restored order, and +reestablished the missions. + +In the Mayo and Yaqui valleys.--In the same year Father Mendez and some +companions advanced the mission frontier to the Mayo valley, where +success was gratifying. Four years later Fathers Perez and Perez de +Ribas founded missions among the Yaquis, where eight pueblos soon +flourished. By 1621 missions had reached the Nevomes and Sahuaripas in +the upper Yaqui River valley. A revolt among the Nevomes in 1622 was put +down by Hurdaide. The Mayo and Yaqui valleys were now made a separate +rectorate. + +Several of the pioneers now left the scene. In 1620 Ribas went to Mexico +as provincial; in 1625 Father Perez died, after thirty-five years, of +service, and in 1626 Hurdaide was succeeded by Captain Perea. One of the +great monuments to the work of these Jesuit pioneers is Father Perez de +Ribas's history, _The Triumph of the Faith_, published in 1644. + +In the Sonora valley.--By 1636 Jesuit missions were extended to Ures, in +Sonora River valley, a step which was aided by the discovery of mines. +Perea was made captain and justicia mayor of the Sonora district, called +Nueva Andalucia, and established his capital at the mining town of San +Juan. By 1650 mission stations had reached Cucurpe and Arispe in the +upper Sonora valley. Of the northern district the new rectorate of San +Francisco Xavier was now formed. In 1679 thirty missionaries in the +Mayo, Yaqui, and Sonora valleys were serving about 40,000 neophytes in +seventy-two pueblos. + +Spanish settlements.--By the end of the seventeenth century Sinaloa had +passed beyond the frontier stage. The population of pure Spanish blood +numbered only six hundred families in 1678, but the half-caste Christian +population was much larger, there being twelve hundred persons of +Spanish or mixed blood at San Felipe alone. In Sonora the people of +Spanish or mixed blood numbered about five hundred families. Mining and +stock-raising were the principal and by no means inconsiderable +industries in both districts. + + +EFFORTS TO OCCUPY LOWER CALIFORNIA + +Pearl fishing and efforts to colonize.--Interest in California did not +cease with Vizcaino's failures. On the contrary, private interest in the +pearl fisheries of the Gulf of California continued throughout the +seventeenth century, and the government endeavored to utilize it as +means of planting colonies. Numerous pearl fishing contracts were +granted on condition that the beneficiaries should establish +settlements. Other colonizing expeditions were fitted out at royal +expense. In nearly every case missionaries were sent with the settlers +to help to subdue and teach the Indians. + +Iturbi's voyages.--In 1614 Thomas Cardona was granted a monopoly of +pearl fishing in both the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of California. A +year later Juan de Iturbi, in Cardona's employ, made a voyage to the +head of the Gulf, and like Onate concluded that California was an +island. On his return one of his vessels was captured by the Dutch +freebooter Spillberg. In the following year Iturbi made another +successful voyage to the Gulf, though he again lost a vessel to +freebooters. The pirates in the Gulf in this century were known as the +Pichilingues. Iturbi's success inspired numerous unlicensed pearl +hunting voyages in the Gulf from the ports of Sinaloa, which were +attended by many abuses of the natives. California came now to be +commonly regarded as an island. + +[Illustration: A Dutch Map Illustrating the Insular Theory of +California's Geography (1624-1625). (From Bancroft, North Mexican States +and Texas, I, 169).] + +Later attempts.--In 1633 Francisco de Ortega, another contractor, +founded a colony at La Paz, but it was short-lived. Like failures were +experienced by Porter y Casante in 1648, by Pinadero in 1664 and 1667, +and by Lucenilla in 1668. The failures were due to the barrenness of the +country and to the fact that colonizing was made secondary to pearl +fishing. Somewhat more successful was Admiral Atondo y Antillon, with +whom a contract was made in 1679, the superior of the missionaries +being the Jesuit Father Kino. For two years (1683-1685) settlements +were maintained at La Paz and San Bruno, explorations were made, and +Kino achieved some missionary success, but in 1685 Atondo, like his +predecessors, abandoned the enterprise. No other serious attempt was +made until 1697, when the Jesuits took charge of California. + + +THE SETTLEMENT OF CHIHUAHUA + +New Mexico isolated.--In the central plateau the infant colony of New +Mexico, as at first established, had been a detached group of +settlements, separated from Nueva Vizcaya by an uninhabited, area of +five or six hundred miles in breadth. But while the New Mexicans were +gradually making their way into the plains of western Texas, +missionaries, miners, and settlers were slowly advancing up the plateau +into Chihuahua, by way of the Conchos River and by the eastern slope of +the Sierra Madre. + +Advance of settlement.--The Franciscans, in general, followed the +eastern half of the plateau, working among the Conchos tribes; the +Jesuits mainly followed the mountain slopes, among the Tarahumares. +Advance of settlement was marked by the founding of the town and +garrison of Parral, established in 1631-1632. By 1648 missions had been +established at San Pablo, Parral, San Geronimo, San Francisco Borja, +Satevo, San Francisco de Conchos, San Pedro, Atotonilco, Mescomaha, and +Mapimi. Advance was interrupted by two savage Indian wars, in the decade +following 1644, in the course of which most of the missions in Chihuahua +were destroyed. As soon as peace was restored, however, both orders +reoccupied their abandoned establishments and founded new ones. By 1680 +missionaries, miners, and settlers had reached Cusihuiriachic, Janos, +and Casas Grandes, and the last named place had for some time been the +seat of an _alcaldia mayor_. + +The Diocese of Guadiana.--As the frontier advanced new administrative +subdivisions were carved out. The official capital of Nueva Vizcaya was +still at Durango, but during the later seventeenth century the governor +resided much of the time at Parral, a point near the military frontier. +In 1620 the diocese of Guadiana, including Durango, Chihuahua, and New +Mexico was formed out of the northern portion of that of Guadalajara. + + +NEW MEXICO IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY + +The missions.--Hopes of finding rich mines and fabulous treasures in New +Mexico had failed, and for a long time after Onate's conquest that +province remained chiefly a missionary field, the only Spanish +settlement being Santa Fe, founded in 1609. By 1617 eleven churches had +been built and 14,000 natives baptized. Four years later the missions +were organized into the _custodia_ of San Pablo, under the Franciscan +province of the Holy Evangel of Mexico, whence came most of the +missionaries. The first custodian was Fray Alonso de Benavides, who +later, became bishop of Goa, in India. Besides Benavides, the best known +missionary of this period was Father Geronimo de Zarate Salmeron, who +between 1618 and 1626 labored at Jemez, Cia, Sandia, and Acoma. + +New Mexico in 1630.--In 1630 Benavides made a famous report on New +Mexico. The only Spanish settlement was still Santa Fe, where lived two +hundred and fifty Spaniards and some seven hundred and fifty half-breeds +and Indian servants. The Indians of the province who were not personal +servants paid tribute of a yard of cotton cloth and two bushels of maize +each year, burdens which they resented and resisted. There were now +friars at work in twenty-five missions, which served ninety pueblos +comprising 60,000 Indians. At each mission there were schools and +workshops where the neophytes were taught reading, writing, singing, +instrumental music, and manual arts. + +Expeditions to the east.--The subjugation of the pueblos did not exhaust +the energies of the conquerors and the friars, and they turned from time +to time to exploration. To the east they were interested in Quivira, the +"Seven Hills of the Aijados," and the Jumano Indians of the Colorado +River. In the pursuit of these objects they heard of the "kingdom of the +Texas" farther east. Missionary and trading expeditions were made to the +Jumanos in 1629 and 1632. At this time (1630) Benavides proposed opening +a direct route from the Gulf coast to New Mexico through the country of +the Quiviras and Aijados. In 1634 Alonso de Vaca is said to have led an +expedition three hundred leagues eastward to Quivira, apparently on the +Arkansas. In 1650 captains Martin and Castillo visited the Jumanos and +gathered pearls in the Nueces (probably the Concho) River. Four years +later the viceroy, interested in the pearls, sent another expedition, +under Guadalajara, to the same place. During the next thirty years small +parties of private traders frequently visited the Jumanos. In this way +western Texas became known to the Spaniards of New Mexico. + +[Illustration: New Mexico in the Seventeenth Century (From Bancroft, +Arizona and New Mexico, p. 176).] + +New Mexico in 1680.--Meanwhile the Spanish population of the province +had slowly increased till in 1680 there were over 2500 settlers in the +upper Rio Grande valley, mainly between Isleta and Taos. The upper +settlements were known as those of Rio Arriba and the lower as those of +Rio Abajo. The settlers were engaged principally in farming and cattle +ranching. + +The beginnings of El Paso.--As a result of the northward advance from +Nueva Vizcaya and of a counter movement from New Mexico, the +intermediate district of El Paso was now colonized. After several +unsuccessful attempts, in 1659 missionaries from New Mexico founded the +mission of Guadalupe at the ford (El Paso). Before 1680 Mission San +Francisco had been founded twelve leagues below, settlers had drifted +in, and the place had an _alcalde mayor_. To these small beginnings +there was now suddenly added the entire population of New Mexico. + +The Pueblo revolt.--The Pueblo Indians, led by their native priests, had +long been restless under the burden of tribute and personal service, and +the suppression of their native religion. On August 9, 1680, under the +leadership of Pope, a medicine man of San Juan, they revolted in unison, +slew four hundred Spaniards, including twenty-one missionaries, and +drove the remaining 2200 Spaniards from the Pueblo district. Under +Governor Otermin and Lieutenant Garcia the settlers retreated to El +Paso. In 1681 Otermin made an attempt to reconquer the Pueblos, but it +proved futile and the El Paso settlement was made permanent and attached +to New Mexico. To hold the outpost a presidio was established there in +1683. + +The La Junta missions and the Mendoza expedition to the Jumanos.--From +El Paso missions were extended in 1683 to the La Junta district, as the +junction of the Conchos and Rio Grande was called. Within a year seven +churches had been built for nine tribes, living on both sides of the Rio +Grande. At the same time Juan Dominguez de Mendoza and Fray Nicolas +Lopez led an expedition from El Paso to the Jumanos of central Texas, +where they were to meet Tejas Indians from the east. On their return +Mendoza and Lopez went to Mexico to appeal for a new outpost of +settlement among the Jumanos. This would probably have been established +had not attention been called to eastern Texas through the activities of +the French. + +Indian uprisings.--The Pueblo revolt was followed by a general wave of +Indian resistance, and the late years of the century were marked by +raids all along the northern frontier, from Nuevo Leon to Sonora, in +the course of which mines, missions, haciendas, and towns were +destroyed, and travelers and merchant caravans raided. To defend the +frontier, in 1685 three new presidios were established at Pasage, El +Gallo, and Conchos, and two years later one was erected at Monclova. By +1690 two others were added at Casas Grandes and Janos in Chihuahua and +shortly afterward (1695) another at Fronteras in Sonora. In 1690 a +revolt in the Tarahumara country destroyed settlements in all +directions, and was put down only by the efforts of soldiers from all +the presidios from El Gallo to Janos. + +Vargas and the reconquest of the Pueblos.--After expelling the +Spaniards, the Pueblos, under the lead of Pope, returned to their tribal +ways, and destroyed most of the signs of the hated Spanish rule. During +the next decade and a half several efforts were made to reconquer the +Pueblo region. Otermin was succeeded by Cruzate and he by Reneros, who +was in turn followed by Cruzate. In 1688 Cruzate led an expedition +against the Queres. At Cia six hundred apostates were killed in battle +and seventy captured and shot, or sold into slavery. In 1691 Diego de +Vargas Zapata Lujan Ponce de Leon was made governor especially to +reconquer the Pueblos. In 1692 he led an expedition against them. As far +as Sandia the towns had already been destroyed. Santa Fe he found +fortified and occupied by Tanos, but they yielded without a blow, as did +all of the pueblos from Pecos to Moqui. Meanwhile the friars with him +baptized over two thousand native children. + +A new colony.--Submission having been secured, in 1693 Vargas led a +colony of eight hundred soldiers and settlers to reoccupy the pueblo +region. But submission had been a hollow formality. The Tanos who held +Santa Fe were evicted only after a battle, at the conclusion of which +seventy warriors were shot and four hundred women and children enslaved. +At the mesa of San Ildefonso. Vargas met the combined resistance of nine +towns. A second siege in March, 1694, resulted in a repulse. In the +course of the summer the pueblos of Cieneguilla and Jemez were defeated, +and abandoned Taos was sacked and burned. A third attack on the mesa of +San Ildefonso was successful. Resistance now appeared to be over, the +pueblos were rebuilt, captives returned, missions reestablished, and +the Spanish regime restored. A number of the pueblos were consolidated +and rebuilt on new sites. In 1690 the new Spanish villa of Santa Cruz de +la Canada was founded with seventy families on the lands of San +Cristobal and San Lazaro. + +The conquest completed.--In 1696 a new revolt occurred, in which five +missionaries and twenty-one other Spaniards were killed, and Vargas +conducted another series of bloody campaigns, with partial success. In +the following year he was succeeded by Governor Cubero, who secured the +formal submission of the rest of the pueblos. The reconquest was now +complete and the Spanish rule secured. + + +COAHUILA OCCUPIED + +The Nuevo Leon frontier.--While there had been definite progress +eastward from New Mexico during the first three-fourths of the +seventeenth century, and considerable contact between that province and +what is now the western half of Texas, from Nuevo Leon, on the natural +line of advance from Mexico to Texas, progress was slow. For nearly a +century the northeastern outpost on the lower Rio Grande frontier was +Leon (Cerralvo), founded in the later sixteenth century. Temporarily a +more northern outpost had been established in 1590 at Nuevo Almaden (now +Monclova), but it was soon abandoned. Again in 1603 and 1644 the place +was temporarily reoccupied, but without permanent success. + +Zavala's rule, 1626-1664.--Hostile Indians troubled the border, and the +intrusions of English, French, and Dutch colonies into the Lesser +Antilles awakened fears for the safety of the western Gulf shores. In +1625 Nuevo Leon, therefore, was again entrusted to a _conquistador_, +when a contract similar to that of Carabajal in 1579 was made with +Martin de Zavala. At the same time the Florida missions 'were extended +west to the Apalache district. For thirty-eight years Zavala controlled +and governed the frontier with exemplary zeal, subduing Indians, +granting _encomiendas_, operating mines, founding new towns, and opening +highways to Panuco and the interior. His most able lieutenant after 1636 +was Alonso de Leon, one of the founders and first citizens of +Cadereyta. + +Looking northward.--By the middle of the seventeenth century, +explorations beyond the Nuevo Leon frontier had been made on a small +scale in all directions. That they were not more extensive was due to +Indian troubles and the feebleness of the frontier settlements. To the +north the Spaniards were led short distances by a desire to establish +communication with Florida, by rumors of a silver deposit called Cerro +de la Plata (perhaps the later San Saba mines), and in pursuit of +Indians. No doubt the Franciscan missionaries made many unrecorded +visits to the outlying tribes. In 1665 Fernando de Azcue led soldiers +from Saltillo and Monterey across the Rio Grande against the Cacaxtle +Indians. This is the first expedition to cross the lower Rio Grande from +the south of which we have any definite record. + +The founding of Coahuila.--Another forward step was now taken with the +founding of the new province of Coahuila, a step made necessary by +Indian depredations. In 1670 Father Juan Larios, a Franciscan from +Guadalajara, began missionary work on the troubled frontier. In +1673-1674, aided by other missionaries and by soldiers from Saltillo, he +established two missions between the Sabinas River and the Rio +Grande.[1] In the course of this work Fray Manuel de la Cruz visited +tribes north of the Rio Grande. In 1674 Coahuila was made an _alcaldia +mayor_ of Nueva Vizcaya, with Antonio de Valcarcel as first _alcalde +mayor_. A colony was now established at thrice abandoned Almaden and +later became Monclova. + +The Bosque-Larios expedition across the Rio Grande.--In 1675 Valcarcel +sent Fernando del Bosque and Father Larios on a tour among the tribes +north of the Rio Grande. In the following year (the very year when +Bishop Calderon was in Florida) the bishop of Guadalajara visited +Coahuila, and urged its further reduction, with a view to passing +beyond, to the settled Tejas Indians, across the Trinity River. In 1687 +a presidio was established at Monclova, and Coahuila was made a +province, with Alonso de Leon, the younger, as first governor. + +The college of the Holy Cross.--The development of Coahuila and Nuevo +Leon was given an impetus by the coming of a new group of Franciscan +friars from the recently founded missionary college of Santa Cruz at +Queretaro. Among these friars were Fathers Hidalgo, Massanet, and +Olivares, all of whom figured prominently in the later development of +the frontier. Beside the Queretaro friars, to the westward worked the +friars of the Province of Santiago de Xalisco with its seat at +Guadalajara. + + +[1] This was just at the time when Joliet and Marquette descended the +Mississippi River. + + +FIRST ATTEMPTS IN EASTERN TEXAS + +Plans to occupy the mouth of the Mississippi.--The aggressive policy of +the French, English, and Dutch in the West Indies, the raids of +freebooters on the Spanish settlements, the occupation of Carolina by +England, and the advance of the French into the Mississippi Valley +caused Spain great uneasiness for the northern Gulf Coast. As a +defensive measure missions had been extended to the Apalache district at +the same time that Nuevo Leon had been strengthened. In 1673 Joliet and +Marquette descended the Mississippi to the Arkansas, and in 1682 La +Salle explored it to its mouth. Four years earlier news had reached the +Spanish court that Penalosa, a discredited ex-governor of New Mexico, +had proposed to attack New Spain in the name of France. Spanish +officials therefore at once planned to occupy the Bay of Espiritu Santo +(Mobile Bay, or perhaps the mouth of the Mississippi) and in 1695 +Echagaray, an officer at St. Augustine, was ordered to explore it for +the purpose. + +The search for La Salle's colony.--A few months later the authorities +learned with alarm that in November, 1684, La Salle had left France with +a colony to occupy the same spot. Immediately several expeditions were +sent out by land and sea to learn where La Salle had landed and, if +necessary, to occupy the danger point. In 1686 Marcos Delgado explored +west by land from Apalache to the neighborhood of Mobile Bay. In +1686-1688 five coastwise expeditions (under Barroto, Rivas, Iriarte, +Pez, and Gamara) explored the Gulf between Vera Cruz and Apalache. They +discovered the wrecks of La Salle's vessels at Matagorda Bay, and it was +concluded that the French expedition had been destroyed. + +[Illustration: The Beginnings of Coahuila and Texas.] + +Eastern Texas occupied.--While these coastwise voyages were being made, +Alonso de Leon was leading expeditions from Monterey and Monclova by +land. In 1686 he descended the Rio Grande to the coast. In 1687 and +again in 1688 he crossed the Rio Grande, and in the latter expedition +captured a stray Frenchman. Shortly afterward a party of soldiers and +Indians from far distant Nueva Vizcaya crossed the Upper Rio Grande to +seek out the French intruders. In 1689 De Leon succeeded in finding the +remains of La Salle's settlement near Matagorda Bay, a few weeks after +it had been destroyed by Indians. In the following year De Leon and +Father Massanet, one of the Coahuila missionaries, led an expedition +across Texas and founded two missions among the Asinai (Tejas) Indians, +on Neches River. Texas was now erected into a province and Domingo de +Teran made governor. + +And then abandoned.--In 1691 Teran led an expedition designed to +strengthen the outpost on the Neches, explore and occupy the Cadodacho +country (near Texarkana) and, if time permitted, to reexplore the coast +as far as Florida. He reached the Red River but accomplished little else +that was new. The Asinai Indians proved hostile, and in 1693 the +missionaries withdrew. The Texas project was now abandoned for a time, +and attention centered instead on western Florida, which was in danger +not only from the French, but also from the English in Carolina, who +were visiting the Georgia and Alabama Indians. + + +THE STRUGGLE WITH RIVALS IN THE WEST INDIES + +Intruding colonies in the West Indies.--In the early years of the +conquest Spain had occupied the larger West Indian islands--Cuba, +Espanola, Porto Rico, and Jamaica--but had neglected the lesser islands. +They thus became a field for colonization by Spain's enemies. In the +seventeenth century the subjects of Holland, France, and England began +to establish settlements in the West Indies, in the heart of the Spanish +sea, while England intruded in the northern mainland. + +Between 1555 and 1562 the French had made unsuccessful attempts to +colonize Brazil, Carolina, and Florida. Between 1585 and 1595 Raleigh +had attempted to settle on Roanoke Island and in Guiana. In 1607 +Jamestown was founded within Spanish dominions at Chesapeake Bay, and +Spain's possessions thus delimited on the north. Between 1609 and 1612 +English settlers occupied the Bermudas. Between 1609 and 1619 English, +Dutch, and French all established posts in Guiana. In 1621 the Dutch +West India Company was incorporated for trade and settlement. Between +1623 and 1625 both English and French settled on St. Kitts (St. +Christopher). During the same period Barbados was settled by the +English, and Santa Cruz by English and Dutch. By 1632 English +settlements had been made at Nevis, Barbuda, Antigua, Providence Island, +and Montserrat. By 1634 the Dutch had established trading stations on +St. Eustatius, Tobago, and Curacao, while in 1635 the French West India +Company began the settlement of Guadeloupe, Martinique, and other +Windward Islands. + +Privateers.--Meanwhile French, Dutch, and English privateers swarmed the +Spanish waters. Early in the century Dutch ships harassed the coasts of +Chile and Peru. In 1628 Peter Heyn with thirty-one vessels pursued the +Vera Cruz fleet into Matanzas River, Cuba, and captured most of a cargo +worth $15,000,000. "It was an exploit which two generations of English +mariners had attempted in vain." After 1633 the Dutch West India Company +carried on active war against Spanish and Portuguese colonies. Within +two years it sent eighty ships and nine thousand men to American waters, +and its agents captured Bahia (Brazil), Pernambuco, and San Juan (Porto +Rico). + +English privateers in the early seventeenth century did their part. In +1642 Captain William Jackson, with a commission from the Earl of +Warwick, made a raid that reminds one of Drake. With eleven hundred men +he cruised the coast from Caracas to Honduras, plundering Maracaibo and +Trujillo on the way. Landing at Jamaica he captured Santiago and held it +for ransom. + +Spanish retaliation.--The Spaniards often repaid these aggressions with +good interest, and frequent raids were made on the foreign colonies. In +1629 Toledo nearly destroyed the English and French settlements on St. +Kitts. Tortuga was several times assaulted. In 1635 a Spanish fleet made +a five days' attack on the English colony on Providence Island but was +beaten back. In 1641 Pimienta with two thousand men destroyed the forts +there and captured seven hundred and seventy colonists. Ten years later +a force of eight hundred men from Porto Rico destroyed the English +colony on Santa Cruz Island, killing the governor and over one hundred +settlers. + +The English conquest of Jamaica.--Thus far the English settlements had +been made chiefly on unoccupied islands. But in 1654 Cromwell sent an +expedition under Venables and Penn to gain Spanish territory by +conquest. They failed to take Santo Domingo but succeeded at Jamaica +(1655). Twice Spain attempted to recover the island but failed +(1657-1658), and in 1670 she acknowledged England's right to all her +island possessions. + +The Danes and Brandenburgers.--Under their absolute monarch, Frederick +III, the Danes organized a West India Company, which in 1671 secured the +abandoned island of St. Thomas, using it as a planting colony and a +distributing center for Guinea slaves. Porto Rico and the Spanish +mainland were the principal Danish markets. Even the Brandenburgers, +during the latter days of the Great Elector (1685) secured a thirty-year +lease of a part of the Danish island of St. Thomas, with a view to using +it as a slave-trading station for supplying the Spanish colonies. But +the jealousy of other European powers, especially England, prevented +their securing a permanent foothold. + + +THE STRUGGLE WITH THE ENGLISH ON THE CAROLINA BORDER + +The Georgia missions restored.--After the massacre of 1597, the Florida +missions seem to have been practically abandoned for a time. But new +missionaries, requested by the governor in 1601, reoccupied the +abandoned sites, pushed farther up the coast, and entered the interior. +The settlement of Virginia by the English was followed by remonstrance +and a new wave of missionary activity. In 1612 Fray Luis de Ore came +with twenty-three friars and Florida was erected into the province of +Santa Elena, with the mother house at Havana. In less than two years the +new missionaries had established twenty mission residences among the +tribes, especially on the Guale (Georgia) coast. In 1612 was published +the first of Father Pareja's numerous books in the Timuquanan language. +By 1634 some thirty Franciscans were ministering to 30,000 converts in +forty-four missions and mission stations. The success was parallel to +that of the Franciscans in New Mexico at the same time. + +The Apalachee and the Creek missions.--The simultaneous intrusion of the +English, French, and Dutch into the Caribbean waters was a new threat +at Spain's Gulf possessions, and it was followed by the advance of her +outposts into western Florida. Throughout the sixteenth century the +warlike Apalachees had resisted Spanish authority, but in 1633 +successful missionary work was begun among them by the guardian of the +monastery of St. Augustine and one companion. Within two years they had +baptized five thousand natives. In 1638 the Apalachees revolted, but +they were defeated, and the presidio of San Luis was established among +them. This district now became one of the most important missionary +centers of Florida, missions being extended to the Creeks of western +Georgia. + +The missions in 1647.--By 1647 St. Augustine was headquarters for fifty +Franciscans, who worked among the neighboring tribes. Northward a line +of ten missions extended up the Georgia coast to Chatuache near the +Savannah River. Toward the western interior, within a radius of one +hundred and fifty miles there were ten more, and toward the south four. +In the Apalachee district there were eight in eight large towns, with +three more on the way to St. Augustine. At these thirty-five missions +26,000 converted Indians were served. + +The Apalachee revolt.--Just now, however, the prosperous Apalachee +missions suffered a severe blow. The chiefs, refusing to render personal +sendee and tribute, headed a rebellion in which several Spaniards were +slain. The governor led a campaign against them, several battles were +fought, and a number of chiefs hanged. The Indians were subdued, but +they were so embittered that the Franciscans abandoned the missions. + +The English in the Carolinas.--In 1653 English settlers from Virginia +began to establish themselves in North Carolina, and in 1670 the English +settlement of South Carolina was begun near Charleston. This intrusion +into the old Spanish province of Santa Elena was viewed with alarm by +Spain, and, as always in the border Spanish colonies, the foreign danger +was followed by renewed missionary activity on the threatened frontiers. +Missionary work received an impetus in 1674 by the visitation of Bishop +Calderon, of Cuba, who spent eight months in a tour of Florida. In that +year and the next, five new missions were founded, and in 1676 Father +Moral took to Florida twenty-four additional missionaries. Six or more +missions were now in operation on the northern Georgia coast between +Jekyl Island and the Savannah River, besides those farther south. + +English incursions and the Yamassee revolt.--Hostilities with the +English on the border began at once. In 1680 a force of three hundred +Indians and Englishmen invaded Santa Catalina Island and expelled the +garrison and mission Indians. Governor Marquez Cabrera sent soldiers to +build a fort, and asked the king for Canary Island families to hold the +country. The families were ordered sent (1681), but plans were changed +and the Indians of the northernmost missions were moved southward. The +Yamassees refused to move, joined the English, and aided them in a raid +on Mission Santa Catalina (1685). In the following year Spaniards sent +by Governor Marquez retaliated by sacking Carolina plantations and +carrying off negro slaves. Another expedition of the same year landed at +Edisto Island, burned the country residence of Governor Morton, and +destroyed Stuart Town (Port Royal). + +The English among the Creeks.--The English now threatened the Spaniards +on another frontier. Fur traders from South Carolina had pushed south +and west across Georgia and were becoming active among the Creeks of +western Georgia and eastern Alabama. In 1685 Governor Marquez sent +Lieutenant Matheos, commander at Apalachee, with twenty soldiers and +four hundred allies to capture traders operating at Kawita, Kasihta, and +Kulumi, Creek towns on the Chatahootchee and Talapoosa Rivers. The +expedition failed but it was repeated, and Marquez called on the home +government for help. + +Plans to occupy Pensacola.--It was just at this time that La Salle +formed his establishment in Texas. The combined danger from the English +and the French now made it necessary to protect the northern Gulf coast. +La Salle's intrusion was followed by the temporary Spanish occupation of +eastern Texas in 1690, already described. At the same time (1689) the +viceroy sent Andres de Pez to Spain to urge the occupation of Pensacola +Bay (Santa Maria de Galve). The council approved the plan and authorized +the withdrawal from Texas. In 1693 Pez explored Pensacola and Mobile +bays with a view to settlement. Thus, in a sense, the defence of eastern +Texas was given up for the founding of Pensacola. A new French intrusion +was necessary, however, to bring about the permanent occupation of +either Texas or Pensacola. + + +READINGS + +Bancroft, H.H., _Arizona and New Mexico_, 146-224; Bolton, H.E., +_Spanish Exploration in the Southwest_, 279-340; "The Spanish Occupation +of Texas, 1510-1690," in _Southwestern Historical Quarterly_, XVI, 1-26; +Cavo, Andres, _Tres Siglos de Mexico_; Chapman, C.E., _The Founding of +Spanish California_, 1-44; Clark, R.C., _The Beginnings of Texas_; +Coroleu, Jose, _America, Historia du Colonizacion_; Davis, W.H.H., +_Spanish Conquest in New Mexico_, 276-407; Dunn, W.E., _Spanish and +French Rivalry in the Gulf Region_, 5-215; Frejes, Fr. F., _Conquista de +Los Estados_; Garrison, G.P., _Texas_, 10-19; Gonzales, J.E., _Coleccion +de Noticias; Historia de Nuevo Leon_; Hackett, C.W., "The Pueblo Revolt +of 1680," in Texas State Historical Association, _Quarterly_, XV, +93-143; Hughes, Anne, _Beginnings of Spanish Settlement in the El Paso +District_; Leon, A., _Historia de Nuevo Leon_; Ortega, Fr. Joseph, +_Apostolicos Afanes_; Portillo, Esteban, _Apuntes para la Historia de +Coahuila y Texas_; Prince, L.B., _Historical Sketches of New Mexico_, +176-220; Twitchell, R.E., _Leading Facts of New Mexico History_, I, +333-413; Villagra, Gaspar de, _Historia de Nuevo Mexico_; Wright, L.A., +_The Early History of Cuba_, ch. 17. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + + +THE WARS OF THE ENGLISH AND SPANISH SUCCESSIONS (1684-1713) + +The impending conflict.--Before the close of the Stuart period, it was +evident that a great international struggle was at hand. Louis XIV of +France aspired to overshadow England, Austria, and Spain. The dependence +of the later Stuarts upon Louis temporarily delayed the outbreak of +hostilities, but when James II was driven from the English throne the +contest broke forth and continued intermittently until France was +humbled and England had become the foremost commercial and colonial +power. + + +THE PRELIMINARY STRUGGLE FOR THE NORTHERN FUR COUNTRY + +Sphere of French influence.--When Frontenac returned to France in 1682, +the French were predominant in Acadia, in the St. Lawrence Valley, in +the region of the Great Lakes, and in the Illinois country, and were +extending their power into the lower valley of the Mississippi. In the +West Indies they had secured a foothold. The missionary and the +fur-trader had been the instruments of interior expansion, the Indian +the source of wealth. To keep control of the natives and to win new +tribes to church and trade was the settled policy of France. The Abenaki +of Maine were between Acadia and Massachusetts and were friends of the +French. To the south of Lake Ontario were the Iroquois, the friends of +the English. In the upper lake region the various Algonquin tribes had +long been subservient to the French. Their furs were brought to Three +Rivers, Montreal, or Quebec, or were traded to the _coureurs de bois_. + +The English policy.--To wrest the fur monopoly of the north from the +French was one of the mainsprings of Stuart policy. The establishment of +the Hudson's Bay Company posts, an alliance with the Iroquois, and the +attempt to gain control of the Huron region, thus cutting off the French +from the upper lakes and the Illinois country, were the means adopted +to carry out the policy. To defeat it was the problem of the governors +of New France. A similar conflict was in process in the southwest. + +La Barre and the Iroquois, 1684.--The successor of Frontenac was La +Barre. Upon arrival he found conditions deplorable. A disastrous fire +had devastated Quebec and the Iroquois were on the warpath against the +Illinois, Hurons, Ottawas, and other "children of the French." La Barre +at first temporized with the Iroquois, but their depredations continued, +fostered by Dongan, the governor of New York. La Barre finally realized +that his policy was alienating the interior tribes and he determined +upon war. He gathered a force of Indians and French and entered the +Iroquois country where he was met by a deputation of Iroquois chiefs. +After an extended conference, instead of a war of extermination, peace +was ignominiously agreed upon, in spite of the fact that the Iroquois +refused to desist from war on the Illinois. In the meantime Duluth and +other leaders had brought five hundred warriors to Niagara, who arrived +at the rendezvous only to learn that peace had been made. With sullen +hatred in their hearts, the disappointed warriors returned to their +haunts. French influence in the region of the lakes had suffered a +severe blow. + +Denonville and Dongan.--The king had determined upon the recall of La +Barre, and Denonville, "a pious colonel of dragoons," assumed the +governorship. He at once entered into a correspondence with Dongan. Both +governors lacked resources to carry out an effective campaign; both +resorted to Jesuit influence to obtain control of the Iroquois; and both +determined to build a fort at Niagara. Denonville, in addition, planned +to erect forts at Toronto, on Lake Erie, and at Detroit, and Duluth +actually erected a stockade at the lower end of Lake Huron. Dongan in +1685 eleven canoes to the upper lakes where a successful trade was +carried on. The following year a larger flotilla was despatched, +followed by an expedition which was intended to make a treaty of trade +and alliance with the lake Indians. + +French attack on the Iroquois.--Dongan, however, received despatches +from England which led him to believe that his policy might not meet +with the entire approval of his government. He accordingly wrote a +conciliatory letter to Denonville, accompanied by a present of oranges. +Denonville replied, "Monsieur, I thank you for your oranges. It is a +great pity that they were all rotten." His sarcasm was the more +effective when it is known that eight hundred French regulars were in +the colony, and that as many more were on the way. In the spring of 1687 +Denonville was prepared to strike. Leaving eight hundred regulars to +protect the settlements, he gathered two thousand men at Ft. Frontenac. +In addition Tonty and other post commanders had raised a considerable +force in the interior which captured the canoes sent by Dongan. The +combined forces of French and Indians, totaling nearly three thousand, +penetrated the country of the Senecas, defeated them, and burned their +villages. But instead of completing the conquest of the Iroquois +country, Denonville led his forces to Niagara where a fort was erected, +and then returned to Montreal. The expedition served merely to set the +Iroquois hive buzzing, and to increase the influence of the English. + +Iroquois reprisals.--The Iroquois soon began a war of reprisal, raid +after raid being made on the French settlements. Denonville's courage +seemed to be paralyzed. He sent an agent to Albany to make an +arrangement with Dongan, who insisted that Forts Niagara and Frontenac +be abandoned. Denonville hesitated until the summer of 1688, when Big +Mouth, an Onondaga chief, appeared at Montreal. An understanding was +reached by which the governor agreed to abandon Niagara and restore +captives, no provision being made for protection of the interior tribes. +A Huron chief, the Rat, hearing of the treaty, determined that the war +should continue. Ascertaining that a party of Onondagas were on their +way to the French settlements to complete the peace arrangements, the +Rat and his followers ambushed them. The attack had the desired effect, +the Iroquois concluding that the treaty was a ruse. An ominous peace +prevailed until the French believed that danger had passed. Suddenly in +the summer of 1689 a force of fourteen hundred Iroquois attacked the +settlements. Instead of retaliating, the frightened governor ordered the +abandonment of Ft. Frontenac. This was his last important act, for he +was recalled and Count Frontenac was sent to save the colony. + +[Illustration: The Intercolonial Wars.] + +The Hudson Bay posts.--While these events had been taking place, in the +far north another conflict was waged. No attempt was made to impede the +English on Hudson Bay until 1682, when Radisson and Groseilliers, now +turned French, with two vessels took possession of the English post at +the mouth of the Nelson River, but the Frenchmen soon transferred their +allegiance once more to the English. La Barre was instructed to check +English encroachments and to propose that neither nation establish new +posts. In 1685 a Canadian company was formed to trade in the north. +Denonville considered this an excuse for attacking the English. In 1686 +a hundred men commanded by De Troyes, one of his lieutenants being +Iberville, the future founder of Louisiana, were sent overland to make +the attack. Fort Hayes, Ft. Rupert, and Ft. Albany were captured, Fort +Nelson being the only post left in English hands. French ascendency for +the time being was established on Hudson Bay. + + +THE WAR OF THE ENGLISH SUCCESSION + +William's accession precipitates war.--In spite of these conditions in +America, England and France at home had been at peace. It was of more +importance to Louis XIV to support a Catholic king of England than to +wage open war for the control of the Indian country. But with the +overthrow of James II the political situation in Europe was completely +changed. William of Orange ascended the throne of England, and Holland, +England, several of the German states, Austria, and Spain were welded +into a great coalition. Louis XIV championed the Stuart cause and the +War of the English Succession was on. In America the struggle is known +as King William's War; in Europe it is usually referred to as the War of +the Palatinate. In the course of it the Caribbean Sea was the scene of +constant conflict. The hostile zones on the mainland had been +established in the struggle for the fur trade--the lands of the Abenaki, +Iroquois, and upper lake tribes, and the Hudson Bay country. + + +_THE WAR IN THE CARIBBEAN_ + +Four years of war.--In 1689 the French inhabitants of St. Christopher +rose against the English inhabitants and expelled them from the island. +The French also broke up a Dutch station in Guiana. Early in 1690 +England sent Commodore Wright to the West Indies. Convoying a large +fleet, his squadron reached Barbados on May 11. Being reinforced by +Barbadian troops he reoccupied St. Christopher, the reduction being +completed July 16. A few days later St. Eustatius surrendered to the +English. In 1690 Trinidad was also attacked by the French. In March, +1691, Wright attacked Guadeloupe but failed to take it or to capture the +French squadron under M. Ducasse. Commodore Ralph Wrenn took command of +the English fleet in January, 1692, and the following month fought an +indecisive battle near Jamaica with a superior French force. In that +year a great earthquake destroyed Port Royal, the English capital of +Jamaica. The refugees founded Kingston which eventually superseded Port +Royal as the seat of government. + +Martinique, Santo Domingo, and Jamaica.--In 1693 nine vessels reinforced +the West Indian fleet and the combined forces, backed by Barbadian +troops, attacked Martinique, but failed to take it. In September of the +following year a squadron attacked Leogane, a French town in Santo +Domingo, but was repulsed. A French expedition from Santo Domingo also +desolated the southeastern coast of Jamaica but at Carlisle Bay was +beaten off by the colonial militia. In March, 1695, an English and +Spanish fleet attacked the French settlements in Santo Domingo and +succeeded in forcing the abandonment of Cape Francois and Port de Paix. + +Cartagena and Petit Gouave.--In April, 1697, a great English fleet under +Vice-Admiral John Neville rendezvoused at Barbados to forestall a +rumored enterprise of the enemy. M. de Pointas had been sent with large +reinforcements to assist M. Ducasse. The combined French fleet attacked +Cartagena, took much booty, and eluded Neville. The English commander +visited Cartagena, which he found had again been despoiled by +buccaneers. He then despatched Captain Mees with nine vessels to burn +Petit Gouave, a mission which he accomplished. + + +_THE WAR OF THE CANADIAN FRONTIERS_ + +The Maine frontier.--Andros had sent an expedition against the Abenaki +and had fortified the frontier, his most northern fort being at +Pemaquid, but with his fall the garrison had been reduced. During the +summer of 1689 the Indians destroyed Pemaquid and killed most of the +settlers in that region. Casco (Portland) was then attacked but was +relieved by a counter expedition. + +The French attack.--In August Frontenac was sent to assume the +governorship of Canada. In New France he found despair and desolation. +He decided to send out three expeditions, one from Montreal into the +upper Hudson Valley, the others from Three Rivers and Quebec to raid the +New England frontier. The three expeditions started about February 1, +1690. The Montreal party surprised Schenectady, where sixty persons were +massacred. A party from Albany started in pursuit and succeeded in +killing about twenty of the retreating French and Indians. The Three +Rivers expedition attacked Salmon Falls, where thirty persons were +killed and about fifty made prisoners. A relief party from Portsmouth +caught up with the raiders at Wooster River, but after a spirited fight +the French and Indians escaped. Being reinforced by Indians they joined +the party from Quebec. The united force of four or five hundred men in +May attacked the fort and blockhouses on Casco Bay, killing or capturing +the garrison, massacring or carrying into captivity most of the +inhabitants, and burning the settlements. + +Frontenac's Indian policy.--Frontenac also sent an expedition of one +hundred men to Michilimackinac to keep control of the upper lake +Indians. On the way an Iroquois war party was defeated at Sand Point on +the Ottawa River. The French victory and news of the successful raids on +the English frontier had far-reaching effects, for they kept the Hurons +and Ottawas in subjection. + +The English defence.--The attack upon the English colonies was +well-timed, for confusion prevailed in New England and New York. Andros +had been overthrown and Leisler's rebellion was in full swing. Little +help could be expected from England, for James II, with French and Irish +aid, was battling to regain his throne. In May, 1690, the New England +colonies sent delegates to a congress at New York to determine on a +military policy. A two-fold attack was planned; a land expedition +against Montreal and a naval expedition against Quebec. + +The Montreal fiasco.--The expedition against Montreal was placed under +Fitz-John Winthrop of Connecticut, who led his men as far as the +southern end of Lake Champlain. Here smallpox broke out, disagreements +with the Indians ensued, and provisions ran short. Winthrop soon +discovered that a descent on Montreal was impossible, and he +ingloriously led most of his men back to Albany. Captain John Schuyler, +however, with a small detachment proceeded northward and raided the +village of Laprairie near Montreal. + +The capture of Port Royal.--While New England delegates were at New York +a preliminary expedition was sent against Acadia, Sir William Phips, a +New Englander who had achieved great renown and wealth by locating a +Spanish treasure ship which had been wrecked off the Bahamas, was placed +in command of seven vessels. On May 11, 1690, the fleet appeared before +Port Royal, which surrendered without a shot being fired. One of the +vessels under Captain Alden captured a French post on the Penobscot and +seized several settlements on the southern shore of Nova Scotia. + +The expedition against Quebec.--In the meantime Massachusetts was +preparing for her great attempt on Quebec Thirty vessels were gathered, +but the fleet was short of ammunition, due to the fact that the French +had gained temporary control of the sea by defeating the English and +Dutch fleets at Beachy Head. The fleet commanded by Phips sailed from +Boston on August 9, 1690, but it was not until October 16 that it came +in sight of Quebec. The slow progress prevented a surprise and gave +Frontenac time to complete his defences. When Phips demanded that Quebec +surrender, he received a haughty refusal. Phips then attempted to +capture the town, but the plan was poorly executed, ammunition ran +short, and reinforcements poured into the city so rapidly that the +defenders soon outnumbered the English. A council of war was held, and +it was decided to abandon the undertaking. A week of intermittent +fighting had brought nothing but failure, which was made the more trying +by the loss of several vessels on the return voyage. + +Frontenac's policy in 1691.--After the attack on Quebec, the war +developed into a desultory frontier conflict in which the French were +usually on the offensive. The Iroquois continued to raid the French +settlements, but they were soon severely chastised, when forty or fifty +warriors were surrounded at Repentigny, near Montreal, and killed or +captured. This event and the timely arrival of several French vessels +impressed an Ottawa deputation which had come to Quebec, and the French +power among the interior tribes was greatly strengthened. + +Schuyler's expedition.--The English influence among the Iroquois was +waning; to reassert it an expedition under Peter Schuyler was sent from +Albany. It traversed Lake Champlain and the Richelieu and proceeded +toward Laprairie de la Madeleine where it was attacked by a superior +force. After stubborn fighting, Schuyler made an orderly retreat. + +Acadia and the Abenaki.--In Acadia Phips had made the blunder of leaving +no garrison; the French accordingly reoccupied it. Deeming the location +of Port Royal too exposed, M. de Villebon, the lieutenant-governor of +Acadia, moved his headquarters to Naxouat on the St. John's River, from +which vantage point he was able to direct attacks on New England. In +February, 1692, a band of Abenaki wiped out the settlement at York, and +later unsuccessfully attacked Wells. Minor raids were also made on the +towns of central Massachusetts. To protect the frontier Phips ordered +the rebuilding of Fort Pemaquid and the erection of a fort at the falls +of the Saco. Scarcely were they completed, when Iberville, in command of +two French vessels, attacked Pemaquid but failed to capture it. + +The Iroquois frontier.--The Iroquois continued to infest the region +between the St. Lawrence and Ottawa rivers, but during 1692 and 1693 +they were severely punished, and ceased to be an important factor in the +war. Frontenac then determined to reopen the fur trade. He accordingly +sent a detachment to Michilimackinac asking that furs be sent to +Montreal. In August, 1693, a flotilla of two hundred canoes arrived and +shortly afterward Tonty, with a large body of _coureurs de bois_ came to +discuss matters. Tonty soon returned to the Illinois country well +equipped to strengthen his hold on the natives. The fortifications at +Quebec were also remodeled. In 1695 Fort Frontenac was reestablished and +the following year an expedition of over two thousand men was sent +against the Onondagas and Oneidas. They abandoned their villages and the +French destroyed their crops. Though no battle was fought the expedition +served its end, for the Iroquois were duly impressed by the power of the +French. + +The New England frontier.--In 1693 an English fleet from the West Indies +arrived at Boston and the idea of an expedition against Quebec was +revived, but there was so much sickness among the men that the plan was +abandoned. During 1693 and 1694 both English and French sought to +control the Abenaki, but in spite of a treaty made by Phips, the French +succeeded in holding their allies. In July, 1694, the Indians attacked +Durham, massacring over a hundred of the inhabitants, and a few days +later killed about forty people at Groton. Two years later Iberville +again appeared before Pemaquid and this time succeeded in capturing it. +He then sailed to Newfoundland, captured and burned St. Johns, and +plundered the settlements on the coast. The English retaliated by +burning the French settlement at Beaubassin but were repulsed at +Naxouat. In March, 1697, Haverhill was raided by the Indians, and in +February, 1698, after the treaty of peace, they attacked Andover. In the +last year of the war an attack upon Boston and New York by land and sea +was determined upon and a fleet set sail from France, but the treaty of +peace ended hostilities. + + +_ACTIVITIES ON HUDSON BAY; PEACE_ + +Operations of Iberville.--When the war opened, the French were in +control of the posts about James Bay, while Fort Nelson, commanding the +great interior water-ways, was in the hands of the Hudson's Bay Company. +In 1689 Fort Albany was captured by the English. The following year +Iberville recaptured it, but in 1692 it again passed out of French +hands. In 1694 the French government determined to assist the Compagnie +du Nord; Iberville, being sent to the bay with two frigates, captured +Fort Nelson. Two years later it was retaken by the English. In 1697 +Iberville penetrated the bay, this time with five vessels. Becoming +separated from the rest of the fleet, Iberville encountered three armed +vessels of the Hudson's Bay Company. After a thrilling naval battle the +English were worsted, and the French once more took possession of Fort +Nelson. At the end of the war the only important post left in English +hands was Fort Albany. + +The Peace of Ryswick.--In 1697 the war was brought to an end by the +peace of Ryswick, by which Louis XIV acknowledged William III as king +of England. The results of the fighting in America were ignored, the +powers agreeing to restore to each other all places taken in the war. +The ownership of the Abenaki and Iroquois lands, and of the Hudson Bay +country was left unsettled. + + +THE WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION + +French expansion.--The peace of Ryswick was only a truce. France took +advantage of the peace to begin to establish her power in the +Mississippi Valley and to strengthen her hold upon the Northwest. In +1699 Biloxi was founded on the Gulf and in succeeding years France +brought under control most of the tribes of the lower Mississippi +Valley. In 1701 the French occupied Detroit to cut off the English from +one of the routes to the fur country, and strengthened their hold on the +Illinois country.[1] + +The Spanish Succession.--Upon the death of Philip IV in 1665 the +incompetent Charles II came to the throne of Spain. Court intrigues +stimulated by France and Austria, and utter lack of statesmanship at a +time when France was reaching out in every direction, brought Spain to +the lowest point in her history. Fearing that she would pass under +French control, thereby destroying the balance of power in Europe, +William III of England sought to check French power by the so-called +Second Treaty of Partition, by which the Austrian Archduke Charles was +to inherit the crown of Spain upon the death of Charles II, Spanish +possessions in Italy were to go to the Dauphin of France, and Spanish +and Austrian possessions were never to be united. To this arrangement +France, Austria, and England agreed, but the treaty proved to be but a +scrap of paper. In 1700 Charles II died and his will designated Philip +of Anjou, a grandson of Louis XIV, as his heir. + +England determines upon war.--War was not at once declared, for the +English people were slow to recognize the danger. But when French troops +occupied the border fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands, when French +edicts excluded British manufactures, when the English and Dutch trade, +especially the slave trade, was hampered in the Spanish colonies, and +when Louis XIV acknowledged the son of James II as king of England, +English statesmen were convinced that war was necessary. When Anne +ascended the throne in 1702, war was a foregone conclusion. + +War zones in America.--The war areas were even more extensive in America +than in the War of the English Succession. In the South, the West +Indies, and the Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana frontiers, and in the +North, the New England border, Acadia, Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay were +the scenes of conflict. + + +[1] For details see Chapter XV. + + +_THE WAR IN THE WEST INDIES_ + +An indecisive struggle.--When William III became convinced that the war +was inevitable, he proposed to strike at Spanish commerce. In +furtherance of this policy a squadron was sent in 1701 to the West +Indies under Vice-Admiral John Benbow. In July, 1702, Benbow destroyed +or captured several vessels near Port-au-Prince, and supported by troops +under Major-General Hamilton, he occupied St. Christopher. The fleet in +August encountered that of Ducasse off Santa Marta to the northeast of +Cartagena and in a running fight which lasted several days the English +were worsted. In 1703 General Codrington attacked Guadeloupe but a +French reinforcement forced the English to retire. The same year a +combined French and Spanish force drove the English inhabitants from New +Providence and destroyed Fort Nassau, but it was soon reoccupied by the +English Vice-Admiral John Graydon who had been placed in command of the +West Indian fleet. Before his arrival several privateers had been +destroyed near the island of Santo Domingo and descents had been made on +St. Christopher and Guadeloupe. Graydon accomplished nothing and soon +sailed to Newfoundland, where his operations were also fruitless. + +1705-1708.--During 1705 several prizes were taken and in 1706 the French +made a descent on St. Christopher. Their attack on the fort failed, but +they burned and plundered several plantations. Hearing that an English +fleet was expected, the French repaired to Nevis, which they occupied. +The English fleet under Commodore Kerr attacked Petit Gouave but failed +to capture it. In 1708 Commodore Charles Wager won an important +engagement when he attacked a Spanish fleet near. Cartagena. New +Providence was a second time attacked by the French and Spanish, which +led to the English abandonment of the island. + +1711-1712.--In 1710 the Spaniards attacked the salt rakers on Turk's +Island but were driven off. In 1711 Commodore James Littleton attempted +to find the French fleet, which he located in the harbor of Cartagena. +Finding it too strong to attack, he loafed in the neighborhood, picking +up an occasional prize. Ducasse, who was convoying a fleet of Spanish +galleons, succeeded in getting them out of the harbor without being +observed and got them safely to Havana. A French squadron which made an +attempt against Antigua was driven into St. Pierre by the English fleet, +and a similar expedition against Montserrat was foiled. The following +year the French nearly ruined Berbice, a Dutch settlement in Guiana. + + +_THE WAR ON THE FLORIDA BORDER_ + +The southern border.--On the mainland the South Carolina settlements +formed the southern English frontier. The Spaniards occupied St. +Augustine, contiguous territory up the Georgia coast, Pensacola, and +intermediate points. To the west on the Gulf coast were the recently +established French settlements. In the interior lived the Apalachees, +Creeks, Cherokees, Choctaws, and Chickasaws. To control the trade of the +Indians and use them as allies was the policy of English, Spanish, and +French alike. The first blow fell on the Apalachee. In 1702 a force of +Apalachicolas, allies of the English, destroyed the mission of Santa Fe +in the Apalachee district, and a Spanish force was met at the Flint +River by Englishmen and Creek allies, and driven back. + +Siege of St. Augustine.--The next attack of the English was directed +against St. Augustine. Hearing of their plans, Governor Zuniga sent to +Havana for reinforcements, abandoned the town of St. Augustine, and +provisioned the castle. The Carolina force of about twelve hundred +militia and Indians rendezvoused at Port Royal in September, 1702. +Colonel Robert Daniel, conducting the land forces, destroyed the mission +settlements on St. Mark's Island, captured the villages of St. Johns and +St. Marys, and plundered St. Augustine. Governor Moore conducted the +fleet, and the combined forces besieged the castle. Governor Zuniga +bravely withstood the siege for fifty days, and when Spanish vessels +arrived, Moore destroyed his ships, burned St. Augustine, and retreated +to Carolina. + +Destruction of the Apalachee Missions.--Moore was superseded as governor +by Sir Nathaniel Johnson, who immediately strengthened the +fortifications at and near Charleston. Moore, desiring to build up his +waning reputation, persuaded Johnson to send him against the Apalachee. +Setting out with a force of fifty Carolinians and a thousand Creek +allies, in January, 1704, he captured the Apalachee town of Ayubale, +burned the mission, and then defeated a force of Spaniards and +Apalachee. The Indian villages were next destroyed; of thirteen +Apalachee towns, each with its mission, only one was spared. When Moore +withdrew he carried off fourteen hundred Apalachee prisoners and slaves. + +Spanish expedition against Charleston.--In 1706 the French and Spaniards +at Havana organized an expedition to attack Carolina. In August a +frigate and four sloops, after taking on men and supplies at St. +Augustine, sailed to Charleston and demanded its surrender. A small +landing party was repulsed; six Carolina vessels sallied out, and after +an engagement the enemy withdrew. + +Indian policy of the French.--To use the Indian allies to prevent the +spread of English settlement was a fundamental of French policy. +Iberville, the founder of Louisiana, planned to obtain control of the +great interior rivers by establishing forts, and to weld the Indians +into an alliance with the French by treaties and by trade. He even +contemplated moving some of the tribes to points of greater commercial +vantage. He also believed that he could obtain the aid of several +thousand warriors in attacking Maryland, Virginia, and Carolina. +Realizing the danger, the English traders were active among the tribes. +In 1708, probably at the instigation of the English, the Cherokees, +Arikas, Catawbas, and Alabamas formed an alliance. Four thousand +warriors descended on the French settlements, but lack of leadership +destroyed the effectiveness of the attack and but little damage was +done. + +The Tuscarora War.--In 1711 the Tuscaroras, a North Carolina tribe, went +on the warpath and massacred about two hundred settlers. Virginia and +South Carolina sent aid, and in 1712 the Indians were defeated. The +Tuscaroras continued their depredations and in 1713 they were almost +annihilated. The remnant made their way to New York and were +incorporated with the Iroquois as a sixth nation. + + +_THE WAR ON THE CANADIAN BORDER_ + +Newfoundland and the New England frontier.--To deprive the French of the +profitable Newfoundland fisheries was the first endeavor of England in +the north. Captain John Leake arrived at St. Johns in August, 1702. He +cruised off Placentia Bay, making several small prizes and destroying +fishing craft. Before the end of October he had captured twenty-nine +sail, burned two vessels, and destroyed St. Peter's Fort. The New +England frontier was harried by the French and Abenaki. In 1699 +Massachusetts had made a treaty at Casco Bay with the Maine Indians, but +the Jesuits soon brought them back to French allegiance. In 1703 a +second peace treaty was made with them, but within two months they were +on the warpath, almost wiping out the Maine settlements. In 1704 the +French and Indians surprised Deerfield in the Connecticut Valley, +killing about fifty and carrying off more than one hundred captives. +Almost every frontier settlement was attacked. Even Reading, Sudbury, +and Haverhill, within a short distance of Boston, were raided. To add to +the distress French privateers did serious damage to commerce and +fisheries. + +Acadia.--The New Englanders retaliated with small counter raids, but +succeeded in inflicting little damage. It was finally determined to +strike at Acadia. An expedition was placed under Benjamin Church, a +veteran of King Philip's War. French settlements on the Bay of Fundy +were ravaged, but he failed to attack Port Royal. In 1707 an expedition, +recruited by Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island, was again +sent against Port Royal, but the stubborn defense discouraged the +attacking force and the siege was abandoned. English vessels under +Captain John Underwood raided the Newfoundland coast, destroying many +settlements and fishing craft. + +Plan to conquer Canada.--The conquest of Canada was urged by many of the +colonial leaders, the most active of whom was Colonel Samuel Vetch, a +Scotchman who had formerly seen service in the English army. In 1709 his +plan was endorsed by the British government, and preparations were made +to send a large force against Quebec by sea and a land expedition +against Montreal. But after great efforts had been made by the New +England colonies and New York, the British regulars were diverted to +Portugal, and the conquest of Canada had to be abandoned. + +Conquest of Acadia.--The following year a force of four thousand +colonials, commanded by Francis Nicholson, aided by British men-of-war +and a regiment of marines, attacked and captured Port Royal. Acadia +became the British province of Nova Scotia, and the name of its capital +was changed to Annapolis Royal. The following year the English again +raided the French fishing stations in Newfoundland. + +Failure of Walker's expedition.--In 1710 a Tory ministry came into +power, its chief members being the Earl of Oxford and Viscount +Bolingbroke. They were opposed to carrying on the war in Europe, +believing that England's best policy lay in colonial undertakings. The +conquest of Canada became the great object. As before, the attack was to +be by land and sea. Under Nicholson the land force, composed mainly of +colonials and eight hundred Iroquois, prepared to attack Montreal. The +expedition against Quebec was entrusted to Admiral Sir Bovenden Walker +and General Sir John Hill; a court favorite. Seven of Marlborough's best +regiments, veterans of Oudenarde and Ramillies, were placed on +transports which were convoyed by a large fleet of war vessels. The +great force gathered at Boston, where it was reinforced by fifteen +hundred colonials. In August, 1711, the fleet entered the St. Lawrence, +but there it met disaster. Sailing too close to the northern shore, ten +vessels were wrecked on the reefs and shoals of the Egg Islands. Stunned +by the calamity, the faint-hearted commander gave up the enterprise. +News of the disaster reached Nicholson at Lake Champlain. His force was +not strong enough to accomplish the conquest alone, and the attack on +Montreal was abandoned. + + +_THE HUDSON BAY COMPANY_ + +The Hudson's Bay Company had been sadly crippled at the end of the War +of the English Succession. Its shares fell in value and most of the +original owners sold their holdings. The only post which the company +held was Fort Albany, and in 1704 this was unsuccessfully attacked by a +party of French and Indians. The same year an English frigate captured +the principal ship of the Compagnie du Nord, causing great hardship in +the French forts. The Hudson's Bay Company during the war frequently +petitioned the Board of Trade for assistance, but, as they received +none, they appealed directly to the queen. When the final treaty was +made, the Hudson Bay country was taken into account. + + +_THE PEACE OF UTRECHT_ + +At the end of the war a series of agreements was drawn up by the various +powers. The treaties involving America dealt both with territory and +commerce. England obtained a recognition of her claims in the Hudson Bay +country and the possession of Newfoundland and Acadia. The claim of the +English to the Iroquois country was also admitted, and they were given +St. Christopher. Commercially the agreements dealt with the fisheries +and Spanish trade. The French were excluded from fishing on the Acadian +coast, but were allowed to keep Cape Breton Island and were given +certain fishing privileges on the Newfoundland coasts. An agreement with +Spain, known as the Asiento or contract, gave the English the exclusive +right for thirty years of bringing negroes into the Spanish possessions. +The English were also allowed to send an annual merchant ship of five +hundred tons burden to trade with Spanish ports. + + +READINGS + +THE STRUGGLE FOR THE FUR COUNTRY + +Bryce, George, _The Remarkable History of the Hudson's Bay Company_, +1-46; Kingsford, William, _The History of Canada_, II, 36-107; Laut, +Agnes, _The Conquest of the Great Northwest_, I, 97-255; Le Sueur, W.D., +_Count Frontenac_, 170-228; Lorin, Henri, _Le Comte de Frontenac_, +275-352; Parkman, Francis, _Count Frontenac and New France under Louis +XIV_, 72-183; Thwaites, R.G., ed., _The Jesuit Relations_, LXII-LXIV. + +THE WAR OF THE ENGLISH SUCCESSION + +Bryce, George, _The Remarkable History of the Hudson's Bay Company_, +47-55; Clowes, W.L., _The Royal Navy_, II, 462-472, 492-495; Kingsford, +William, _The History of Canada_, II, 198-386; Laut, A.C., _The Conquest +of the Great Northwest_, I, 228-255; Le Sueur, W.D., _Count Frontenac_, +229-362; Lorin, Henri, _Le Comte de Frontenac_, 353-488; Manan, A.T., +_The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783_, pp. 173-198; +Parkman, Francis, _Count Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV_, +184-427; Willson, Beckles, _The Great Company_, 182-197. + +WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION + +Clowes, W.L., _The Royal Navy_, II, chs. 23-24; Greene, E.B., +_Provincial America_, 136-165; Kingsford, William, _The History of +Canada_, III; Crady, Edward, _The History of Carolina under the +Proprietary Government, 1670-1719_, pp. 364-548; Parkman, Francis, _A +Half-Century of Conflict_, I, 1-297; Shea, J.G., _Catholic Church in +Colonial Days_, 454-479; Hamilton, P.J., _Colonization of the South_, +ch. 15. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +THE FRENCH IN LOUISIANA AND THE FAR NORTHWEST (1699-1762) + + +THE FOUNDING OF LOUISIANA + +Applicants for La Salle's grant.--During the War of the Palatinate Louis +XIV showed little desire to develop La Salle's plan for a colony on the +Gulf. In the interim, however, a number of individuals proposed taking +up La Salle's work. In 1690 his brother, the Abbe Cavelier, strongly +urged that it be continued. In 1694 Tonty asked permission to carry out +the project. In 1697 De Louvigny, Captain of Marines in Canada, proposed +making an expedition against the Spanish mines by way of the Rio Bravo. +In the same year Sieur de Argaud, at Paris, sought a grant of the +territory between Florida and New Mexico, the Gulf and the Illinois +River. The control of the Gulf and the checking of the Spanish advance +were prominent among the arguments for all these projects. + +Iberville.--But not until the treaty of Ryswick was signed did the king +again take up the plan. The founding of the proposed colony was then +entrusted to Iberville, a son of Charles Le Moyne, one of the great +seigniors of Canada. Iberville and his brother Bienville had already +distinguished themselves in their attacks upon the English on Hudson +Bay. Activities were hastened by reports that the English were preparing +to take possession of the mouth of the Mississippi. To forestall them, +Pontchartram, the Minister of Marine, in 1698 sent an expedition to the +Gulf of Mexico. + +Pensacola founded by Spain.--News of Iberville's preparations reached +Madrid early in 1698, and again Spain proved that in an emergency she +could act. Assuming that Pensacola was the French objective, the viceroy +sent Andres de Arriola to intercept them, and in November he fortified +the place. + +Biloxi founded by France.--The movement was timely. Two months behind +Arriola Iberville's fleet appeared before the harbor and demanded +admission (January, 1699). The request being politely refused, Iberville +established himself at Biloxi, after which he returned to France, +leaving Bienville in command. During Iberville's absence, the coast and +the lower courses of the Mississippi and Red Rivers were thoroughly +explored and friendly relations with the Indian tribes promoted. Shortly +afterward Iberville returned to the colony, and in 1702 the settlement +was moved to Mobile Bay where the Spaniards at Pensacola could be more +effectually checked, the new settlement being called St. Louis. + +Alliance with the tribes.--An Indian policy was also developed. Tonty, +who had found it to his advantage to divert his fur trade to Louisiana, +was sent on a peace mission to the Chickasaws. This resulted in a +conference of Chickasaws and Choctaws at Mobile Bay, at which the +friendship and trade of those powerful tribes were assured. By alliances +with the interior tribes, Iberville hoped to be able eventually to check +and, if possible, annihilate the English settlements of Maryland, +Virginia, and Carolina. After the conference at Mobile Bay, Iberville +left the colony, and Bienville became the central figure in Louisiana. + +Bienville's first administration.--The government of the colony was of a +military type. At the head was the governor, who was assisted by a +_commissaire_ who had charge of the stores. A council with judicial +powers was also established. Like Frontenac, Bienville was beset by many +difficulties, quarrels with officials and clergy being frequent. The +colony was threatened by an alliance of Cherokees, Choctaws, and other +tribes who were instigated to hostility by the English. In 1710 a new +site for St. Louis was selected, the settlement being located on the +present site of Mobile, and by that name it became known. + +[Illustration: The French in Louisiana and the Far Northwest.] + +Crozat.--The colony had not prospered, and the government desired to rid +itself of the expense of the establishment. In 1712 the king therefore +granted to Antoine Crozat, a wealthy merchant, a fifteen-year monopoly +of trade in the vast territory from Illinois to the Gulf and from the +Carolinas to New Mexico. He was also permitted to send a ship annually +to the Guinea coast for negro slaves. On the other hand, Crozat agreed +to send out two shiploads of settlers yearly. The executive powers were +vested in a council appointed by the king from nominations made by +Crozat; it consisted of a governor, intendant, and two agents of the +proprietor. The first governor was Lamothe Cadillac, the founder of +Detroit. At first a considerable number of colonists were sent over, +but the French commercial laws, the monopoly of Crozat, and the low +prices offered for peltries crippled the colony. + +Natchitoches.--Cadillac attempted to open a trade with the Spanish +colonies. With this in view in 1713 St. Denis, the younger, was sent to +take possession of the Natchitoches country on the Red River and to open +an overland trade route across Texas into Mexico. A trading post was +established at Natchitoches, but the commercial results of the +expedition to Mexico were slight. St. Denis was arrested and the +Spaniards, alarmed at the French encroachments, began the permanent +occupation of Texas. + +Fort Toulouse.--In 1714 Bienville built Fort Toulouse, on the Alabama +River, near the junction of the Coosa and Talapoosa Rivers, in the +country of the upper Creeks, Mandeville being made first commander. Fort +Toulouse was a depot where furs were bought from the Indians and floated +down the river to Mobile. Round about it the Jesuit missionaries worked +among the Creeks. The fort became the base for the control of these +tribes, and an outpost against the English of the Carolinas. When the +latter settled Georgia, feeling the menace of the French outposts, they +built Fort Okfuskee, on the Talapoosa River, fort miles away, and +induced the Creeks to destroy the Jesuit missions. + +Natchez.--Difficulties arose with the Natchez Indians; in 1716 Bienville +was sent to subdue them, and Fort Rosalie was erected on the site of +Natchez. Cadillac was shortly afterward recalled. Crozat had found his +colony merely a bill of expense and in 1717 he surrendered his patent. +At that time there were about seven hundred Frenchmen in Louisiana. + + +LOUISIANA UNDER THE COMPANY OF THE INDIES (1717-1731) + +The Mississippi Bubble.--When Crozat surrendered his patent John Law was +ushering in his era of speculation. Louisiana was taken over by the +Compagnie d'Occident, which was granted complete political and +commercial powers. The capital of the Company, amounting to one hundred +million livres, was divided into two hundred thousand shares. In 1719 +the company received, in addition, a monopoly of the trade of Africa and +the Orient, and increased its capital by fifty thousand shares, +thenceforth being known as the Compagnie des Indies. Law made Louisiana +the center of his system, and represented the country as an earthly +paradise, fabulous in mines. + +New Orleans founded.--Bienville was made governor and the capital was +established at New Biloxi. In 1718 New Orleans was laid out and named in +honor of the regent. A garrison was established at the Natchitoches +trading post, and Fort Chartres was built in the Illinois country. +Feudal seignories were not extended as in Canada, but extensive tracts +were granted to _concessionaires_, who agreed to bring out settlers. In +a short time many tracts had been granted on Red River, on the +Mississippi, and on the Yazoo. As colonists did not volunteer in +sufficient numbers, emigrants were secured from hospitals and jails, or +were spirited away from France. A few negro slaves had been previously +introduced, but Law's company brought large numbers; the first cargo, +landed in 1719, contained two hundred and fifty. With this introduction +of slavery, agriculture developed rapidly. + +War with Spain.--At this time a brief period of war ensued between Spain +and France, due to the ambitions of Elizabeth Farnese and her advisor +Alberoni. An expedition from Mobile captured Pensacola, but it was soon +after retaken by the Spanish, who also attacked Mobile. Shortly +afterward the French again captured Pensacola, but at the end of the war +it was restored to Spain. At the same time the Spaniards were driven out +of eastern Texas and an expedition under Villazur was defeated by French +allies on the Platte River. + +Growth of population.--In 1720 the Mississippi Bubble burst, stock in +Law's numerous enterprises fell rapidly, and the great financier left +France a ruined man. Though Louisiana ceased to be the center of the +financial system of France, the Company continued operations with +considerable success. The white population had increased to about five +thousand. New Orleans had a considerable population, and in 1722 it was +made the capital. + +The government.--In order that the country might be better governed, it +was divided into the nine judicial departments of Biloxi, Mobile, +Alibamon, New Orleans, Yazoo, Natchez, Natchitoches, Arkansas, and +Illinois. The negro population increased so rapidly that there was +considerable fear of an uprising. To govern them, in 1724 a set of laws +known as the Black Code was promulgated by the governor. The legal +religion of the colony was decreed to be Catholic, and masters were to +give religious instruction to slaves. Intermarriage of whites and blacks +was prohibited. The slaves were forbidden to carry weapons or to gather +in assemblies. Masters were bound to clothe, protect, and give +subsistence to slaves, and negro families were not to be broken up by +sales. Masters were also responsible for acts of their slaves. The +crimes of those in bondage were punished by whipping, branding, or, in +extreme cases, by death. This code was the last important act of +Bienville, who shortly afterward returned to France. The central +government under the company was practically the same as that of Canada +in the time of Frontenac, and similar quarrels between governor and +intendant ensued. Ecclesiastically Louisiana was divided roughly into +three districts; the Mobile region was under the Carmelites, the Jesuits +ministered to those in the Illinois country and along the lower Ohio, +and the rest was under the Capuchins. + +The Natchez War.--Owing to the French occupation of Natchez lands, the +tribe in 1729 formed a conspiracy, which embraced the Choctaws and other +tribes, for the purpose of exterminating the whites. In the first attack +two hundred and fifty French at Fort Rosalie were killed, and many women +and children taken into captivity. The Choctaws turned against the +Natchez. An army of French and Choctaws was collected, and finally +succeeded in dispersing the hostile tribe. A second expedition pursued +the fugitives, and the Natchez were so severely chastised that they +ceased to exist as a unit. + + +LOUISIANA UNDER THE ROYAL GOVERNORS + +Bienville again governor.--The expense of the Natchez War convinced the +directors of the company that the Louisiana project could not be made a +paying investment, and in 1731 the king released them from their +charter. In 1731 the Company of the Indies withdrew from Louisiana and +it became a royal province. A council was organized to replace the +company and Bienville was again made governor. + +The Chickasaw War: Fort Tombecbe.--After the Natchez War the remnant of +the tribe had fled to the Chickasaws. In 1736 Bienville made war on the +latter tribe, who had not only harbored the Natchez, but were in +alliance with the English and had formed a league to cut off French +activities along the Mississippi, Mobile, and Tombigbee Rivers. +Bienville led troops from Natchitoches, Natchez, Mobile, and New +Orleans, while D'Artaguette from the Illinois cooeperated. As a base of +attack Fort Tombecbe was built on the Tombigbee River in the Choctaw +country. The expedition against the Chickasaws ended in disaster, but +Fort Tombecbe continued to be important as a base for the control of the +Choctaws, who were kept hostile toward Chickasaws and English. In 1740 a +second attempt was made. At Fort Assumption, on the site of Memphis, a +force of thirty-six hundred was gathered. The size of the army +frightened the Chickasaws, who sued for peace. The French, however, +failed to secure their friendship, and they remained allies of the +English. + +End of Bienville's rule.--In 1743 Bienville retired from the +governorship without having succeeded in making the colony a success. +The white population near the Gulf had declined to thirty-two hundred +and there were about two thousand slaves in the colony, while the +Illinois country contained about fifteen hundred people. During the +remaining twenty years of French rule in Louisiana the New Orleans +region showed but slight development. + +The Illinois.--The Illinois district throve especially under the Company +of the Indies. At first the settlements had been governed from Canada, +but because of the Fox wars and difficulties of transportation, there +was little connection with Canada, and after 1717 the Illinois district +was attached to Louisiana. The settlement profited by the John Law +"boom" in 1719, eight hundred new colonists coming, chiefly from Canada +and New Orleans. In 1720 Fort Chartres, in 1723 St. Philippe, and ten +years later Prairie du Rocher, were established. Across the river St. +Genevieve and St. Charles were founded. Further east, the Wabash was +fortified to keep out the advancing English traders. In 1720 Ouiatanon +post was established at Lafayette. This post and Fort Miami, at Fort +Wayne, were attached to Canada, while Vincennes, founded in 1731, +belonged to Louisiana, as did Fort Massac founded later on the Ohio. The +dividing line between the districts was Terre Haute, or the highlands. +Ouiatanon was at the head of navigation on the Wabash for larger +pirogues. Here peltries for Canada were reshipped in canoes. Twenty +thousand skins a year were sent from Ouiatanon in the decade after 1720. + +The Garden of New France.--The Illinois district became an important +agricultural center, whence large shipments of grain were made to +Detroit, the Ohio River posts, New Orleans, Mobile, and Europe. Negro +slaves were introduced and tobacco-raising was begun. At Kaskaskia there +was a Jesuit academy for white boys, and at Cahokia a Sulpician Indian +school. + +The Missouri lead mines.--During the rule of the Company of the Indies +lead mines were opened in Missouri, where lead had been early +discovered, especially on Maramec River. While governor, Cadillac had +made a personal visit to inspect them. Mining was begun on an important +scale by Renault, who received grants on the Missouri in 1723. He is +said to have taken to these mines two hundred miners from France, and +five hundred negroes from Santo Domingo. He was actively engaged in +mining until 1746. + + +THE TRANS-MISSISSIPPI WEST + +French advance into the Far West.--Meanwhile the French explorers had +reached the Rocky Mountains. In or before 1703 twenty Canadians went +from the Illinois country toward New Mexico to trade and learn about the +mines. By 1705 Laurain had been on the Missouri and in 1708 Canadians +are said to have explored that stream for three hundred or four hundred +leagues. By 1712 salines were being worked in Missouri and settlers were +living about them. Under the Company of the Indies exploration and trade +were pushed for a time with vigor in the trans-Mississippi West, all +along the border from the Gulf of Mexico to Nebraska. From Natchitoches +French traders made their way among the tribes of eastern and northern +Texas, and sometimes reached the Spanish settlements. In 1717 St. Denis +the younger and several partners made a second trading expedition +overland from Mobile via Natchitoches to San Juan Bautista on the Rio +Grande. His goods being seized, he went to Mexico, where he was +imprisoned, though his goods were sold with profit. His associates, who +reached the border somewhat after him, made their way to Presidio del +Norte, disposed of their goods, and returned to Louisiana. + +La Harpe on the Red River.--While St. Denis was in Mexico, Benard de la +Harpe was sent to establish a post on the Red River above Natchitoches. +He was urged to inform himself concerning the source of the Red River +and the tribes near New Mexico, and to open commerce with the Spanish +provinces. In 1719 he established his post among the Cadodachos. Du +Rivage was sent up the Red River, and La Harpe made an expedition to the +Touacaras near the mouth of the Canadian River, where he proposed to +found a post as a base for trade with New Mexico, the Padoucas, and the +Aricaras. + +Du Tisne on the Osage and the Arkansas.--At the same time (1719) Du +Tisne was on the Missouri, Osage, and Arkansas rivers. He ascended the +Missouri River to the Missouri Indian village, on his way to the +Pawnees, but was unable to proceed. He returned to the Illinois, and +went to the Osage tribe on the Osage River. From there he continued +southwest to the Pawnees on the Arkansas. He made an alliance with the +Pawnees, bought Spanish horses from them, and established a French flag +in their villages. He was prevented by his hosts from going to the +Padouca, but he inquired about New Mexico. + +La Harpe on the Gulf Coast.--In 1718 the company was ordered to occupy +the Bay of St. Bernard, discovered by La Salle. In 1719 and 1720 +preliminary expeditions were made, and in 1721 La Harpe himself led an +expedition to a bay on the Texas coast, but he was expelled by the +Indians. The bay reached by him was the Bay of the Bidayes (Galveston +Bay) and not the St. Bernard of La Salle. La Harpe urged a new attempt, +to keep out the Spaniards, but the company abandoned the project. + +La Harpe on the Arkansas.--After returning from the Gulf coast +expedition, La Harpe was sent from Mobile in December, 1721, to explore +the Arkansas River, with the idea of developing Indian trade, preventing +Spanish encroachment, and opening commerce with New Mexico. He ascended +the Arkansas about halfway to the mouth of the Canadian River, and on +his return recommended establishing posts at Little Rock, the mouth of +the Canadian, and the Touacara villages. + +Bourgmont on the Missouri and Kansas Rivers.--In the years immediately +following the Spanish expedition under Villazur (1720), the French made +active efforts to communicate with New Mexico on the one hand, and to +forestall any hostile movement of the Spaniards on the other. Having +heard that Spaniards were preparing to return to avenge their defeat and +to occupy the Kansas River country, Bienville in 1722 ordered +Boisbriant, commander at the Illinois, to anticipate the Spaniards and +build a fort. The person sent was Bourgmont, who had lived among the +Missouris fifteen or more years, and had been made commander on the +Missouri. Late in 1723 he established Fort Orleans above the mouth of +the Grand River, in modern Carroll County, Missouri. From there in 1724 +he went up the river among the Otos and Iowas, and then southwest to the +Padoucas in Western Kansas, taking with him Missouris, Osages, Kansas, +Otos, and Iowas. He made peace between these tribes and the Padoucas, +and arranged to send traders to the last named. A primary object was to +open a way to New Mexico. Shortly afterward Fort Orleans was destroyed +by an Indian massacre, and wars of the Foxes for several years +practically closed the lower Missouri. + + +THE ADVANCE TOWARD NEW MEXICO + +The western fur trade.--For a decade and a half after the Bourgmont +expedition the French made no noteworthy western exploration. Meanwhile, +however, the traders quietly carried on their trade among the western +tribes. Important items in this trade were Indian captives, and mules +stolen from the Spaniards. French traders sometimes found a ready market +for goods smuggled into Spanish settlements on the northern frontier of +New Spain. From New Orleans, Opelousas, Natchitoches, Yatasi, Petit +Caddo, and Cadadocho posts they worked among the tribes of eastern and +northern Texas. By 1730 they had reached the lower Trinity to trade +among the Orcoquiza and Bidai tribes. Further north they traded with the +Asinai and Cadadochos, in the very face of the Spanish posts. By the +middle of the century they were well established among the Wichita +tribes of the Red River Valley, and northeastern Texas was virtually +under French control. The way to western Texas and the upper Red River +was barred by the hostile Apaches, but in 1753 Governor Kerlerec +proposed breaking through this strong barrier. + +From the Arkansas post traders worked among the Quapaws and Jumanos, and +other tribes adjacent to the Arkansas River. From the Illinois, and from +lesser posts among the Osages, Missouris, and Kansas, traders worked +among these tribes, the Iowas, Otos, Pawnees of the Platte, and other +more northern bands of Indians. + +Interest in New Mexico.--French voyageurs, _chasseurs_, and traders of +Louisiana and Canada continued to look with covetous eyes toward New +Mexico. To the adventurer it was a land promising gold and silver and a +path to the South Sea; to the merchant it offered rich profits in trade. +The natural avenues of approach to this Promised Land were the Red, +Arkansas, and Missouri Rivers. But there were obstacles to expeditions +bound for New Mexico. One was the jealous and exclusive policy of Spain, +which made the reception of such Frenchmen as might reach Santa Fe a +matter of uncertainty; another was the Indian barrier which stood in the +way. The Red River highway was effectually blocked by the Apaches, +mortal enemies of all the tribes along the lower valley; the Arkansas +and Missouri avenues were impeded by the Comanches for analogous +reasons. The Apaches and Comanches opposed the passage of the trader to +their foes with supplies of weapons. As the fur traders and official +explorers pushed rapidly west, one of their constant aims was to open +the way to New Mexico by effecting peace between the Comanche and the +tribes further east, an attempt at which had been made by Du Tisne and +Bourgmont at an earlier day. + +The Mallet brothers.--After the cessation of the Fox wars, which had +closed the lower Missouri, traders again frequented the Pawnees and +Aricaras, and in 1734 one is known to have ascended the Missouri to the +Mandans, from whose villages a trade route was soon opened to western +Canada. In 1739 a party led by the Mallet brothers made their way, by +the Missouri and Platte Rivers, across Nebraska, Kansas, and Colorado to +Santa Fe. After a nine months' stay they returned, part going +northeastward to the Illinois and part down the Canadian and Arkansas to +New Orleans. + +Fabry's attempt: Fort Cavagnolle.--The Mallet party had succeeded in +getting through the Comanche country to New Mexico and had returned +safely and with good prospects for trade. Immediately there was renewed +interest in the Spanish border on the part of both government officials +and private adventurers. At once, in 1741 Governor Bienville sent Fabry +de la Bruyere with members of the Mallet party to open a trade route to +New Mexico up the Canadian River, and to explore the Far West. He failed +to reach New Mexico. Fort Cavagnolle was established among the Kansas, +and the Arkansas route was made safe by effecting a much-desired treaty +(1746 or 1747) between the Comanches and their eastern enemies. + +New expeditions to New Mexico.--The effect of this treaty was immediate, +and at once there were new expeditions to New Mexico by deserters, +traders, and official agents. In 1748 thirty-three Frenchmen were +reported among the Xicarillas. Early in 1749 a party led by Pierre +Satren reached Santa Fe by way of the Arkansas River, conducted by +Jumano and Comanche Indians. They were kept in New Mexico to work at +their trades. Early in 1750 another party arrived by way of the +Arkansas. They were ordered sent to Sonora to prevent their return to +Illinois. In the meantime peace had been made between the Comanches and +Pawnees, and in 1751 traders reached New Mexico by way of the Missouri. +In the same year Jean Chapuis led a party of nine from Illinois with a +commission from St. Clair, the commander of Fort Chartres. Arriving at +Santa Fe in 1752, via Platte River, he proposed a regular caravan trade +with military escort. The intruders were arrested and sent to Mexico, +where they languished in prison for many months, and were finally sent +to Spain. + +The French advance through the Comanche country gives significance to +the proposal of Governor Kerlerec in 1753 to break through the Apache +barrier and open up a trade with Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, and New Mexico. +As a means of doing so he proposed securing an alliance between the +Apaches and their eastern enemies. These intrusions of Frenchmen into +New Mexico were closely bound up in their effect on Spanish policy, with +similar infringements upon the Texas border. + + +THE FAR NORTHWEST + +The Fox wars.--By the end of the seventeenth century Fox hostilities had +practically closed the Fox-Wisconsin trade route to the Mississippi. +Hostility was increased by the massacre of many Fox Indians at Detroit +in 1712. In 1715 De Lignery led a futile expedition against the tribe at +Green Bay. In the following year Louvigny with eight hundred men won a +partial victory at Butte des Morts, near Lake Winnebago. The European +war had now closed, and the Lake Superior posts--Green Bay, La Pointe, +Pigeon River, and Lake Nepigon--were reoccupied. The Fox-Wisconsin route +being closed, the western trade was divided between the Lake Superior +district and that of the Illinois. + +The new Sioux posts.--A new movement into the Sioux country was +stimulated by the long standing desire to find a route to the Pacific. +In 1723 Father Charlevoix suggested finding it either by means of a line +of posts through the Sioux country or by way of the Missouri and over +the mountains. The former plan was adopted, and in 1727 Fort Beauharnois +was built on the west bank of Lake Pepin, with Perriere in command, and +with new missions in the vicinity. But, through another uprising of the +Fox Indians, the post was soon abandoned. New expeditions against the +Foxes and the Sauks, their allies, broke their resistance, and after +1733 the Fox-Wisconsin trade route to the Iowa and Minnesota country was +again open. After 1750 the Foxes were regular allies of the French in +their wars with the British. + +The Verendrye and the Post of the Western Sea.--The search for the route +to the Western Sea was taken up by Gaultier de Varennes (the elder La +Verendrye), commander at Fort Nepigon, who planned a fine of posts +through the waterways northwest of Lake Superior. His movements were +stimulated by the activities of the Hudson's Bay Company in Canada, and +by those of the Spaniards in the Southwest. To pay the expenses of his +scheme he was granted a monopoly of the northwestern fur trade. In the +course of ten years he founded posts on Rainy Lake (St. Pierre, 1731), +Lake of the Woods (St. Charles, 1731), Lake Winnipeg (Maurepas, 1732), +Assiniboine River (La Reine), and on the Saskatchewan (Fort Dauphin, +1741). In 1742 La France had penetrated the Hudson's Bay Company +territory by crossing from Lake Winnipeg to York Factory. + +From this line of posts the elder La Verendrye turned his attention to +the upper Missouri, leading an expedition southwestward to the Mantannes +in 1738. Four years later his son, Pierre de Varennes, made another +expedition to the Mantannes, where they heard of bearded white men to +the west. Setting out southwestward, they visited the Cheyennes, Crows, +Little Foxes, and Bows. On January 1, 1743, when in the neighborhood of +the North Platte River, they saw the Rocky Mountains. + +After Verendrye died, his successor, Legardeur St. Pierre, extended the +line of posts up the Saskatchewan to the foot of the Rockies, where in +1752 he founded Fort La Jonquiere. The French had thus reached the +Rockies by way of nearly every important stream between the Red River +and the Saskatchewan. + + +READINGS + +Bolton, H.E., _Athanase de Mezieres_, I, Introduction; _Texas in the +Middle Eighteenth Century_, 1-133; "French Intrusions into New Mexico," +in _The Pacific Ocean in History_; Dunn, W.E., _Spanish and French +Rivalry in the Gulf Region of the United States, 1678-1702_: _The +Beginnings of Texas and Pensacola_; Fortier, Alcee, _History of +Louisiana_, I, 30-140; French, B.F., _Historical Collections of +Louisiana and Florida_; Gayarre, Charles, _History of Louisiana, French +Domination_; Hamilton, P.J., _Colonial Mobile; The Colonization of the +South_, 197-275; Heinrich, Pierre, _La Louisiane sous la compagnie des +Indies, 1717-1731_; King, Grace, _New Orleans; Sieur de Bienville_; +King, Grace, and Ficklen, John, _History of Louisiana_; LePage du Pratz, +_Histoire de la Louisiane_; Martin, F.X., _History of Louisiana_; Ogg, +F.A., _The Opening of the Mississippi_, 169-237; Parkman, Francis, A +Half-Century of Conflict, I, 298-368, II, 3-44; Phelps, Albert, +_Louisiana_, 20-105; Shea, J.G., _Exploration of the Mississippi +Valley_; _The Catholic Church in the United States_; Thwaites, R.G., +_France in America_, 72-88; Villiers du Terrage, Marc de, _Les Dernieres +Annees de la Louisiane Francaise_, 1-48; Winsor, Justin, _The +Mississippi Basin_, 1-217; Burpee, Lawrence, _Pathfinders of the Great +Plains_. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +TEXAS, PIMERIA ALTA AND THE FRANCO-SPANISH BORDER CONFLICT (1687-1763) + + +The advance of the French into Louisiana and the Trans-Mississippi West +stimulated a new counter movement northeastward by the Spaniards from +Chihuahua, New Mexico, and Coahuila, and there ensued on the +Franco-Spanish border a contest for the control of Texas and all the +plains country as far north as the Platte River--a contest much like the +better-known "half-century of conflict" between the English and the +French on the other border. At the same time, the Spanish frontier +forged slowly northwestward into Lower California and southern Arizona. +On the other hand, the Florida frontier, which in the seventeenth +century had been pushed back by the English colonies of Virginia and the +Carolinas, was now still further contracted by the establishment of +French Louisiana and English Georgia, while in the West Indies and +Honduras Spanish rule suffered a like diminution through the continued +advance of the English, French, and Dutch. The _Asiento_ of 1713 with +Great Britain was a particularly hard blow at Spain's commercial +independence, and was made worse by England's gross violation of the +compact. + + +NORTHEASTWARD ADVANCE OF THE SPANISH FRONTIER + +The Chihuahua mines.--In Nueva Vizcaya two notable forward steps north +were taken in the early eighteenth century. These were the opening of +the Chihuahua silver deposits and the advance down the Conchos valley. +In 1703-1704 rich ores were discovered near the recently founded mission +of Nombre de Dios. The mines proved to be among the best in America, +and, it has been estimated, produced silver worth from $50,000,000 to +$100,000,000 in the eighteenth century. Two _reales de minas_, Chihuahua +and Santa Eulalia, were established near by, and became the most +thriving centers on the northern frontier. By 1763 each had a +population of 5000, and the church at Chihuahua was one of the finest in +the new world. + +Advance down the Conchos Valley.--At the same time the frontier advanced +down the fertile Conchos River Valley and across the Rio Grande into +western Texas. In 1715 the abandoned missions at La Junta were +reestablished. Soon six missions were in operation and serving Indian +towns on both sides of the Rio Grande. For ten years they succeeded, and +then, in 1725, the Indians revolted and deserted. During the subsequent +years the padres made them occasional visits, while settlement pushed +down the Conchos Valley. In 1753 the La Junta missions were restored, +and in 1760 were protected by the new presidio of Belen. + +The New Mexico border. Moqui and Zuni resistance.--The reconquest of the +New Mexico pueblos had been effected by Vargas at the end of the +seventeenth century. The Moquis and Zunis, however, stubbornly resisted +Spanish influence and harbored apostates. In 1726 and again in 1741 the +Moqui district was assigned to the Jesuits of Sonora, but they +accomplished little. Rivalry led to new Franciscan visits, and in 1742 +the missionaries recovered more than four hundred Tigua fugitives who +had fled during the great revolt of sixty years before. In 1745 the +field was restored to the Franciscans, but they were unable to make +permanent establishments. + +Xicarrilla and Navajo missions.--In 1733 a mission was founded near Taos +for the Xicarrilla Apaches who were hard pressed by the Comanches. +Between 1744 and 1750 efforts were made to convert the Navajo, but +without avail. + +New settlements.--The population of New Mexico grew slowly but steadily. +In 1706 Governor Cubero founded the new villa of Albuquerque and +reestablished La Canada. In 1760 there were 7666 Spaniards in fourteen +settlements in the upper district and 3588 about El Paso. This was a +population larger than that of English Georgia at the same time. The +largest towns were Albuquerque (1814). La Canada (1515), and Santa Fe +(1285). At the same time the Christian Indians in the province numbered +10,000. + +Indian depredations.--New Mexico was constantly harassed by Navajos on +the west, Yutas and Comanches on the north, and Apaches on the east and +south. The main object of the savages was to steal stock and other +property, but they often shed human blood freely. On the basis of horses +and mules stolen in New Mexico, a regular trade was maintained by +Indians across the country to Louisiana. The exterior tribes attacked +the Pueblo Indians even more freely than the Spaniards. The Spanish +soldiery, with Indian allies, often retaliated with telling effect and +recovered stolen horses and mules. Captives taken were sold as slaves to +the settlers or in the interior. Yet there were truces between +campaigns, and by the middle of the century the Comanches and Yutas in +large numbers attended the annual Taos fair, where they sold skins and +captives. + +Rumors of the French.--The French advance up the Missouri stimulated a +counter movement of the Spaniards of the New Mexico border. Before the +end of the seventeenth century wild rumors of the approaching French had +reached Santa Fe. Other interests, especially Indian relations, +furnished motives for northeastward expeditions early in the eighteenth +century. In 1706 Juan de Urribarri was sent by Governor Cubero "to the +unknown land of the plains" to ransom Christian captives from the +northern tribes. He crossed the Napestle (Arkansas) River, near the +present city of Pueblo, Colorado, and reached the Indian settlement of +El Cuartelejo, near the Colorado-Kansas border, where he heard new +reports of the French among the Pawnees. + +Expeditions to the northeast and north.--The frequent campaigns against +the Indians were occasions for new exploration. In 1715 Juan Paez +Hurtado, with two hundred and fifty men, pursued Apaches into western +Texas. During the next four years several expeditions were made +northeast against Comanches and Yutas, in the course of which new +reports were heard of the French, who were now pushing up all the +western tributaries of the Mississippi. In 1719 a campaign against the +Yutas and Comanches led Governor Valverde across the Arkansas. In 1720 +occurred the disastrous Villazur expedition to the Platte described +later. About 1750 Bustamente y Tagle pursued Comanches down the Arkansas +nearly to the Jumanos. + +Explorers in Colorado.--Explorers also entered the Utah Basin. Juan +Maria Rivera, sent out by Governor Cachupin in search of ore, visited +and named the La Plata (Silver) Mountains, and continued to the junction +of the Uncompahgre River with the Gunnison (1765). In the following +year Nicolas de la Fora, writing in New Mexico, stated that the +Spaniards were acquainted with the country along the Cordillera de las +Grullas (in western Colorado) for a hundred leagues above Santa Fe. A +decade later (1779) Anza ascended the San Luis Valley, descended the +Arkansas River, and returned to Santa Fe over the mountains. + + +THE FOUNDING OF TEXAS + +The Coahuila frontier.--In 1693 eastern Texas, after a temporary +occupation, had been abandoned, and the frontier fell back to Coahuila. +In the course of the next decade, however, it was gradually extended +until it crossed the Rio Grande. A most important factor in the work +were the Queretaro friars, who ever urged the government forward. By +1698 Boca de Leones and Lampazos had become the seats of flourishing +mines, missions, and ranches. Between 1699 and 1703 three missions and a +presidio had been established on the Rio Grande at San Juan Bautista, +below modern Eagle Pass. The site, being a great rendezvous and trading +place for the tribes, was known as the "Cadiz of the interior." Near +most of the missions small colonies of Spaniards and Tlascaltecans +settled. These missions served many Indians from beyond the Rio Grande, +and frequent expeditions were made into the outlying country. + +Plans to reoccupy Texas.--During all this time the missionaries were +desirous of returning to the Asinai or Texas Indians, whom they had left +in '93, and with whom they had since maintained communication. In 1706 +the governor of Coahuila urged the founding of a mission on the Rio Frio +as a means of securing the road to the Asinai. Three years later Fathers +Olivares and Espinosa made an expedition to the Colorado River, where +they hoped to meet the tribe. Father Hidalgo long made strenuous efforts +to get permission to return to his former charges, and Father Olivares +went to Spain to procure it. Frequent rumors of French incursions from +Louisiana were discussed in government circles, but it required an +actual danger to cause the government to act. + +St. Denis in Mexico.--In 1714, led by two survivors of La Salle's +expedition, St. Denis made his expedition across Texas to trade. At San +Juan Bautista he was arrested and taken to Mexico, where it was +realized by the officials that a real menace had arisen. In a council of +war held on August 22, 1715, it was decided to reoccupy Texas with +missions, a garrison, and a small colony. Domingo Ramon, a frontier +officer, was put in charge of the expedition, and the missionary field +was assigned to the two Franciscan colleges _de Propaganda Fide_ of +Queretaro and Zacatecas. Of the missions of the former, Father Espinosa, +later known as the historian, was made president; of the latter the +president appointed was the still more renowned Father Antonio Margil. + +Eastern Texas reoccupied.--In February, 1716, the expedition left +Saltillo, and in April it crossed the Rio Grande at San Juan Bautista. +In the party were nine friars, twenty-five soldiers, six women, and +enough other persons to make a total of sixty-five. They drove with them +more than 1000 head of cattle and goats, and an outfit for missions, +farms, and a presidio. A direct northeast route was followed, through +San Pedro Springs, where the city of San Antonio later grew up. By the +Asinai Indians they were given a warm welcome, and four missions were at +once founded near the Neches and Angelina Rivers. Near the latter stream +the presidio of Dolores was established. At the same time an attempt was +made to establish a mission on the Red River among the Cadodachos, but +it was frustrated by the Indians, who were under French influence. + +A new base needed.--Eastern Texas had been reoccupied, but the outposts +there were weak and isolated. The French were trading among the +surrounding tribes; St. Denis was known to be planning another +commercial expedition to Mexico; and it was rumored that a large French +colony was to be established at the mouth of the Mississippi. This +prediction was verified by the founding of New Orleans in 1718. On the +other hand, Father Olivares urged advancing from the Rio Grande to the +San Antonio. These motives to action coincided with a more aggressive +Spanish policy toward the French since the death of Louis XIV, a policy +exemplified by the new viceroy Linares. + +[Illustration: Texas in the 18th Century.] + +San Antonio founded.--In a _junta de guerra_ held December 2, 1716, it +was therefore decided to establish posts on the San Antonio and among +the Cadodachos, while Ramon was to destroy the French establishments at +Natchitoches. The new enterprise was entrusted to Martin de Alarcon, +who was made governor of Texas and, before setting out, of Coahuila. +While the expedition was preparing, St. Denis reached the Rio Grande +(April, 1717), where his goods were confiscated. Going to Mexico, he was +there imprisoned. Meanwhile Ramon had reconnoitered Natchitoches, and on +his return early in 1717 two new missions were founded among the Ays and +Adaes, the latter being within seven leagues of Natchitoches, and +thenceforth a vital spot in the history of international frontiers. + +Early in 1718 Alarcon left Coahuila with a colony of sixty-two persons, +besides the neophytes of mission San Francisco Solano, who were to be +transferred to the new site on the San Antonio River. Arrived there, a +mission, presidio, and town were founded, the beginnings of the modern +city of San Antonio. In the east Alarcon accomplished little more than +to displease the missionaries and to protest against La Harpe's new +French establishment among the Cadodachos. + + +WAR WITH FRANCE + +Attack on Pensacola and Texas.--In January, 1719, as a result of +European complications, France declared war on Spain. The war extended +at once to the colonies, where a border contest ensued at various points +all the way from Pensacola to the Platte River. In the course of the +summer Pensacola was captured by the French of Mobile, recaptured by the +Spaniards, and again taken by Bienville and Serigney. In June, Blondel, +commander at Natchitoches, invaded eastern Texas, whence the Spanish +missionaries and garrison retreated to San Antonio without a struggle. +For two years thereafter the region was left unoccupied by Spain. While +waiting at San Antonio Father Margil in 1720 founded there a new mission +called San Jose, which later was called the finest in New Spain. + +Spanish plans to fortify the Platte River.--In the course of the +campaigns against the Indians to the northeast of New Mexico, constantly +more disturbing reports had been heard of the French, who were now +making their way up all the western tributaries of the Mississippi. In +1719 Governor Valverde pursued Yutas and Comanches across the Napestle +(Arkansas) and heard that the French had settled on the Jesus Maria +(North Platte) River. New significance was attached to these reports +because of the outbreak of war between France and Spain a short time +before. Valverde warned the viceroy of the danger; wild rumors spread +through the northern provinces; and measures for defence were taken. In +1720, while plans were being made to recover Texas, the viceroy ordered +counter alliances made with the tribes northeast of New Mexico, a +Spanish colony planted at El Cuartelejo, in eastern Colorado, and a +presidio established on the Jesus Maria River, that is, in Nebraska or +Wyoming. + +Destruction of the Villazur Expedition.--Although a truce had already +been declared between France and Spain, Governor Valverde, perhaps in +ignorance of this fact, sent Pedro de Villazur in June, 1720, at the +head of one hundred and ten men to reconnoiter the French. Passing +through El Cuartelejo, in August he reached the Jesus Maria. Not finding +the French, he set out to return, but on the San Lorenzo (South Platte), +in northern Colorado, he was killed and his expedition cut to pieces by +Indians using French weapons. There are indications that tribes living +as far north as Lake Winnebago in Wisconsin took part in the attack, a +fact which illustrates the wide-reaching influence of these +international contests. The Spaniards charged the massacre to the +French, and there was a new panic on the frontier. But peace had been +restored between France and Spain, and, in spite of appeals from New +Mexico, the plans for advancing to El Cuartelejo and the Platte were +dropped. + +The Aguayo Expedition.--An offer to assist in the reconquest of Texas +was made by the Marquis of Aguayo, governor and the most prominent +figure of Coahuila. Abetted by Father Hidalgo, he had been interested in +a new attempt to discover Gran Quivira, and the Texas crisis seemed to +give him an opening. His offer was accepted, and before the end of 1720 +he had raised, partly at his own expense, eight companies of cavalry, +comprising over five hundred men and five thousand horses. By his +instructions he was expected to reoccupy and strengthen the abandoned +posts and occupy Cadadachos, on the Red River, and Bahia del Espiritu +Santo on the Gulf. + +Eastern Texas reoccupied.--The Marquis left Monclova in November, 1720, +shortly after Villazur's defeat on the Platte. From the Rio Grande in +January, 1721, he sent Captain Ramon with forty soldiers to take +possession of Bahia del Espiritu Santo, to which a supply ship was sent +from Vera Cruz. This was shortly before La Harpe attempted to reoccupy +the place for the French. Because of swollen streams, Aguayo made a wide +detour to the north, crossing the Brazos near Waco. Peace had been +declared in Europe, and at the Neches he was met by St. Denis, who +agreed to permit an unresisted reoccupation of the abandoned posts. It +was learned here that St. Denis had recently assembled Indian allies +with a view to seizing Bahia del Espiritu Santo and San Antonio, in +cooeperation, no doubt, with La Harpe. + +Proceeding east, between August and November Aguayo reestablished the +six abandoned missions and the presidio of Dolores, and added a presidio +at Los Adaes, facing Natchitoches, and garrisoned it with one hundred +men. To this last act Bienville made vigorous protest. On the return to +San Antonio the weather was so severe that of five thousand horses only +fifty were left when Aguayo arrived in January, 1722. After establishing +there another mission and rebuilding the presidio, he took forty +additional men to La Bahia, and erected a presidio on the site of La +Salle's fort. Having thus completed his work, he returned to Monclova. + +Texas won for Spain.--Aguayo's expedition fixed the hold of Spain on +Texas. He left ten missions where there had been but seven, two hundred +and sixty-eight soldiers instead of sixty or seventy, and four presidios +instead of two, two of them being at strategic points. Since 1718 Texas +and Coahuila had been under the same governor, but now Texas was made +independent, with its capital at Los Adaes (now Robeline, Louisiana) +where it remained for half a century. The Medina River now became the +western boundary of Texas. In 1726 the La Bahia establishment was moved +to the lower Guadalupe River. + + +THE EXPANSION OF TEXAS + +Rivera's inspection of the frontiers.--In the years 1724-1728 a general +inspection of the frontier defences of New Spain was made by Pedro de +Rivera, ex-governor of the province of Tlascala. His remarkable journey +of 3082 leagues began at the City of Mexico on November 21, 1724, and +ended there on June 9, 1728. The northern line of military outposts at +this time ran from Fronteras through Janos, El Paso, Santa Fe, Conchos, +Monclova, San Juan Bautista, Cerralvo, San Antonio, Bahia del Espiritu +Santo, Dolores, and Los Adaes. On the whole Rivera found the presidios +in fair condition, but encountered many abuses. His reforms in the main +were in the direction of retrenchment. This was particularly true +regarding Texas, and in 1729 the post on the Angelina was suppressed and +the forces of others reduced. + +San Antonio strengthened.--Rivera's policy of retrenchment was strongly +opposed by the missionaries; among the Indians of eastern Texas they had +had little success, and when the garrison of Dolores was withdrawn the +Queretaran friars moved their three missions to San Antonio, where they +were reestablished in 1731 and where their ruins still stand. In the +same year a colony of Canary Islanders was established beside the +presidio and missions, and formed into the Villa of San Fernando. There +were now at San Antonio five missions, a presidio, and a municipality. +Texas was now definitely formed in outline; Spain had maintained her +claim as against France, and had established three centers of +occupation, Los Adaes, Bahia del Espiritu Santo, and San Antonio. + +The Apache Wars.--For a decade and a half after the founding of the +Villa of San Fernando the province of Texas underwent little expansion. +From the beginning of San Antonio its inhabitants were subjected to +raids by the Eastern Apaches, who also infested the highways. To check +their outrages occasional campaigns were made into their country by the +soldiery, supported by contingents of mission Indians. Notable among the +forays were those of Captain Flores (1723), Governor Bustillo (1732), +Captain Jose Urrutia (1739), and his son Captain Thoribio Urrutia +(1745). These expeditions served not only to punish the enemy and +recover stolen horses and mules, but to capture slaves as well, and to +make known the northwestern frontier. In the course of them the +Spaniards learned of mineral deposits in the Llano River country. + +The work of the missionaries.--In spite of Apache hostilities, the +missionaries on the San Antonio and the Guadalupe made some progress. +The leading figures of the period were Fathers Santa Ana and Dolores y +Viana, presidents. No new missions were founded in the fifteen years' +interval, but the friars improved their buildings and farms, and sought +new neophytes in regions constantly more remote from the mission +centers. At the mission of San Antonio de Valero alone no less than +forty bands or tribes were represented by the baptisms between 1731 and +1745. + +The Tonkawa missions.--During the next fifteen years the frontiers of +Texas were expanded in all directions. Between 1745 and 1749 Fathers +Viana and Santa Ana founded three missions on the San Xavier (San +Gabriel) River, in the Tonkawa country, and in 1751 a presidio was +established there. But quarrels ensued, the location proved unsuitable, +and the missions were abandoned, efforts now being transferred to the +Apache country. + +The Apache missions.--Under pressure from the southward moving +Comanches, the Lipan-Apaches had ceased their hostilities and asked for +missions. Minerals had been found near the Llano River, and +communication with New Mexico was desired. Accordingly, with the aid of +a munificent gift by Don Pedro de Terreros, in 1757 a great plan for +reducing the Apaches by means of missions was launched. A presidio and +mission had scarcely been founded on the San Saba, however, when the +mission was destroyed by the Comanches and their allies (1758). In the +following year Colonel Parrilla, with a force of some six hundred men, +raised in various parts of northern New Spain, set out to punish the +offenders. At the fortified village of the Taovayas, on the Red River, +where French influence was predominant, he was routed and driven back. +The Apache mission was now transferred to the Upper Nueces, and for +several years the San Saba post sustained incessant war with the +northern tribes. + +Nuevo Santander.--Wars with England and Indian hostilities now made +imperative the colonization of the Gulf coast between the San Antonio +River and Tampico--the eastern portion of Nuevo Leon--and in 1746 the +district was erected into a new colony called Nuevo Santander. Colonel +Jose de Escandon, a distinguished officer of Queretaro, was put in +charge of the enterprise, and the missionary work was entrusted to the +Zacatecan friars. Within the next three years the entire region was +explored by Escandon and his lieutenants and a number of colonies were +planned. In 1749 Escandon led a colony of more than three thousand +people from Queretaro, and in a short time established them in more than +twenty settlements, most of which persist to-day. North of the Rio +Grande the principal ones were Laredo and Dolores, but ranching soon +spread as far as the Nueces River. The post and mission of La Bahia were +now moved to the lower San Antonio River and a new mission for the +Karankawa (Rosario) was established near by. Though legally in Nuevo +Santander, this district was administered as a part of Texas, and by +1775 the Texas-Nuevo Santander boundary was officially moved west to the +Nueces. + + +THE FRANCO-SPANISH BORDER + +The Texas-Louisiana boundary question.--The proximity of Los Adaes and +Natchitoches had furnished numerous grounds for irritation between Texas +and Louisiana. French traders engaged in contraband trade, and the +international boundary was uncertain. In 1735, when Natchitoches was +moved from the island in the Red River to the west bank of the stream, a +quarrel ensued. After several years of bickering, the Arroyo Hondo was +tentatively adopted as the international boundary in that region. + +Meanwhile French traders had invaded the coast tribes and monopolized +the Indian trade of northern Texas. In 1750 the military strength of +Louisiana was considerably augmented, and it was reported in Mexico that +the new arrivals were for the western Louisiana frontier. These +conditions again brought forward the quiescent boundary question, which +was inconclusively discussed in Spanish circles for several years. While +the higher authorities debated, residents on the frontier generally +agreed on the Arroyo Hondo. In 1754 the King of Spain declared that +"boundaries between the Spaniards and the French in that region have +never been a subject of treaty nor is it best at present that they +should be." + +The New Mexico border.--By this time renewed French intrusions into New +Mexico were becoming alarming. The return of the Mallet party (1739) +and the peace between the Comanches and their eastern enemies (ca. 1746) +were followed by the arrival in New Mexico of trading parties from +Canada and Louisiana under Febre, Chapuis, and others. A more vigorous +policy was now adopted and the recent comers were arrested and sent to +Spain. The intrusion into New Mexico found an echo in far western +Sonora, where in 1751 the French advance was given by a prominent +official as a reason for Spanish haste to occupy the Colorado of the +West. + +The lower Trinity fortified.--The more stringent policy toward intruders +was extended to Texas, where a new outpost was established to ward off +French aggression. In the fall of 1754 traders on the lower Trinity were +arrested and sent to Mexico, and in 1756-1757 the region was defended by +a presidio (San Agustin) and a mission east of the stream among the +Orcoquiza Indians. Thus another point on the Texas-Louisiana frontier +was occupied and defended by Spain. The site was disputed by Governor +Kerlerec, of Louisiana, who proposed a joint boundary commission. The +offer was rejected and the viceroy of Mexico, on the contrary, proposed +a Spanish post on the Mississippi "to protect the boundaries." With his +proposal he sent to Spain a map showing Texas as extending to the +Mississippi. Thus the region in dispute extended from the Trinity to the +Mississippi, at least. + + +PIMERIA ALTA + +The Jesuits.--The occupation of Texas was contemporaneous with the +advance into Pimeria Alta (northern Sonora and southern Arizona) and +Lower California. The work of the indefatigable Jesuits on the northern +frontier of New Spain is admirably illustrated by that of Father Kino +and his companions in this region. + +Kino.--After the failure of Atondo's enterprise in California in 1685, +Father Eusebio Kino entered northern Sonora, arriving in March, 1687, +just at the time of La Salle's death in Texas. Mission Dolores, founded +by him in the upper Sonora Valley, became his headquarters for +twenty-four years of exploration, ranching, and missionary work among +the upper Pimas, between the Altar and Gila Rivers. + +Explorations in Arizona.--In the Altar Valley Kino and his companions +founded a number of missions, which were destroyed during the revolt in +1695 and then rebuilt. In 1691, accompanied by Father Salvatierra, who +later went to California, Kino descended the Santa Cruz River to the +village of Tumacacori. Three years later, by the same route, he reached +the Casa Grande on the Gila. In 1697, with a military escort from +Fronteras (Corodeguachi), he again went to the Casa Grande, this time by +way of the San Pedro River. In the following year he was again on the +Gila, whence he returned across the Papagueria (the country of the +Papagos) by way of Sonoita, Caborca, and the Altar Valley. In 1699 he +went to the Gila by way of Sonoita and the Gila Range, and then ascended +the Gila. + +A land route to California.--The current view still was that California +was an island, but during the last journey Kino returned to the +peninsular theory. If this were true, he reasoned, it would be possible +to find a land route over which to send supplies to Salvatierra's +struggling missions just established in Lower California. To test his +views he made several more journeys, crossing the lower Colorado in 1701 +and reaching its mouth in 1702. He was now convinced that California was +a peninsula. In 1705 was published his map of Pimeria Alta, setting +forth this view. + +Missions and ranches in Arizona.--Meanwhile Kino and his companions had +pushed the missionary frontier to the Gila and the Colorado. Kino's +exploring tours were also itinerant missions, in the course of which he +baptized and taught in numerous villages. During his career in Pimeria +Alta he alone baptized 4000 Indians. In 1700 he founded the mission of +San Xavier del Bac, and within the next two years those of Guebavi and +Tumacacori, all in the valley of the Santa Cruz River, and within the +present Arizona. To support his missions, near them he established +flourishing stock ranches, thus making the beginnings of stock raising +in at least twenty places still existing in northern Sonora and southern +Arizona. + +[Illustration: Father Kino's Map of Pimeria Alta (Bancroft, Arizona and +New Mexico, p. 360).] + +Decline of the missions.--The power of Spain was now at its lowest ebb, +funds were scarce, and Kino's last days were to him a time of stagnation +and disappointment. To a certain extent royal support was transferred +for the time being to the missions in Lower California. After Kino's +death in 1711 stagnation became decline, few new missionaries were sent, +and northern tours became infrequent or ceased altogether. Officials and +frontier leaders often planned to advance the frontier of settlement to +the Colorado River, but other interests interfered. + +Revival after 1732.--A visit by the bishop of Durango in 1725, the +military inspection of that frontier by Rivera in 1726, and a royal +decree of 1728 gave new life to the moribund missions. New missionaries +arrived in 1732, the northern missions were reoccupied, and journeys to +the Gila were renewed after 1736 by Fathers Keller and Sedelmayr. + +The Arizonac mines.--Interest in the northern frontier was accentuated +at this time by a temporary mining excitement at Arizonac in the upper +Altar Valley, where in 1736 silver nuggets of astonishing size were +discovered. There was a "rush" to the place, and considerable wealth was +found, but in 1741 the surface veins were exhausted and the camp was +abandoned. The mining incident furnished an occasion for new plans to +advance to the Gila. But Indian troubles in Sinaloa and Sonora +interfered. These troubles, on the other hand, served to advance the +military frontier by the founding of two presidios at Pitiqui +(Hermosillo) and Terrenate in 1741. + +Keller and Sedelmayr.--After much discussion, in 1741 the Moqui district +was assigned to the Jesuits, who now tried to reach that region. In 1743 +Keller crossed the Gila, but was driven back by the Apaches. In 1744 +Sedelmayr ascended the Colorado to Bill Williams Fork. In the following +year the Moquis were again assigned to the Franciscans. + +Plans to occupy the Gila and Colorado.--Sedelmayr now turned his +attention to exploring the lower Gila and Colorado Rivers, and his +Order, particularly Father Escobar, the provincial, urged the occupation +of these valleys, both as a means of support for Lower California, and +as a base for advance to Moqui and Alta California. In 1748 Father +Consag of California explored the Gulf to its head in the interest of +this plan. Royal interest was aroused also by the entry of the French of +Louisiana into New Mexico and the need of protecting California. In 1744 +and 1747, therefore, the king approved advancing to the Gila. Five +years later, especially because of emphatic reports of the French +advance toward the Pacific Ocean, the king seriously considered +occupying the Bay of Monterey. + +The Pima Revolt.--The new viceroy, Revillagigedo, was occupied with +founding Nuevo Santander and other absorbing tasks, while new Indian +wars in Sonora made advance impossible. In 1750 a war of extermination, +led by Governor Diego Parrilla, was begun on the Seris and lasted +several years. In 1751 a revolt occurred among the northern Pimas. At +Caborca and Sonoita the missionaries were slain, over one hundred +settlers were killed on the Arizona border, and missions and ranches +were abandoned. The uprising was suppressed by Parrilla without great +difficulty; most of the missions were reoccupied; and for greater +security two new presidios were founded, at Altar, near Caborca, and at +Tubac near San Xavier del Bac. Thus, each uprising helped to advance the +military frontier. + +Continued obstacles to advance.--For twenty years more the question of +advance to the Colorado was subordinate to that of good order and +settled conditions in Sonora, necessary preliminaries to advance. The +Pima War was followed by a bitter quarrel between Governor Parrilla and +the Jesuits. The Seris made constant trouble, and when attacked +retreated safely to Cerro Prieto. Apache wars on the northern border +were even more severe, and many settlements in Sonora and Nueva Vizcaya +were destroyed by them. Nevertheless, within the protection of the +presidios several small Spanish settlements grew up, as at Terrenate, +Guebavi, Santa Barbara, Buenavista, Tubac, Saric, Altar, and San +Ignacio. The Jesuits continued to appeal, and others, pointing out the +danger from advancing Russians, English, and French, urged the +settlement of Alta California. But Spain was occupied elsewhere. + +The northwestern frontier in 1763.--Sinaloa and Sonora had been detached +from Nueva Vizcaya in 1734, when the province of Sinaloa was erected. +Both were still within the diocese of Durango. By 1763 Sinaloa and +Ostimuri (southern Sonora) had ceased to be frontier regions. Most of +the missions had been secularized, the Indians had become assimilated, +and there was a considerable white population. In Sinaloa there were six +towns with white and mixed populations ranging from 1000 to 3500 each. +In Ostimuri, the part of Sonora south of Yaqui River, there were five +towns with populations ranging from 300 to 3400. In the Sonora Valley +there was a string of mining towns and small Spanish settlements +extending as far north as Fronteras. In Pimeria Alta there were eight +missions and several Spanish settlements, the latter aggregating, with +the garrisons, nearly 1500 persons. In all of the frontier settlements +there was a large element of mulattoes and mestizoes. + + +THE JESUITS IN LOWER CALIFORNIA + +California assigned to the Jesuits.--While Kino and his successors were +struggling to advance the frontiers of Pimeria Alta, another band of +Jesuits founded missions and opened trails nearly the whole length of +the Peninsula of Lower California, and made explorations northward with +a view to meeting the mainland group at the Colorado River. After +repeated failures to occupy the Peninsula, the government of Spain +turned it over to the Jesuits, with full military and civil authority, +as in Paraguay. The missions depended at first mainly on private alms, +and in a short time $47,000 were subscribed. This was the beginning of +the famous Pious Fund of California. + +Salvatierra and his companions.--In 1697 Juan Maria Salvatierra, who had +been a missionary in Sinaloa, entered the Peninsula with a handful of +soldiers, and began work at Loreto, opposite Guaymas, which became the +supply base. Missionary work was attended by unusual difficulties, +because of the sterility of the country. More than once the abandonment +of California was prevented only by the aid of Father Kino, who drove +cattle hundreds of miles to Guaymas and shipped them across the Gulf. +Transportation was difficult, and many precious cargoes were wrecked. By +the time of Salvatierra's death in 1717 he, Picolo, Juan de Ugarte and +their companions had planted five missions in the middle region of the +Peninsula, and had made extensive explorations, north, south, and across +California to the Pacific. In 1701 Salvatierra had explored with Kino in +quest of a land route from Sonora. In 1721 Father Ugarte in the same +interest explored the Gulf to its head. + +Development in the South.--Salvatierra's death was followed by more +liberal royal aid and private alms, and by more rapid mission +extension, particularly in the South. The importance of this step was +enhanced by making San Bernabe a stopping place for the Manila galleon. +By 1732 Fathers Guillen, Tamaral, and Taraval had explored the west +coast as far as Cedros Island. A widespread Indian rebellion in 1734, +attended by the martyrdom of Fathers Carranco and Tamaral, caused the +founding of the presidio of San Jose del Cabo, which protected the Cape, +but by 1748 Indian disturbances had greatly reduced the southern +missions. + +The Jesuits, fearful of interference in their work, as a rule opposed +Spanish settlements, presidios, and the development of industries in the +Peninsula. In 1716, 1719, 1723, and later, the government urged the +founding of forts and colonies on the western coast, with a view to +protecting and advancing the frontier, but the Jesuits usually objected, +and the settlements were not founded. The Indian revolt, war with +England in 1739, Anson's raid on the coast in 1742, and the westward +advance of the French toward the Pacific Coast, increased the anxiety, +and in 1744 new orders were given looking to the defence of the +Peninsula, but nothing came of them. + +By 1750 the exclusive policy of the Jesuits had given way to some +extent, pearl fishing was again permitted, private trading vessels came +from time to time, and the Manila galleon stopped regularly at San Jose. +Mines were opened in the South, and around them a small Spanish and +mixed breed population grew up, La Paz becoming the principal center. + +Missions in the North.--The conditions which had stimulated efforts to +advance to the Gila by the mainland after 1744, had a corresponding +effect on California development. Sterile California needed overland +communication with a mainland base. It was with this need in view that +in 1746 the Jesuit provincial, Escobar, sent Father Consag to reexplore +the Gulf, whose head he reached shortly before Sedelmayr descended the +Colorado to the same point. + +The Colorado-Gila base was not supplied, but with new private gifts and +royal aid, the Jesuits on the Peninsula pushed northward. Santa +Gertrudis (1752), San Francisco Borja (1762), and Santa Maria (1767) +were the last Jesuit foundations, while Father Link's land journey to +the head of the Gulf in 1766 was the final step in Jesuit explorations. + + +READINGS + +TEXAS + +Arricivita, _Cronica Serafica y Apostolica_, 321-442; Bancroft, H.H., +_North Mexican States and Texas_, I, 391-406, 600-617: Bolton, H.E., +_Athanase De Mezieres_, I, 1-66; "The Native Tribes about the East Texas +Missions," in Tex. State Hist. Assoc., _Quarterly_, XI, 249-276; "The +Location of La Salle's Colony on the Gulf of Mexico," in _The +Mississippi Valley Historical Review_, II, 165-182; Bolton, H.E., ed., +_Spanish Exploration in the Southwest_, 281-422; Bonilla, Antonio, in +Tex. State Hist. Assoc., _Quarterly_, XIII, 1-78; Buckley, E., "The +Aguayo Expedition into Texas and Louisiana, 1721-1722," in Tex. State +Hist. Assoc., _Quarterly_, XV, 1-65; Clark, R.C., _The Beginnings of +Texas_; Cox, I.J.. "The Early Settlers of San Fernando," in Tex. State +Hist. Assoc., _Quarterly_, V, 142-161; "The Louisiana-Texas Frontier," +in Tex. State Hist. Assoc., _Quarterly_, X, 1-76; "The Southwestern +Boundary of Texas," in Tex. State Hist. Assoc., _Quarterly_, VI. 81-103; +De Leon, A., "Itinerary," in Tex. State Hist. Assoc., _Quarterly_, VIII, +199-224; _Historia de Nuevo Leon_, 310-348; Dunn, W.E.. "Apache +Relations in Texas, 1718-1750," in Tex. State Hist. Assoc., _Quarterly_, +XIII, 198-274; "The Apache Mission on the San Saba," in _Southwestern +Historical Quarterly_, XVIII, 370-415; Espinosa, Isidro, _Chronica_, +1-10, 41-158, 206-227; Garrison, G.P., _Texas_, 20-96; Manzanet, in Tex. +State Hist. Assoc., _Quarterly_, III, 252-312; Parkman, Francis, _La +Salle and the Discovery of the Great West_, chs. 20-29. + +PIMERIA ALTA + +Alegre, Xavier, _Historia de la Compania de Jesus_, III; Bancroft, H.H., +Arizona and New Mexico, 344-407; _History of the North Mexican States_, +I, 237-274, 548-580, 660-691; Bolton, H.E., Kino's _Historical Memoir of +Pimeria Alta_, especially Vol. I, 27-65; Bolton, H.E., ed., _Spanish +Exploration in the Southwest_, 425-463: Chapman, C.E., _The Founding of +Spanish California_, 1-67; Ortega, Jose, _Apostolicos Afanes_, libros +II-III; Richman, I.B., _California under Spain and Mexico_, 42-61. + +LOWER CALIFORNIA + +Alegre, Xavier, Historia de la Compania de Jesus, III, 91-309; Bancroft, +H.H., History of the North Mexican States. I, 276-304, 407-466, 476-491; +Bolton, H.E., Kind's Historical Memoir, consult Index under +"California," "Picolo," and "Salvatierra"; Engelhardt, Fr. Zephyrin, +Missions and Missionaries of California, I. 61-600: Hittell, T.E., +History of California, I, 148-308; North, A.W., Mother of California, +1-78; Richman, I.B., California under Spain and Mexico, 1-41; Venegas, +Migual, Natural and Croit History of California, I, 215-455, II, 1-213. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +THE ENGLISH ADVANCE INTO THE PIEDMONT, 1715-1750 + + +THE WESTWARD MOVEMENT + +The colonization of North America by the English was not complete with +the founding of the seaboard settlements, but continued in a series of +steps westward. At each step American society has returned to simple +frontier conditions, under which it has been free to try out new +experiments in democracy. Each stage of advance has made its special +contribution to our institutions. + +In a broad way these steps in the westward movement have corresponded +with great physiographic areas. The seventeenth century had witnessed +the occupation of the Tidewater region, between the coast and the Fall +Line. Within that area there had been established two types of society +which now projected themselves westward. The New England type was +democratic, corporate, theocratic, and industrial, and here the township +became the unit of local government. The Southern type, based on a +plantation system, staple crops, and dependent labor, was aristocratic, +individualistic, and expansive. Here the county became the unit of local +government. Intermediate between these types was the society of the +middle Tidewater. In spite of these special characteristics, due chiefly +to American environment, Tidewater society at the end of the century was +still largely European in thought and feeling. + +The first half of the eighteenth century witnessed the movement of +settlement into the next great physiographic region, the Piedmont, or +the area lying between the Fall Line and the Appalachian Mountains. +Here, under frontier conditions, was formed a society farther removed +from that of Europe, and further modified by American conditions. + +This westward movement was the resultant of numerous factors. To the +frontier people were attracted by cheap land and unlimited opportunity. +From the Tidewater settlements emigrants were driven by increase of +population, scarcity of good land, and class conflicts. The less +prosperous everywhere, and in the South indented servants who had served +their rime, were glad to begin life anew on the frontier. Prosperous +planters whose estates had been exhausted by tobacco sought the +Piedmont, and left their former lands to become "old fields." +Speculation in frontier lands became a passion, and while John Law +floated his Mississippi Bubble in Louisiana, New England deacons and +Virginia aristocrats alike built hopes of fortune on tracts purchased +for a song on the border. The movement to the frontier was stimulated in +some cases by intercolonial and international rivalry; thus the +settlement of Georgia was at once a philanthropic experiment and a +defensive movement against Spain. Of larger consequence than the +emigrants from the Tidewater settlements were the new arrivals from +Europe, who came in tens of thousands, attracted by cheap land and +opportunity or driven by economic, political, or religious unrest. + +Trails to the Piedmont had been opened by furtraders, who, even in the +seventeenth century, had made their way into the wilderness in all +directions: by official explorers, like Governor Spotswood; and by the +Southern cattlemen who had established "cowpens" at long distances +beyond the frontiers of settlement. The Indian barrier was removed at +the turn of the century by a series of frontier wars, which either +evicted the natives or broke their resistance. Of these the chief +examples are King Philip's War in New England, the Susquehannah War in +Virginia, the Tuscarora War in North Carolina, and the Yamassee War in +South Carolina. The process of expansion, however, involved further +struggles with the Indians, and border conflicts with French neighbors +on the north and Spanish neighbors on the south. + +Under these influences the migration took place and by the middle of the +century a continuous back-country settlement had been formed, all the +way from Maine to Georgia. New England industries were coastwise, the +Piedmont was rough and stony, and expansion was consequently slow. But +the open spaces were nearly all filled in, to the northern boundary of +Massachusetts, while long spurs of settlement were pushed up the rivers +into Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, where French rivalry was +encountered. In New York settlement was retarded by the practice of land +leasing instead of sales, a relic of the patroon system. Nevertheless a +narrow ribbon of settlement pushed up the Mohawk from Albany nearly to +Oneida Lake, while the lower Hudson River settlements widened out toward +Pennsylvania and into New Jersey. + +[Illustration: Mainland Regions occupied by the English, 1700-1760.] + +Into the Southern Piedmont the movement was a double one. Some newcomers +and many old settlers crossed the Tidewater and pushed over the Fall +Line. But for the Germans, Swiss, and Scotch-Irish, Philadelphia was the +chief port of entry and the main distributing point. Thence some pushed +up the Delaware into New Jersey and northeastern Pennsylvania; others +west into the valleys east of the Kittatiny Range. Those who followed, +finding the lands occupied, and meeting here the mountain barrier to the +westward march, moved south across the Susquehannah and up the +Shenandoah Valley, whence they turned eastward into the Piedmont of +Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and even of Georgia. The +Scotch-Irish in general kept nearest the outward frontier and became +_par excellence_ the Indian fighters. + + +DEFENCE OF THE NORTHERN FRONTIER + +English policy.--After the War of the Spanish Succession the English +government was keenly alive to the necessity of defending the colonial +frontiers. Although the period has been characterized as one of +"salutary neglect" on the part of the home government, nevertheless the +frontier defences were greatly strengthened. Soon after the signing of +the Treaty of Utrecht, the English government became aware of French +activities in Louisiana, and advice was sought from several colonial +governors as to the best means of checking French and Spanish advance. A +policy of defence was soon developed. It included the erection of forts, +exploration of the mountain passes, alliances with Indian tribes, +development of trade, reorganization of the incompetent proprietary +government of the Carolinas, the establishment of the buffer colony of +Georgia, and the encouragement of the settlement of the back country by +the Germans and Scotch-Irish. + +Acadia and the Maine border.--A strange apathy regarding Acadia was +shown by the English government. A small garrison was maintained at +Annapolis, but the Acadians continued loyal to the French, and French +priests and officials from Cape Breton Island and Canada continued to +exert influence over them. The Maine border was strongly held. English +settlers again appeared on the lower Kennebec and forts were erected at +Augusta and at the falls of the Androscoggin. Somewhat later Ft. +Richmond was built on the Kennebec. English activity alarmed the Abenaki +and the French soon influenced them to go on the warpath. From 1720 to +1725 a border war continued, but after much bloodshed on both sides the +Indians sought peace. + +The New York border.--On the New York border, efforts of the French to +bring the Iroquois into alliance aroused the English and in 1727 +Governor Burnet erected a fort at Oswego. Owing to petty strife between +New Hampshire and Massachusetts, and between New York and New Jersey, +funds were not provided for a fortification on Lake Champlain, an +oversight which gave the French an opportunity to erect a fort at Crown +Point. + +Pennsylvania and Virginia.--In 1716 Governor Spotswood of Virginia led +an expedition to the Blue Ridge and entered the Shenandoah Valley. In +his subsequent report he advised the making of settlements on Lake Erie +and the securing of the mountain passes. The proposals were not carried +out, but soon the back country was settled by Germans and Scotch-Irish, +who formed a stronger barrier of defence than walls and palisades. + + +REORGANIZATION OF THE CAROLINAS + +Separation of the Carolinas.--Economically the Carolinas had been +drifting apart. Between the Albemarle and Cape Fear districts lay a +primeval wilderness two hundred miles in width. The northern district +was devoted to the production of naval stores and tobacco, the southern +more to rice culture. Politically the governments had been practically +separate almost from the beginning, the governor being located at +Charleston and a deputy governor being appointed for the north. In 1713 +the proprietors appointed Charles Eden as governor of North Carolina, +and from this time the two provinces were practically separate. + +The Yamassee War.--Between the South Carolina and Spanish settlements +lived the Yamassee Indians. In the War of the Spanish Succession they +had remained faithful to the English, but by 1715 they were won over by +the St. Augustine officials. The French at Mobile were also working on +the Creeks and Cherokees, and a confederation was formed whose object +was the destruction of the South Carolina settlements. The war began on +April 15, 1715, the Yamassee beginning the attack without the assistance +of their allies, and the plantations and settlements were assailed all +along the border. Martial law was immediately proclaimed in the +province, volunteers were organized, and calls for assistance were sent +to North Carolina, Virginia, New England, and England, the two former +responding with men and ammunition. Several bloody engagements were +fought which turned in favor of the Carolinians. The Yamassees received +reinforcements and renewed their incursions, but Governor Craven showed +such a superior force that the Indians fled beyond the Edisto and were +subsequently driven far back into the interior. + +Overthrow of the proprietors.--The responsibility of defence against +Indians, and pirates who infested the coast devolved upon the settlers, +the proprietors showing little ability to assist. The assembly now took +matters in its own hands and changed the method of elections, so that +many large landholders were practically disfranchised. The acts were not +approved by the proprietors and the slumbering discontent in the +province soon approached rebellion. The situation was made worse by the +refusal of the proprietors to allow the distribution of the Yamassee +lands, and by an order that tracts be set aside for themselves. Rumors +spread that another Spanish invasion threatened and Governor Johnson +sought means of meeting it, but when he asked advice as to how funds +might be raised, he was informed that the duty which had been imposed +after the Yamassee War was still in force and that other legislation was +unnecessary. The colonists answered the governor's call to arms but soon +showed that they were against him. When Johnson refused to act in the +name of the king instead of the proprietors, he was set aside. The +proprietary government had been in ill favor with the English government +for some time. Its incompetence in the Yamassee War had convinced the +Board of Trade that a change was necessary, and it upheld the popular +movement. In 1729 an act of parliament established royal governments in +both North and South Carolina. + + +THE FOUNDING OF GEORGIA + +The debatable land.--In the great triangle formed by the Carolinas, +Florida, and southeastern Louisiana, English, Spanish, and French came +into close proximity. The international boundaries had never been +satisfactorily defined and each power strove to acquire control of the +powerful Indian tribes of the interior, thereby gaining territory and +trade. To protect the border and to aid the Charleston traders, in 1716 +the Carolinians established a fort on the Savannah River, and from 1721 +to 1727 maintained Ft. King George on the Altamaha. In 1730 Sir +Alexander Cuming was sent on a mission to the Cherokees, on which he +succeeded in obtaining an acknowledgment of English supremacy, +considerably strengthening the English position. + +Azilia.--The need of a buffer colony on the southern border was long +realized by English statesmen. In 1717 a project was launched which gave +promise of fulfillment. Sir Robert Montgomery secured from the Carolina +proprietors a grant of the lands between the Savannah and Altamaha +Rivers which was called the Margravate of Azilia. Plans for its +settlement were drawn up and an attempt made to obtain colonists, but +Sir Robert failed to attract settlers and the grant lapsed. + +Oglethorpe.--It remained for James Oglethorpe to carry out the project. +Oglethorpe had seen considerable military service, and for thirty years +was a member of the House of Commons, in the latter capacity advocating +an aggressive policy against Spain. Possessed of broadly humanitarian +sympathies, he became interested in ameliorating the conditions of +imprisoned debtors. He conceived the idea of planting a barrier colony +on the southern frontier, which would serve the two-fold purpose of +protecting Carolina against Spanish and Indian attacks, and of offering +a place of refuge for the debtor class. In 1732 he secured a charter +conveying to himself and a group of interested persons the land between +the Savannah and Altamaha Rivers and extending westward from their head +waters to the sea. + +The government.--The government was of the proprietary type, but the +proprietors were not to receive any profits individually; financial +reports and legislation were to be submitted to the crown for approval. +The proprietorship was limited to twenty-one years, after which the +province was to become a royal colony. Religious liberty was guaranteed +to all but Catholics; provision was made to prevent large land holdings; +slavery was prohibited, a restriction which was subsequently removed; +the importation of rum was forbidden, as was trade with the Indians +without a license. + +Savannah.--In the autumn of 1732 about one hundred men, women, and +children were sent to America, arriving at Charleston in January, 1733. +A treaty was made with the Creeks who surrendered most of their coast +lands and the town of Savannah was immediately laid out. The colony was +soon strengthened by German and Scotch immigration. In 1737 a fort was +established at Augusta and a town grew up which soon developed an +important trade with the Cherokees. + +Measures of defence.--The Scotch were settled near the mouth of the +Altamaha. In 1736 Ft. Frederica was established on St. Simon's Island at +the mouth of the river, and military posts were built between the +Altamaha and the St. John's Rivers. This encroachment aroused the ire of +the Spanish government, which demanded Oglethorpe's recall, but instead, +while in Europe, he was given permission to raise a regiment of troops +for the protection of Georgia, and upon his return he visited the +Creeks, with whom he renewed the former alliance. + + +THE GERMAN AND SWISS MIGRATION + +In 1600 the population of the English colonies on the continent of North +America was only two hundred thousand; fifty years later it had +increased to a million, and by 1760 another half million had been added. +In part this was due to natural increase, but a large population came +from the influx of Europeans other than English, the two principal +immigrant peoples being the Germans and the Scotch-Irish. + +The German migration.--The causes of the German migration are to be +found in the disturbed condition of Germany. Religious persecution, +political oppression, and economic distress caused by wars and bad +seasons, each played its part in the movement. Most of the immigrants +came from southwestern Germany, especially from the Palatinate, +Wuerttemberg, and Baden, and from Switzerland. The first period of +migration, dating from 1683 to 1710, was characterized by a small +movement of persecuted sects; but after 1710 an ever-increasing +migration took place in which the religious, political, and economic +causes blended. + +[Illustration; Principal Areas of German Settlement before 1763.] + +The early migration to Pennsylvania.--The first German settlement in the +English colonies may be traced directly to William Penn's visit to the +Rhineland in 1677. A group of pietists from Frankfort-on-the-Main +purchased fifteen thousand acres of Penn's land and in 1683 sent over a +young lawyer, Francis Daniel Pastorius, as advance agent, who became the +recognized leader of the Pennsylvania Germans. He was soon followed by a +considerable number of emigrants. More land was purchased and the +settlement of Germantown begun. In 1684 a group of Labadists settled on +the Bohemian River in the present state of Delaware. Every year a few +people joined the original group at Germantown. The most important +addition was in 1694 when forty Rosicrucians under John Kelpius settled +on the banks of the Wissahickon. + +The migration to New York.--Not until 1710 did the great flood of +migration begin. In 1707 a portion of the Palatinate was devastated. The +following year sixty-one homeless people led by Joshua von Kocherthal +made their way to London. The Board of Trade sent them to New York, +where Governor Lovelace gave them lands on the Hudson, where they began +the town of Newburg. Religious persecution, political oppression, the +devastation of Wuerttemberg and a part of the Palatinate, and a hard +winter caused a great exodus in 1709. In May of that year the Germans +began to arrive in London, and by October the numbers had swelled to +thirteen thousand. About thirty-five hundred were sent to the colonies. +Six hundred and fifty were settled at Newbern near the mouth of the +Neuse River in North Carolina, and about three thousand were sent to New +York, where Governor Hunter hoped to settle them on lands where tar and +pitch could be produced. The story goes that in London the Palatines had +met a delegation of Indian chiefs who had promised them lands on the +Schoharie, a branch of the Mohawk. Instead of being sent there, however, +many were placed on lands along both sides of the Hudson near +Saugerties. The colony on the west side was called West Camp, and +contained about six hundred people. The East Camp, which was located on +the manor of Robert Livingston, received nearly twelve hundred; it was +here that difficulties occurred. The attempts to produce tar and pitch +failed, and the colonists demanded that they be moved to the Schoharie. +After much bickering with the governor, in 1712 and 1713 many of the +people from East Camp moved to the Schoharie; but their troubles did not +end, for the question of land title brought them into disputes with +certain landowners from Albany. Some of the Palatines moved again, many +taking up lands in the Mohawk Valley between Ft. Hunter and Frankfort, +while others in 1723 and 1727 migrated to Pennsylvania, settling in +Berks County. + +The later Pennsylvania migration.--The harsh treatment in New York and +the kind reception of Germans in Pennsylvania made the Quaker colony a +favorite place for their coming. Between 1710 and 1727 from fifteen to +twenty thousand entered Pennsylvania and settled in Lancaster, Berks, +and Montgomery counties. Between 1727 and 1740 the arrivals numbered +about fifty-seven thousand, and between 1741 and 1756 about twenty +thousand. Many of the newcomers settled in Philadelphia, and neighboring +counties, but the desire for cheap land carried a large number into the +fertile valleys of the Susquehanna, Lehigh, and Shenandoah. In the words +of Professor Faust, "They ... pushed northward and westward to Lehigh, +Northampton, and Monroe counties, and to Lebanon and Dauphin; reaching +the Susquehanna they crossed and settled the counties of York, +Cumberland, and Adams, then following the slopes of the mountains they +went southward through Maryland into Virginia, ascending the Shenandoah +Valley and settling it from Harpers Ferry to Lexington, Virginia. Using +this main avenue for their progress, they settled in North Carolina and +Virginia and later in Kentucky and Tennessee. Pennsylvania, therefore, +was the distributing center for the German immigrations, whence German +settlers spread over all the neighboring provinces." + +New Jersey.--As early as 1707 several members of the German Reformed +Church appear to have settled in Morris County, and later spread into +Somerset, Bergen, and Essex counties. Later groups, mainly of Lutherans +or German Reformed, settled in Hunterdon, Somerset, Morris, Sussex, and +Warren counties, and there were scattered settlements elsewhere. + +Maryland.--A few Germans came to Maryland before 1730, but with the +founding of Baltimore in that year a considerable German migration +began, enterprising Germans from Pennsylvania finding the new town a +place for their capital and energy. At about the same time the Germans +were settling in western Maryland. In 1729 Germans from Pennsylvania +settled about ten miles north of the modern town of Frederick, and soon +many German settlements dotted Frederick and neighboring counties. + +Virginia.--The first Germans in Virginia were skilled iron-workers from +Westphalia, brought in by Governor Spotswood to operate his iron works +which were located on the Piedmont Plateau at Germanna, in modern Orange +County. The settlers at Germanna afterward migrated to Germantown near +the Rappahannock and to Madison County. A far more important movement +was the migration into the Shenandoah Valley. The northern part was +settled almost entirely by Germans, but in the southern part they formed +only a small part of the population. The first of the settlers came from +Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, in 1726 or 1727, settling near Elkton. +They were soon followed by others, among them Joist Hite at the head of +sixteen families from York, Pennsylvania, who settled at the site of +Winchester. In 1734 Robert Harper founded Harper's Ferry. The most +remote settlements were located in the Alleghanies within the present +state of West Virginia; one on Patterson's Creek, another on the south +branch of the Potomac, and a third on the New River, which with the +Greenbrier forms the Great Kanawha. Thus the frontier had already +reached the "Western Waters." + +North Carolina.--As already noted, the first migration of Germans into +North Carolina was connected with the Palatine movement of 1710; the +lands of Baron Graffenried on which they settled being at the confluence +of the Neuse and Trent Rivers. In the following year the Tuscaroras went +on the warpath; about sixty of the newcomers were slain and their +settlement destroyed. The Tuscaroras eventually were incorporated with +the Iroquois Confederation and the settlers took advantage of the +removal to occupy their lands, soon spreading over a large part of what +is now Craven County. About 1745. Germans from Pennsylvania began to +arrive in the western part of North Carolina, taking up lands along the +Yadkin River. Not until 1750 did the immigrants become numerous. By the +time of the Revolution there were important German settlements in +Stokes, Forsyth, Guilford, Davidson, Rowan, and Cabarrus counties. + +South Carolina.--In South Carolina the first German colonists settled in +or near Charleston. In 1732 a settlement was made in Beaufort County and +German villages soon dotted both sides of the Edisto and Congaree Rivers +in Orangeburg and Lexington counties and spread out toward the Georgia +boundary, Baden, Wuerttemberg, Switzerland, and discontents from Maine +furnishing most of the South Carolina Germans. + +Swiss migration to Carolina and Pennsylvania.--With the exception of +Graffenried's project, no large enterprise for bringing Swiss settlers +to America was launched until 1725, when Jean Purry of Neufchatel began +to advertise for Swiss Protestants to found a colony in Carolina. In +1732 Purry succeeded in establishing Purrysburgh, which soon had several +hundred inhabitants. Crop failures in Switzerland coupled with heavy +taxation and a dislike for foreign military service caused a large +number to migrate between 1730 and 1750. Although accurate statistics +are lacking, recent investigation shows that during the eighteenth +century probably twenty-five thousand Swiss emigrated to Pennsylvania +and the Carolinas. + +Georgia.--In 1731 thirty thousand Protestants of Salzburg were exiled. +Some of them made their way to England and eventually became settlers in +the newly-constituted colony of Georgia. The first ones arrived at +Savannah in 1734 and moved to lands on the Savannah River about forty +miles from its mouth, naming their settlement Ebenezer. Others soon +followed. Oglethorpe wished some of them to settle about the fort on St. +Simon Island, but they objected to bearing arms and were allowed to go +to Ebenezer. Others, who had no religious scruples regarding war, were +settled at Frederica. The settlers from Ebenezer soon moved down the +river eight miles to New Ebenezer, across the river from Purrysburgh. By +1741 over twelve hundred Germans had come to Georgia. + +New England and Nova Scotia.--A small number of Germans made their way +to New England. The head of the movement was Samuel Waldo, who became +interested in lands on the shores of Broad Bay in Maine. In 1740 forty +families from Brunswick and Saxony founded Waldoborough. In 1749-1750 +Massachusetts made an effort to increase German immigration by setting +aside lands for their use. One of these districts was near Fort +Massachusetts in modern Franklin County and extended beyond into what is +now Vermont. Three years later the first German settlers entered the +region. In 1751 Joseph Crellius brought over twenty or thirty families +who founded Frankfort, subsequently called Dresden, on the Kennebec +River. It has been estimated that fifteen hundred Germans entered New +England in 1752-1753, but many of them moved subsequently to South +Carolina. Another group settled at Braintree near Boston, but by 1760 +they had all moved to the Maine settlements. During 1750-1753 occurred a +considerable German migration to Nova Scotia, sixteen hundred settling +in Lunenburg County. In the latter year the English Government checked +the movement, which was deflected to New England, and the settlements at +Broad Bay and on the Kennebec were considerably enlarged. + + +THE SCOTCH-IRISH + +Causes of the Scotch-Irish migration.--Of equal importance with the +German migration was that of the Scotch-Irish from Ulster. The causes of +the migration to America were both religious and economic. The +Presbyterianism of the Scotch found scant favor with the English +authorities. The efforts to enforce uniformity, and the various +religious laws of the reign of Charles II and Anne were especially +obnoxious to Presbyterians. Though few migrated because of them, they +left a feeling of injury, which, coupled with industrial hardships, +brought about the great migration to America. English restrictive +legislation was also an important factor. Laws prohibiting the +importation into England of Irish stock and dairy products, acts +excluding Irish vessels from American trade and prohibiting direct +importation to Ireland from the colonies, and the act of 1699 +prohibiting the exportation of Irish wool worked great hardships on the +people of Ulster. The enforced payment of tithes to support the +Episcopalian clergy touched both the purse and the conscience of the +Scotch-Irish. But more important than any of these was the tenant system +In 1714-1718 many of the original leases expired and the landlords +doubled or trebled the rents. This is the chief explanation of the great +acceleration of the movement to America which began in 1714. No doubt +the natural business instinct of the Scotch people, and occasional +crop failures, such as the potato famine in 1725. 1740-1741, also +hastened many who otherwise might have lingered in Ulster. + +[Illustration: The Areas Largely Populated by the Scotch-Irish before +1763.] + +Seventeenth century migration.--In 1612 the Rev. George Keith, a +Scotchman, went to Bermuda, the first dissenting minister in the English +colonies. In 1652 Cromwell sent about two hundred and fifty Scotch +prisoners to New England. Before 1669 a considerable number of Scotch +and Scotch-Irish settled on the eastern shore of Chesapeake Bay and by +1680 some Scotch Presbyterians were located near Norfolk. In 1683 +Scottish colonists landed at Port Royal and Charleston, and others +founded Stuartstown. In 1684 and 1685, many Scotch dissenters sought +refuge in East New Jersey, the beginning of a movement which eventually +made New Jersey one of the strongholds of Presbyterianism. + +The great migration.--Dining the early years of the eighteenth century a +few Scotch-Irish made their way to America, but not until after the +close of the War of the Spanish Succession did the movement assume large +proportions. The tide of immigration which set in brought the +Scotch-Irish to every colony. Many of them found homes in the tide-water +lands among the older settlements, where vast areas were still thinly +settled, but a larger number sought the frontier. + +New England.--Between 1714 and 1720 fifty-four vessels brought +Scotch-Irish immigrants to Boston. The large influx of foreigners began +to alarm the authorities. When over five hundred arrived at Boston in +the summer of 1718, a shortage of provisions threatened. To place the +immigrants on a self-supporting basis was highly desirable. In addition +the more remote settlements needed protection. The plan was accordingly +adopted of sending the Scotch-Irish to the frontier. About fifty miles +from Boston was the post of Worcester containing about two hundred +people. Soon its population was doubled by Scotch-Irish. Others came and +Worcester became the distributing point for interior settlement. In 1731 +Pelham was started thirty miles to the westward, and two years later +Colerain, twenty miles farther in the wilderness, was formed. In 1741 +Warren and Blandford were incorporated. From western Massachusetts the +settlers turned northward, following the Connecticut Valley, forming +settlements in Windsor, Orange, and Caledonia counties in Vermont and in +Grafton County in New Hampshire. + +While Worcester was being settled, other immigrants sought lands in +Maine. Thirty families were landed at Falmouth on Casco Bay, another +group settled on the Kennebec near its mouth, and by 1720 several +hundred families had settled on the Kennebec or the Androscoggin, but +soon afterward Indian troubles caused a large part of them to move to +New Hampshire Or Pennsylvania. In 1719 Nuffield on the site of modern +Manchester was founded. When the town was incorporated in 1722 its name +was changed to Londonderry. It became the distributing point for +Scotch-Irish in that region; from there Rockingham, Hillsboro, and +Merrimack counties in New Hampshire were settled. Emigration spread over +into Vermont, joining that from Worcester, and pushed on to the north +and west. Still other Scotch-Irish settlements were formed later in +Maine. A hundred and fifty families from Nova Scotia in 1729 settled at +Pemaquid and Samuel Waldo induced a few to settle on the St. George at +Warren. Connecticut and Rhode Island also received an infusion of +Scotch-Irish blood but in a much less degree than the northern frontier. + +New York.--About 1718 large numbers of Scotch-Irish came to New York, +most of them settling in Orange and Ulster counties. In 1738 John +Lindsay and three associates obtained an extensive land grant in Cherry +Valley in modern Otsego County. Many settlers were induced to come from +Londonderry, New Hampshire, and from Scotland and Ulster, but the +exposed position prevented a great influx in succeeding years. + +Pennsylvania.--As in the German movement, in the Scotch-Irish migration +the largest number came to Pennsylvania. The earliest comers appear to +have settled on either side of the Pennsylvania-Maryland line in the +Susquehanna Valley. The exact date of their arrival is uncertain, but a +church had been organized as early as 1708. About 1720 the immigrants +began working up the Delaware River, settling in Bucks County and +spreading over into Northampton County. Another stream of immigrants +passed up the Susquehanna Valley, settling along the creek bottoms on +the east side of the river, their chief centers being in Chester, +Lancaster, and Dauphin counties in Pennsylvania, and in Cecil County, +Maryland. Before 1730 the settlers pushed over into Cumberland County, +Pennsylvania, which gave them access to the valleys of the interior. +They spread into Franklin, Adams, and York counties and the later +movement carried them southward into the great valleys. + +The Southern Piedmont--By 1735 or earlier, the Scotch-Irish began moving +into the Shenandoah Valley. Some of them remained in Maryland and the +most eastern counties of what is now West Virginia, but most of them, +moved into Virginia, taking up the lands west of the Blue Ridge +Mountains. Many went through the passes and made their homes in the +Piedmont region to the east of the Blue Ridge. The movement was greatly +stimulated by the fact that several large land grants were made to +various Pennsylvanians and Virginians, who encouraged the settlement of +their lands. The early records of the Scotch-Irish in the southern +Piedmont give us little exact data, but between 1740 and 1760 scattered +settlements were made along the frontier from Virginia to Florida. In +North Carolina the lands between the Yadkin and Catawba Rivers were +settled. By 1750 the vanguard appeared in the western part of South +Carolina, and a few years later in the upland country of Georgia. + + +SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SETTLEMENT OF THE PIEDMONT + +By the middle of the century results of great significance had come +about. All the way from New England to Georgia a back country society +had been formed, with characteristics in many ways distinct from that of +the Tidewater settlements. A large portion of the settlers, particularly +south of New York, were of non-English stock, and had brought with them +diverse notions; but, under the influence of frontier environment, they +had been moulded, together with the English stock, into a more or less +homogeneous mass. In the main the settlers were persons of slender +means, and lived hard, frontier lives. They tilled small farms with +their own hands, and indentured servitude and slave-holding were +consequently unimportant. Society, on the whole, was democratic, +individualistic, tolerant, and self-reliant. In spite of this +homogeneity of the frontier, the original traits of the settlers +persisted, and can still be found in the Pennsylvania "Dutch" or in the +Scotch Presbyterians of the Southern Piedmont. + +Being distinct in character and interests, the Piedmont and Tidewater +clashed at many points, and thus arose "sectional" contests between the +East and the West, a feature which has marked American development down +to the present. The simple back country constituted a debtor society, in +need of an expanding credit; the coast was more aristocratic and more +capitalistic. The East attempted to dominate politics, legislation, and +administration. The West resisted, and before the Revolution contests +arose in nearly every colony. In many instances the back country won; +its victories are reflected in the provisions for religious toleration +and in the democratic tendencies of the new state constitutions formed +during and after the Revolution. + +There were other important consequences from the settlement of the back +country. In spite of divergent interests, there were bonds of union +between the East and the Wrest. The new settlements furnished a market +for eastern goods and provided commodities in exchange, and thus +lessened the dependence of the coast upon Europe. Attended by Indian +wars and border hostilities with French and Spanish neighbors, the +westward movement had created a fighting frontier. At the same time, by +bringing the international frontiers into conflict, it had prepared the +way for the final struggle between France and England in America. + +It was the southern Piedmont which furnished leaders for the +southwestward movement in the succeeding generations. Says Turner: +"Among this moving mass, as it passed along the Valley into the +Piedmont, in the middle of the eighteenth century, were Daniel Boone, +John Sevier, James Robertson, and the ancestors of John C. Calhoun, +Abraham Lincoln, Jefferson Davis, Stonewall Jackson, James K. Polk, Sam +Houston, and Davy Crockett; while the father of Andrew Jackson came to +the Piedmont at the same time from the coast. Recalling that Thomas +Jefferson's home was in this frontier, at the edge of the Blue Ridge, we +perceive that these names represent the militant expansive movement in +American life. They foretell the settlement across the Alleghanies in +Kentucky and Tennessee; the Louisiana Purchase, the Lewis and Clark's +transcontinental exploration; the conquest of the Gulf Plains in the War +of 1812-15; the annexation of Texas; the acquisition of California and +the Spanish Southwest. They represent, too, frontier democracy in its +two aspects personified in Andrew Jackson and Abraham Lincoln. It was a +democracy responsive to leadership, susceptible to waves of emotion, of +a 'high religious voltage'--quick and direct in action." + + +READINGS + +DEFENCE OF THE FRONTIERS + +Channing, Edward, _History of the United States_, II, 341-365; +Dickerson, O.M., _American Colonial Government_, 326-332; Fiske, John, +_Old Virginia and her Neighbors_, II, 383-389; Greene, E.B.. _Provincial +America_, 181-184, 249-262; Hamilton, P.J., _The Colonization of the +South_, 291-308; Jones, C.C., _The History of Georgia_, I, 67-313; +Kingsford, William, _The History of Canada_, III, 121-201: McCrady, +Edward. _A History of South Carolina_, I, 531-680; Parkman, Francis, _A +Half-Century of Conflict_, I, 183-271, II, 53-56; McCain, J.R., _Georgia +as a Proprietary Province_. + +THE GERMAN AND SWISS MIGRATION + +Bernheim, G.D., _German Settlements in North and South Carolina_; +Bittinger, L.F., _The Germans in Colonial Times_, 11-183; Cobb, S.H., +_The Story of the Palatines_; Faust, A.B.. _The German Element in the +United States_, I, 30-262; "Swiss Emigration to the American Colonies in +the Eighteenth Century," in _The American Historical Review_, XXII, +21-44; Jones, C.C., _The History of Georgia_, I, 163-173. 208-214; +Kuhns, O.. _The German and Swiss Settlements of Colonial Pennsylvania_, +1-192; Wayland, J.W., _The German Element of the Shenandoah Valley of +Virginia_. + +THE SCOTCH-IRISH + +Campbell, Douglas, _The Puritan in Holland, England, and America_, II, +460-485; Ford, H.J., _The Scotch-Irish in America_, 1-290; Hanna, C.A., +The _Scotch-Irish_, II, 6-126; Turner, F.J., "The Old West,"' in Wis. +Hist. Soc., _Proceedings, 1908_. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +ENGLISH COLONIAL SOCIETY IN THE MIDDLE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY + + +GENERAL FEATURES + +Population and settled area.--By 1760 the population of the English +continental colonies was probably 1,650,000; of these the New England +colonies contained about a half-million, the middle group about four +hundred and fifty thousand, and south of the Mason-Dixon line there were +about seven hundred thousand. Nearly half of the inhabitants were in +Massachusetts, Pennsylvania and Virginia. The bulk of the population +still clung to the coastal regions, but the rivers had pointed the way +to the interior; many of the valleys were occupied for a considerable +distance, and the Germans and Scotch-Irish had penetrated the great +valleys of the central and southern Appalachians. Practically the whole +of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut had been occupied; to +the northward extended three narrow lines of settlement, one along the +New Hampshire and Maine coast as far as the Penobscot and extending +fifty miles up the Kennebec, another reaching up the Merrimac for sixty +miles into central New Hampshire, and a third following the Connecticut +for fifty miles above the northern Massachusetts line. Long Island was +almost entirely settled, as was the Hudson Valley to a point a little +above Albany, and the lower Mohawk Valley had been settled. New Jersey, +except in the central part and a small section of the eastern coast, was +occupied. Eastern Pennsylvania, the lower valley of the Susquehanna, and +adjacent valleys were peopled, as was the western shore of Delaware Bay. +Maryland and Virginia were settled up to the mountains and had +overflowed into the valleys of the Blue Ridge. In North Carolina the +settlements extended back for a hundred and fifty miles or more from the +coast and as far south as the valley of the Cape Fear River. In the back +country of North and South Carolina and Georgia the valleys were +occupied and the population had flowed over onto the eastern slopes of +the Appalachians. The coast lands of South Carolina and Georgia as far +as the Altamaha and the lowlands along the Pedee, Santee, and Savannah +Rivers were occupied for a hundred miles from the coast. + +The older settled areas were below the Fall Line. There the industrial +and social life was less in a state of flux than along the +ever-advancing frontier. The economic tendencies in the coast country +were already fixed and showed little change until machines and +transportation worked an industrial revolution early in the nineteenth +century. The social life was also comparatively stable and was so to +remain until the Revolutionary War. + +Manufacturing and mining.--During the colonial period manufacturing made +little progress, due mainly to the abundance of cheap land and English +restrictions. The colonists depended mainly upon England for +manufactured goods. Nevertheless, manufacturing made some headway, +especially in the North, where agricultural pursuits brought less profit +than in the South. The coarser fabrics, linen, hats, and shoes were +produced for the local markets. Mining was also beginning, iron mines +having been developed in New England. Pennsylvania, Maryland, and +Virginia, and at least one copper mine was worked in New Jersey. +Ironworks were established in the neighborhood of the mines and supplied +many of the local needs. In 1750 an act was passed by parliament which +allowed colonial pig-iron to be imported into England and bar-iron to +enter the port of London. The manufacture of rum was an important +northern industry. + + +NEW ENGLAND INDUSTRY + +Farming.--During the colonial period the great mass of the people were +engaged in agriculture. In New England, where soil and climate were less +favorable than in the South, the small farm with diversified crops was +the prevailing type. The supply of labor was limited and wages +relatively high. Under such conditions, the farmer, his sons, and the +"hired man" worked the place, and by dint of industry made a living. The +New England farmer was more nearly self-sufficient that any other class, +a condition which no doubt increased his feeling of independence. The +products of the farm were usually adequate for local needs but +furnished practically nothing for exportation. + +Lumbering and ship-building.--The New England forests continued to be a +source of wealth. Lumber was produced in large quantities and +ship-building was carried on extensively in the coast and river towns, +the craft being of a somewhat larger type than formerly, vessels of five +hundred tons burden frequently leaving the ways. The English navy and +merchant marine obtained large quantities of masts and spars from New +England. + +The fisheries.--The importance of the fisheries increased greatly after +the War of the Spanish Succession. From the Newfoundland banks were +derived the chief products for foreign trade. Almost every coast town +had its fishing fleet, Gloucester alone boasting nearly a hundred +vessels. The cod was the most important catch, but as the century +progressed whaling became a more and more important industry. + +Commerce.--With the West Indies the New Englanders carried on an +extensive trade, lumber, fish, and rum being exchanged for sugar, +molasses, and other tropical products. Rum was also an important factor +in the slave trade, which was carried on mainly by the Rhode Islanders, +who exchanged the products of the distilleries for negroes on the Guinea +Coast and in the West Indies. These in turn were traded to the southern +colonies for tobacco, rice, indigo, and naval stores. From the profits +of southern commerce and from fish, lumber, and naval stores, the New +Englanders were able to purchase English textiles, hardware, glass, and +other manufactured articles. The chief port was Boston which contained +about twenty thousand inhabitants. + + +THE MIDDLE COLONIES + +Intensive farming was at its best in the middle colonies, which were the +great producers of provisions. Live stock, cereals, fruit, and +vegetables were raised in large quantities, the animal products and +grain furnishing the chief products for exportation. Lumber and furs +were also important items of commerce. + +New York.--An observant English traveler who visited New York in 1760, +gives the following excellent description of the colony: "The province +in its cultivated state affords grain of all sorts, cattle, hogs, and +great variety of English fruits.... The people ... export chiefly grain, +flour, pork, skins, furs, pig-iron, lumber, and staves.... They make a +small quantity of cloth, some linen, hats, shoes, and other articles of +wearing apparel. They make glass also, and wampum; refine sugars, which +they import from the West Indies; and distil considerable quantities of +rum." He also noted that the New Yorkers were engaged in ship-building. +The Indian traffic was mainly carried on through Albany. The foreign and +coastwise trade was concentrated at New York, a city with a population +of sixteen or seventeen thousand. + +New Jersey.--New Jersey was fortunate in having an historian who has +left us an excellent account of the province. Samuel Smith's history +gives the following description: "Almost the whole extent of the +province adjoining on the atlantick, is barrens, or nearly approaching +it; yet there are scattering settlements all along the coast, the people +subsisting in great part by raising cattle in the bog undrained meadows +and marshes, and selling them to graziers, and cutting down the +cedars.... Another means of subsistence along the coast, is the plenty +of fish and oysters, these are carried to New-York and Philadelphia +markets.... The lands in general, (perhaps something better than two +thirds of the whole) are good, and bear wheat, barley, or anything else +suitable to the climate, to perfection. As the province has very little +foreign trade on bottoms of its own, the produce of all kinds for sale, +goes chiefly to New-York and Philadelphia; much of it is there purchased +for markets abroad; but some consumed among themselves." + +Pennsylvania and Delaware.--Agriculture was the mainstay of the people +of Pennsylvania and Delaware. The thrifty Quakers, Germans, +Scotch-Irish, and Swedes who formed the bulk of the population, produced +large quantities of grain and live-stock. The surplus was brought to +Philadelphia, a well-built city of nearly twenty thousand inhabitants. +Peter Calm has left the following picture of its industrial life: +"Several ships are annually built of American oak in the docks.... The +town carries on a great trade both with the inhabitants of the country +and to other parts of the world, especially to the West Indies, South +America, and the Antilles; to England, Ireland, Portugal, and to +several English colonies in North America. Yet none but English ships +are allowed to come into this port. Philadelphia reaps the greatest +profits from its trade to the West Indies: for thither the inhabitants +ship almost every day a quantity of flour, butter, flesh, and other +victuals, timber, plank, and the like. In return they receive either +sugar, molasses, rum, indigo, mahogany, and other goods, or ready +money.... They send both West India goods and their own products to +England; the latter are all sorts of woods, especially walnut, and oak +planks for ships; ships ready built, iron, hides, and tar.... Ready +money is likewise sent over to England; from whence in return they get +all sorts of goods there manufactured, viz: fine and coarse cloth, +linen, iron ware, and other wrought metals, and East India goods; for it +is to be observed, that England supplies Philadelphia with almost all +stuffs and manufactured goods which are wanted here. A great quantity of +linseed goes annually to Ireland, together with many of the ships which +are built here. Portugal gets wheat, flour, and maize which is not +ground. Spain sometimes takes some corn. But all the money which is got +in these several countries, must immediately be sent to England, in +payment for the goods which are got from thence, and yet those sums are +not sufficient to pay all the debts." + + +THE SOUTHERN COLONIES + +The tobacco colonies.--Maryland, Virginia, and the northeastern part of +North Carolina continued to be devoted largely to the raising of +tobacco. Except on the frontiers the small farms had disappeared, having +been, absorbed by great landholdings. Many of the plantations covered +thousands of acres, but probably not more than a tenth of the land was +under cultivation. The tobacco crop was extremely exhaustive to the +soil, and when the land had been cropped until its productivity +decreased, wheat or corn were usually planted, or it was turned into +pasturage. The tangled thicket soon sprang up and in the wilderness +ranged cattle and hogs. The breeding of horses was attended to with +care, for horse-racing and fox-hunting were favorite diversions among +the planters, but the cattle and hogs were of inferior quality. The +great article of commerce was tobacco, but grain, pork, and lumber were +also exported. From the Madeiras the planters received wines and from +the West Indies rum, sugar, molasses, and slaves. Most of the +manufactured articles came directly from England. In spite of the +considerable trade, no large towns had sprung up, the plantation +continuing to be the economic and social unit of the tobacco colonies. + +The industries of North Carolina were more diversified than those of the +other southern colonies as is shown by the following statement from +Edmund Burke's _Account of the European Settlements in America_: +Exported from all the ports of North Carolina in 1753: + +Tar 61,528 barrels +Pitch 12,055 ditto +Turpentine 10,429 ditto +Staves 762,330 no. +Shingles 2,500,000 no. +Lumber 2,000,647 feet +Corn 61,580 bushels +Peas, about 10,000 ditto +Pork & Beef 3,300 barrels +Tobacco, about 100 hogsheads +Tanned leather about 1,000 hundred weight +Deer skins, in all ways, about 30,000 + +Besides a very considerable quantity of wheat, rice, bread, potatoes, +bees-wax, tallow, candles, bacon, hogs lard, some cotton, and a vast +deal of squared timber of walnut and cedar, and hoops and headings of +all sorts. Of late they raise indigo, but in what quantity I cannot +determine, for it is all exported from South Carolina. They raise +likewise much more tobacco than I have mentioned, but this, as it is +produced on the frontiers of Virginia, so it is exported from thence. +They export too no inconsiderable quantity of beaver, racoon, otter, +fox, minx, and wild cat skins, and in every ship a good deal of live +cattle, besides what they vend in Virginia. + +The rice country.--The great staple of South Carolina was rice, which +was grown upon the marshy lands. A limited amount was also produced in +North Carolina and Georgia. The unhealthfulness of the rice fields, +coupled with the large profits from the business, were factors which +made negro slavery seem desirable. In 1733 the whites in South Carolina +numbered about seven thousand, in 1748 about twenty-five thousand, and +in 1765 about forty thousand, but this increase was due largely to the +great migration to the back country. Between 1753 and 1773 it is +estimated that about forty-three thousand slaves were brought into the +province. + +Indigo.--In 1741 or 1742 Miss Elizabeth Lucas, the daughter of the +governor of Antigua, planted some indigo seed on the Lucas plantation +near Charleston. From this beginning the indigo business rapidly +developed. In 1747 the colony produced 134,118 pounds; in 1754 over +200,000 pounds were exported, and shortly before the Revolution over +1,000,000 pounds were shipped annually. + +Commerce.--Charleston was the commercial center. Its white population +was about five thousand in 1760 and it contained about an equal number +of negroes. In the summer and autumn the population increased, as the +planters' families stayed in the metropolis to escape the +unhealthfulness of the back country. Hundreds of vessels were engaged in +the South Carolina trade, the products being shipped to the northern +colonies and to the West Indies, to Holland, Portugal, the +Mediterranean, and England. From the profits the planters purchased the +necessities and luxuries of English manufacture, the wines of Portugal +and Madeira, and the rum, sugar, molasses, and slaves of the West +Indies. + +Georgia.--In 1760 Georgia contained about six thousand whites and +thirty-five hundred negroes. Industry was diversified, as is shown by a +report of Governor Wright of 1766 which says: "Our whole time and +strength ... is applied in planting rice, corn, peas, and a small +quantity of wheat and rye, and in making pitch, tar, and turpentine, and +in making shingles and staves, and sawing lumber and scantling, and +boards of every kind, and in raising stocks of cattle, mules and +hogs...." In addition there was considerable fur trade, for which +Augusta was the center. + + +LABOR SYSTEMS + +Free labor.--The preponderance of agriculture and the abundance of cheap +land made a continual demand for laborers. The climatic and soil +conditions determined the labor system of each area. In the north the +small farm was usually tilled by the owner and his sons, aided by hired +help especially during harvest time. The men of a neighborhood +frequently combined to do important pieces of work, such as clearing +land, house-building, haying, harvesting, and corn-husking. + +Indented servants.--The great plantations of the south demanded large +forces of laborers, and there the bond servants and slaves formed the +important elements of the laboring classes. The indented servants were +of two classes, voluntary and involuntary. The voluntary servants were +those who, for transportation and maintenance, willingly bound +themselves to a master for a term of years. In the seventeenth century +the usual term had been seven years, but in the eighteenth the demand +for labor was so strong that the limit was usually four years. At the +end of the term of service the servant either worked for hire or "took +up" land. Many moved to the frontier where they soon became prosperous +farmers. + +The involuntary bond servants were paupers, disorderly persons, and +criminals. The harsh penal laws of England at that time recognized three +hundred capital crimes. Imprisonment for debt and for political offenses +swelled the numbers in confinement. To relieve the situation +parliamentary acts were passed which allowed the commutation of the +death penalty to a service of fourteen years in the colonies, and seven +years in place of branding and whipping. We have no data for exact +numbers of indented servants, but a careful student of industrial life +in the colonies has estimated that they probably constituted one-half of +all English immigrants, the middle colonies, Maryland, and Virginia, +receiving the larger numbers. + +Slavery.--In the seventeenth century negro slavery was of minor +importance in the mainland colonies, but as the plantation system +developed slaves became an ever-increasing element. In the New England +colonies and Pennsylvania they were used principally as house servants. +In New York and New Jersey they formed from eight to ten per cent. of +the population. It has been estimated that in 1760 there were four +hundred thousand slaves south of Pennsylvania. In Maryland they +constituted about thirty per cent. of the population, probably forty per +cent. in Virginia, and sixty per cent. in South Carolina. + + +FEATURES OF SOCIETY + +Near the coast.--Colonial society in the older settled regions was +aristocratic rather than democratic This was due mainly to English +customs and traditions, to an increasing wealth and corresponding +raising of the standard of living, to the strength of the religious +institutions, and to the colonial system, which provided for a +considerable body of officials. In New England the ruling classes were +the clergy and the selectmen, who occupied the important places both in +the church and in political use; the official class, at the head of whom +was the governor; and a third group, the merchants, who usually were not +admitted to the governor's circle, and who were apt to voice their +social disapprobation in their influence upon legislation. In New York +and eastern New Jersey the great landholders and the official group +controlled politics and society. In western New Jersey and Pennsylvania +the Quakers were politically, socially, and commercially the +preponderant element. In the South the plantation owners formed an +aristocracy whose social lines were drawn with distinctness. + +The frontier.--In contrast to the tide-water country, frontier society +was distinctly individualistic and democratic. The Scotch-Irish and +Germans had flocked to the mountain country. There they had built their +cabins, made their clearings in the forest, and lived a life free from +the conventions of the longer settled communities. Hunting, fur-trading, +lumbering, and cattle raising were their chief pursuits. The danger from +Indian attack was a constant menace, and personal bravery and +resourcefulness were strongly marked characteristics. With it all they +were a religious people, the Presbyterians and Pietists being +predominant. + +The Anglican church.--The religious lines marked out in the seventeenth +century were followed in the eighteenth with one notable exception, +namely, the growth of the Anglican church. This was due mainly in the +first instance to the efforts of the Bishop of London who sent +commissaries to America, the first being James Blair who was sent to +Virginia in 1689, and the second Thomas Bray, who in 1695 was sent to +inquire into the state of the colonial church. The result of Bray's +inquiry was the founding in 1701 of the Society for Propagating the +Gospel. At the time of its foundation nearly all of the Episcopal +churches were in Virginia and Maryland. In 1759 Thomas Sherlock, the +Bishop of London, reported that, "at least one half of the Plantations +are of the established Church.... This is the case of So. Carolina, N. +Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, Jamaica, Barbadoes, Antegoa, Nevis, and +the rest of the Caribbee Islands. On the other side--Pennsylvania is in +the hands and under the governmt of the Quakers, and New England and the +adjoining Colonies are in the hands of the Independents. But in some of +them are great numbers of Churchmen." + +The Great Awakening.--The eighteenth century witnessed a great change in +the New England churches. After a hundred years the early enthusiasm of +the Puritan church had subsided, and though its doctrine had changed but +slightly, a marked change in emphasis had taken place. Conversion was +still considered a divine work, but the belief had become current that +the soul could be put in touch with the spirit of God by prayer, +scriptural study, regular church attendance, participation in the Lord's +Supper, a moral life, and having been born of parents who belonged to +the church, by "owning the covenant." Against these views Jonathan +Edwards rebelled. In 1734 at Northampton, Edwards preached a series of +sermons in which he defended the doctrine of justification by faith +alone. He pleaded for immediate repentance and denied that good deeds +would lead to salvation. The religious revival, started at Northampton, +soon spread throughout Connecticut, and reverberated in Boston. At the +height of the movement George Whitefield, the friend of the Wesleys, +after preaching in Georgia and South Carolina, in 1740 visited New +England where thousands were converted. By 1744 the movement had +somewhat spent itself, and when Whitefield arrived at Boston for a +second preaching tour he found that a reaction had set in. The followers +of Edwards and Whitefield had come to be known as the "New Light" party, +while the reactionaries formed the "Old Light" party. Two generations +later this led to the separation of the Congregational body into the +"Orthodox" and "Unitarian" groups. + +Colleges.--Religion played a large part in eighteenth century education. +William and Mary College, founded in Virginia in 1691 under Anglican +influence, was the only institution of advanced learning in the South. +Yale, founded in 1701 under strong clerical influence, became the seat +of orthodox Calvinism. Harvard also came on apace, in 1721 and 1727 +establishing professorships in divinity and natural philosophy. Through +the influence of Presbyterian ministers, in 1746 the College of New +Jersey was granted a charter. King's College, now Columbia University, +founded in New York in 1754, was made possible by the efforts of Dean +Berkeley. In 1755, largely through the instrumentality of Benjamin +Franklin, the first college was founded in Pennsylvania, the institution +being freer from religious influence than any other colonial college. + + +BARBADOS, THE LEEWARD ISLES, AND JAMAICA + +West Indian planters.--In the British West Indies, the production of +sugar profoundly influenced social and economic conditions. The West +Indian planter with his vast estate worked by slaves had crowded out the +small landholder. He represented the capitalistic class, belonged to the +Anglican church, and held views similar to those of the rural +aristocracy of the mother country. It has been customary for historians +to paint a roseate picture of life on the West India plantations, and no +doubt there were many pretentious homes and many of the planters were +possessed of great wealth. But it is a striking fact that a large +percentage of the owners spent much of their time in England where their +reckless living gave a false impression of West Indian prosperity. +Slavery fostered industrial waste, and coupled with a tropical climate, +produced a manner of fife which undermined character; drinking, +gambling, immorality, and sloth were common vices. Earthquakes and +hurricanes frequently devastated the islands, the numerous wars +destroyed shipping and cargoes, and slave insurrections were a constant +terror. Churches, schools, and newspapers were sadly inadequate. +Codrington College in Barbados, the only notable school in the islands, +had but fifty students. Children of the planters were frequently sent to +England to be educated, but they there acquired a point of view which +made plantation life distasteful and tended to swell the large group of +absentee landlords. + +Barbados and the Leeward Isles.--During the seventeenth century most of +the British sugar came from Barbados and the Leeward Isles, but lack of +fertilization and slave labor had brought about deterioration on the +estates, and during the eighteenth century both population and +productivity were on the decline. In 1762 the white population of +Barbados was about 18,000 and the blacks numbered 70,000. In 1736 the +island produced 22,769 hogsheads of sugar, while during 1740-1748 the +average annual production was 13,948 hogsheads. In 1744, Antigua, St. +Christopher, Nevis, and Montserrat contained a total of about 11,000 +whites and 60,000 slaves. As the lands became less productive, the +planters attempted to make up the loss by increasing the number of +slaves, a method which probably aggravated the condition. + +Jamaica.--In the eighteenth century, Jamaica was the West Indian +frontier. There could be found large tracts of unoccupied land suitable +for sugar culture. In spite of this the population increased slowly; +this was mainly due to slave insurrections which were frequent until +1739, to the fact that there was a constant migration of small +landholders from the British West Indies, and to a depressed sugar +market. The Island of Jamaica contained 3,840,000 acres; in 1754, 1620 +planters had under cultivation 1,671,569 acres. The demand for slaves +was keener than in any other British sugar island. During 1702-1775 it +has been estimated that the planters purchased about 5,000 negroes a +year from the slave traders. + +A contemporary description of Jamaica.--Leslie described the island +customs in 1740 as follows: "The Gentlemens Houses are generally built +low, of one Story, consisting of five or six handsome Apartments, +beautifully lined and floored with mahogany, which looks exceeding gay; +they have generally a Piazza to which you ascend by several Steps, and +serves for a Screen against the Heat.... The Negroes have nothing but a +Parcel of poor miserable Huts built of Reeds, any of which can scarce +contain upwards of two or three. + +"The common Dress here is none of the most becoming, the Heat makes many +clothes intolerable, and therefore the Men generally wear only Thread +Stockings, Linen Drawers, and Vest, a Handkerchief tied around their +Head, and a hat above. ... The negroes go mostly naked, except those +who attend Gentlemen.... The Laidies are as gay as any in _Europe_, +dress as richly, and appear with as good a Grace.... Learning is here at +the lowest Ebb; there is no publick School in the whole Island, neither +do they seem fond of the Thing.... The Office of a Teacher is looked +upon as contemptible, and no Gentlemen keeps Company with one of that +Character; to read, write, and cast up Accounts is all the Education +they desire, and even these are but scurvily taught.... The Gentlemen, +whose Fortunes can allow, send their children to Great Britain. ... The +Laidies read some, dance a great deal, coquet much, dress for Admirers, +and at last, for the most Part, run away with the most insignificant of +their humble Servants. Their Education consists entirely in acquiring +these little Arts." + +Emigration.--There was a constant migration of small landholders from +the British West Indies to the French and Dutch islands, to Guiana and +to the North American colonies. Several acts were passed whose object +was to increase the number of colonists, but they had little effect, for +the small landowners could not compete with the great slave proprietors. +The colonists with small capital preferred to start where lands were +cheaper and where social fines were not so tightly drawn. + +Illicit trade.--The largest market for northern goods was found in the +West Indies. Here was a field which required the products of the +temperate zone. As Pitman observes, "Its demands upon Northern +lumbermen, stock-raisers, and farmers, furnish a powerful incentive for +the clearing and settlement of the continent." In spite of legal +restrictions the Yankee skipper plied his trade. The planters of the +sugar islands believed that the Molasses Act would restore their +prosperity, but they soon found that natural economic laws were stronger +than parliamentary enactments and that the northern sea-captain smuggled +as of old. A considerable inter-island trade which ignored nationality +was also carried on. St. Eustatius and the Virgin Isles became important +smuggler havens, and even when war was in progress, the British +Americans did not hesitate to supply their enemies with provisions and +lumber in exchange for sugar, rum, and molasses. + + +READINGS + +THE CONTINENTAL COLONIES + +Bassett, J.S., ed., _The Writings of Colonel William Byrd of Westover in +Virginia, Esqr_.; Bogart, E.L., _The Economic History of the United +States_, 53-104; Burke, Edmund, _An Account of the European Settlements +in America_, II, 145-273; Burnaby, Andrew, _Travels through the Middle +Settlements in North America_; Callender, G.S., _Selections from the +Economic History of the United States_, 6-84; Clark, V.S., _History of +Manufactures in the United States, 1607-1860_, 73-214; Cross, A.L., _The +Anglican Episcopate and the American Colonies_; Dexter, F.B., "Estimates +of Population," in Am. Antiquarian Society, _Proceedings_, 1887; Fiske, +John, _Old Virginia and her Neighbors_, II, 174-369; Greene, E.B., +_Provincial America_, 270-342; Hart, A.B., _Contemporaries_, II, +224-311; Johnson, E.R., and others, _History of Domestic and Foreign +Commerce of the United States_, I, 84-121; Kalm, Peter, _Travels in +North America_, in Pinkerton, _Travels_, XIII, 374-700; McCrady, Edward, +_The History of South Carolina under the Royal Government, 1719-1776_, +pp. 376-540; Smith, Samuel, _The History of the Colony of Nova Caesaria, +or New Jersey_, 419-509; Weeden, W.B., _Economic and Social History of +New England_, II, 449-713; Andrews, C.M., _Colonial Folkways_; Phillips, +U.B., _American Negro Slavery_, 67-114. + +THE WEST INDIES + +Edwards, Bryan, _History of the West Indies_; Gardner, W.J., _History of +Jamaica_; Long, Edward, _History of Jamaica_; Pitman, Frank W., _The +Development of the British West Indies, 1700-1763_; Phillips, U.B., +_American Negro Slavery_, 46-66. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +THE ENGLISH COLONIAL SYSTEM (1689-1763) + + +Before 1689 English colonial administration had been largely a personal +matter with the king. Royal control had been exercised through the Privy +Council assisted by advisory committees, boards and commissioners, after +1674 the most important of these bodies being the Lords of Trade. +Between 1689 and 1714 colonial administration underwent fundamental +changes both in theory and organization. By the end of the reign of Anne +it had become largely departmental and official rather than personal, +and Parliament had begun to take a somewhat larger hand in running +affairs than during the former period. The Board of Trade, a body +independent of the Privy Council, replaced the Lords of Trade in 1696 +and for a time was the chief agency in the direction of colonial +affairs. It lacked executive authority but conducted routine business +and gathered information on which the Privy Council, Parliament, and the +departments of the treasury, admiralty, and war acted. Under the +Hanoverians the Secretary of State for the Southern Department became +the colonial minister and the Board of Trade lost much of its +importance. In America the principal agents of imperial control were the +royal governors, judges, customs officials, and naval and military +officers. + + +THE FIRST REORGANIZATION OF WILLIAM III + +The system as William found it.--When William III ascended the throne, +the later Stuart colonial system had not been perfected. It had been +characterized by the principles that the authority of the crown should +be strengthened at the expense of the colonial legislatures, that +commerce should be regulated by the imperial administration, and that +larger governmental units should take the place of the multiplicity of +colonies. The colonial governments had gradually evolved toward a common +type, composed of governor and council representing the crown or +proprietor, and a legislature in which the council acted as an upper +house while the lower elective house represented the interests of the +colony. + +Committee on trade and plantations.--William III at first adopted the +machinery of colonial administration as he found it, continuing the +committee of the privy council on trade and plantations, but he +appointed new members, including leading ministers from both the Whig +and Tory parties. The navigation laws were continued in force, and +Edward Randolph was retained as surveyor general of the customs. + +Governmental changes in New England---In the colonies several changes +were introduced, the most striking being in New England. The idea of a +consolidated New England was abandoned. The charters of Rhode Island and +Connecticut were restored, and New Hampshire was established as a royal +province. In 1691 Massachusetts, Plymouth, Maine, and Acadia were +consolidated into the Province of Massachusetts Bay, but the immediate +reconquest of Acadia by the French made the new charter inoperative in +that region. + +Massachusetts charter of 1691.--The form of government established in +the Province of Massachusetts Bay was a compromise between the old +independent form of earlier days and the type of the royal colony. The +charter provided for a governor, deputy-governor, and secretary, to be +appointed by the crown; a council of twenty-eight; and a lower house +composed of freeholders, elected by the people. The general court +composed of the governor, council, and lower house, was given the power, +after the last Wednesday in May, 1693, of selecting annually the members +of the council, at least eighteen of whom were to be from the old colony +of Massachusetts, four from New Plymouth, and three from Maine. +Legislation which met the approval of the governor was sent to the king +in council, who within three years of the passage of the act, could +disallow or nullify the colonial legislation. Laws not disallowed within +three years remained in force. + +New York.--The Leisler rebellion in New York complicated the problem of +reorganization. Instead of Leisler being countenanced, New York, shorn +of New Jersey, was again made a royal colony, with a government composed +of governor, council, and elected assembly. Governor Henry Sloughter +arrived on March 19, 1691, and the first assembly met on April 9. It +promptly repealed the Duke's Laws, and voted that the revenues be made +payable to the receiver-general, a crown appointee, and that issuance of +funds be made by the governor's warrant, an action which made the +governor for the time being independent and paved the way for future +disputes. Sloughter died in July, 1691, and in August, 1692, Colonel +Benjamin Fletcher arrived to assume the governorship, Richard +Ingoldesby, an appointee of the council, having acted as governor in the +interim. + +Virginia.--In Virginia the revolution was effected without violence. +Lord Howard of Effingham continued in the governorship but remained in +England, Sir Francis Nicholson, who had been deposed in New York, being +sent out as governor in 1690. Though he resisted the calling of an +assembly, popular clamor forced his hand. A new capital city called +Williamsburg was immediately laid out. + +The Jerseys.--No settled policy regarding the proprietary governments +was followed by William. Instead of attempting to readjust them after +some formulated plan, each colony was dealt with as an individual unit +with its own problem. In the Jerseys William restored the proprietors. +Little authority was exercised by them, however, until 1692, when Andrew +Hamilton was sent out as governor of both East and West New Jersey, a +distinct step toward consolidation into a single province. + +Pennsylvania.--The marked favor with which James II looked upon Penn +placed the Pennsylvania proprietor under William's suspicion. Charges of +misgovernment on the part of Penn's appointees, bickerings in the colony +between the upper and lower counties, controversies among the Quakers, +claims of religious intolerance, and the set attitude of the Quakers +against war, made an accumulation of troubles for the proprietor. In +1692 he was deprived of his government, Benjamin Fletcher being sent +over as governor. Fletcher introduced the royal colony type of +government, selecting a council and summoning an elective assembly from +both the upper and lower counties. When Fletcher demanded appropriations +to assist in the war, the assembly proved factious, claiming that the +governor was violating the chartered rights of the colony. Fletcher was +unable to overcome the constitutional objections and withdrew to New +York, sending a deputy to the colony to represent him. Penn in the +meantime had been pressing his claims, and having succeeded in +convincing the king of his loyalty, in 1694 was restored to his rights. + +Maryland.--The Catholicism of Baltimore placed him under the ban of the +government, in spite of the fact that he hastened to proclaim the new +sovereigns. A rebellion against the proprietor gave ample excuse for the +crown to take over the government of the colony. Baltimore was left in +possession of his territorial rights, retaining the quit-rents, +ownership of vacant lands, and his share of the customs, but the +government was taken from him. In 1692 Sir Lionel Copley came over as +royal governor, a council was selected from the anti-Baltimore party, +and an assembly was convened. The assembly established the Episcopal +church and divided the counties into parishes. Copley died in 1693, and +for a brief period Sir Edmund Andros was governor, but Francis Nicholson +soon succeeded him, and transferred the capital from St. Mary's to +Annapolis. + +The Carolinas.--The proprietors of the Carolinas fared better. Though +there was much opposition to them in the colonies, they succeeded in +ingratiating themselves with William and were left in undisturbed +possession. In 1691 the Charleston and Albermarle districts were united +under a single government, Philip Ludwell, who in 1689 had been +appointed governor of the district north and east of Cape Fear, being +made governor of the whole of Carolina. + + +WILLIAM'S SECOND REORGANIZATION + +The Board of Trade.--As the war progressed, the enforcement of the +navigation laws became more and more difficult; piracy and smuggling +increased, and the Dutch obtained a larger part of the carrying trade +than formerly. The complaints of English merchants were voiced in the +House of Commons, where an insistent minority demanded a reorganization +of the machinery of colonial administration and a revision of the +navigation laws. William was opposed to the creation of a new board by +parliament, considering that such action would be an encroachment upon +the prerogative of the crown. The parliamentary bill was dropped, and +in May, 1696, the king organized the Board of Commissioners for Trade +and Plantations. Instead of being a committee of the privy council, the +new board was an independent organization. It was composed of nominal +and real members. The nominal members were the chief officers of state +who seldom attended meetings. The working members of the board were +eight non-ministerial paid officials, among those first commissioned +being John Locke and William Blathwayt, the efficient secretary of the +old committee. + +The board had general supervision of colonial trade and government, +gathered information, and reported on colonial affairs to the king or to +parliament. Instructions to royal governors were draughted by them and +they made nominations in cases of vacancy in the colonial service. They +examined colonial legislation with a view to its confirmation or +disallowance, listened to complaints, examined the accounts of the +colonial treasuries, and attended to many minor matters. The board was +in reality a clearing house for colonial administration; it examined, +reported, and recommended, but it could not execute. During the reigns +of William and Anne, its recommendations carried great weight, but its +importance gradually declined as the cabinet system developed. + +The secretaries of state.--Of William's ministers, those to whom +colonial affairs were usually entrusted were the two secretaries of +state, one or the other attending to the work. Governors usually +corresponded directly with the secretaries. Questions which involved +foreign countries, questions of defence, Indian outbreaks, and +violations of the navigation acts were usually handled by the +secretaries without being referred to the Board of Trade. + +The privy council.--The privy council continued to be the executive +center of the system. Recommendations which were read before it were +usually referred to a committee of the whole, and upon the decision of +this committee the council acted. As Dickerson says, "The whole +machinery ... for colonial administration included a Board of Trade to +investigate, gather facts, and make recommendations; a committee of the +Privy Council to act as a board of review and a court of appeals, both +administrative and legal; and the privy council, meeting with the king, +before which all final actions of importance were registered." + +The Board of Trade and other departments of government.--The +commissioners of the customs worked in close touch with the Board of +Trade. The bodies were mutually helpful in collecting information. The +admiralty and the treasury were also necessarily in close touch with the +Board of Trade as was the Bishop of London. Many members of the Board of +Trade occupied seats in parliament and prepared bills which affected the +colonies. The board members also furnished information to parliament +concerning trade and colonial matters. + +Evasion of the trade laws.--The earlier navigation laws had not been +thoroughly enforced. Most of the customs officials and some of the +governors exerted themselves to enforce the laws, and several ships were +fitted out to stop illicit traffic, but many of the officials were +negligent, and several of them no doubt profited by non-enforcement of +the laws. When arrests were made convictions proved difficult, for the +juries were in sympathy with the law-breakers. In 1693 a Scotch +commercial company was organized with the object of trading to India and +Africa. This alarmed the English East India and the Royal African +companies. The complaints of the customs officials and individual +merchants, when reinforced by these powerful corporations, resulted in +the passage of "An Act for preventing Frauds and regulating abuses in +the Plantation Trade," a law familiarly known as the Navigation Act of +1696. + +Navigation Act of 1696.--The act provided that after March 25, 1698, no +goods should be imported into or exported from any English colony in +Asia, Africa, or America, or be carried from or to any colony, or +England, Wales, or Berwick-upon-Tweed, except in ships built by English +subjects and navigated by English masters, with three-fourths of the +crews English subjects. Exception was made of prizes condemned in the +admiralty courts, and, for three years, of ships which were under +contract to deliver supplies to the English navy. All ships engaged in +colonial trade were made subject to the same rules of search and the +same penalties for violations as prevailed in England. No vessel was +allowed to engage in colonial trade until one or more of the owners had +registered the vessel and taken a prescribed oath. The Lord Treasurer, +Commissioners of the Navy, and Commissioners of the Customs were allowed +to appoint customs officers for any place which they saw fit. Forfeiture +of vessel and cargo was the penalty for breach of the law, one-third of +the proceeds to go to the crown, one-third to the governor of the +colony, and one-third to the informant who brought the suit. Governors +or commanders-in-chief of the colonies were required to take oath to +enforce the acts of trade, under penalty of a fine of a thousand pounds +and removal from office. Naval officers in the customs service were +required to give ample security to the Commissioners of the Customs in +England. In order to secure convictions, the act provided that in cases +arising under the navigation laws, only natives of England, Ireland, or +persons born in the English colonies could serve on juries. Those having +land grants were forbidden to dispose of any lands to foreigners without +an order in council, and the crown reserved the right to approve the +nomination of governors in the proprietary colonies. Any colonial act at +variance with the navigation laws was declared null and void. + +Woolen Act of 1698.--The frequent interruptions of trade during the War +of the English Succession caused the New Englanders to manufacture many +woolen goods. In order to retain a monopoly for English manufacturers, +in 1698 an act was passed forbidding the colonists to ship wool or +woolen products from one colony to another. + +Admiralty courts.--The Navigation Act of 1696 presupposed the +establishment of admiralty courts in the colonies. The continental +colonies were soon organized into two admiralty districts, New England, +New York, and after 1702 New Jersey comprising the northern, and the +rest the southern district. At a later period the districts were +subdivided. In these courts there were no juries, a fact which made the +admiralty courts exceedingly unpopular. + +The Piracy Act.--Piracy had long existed, especially in the West Indies, +and though stringent measures were taken to suppress it, the black flag +still floated over many a pirate craft. Madagascar became a favorite +haven, and from its harbors went forth the sea rovers to prey upon the +East and West Indiamen. In many ports of the American colonies they were +able to dispose of their booty, while officials closed their eyes or +shared in the profits. Of the pirates of the period, the best known is +Captain Kidd, about whose name has clustered much of fable and romance. +The Navigation Act of 1696 made smuggling more difficult, and out and +out piracy increased greatly after the passage of the act. To protect +the merchant ships and make the navigation laws more effective, in 1700 +an act was passed which provided that piracy and other felonies +committed on the high seas might be tried in special colonial courts +created by the crown. + +The "Charter of Privileges" and the formation of Delaware.--Near the +close of the reign of William III the government of Pennsylvania was +changed. In 1701 in the hope of quieting dissension in Pennsylvania, +Penn consented to the "Charter of Privileges," which was passed by the +council and assembly. The proprietor continued to appoint the governor +and councillors, but the assembly was henceforth composed of four +representatives from each county who were elected by the freemen. The +assembly was allowed to elect its own officers and to initiate +legislation. Delaware was allowed to have its own assembly but remained +under the jurisdiction of the proprietor. + +New Jersey.--The policy of bringing all the colonies to a common type +was evidenced by various attempts to send governors to the chartered and +proprietary colonies, but in the end the attempts were abandoned. +Various bills were introduced in parliament to make all the colonies +royal, but they failed except in the case of New Jersey. The position of +the proprietors in East and West New Jersey had always been precarious, +and in 1702 they surrendered their rights to the crown. The two colonies +were consolidated into the single colony of New Jersey, the royal type +of government being established, Governor Cornbury of New York being +commissioned as the first royal executive. + + +THE COLONIAL SYSTEM DURING THE REIGN OF ANNE + +Cabinet development.--During the reign of Anne the cabinet system was +gradually evolving. The privy council continued as the legal advisory +body of the crown, but a small group of ministers, the forerunner of the +modern cabinet, was in control Colonial affairs were placed definitely +in the hands of the secretary of state for the southern department. The +Board of Trade continued, but as the cabinet system developed, it became +less important, the secretary of state for the southern department and +parliament gradually encroaching upon the activities of the board. The +union with Scotland in 1707 profoundly affected the commercial system, +for after the union the Scots were no longer excluded from colonial +commerce. + +Commercial legislation.--In 1705 another important act of trade was +passed which added rice, molasses, and various naval stores to the fist +of enumerated articles which must be shipped to England. To offset these +new restrictions, bounties were to be given on naval stores produced in +the colonies and shipped to England and in 1707 colonial seamen were +exempted from impressment in the royal navy. During the reign of William +III the Bank of England was established and the financial system was +completely renovated. No definite money system had been established in +the colonies; Spanish coins were in common use, but they had no fixed +value, a condition which greatly hampered commerce. In 1707 parliament +passed an act which imposed penalties for taking foreign coins at a rate +above the legal ratio. The colonial post-office was also reorganized. +Before 1689 each colony had regulated its postal offices. In 1692 a +patent for twenty-one years was issued to Thomas Neale to establish +colonial post-offices; Neale's deputy, Andrew Hamilton of New Jersey, +obtained the support of several of the colonial governments in +establishing postal rates, but the arrangements were lacking in +uniformity. In 1710 parliament passed an act reorganizing the +post-office of the entire realm. In the colonies a post-office was to be +established in New York and at other convenient points in each of the +colonies on the continent and in each of the Leeward Isles. + +Disallowance and appeals.--During the reigns of William III and Anne the +crown was constantly seeking to harmonize the colonial and home +governments, both in legislation and administration. The chief crown +instrument for achieving harmony was the right of royal disallowance of +colonial legislation. By 1692 it had been established in the royal +provinces and in Pennsylvania. In 1702 it was extended to New Jersey, +and at various times during the reign of Anne laws of chartered +colonies were disallowed, although such action was of doubtful legality. +The unity of the English court system was maintained by insistence that +cases involving individuals in the colonies might be appealed to the +privy council When the colonies attempted to restrict the right, +colonial legislation was disallowed. + +Causes of friction.--The constitutional development in England which +followed the Revolution of 1688 was reflected in the colonies, where +each lower house was a miniature house of commons representing the will +of the enfranchised people, while the governors and proprietors were +considered as representatives of the royal will. Struggles between the +governor and assembly occurred in almost every colony, the most common +causes of quarrel being the control of elections and of the purse, and +appointments. + +Control of elections and the purse.--In several of the colonies the +popular control of elections was maintained either by specific +statements in the charters or by legislative enactment. In Virginia the +burgesses in 1692 declared themselves the sole judges of the +qualifications of their members. The Massachusetts charter provided for +annual elections, and the same right was given to Pennsylvania in 1701. +Legislative acts in the Carolinas secured biennial elections. The most +potent factor in limiting the power of governors was the control of +taxation by the lower house. That money raised by direct taxation should +be disbursed by the representatives of the people was a growing idea. +The assemblies frequently fixed salaries, refused to provide for fixed +civil lists, specified how much should be drawn and spent, and limited +grants for governors to annual appropriations. Massachusetts was the +most insistent on her rights, but each of the colonies in one way or +another sought to curb the executive. + +Appointments.--The appointment of administrative officers by the +assemblies became more and more frequent. The theory that the +representatives of the people should control taxation and disbursements +naturally led to the assertion of the right to appoint financial +officers, and by 1715 in most of the colonies the treasurer was +appointed by the assembly. The colonies also maintained agents in +England who guarded their interests. + + +THE COLONIAL SYSTEM UNDER THE WHIGS + +Whig ascendency.--The peaceful establishment of George I on the English +throne marked the downfall of the Tory party. To keep England at peace +and at the same time to maintain the balance of power in Europe was the +difficult task which the Whig statesmen performed, in the main +successfully. To build up English industry and commerce on mercantilist +principles was the basis of the Whig economic system. + +Establishment of the Cabinet system.--The statesmen who had placed a +Hanoverian on the throne did not propose to surrender the powers of +government. The king, ignorant of English speech and English politics, +soon learned that a Whig-made king was also a Whig-ruled king. During +the two previous reigns a small group of men within the privy council +had invariably directed affairs of state. This group had gradually come +to represent the majority in parliament, an arrangement which became a +definitely established principle, the ministerial group forming the +cabinet. From 1714 to 1721 no one man dominated, but the financial +crisis, brought about by the bursting of the South Sea Bubble, gave the +great financier, Robert Walpole, his opportunity. As First Lord of the +Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer, for twenty years he maintained +his leadership, the first of the prime ministers. + +The Secretary of State for the Southern Department.--In the evolution of +the cabinet system the machinery of colonial government also changed. +Under the Whig regime the Board of Trade, which, since 1696 had been the +chief instrument of colonial control, soon became of secondary +importance, the Secretary of State for the Southern Department being +recognized as the responsible head of the colonial system. Until 1724 no +one held the office long enough to develop a colonial policy, but in +that year the Duke of Newcastle was appointed to the position, which he +held for twenty-four years. Newcastle is generally regarded as an +inefficient administrator, a politician who found the colonial system a +convenient place to reward supporters. In his hands was the power of +appointment of colonial governors and other important officials; many of +them proved to be excellent officials, but others were corrupt or +incapable. Jealous of his authority and fearful of entrusting power to +others, Newcastle attempted to attend to the mass of colonial business, +with the result that it was frequently neglected. + +The Board of Trade.--The Board of Trade necessarily lost in power. When +the Whigs came in office, they made a clean sweep of the board. The new +members were usually friends of the ministers or indigent members of the +house of commons, most of whom were ignorant of colonial affairs. The +board became mainly an information bureau. At a later period, when +Newcastle became prime minister, it regained some of its former prestige +under the able leadership of Halifax. + +The privy council.--During the reign of Anne the deliberative work of +the privy council had been transacted largely by a committee, the +council formally approving business settled in committee. This became +the uniform rule under George I. Petitions, complaints, and memorials +were, usually referred to the Board of Trade for investigation and +report, and then considered by a committee, of which the Secretary of +State for the Southern Department was invariably a member. Colonial laws +were also referred to the board for examination, while appeals were +usually handled by a committee of the council. The crown continued to +disallow colonial legislation, but exercised the right less frequently +under the first two Georges than under William and Anne. + +Attitude toward colonial governments.--As compared with earlier periods, +little was done to reorganize colonial governments. Though plans for +doing away with the charters of Rhode Island and Connecticut were +frequently discussed, no action was taken, but in the proprietary +colonies changes occurred. In Maryland the Baltimore family was restored +to power, and in Pennsylvania the Penn family was confirmed in its +rights. In the Carolinas the colonists had grown weary of proprietary +neglect in defending the colonies against the Indians, Spanish, and +French. Revolutionary movements occurred which resulted in the overthrow +of proprietary power and in the complete separation of North and South +Carolina, a government of the royal type being established in each +colony. + +Trade laws.--During the Walpole period the mercantilist economic +theories were still the basis of trade regulation. The colonies +continued to be looked upon as a base of supply for raw material. Their +industrial and commercial activities were not to interfere with those of +English manufacturers and shippers. To prevent smuggling, to provide for +the treasury, and at the same time foster the resources of the colonies, +were the difficult tasks of Walpole and his colleagues. + +Naval stores.--The wars of William and Anne had caused a great demand +for naval stores, and their production in the colonies had been +encouraged. During that period England had drawn her greatest supply +from the Baltic countries. But the defeat of Sweden in her wars with +Russia meant a decline of English influence in the Baltic, and England +turned to the colonies for her ship supplies. In 1721 a new bounty act +was accordingly passed to encourage the colonial supply, and the best +hemp from the colonies was allowed to come into England free of duty. +Eight years later the bounties on pitch, turpentine, and tar were +somewhat lessened, the encouragement still being sufficient to give the +producers a decided advantage over their competitors, the Carolinas +being the principal gainers in the business. In 1731 the drawback on +unwrought hemp exported from England to the colonies was removed, an act +which also appears to have favored the colonial trade. The production of +hemp, however, did not flourish in America as did that of other naval +stores. In 1721 copper was placed upon the enumerated list, but every +effort to include iron was defeated until 1750. In line with the policy +of stimulating the production of naval stores was a provision that +timber from the colonies could be imported into England duty free, the +result being that New England became the source of supply for masts both +in the navy and the mercantile marine. + +Furs and hats.--The fur business in the Atlantic seaboard colonies had +steadily declined, and the government wished to build it up. To +accomplish this beaver and other peltry were placed on the enumerated +list, but the duties payable in England were materially decreased. Much +of the beaver was used in the colonies in the manufacture of hats. As +this was an important English industry, in 1732 an act was passed which +stopped the exportation of hats from the colonies and restricted their +manufacture. + +Rice.--The rice industry had been introduced in Carolina about 1688, and +found an important market in Portugal and Spain. Rice being placed on +the enumerated list in the reign of Anne, the colonies soon lost the +market. To rectify this, in 1730 Carolina was allowed to send rice +direct to countries south of Cape Finisterre. Five years later Georgia, +and somewhat later the West Indies, were allowed the same privilege. +American rice immediately regained its place in the trade of southern +Europe and also found a market in Holland and Germany. + +The Molasses Act.--The great staple of the West Indies was sugar. In its +production the English Islands had surpassed the French colonies, a +condition which was due to the restrictive measures of the French +government. But in 1717 France adopted a liberal policy toward her +colonies and the production of sugar increased to such an extent that +the English sugar-producing islands experienced a financial depression. +The thrifty colonial traders from the mainland, especially from New +England, took advantage of the low price of French and Dutch sugar, +molasses, and rum. To bolster up the West Indian planters and to prevent +the trade with foreign colonies, in 1733 the Molasses Act was passed, +imposing prohibitory duties on molasses, sugar, and rum imported into +the continental colonies from other than English possessions. But in +spite of the act the trade continued, and but little effort was made to +enforce the law. + +Constitutional principles.--During the period from 1714 to 1740 the +constitutional rights of the people in the colonies were defined more +clearly than before. In 1720 the principle was established that the +common law applied to the colonies as well as to England, but the +question of whether English statute law extended to the colonies was not +satisfactorily settled. The writ of habeas corpus was usually granted +under the common law. Progress was also made toward gaining the freedom +of the press. After a struggle in Massachusetts in 1721 the right of the +governor to censor books was abridged. In 1735 Zenger, a New York +publisher, was tried for libel. The court held that it should decide the +libellous nature of the statements made, and that the jury should +determine the fact of publication. Zenger's lawyer argued that the jury +must decide on whether or not the publication was libellous. On this +ground he won his suit, thereby greatly strengthening the power of the +press. + +Increasing power of assemblies.--English colonial policy does not appear +to have aroused serious opposition. Each colony had its political +parties, but no question arose which welded together any group of +colonies, or of classes in various colonies. As in the earlier period +there were frequent quarrels between the assemblies and the governors, +control of finance being the most usual cause of friction. The governors +demanded fixed salaries, while the assemblies insisted on making +temporary grants. The assemblies also ignored the necessity of the +governor's warrant in drawing money, and insisted that the councils +should not amend money bills. In these controversies the governors were +usually bested, and by the close of the Walpole regime, the principle +was well defined that the assemblies should control the purse. + +Paper money.--Closely allied to the question of control of taxation and +the governor's salary was that regarding the issuance of paper money. A +shortage of coin was usual, and the issuance of paper money was the +remedy by which the assemblies and banks attempted to provide a medium +of exchange. In general the governors opposed such issues as financially +unsound, but their actions were frequently misunderstood and were +considered tyrannous. + +Friction between colonies.--The difficulties between the executives and +the assemblies might have developed into a general opposition to English +control had it not been for the quarrels between colonies over +boundaries and trade laws. Boundaries were based upon charters, which in +many cases were conflicting and almost every colony had chronic disputes +with its neighbors. The trade laws of one colony frequently +discriminated against its neighbors, the natural result being +retaliatory legislation. The English government was often called in as +umpire, but its decisions seldom met with the approval of both parties. + + +READINGS + +Andrews, C.M., _The Colonial Period_, 128-154; Beer, G.L., "The +Commercial Policy of England toward the American Colonies," in Columbia +University, _Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law_, III, No. +2; Bingham, H., "Early History of the Scots Danen Company," in _The +Scottish Historical Review_, January, April, July, 1906; Briscoe, N.A., +"The Economic Policy of Robert Walpole," in Columbia University, +_Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law_, XXVII, No. 1; Channing, +Edward, _History of the United States_, II, 217-281; Dickerson, O.M., +_American Colonial Government, 1697-1765_; Egerton, H.E., _A Short +History of British Colonial Policy_, 114-152; Greene, E.B., _Provincial +America_, 166-207; _The Provincial Governor in the English Colonies of +North America_; Root, W.T., _The Relations of Pennsylvania with the +British Government, 1696-1765_; Pitman, Frank W., _The Development of +the British West Indies, 1700-1763_, pp. 127-333. + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +A QUARTER-CENTURY OF CONFLICT: THE EXPULSION OF THE FRENCH (1715-1763) + + +SPAIN AND THE POWERS, 1715-1739 + +Spanish dynastic ambitions.--From 1715 to 1739 the relations of England +and Spain were frequently strained, due to the clashing of commercial +and colonial interests, or to the ambitions of Spanish rulers. Philip V +hoped to become the king of France. His second wife, Elizabeth Farnese, +was ambitious to secure territories in Italy for her sons, the elder, +Don Carlos, being destined to play an important part in Italian and +Spanish history. The Spanish minister, Alberoni, devoted himself to +building up Spanish influence in Italy. + +The Triple and Quadruple Alliances.--Her Italian policy brought Spain +into discord with the Emperor Charles VI, as the House of Austria hoped +to remain the dominant factor in Italy. In 1717 Austrian acts in the +Milanese provoked hostilities. Spanish forces immediately occupied +Sardinia and the following year Sicily. The same year an alliance had +been made between England, France, and Holland, and in 1718 Austria +joined the alliance. Austrian troops were sent to Italy, a Spanish fleet +was defeated by the English Admiral Byng, and in 1719 a French army +crossed the Spanish frontier. Spain was brought to terms and Alberoni +was dismissed. But before definite terms could be arranged, France +opened negotiations with Spain and French influence was greatly +strengthened. The war between Spain and France extended to their North +American colonies, with important consequences, as has been set forth in +an earlier chapter. + +Spanish-Austrian alliance.--From 1721 to 1724 Elizabeth Farnese depended +on the French alliance to attain her ends. But France made no effort to +dislodge the English from Gibraltar, and Spanish merchants complained of +English smugglers in the colonies. Furthermore, Don Carlos had not been +established in Italy. To bring about the desired ends, in 1725 an +alliance between Spain and Austria was formed. This was made possible by +the ambitions of the Emperor Charles VI, who had been unable to obtain +the adhesion of England, Holland, and France to the Pragmatic Sanction. +He also hoped to secure a part of the Oriental trade by the formation of +the Ostend East India Company, an enterprise which ran counter to +English, Dutch, and French interests. Spain immediately demanded from +England the cession of Gibraltar. The reply was the formation of the +League of Hanover between England, France, and Prussia, the last named +power, however, soon deserting its allies. Hostilities began in 1726 +when an English fleet blockaded Puerto Bello and in 1727 the Spanish +besieged Gibraltar. Austria was unprepared for war. Powerful parties in +England and France did not favor it, and a considerable faction in Spain +opposed the Austrian alliance. In consequence a peace was patched up. +The operations of the Ostend Company were suspended for seven years, and +the siege of Gibraltar was abandoned. + +The treaty of Seville.--Abandoned by Austria, Elizabeth Farnese turned +to England and Holland. A treaty was made which provided that the +privileges of the Ostend Company be revoked, that England's former +rights of trade in the Spanish colonies be renewed, that Spain abandon +her claims to Minorca and Gibraltar, and that the succession of Don +Carlos to the Italian duchies be guaranteed. The Austrian emperor was +furious, but was pacified by a recognition of the Pragmatic Sanction on +the part of England and Holland. In 1731 Don Carlos became Duke of Parma +and Placenzia and was assured the succession to Tuscany. + +French and Spanish alliance.--Walpole was not inclined to strengthen +Spanish influence in Italy, so the shifty queen abandoned England and +brought about an alliance with France. This was made possible by +commercial difficulties in the colonies, and by the fact that French and +English colonial interests were approaching a collision. The alliance of +France and Spain was not disclosed, however, until 1739. In 1733 the War +of the Polish Succession broke out; in the struggle England remained +neutral, but France and Spain took an active part against Austria. At +the end of the war Naples and Sicily were united under the rule of Don +Carlos and the great ambition of Elizabeth Farnese was attained. + +Commercial relations of Spain and England, 1715-1739.--By the treaty of +Utrecht England had gained the right to supply the Spanish colonies with +slaves and to send an annual cargo of five hundred tons to Spanish +ports. English merchants were not satisfied with this paltry trade, and +smuggling increased. Spanish coast guard ships seized many of the +English traders, who received rough handling by the Spanish officials. +During 1738 and 1739 public opinion in England became more and more +inflamed against Spain. A paper presented to parliament in 1738 showed +that in recent years fifty-two vessels had been plundered by the +Spaniards, and that British seamen had been harshly treated. The most +famous case was that of Thomas Jenkins, who declared that a coast guard +captain had captured him, cut off his ears, and insolently remarked, +"Carry this home to the King, your master, whom, if he were present, I +Would serve in like fashion." Attempts to settle difficulties by +diplomacy failed, and by the summer of 1739 it became evident that war +was at hand. On July 10 George II issued a proclamation authorizing +reprisals and letters of marque against Spanish commerce. England +declared war on October 23, and Spain on November 28. + + +THE WAR OF JENKINS' EAR + +Puerto Bello, Cartagena, and Chagres.--As soon as war appeared +inevitable, orders were despatched to Jamaica to make reprisals and +Admiral Edward Vernon, in command of nine war vessels, was sent to the +West Indies. Hearing that the Spanish galleons would rendezvous at +Cartagena and then sail to Puerto Bello, where bullion was waiting to be +exchanged for merchandise, Vernon determined to attack Puerto Bello. On +November 22, 1739, the place was captured and the fortifications +demolished. On March 6 and 7, 1740, Cartagena was bombarded, and a part +of the fleet then attacked and captured Chagres. + +The Georgia frontier.--While these events were taking place, Oglethorpe +was taking measures to strengthen the Georgia frontier. Hearing that the +Spanish and French were tampering with the Indians, he visited Kawita, +the principal Lower Creek village, where a conference was held with +chieftains of many tribes, who acknowledged the sovereignty of George +II. Upon his return to Augusta, Oglethorpe was visited by Chickasaw and +Cherokee chiefs, who made complaint against the traders, but he +succeeded in appeasing them. By these conferences the frontier was made +safe from Indian depredations in the coming war. As soon as Oglethorpe +received information that a state of war existed, he recruited his +forces and sent runners to the Indian villages asking for a thousand +warriors to cooeperate against the Spaniards. Fortifications were +strengthened and vessels patrolled the coast. In November, 1739, word +came that the settlement on Amelia Island had been attacked. In +retaliation the Spaniards were driven from their outposts on the St. +John's. On January 1, 1740, Oglethorpe proceeded against Fort Picolata +on the St. John's River, surprised and captured it, and shortly +afterward Fort San Francisco de Papa, only twenty-one miles from St. +Augustine, was reduced but later abandoned. + +Attack on St. Augustine.--Oglethorpe determined to make an attempt to +capture St. Augustine. He repaired to Charleston, where he succeeded in +getting the assembly to pass an act to contribute five hundred men and a +schooner. The mouth of the St. John's River was to be the rendezvous for +the Carolina and Georgia troops. The Indians were asked to send forces +to Frederica. Oglethorpe also obtained the cooeperation of nine small +vessels of the British fleet. Without waiting for a complete +concentration of his forces, he entered Florida in May, 1740, and soon +captured the Spanish outposts. He then concentrated his forces and moved +against St. Augustine. Oglethorpe expected to capture it by a combined +sea and land attack, but the fleet failed to cooeperate and a siege had +to be instituted. The city was closely invested until June 14, when a +sortie succeeded in recapturing one of the outposts. A ship of war which +had been guarding the Matanzas River was withdrawn and the Spaniards +took advantage of the opportunity to land reinforcements and supplies +from Havana. After a consultation between the naval and military +commanders, Oglethorpe decided to give up the undertaking. + +Spanish and English preparations.--The Spaniards, alarmed by English +activities, in July, 1740, sent out a large squadron under Admiral Don +Rodrigo de Torres. France was persuaded to proclaim her close alliance +with Spain and she made known her decision not to allow England to make +conquests or new settlements in the West Indies, but the death of the +Emperor Charles VI determined her to stay out of the war for the time +being. When news of Torres' fleet reached England, twenty large vessels, +several frigates and small craft, and many transports carrying nine +thousand troops were sent to the West Indies, where they arrived in +December. "A fleet such as had never before been assembled in the waters +of the New World was now at the disposal of the British commander." +Commodore George Anson was also despatched around Cape Horn to the +Pacific to prey upon Spanish commerce. + +English failures.--In March, 1740, the English fleet anchored before +Cartagena. From March 9 to April 11 the city was besieged, but lack of +harmony between the commanders of the land and sea forces, and general +mismanagement coupled with sickness among the besiegers, contributed to +one of the most striking failures in English naval history. After +destroying the works which had been taken, the expedition sailed for +Jamaica and shortly afterward eleven of the heavier vessels and five +frigates were withdrawn from the West Indian station. The English +ministry also hoped to conquer Cuba, but an attack on Santiago failed as +dismally as that on Cartagena. In 1742 the capture of Panama by an +overland expedition from Puerto Bello was planned, but after again +occupying Puerto Bello the scheme was found to be impossible of +attainment. The only success of the year was the occupation of Roatan +Island off Honduras Bay. In October Vernon returned to England, leaving +Oglethorpe in command of the West Indian station. An expedition along +the Venezuelan coast failed as completely as other English ventures on +the Spanish main. + +The Georgia frontier, 1742-1743.--The failures of the English made it +possible for the Spanish to assume the offensive, and forces estimated +at about five thousand, besides a large fleet, were collected at St. +Augustine for an attack upon Georgia. The Spanish attack was launched +against the fortifications on St. Simon Island, but the spirited +defence disheartened the invaders and they soon withdrew to St. +Augustine. In March of the following year Oglethorpe retaliated by a +descent on Florida and drove the Spanish within their defences at St. +Augustine, but being too weak to attack the city, withdrew again to +Georgia. + + +THE WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION + +France enters the war.--The European situation had developed along lines +by 1743 which brought France into an offensive alliance with Spain. In +1740 the Emperor Charles VI died and his daughter Maria Theresa became +Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia. Portions of her +domains were coveted by Prussia and France. Prussia seized Silesia; this +was followed by a French attack, and the War of the Austrian Succession +was on. England and Holland feared that France might annex the Austrian +Netherlands. France found a ready ally in Spain, and the conflict which +had been waged between England and Spain since 1739, by 1743 had +developed into a great European war. + +French attack on Acadia.--Events in Europe and the Mediterranean were +far more important in bringing the struggle to a conclusion than those +in America, but it is beyond the scope of this work to deal with them. +During the peace the French had fortified Louisbourg on Cape Breton +Island, making it one of the strongest fortifications in America. The +governor of Cape Breton decided to attempt to regain Acadia and sent out +an expedition which captured Canso. After destroying the town the French +proceeded to Annapolis. The place was saved, however, by the vigilance +of the Massachusetts authorities, Governor Shirley and the assembly +having despatched a body of volunteers, who arrived before the enemy. + +Capture of Louisbourg.--Governor Shirley then proposed to the assembly +the quixotic scheme of capturing Louisbourg. Nearly four thousand +volunteers from Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts were +assembled and placed under the command of William Pepperel of Kittery, +Maine. Each of the New England colonies furnished war vessels and +transports, and Commodore Peter Warren was sent from the West Indies +with several ships of war. In April, 1745, the great flotilla appeared +before Louisbourg and the place was soon invested by land and sea. After +one of the most remarkable sieges in American history, in which the +untrained colonials acquitted themselves with bravery and efficiency, on +June 28 the place surrendered. + +Border warfare, 1746-1748.--The success at Louisbourg encouraged the +colonists to attempt the conquest of Canada. All of the colonies as far +south as Virginia furnished men, and the Duke of Newcastle promised a +large force of regulars. But the English troops were diverted to Europe +and the plan came to naught. The failure of the projected conquest +spurred the French colonists to attack the outlying settlements; from +Acadia to the New York border, bands of French and Indians harried the +frontier. Grand Pre and Fort Massachusetts were captured but were soon +reoccupied. Until the close of the war, the New England borders were +harassed by frequent raids. The New York and Pennsylvania frontiers were +protected, mainly through the influence of the Indian agent, William +Johnson, who kept the Mohawks friendly, and the Pennsylvania interpreter +Conrad Weiser, whose policy of favoring the Iroquois land claims in +Pennsylvania at the expense of the Delawares held the powerful New York +confederation on the English side. + +French and English naval activity, 1745-1746.--In March, 1745, a large +French fleet under De Caylus was sent to the West Indies. As soon as the +English ministry heard of this, Vice-Admiral William Rowley was sent out +with large reinforcements. Though De Caylus's fleet was not engaged, on +October 31 Rowley fell in with another squadron of war vessels and +supply ships, and captured or destroyed thirty out of forty sail. In +1746 France made an attempt to regain Cape Breton and Acadia. Under +D'Anville a fleet of eleven large war vessels, several frigates and +small craft, and transports carrying thirty-five hundred troops, arrived +off the Acadian coast but the fleet was shattered by a storm, and the +enterprise was abandoned. + +Decisive battles off Cape Finisterre.--In 1747 another French fleet was +sent out to recapture Cape Breton, but an English fleet under Anson and +Warren intercepted it off Cape Finisterre and nearly every French vessel +was captured. Later in the year France despatched a fleet to the West +Indies convoying over two hundred merchantmen, but near the scene of +the former battle a second great engagement occurred in which the +English were again victorious. These two great victories completed the +destruction of the French fighting navy. + +Knowles's attack on the Spanish, 1748.--Early in 1748 Rear-Admiral +Charles Knowles attacked and captured Port Louis on the southern shore +of Espanola. In April he bombarded Santiago de Cuba. In September an +engagement with a Spanish fleet took place off Havana, but he succeeded +in capturing only one vessel. + +The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.--The long war was drawing to an end, +neither side having attained unqualified success. In the Peace of +Aix-la-Chapelle, signed in October, 1748, all conquests were restored. +The peace was but a truce. Both England and France realized it and both +put forth efforts to strengthen and extend their colonial possessions. + + +THE APPROACH OF ANOTHER CONFLICT + +Acadia.--Acadia, the upper valley of the Ohio, and the Cherokee country +were debatable territories. To insure English possession of Acadia, Lord +Halifax, the president of the Board of Trade, insisted upon the +strengthening of the peninsula of Nova Scotia. In 1749 twenty-five +hundred emigrants were sent over and the city of Halifax was founded. +Three years later the English population had increased to four thousand. +Edward Cornwallis was installed as governor, and the usual form of crown +colony government established. Fort Lawrence was erected on the isthmus. +Since many of the Acadians had failed to be neutral in the last war, +Cornwallis asked that they again take the oath of allegiance, a request +which was refused, and three or four thousand emigrated rather than +swear allegiance. The policy of France regarding Acadia was to restrict +its boundaries to the peninsula of Nova Scotia, to incite the Indians to +make depredations, and to keep the Acadians loyal to the French king. +Fort Beausejour on the isthmus was converted into a formidable fortress +and Louisbourg was greatly strengthened. + +English activities on the Ohio.--Victories on the sea in the recent war +had made it possible for English merchants to undersell their French +rivals. From Albany and Oswego officials and traders worked in unison +to keep the friendship of the Iroquois. From his estate on the Mohawk, +William Johnson, a nephew of Admiral Warren, exerted great influence +over the neighboring tribes, an influence which was to increase as the +years went by. To the southward the frontiersmen grasped the opportunity +for profit, and soon the Ohio country was frequented by many traders +from Virginia and Pennsylvania. They penetrated to the Indian villages +as far as the Mississippi and even into the country beyond. The +principal trading centers were Pickawillany in the Miami confederacy, +Logstown on the Ohio, and Venango on the Alleghany. Settlers also began +to cross the mountains; in 1748 Virginia frontiersmen made a settlement +at Draper's Meadow on the Greenbrier River. + +The Ohio Company.--In 1744, at a council held at Lancaster, +Pennsylvania, the Iroquois granted to the English the control of the +country north of the upper Ohio. By subsequent agreements title was +obtained to lands south of the river. In 1749 definite action was taken +to occupy the territory. The project was launched by Virginia, partly to +check the western pretensions of Pennsylvania. A charter was granted +conveying a half-million acres on the upper Ohio to a group of Virginia +and English gentlemen, among the stockholders being several of +Washington's relatives. The grantees agreed to build a fort on the Ohio +and within seven years to settle a hundred families on their lands. In +the same year the Loyal Company secured a grant of 800,000 acres in the +West. In 1750 Christopher Gist, a well-known fur trader, was sent by the +Ohio Company to explore as far as the Falls of the Ohio, the site of +modern Louisville. During 1750-1751 he traversed portions of what are +now Ohio, Kentucky, West Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. His +favorable report stimulated activity; a trading house was built at +Wills' Creek where Cumberland, Maryland, now stands, and a trail was +blazed to the junction of Redstone Creek and the Monongahela, the +primitive beginning of the Cumberland Pike. A few Virginians immediately +settled at the western terminal of the trail. + +The French frontier strengthened.--In general the Iroquois had been +faithful to the English, but the French continued their efforts to gain +the support of the powerful confederation. An Iroquois mission was +established near Montreal, and in 1748 Father Piquet founded the mission +of La Presentation at modern Ogdensburg. To divert trade from Oswego, in +1749 Fort Rouille was built where Toronto now flourishes. A new post was +established at the Niagara portage, Detroit was strengthened, and a +garrison stationed at Sault Ste. Marie. The Marquis de la Galissoniere, +the governor of Canada, saw the danger of the English occupation of the +Ohio country. In 1749 he despatched a force under Celoron de Bienville +to take possession. The expedition passed from Lake Erie to Chautauqua +Lake and proceeded southward to the Alleghany, where the work of taking +formal possession began. The procedure was to proclaim French +sovereignty, to nail to a tree a sheet of tin bearing the arms of +France, and to bury at the foot of the tree a leaden plate which stated +that the land along the Ohio and its tributaries belonged to the King of +France. Many Indian villages in the Ohio Valley were visited and several +plates buried, but wherever Celoron went he found evidences that the +tribes were friendly to the English. At the Great Miami the last plate +was buried, and the party proceeded to the French post on the Maumee and +then returned to Canada. + +French occupation of the upper Ohio.--In May, 1749, the Marquis de la +Jonquiere was appointed governor general. He was instructed to get rid +of Oswego by inciting the Iroquois to attack it. Jonquiere found his +government permeated with dishonesty, the intendant Bigot having used +his official position to fatten the purses of himself and friends. The +governor was powerless to occupy the Ohio country, having neither +soldiers nor money sufficient for the enterprise. When he ordered +Celoron to attack Pickawillany, that officer refused because of +disaffection among the neighboring Indians. But help came from an +unexpected quarter. A young French trader from Green Bay named Charles +Langlade gathered two hundred and fifty Ottawas and Ojibways and +destroyed the Miami village. Jonquiere died in 1752; his successor, the +Marquis Duquesne, proved to be of sterner stuff. In 1753 he sent an +expedition of fifteen hundred men to occupy the Ohio country. Fort +Presq'Isle was erected and a road was cut to French Creek, where Fort +LeBoeuf was built The French planned to build another fort at the forks +of the Ohio, but sickness and the lateness of the season interrupted +their operations. + +Washington's mission, 1753.--Dinwiddie, the lieutenant-governor of +Virginia, realized the import of the French advance. He warned the home +government which authorized him to demand the departure of the enemy, +and in case of refusal, to drive them out by force. He at once sent an +embassy to protest. The bearer of the message was George Washington, a +surveyor who had barely reached the age of twenty-one. Guided by +Christopher Gist, he proceeded to the forks of the Ohio, then to +Logstown where parleys were held with the Indians, and later to Venango. +Washington was civilly received but was told that the French intended to +keep possession of the Ohio. He then proceeded to Fort LeBoeuf, where he +was told that Dinwiddie's letter would be sent to Duquesne and that in +the meantime the commander would remain at his post. It was evident that +force must be employed if the Ohio country was to become English +territory. + +The southern frontier.--The back country of the Carolinas and Georgia +was the land of the hunters, cowboys, and Indian traders. The +headquarters of the Georgia traders was Augusta, while those of South +Carolina had a place of deposit at the residence of Peter St. Julien +near Dorchester. From there the caravans followed the Congaree trail or +that which led to the Chickasaw. French agents were continually working +among the interior tribes and in 1753 a war broke out between the Creeks +and Cherokees. Governor Glen of South Carolina called the Indians to +conferences and finally succeeded in maintaining peace for the time +being. The governor then visited the lower Cherokee and purchased a +tract of land on which Fort Prince George was built, one hundred and +seventy miles above Augusta on the Savannah River. + + +THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR + +Virginia prepares to attack the French.--When Dinwiddie heard the French +reply, he prepared for war. From the house of burgesses he demanded men +and money, and messengers were sent to the Catawbas, Cherokees, +Chickasaws, and the Iroquois of the Ohio Valley asking them to join in a +war against the French. Dinwiddie also appealed to the governors of +Pennsylvania, North and South Carolina, Maryland, and New Jersey for men +and he asked the governors of New York and Massachusetts to make a +demonstration against Canada to distract forces from the Ohio. The +replies proved disappointing. The only outside troops which immediately +came were a company of regulars from South Carolina sent by royal order. +Two companies of regulars from New York arrived too late to be of +service. + +Washington's first campaign.--Three hundred provincial troops were +raised in Virginia and placed under Joshua Frye, with Washington second +in command. A few backwoodsmen were sent forward in February, 1754, to +build a fort at the forks of the Ohio, but were captured by a body of +French and Indians. The prisoners were released and brought back the +news of their mishap. The French demolished the fortification and built +a stronger one which they named Fort Duquesne. Washington pushed on +toward the west with a portion of the troops and by the middle of May +reached the Great Meadows. Hearing that a party of French were scouting +in the neighborhood, Washington, with forty men surprised them, captured +twenty-two, and killed ten. + +The death of Frye gave Washington the command. Realizing the imminence +of an attack, he constructed a rude fortification at Great Meadows, +which he called Fort Necessity, and here the rest of the Virginia troops +and the regulars from South Carolina were concentrated. From Ft. +Duquesne a force variously estimated at from five hundred to seven +hundred men under Coulon de Villiers, was despatched to attack +Washington's forces, now reduced to about three hundred and fifty +effectives. The fortifications proved to be badly constructed and poorly +located, and ammunition ran short. In a few hours fifty or sixty men had +fallen, and when Villiers proposed terms of surrender it was evident +that they must be accepted. "Not an English flag now waved beyond the +Alleghanies," and the red warriors of the West and even many of the +Iroquois flocked to the standards of France. + +Apathy of the colonial legislatures.--Even Washington's defeat did not +greatly arouse the colonial assemblies. After much delay Virginia voted +twenty thousand pounds, Pennsylvania a paltry five hundred pounds for +presents to the Indians, New York five thousand pounds, Maryland six +thousand. In Massachusetts Governor Shirley used a rumor that the French +were seizing places in the back country to obtain a large grant. He also +sent eight hundred men to build two forts on the Kennebec. The southern +colonies appear to have taken no action. + +The Albany convention.--The encroachments of the French showed the +necessity of adopting some plan of defence. In June, 1754, +representatives from New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and the New +England colonies met at Albany. The Indian chiefs stated their +grievances and were sent away soothed but hardly satisfied. The +representatives then took up the subject of defence. A plan of union, +chiefly the work of Franklin, was proposed, but when it was submitted to +the colonies they unanimously rejected it. The Board of Trade then +formulated a plan of union for military purposes only, but events were +occurring which made it necessary to take immediate action. The plan was +laid aside, and the board suggested the appointment of a +commander-in-chief over all the forces in America, a suggestion which +was eventually put into effect. + +Preparations for war.--In Europe, England and France were nominally at +peace. At the head of the English ministry was the Duke of Newcastle, +who maintained his control of a parliamentary majority by corruption +rather than by statesmanship. Fortunately for England, she had a fleet +which was far more numerous than that of her opponent. The strength of +France lay in her army which was nearly ten times as strong as that of +her rival. Major-General Edward Braddock, a former governor of +Gibraltar, stubborn, irascible, and little given to taking advice, was +sent to Virginia with two regiments, which embarked at Cork in January, +1755. As soon as the French heard of this, eighteen men-of-war with +three thousand soldiers were sent to Canada, followed shortly by nine +more war vessels. The English immediately sent twelve vessels under +Admiral Boscawen in pursuit, followed shortly by seven more, but only +two of the French vessels were captured. + +The council of governors.--Braddock summoned the governors for a +consultation and they met in April, 1755, at Alexandria in Virginia. +Those who responded were the governors of Virginia, North Carolina, +Pennsylvania, Maryland, New York, and Massachusetts. William Johnson was +also at Alexandria but was not in the council. A four-fold attack was +planned. Braddock was to attack Fort Duquesne; Shirley was to strike at +Niagara; Johnson to attack Crown Point; and Lieutenant-Colonel Monckton +was to proceed against Beausejour. + +Braddock's campaign.--After great difficulty in obtaining wagons and +supplies, Braddock moved toward the frontier. In May his forces, +composed of about two thousand men, were gathered at Fort Cumberland. At +Little Meadows, thirty miles from Fort Cumberland, Braddock left the +heavy baggage and marched on, though slowly, to attack Fort Duquesne. On +July 9 when the forces were about seven miles from the fort they began +to march along a rough path through the forest. As the English advanced +forces were crossing a ravine they were attacked by the French and +Indians, who spread out on either side and fought from behind trees, +while the English regulars wheeled into line and returned the fire. The +bravery and discipline of the English regulars proved of little avail +against the invisible enemy and they soon broke and fled. Braddock +hastened up with the second division, but the troops retreating from the +front threw them into hopeless confusion. Braddock realized that his +force was in danger of annihilation and ordered a retreat. As he fell +back he received a mortal wound. Washington, left in command, extricated +the troops as best he could and once more led back the sorry remnant of +a defeated force. + +The harrying of the frontiers.--With the defeat of Braddock, the +frontiers of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia were left almost +defenceless. Washington could muster barely fifteen hundred men to +protect a mountainous frontier nearly four hundred miles long. No +assistance was offered by Pennsylvania, whose Quaker representatives, +religiously opposed to war, quarreled with the governor over raising +money for defence, in every revenue bill asserting the right to tax the +lands of the proprietor, a course in which the governor was unable to +acquiesce. The deadlock between governor and assembly continued for +months, while Indian war bands killed hundreds of settlers. The back +country of Virginia was also a scene of massacre and rapine. Under +Washington's supervision a plan of defence was devised. Blockhouses +were built at advantageous points along the frontier, the most important +being Fort Ligonier near the Alleghany River, Fort Chiswell in the +Shenandoah Valley, Fort Bird on the Holston River, and Fort Loudoun on +the Little Tennessee. Fort Cumberland protected the upper Potomac. + +[Illustration: The Western English Frontier (From Thwaites, France in +America, opposite p. 256 [Harpers]).] + +Operations in Acadia.--While the war was going badly on the western +frontier Nova Scotia was the scene of victory. In June Monckton with two +thousand colonials landed at Fort Lawrence and soon captured Fort +Beausejour. Fort Gaspereau and a fortification at the mouth of the St. +John were also occupied. Then followed one of those tragic dramas of +war, the removal of the Acadians. They had constantly been in sympathy +with France and many of them had broken their neutrality in the recent +conflict. When they were again asked to take the oath of allegiance they +stubbornly refused. Fearing their defection in case the French attempted +to reconquer the peninsula, their deportation was ordered. Over six +thousand were sent away, many being placed in the mainland English +colonies; others went to Louisiana and the West Indies, and still others +to Canada and France. One shipload of the unfortunates landed in Texas +and fell into the hands of the Spaniards. + +The Crown Point campaign.--For the advance against Crown Point about +three thousand men from the New England colonies and New York were +brought together at Albany under William Johnson. It was not until +August that they encamped at the southern end of Lake George. The +slowness of Johnson's movements had given the French ample time for +preparation. Baron Dieskau with thirty-four hundred men had been sent to +Crown Point. He now moved southward with a part of his force to a point +almost east of the English camp. In the first engagement Dieskau scored +a success. He then rashly attacked the English camp, but his forces +suffered heavily, were finally routed, and the commander captured. After +the battle Johnson, who was wounded, decided not to attempt to capture +Crown Point. + +The Niagara campaign.--Governor Shirley undertook the reduction of +Niagara. With two regiments of colonials and five hundred New Jersey men +he advanced to Oswego. But there Shirley found himself checkmated, for +the French had sent fourteen hundred men to Fort Frontenac and had +brought twelve hundred from Fort Duquesne to Niagara. If Shirley +attacked, he would be in danger of forces from Fort Frontenac cutting +his line of communications. After a summer of inactivity he left a +garrison of seven hundred men at Oswego and abandoned the campaign. + +The diplomatic revolution.--In 1756 the old alignment of England and +Austria against Prussia, France, and Spain changed. Since the War of the +Austrian Succession, Maria Theresa had bided her time, until she could +recover Silesia. With the aid of her great minister, Kaunitz, she +succeeded in forming new alliances, France, Russia, Austria, and some of +the minor German states uniting against Frederick the Great. To protect +Hanover, the hereditary possession of George II, England made an +alliance with Prussia, and thus became a participant in the Seven Years' +War. Although a state of war with France had existed in India and +America, neither power had made a declaration of war. But there was no +longer need for subterfuge; England declared war on May 18, 1756, and +France on June 9. + +French preparations.--Already France had despatched to America the +Marquis de Montcalm to take command of the forces, with the Chevalier de +Levis as second in command. Almost from the first Montcalm was beset +with difficulties. Vaudreuil, who had taken Duquesne's place as +governor-general, was a colonial, jealous of any official from France, a +man lacking in decision, desirous of appearing as the mainspring of +success, but ever ready to blame failure upon others. The Intendant +Bigot was entirely venal, a man of low morality, who feathered his nest +regardless of the public danger. Montcalm's command contained three +thousand French regulars in Canada and eleven hundred at Louisbourg, two +thousand trained colonials, and about fifteen thousand militia. The +Indian allies furnished varying numbers. + +English preparations.--Upon his return from Oswego Shirley planned a new +offensive, which included attacks upon Ft. Duquesne, the Lake Ontario +and Lake Champlain defences, and the settlements above Quebec. This was +approved by a war council at Albany, but the colonies refused to embark +in such an extensive scheme and the attack on Ft. Duquesne and Quebec +had to be abandoned. John Winslow was commissioned to lead the troops +against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and Shirley proposed to command +against the Ontario strongholds. But before the plan could be executed +Shirley was superseded by Colonel Daniel Webb, who in turn was followed +by General James Abercromby, with the understanding that Loudoun was +soon to take command. + +The fall of Oswego.--While the colonial forces were slowly preparing to +take the offensive, Montcalm struck at Oswego. A three days' siege made +the forts untenable and the place surrendered on August 14, 1756, +sixteen hundred prisoners being taken. Montcalm then returned to +Ticonderoga, where his garrison of five thousand men defied Loudoun, who +dared not attack him. The year had been one of dismal disasters for the +English: Oswego fallen, the Ticonderoga attack abandoned, the frontiers +from Maine to South Carolina harried by Indian war, Minorca captured by +the French, and Calcutta fallen to Sur'a ah Dowlah. + +Pitt becomes the moving spirit.--Newcastle's mismanagement raised a +popular outcry and in November, 1756, he resigned. The Duke of +Devonshire became Prime Minister, but Pitt was the strong man of the new +cabinet. He was not in the king's favor, however, and, by April, 1757, +was forced out of office. In July a new ministry was formed. "To +Newcastle was given the name of Prime Minister, to Pitt the reality. +With the control of foreign affairs as Principal Secretary of State he +was also to have control of the war." He saw that England's opportunity +was on the seas and in the colonies. + +Louisbourg and Ft. William Henry.--At the advice of Loudoun an attack on +Louisbourg had been planned. A part of the troops were withdrawn from +the northern frontier and in June eleven or twelve thousand men were +gathered at Halifax, where they were joined by a squadron under +Vice-Admiral Holburne. The news that Louisbourg had been heavily +reinforced alarmed Loudoun and he returned to New York. Holburne cruised +off Louisbourg, hoping to attack the French, but his fleet was shattered +by a storm. Loudoun had left an insufficient force to defend the Lake +George region. Montcalm, ever on the alert to take advantage of the +blunders of the enemy, descended from Ticonderoga and attacked Fort +William Henry at the southern end of the lake. After a three days' +bombardment the English force of about two thousand surrendered. On the +continent the British had failed dismally. An attempt to capture +Rochefort had been unsuccessful and the Duke of Cumberland had conducted +an inglorious campaign in Germany. The only great British successes of +the year were in India where Calcutta and Chandernagore were captured +and the battle of Plassey was won. + +Preparations and plans, 1758.--By 1758 Pitt, ably seconded by Admiral +Anson, had brought the army and navy to a high standard. A squadron was +sent to watch Brest, flying squadrons attacked several French ports, a +fleet was maintained in the Mediterranean to prevent the fleet at Toulon +from getting into the Atlantic, and small squadrons were sent to India, +to the African coast, and the West Indies. The army was raised to a +hundred thousand. In America Loudoun was superseded by Abercromby, +Major-General Amherst was sent over, and twenty thousand provincial +troops were put in the field. A three-fold offensive was planned. Forbes +with about seven thousand men was to attack Fort Duquesne; Abercromby +and Howe with fifteen thousand men were to clear the French from Lake +Champlain, and Amherst with twelve thousand regulars aided by a powerful +fleet under Admiral Boscawen was to attack Louisbourg. + +Capture of Louisbourg.--Boscawen and Amherst rendezvoused at Halifax and +on June 1, 1758, over a hundred and fifty vessels appeared before +Louisbourg. Gradually the English forces encompassed the fortress. The +French sunk several war vessels in the harbor mouth to prevent the +entrance of the English fleet, but in the course of the bombardment +three of the remaining French vessels caught fire and two others were +destroyed by a night attack. The defences were battered down one by one +and on July 26 Ducour, the French commander, offered to capitulate and +six thousand prisoners of war passed into English hands. + +Abercromby's defeat.--While the English were besieging Louisbourg, +Abercromby led his army of fifteen thousand against Ticonderoga. +Montcalm was in command of the French fortress, which was garrisoned by +less than four thousand men. The English army crossed Lake George on a +great flotilla, and on July 6 was within four miles of Ticonderoga. +Abercromby foolishly thought that the fortifications could be rushed +with the bayonet and on July 8 the attempt was made. The French fire +mowed down the charging ranks with frightful slaughter. A desultory +fight continued, followed by a second charge which also failed, and +Abercromby, after losing nearly two thousand men, decided to retreat. In +October Amherst took command of the forces which were encamped at the +southern end of Lake George, but the season was too far advanced to +attempt another great offensive in that region until spring. + +Forts Frontenac and Duquesne.--The French forces on Lake Ontario had +been weakened by withdrawals. Taking advantage of this, in August +Lieutenant-Colonel Bradstreet led twenty-five hundred men against Fort +Frontenac. The feeble garrison of one hundred soon surrendered, and the +fort and ships in the harbor were destroyed. Lake Ontario was now in the +hands of the English, and French control on the upper Ohio was +weakening. General Forbes gathered a force of six or seven thousand men +and advanced toward Fort Duquesne. Upon the approach of the English in +November, the French destroyed the fortifications and scattered to the +various western posts which they still possessed. + +Kerlerec and the southern Indians.--That the English did not carry the +war into the Southwest was due in no small part to the Indian policy of +Kerlerec, the governor of Louisiana. The Creeks and Choctaws were +traditionally favorable to the French, but their loyalty was always +strained by the superior quality of English goods. Kerlerec made annual +visits to Mobile to distribute presents, and prevented the Choctaws from +threatened defection. Through his influence, in 1755 and again in 1757 +the Creeks expelled Englishmen sent to establish posts among them, and +murdered English traders. In 1757 Fort Massac was built on the Ohio to +prevent an English expedition descending that stream or the Cumberland. +At the same time the Shawnees returned to French allegiance. + +The Cherokee War.--For three years Kerlerec intrigued with the Cherokees +and succeeded in winning them over. He soon incited them to attack the +settlements and many depredations occurred. In October, 1759, Governor +Lyttleton of South Carolina, after a show of force, patched up a truce, +but shortly afterward the Cherokees surrounded Fort Prince George and +killed the commander and two others. The garrison then massacred Indian +hostages within the fort, and immediately the southern frontier was +ablaze with war. Hostilities assumed such proportions that it was +necessary, early in 1760, for Amherst to send twelve hundred men to +assist the colony. An expedition under Colonel Montgomery destroyed many +Cherokee villages, but Montgomery's orders did not allow him to remain +long in the colony, and in August he departed for New York. The +Cherokees then captured Fort Loudoun. In 1761 an expedition of +twenty-six hundred Highlanders and colonials under Colonel Grant was +sent against the Indians. The heart of the Cherokee country was +penetrated and the Indians were forced to sue for peace. + +Operations in the West Indies.--Late in 1758 British reinforcements were +sent to the West Indies to attempt the capture of the French island +possessions, twenty-five vessels being gathered under Commodore John +Moore. In January an attempt was made to take Martinique, but the French +force of ten thousand regulars and militia prevented the occupation. +During the following months Guadeloupe, Marie Galante, the Saintes, La +Desirade, and Petit Terre surrendered to the English. + +The campaigns of 1759.--Four expeditions against the French in North +America were planned for 1759; one under Prideaux against Niagara, a +second under Stanwix against settlements on Lake Erie, and a third under +Amherst against Ticonderoga and Crown Point. The fourth under +Vice-Admiral Saunders and Major-General Wolfe was directed against +Quebec. + +Niagara captured.--Prideaux arrived before Niagara in July. In the +attack the general was accidentally killed and Sir William Johnson took +command. He defeated a relieving force and the fort surrendered. The +fall of Niagara made it unnecessary for Stanwix to proceed, and he +devoted his energies to the building of Fort Pitt, on the site of modern +Pittsburgh. + +The fall of Quebec.--While Amherst was slowly moving toward Lake +Champlain, the more important operations were proceeding against Quebec. +The rendezvous was at Louisbourg. There were gathered nine thousand +troops, thirty-nine men-of-war, ten auxiliaries, twenty-six transports, +and a hundred and sixty-two other craft, manned by eighteen thousand +men. In June the vast armament sailed up the St. Lawrence to attack the +strongest fortification on the continent. For the defence of the city +Montcalm was able to muster an army of seventeen thousand, four thousand +of whom were French regulars. The city occupies a promontory which juts +into the St. Lawrence. Behind it are the Plains of Abraham, a plateau +with almost perpendicular cliffs. To the eastward flows the River St. +Charles. Between the St. Charles and the Montmorency stretched the +fortified French camp. The only weak place in the defence was Point +Levis across the river. This Montcalm had wished to fortify but had been +overruled by Vaudreuil. + +On June 26 the fleet approached the city and Point Levis was immediately +occupied. Then began a series of attacks upon the French positions below +the city, but every assault was repulsed and frequently with heavy loss. +It became evident that the French encampment could not be taken and the +plan of attack was changed. The fleet, which formed a screen for land +operations on the southern shore, had gradually succeeded in getting +several vessels above the city, intercepting supplies and +reinforcements. At a council of war an attack above the city was +determined upon. Wolfe withdrew his forces from the Montmorency and they +were transferred to a point above the town. This movement was covered by +the movement of the ships, which continually passed up and down the +river as if to make a landing. On September 12 Saunders bombarded the +French camp below the city. Montcalm, completely deceived, hurried +reinforcements to that quarter. Before dawn of September 13 Wolfe landed +his first detachment at the foot of the cliffs two miles above the city. +Up the steep side clambered a small party, who overcame the guard at the +top. By sunrise forty-five hundred men had mounted to the Plains of +Abraham. Montcalm made a desperate effort to regain the position but the +battle went in favor of the English. Both Wolfe and Montcalm were +killed. On September 17 the British troops entered Quebec, the key to +the St. Lawrence. + +Important naval operations.--Elsewhere the English were equally +successful. In 1758 Senegal and Goree on the African coast had been +captured, and in 1759 on the coast of India a French fleet was bested +and abandoned the East Indian waters. Rodney destroyed a French fleet at +Havre, Boscawen in August completely defeated the French Mediterranean +fleet, and Hawke in November annihilated the channel fleet in a great +battle near Quiberon Bay. + +The French fail to recapture Quebec.--Although Quebec had fallen the +French still had a formidable force in the field. The troops were +withdrawn from Lake Champlain and new levies were raised. By April, +1760, Levis had gathered an army of eleven thousand men and he proceeded +boldly to attempt the recapture of Quebec. A hard winter had greatly +reduced the effectiveness of the English garrison and General Murray was +able to meet the French with only three thousand men. On April 18 +occurred the second battle on the Plains of Abraham. The artillery saved +the English and the attack failed. An English fleet soon blocked the St. +Lawrence and the possibility of aid from France was at an end. + +The capture of Montreal.--The last important Canadian stronghold was +Montreal, and here Vaudreuil and Levis made their final stand. Three +English armies were sent against the place. Murray ascended the St. +Lawrence, Haviland advanced from Lake Champlain, and Amherst with eleven +thousand men proceeded from Lake Ontario down the St. Lawrence. The +French, weakened by desertions and discouraged by defeats, offered +little resistance; on September 8 articles of capitulation were signed +and the struggle for New France was practically ended. Forts Miami, +Detroit, Mackinac, and St. Joseph soon surrendered; of the mainland +colonies Louisiana alone remained in the possession of France and this +also she was destined to lose. + +George III becomes king.--The year 1760 also saw the breaking of French +power in India. Colonel Eyre Coote decisively defeated Count Lally at +the battle of Wandewash and the next year Pondicherry was captured, +putting an effectual end to French influence in the Carnatic. When +English success was at its height George III ascended the throne of +England. He opposed the war of conquest which Pitt was waging, desiring +to break the power of the Whig oligarchy which long had dominated +English politics. In 1761 Pitt resigned but the king was unable to bring +the struggle to an immediate close, for Charles III of Spain renewed the +family compact with France, and Spain entered the war. + +Operations in the West Indies and the Philippines.--Against the new +antagonist England's sea power was overwhelmingly superior. In 1761 +Rodney was sent to take command in the West Indies. He found Dominica +already in English hands. Rodney immediately ordered the blockade of +Martinique and in February, 1762, the island was surrendered. Shortly +afterward Granada, the Grenadines, and St. Lucia were occupied. Admiral +Pocock was sent out with reinforcements, and a great fleet of +fifty-three war vessels, besides transports and other craft, with an +army of fifteen thousand proceeded against Havana. In June the place was +invested by land and sea. On July 30 Moro Castle was carried by storm, +and on August 13 the city surrendered. Nine ships of the line and loot +to the value of L3,000,000 fell into English hands. The extinguishment +of French power in India made it possible to turn attention to the +Philippines, and a squadron under Draper was sent against Manila. The +place was feebly garrisoned and quickly surrendered, the capitulation +taking place on October 5. + +The Peace of Paris.--France, Spain, and England were ready for peace. At +the decisive moment Russia had turned to the side of Prussia, and +Austria was unable to continue the war alone. France made overtures to +England for peace, and on November 3, 1762, the preliminaries were +signed. The definitive treaty between England, France, and Spain was +signed at Paris on February 10, 1763. France surrendered to England +Canada, St. John's, Cape Breton, and all that part of Louisiana which +was east of the Mississippi except the Island of Orleans. France +retained certain fishing rights on the Newfoundland banks and was given +the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon. She also obtained Martinique, +Guadeloupe, Marie Galante, and St. Lucia. Belle Isle and Goree were +restored to France, but England kept Senegal. Minorca was restored to +England. In Asia English conquests were restored to France but no +fortifications were to be erected by her in Bengal. The preliminary +agreements had arranged matters with Spain. In exchange for Havana, +Florida was ceded to England. Manila was eventually restored to Spain as +the news of the capture did not arrive until the preliminaries had been +signed. Louisiana had been an expensive province, and Louis XV gladly +surrendered all the territory west of the Mississippi and the Isle of +Orleans to Spain as a compensation for the losses of his ally. France +was virtually eliminated from America. England and Spain stood out as +the world's great colonizing powers. + + +READINGS + +THE WARS OF JENKINS' EAR AND THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION + +Armstrong, E., _Elizabeth Farnese_; Clowes, W.L., _The Royal Navy_, III, +50-138, 263-289; Jones, C.C., _The History of Georgia_, I, 314-369; +Mahan, A.T., _The Influence of Sea-Power upon History, 1660-1783_, pp. +254-279; McCrady, E., _The History of South Carolina under the Royal +Government, 1719-1776_, pp. 187-229; Parkman, F., _A Half-Century of +Conflict_, II, 33-256; Thwaites, R.G., _France in America_, 105-123; +Walton, J.S., _Conrad Weiser and the Indian Policy of Colonial +Pennsylvania_, 9-121; Wood, W., _The Great Fortress_; Shea, J.G., +_Catholic Church in Colonial Days_, 470-479. + +FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR + +Beer, G.L., _British Colonial Policy_, 1754-1765, pp. 6-77; Casgrain, +R.R., _Wolfe and Montcalm_; Channing, Edward, _A History of the United +States_, II, 550-599; Clowes, W.L., _The Royal Navy_, III, 138-255; +Kingsford, W., _The History of Canada_, III, 387-568, IV.; Lucas, C.P., +_A Historical Geography of the British Colonies_, V, 216-328; McCrady, +Edward, _The History of South Carolina under the Royal Government, +1719-1776_, pp. 329-352; Mahan, A.T., _The Influence of Sea-Power upon +History, 1660-1783_, pp. 281-329; Parkman, Francis, _Montcalm and +Wolfe_; Short, A., and Doughty, A.G., _Canada and its Provinces_, I, +231-312; Smith, P.H., _Acadia, a lost Chapter in American History_, +145-249; Stone, W.L., _The Life and Times of Sir William Johnson_, I, +327-555, II, 1-213; Thwaites, R.G., _France in America_, 143-280; +Villiers du Terrage, Marc de, _Les Dernieres Annees de la Louisiane +Francaise_, 48-108; Walton, J.S., _Conrad Weiser and the Indian Policy +of Colonial Pennsylvania_, 121-381; Wood, W., _The Passing of New +France; The Winning of Canada_; Corbett, J.S., _England in the Seven +Years' War_; Wrong, G.M., _The Conquest of New France_. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +THE RUSSIAN ADVANCE: THE OCCUPATION OF ALTA CALIFORNIA AND LOUISIANA BY +SPAIN (1763-1783) + + +READJUSTMENT IN SPANISH NORTH AMERICA + +Effect of the Seven Years' War.--The outcome of the Seven Years' War +caused several readjustments in Spanish North America. It left Spain in +a position where she must restore her colonial power or sink to the rank +of a third rate nation. Renewed war with England was regarded as +inevitable. Florida was lost, and was poorly compensated for, it was +thought, by western Louisiana. The French barrier having been removed, +Spain's hold on Louisiana and the Pacific Slope was threatened by the +English, advancing both through Canada and from the thirteen colonies. +On the Pacific Slope the Russians seemed even more threatening than the +English. Added to all this, northern New Spain was overrun by +increasingly hostile tribes. Poor and unprepared though she was, +therefore, Spain was forced to get ready for another war with England, +occupy Louisiana and Alta California, strengthen the frontier defences +of New Spain against the Indians, and explore or reexplore the northern +interior. + +The Reforms of Charles II.--All these demands could be met only by the +most heroic measures; and these were applied by the energetic Charles +III. This king, a Bourbon, had come to the throne in 1759, after a long +and forceful reign as King of Naples. By the time of his accession, +Spain had already profited much by the Bourbon reforms which from time +to time had been instituted since the opening of the century, but the +national revenue was still small, commerce stagnant, the army and navy +weak, and colonial administration corrupt. Now came the new demands +entailed by the outcome of the great war. To make the program of defence +possible, it was necessary to provide revenue. This could be done only +by increasing commerce and reforming the fiscal administration of the +colonies. + +Commercial reforms.--Commercial reforms were outlined in a series of +decrees enacted between 1764 and 1778. The ends at which they aimed are +indicated by the deliberations of the _junta_ held in 1765. This body +condemned especially the monopoly enjoyed by Cadiz, delays due to the +flota system, the export duties on Spanish goods, restrictions upon +intercolonial commerce, the smuggling habit, and the English monopoly of +the slave carrying trade. + +Reforms of Jose de Galvez.--To carry out the reforms in New Spain King +Charles sent Jose de Galvez, who, as _visitador general_, was entrusted +with a complete overhauling of the administration. The special function +of Galvez was to increase the revenues from New Spain. The amount +collected had been limited by crude fiscal methods and by corrupt +officials. Galvez laid a heavy hand upon "graft," and devised new +sources of revenue. Conspicuous among the latter was the tobacco +industry, which he made a royal monopoly. + +Explorations on the Gulf coast.--One of the first steps toward +readjustment of the frontier to the new situation was a series of +explorations looking to the defence of the northern coast of the Gulf of +Mexico against rumored dangers from the English, now in possession of +Florida. To this end, in 1766 Colonel Escandon and Colonel Parrilla +explored the Nuevo Santander and Texas coasts between Tampico and +Matagorda Bay. + +Rubi's tour.--To inspect and report on the northern outposts of New +Spain, the Marques de Rubi was commissioned. Leaving Mexico in March, +1766, he passed through the frontier establishments from Sonora to the +borders of Louisiana. He found the whole northern frontier infested with +warlike tribes, especially the Apaches and Comanches, who committed +depredations all the way from the Gila to central Texas. Rubi +recommended rearranging the northern posts so as to form a cordon of +fifteen, extending from Altar in Sonora to La Bahia in Texas. Regarding +Texas he recommended that the Comanche harassed district of San Saba and +all of the establishments on the Louisiana border be abandoned, and that +a war of extermination be made against the Eastern Apaches, relying for +the purpose on the aid of their enemies. In 1772 most of the Rubi +recommendations were adopted in the form of a "New Regulation of +Presidios." To Hugo O'Conor, as _comandante inspector_, fell the task of +arranging the line of presidios. + +Expulsion of the Jesuits.--For reasons which need not be discussed here, +in 1767 the king of Spain expelled the Jesuits from all of the Spanish +dominions. This caused a general shifting of the missionary forces, the +places of the Jesuits in the northeastern provinces being taken by the +Franciscans. The temporalities were at first put in the hands of soldier +commissioners, but were soon turned over to the Franciscan missionaries. +To Pimeria Alta were sent Franciscans from the College of the Holy Cross +of Queretaro. To Lower California went members of the College of San +Fernando of Mexico, the president being Junipero Serra, already +distinguished for work in Sierra Gorda. + +Galvez in Lower California.--In 1768 the visitor, Galvez, was called to +California and Sonora. In California he restored the temporalities to +the missionaries, consolidated the Indian pueblos, and tried to +stimulate Spanish colonization and mining, but without great success. It +was while on the Peninsula, too, that he organized the expedition to +occupy Alta California. + +Galvez in Sonora.--To end the Indian disturbance which for many years +had been menacing Sinaloa and Sonora, Galvez sent Colonel Domingo +Elizondo at the head of eleven hundred men. The war began in 1768. After +a year of futile campaigns, chiefly against Cerro Prieto, the landing +place of the enemy, Galvez himself took command for a time, with little +better results. Elizondo was restored to the command, and for another +year the war continued. By dint of guerrilla warfare, presents, and +coaxing, by the middle of 1771 the rebels were pacified and settled in +towns. + +The Provincias Internas.--Prominent among the plans of Galvez were the +establishment of the intendant system in New Spain, the erection of the +northern provinces into an independent commandancy general, and the +establishment there of one or more bishoprics. The project of a separate +government for part or all of the northern provinces had often been +considered. It was felt that the viceroy was overworked, and too far +from the frontier to understand its needs. The demand was sectional, +based on regional interests. In 1760 a separate viceroyalty had been +proposed, but Galvez favored a military commandancy general. In 1776, +after he became Minister of the Indies, his ideas were put into effect. +Nueva Vizcaya, Sinaloa, Sonora, the Californias, Coahuila, New Mexico, +and Texas were put under the military and political government of a +comandante general of the Interior Provinces, directly responsible to +the king and practically independent of the viceroy, the Audiencia of +Guadalajara retaining its judicial authority. Chihuahua became the +capital, except for a short time when Arispe was the seat of government +(1780-1782). The first _comandante general_ (1776-1783) was Teodoro de +Croix, brother of Viceroy Croix, and himself later viceroy of Peru. By +writers on California history, with attention fixed on the West, he has +been regarded as incompetent. + +New dioceses in the North.--In 1777 the Diocese of Linares was created +to embrace the northeastern provinces of Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Nuevo +Santander, and Texas. Two years later was formed the Diocese of Sonora, +to include Sinaloa, Sonora, and the two Californias. + +The intendancies.--The primary purpose of the intendancies was to +provide for the fiscal administration. A French institution, the system +had been established in Spain in 1749 with satisfactory results. In 1764 +the intendancy of Havana was established, likewise with good results. In +1768 the system was tentatively established in Sonora. At that time +Galvez favored eleven intendancies, dependent on the viceroy as +superintendent general of revenues. The plan was not put into general +operation until 1786, when Galvez was Minister of the Indies. + +The captaincy-general of Havana.--Up to the middle of the eighteenth +century the audiencia and captaincy-general of Santo Domingo comprised +all of the West Indies and Venezuela. Though nominally within the +district, Florida was a separate captaincy-general, dependent directly +on the Council of the Indies for judicial and military affairs. In other +respects it was subject to the Viceroy of Mexico. As a result of the +English war, in 1764 Havana was made the seat of an independent +captaincy-general and of an intendancy. In 1795 the Audiencia of Santo +Domingo was moved to Havana. + + +THE RUSSIAN MENACE + +The Russian advance.--Spain had long been uneasy about upper California +because of the activities of the English, Dutch, and French. Now the +advance of the Russians seemed more threatening, and caused the long +contemplated step to be taken. In the seventeenth century the Russians +had crossed Siberia and opened up trade with China. In the early +eighteenth century large portions of northern Asia were conquered by +Russia in the interest of the east-moving fur traders. Before he died +Peter the Great set on foot the project of sending an expedition to seek +the northern passage from the Pacific to the Atlantic by going east. In +pursuance of this task Vitus Bering made his stupendous expeditions into +the Pacific (1725-28, 1733-41), in the second of which he discovered +Bering Strait, coasted the American mainland, and made known the +possibilities of profit in the fur trade. + +Fur trade on the Aleutian Islands.--Bering's voyage was followed by a +rush of fur traders to the Aleutian Islands. Companies were formed, +vessels built at the port of Okhotsk, and posts established within a few +years on Bering, Unalaska, Kadiak, and other islands, for a distance of +nearly a thousand miles. The principal market for furs was China. The +fur trade was attended by wanton slaughter of animals and harsh +treatment of natives, who sometimes rebelled, as at Unalaska in 1761. + +Decision of Spain to occupy Alta California.--Though Russian activities +were as yet confined largely to the Aleutian Islands, the Spanish +government feared that they would be extended down the coast. Moreover, +there was a growing friendship between Russia and England, Spain's chief +enemy. But these dangers, like others discussed during three centuries, +might have resulted in nothing but correspondence had there not been on +the northern frontier of New Spain a man of action, clothed with full +authority to act. This man was the visitor-general, Jose de Galvez. On +January 23, 1768, Grimaldi, royal minister, sent the viceroy orders to +resist any aggressions of the Russians that might arise. This order, +which coincided with the views of the visitor and the viceroy, reached +Galvez while on his way to California. + + +THE FOUNDING OF ALTA CALIFORNIA + +The Portola expedition.--While settling affairs in the Peninsula Galvez +organized the expedition. It was designed to establish garrisons at San +Diego and Monterey, and to plant missions, under their protection, to +convert and subdue the natives. The command was entrusted to Governor +Portola, and the missionary work to Father Junipero Serra, president of +the California missions. The enterprise was carried out in 1769 by joint +land and sea expeditions. The _San Carlos_ under Captain Vicente Vila +and the _San Antonio_ under Captain Juan Perez conducted a portion of +the party, while the rest marched overland from Lower California, under +Captain Rivera and Governor Portola. + +San Diego founded.--By the end of June all but one vessel had arrived at +the Bay of San Diego. While Vila, Serra, and some fifty soldiers +remained to found a mission and presidio there, Portola led others to +occupy the port of Monterey. Following the coast and the Salinas Valley, +he reached Monterey Bay, but failed to recognize it. Continuing up the +coast he discovered the present San Francisco Bay and then returned to +San Diego. + +Monterey founded.--At San Diego affairs had gone badly. Many persons had +died, provisions were scarce, and Portola decided to abandon the +enterprise. Persuaded by Serra, he deferred the day of departure, and +new supplies came. Another expedition to Monterey was successful, and +the presidio and mission of San Carlos were founded there in 1770. + +Plans for expansion.--At last the long talked of ports of San Diego and +Monterey had been occupied. But the newly found port of San Francisco, +further north, needed protection, the large Indian population called for +more missions, settlers were lacking, and permanent naval and land bases +were necessary. One by one these matters were considered and adjusted. +To assist in the plans for expansion Serra went to Mexico in 1772 and +made many recommendations. The temporary naval base at San Blas was made +permanent, and thereafter played an important part in the development of +California. The new foundations were assured support from the Pious +Fund, and in 1771 and 1772 three new missions were founded--San +Antonio, San Gabriel, and San Luis Obispo. In 1772 California was +divided, the peninsula being assigned to the Dominicans. Politically the +two Californias were continued under one governor, with his residence at +Loreto, Fages being replaced as commander in the north by Rivera y +Moneada. + +[Illustration: Alta California Settlements.] + +A land route to California.--The next step was the opening of a land +route from Arizona to California, and was the work especially of two +frontier leaders. When the Franciscans in 1768 took the place of the +Jesuits in Pimeria Alta, Father Francisco Garces was sent to San Xavier +del Bac, the northern outpost. He at once began to make visits to the +Gila, and in 1771 alone he crossed the Yuma Desert from Sonoita, and the +California Desert to the foot of the western Sierras. Encouraged by +these discoveries, Captain Anza of Tubac offered to open a land route to +Monterey. The plan was approved by the viceroy, and in 1774 Anza, with +Garces as guide and with twenty soldiers, made the expedition, with +great hardships but with notable success. + +San Francisco founded.--The opening of the land route from Sonora +facilitated the occupation of the port of San Francisco. Plans for its +occupation had been discussed ever since its discovery by Portola. +Meanwhile the region had been throughly explored from Monterey as a +base. In December, 1774, Anza was ordered to lead a soldier colony from +Sonora to occupy the port, and plans were made for a mission. Enlisting +some two hundred and fifty persons, Anza assembled them at Tubac, and in +October set out for California. Descending the Santa Cruz and Gila +Rivers to the Colorado, thence he followed his former trail to Monterey, +where he arrived in March, 1776. Aided by Father Font, he reexplored the +Bay region, selected sites for a presidio and mission, and returned to +Sonora. In September the presidio and in October the mission of San +Francisco were founded. + +A route from New Mexico.--The Sonora base for California was not +altogether satisfactory and some thought that New Mexico would serve +better. Among the latter was Father Garces, and by a most remarkable +exploration he put his views to the test. He accompanied Anza's second +expedition to the Gila-Colorado junction, but from there set out to +explore a new route. Ascending the Colorado to the Mojave tribe, near +Needles he turned west and crossed the Mojave Desert. It was his plan to +go straight to San Luis Obispo, but his guides refused, and he threaded +Cajon Pass to Mission San Gabriel. From there he continued through Tejon +Pass into the San Joaquin Valley, descended it to the Tulare region, +emerged through an eastern pass, probably the Tehachapi, and recrossed +the desert to the Mojaves. Thence he continued east to the Moquis, +reaching Oraibe on July 2. Here he was given a cold reception, so he +turned back to the Yumas. + +Exploration by Escalante and Dominguez.--Shortly after Garces returned, +a party set out from Santa Fe to attempt reaching Monterey by a more +northern route. The party consisted of Fathers Dominguez and Escalante, +Captain Bernardo de Miera y Pacheco, and nine soldiers. Leaving Santa Fe +on July 29, 1776, they went northward into Colorado, followed the +western line across the San Juan, Dolores, Grand and Colorado Rivers, +turned westward to Utah Lake and south past Sevier Lake. In October, +concluding that it was too late to attempt to cross the Sierras, they +returned eastward to Moqui, Zuni, and Santa Fe. Thus had another great +feat of exploration resulted from the attempt to find land connection +with California. + +Spanish Pueblos.--California still lacked the civil element to make it +complete in outline, and this was now provided. In 1777 Governor Neve +moved his capital from Loreto to Monterey, where he received orders from +the viceroy to take steps toward founding colonies of settlers, as a +means toward making the province self-supporting. Neve therefore +proceeded to establish two Spanish pueblos. + +San Jose.--With fourteen families from Monterey and San Francisco, in +1777 Lieutenant Moraga founded the Pueblo of San Jose in the Santa Clara +Valley, near the head of San Francisco Bay, and near by the mission of +Santa Clara was founded. The pueblo was established according to the +general laws of the Indies. Five years later titles were issued to those +settlers who had fulfilled their contracts. + +Los Angeles.--The second pueblo was located beside Mission San Gabriel, +in the southern part of the province. To procure colonists Rivera y +Moneada was sent in '79 to Sinaloa and Sonora. Recruiting fourteen +families, Rivera sent them overland by way of Loreto and the Peninsula. +Rivera himself, with forty-two soldiers, went with nearly a thousand +head of horses and mules over the Anza route by way of the Gila +junction, where he and part of his men were massacred. The settlers +reached their destination, and in September, 1781, the Pueblo de los +Angeles was founded, with eleven families comprising forty-six persons. + +Plans for a new outpost.--The old question of advancing the Sonora +frontier northward to provide missions for the Pirnas and Yumas, and a +halfway station on the road to California, had been much discussed ever +since Anza's exploration in '74. Opinions varied as to the best +location, one proposing the Gila-Colorado junction, another the middle +Gila, another the Colorado above the Yumas, and another even the Moqui +country. + +Mission-Pueblos at Yuma.--But the weight of opinion was with the +Gila-Colorado junction. The chief advocate of this location was the Yuma +chief Ollyquotquiebe. In 1776 he went with Anza to Mexico City to ask +for a mission and a presidio, made submission for his tribe, and was +baptized as Salvador Palma. In the following year the king ordered the +petition granted. Delays ensued and Palma became impatient. In 1779 +Fathers Garces and Diaz were sent, with a small garrison, to Palma's +village. Their slender outfit of presents and supplies was +disappointing, and the Yumas were dissatisfied. In the following year, +at Croix's order, two missions were founded west of the Colorado, at the +junction, but not of the usual type. Instead of a presidio, ten families +were settled near each mission to serve as a protection to the +missionaries and an example to the neophytes, who were to five among the +settlers instead of in an Indian pueblo. + +The massacre.--Trouble soon ensued, and in July, 1781, while Rivera y +Moncada was on his way to found Los Angeles, the Yumas, led by Palma, +massacred Father Garces, his three companions, Rivera and his men, and +most of the settlers. The women and children were spared. The experience +at the Yuma missions is a pointed commentary on the need of soldiers to +control mission Indians, and on the wisdom of the usual Spanish custom +of separating the neophytes from the settlers. For his part in the plan +Croix has been severely criticized, but it must be remembered that at +the time he needed every soldier available for the Apache wars, and that +the Yumas had much vaunted their friendship. + +The Yumas punished.--Learning of the massacre, in September, 1781, Croix +sent Pedro Fages to the scene with one hundred and ten men from Pitic +and Altar. In the course of two journeys he ransomed some seventy-five +captives. In the following year Captain Romeu of Sonora, made a campaign +against the Yumas, killed or captured nearly two hundred, and recovered +over one thousand horses. But the massacre put an end for the time being +to the long series of efforts to establish the Yuma outpost, and +practically closed the Anza route to California. + +The Santa Barbara Channel occupied.--From the first Father Serra had +been anxious to found a group of missions among the numerous Indians +along the Santa Barbara Channel, but there had been a lack of funds and +soldiers. The reduction of these tribes was important also from a +military standpoint, because they held a strategic position on the coast +and on the road to the north. With the coming of more soldiers in 1781 +the desired step was taken, and in 1782 Mission San Buenaventura and the +presidio of Santa Barbara, and in 1786 Mission Santa Barbara were +founded. + +With the occupation of this district California was complete in outline. +There were four presidios, each occupying a strategic position and +protecting a group of missions. In the succeeding years new missions +were planted in the interior valleys, till the total reached twenty-one. +They became marvellously prosperous, converting and giving industrial +training to thousands of Indians, and acquiring great wealth in farms +and herds. In 1784 Father Serra, the master spirit of the missions, +died. + + +NORTHERN EXPLORATIONS + +English and Russian activities.--Continued rumors of Russian and English +activities had by now led to a new series of explorations which gave +Spain claim to the Pacific Coast for nearly a thousand miles beyond the +points reached by Cabrillo and Vizcaino. In 1773 came rumors that an +English expedition was about to attempt to pass through the Northern +Strait to California, and that Russia was planning an expedition from +Kamtchatka to the American coast. + +Perez.--Accordingly, in 1774 Viceroy Bucarely sent Juan Perez north in +the _Santiago_ with orders to take formal possession of the country as +far as 60 deg.. Sailing from San Bias, and taking on Fathers Crespi and Pena +at Monterey as diarists, Perez sailed to 55 deg., exploring Nootka Sound on +the way. + +Heceta and Bodega.--Perez having failed to reach 60 deg., another expedition +was sent from San Bias in 1775 in two vessels, under Heceta and Bodega y +Quadra. Heceta reached 49 deg., discovering Trinidad Bay and the mouth of +the Columbia River on the way (1776). Bodega, in his thirty-six foot +schooner, reached 58 deg., and on the way discovered Bodega Bay. + +Arteaga and Bodega.--No Russians had been found, but news had come of +the preparations being made by the English captain, James Cook, for a +voyage to the northwest coast in search of the strait. Accordingly, +another expedition was ordered by the King of Spain to explore to 70 deg.. +Through delays it was 1779 before Arteaga and Bodega, in the _Favorita_ +and the _Princesa_, left San Blas. Meanwhile Cook had made his famous +voyage to Nootka Sound. Arteaga's expedition reached 60 deg., where it was +forced to return because of scurvy among the crews. + + +LOUISIANA UNDER SPAIN, 1762-1783 + +The cession.--On October 9, 1762, Louis XV offered western Louisiana, +with New Orleans, to Charles III, king of Spain, both as a compensation +for the loss of Florida, and to put an end to the constant +Franco-Spanish friction over contraband trade. Charles at first rejected +the gift, but reconsidered, and the treaty of cession was signed on +November 3, the day of the signature of the preliminaries of the peace +with England. + +The state of the province.--With Spain's small means and great +responsibilities, the gift was not very tempting, and Spain was not +eager to take possession of it. The ceded district embraced New Orleans +and the western watershed of the Mississippi River. The principal +settlements lay along the Mississippi and Missouri, as far as the Kansas +post, and along the lower Red River, as far as the Cadadacho post. The +bulk of the population lay between Pointe Coupee and New Orleans, where +there were over 7000 persons, of whom nearly two-thirds were colored +settlements in the lower district were La Balize, Attakapa, Opelousas, +Avoyelle, and Natchitoches. On the way to the Missouri district were the +post opposite Natchez and the Arkansas settlement. Near or on the +Missouri were St. Charles and Ste. Genevieve. Farther in the interior +were slender trading posts, such as St. Louis among the Cadadacho, a +post on the Osage, and Ft. Cavagnolle, near the mouth of the Kansas +River. The total population of the province ceded to Spain was estimated +at from 8250 to 11,500, over half of whom were colored. + +Industries.--Rice, indigo, tobacco, and grain were cultivated in small +quantities, but there was little stock raising. For horses, mules, and +cattle dependence was placed upon trade with the Indians and the +Spaniards of the West, much of which trade was contraband. The principal +industries of the province were the fur trade and commerce with +Illinois. The paper money issued during the recent war, of which there +was nearly a million unredeemed, had depreciated to 25 per cent, of its +face value. + +Dissatisfaction with the transfer.--It was not till September, 1764, +that the cession was known in New Orleans. The news caused consternation +and protest. Some of the inhabitants of Illinois, left under English +rule, moved across the Mississippi River to La Clede's recently founded +fur-trading post of St. Louis. When, in 1765, the British took +possession of Fort Chartres, Captain St. Ange, in charge of the latter +place, moved with his garrison to St. Louis, where he continued to rule +until Spanish possession was taken. Some French settlers from the more +southern districts moved across the Mississippi or to New Orleans. There +the feeling was intense. In January, 1765, the inhabitants held a +meeting and sent a delegate, Jean Milhet, to France to remonstrate, but +without avail, for after months of waiting he failed even to get an +audience with the king. + +Ulloa expelled.--At last, in March, 1766, Don Antonio de Ulloa arrived +at La Balize as Spanish governor. The choice was not a happy one, for +although a distinguished scientist and naval officer, Ulloa had an +unpleasant and inflexible personality which made him unpopular. In July +he reached New Orleans, with ninety soldiers. But the French militia +refused to serve him, and Aubry was left in command. Bickerings and +dissatisfaction followed. The colonists demanded the redemption of the +depreciated paper money at face value; the recently arrived Acadians, +who had become indentured servants, made constant complaint, until at +last redeemed by Ulloa. + +Ulloa did not confine his efforts to New Orleans, but established +Spanish garrisons at several interior posts and issued ordinances +regarding the Indian trade. In the spring of 1766, with Aubry, he +visited the settlements between New Orleans and Natchitoches, and sent +an officer to report on the best means of defending the upper posts +against the English. In 1767 he sent Captain Francisco Rui to establish +posts on the lower Missouri at St. Charles and Bellefontaine. + +The prohibition of trade with France, promulgated in October, 1768; +caused a veritable insurrection in New Orleans, and Ulloa was expelled +from the province. His departure was followed by a removal of the +Spanish garrisons from the Missouri and elsewhere in the interior, and +there was an interregnum of several months, during which Aubry governed. + +O'Reilly.--Charles III now sent a man made of sterner stuff. He was +Alexandro O'Reilly, an officer who had served with distinction in +Europe, had reorganized the defences of Havana after the recent war, and +was now recalled to cope with the situation in Louisiana. With 4500 +regulars he reached Balize in July, 1769. There was renewed excitement. +Some talked of independence and others of joining the English colonies; +but Aubry counselled against resistance and the disturbance subsided. + +His coup d'etat.--King Charles had demanded nothing more severe than the +sending of the leaders of the opposition to France, but O'Reilly was not +so mild. By a ruse he arrested a number of prominent citizens, executed +five and imprisoned others. For this violent deed he has become known as +"The Bloody O'Reilly." If the government of Charles III had been imbued +with a full sense of its responsibility, it would never have left +unpunished such a violation of the fundamental rules of justice. + +The Spanish regime installed.--For thirty-four years Louisiana remained +under Spanish rule, and during that time it prospered as never before. +O'Reilly governed for a year or more with great vigor, not as governor, +but as special commissioner to establish Spanish authority. Possession +was taken of the interior posts, and by the end of 1770 the Spanish +flag had been raised at Ste. Genevieve, the last place to haul down the +French emblem. Having accomplished his coup d'etat, O'Reilly was +conciliatory, and appointed numerous old French officers, like Villiers +and De Mezieres, to important positions. After authority had been +established, the military force was reduced to 1200 men. Spanish law was +installed, although the French Black Code was retained. New Orleans was +given a cabildo with direct appeal to the Council of the Indies instead +of to the Audiencia of Santo Domingo. Louisiana was put under a +governor, the first incumbent being Luis de Unzaga y Amezaga. Each of +the principal subdistricts was put under a Lieutenant-governor, Pedro +Piernas going to St. Louis, Villiers to the Arkansas Post (now Fort +Carlos III), and Athanase De Mezieres at Natchitoches. Until 1771 +Louisiana was an independent _gobierno_ directly dependent on the +Council of the Indies. In 1771 it was attached for military purposes to +the captaincy-general of Havana, and for judicial matters to the +Audiencia of Santo Domingo. In 1795 it was attached to the Audiencia of +Havana. After 1783 West Florida and Louisiana were put under one +governor. Later the province was divided into Upper and Lower Louisiana. + +Unzaga and Galvez.--Unzaga ruled till 1776, and proved popular, +particularly since he shut his eyes to English smuggling in the lower +Mississippi River. Unzaga's successor, Bernardo de Galvez, nephew of the +visitor, son of the viceroy, and himself a viceroy later, was a +remarkable man. He too, was popular; he married a French wife, and +stimulated tobacco raising by pledging himself to buy each year eight +hundred pounds of tobacco. + +Encouragement of commerce.--Trade regulations, as promulgated by Ulloa +in 1766, restricted all trade to Spanish vessels, and certain specified +Spanish ports. Under these conditions English smugglers very soon +monopolized the trade of the lower Mississippi, and made their way among +the tribes of the Gulf coast. This contraband Unzaga tacitly permitted +for the good of the colony. In 1776 an agreement was made with France by +which Louisiana was permitted to trade with the French West Indies, +under the supervision of two French commissioners resident in New +Orleans. Galvez now promptly seized eleven English vessels and the +commerce of the colony passed largely into the hands of the French. In +1778 the produce of the colony was admitted to any of the ports of +France or the United States, and to any of the ports of Spain to which +the commerce of any of the colonies was admitted. The exportation of +furs was encouraged by exemption from duty for a period of ten years. +English trade in Louisiana was now completely ruined. Under Spanish rule +population grew steadily and by 1803 had reached about 50,000. After the +American Revolution efforts were made to counter-colonize against the +American advance. + +[Illustration: The Spanish Frontier in the Later Eighteenth Century.] + +The English danger.--The principal military problems of the new +government were to keep the English out and to keep the Indians quiet. +Already English traders were entering the tribes west of the +Mississippi, ascending the Missouri and the Arkansas, and reaching the +borders of Texas overland, or ascending its rivers from the Gulf of +Mexico. Trade in Pawnee and Spanish horses extended to the English +seaboard colonies, Governor Patrick Henry being among the purchasers of +thoroughbred Spanish stock. To keep out the English, defence was +concentrated on the Mississippi and efforts made to control the Indian +tribes. + +Eastern Texas abandoned.--On the other hand, since Louisiana belonged to +Spain, the defences of eastern Texas, and the weak missions which they +protected, were now withdrawn. At the same time the few settlers, some +five hundred in number, who lived on the border, were evicted and taken +to San Antonio. But they demurred, sent their Creole leader Gil Ybarbo +to Mexico to represent them, and were allowed in 1774 to settle on the +Trinity River. Five years later, taking advantage of a flood and Indian +raids, and led by Ybarbo, they moved to Nacogdoches (1779), and from +there scattered eastward toward their former homes. + +The fur trade continued.--Louisiana was Spain's first colony previously +occupied by Europeans, and in it many departures were made from her +traditional system. As a means of controlling the Indians of Louisiana, +Spain utilized the corps of French traders already among the tribes, +instead of attempting to use the mission as a means of control, as was +being done at the same time in California. A regular system of licensed +traders was installed, vagabonds and unlicensed persons were driven from +the tribes, presents were annually distributed, and medals of merit +were given to friendly chiefs. St. Louis, the Arkansas post, and +Natchitoches became important centers for the fur trade and for +distributing presents. To St Louis tribes went to receive presents from +the Illinois country, the upper Mississippi, and the upper Missouri. To +remove them from English influence, tribes were induced to cross the +Mississippi to settle. + +De Mezieres.--One of the most difficult problems which confronted Spain +was the control of the Red River tribes, which had been friendly to the +French but hostile to the Spaniards. It was now necessary to win them +over to Spanish allegiance. This was accomplished by Athanase de +Mezieres, lieutenant-governor at Natchitoches. He installed French +traders, drove out vagabonds, expelled English intruders, called in the +hostile Red River tribes to make treaties, and himself made a series of +notable tours among them. In 1770 he held a great council at the +Cadodacho post, where the Cadodacho chief Tin-hi-ou-en was mediator. Two +years later he made an expedition through the Asinai, Tonkawa, and +Wichita tribes, reaching the upper Brazos River, and going thence to San +Antonio. His excellent report first made northern Texas well known to +Spanish officials. + +Croix's plans for a war on the Apaches.--It was in 1776 that the +northern provinces of New Spain were put under a _comandante general_ +with his capital at Chihuahua. The first comandante, Teodoro de Croix, +arrived at the frontier in 177 7. As his first great task he set about +checking Indian hostilities, particularly those of the Apaches on the +Texas-Coahuila frontier. The essence of his plan was to unite the Red +River and the eastern Texas tribes (the Nations of the North) and +_chasseurs_ from Louisiana, commanded by Galvez, with the soldiery of +the Interior Provinces, commanded by Croix, in a joint war of +extermination against the eastern Apaches. + +Set aside by the American Revolution.--To consider the matter Croix held +a council of war at San Antonio in January, 1778. The arrangement of +details with the Indians was left to De Mezieres. In 1778 he made a tour +of the upper Red River, and in the following year again visited the +Texas tribes. Spain soon afterward entered the American war, Galvez was +unable to leave Louisiana, and the conduct of the Apache War was left +for the time being to Juan de Ugalde, governor of Coahuila. + +Communication with Santa Fe and the Upper Missouri.--The explorations of +De Mezieres were soon followed by the opening of routes from Santa Fe to +San Antonio, Natchitoches, and St. Louis. In this work the chief +pathfinder was Pedro Vial. Just as the American Pike in his southwestern +exploration (1807) was preceded by Vial and his associates, so Lewis and +Clark, in their ascent of the Missouri River (1804), were anticipated by +the agents of Glamorgan's fur trading and exploring company, who +operated from St. Louis to the country of the Mandans (1794-1797). + + +READINGS + +REFORMS OF CHARLES III AND GALVEZ + +Addison, Joseph, _Charles the Third of Spain_; Altamira y Crevea, +Rafael, _Historia de Espana_, IV; Chapman, C.E., _The Founding of +Spanish California_, ch. IV; Danvila y Collado, Manuel, _Reinado de +Carlos III_; Desdevises du Desert, Gaston, _L'Espagne de l'Ancien +Regime_; Ferrer del Rio, Antonio, _Historia del Reinado de Carlos III_; +Hume, M.A.S., _Spain: Its Greatness and Decay_; Priestley, H.L., _Jose +de Galvez, Visitor-General of New Spain_; Rousseau, Francois, _Regne de +Charles III d'Espagne, 1750-1788_; Scelle, G., _La Traite Negriere aux +Indes de Castille_; Viollet, A., _Histoire des Bourbons d'Espagne_. + +CALIFORNIA + +Academy of Pacific Coast History, _Publications_, I-III; Bancroft, H.H., +_History of California_, I, 110-480; Chapman, C.E., _The Founding of +Spanish California_; Eldredge, Z.S., _The Beginnings of San Francisco_, +I, 31-170; Engelhardt, Fr. Zephyrin, _Missions and Missionaries of +California_, I, 289-385; II, 3-414; Hittell, T.H., _History of +California_, I, 300-429; 441-452; 509-540; Norton, H.K., _Story of +California_, 1-103; Palou, Fr. Francisco, _Relacion Historica de la Vida +[de] ... Serra_; Richman, I.B., _California under Spain and Mexico_, +32-158. + +LOUISIANA + +Bolton, Herbert E., _Athanase de Mezieres and the Louisiana-Texas +Frontier_, I, 66-122; Gayarre, C., _History of Louisiana_, III, 1-617; +Hamilton, P.J., _The Colonization of the South_, 423-445; 447-456; +Houck, L., _The Spanish Regime in Missouri_, I-II; Mason, E.C., "The +March of the Spaniards across Illinois," in _Magazine of American +History_, XV. 457-470; Robertson, J.A., _Louisiana under the rule of +Spain. France, and the United States_; Shepherd, W.R., "The Cession of +Louisiana to Spain," in _The Political Science Quarterly_, XIX, 439-458; +Teggart, F.J., "Capture of St Joseph, Michigan, by the Spaniards in +1781," in _The Missouri Historical Review_, V, 214-228; Thwaites, R.G., +_France in America_, 281-295. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII + +THE NEW BRITISH POSSESSIONS (1763-1783) + + +PROVISIONS FOR DEFENCE, GOVERNMENT, AND THE FUR TRADE + +Amherst's plan for defence.--While the Spaniards were occupying western +Louisiana the British were organizing the country ceded by France and +Spain east of the Mississippi, in Canada, and in the West Indies. In +1763 the Secretary of War asked General Amherst, commander-in-chief in +America, for a plan of defence of the British possessions. In response +he drew up a "Plan of Forts and Garrisons prepared for the security of +North America" which reveals England's outlook upon her newly acquired +territory. It provided for ten regiments of approximately seven hundred +and fifty men each. The stated purposes were: (1) to keep the king's new +subjects in Canada and Louisiana "in due subjection," (2) to keep the +old provinces "in a state of Constitutional Dependence upon Great +Britain," (3) to command the respect of the Indians, (4) to prevent +encroachments of the French or Spaniards, (5) and to protect the +colonies in case of war. The regiments were to be distributed in posts +along the St. Lawrence, about the Great Lakes, in the Illinois country, +along the lower Mississippi, and in Nova Scotia, South Carolina, +Georgia, and the Floridas. + +Purposes regarding the West.--Regarding the interior posts the +particular aims expressed were to keep open the navigation of the St. +Lawrence and the Great Lakes, maintain communication between Canada and +the Gulf of Mexico, hold the western tribes in check, and guard against +French or Spanish intrusion. A post at St. Augustine was especially +desirable as a defence against Spain, and Pensacola and Mobile would +command the commerce of the Gulf as well as the tribes of the Alabama +Basin. The lower Mississippi posts were essential to control the +Chickasaws. A post at Crown Point was not only needed to maintain a +winter highway to Canada, but might also be useful to suppress +disaffection in the maritime colonies, "who already begin to entertain +some extraordinary Opinions, concerning their Relations to and +Dependence upon the Mother Country." + +The Proclamation of 1763.--In October, 1763, the king issued a +proclamation creating, within the newly acquired territory, four +distinct provinces, Quebec, East Florida, West Florida, and Grenada, and +providing a form of government for them. Quebec comprised the Valley of +the St. Lawrence from the western end of Anticosti Island to the 45th +parallel and Lake Nipissing. Labrador, Anticosti, and the Magdalen +Islands were attached to Newfoundland. St. Johns, Cape Breton, and the +lesser adjacent islands were attached to Nova Scotia. + +East Florida extended to Appalachicola River, and was bounded on the +north by St. Mary's River and a line from the head of that stream to the +junction of the Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers. The district between St. +Mary's and Altamaha Rivers, formerly in dispute between Spain and +England, was attached to Georgia. West Florida was the district south of +latitude 310 and between the Appalachicola River and the Isle of +Orleans. The Island of Grenada, the Grenadines, St. Vincent's, and +Tobago were erected into the Government of Grenada. + +Crown colonies created.--These new jurisdictions were made crown +colonies. For each a governor was to be appointed, with power to call +assemblies, "in such Manner and Form as is used and directed in the +Colonies and Provinces in America which are under our immediate +Government." Until such assemblies should meet, the governors, with +their executive councils, were empowered to erect courts, having appeals +to the privy council. + +The Indian reservation.--For the time being all British possessions on +the continent not included in the foregoing jurisdictions, or within the +Territory of Hudson Bay, and all lands west or north of the streams +flowing into the Atlantic Ocean, were reserved as crown lands for the +use of the Indians. No colony might grant lands within this Indian +reservation, and settlers were requested to move out. The considerable +French settlements in the reserve were ignored. + +Until 1755 the English government had managed its Indian affairs through +the different colonies, but the results were far from satisfactory. In +that year the government assumed political control over the Indians, +creating a southern and a northern department, and appointing a +superintendent for each. In 1761 the purchase of Indian lands was taken +out of the hands of the colonies. + +[Illustration: The New British Possessions, 1763-1783.] + +Regulation of Indian trade.--The acquisition of extensive territories in +1763 called for new trade regulations. The proclamation had created an +Indian reserve and opened trade to all duly licensed subjects. In the +following year Lord Hillsborough drew up a general plan for the +management of Indians and the fur trade. It safeguarded the rights of +the Hudson's Bay Company and provided for the continuation of the two +superintendents, with three deputies for the northern and two for the +southern district. In the North all trade must be conducted at regularly +established posts, and in the South at the Indian towns. All traders +must be licensed, must trade at schedule prices, and must have no +dealings with Indians except at the prescribed places. By 1768 the plan +had proved too expensive, and the management of the fur trade was +restored to the individual colonies. + + +THE OCCUPATION OF THE FLORIDAS + +The West Florida posts.--On August 6, 1763, Colonel Prevost took +possession of Pensacola, which became the capital of West Florida. +Shortly afterwards Mobile was occupied by Major Robert Farmar. The +French troops there withdrew to New Orleans, as did some of the people, +but most of the latter remained. Fort Tombecbe, renamed Fort York, was +given a garrison of thirty men, for the express purpose of keeping the +Choctaws hostile to the Chickasaws, but was abandoned in 1768. The +French among the Choctaws moved across the Mississippi into Spanish +territory, but continued to trade with the tribe. + +The boundary and the river forts.--In 1764 the northern boundary of West +Florida was moved north to 32 deg. 28' to take in the Natchez settlements, +and to make room for the land speculators who were seeking land grants +on the lower Mississippi. A garrison was placed at Natchez (Fort +Panmure). In connection with efforts to keep the Mississippi open and to +establish navigation through the Iberville River, Fort Bute was bunt +near the latter stream in 1766. These Mississippi posts were designed +also to prevent French and Spanish smuggling among the Choctaws. But +there was English smuggling likewise, and to stop it Spanish posts were +later built on the other bank of the river. In 1769 the troops of most +of the English posts were withdrawn to St. Augustine, but there was a +protest at once. Pensacola drew up a memorial, and immigrants recently +arrived at the Mississippi demanded protection. O'Reilly had just come +to New Orleans, and it was feared that he might have designs on West +Florida. In 1770, therefore, most of the troops were restored, and a new +garrison was established at Manchac. + +Indian agents and fur magnates.--The possession of West Florida proved +an important asset to Great Britain in the control of the southwestern +Indians, especially during the Revolution. John Stuart, Superintendent +for the Southern Department, made his headquarters at Pensacola, but +Mobile was the real center of control for the whole Southwest. Subagents +convened at Mobile a great congress of all the tribes and effected an +alliance with them, and soon afterward the Indian lands about Mobile +were ceded to the English. The military authorities encouraged +inter-tribal dissensions, and the Creeks and Choctaws were frequently at +war, in which the Chickasaws sometimes joined. According to the general +system, the fur trade of the Southwest was opened to all traders having +a government license and a proper bond. The fur magnates at Mobile were +the house of Swanson and McGillivray, who by 1777 had a branch house at +Fort Bute, which conducted trade with the Illinois. At Pensacola Panton, +Leslie, and Company, the largest business house, became an important +factor in the trade and in the management of the tribes. + +Politics and government.--West Florida was accorded a governor, council, +and assembly. Governor George Johnstone arrived at Pensacola in October, +1764, but the first assembly was not elected until 1766. Mobile, +Pensacola, and Campbell Town were electoral precincts at first, and +after 1778 Natchez and Manchac were represented. The brief political +experiences of the province were as interesting as those of the older +colonies in early days. The governor and assembly frequently quarreled. +In 1772 Governor Chester prorogued that body and for six years got along +without it. More harmful than these quarrels were the factional disputes +between the civil and military officials. + +Development of West Florida.--When England took possession, Pensacola +consisted of some forty thatched huts and small barracks, all enclosed +within a palisade, but it was rebuilt, and practically dates from +British rule. Mobile remained largely French, and was reduced in size +by the emigration to New Orleans. British rule gave impetus to Mobile's +commerce, and by 1776 the port was paying L4000 a year to the London +custom house alone. + +Immigration.--Efforts were made also to secure immigrants for West +Florida. In 1763 the Board of Trade put an advertisement regarding land +grants in the London Gazette, and in 1764 Governor Johnstone issued a +circular to attract settlers. In 1765 or 1766 a colony from North +Carolina went by sea and settled about Natchez and Baton Rouge. +Speculators obtained large grants of land about Natchez as early as +1767, among them being Daniel Clark, later a great figure at New +Orleans. Before the Revolution numerous settlers arrived from England, +the West Indies, and most of the mainland colonies, including New +England. Most of them settled on the Mississippi River between Manchac +and Natchez. In 1772 three hundred persons from Virginia and the +Carolinas are said to have been established on the lower Mississippi, +and three or four hundred families were expected that summer. As a +result, the Mississippi posts were repaired and civil government +established. In 1775 a considerable immigration from New England was led +by General Lyman. About the same time Colonel Putnam led a company from +New England to the Yazoo district. In 1777, according to the botanist +Bartram, more than half of the population of Mobile were people who had +come from the northern colonies and Great Britain. + +During the Revolution West Florida was a refuge for Loyalists. In +November, 1776, Mathew Phelps led a colony of New Englanders to the +lower Mississippi. Highland soldiers defeated in North Carolina that +year took refuge in the province. Loyalists from Georgia and South +Carolina settled on the Tombigbee River and Mobile Bay, and others from +the same colonies settled on the Tensaws Bayou. + +East Florida under British rule.--In East Florida, St. Augustine became +the capital and the chief military post. St. Marks on the Gulf was +occupied for military purposes and the posts of Matanzas, Picolata, and +Mosquito were also maintained for a time. The military of both East and +West Florida were under the general command at Pensacola. James Grant +was made first governor. In East Florida there was no assembly till +1781. Difficulties between military and civil authorities prevailed as +in West Florida. + +At the time of the British occupation, St. Augustine was a small Spanish +town with adobe houses and narrow streets. Under British rule East +Florida prospered. Harbors were improved, and highways were constructed, +one being built from St. Mary's River to St. Augustine. In 1766 some +forty families went from the Bermudas to Mosquito Inlet to engage in +ship-building. In the following year Dr. Turnbull brought fifteen +hundred indentured colonists from the Mediterranean region and settled +them at New Smyrna. In 1776 the indentures were cancelled and the +settlers moved to St. Augustine, where their descendants still five. +During the Revolution East Florida, like West Florida, became a Mecca +for southern Loyalists. + + +MILITARY OCCUPATION OF THE ILLINOIS COUNTRY + +Plans to occupy the Illinois country.--By the end of 1761 British troops +had taken possession of all the lake posts from Niagara to Green Bay, +besides Venango, Miamis, and Ouiatanon further south. In July, 1763, +orders were sent by the Governor of Louisiana for the evacuation of the +Illinois posts, and boats were prepared at Fort Pitt for sending four +hundred English troops to relieve the French garrisons. But the +conspiracy of Pontiac delayed the complete transfer of this region for +nearly three years. + +The conspiracy of Pontiac.--Early in the war the tribes north of the +Ohio had ravaged the Virginia and Pennsylvania frontiers, but after 1758 +they had been quiet, although they did not like the English. They feared +eviction from their lands, English traders had proved arrogant and +dishonest, and General Amherst was attempting a policy of economy in +presents, in spite of the criticism of the better informed Indian +agents. Pontiac, head chief of the Ottawas, organized a general revolt, +embracing the Algonquins, some of the tribes of the lower Mississippi, +and some of the Iroquois. By a simultaneous assault in May, 1763, all +but three northwestern posts--Detroit, Fort Pitt, and Niagara --fell +almost without a blow. At Presq'Isle, Le Boeuf, Venango, Mackinac, +Sandusky, St. Josephs, and Ouiatanon, there were massacres, and the +garrison fled from Green Bay. + +Failure of the Loftus expedition.--It being impracticable now to send +troops to the Illinois country by way of the Ohio, this was attempted by +an expedition up the Mississippi Major Loftus was sent from Mobile with +three hundred and fifty men to occupy Fort Massac, Kaskaskia, and Fort +Chartres. In February, 1764, he left New Orleans, but when two hundred +and forty miles up the river, at Rocher a Davion, he was attacked by +Tunica Indians, whereupon he abandoned the expedition and returned to +Mobile. + +Peace.--While Colonel Bradstreet reoccupied the Lakes, General Gage, +Amherst's successor, resorted to conciliation, and a series of peace +embassies were sent to the Illinois country from Mobile and from the +northern garrisons. The submission of the Ohio tribes, failure of hopes +for aid from New Orleans, and news of the transfer of western Louisiana +to Spain, led Pontiac to negotiate at Ouiatanon in 1765 with George +Croghan. At Detroit Croghan secured peace with all the western tribes. +Thomas Stirling then descended the Ohio with a detachment and in October +occupied Fort Chartres. "Thus, after nearly three years of fighting and +negotiating, British forces were in possession of the last of the French +posts in the West." + +Establishment of government.--In accordance with the Treaty of Paris a +proclamation of General Gage guaranteed the inhabitants the free +exercise of the Catholic religion. Settlers were allowed to sell their +lands and emigrate, or to become British subjects on taking the oath of +allegiance. The inhabitants of Kaskaskia and other places asked and +received an extension of the time for decision to March, 1766. Many of +them emigrated to St. Louis and Ste. Genevieve, or to New Orleans. The +Proclamation of 1763 made no provision for civil government in the +Indian reserve, and local administration was left to the military +authorities and Indian agents. The French people were dissatisfied, and +many misunderstandings arose between them and the English settlers and +officers. By 1770 the complaint took the form of a demand for civil +government, which was provided in 1774 by the Quebec Act. + + +LAND SPECULATION AND PLANS FOR WESTERN COLONIES + +Western schemes.--Before the French and Indian War grants had been made +by the British government of lands beyond the Alleghanies, and +settlement on the back lands had been favored as a means of opposing, +the French and of extending British trade. During the war the frontiers +of settlement were contracted, but, in anticipation of victory, new +grants were sought and new schemes proposed. Not only were lands +desired, but prominent men proposed new colonial governments west of the +mountains. Nearly all of the proposals involved territory in the Ohio +Valley. After the Albany Congress of 1754 Franklin urged the formation +of two barrier colonies in the West. In 1756 Thomas Pownall, ex-governor +of New Jersey, made a similar proposal. About the same time Samuel +Hazard of Philadelphia promoted the formation of a Presbyterian colony +to embrace most of the Ohio Valley and extending across the Mississippi. +In 1757 the Greenbrier Company secured 100,000 acres of land on the +western waters. + +The victory over the French stimulated new speculative and colonizing +schemes for the West both in England and America. In June, 1763, the +Mississippi Company was formed, composed of prominent Virginians, +including Colonel George Washington and Richard Henry Lee. A memorial to +the king was drawn asking for 2,500,000 acres on both sides of the lower +Ohio, quit rent free for twelve years, and protection by royal forts, on +condition of settling two hundred families. Late in 1763 a pamphlet +published in Edinborough, Scotland, proposed a colony named Charlotiana, +to include the country between the Wabash, Ohio, Mississippi, and the +Great Lakes. About the same time Charles Lee proposed a colony on the +Illinois and another on the Ohio. + +Effect of the Proclamation.--The Proclamation of 1763 closing the +Trans-Alleghany country to settlement seems to have checked for a time +the schemes for speculation. The Proclamation contained an implied +promise that the boundary would be revised, while it was well known that +influential politicians in England favored the opening of the West. New +schemes for western lands, therefore, were not long suppressed. In 1766 +William Franklin, governor of New Jersey, launched a plan for two +colonies, one at Detroit, the other on the lower Ohio. Through the aid +of Benjamin Franklin, father of the governor, the Ohio country was +favored by the Board of Trade, but in 1768 the plan dropped from sight. +Meanwhile many other land companies were formed. + +A policy of expansion adopted.--The policy of the ministry regarding the +West was vacillating, and more so, no doubt, because of the pressure of +conflicting interests. But in 1768 the ministry decided on a definite +plan for western settlement, the principle being that expansion should +be gradual and under control of imperial agents, who should purchase +land from the Indians as needed. Johnson and Stuart, Indian +superintendents, had already made tentative arrangements for revising +the proclamation line. In 1765 the Six Nations ceded their claims to +lands between the Ohio and the Tennessee. Stuart, by a series of +treaties, secured a line from the southern boundary of Virginia to the +St. Mary's River. Florida, thence along the tidewater line to the +Appalachicola River. West of that point the line was not completed, but +important cessions were made along the Mobile coast. In 1768 the former +lines were ratified, and Stuart, in two treaties with the Cherokees and +Creeks (October, November, 1768), secured the extension of the line to +the mouth of the Kanawha River on the north and to the Choctaw River on +the south. At Fort Stanwix in 1768 the Iroquois ratified essentially +their cession of 1765. The lines did not correspond, since the Iroquois +cession included Western Tennessee and Kentucky, which were not within +the other cessions. Meanwhile the southern line was modified by the +treaty of Lochaber by running it west along the southern boundary of +Virginia to the Holston River, thence direct to the mouth of the +Kanawha. The purpose of the change was to take in the recently formed +Watauga settlement. + +Vandalia.--Having extinguished the Indian titles, it was now possible to +found a new colony back of Pennsylvania and Virginia, and such a project +was put on foot. Samuel Wharton of Philadelphia formed a company for the +purpose of purchasing part of the lands. The company included some of +the leading men in England and America, among them being Benjamin +Franklin and Thomas Walpole. Official aid was enlisted by including two +members of the ministry. In 1769 the purchase was made, and, in spite of +Lord Hillsborough's opposition, by 1775 the project of a new and +separate province named Vandalia had been approved by king and council. +The outbreak of the Revolution set the plan aside. Had it been carried +out it would have cut Virginia off from her back lands. The Quebec Act +of 1774 operated in the same direction, by attaching the Northwest to +Quebec. Virginia therefore resisted. Governor Dunmore opposed the +Vandalia colony, made grants of land both within and beyond it, and +joined a company which purchased Indian lands north of the Ohio. + + +TRANS-ALLEGHANY SETTLEMENT + +Western settlements before 1763.--But it was the backwoodsmen, and not +the corporations, who opened the Trans-Alleghany country. Before the war +a few settlements had been made on the western waters, In 1748 Draper's +Meadows, on the Greenbrier, in West Virginia, were settled. Between 1750 +and 1752 a settlement was made by the Ohio Company at Redstone on the +Monongahela. By 1758 several small settlements had been made on the +Holston, Watauga, and Cheat Rivers. But during the war these western +settlements were abandoned, and the frontier pushed eastward a hundred +miles or more. + +The westward movement after the war.--The French and Indian War was +scarcely over when the westward movement began again, regardless of +proclamations or the deliberations of the Board of Trade. In 1760 Daniel +Boone, from the Yadkin in North Carolina, "cilled a bar" on the Watauga +River. Between 1761 and 1765 Wallen annually led hunters to the west. In +1765 Croghan surveyed the Ohio River, and the next year James Smith and +others explored the Tennessee. In 1767 Finley was in Kentucky, and +Stoner, Harrod, and Lindsay were at French Lick (the site of Nashville). +In 1767 and 1770 Boone was "prospecting" for Judge Richard Henderson, a +land speculator of North Carolina. At the same time Mansker led a party +down the Cumberland and on to Natchez. By this time others had wandered +far beyond the Mississippi and were causing the Spanish officials +anxiety. + +The hunters, traders, and prospectors were followed by surveyors and +settlers. The chief participants in the movement were from the middle +region and the South: Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and North +Carolina. Prominent among the pioneers on the western waters were the +Scotch-Irish who had settled the back country of the older colonies and +stood waiting at the western passes. + +The Appalachian barrier.--To reach the Mississippi Valley the +frontiersman was forced to pass the Appalachian barrier, extending from +Maine to Georgia. The easiest pass through it, by way of the Hudson and +Mohawk Rivers, was impeded by the Six Nations who stood between the +western frontier of settlement and the vacant lands beyond. Farther +south the barrier was traversed by a series of interlocking rivers, +flowing in opposite directions, whose valleys afforded trails. The +Susquehannah led to the Alleghany, the Potomac to the Monongahela, the +James and Roanoke to the Great Kanawha, the Great Pedee, the Yadkin, and +Catawba to the head waters of the Tennessee. A series of longitudinal +valleys on the eastern front of the southern Appalachians gave access +from Virginia and North Carolina to the upper Tennessee, from whose +valley an easy pass was found to Kentucky by way of Cumberland Gap. + +The Indian barrier.--The Iroquois Confederacy, though friendly, was a +retarding force to the northern stream of emigration. The Algonquin +tribes north of the Ohio had been friendly with the French, and after +the French and Indian War they favored the French traders rather than +those from the seaboard colonies. At the southern end of the +Appalachians westward expansion was retarded by the strong confederacies +of the Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, and Chickasaws. The region between +the Ohio and the Tennessee was the "dark and bloody ground" between the +northern and southern tribes, but permanently inhabited by neither. It +was this region which was opened to settlement by the Indian cessions +between 1768 and 1770. The cessions were followed immediately by a +movement of settlers into the area. + +_THE SETTLEMENT OF EASTERN TENNESSEE_ + +The North Carolina Regulators.--The movement across the mountains was +stimulated by a popular upheaval in the back country of North Carolina. +Shortly before 1740 the Scotch-Irish and German migration reached North +Carolina and by 1765 the lands along the headwaters of the Yadkin, Haw, +Neuse, Tar, Catawba, and Deep Rivers had been occupied. Many English and +Welsh also had settled in the same region. Between the Piedmont and the +coastal plain was a sparsely settled country of pine forests. "Cut off +... from the men of the east, the men of the 'back country' felt no more +sympathy for the former than they received from them." The coast country +controlled the legislature and the courts. The men of the West +complained that they were forced to pay excessive taxes, that the +sheriffs were dishonest, and fees extortionate. An additional grievance +was the scarcity of money. During 1765-1767 the frontiersmen began to +organize and from 1767 to 1771 the back country was in a state of +rebellion. Lawyers were seized and whipped, and the Hillsboro court was +broken up. In 1771 the Regulators were defeated by Governor Tryon's +troops in the battle of the Alamance and the rebellion soon subsided. +During those troubled years many had sought new homes in the western +valleys. + +The Watauga settlement.--Permanent settlement was made in eastern +Tennessee in 1769. In that year a band of pioneers moved down the valley +from Virginia and settled on the Watauga River, a branch of the +Tennessee, thinking that they were still in Virginia. A short time +afterward they were joined by settlers from North Carolina, within whose +bounds the colony proved to be. Two able leaders soon emerged. James +Robertson, a backwoodsman and a "mighty hunter," went to Watauga in 1770 +and took thither a colony of sixteen North Carolina families in 1771. A +year later arrived John Sevier, a Virginian of Huguenot extraction. Like +Robertson, he was an able Indian fighter and a leader of men. + +The Watauga Association.--Finding themselves outside of Virginia and +beyond the reach and protection of the North Carolina administration, +the settlers, like the Pilgrim Fathers in a similar situation, reverted +to the social compact--familiar to Scotch-Irish Presbyterians and to +back-country North Carolinians who had "regulated" horse stealing--and +formed a government for themselves. In 1772 a convention of the settlers +created an independent government called the Watauga Association. It +had a written constitution, vesting the administration in an executive +committee of five, two of whom were Sevier and Robertson. This committee +exercised most of the powers of sovereignty, making treaties, +administering justice, granting lands, and making war on the Indians. In +1776 the Watauga Association, realizing the need of help, petitioned the +Council of North Carolina to extend its government over the new +settlements, and in 1777 they were organized as Washington County. + +_THE BEGINNINGS OF KENTUCKY_ + +The surveyors and first settlers.--Settlement had also begun in what is +now Kentucky. Ahead of the settlers went the prospectors and surveyors, +who descended the Ohio and the Kanawha to select and survey lands. In +1770 and 1772 George Washington explored lands in what is now +northeastern Kentucky. In 1773 the McAfees led a party of surveyors down +the Ohio, crossed Kentucky, and returned over the Cumberland Mountains. +In the following year several parties of surveyors and land hunters were +sent by Virginia officials to lay out bounty lands for soldiers. Others +went without official sanction. One party was led by John Floyd from +Fincastle County, Virginia, who descended the Kanawha and Ohio to the +Falls, crossed Kentucky, and returned by Cumberland Gap. During his +expedition he surveyed lands for George Washington, Patrick Henry, and +others. Attempts at settlement had already been made. In 1773 Daniel +Boone led a colony from North Carolina toward Kentucky, but was driven +back by Indians. The next year Harrod, of Virginia, founded a settlement +in Kentucky called Harrodsburg, but it was broken up by Indians, whose +hostilities drove out all settlers and land hunters. + +Indian ravages.--The border war which now occurred was the culmination +of a long series of troubles between the frontiersmen of Pennsylvania +and Virginia, and the Indians of the Ohio Valley. The Delawares had been +pushed over the Pennsylvania Mountains to the Muskingum and Tuscarawas +Rivers. Among them settled the Moravian missionaries, who formed them +into Christian towns and kept them peaceful when others were hostile. +The Shawanee had been pushed north to the Scioto River, whence they +marauded the Virginia border. Behind them were the hostile tribes who +had taken part in Pontiacs War. Through 1773 an Indian uprising was +threatening, and preparations were made in the westernmost settlements +of Virginia. Early in 1774 many settlers fled from the Holston and +Clinch Valleys. Minor outrages being committed along the Ohio, alarm, +spread, and in April there was a retreat across the Monongahela, which +was crossed by more than a thousand refugees in a single day. + +Lord Dunmore's War.--Governor Dunmore now prepared for war, which, there +is some ground for thinking, he helped to bring on as a means of +strengthening Virginia's claims to the Northwest. To warn the surveyors +and settlers Colonel Preston, lieutenant-sheriff and surveyor of +Fincastle County, Virginia, sent Boone and Stoner through Kentucky. They +went as far as the Falls of the Ohio, and saved most of the men on the +frontier. The governor organized a campaign, himself leading the +Virginia regulars down the Ohio, while the frontier levies were led by +Colonel Andrew Lewis. They were to meet at the mouth of the Great +Kanawha. When Lewis reached that point he was attacked before the +arrival of Dunmore by the Indians under Chief Cornstalk, whom he +defeated. Thereupon the Indians sued for peace with Dunmore, who had +entered their country north of the Ohio. In the following October a +treaty was made at Fort Pitt which kept the northern Indians quiet +during the first two years of the Revolution and made it possible to +settle Kentucky. + +Henderson and Transylvania.--Harrodsburg was now refounded by Virginians +(1775) who constituted the majority of the settlers. Henderson, the +North Carolina land speculator, formed a land company, called the +Transylvania Company. To improve his title in 1775 he made a treaty with +the Overhill Cherokees paying them L10,000 for their claims to lands +along and between the Cumberland and the Kentucky. Boone, with a party +of thirty men, was sent ahead to clear a road for Henderson's colony +from the Holston River to the Kentucky (1775). It became the famous +highway known as the Wilderness Road. Henderson followed with his +colony, founded Boonesborough, built a fort, and opened a land office, +naming his colony Transylvania. He attempted to set up in the +wilderness a modified proprietary regime. Having established his colony, +he called a convention; the delegates made laws which Henderson +approved, and a compact was formed between the delegates and proprietors +defining the irrespective rights. The proprietors retained control by +reserving to themselves the veto power. + +Transylvania absorbed by Virginia.--Henderson's procedure was regarded +as illegal, and he was denounced by the governors of both Virginia and +North Carolina. When the Revolution broke out the proprietors sent a +delegate to the Continental Congress and appealed to that body for +protection, but, largely through Virginia's influence, the delegation +was rejected. The Virginia settlers in Kentucky, led by Harrod, opposed +Henderson's claim to lands, appealed to Virginia, and sent George Rogers +Clark to the assembly. Virginia asserted sovereignty over Kentucky, and +stormy times continued till 1777, when Kentucky with her present +boundaries was organized as Kentucky County, Virginia. + +_THE UPPER OHIO AND MIDDLE TENNESSEE_ + +Westsylvania.--While Henderson was founding Transylvania another region +west of the mountains was being settled and was struggling for +independent statehood. Emigrants from Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, +and other states had crossed the mountains and settled on the +tributaries of the upper Ohio in what are now western Pennsylvania, West +Virginia, and eastern Ohio. By the middle of 1776 there were said to be +25,000 families on the tributaries of the Ohio above the Scioto River. +But the land which they occupied was in dispute between Virginia and +Pennsylvania, and the Indiana and Vandalia Companies, and the settlers +took up the struggle, quarreling over land titles and jurisdiction. The +disorders prevented effective organization against the Indians. Shortly +after the Declaration of Independence the settlers memorialized +Congress, asking independent statehood as a "sister colony and +fourteenth province of the American confederacy," under the name of +Westsylvania, whose boundaries they described, but the request was not +granted. + +The Cumberland settlement.--Robertson was the type of frontiersmen +desirous to be ever on the move. In 1779 he prospected at French Lick, +returned to Watauga, raised a colony, and in the fall led it forth. The +women and children were conducted by Donelson down the Tennessee and up +the Cumberland, while Robertson, guided by Mansker, led the men +overland. Nashborough, now Nashville, was founded at the Cumberland +Bend, and other stations were occupied along the river. In 1780 a +convention formed an "Association" much like that of Watauga, but after +three years of independence the district became Davidson County, North +Carolina. + + +THE PROVINCE OF QUEBEC + +The French people.--At the time of the conquest the Canadian people +numbered about 65,000 living in the St. Lawrence Valley, with several +thousand scattered among the western posts. The settlers were in the +main a frugal, industrious, unlettered, religious people. They were of +two distinct classes, the gentry and the peasant tenants. After the war +there was a considerable emigration to France of the official, noble, +and commercial classes, leaving chiefly cultivators of the soil and fur +traders. By 1775 the population had grown to perhaps 90,000, chiefly +through natural increase of the French. By 1784 the population was +113,000. + +The British settlers.--The conquest left in the province and attracted +to it later a small body of British settlers but by 1775 they did not +number more than five or six hundred. Most of them lived in the towns of +Quebec and Montreal, and engaged in business, especially in the fur +trade, many as agents for English houses, others being independent +merchants. When Hillsborough restored seignorial tenure, many of them +acquired seigniories, though they continued to live by trade. + +Military rule.--British rule in Canada began with the capitulation of +Montreal in September, 1760. General Amherst was made governor-general, +with lieutenant-governors at Quebec, Montreal, and Three Rivers. From +that time to the enforcement of the Proclamation of 1763 Canada was +under military rule. But French law and customs were followed in the +main, and there was little discontent. + +Civil government established.--Civil government was established in +August, 1764. The governor was assisted by an executive council composed +of the lieutenant-governor, chief justice, and eight citizens. The +government provided by the Proclamation of 1763 was unsuited to a +population almost wholly French, professing the Catholic religion, and +living under laws and customs of their own. The Proclamation provided +for an assembly, but none was held in Quebec because the French people +would not take the test oath, and the British settlers were too few in +numbers to warrant an assembly representing them alone. Uncertainty +existed regarding tithes and the future status of the Catholic Church. +The Proclamation contemplated the establishment of British law, but +practice was uncertain. The French inhabitants were not politically +ambitious, but the British were aggressive in their demands for an +assembly and the uniform establishment of English law. + +The Quebec Act.--Under these circumstances a change of system was deemed +necessary. It was provided by the Quebec Act of 1774, the first +parliamentary legislation for Canada. The act maintained the privileges +of the Catholic clergy, tithes from Catholic subjects being continued. +French civil procedure was established, with some exceptions, but +English criminal procedure was enforced. Provision was made for an +appointive executive council with powers to make ordinances for the +province, but no provision was made for a provincial assembly. + +Boundaries extended.--The population of the Illinois country was similar +to that of Quebec. The French _habitants_ there had been demanding civil +government, and it had been complained by the Montreal traders that the +prosperity of Canada had been impaired by cutting off the western posts. +Therefore the boundaries of Quebec were extended to include the region +between the Ohio River and the Upper Mississippi. By the Proclamation of +1763 Labrador east of River St. John's, Anticosti, and the Magdalens, +had been attached to Newfoundland. Labrador now began to develop +commerce with the interior and the North and with Newfoundland. +Opposition to the fishing admirals of Newfoundland caused these three +districts to be annexed to Quebec in 1774. + +Not intended as a blow at liberty.--The Quebec Act was regarded in the +other colonies as a blow at popular liberties and as an encroachment +upon colonies whose chartered boundaries extended into the Northwest. It +was in fact an administrative act intended primarily as a means of +providing for the interests of the great body of the inhabitants, the +French. The attachment of the Ohio country to Quebec, however, checked +the natural spread of settlement from the seaboard colonies, and the +act, on the other hand, prevented the assimilation of the French people +by the English in Canada. + +The Loyalists in Canada.--During the American Revolution a considerable +number of Loyalists crossed into Canada and settled at the border posts. +Many others joined the British army against the Americans. At the close +of the war some of the border counties of New York were almost +depopulated. In 1783 there were in the Montreal district seventeen +hundred Loyalists at seventeen posts, not counting enlisted men. Of +those who migrated after the revolution the greater number at first +settled in Nova Scotia. By the end of 1784 the number there exceeded +28,000 and caused the forming of the new province of New Brunswick. Over +three thousand went to Cape Breton Island, and three times that number +to the interior of Canada. Thirteen hundred settled at Kingston and +formed the nucleus of Upper Canada, which was separated from Lower +Canada in 1791. More important than this, the Revolution determined the +course of Canadian history. In order not to be absorbed by the United +States, Canada was forced into unswerving loyalty to the British Empire. + + +THE NORTHERN FUR TRADERS + +Supervision of the fur trade.--The fur trade of Quebec under the new +regime was supervised according to the principles of the Proclamation of +1763. The most fundamental fact was that the French monopolistic system +was discontinued, except at certain "King's posts" in the lower St. +Lawrence Valley. The trade was open to any duly licensed subject, +superintendents were established at the posts, local courts were erected +in the interior, and settlement limited to the immediate neighborhood of +the posts in order not to drive away the fur bearing animals. + +The French traders ruined.--The conquest had destroyed the French fur +trading organization. Under the mercantile system then in vogue, +supplies and markets had now to be sought in England. The French +merchants were ruined, and the entire trade of the Great Lake region was +thrown into the hands of the British traders. The French _coureurs de +bois_, however, remained in the country, and, in the employ of the +British, continued to be the backbone of the fur gathering business in +the interior. + +The rush to the interior.--As early as 1761 British traders of Montreal +began to enter the field left vacant by the French. Pontiac's War caused +a suspension of their activities, and during it British traders were +plundered and murdered. By 1765, however, there was a new rush to the +interior, though it was 1771 before they could safely trade in the most +remote posts on the Saskatchewan. In the meantime the Indians had +learned to take their furs to the posts on Hudson Bay or down the +Mississippi. + +Extent of operations.--The American Revolution destroyed the western fur +trade of the seaboard colonies and threw the commerce of the entire +Northwest into the hands of the Quebec and Montreal traders. By the +close of the war they were conducting operations on both sides of the +Great Lakes, in the Illinois country, beyond the upper Mississippi, on +the Winnipeg, Saskatchewan, Churchill, and Athabasca Rivers, to the +neighborhood of Great Slave Lake. They traded on the Assiniboine, and +may have reached the Missouri by that route. + +Management of the trade.--During and after the Revolution the value of +the furs annually sent from Montreal and Quebec to London was probably +$1,000,000. The trade centered mainly in Montreal. In London great +mercantile establishments throve by the commerce. At Montreal other +great houses were founded. Detroit and Michillimackinac were interior +supply posts, where branch houses or lesser merchants conducted +business. Wintering partners and clerks went with the fleets of batteaux +into the far interior, but most of the common hands or _engages_ were +French and half-breed _coureurs de bois_, just as in the case of the +Spanish fur trade in Louisiana. The entire business was conducted on the +credit system. + +The fur magnates.--Many of the fur magnates were Scotchmen. Among the +Montreal merchants of importance in this period were Alexander Henry, +Benjamin and Joseph Frobisher, James Finlay, and Peter Pond. Henry was +one of the earliest in the West. Finlay is said to have been among the +first on the Saskatchewan River. The Frobishers were leading traders on +the Saskatchewan and Churchill. Pond was probably the pioneer on the +Athabasca, having wintered there in 1778-1789. + +The Northwest Company formed.--The free access of all licensed traders +to the interior resulted in reckless competition in regions remote from +the military posts. Acts of violence were committed and Indians were +involved in the contest. Besides the grave disadvantages of competition, +there were obvious advantages of combination. In 1779, therefore, nine +enterprises were consolidated for one year. The success caused the +arrangement to be repeated, and finally in 1783-1784 the Northwest +Company was organized and became permanent. This company soon +monopolized the larger part of the Montreal trade, and became the great +rival of the Hudson's Bay Company. + +Advance of Hudson's Bay Company.--After the Peace of Utrecht the +Hudson's Bay Company had returned to an era of prosperity. Urged on by +French competition, by 1700 expeditions inland had been made by Kelsey +(1691) and Sanford, and Henley House had been built a hundred and fifty +miles inland from Fort Albany; and by 1720 other minor inland +expeditions had been made by Macklish and Stewart, but in the main the +Company had held to the shores of the Bay. Instead of sending employees +inland, as did the French, reliance was placed on furs brought by the +Indians to the posts, all of which were close to the Bay. The monopoly +enjoyed was a cause of jealousy among British merchants, and critics +arose, notably Arthur Dobbs, who charged that the Company had failed in +its obligation to seek the northwest passage and explore the interior. +Coerced by criticism, between 1719 and 1737 the Company made some +explorations, but little was accomplished. + +Hearne's explorations.--After 1763 criticism of the Company was +reinforced by the rise of the Montreal trade, and new explorations +northwestward were undertaken. After two unsuccessful attempts in 1769 +and 1770 to reach the Coppermine River overland, in December, 1770, +Samuel Hearne set out from Fort Prince of Wales to seek "a North-West +Passage, copper-mines, or any other thing that may be serviceable to the +British nation in general, or the Hudson's Bay Company in particular." +Going west, then north, on July 18, 1771, Hearne reached the mouth of +the Coppermine River near latitude 68 deg., where he took formal possession +of the Arctic Ocean for the Company. Returning by way of Lake Athabasca, +which he discovered and crossed, he reached his fort on June 30, 1772. + +Rival posts in the interior.--Hearne's explorations were indicative of a +new policy. Coerced by the aggressive Montreal traders, the Company now +pushed into the interior in a struggle for the mastery. Side by side the +two, companies placed rival forts on all the important streams from the +Hudson Bay to the Rockies and from the Red River of the North to Great +Slave Lake. + + +READINGS + +Alden, G.H., _New Governments west of the Alleghanies before 1780_; +Alvord, C.W., "Virginia and the West: An Interpretation," in _The +Mississippi Valley Historical Review_, III, 19-38; _The Critical Period, +1763-1765_; _The Mississippi Valley in British Politics_; Alvord, C.W., +and Carter, C.E., editors, _The New Regime, 1765-1767_; Bassett, J.S., +"The Regulators of North Carolina," in American Hist. Assoc., _Annual +Report, 1894_, pp. 141-212; Bourinot, J.G., _Canada under British Rule, +1760-1905_ (G.W. Wrong revision), chs. 2-3; Bryce, George, _The +Remarkable History of the Hudson's Bay Company_, chs. 8-13; Carter, +C.E., _Great Britain and the Illinois Country, 1763-1774_; "The +Beginnings of British West Florida," in _The Mississippi Valley +Historical Review_, IV, 314-341; Coffin, Victor, _The Quebec Act_; +Hamilton, P.J., Colonial Mobile, chs. 23-31; The Colonisation of the +South, chs. 20-21; Henderson, A., "Richard Henderson and the Occupation +of Kentucky, 1775," in _The Mississippi Valley Historical Review_, I, +341-363; Hinsdale, B.A., _The Old Northwest_, ch. 8; Howard, G.E., +_Preliminaries of the Revolution, 1763-1775_, ch. 13; Roosevelt, +Theodore, _The Winning of the West_, I-II; Siebert, W.H., "The Loyalists +in West Florida and the Natchez District," in _The Mississippi Vauey +Historical Review_, II, 465-483; Stevens, W.E., "The Organization of the +British Fur Trade, 1760-1800," in _The Mississippi Valley Historical +Review_, III, 172-202; Thwaites, R.G., _Daniel Boone_; Thwaites, R.G., +and Kellogg, L.P., editors, _Documentary History of Dunmore's War_, +1774, Introduction; Turner, F.J., "Western State-Making in the +Revolutionary Era," in _American Historical Review_, I, 70-87, 251-269; +Wallace, S., _The United Empire Loyalists_; Winsor, Justin, _The +Westward Movement_, 38-100; Wood, W., _The Father of British Canada_; +Davidson, G.C., _The North West Company_. + + + + + +THE REVOLT OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +THE CONTROVERSY OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES WITH THE HOME GOVERNMENT (1763-1775) + + +THE BACKGROUND OF THE CONTEST + +Nature of the causes.--While British statesmen were working out a system +of government for the newly acquired domains, in the empire forces of +disintegration were at work which brought on the American Revolution. +The causes of that convulsion cannot be traced to a group of events or +laws. Through a long period social, political, and economic forces were +at work which gradually brought thirteen of the mainland colonies into +open rebellion. Because this opposition is more evident after the French +and Indian War, and because the economic is the most obvious phase of +the struggle, historians have sometimes concluded that the laws passed +by parliament between 1763 and 1776 were the cause of the Revolution. +The policy pursued by the British government no doubt hastened it, but +alone does not account for it. + +A mixed population.--For more than a century the colonies had been +receiving new elements which were producing a society in many respects +different from that of England. America had been the recipient of many +of the radicals, the down-trodden, and the discontented from the mother +country. The acquisition of New Netherlands had brought under British +control a considerable number of Dutch, Swedes, and Finns. The Huguenot +migration which followed the revocation of the Edict of Nantes had added +another element. The German and Scotch-Irish influxes had brought in +thousands. Welsh, Scotch, Irish, and Jews were also to be found in the +colonies. America, then as now, was a melting pot of the nations. + +Lack of American nationality.--Influenced largely by climatic and +physiographic conditions, distinct industrial systems had developed. In +the northern colonies the small farm prevailed, in the South the +plantation system. The North produced the seamen, fishermen, and +merchants, while few of the southerners were seafarers. The frontier +with its foreign elements, its scattered settlements, and freedom from +restraint had produced a society which differed from the tide-water +region. The fur-trader, the cattleman, the lumberman, and the small +farmer were distinctly different in speech, dress, habits, and point of +view from the Boston merchant, the Philadelphia Quaker, or the Virginia +planter. Separatist tendencies were stronger than those of coalescence. +A Virginian was a Virginian and not an American. There was little in +common between the New Englander and the southern planter, or between +the people of the Hudson Valley and the Quakers. + +Class distinctions.--In individual colonies society was continually +growing in complexity. Though the great mass of the population continued +to be rural, town life was becoming an important factor. Members of an +aristocracy, of which the governor was usually the central social +figure, were inclined to rear their heads above their fellows. The +merchants and lawyers, ever increasing in numbers, found themselves +outside the social pale of the official aristocracy, a source of silent +mortification which was a real force in producing radicals. + +Evolution of English society.--English as well as American society had +also undergone a rapid evolution. Puritan England had passed away; the +Stuarts, the Hanoverians, and foreign conquests had transformed the +viewpoint of the Englishman. Little was there in common between John +Milton and Horace Walpole, or between a Cromwell and a Newcastle. The +sudden greatness that had come through the Seven Years' War well-nigh +turned the heads of Englishmen. To acquire wealth, to wield power, and +to live gaily seemed to be the ideals of the upper class Englishman of +the reign of George III. The colonial who still considered the mother +country as the traditional England of Magna Carta, the Puritan +Revolution, and the Bill of Rights, had as little understanding of a +Townshend as had a Townshend a comprehension of the colonial. + +The assemblies control the purse.--The governmental institutions of the +colonies had gradually evolved toward a common type, whose constituent +parts were the governor, council, and assembly, the governor and +council, except in Connecticut and Rhode Island, representing imperial +or proprietary authority, and the assembly the will of the colonial +inhabitants. The power of the assemblies to control the purse had been +steadily growing, until the colonies considered the principle +established both by precedent and by inherent rights guaranteed by the +English constitution. By controlling the budgets and the salaries of the +governors, the assemblies held the whip hand over the executives. + +English and colonial ideas of representation.--The meaning of the term +representation differed in England and the colonies. To the Englishman +parliament represented the British Empire and legislated for the whole +of it, allowing the colonies to handle local matters within their +chartered rights. Parliament was regarded as representing the three +estates or classes of society, rather than individuals. The idea that +every Englishman was represented by a man in whose selection he had had +a voice had not become a part of the English political system. Members +of parliament were frequently chosen in rotten boroughs. A few thousand +men at most chose the entire parliamentary body. The king's ministers, +selected from the party which could command a majority in the House of +Commons, directed public policy and enforced their will upon a +subservient commons. In America the suffrage was usually restricted by a +property or church qualification, but every member of an assembly +actually represented a colonial community and a known constituency. When +the colonial orator declared for no taxation without representation, he +was talking in the terms of a system that had grown up in America, but +which England did not begin to adopt until the Reform Bill of 1832. + +The causes of the development of nationalism.--French political +philosophers and observant travelers had predicted that the removal of +French power from America would cause the colonies to seek independence. +Franklin ridiculed the idea, for he believed that colonial jealousies +were too strong to allow united action, a view which was also held by +Pitt. After the French and Indian War the English government, by +enforcing and extending the colonial system, quickened public opinion, +overthrew separatist tendencies, and brought many of the colonists to +think and act together in opposition to English policy. When this was +attained, a national consciousness had come into existence which +gradually developed into open rebellion. + +Illicit traffic during the French and Indian War.--Since the reign of +Anne England had not enforced the trade laws strictly. The Molasses Act +of 1733 had been practically a dead letter from the date of its passage +and the other navigation acts had been frequently violated. Smuggling +was winked at by governors and customs officials, who in many cases +profited from the traffic. During the French and Indian War the colonies +traded extensively with the French West Indies. This was especially +galling to England, whose chief weapon against France was control of the +seas. Though the colonies in 1756 were forbidden to trade with the +French, the colonial skippers evaded the command by shipping goods to +the Dutch ports of Curacoa and St. Eustatius, or to the French West +Indies. In 1757 parliament forbade the exportation of food stuffs from +the colonies to foreign ports, but the colonials continued to make +shipments to the French or Dutch colonies and to bring back cargoes of +molasses, sugar, and rum. To stop Dutch trade with the French colonies, +Dutch merchant vessels were seized. As the English navy gradually +isolated or captured the French West Indies, the colonials found a new +method of circumventing the regulations by shipping to Monte Cristi, a +Spanish port in Espanola near the French boundary. A commerce of less +importance but of similar nature was also maintained with Florida and +Louisiana. In 1760, when the English navy had gained the upper hand, the +illicit commerce diminished but did not entirely cease. When Spain +entered the war a considerable increase occurred. The naval and military +authorities did all in their power to end the traffic with the enemy, +for they considered that its continuance meant a prolongation of the +war. + +Writs of assistance.--To prevent smuggling English officials resorted to +the issuance of writs of assistance. These were general search warrants +which enabled the holder to search any house, ship, or other property +where smuggled goods might be stored. The writs naturally aroused great +opposition among the merchants, who claimed that they were illegal. In +1761 when the Boston customs officers applied for the writs, the +merchants objected to them. When the merchants' cause was presented +before the Massachusetts Supreme Court, James Otis argued that the +writs, being general, were illegal and struck at the liberty of the +individual. "No acts of parliament can establish such a writ.... An act +against the constitution is void." The courts upheld the legality of the +writs but Otis's speech did much to arouse and formulate public opinion. + +The Parson's Cause.--In Virginia Patrick Henry performed a similar +function in formulating public opinion. The speech which made him the +leader of the Virginia radicals was delivered in connection with a suit +brought by one of the Virginia clergy. Tobacco was the medium of +exchange in the Old Dominion and ministers were paid annually 17,000 +pounds of tobacco. In 1755 and 1758, the burgesses passed acts which +allowed debts to be redeemed at two pence for each pound of tobacco. +This worked a hardship upon the ministers, who naturally desired the +benefit of the high price of tobacco to compensate them for the hard +years when prices were low. The acts were disallowed by the crown in +1759, and the ministers attempted to recover their losses. In a suit +brought in 1763 by Reverend James Maury, Patrick Henry appeared for the +vestry. Realizing the weakness of his legal position, Henry resolved to +carry the jury by an emotional attack upon the king's prerogative. He +argued that the act of 1758 was a law of general utility consistent with +the original compact between ruler and ruled, upon which government was +based, and that the king, by disallowing this salutary act, became a +tyrant and forfeited his right to the obedience of his subjects. + + +REFORMS OF THE GRENVILLE MINISTRY + +Economy and reform.--At the end of the French and Indian War, England +was burdened with a staggering debt. To build up the resources of the +empire, increase the revenues, and protect the dominions were the +objects of the ministers of George III. In this program the colonies +were expected to play their part. The Bute Ministry planned to enforce +the navigation acts, to tax the colonies directly, and to use the +colonial revenue to support an army in America. The powers of the +admiralty courts were immediately enlarged and commanders of war +vessels were authorized to act as customs officials. Soon after +Grenville came into office (April, 1763), he ordered customs collectors +who were lingering in England to proceed at once to their colonial +stations and he instructed the governors to enforce the trade laws +rigidly. + +Trade encouragement during 1764-1765.--To encourage commerce several +important provisions were made during 1764 and 1765. To stimulate the +fur business the old duties were abolished and an import duty of only +one pence a skin and an export duty of seven pence were levied. To +stimulate hemp and flax production bounties were paid on those products +shipped from the colonies to England. The bounty on indigo was somewhat +reduced but was still sufficient to protect the planters. The duties on +whale fins were repealed to the great benefit of Massachusetts. The rice +business was stimulated by allowing Georgia and the Carolinas to ship +without restrictions to the southward. + +The Sugar Act.--Grenville's beneficial measures were more than offset by +the Sugar, Colonial Currency, Stamp, and Quartering Acts. The Sugar Act +"was a comprehensive measure, whose openly expressed aim was, in the +first place to raise a colonial revenue, and in the second to reform the +old colonial system both in its administrative and in its economic +features." The act confirmed and modified the Molasses Act of 1733. The +duty on sugar shipped to the British colonies was raised but that on +molasses was lowered. To injure the French island trade, the importation +of foreign rum or spirits and commerce with Miquelon and St. Pierre were +forbidden. Oriental and French textiles, Portuguese and Spanish wines, +and coffee, if brought directly to the British colonies, were taxed +heavily, but if shipped from England the duty was low. To protect South +Carolina a duty was imposed upon foreign indigo shipped to the colonies. +With a few exceptions no drawbacks were henceforth to be allowed, and +revenues derived from the Sugar Act were to be paid into the royal +exchequer. They were to be kept separate from other moneys and were to +be used only for the protection of the British colonies in America. + +Stringent regulations were provided for the enforcement of the Sugar +Act and other navigation laws. At the option of the informer or +prosecutor, penalties for breach of the trade laws might be recovered in +any court of record in the district where the offence was committed or +in any admiralty court in America. The accused was required to give +security for costs if he lost his suit, but if he won his case, he was +not entitled to costs if the judge certified that the grounds of action +seemed probable. Furthermore in the Molasses Act which was now +confirmed, the burden of proof was placed upon the owner or claimant. + +Every shipmaster was required to give a bond to land only enumerated +goods at European ports north of Cape Finisterre and to possess a +certificate from the customs collector at the point of loading. West +Indian goods not properly certified were to be treated as foreign goods. +Vessels cleared from British ports must contain only goods loaded in +Great Britain. This, however, did not apply to salt and Irish linen. +Breaches of these regulations subjected the law breaker to severe +penalties. + +Regulation of Colonial Currency.--Another important measure was the +Colonial Currency Act. Lack of specie had compelled the issuance of +colonial paper money, and though Massachusetts had retired such issues +in 1749, most of the colonies were still suffering from depreciated and +unstable currency. To protect the English merchant, parliament passed +the Colonial Currency Act which prevented colonists from paying their +debts to the home country in depreciated currency and stopped the issues +of unsound money. The act caused a shortage of the medium of exchange at +the time that the colonists were deprived of the West Indian commerce +which had supplied them with specie to settle balances in London. The +act produced embittered feeling which paved the way for greater +opposition. + +Colonial protests.--When it became known in the colonies that the +Ministry intended to enforce a more rigid policy which included the +levying of internal taxes by parliamentary enactment, vigorous protests +were made. Memorials, resolutions, and addresses poured in upon the +king, lords, commons, and Board of Trade, and numerous pamphlets +appeared which presented the economic and constitutional viewpoint of +the colonists. + +The Massachusetts protest.--The Boston town meeting urged the assembly +to use its influence to protect the rights of the colonies and in its +instructions to the Boston representatives the principles were stated +that there should be no taxation without representation and that +colonials were entitled to full rights of Englishmen. It was also +suggested that other injured colonies should be asked to cooeperate in +seeking redress. A committee of the assembly presented a memorial +drafted by Otis which contained the additional principle that parliament +had no right to alter the constitution. The memorial was sent to the +Massachusetts agent in England with instructions to urge the repeal of +the Sugar Act and to protest against the proposed Stamp Act. A committee +of correspondence headed by Otis was authorized to inform the other +colonies of the action of Massachusetts and to seek their cooeperation. +As the action had been taken by the assembly without the consent of the +council, the governor was soon petitioned to call the general court. He +complied and a petition was drawn which temperately protested. + +The Rhode Island protest.--Before the Sugar Act was passed a +remonstrance was prepared in Rhode Island, which was to be presented to +the Board of Trade if three other colonial agents would cooeperate. +Committees of correspondence were also formed in various towns. After +the passage of the act the committee of correspondence of which Governor +Hopkins was a member sent out a circular letter protesting against the +Sugar Act and the proposed Stamp Act, In November, 1764, the assembly +sent a petition to the king in which the principle was stated that an +essential privilege of Englishmen was that they should be governed by +laws made by their own consent. + +Connecticut protest.--In Connecticut Governor Fitch, at the suggestion +of the assembly, prepared an address to parliament which protested +against the proposed Stamp Act or any other bill for internal taxes. +This and the governor's book of _Reasons Why the British Colonies in +America should not be Charged with Internal Taxes by Authority of +Parliament_ were sent. + +New York protest--In March, 1764, the New York merchants presented to +the council a memorial against the renewal of the Molasses Act. In +October the assembly appointed a committee of correspondence and sent +statements of grievances to the king and the lords, and a petition to +the commons. In the petition the significant statement was made that +the loss of colonial rights was likely to shake the power of Great +Britain. + +Pennsylvania's protest.--The Pennsylvania assembly considered that +parliament had no right to tax the colony. Jackson, the colonial agent, +was instructed to remonstrate against the proposed Stamp Act and to +endeavor to secure the repeal or modification of the Sugar Act. Franklin +was sent over to assist Jackson. + +Maryland and Virginia.--In Maryland the governor prevented the meeting +of the assembly, but the Virginia council and burgesses prepared an +address to the king, a memorial to the lords, and a remonstrance to the +commons. The Virginians claimed the rights and privileges that their +ancestors had had in England and laid down the fundamental principle of +no taxation without representation. + +The Carolinas.--North Carolina protested strongly and in South Carolina +the assembly appointed a committee which instructed the colonial agent +to complain of the laws of trade. The instructions also declared that a +Stamp Act would violate the inherent right of every British subject to +be taxed only by his own consent or by his representatives. The governor +prorogued the assembly before a vote could be taken upon the committee's +action, but the instructions, nevertheless, were sent. + +The Stamp Act.--In spite of colonial protests Grenville pursued his +policy, the appeals of the colonies being rejected under the rule that +petitions against money bills should not be received, and in March, +1765, parliament passed the Stamp Act. By its provisions stamps were to +be placed on commercial and legal documents, pamphlets, newspapers, +almanacs, playing cards, and dice. The enforcement of the act was placed +under the management of English commissioners who were empowered to +appoint persons to attend in every court or public office in the +colonies to see that the law was enforced. For infringements of the law +there were heavy penalties which might be collected through the +admiralty courts if the informer or prosecutor so elected. Certain cases +of forging and counterfeiting were punishable by death. The revenue +derived from the Stamp Act was to be paid into the exchequer to be used +for colonial defence. + +Quartering Act.--The ministry intended to establish an army of 10,000 +men in the colonies and the annual Mutiny Act of 1765 authorized the +sending of such troops as might be deemed necessary. This was followed +by the Quartering Act As "_the publick houses and barracks, in his +Majesty's dominions in America, may not be sufficient to supply quarters +for such forces: and whereas it is expedient and necessary that +carriages and other conveniences, upon the march of troops ... should be +supplied for that purpose_," it was enacted that, if colonial barracks +were insufficient, officers and troops were to be quartered in public +hostelries. If more room were needed, vacant buildings were to be +rented. Troops were to be supplied with fire, candles, vinegar, salt, +bedding, cooking utensils, and small quantities of beer, cider, or rum. +Persons giving houses for troops and furnishing supplies were to be +reimbursed by the province. The colonies were to furnish conveyances at +rates fixed by the act, but if the expense exceeded the rate, the +province had to make up the deficit. + +Colonial opposition.--To the colonies the Stamp Act, the Quartering Act, +and the extension of admiralty jurisdiction were unconstitutional. +Trials in the admiralty courts had always been looked upon with +disfavor, as they violated the right of trial by jury. The new +regulation allowing alleged violators of the trade laws to be taken to +Halifax for trial was looked upon as a dangerous innovation. The +Quartering Act was viewed as a violation of the constitutional principle +that troops were not to be quartered upon the people. The provisions of +the law were especially aggravating to New York which, because of the +strategic position of the colony, would have to bear an undue part in +the support and transportation of troops. But the Stamp Act aroused the +greatest furor. All of the elements of discontent united against an act +which encroached upon the right of the assemblies to control taxation. +Indirect taxation was not looked upon as taxation. To the colonial +economists the navigation acts were merely trade regulations and the +right of parliament to regulate commerce was fully recognized. But a +direct tax imposed by parliament to support an obnoxious soldiery set in +motion the forces of discontent and produced a unity of opposition which +surprised the ministers of George III. + +The Virginia Resolutions.--Virginia took the lead in opposition. On May +29, 1765, the burgesses resolved themselves into a committee of the +whole to consider the steps necessary to be taken in consequence of the +Stamp Act. Patrick Henry, the "rustic and clownish youth of the terrible +tongue," introduced a series of resolutions which boldly challenged the +British government. The preamble stated that, as the House of Commons +had raised the question of how far the general assembly had power to +enact laws for laying taxes and imposing duties payable by the people of +Virginia, the House of Burgesses, to settle and ascertain the same to +all future time, resolved: (1) that the first adventurers and settlers +of Virginia brought with them and transmitted to their posterity and to +other English subjects who had come to five in the colony all the rights +of the people of Great Britain; (2) that these were granted to them by +two charters of James I; (3) that taxation of the people by themselves +or by their representatives was a distinguishing characteristic of +British freedom without which the ancient constitution could not exist; +(4) that the people of Virginia had uninterruptedly enjoyed the right of +being governed by their own assembly in matters of taxes and internal +police, a right which had never been forfeited and had been constantly +recognized by the kings and people of Great Britain. (5) Therefore it +was resolved that the general assembly had the sole right and power to +lay taxes and impositions upon the inhabitants of Virginia, and that +every attempt to vest such power in any other person or persons had a +tendency to destroy British as well as American freedom; (6) that the +inhabitants of Virginia were not bound by any law or ordinance designed +to impose any tax upon them other than those imposed by the general +assembly; (7) and that any person who maintained that Virginians were +bound to obey such laws not imposed by the assembly should be deemed an +enemy of the colony. + +The resolutions precipitated an acrimonious debate in which the +democratic members of the western counties supported Henry against the +aristocratic leaders. The committee of the whole appears to have adopted +the resolutions, but on the following day the burgesses rejected the +preamble and the last two resolutions, the other five being passed by a +slender majority. Henry then left the assembly and the following +morning the conservatives expunged from the record the fifth resolution. +The manuscript of the entire series, except the third resolution which +was omitted by error, was already on its way to the other colonies and +was widely published. "Beyond question the Virginia resolves mark an +important crisis in the impending revolution." + +Resistance and violence.--In June the Massachusetts general court, at +the suggestion of Otis, sent a circular letter to the other colonial +assemblies asking them to send delegates to meet at New York in the +following October to consider the danger from the Stamp Act. Before the +delegates met fierce opposition appeared in nearly every colony. +Remonstrances came from towns, counties, and assemblies. Newspapers and +pamphlets inveighed against the act, and non-importation agreements were +made in many localities. Associations called "Sons of Liberty" sprang +up. At first they worked secretly, but they soon announced their +committees of correspondence which worked to unify the opposition. + +In Boston occurred riots of greater violence than in any other place. On +August 14 the stamp distributor's effigy was hung on the "Liberty Tree," +and after other demonstrations, that night a mob demolished a building +which it was believed the collector was erecting for an office. On +August 26 the houses of two of the customs officials were sacked and the +house of Chief Justice Hutchinson was pillaged and destroyed. At Newport +the stamp distributor and a sympathizer found it necessary to seek +safety on a British man-of-war. Scenes of violence occurred in the other +colonies and the stamp distributors resigned with more haste than +dignity. + + +REPEAL OF THE STAMP ACT + +The Stamp Act Congress.--The Stamp Act Congress met at New York on +October 7, 1765. Nine colonies were represented, Virginia, North +Carolina, Georgia, and New Hampshire failing to send delegates. +Prominent among those in attendance were John Dickinson of Pennsylvania, +John Rutledge and Christopher Gadsden of South Carolina, and James Otis +of Massachusetts. On October 19 a declaration of rights and grievances, +originally drafted by Dickinson, was adopted. In the declaration the +argument was presented that the colonies were entitled to the inherent +rights and liberties of native-born Englishmen, one of which was that no +taxes were to be imposed upon them except by their own consent or by +their representatives. The colonists were not and from their local +circumstances could not be represented in the House of Commons, their +only representatives being those in the colonies who alone had the +constitutional right to impose taxes upon them. All supplies to the +crown being free gifts of the people, it was unreasonable and +inconsistent with the principles and spirit of the British constitution +for the people of Great Britain to grant to the king the property of the +colonists. Trial by jury was an inherent right of every British subject +in the colonies, but the Stamp Act and other laws, by extending the +jurisdiction of the admiralty courts, had a tendency to subvert the +rights and liberties of the colonists. The duties imposed by recent acts +of parliament would be burdensome and grievous, and from the scarcity of +specie the payment of them would be impracticable. The recent +restrictions would make it impossible to purchase the manufactures of +Great Britain. The right to petition the king or either house of +parliament was also asserted. By an address to the king and by +applications to both houses of parliament, they endeavored to procure +the repeal of the Stamp Act, of clauses in recent acts which increased +admiralty jurisdiction, and of recent acts placing restrictions on +American commerce. + +Repeal of the Stamp Act.--In July, 1765, Grenville fell from power, but +not because of opposition to the Stamp Act. The Marquis of Rockingham, a +man of moderate ability, was selected to form the new cabinet. The +question of the repeal of the Stamp Act came up in parliament early in +1766. During the debate in the commons on February 13, Franklin, then +agent for Pennsylvania and Massachusetts, was questioned regarding the +colonial attitude, and he made it clear that the Stamp Act could not be +enforced. The American cause was strengthened by the powerful support of +Pitt and by the protests of English merchants and manufacturers who were +losing trade through colonial boycotts. After a momentous debate, the +act was repealed. + +The Declaratory Act.--Although parliament had given ground it did not +surrender, for in the Declaratory Act of March 18, 1766, it asserted its +right to tax the colonies. The act declared that the colonies were +subordinate unto and dependent upon the crown and parliament, and that +the king by and with the consent of parliament had full power and +authority to make laws to bind the colonies in all cases. All +resolutions, votes, orders, and proceedings in the colonies denying the +power and authority of parliament to make laws imposing taxes and +regulations were declared null and void. + +Other legislation.--The Quartering Act was then renewed, but with +certain changes to make it more effective. The imposts on textiles which +had previously been collected in America were henceforth to be collected +at the point of exportation. The duty on molasses was changed from three +pence a gallon on the foreign product to one penny a gallon on all +molasses brought to the continental colonies. + +Colonial rejoicing.--The Declaratory and other acts attracted little +attention in America, where there was great rejoicing over the repeal of +the Stamp Act. The constitutional principles for which the colonists had +contended had in no wise been conceded, but to the colonist his point +seemed won. He was soon to be rudely awakened. + + +THE TOWNSHEND ACTS + +Townshend.--In July, 1766, Rockingham fell from power and the +Pitt-Grafton Ministry was formed. Unfortunately for the colonies, Pitt +was in ill-health and took little part in shaping policies. The strong +man of the cabinet was Charles Townshend. He was fully in sympathy with +Grenville's ideas, and was responsible for a new series of irritating +acts. + +Suspension of the New York assembly.--Trouble had arisen in New York +over the enforcement of the Quartering Act. In June, 1766, in reply to +Governor Moore's request that provision be made for the expected troops, +the assembly excused itself from compliance but intimated that about +L4000 then in the treasury might be used. Later the assembly passed an +act making provision for one year for a thousand men and one company of +artillery. When a request was made for full compliance with the +Quartering Act, the assembly refused. On December 19 it was prorogued, +and on June 15, 1767, was suspended by act of parliament. + +Colonial customs commissioners.--Another act provided for a board of +commissioners of customs to be established in America. The preamble +stated that, as the colonial customs officials had found it inconvenient +to apply to the commissioners in England for directions when +difficulties arose, and as colonial shippers were greatly delayed in +carrying on business, commissioners were to be stationed in America. +Five commissioners were appointed with headquarters at Boston. + +Revenue acts.--A new revenue act was passed "for making a more certain +and adequate provision for defraying the charge of the administration of +justice and the support of civil government, in such provinces where it +shall be found necessary, and toward further defraying the expenses of +defending, protecting, and securing" the dominions in America. Duties +were imposed upon glass, red and white lead, painter's colors, tea, and +paper. Drawbacks were allowed on coffee and cocoanuts, but chinaware was +no longer subject to drawback. Writs of assistance were declared legal. +By another act a drawback for five years was granted on tea reexported +from England to Ireland or the colonies. + +Dickinson's "Farmer's Letters."--The Townshend Acts were received with +alarm throughout the colonies. "Awed by the suddenness and magnitude of +the peril, the colonial leaders acted with circumspection and rare +self-control." The most powerful statement of the colonial viewpoint +came from John Dickinson whose "Farmer's Letters" were read throughout +the colonies, were published in London, translated into French, "and +were read by everybody in the two capitals of civilization who read +anything more serious than a playbill." Dickinson recognized the +vagueness of the constitutional relations of the colonies to the mother +country. He urged that a spirit of compromise should prevail and that no +abstract theory of sovereignty should be pushed to its logical +conclusions. He admitted that parliament possessed legal authority to +regulate the trade of the empire, but the recent attempts to raise a +revenue he considered a most dangerous innovation. "Great Britain claims +and exercises the right to prohibit manufactures in America. Once admit +that she may lay duties upon her exportations to us, for the purpose of +levying money on us only, she then will have nothing to do but to lay +those duties on the articles which she prohibits us to manufacture, and +the tragedy of American liberty is finished." + +"I would persuade the people of these Colonies ... to exert themselves +in the most firm, but the most peaceable manner, for obtaining relief. +If an inveterate resolution is formed to annihilate the liberties of the +governed, English history affords examples of resistance by force." + +"Let us consider ourselves as ... freemen, ... _firmly bound together_ +by the _same rights_, _interests_, and _dangers_ ... What have these +colonies to _ask_, while they continue free; Or what have they to +_dread_, but insidious attempts to subvert their freedom?... They form +one political body, of which each _colony_ is a _member_." + +The Massachusetts protest--In Massachusetts the Townshend Acts were +received by a public which was already irritated by the untactful course +of Governor Bernard. Soon after the repeal of the Stamp Act he had +negatived the election of Otis as speaker of the assembly, and when that +body retaliated by refusing to reelect certain members of the council, +the governor had refused to accept six members elected by the popular +party. Difficulties had also arisen when the governor demanded +compensation for those who had suffered by the Stamp Act riots and when +he demanded compliance with the Quartering Act. + +The first protest of Massachusetts against the Townshend Acts was on +October 28, 1767, when the Boston town-meeting renewed the +non-importation agreement The General Court convened on December 30 and +shortly afterward the acts were read in the assembly and referred to a +committee for consideration. The committee drafted a letter to the +colonial agent which reviewed the arguments against taxation and +protested against the Townshend Acts. A petition to the king and letters +to members of the ministry were also prepared. A circular letter to the +assemblies in the other colonies, drawn by Samuel Adams, was adopted on +February 11, 1768. + +The circular letter stated that it seemed necessary that the +representatives of the several assemblies should act in harmony "upon so +delicate a point" as the recent imposition of duties and taxes. The +argument regarding taxation without representation was restated, and +objection was made to the payment of the salaries of governors and +judges by the crown, to the large powers of appointment given to the +commissioners of the customs, and to the Quartering Act. Denial was made +that independence was in the minds of the Massachusetts representatives +and the letter closed with an expression of confidence in the king. +Several of the colonies sent sympathetic replies and Virginia issued a +circular letter to the other colonies calling upon them to unite with +Massachusetts in her petition for redress. + +Hillsborough's reply.--When the Massachusetts protests reached England, +they came before a ministry which was prejudiced by letters from royal +officials in America. Lord Hillsborough, who had recently been appointed +to the newly created position of colonial secretary, laid the +Massachusetts protests before the cabinet. On April 21 he sent letters +to all the colonial governors, with the exception of Bernard, ordering +them to ignore the Massachusetts circular letter. If the assemblies took +notice of it, they were to prorogue or dissolve them. Bernard was +commanded to require the Massachusetts assembly to rescind its action +and to declare its disapprobation of its recent action. The +Massachusetts assembly refused and the other assemblies commended its +course. + +The customs officials defied.--Acts of violence soon occurred. The +warship _Romney_ was anchored in Boston harbor and the captain angered +the people by impressing seamen, one of whom was rescued. On the same +day the sloop _Liberty_, owned by John Hancock, arrived with a cargo of +Madeira wine. The customs collector was locked up by the crew while the +cargo was landed and a false entry made. The _Liberty_ was seized and +moored under the guns of the _Romney_. A riot then occurred; the houses +of two of the customs officials were damaged and a boat belonging to the +controller was burned. The officials fled to the _Romney_ and later took +refuge in Castle William. The Boston town-meeting requested the removal +of the war vessel, but the governor refused on the ground that such +action would be beyond his jurisdiction. At Newport a revenue cutter +was burned and at Providence a coat of tar and feathers was +administered to a customs official. + +Action of the Boston town-meeting and the Massachusetts +convention.--Before the occurrence of these riotous acts, the ministry +had determined to send troops to Boston. When this became known, the +town-meeting assembled in Faneuil Hall and resolved that the inhabitants +defend their rights, and they were called upon to provide themselves +with arms. When the governor refused to summon the assembly, the +selectmen called a convention of delegates from the Massachusetts towns. +Ninety-six towns responded. The governor refused to recognize the +convention, but it remained in session for six days and did not adjourn +until a statement of grievances had been formulated. On September 28, +1768, the day of adjournment, two regiments arrived at Boston. + +Prisoners accused of treason to be tried in England.--The rebellious +acts of Massachusetts were condemned by parliament which also advised +the enforcement of the statute of Henry VIII which allowed the +government to bring to England for trial persons accused of treason +committed outside of the kingdom. This aroused a storm of protest. In +Virginia the burgesses adopted resolutions which asserted that the right +of taxation was vested in the House of Burgesses, that petitioning the +sovereign was an undoubted privilege of the colony, and that it was +lawful and expedient to procure the concurrence of other colonies "in +dutiful addresses, praying the royal interposition in favour of the +violated rights of America;" that trials for treason or for any felony +or crime committed in the colony should be held in the courts of that +colony, and that the sending of suspected persons beyond the sea for +trial was derogatory of the right of trial by a jury of the vicinage and +deprived the accused of summoning witnesses. The resolutions were sent +to the other assemblies. When the governor dissolved the burgesses, the +members met in a private house and drew up a non-importation agreement. +Other assemblies approved the Virginia resolutions and non-importation +agreements were signed throughout the colonies. + +Departure of Bernard.--Massachusetts continued to be the center of +unrest. The unpopularity of Governor Bernard increased when it became +known that he was collecting evidence against Samuel Adams. The public +ire grew more intense when some of the governor's letters to the +Ministry were published. The council drew up charges against him and the +assembly petitioned for his recall. In July, 1770, he voluntarily +departed, leaving Hutchinson in charge. + +The Boston "Massacre."--The troops remained in Boston where they were +heartily detested. Difficulties between soldiers and townspeople became +more and more frequent and in March, 1770, there was a serious +collision. On the fifth a sentinel at the custom house was pelted with +snow balls, and when he called for aid the guard came to his assistance. +A soldier was knocked down, shots were fired by the guard, and several +citizens were killed or wounded. Preston, the commanding officer of the +guard, surrendered to the civil authorities, and the privates were +placed under arrest. The selectmen demanded the withdrawal of the troops +to Castle William and Hutchinson hesitatingly complied. When the +soldiers were brought to trial, they were defended by John Adams and +Josiah Quincy, who obtained acquittal for all but two who were lightly +sentenced. + + +BEGINNING OF ORGANIZED RESISTANCE + +Partial repeal of the Townshend Acts.--The Townshend Acts had proved a +complete failure. Exports from England to America had dropped from +L2,378,000 in 1768 to L1,634,000 in 1769. The customs were yielding +little revenue while the colonial military establishment had become +extremely expensive. In addition the colonies had been brought close to +rebellion. Lord North, who became Prime Minister on January 31, 1770, +hoped to end the commotions in America which had been so injurious to +English merchants and manufacturers. He accordingly obtained a repeal of +the duties on paints, glass, and paper, but at the suggestion of the +king, the tea tax was retained in order to maintain the principle that +parliament had the right to tax the colonies. The economic result of the +repeal was immediately evident, for in 1770 the English exports to +America reached nearly two million pounds sterling and during the next +year more than doubled. + +Arbitrary attitude of the governors.--The public, however, was kept in a +state of agitation by the arbitrary acts of the governors who reflected +the royal will. In Georgia the governor vetoed the assembly's choice for +speaker, provoking a controversy which ended in the dissolution of the +assembly. In South Carolina the governor was in frequent quarrels with +the assembly, first over the salaries of the judges, then regarding the +veto of an appropriation but, and finally over convening the assembly at +Beaufort instead of at Charleston. Virginia was irritated by the royal +instructions which forbade the governor to assent to any law which would +prohibit or obstruct the importation of slaves. In Maryland the governor +by proclamation revived a law regulating fees which had expired by +limitation, an action which was looked upon as an assertion of the right +to levy taxes. + +In Massachusetts the General Court, which was to have met at Boston in +January, 1770, was called to meet at Cambridge on March 15. The assembly +objected to the change of time and place and demanded a copy of +Hutchinson's instructions, but he refused to comply. The assembly would +do no business while thus constrained to hold its sessions away from +Boston, and declared that the people and their representatives had a +right to withstand the abusive exercise of the crown's prerogative. +Under protest the assembly finally proceeded to business, but another +difficulty immediately arose when the colonial troops were removed from +Castle William which was then garrisoned by the regulars. In July, 1771, +Hutchinson, who had recently been appointed governor, vetoed a bull +which provided for the salaries of the crown officials, an action which +called forth a protest from the assembly which held that royal +instructions were thus given the force of law. The following year the +assembly was informed that henceforth the salaries of the governor and +judges would be paid by the crown. + +The Gaspee affair.--In Rhode Island an event occurred in 1772 which had +far-reaching influence. The numerous inlets and islands of Narragansett +Bay made smuggling easy, and revenue vessels, though constantly on the +alert, experienced great difficulty in detecting the illicit traders. +The revenue boats _St. Johns_ and _Liberty_ were destroyed by men from +Newport and the customs officials were annoyed by suits to recover +vessels and cargoes which they had seized; Admiral Montagu accordingly +ordered that seized vessels be sent to Boston. To Rhode Islanders +Dudington, the commander of the _Gaspee_, was especially obnoxious. +According to Trevelyan, "He stopped and searched vessels without +adequate pretext, seized goods illegally, and fired at the market boats +as they entered Newport harbour. He treated the farmers on the islands +much as the Saracens in the Middle Ages treated the coast population of +Italy, cutting down their trees for fuel, and taking their sheep when +his crew ran short of meat." The injured parties made their voices +heard, and the case was laid before the Admiral, who approved the +conduct of his subordinate officer, and announced that, "as sure as any +people from Newport attempted to rescue a vessel, he would hang them as +pirates." On June 9 the _Gaspee_ ran aground seven miles below +Providence and during the night the vessel was boarded, Dudington was +wounded, he and his crew were put on shore, and the vessel was burned. +The act of violence aroused the British government and orders were sent +to the governor of Rhode Island, the admiralty judge at Boston, and the +chief justices of Massachusetts, New Jersey, and New York to act as a +commission of inquiry. The commission held sessions in January and May, +1773, but failed to obtain any evidence. + +Local committees of correspondence.--The arbitrary acts of the crown +officials, the extension of the royal prerogative, and the _Gaspee_ +affair made possible the organization of the radical elements in the +colonies. In Massachusetts opposition centered in Samuel Adams, "the man +of the town meeting," who put forth pamphlet after pamphlet which struck +at the encroachments upon colonial rights. "While he restated the old +argument against the right of parliament to tax, he closely examined the +foundations of the claim of the ministers to govern by royal +instructions. He had grasped the idea that the king, lords, and commons, +as well as the colonies, were subject to the authority and bound by the +limitations of constitutional law." In the assembly, in the town +meeting, through the press, on the street, among the sailors, fishermen, +and ropemakers, he advocated the necessity of union. During the contest +over the salaries of the crown officials, Adams seized the opportunity +to put his ideas into tangible form. On November 2, 1772, in the Boston +town meeting he moved that a committee of twenty-one be appointed to +state the rights of the colonists, particularly of Massachusetts, and to +communicate and publish the same to the Massachusetts towns and to the +world as the sense of Boston "with the infringements and violations +thereof that have been or ... may be, made; also requesting of each town +a free communication of their sentiments on this subject." By January, +1773, more than eighty towns in Massachusetts had committees. + +"The Boston committee of correspondence has been likened to a political +party manager. It provided for regular meetings, consulted with similar +bodies in the vicinity, stimulated the spread of committees in +surrounding towns, kept up a correspondence with them, prepared +political matter for the press, circulated it in newspapers and +broadsides, matured political measures, created and guided public +sentiment--in short, heated the popular temper to the boiling point of +revolution and then drew from it the authority to act." + +Standing committees of correspondence.--Aroused by the _Gaspee_ inquiry, +the Virginia burgesses on March 12, 1773, adopted resolutions which +provided for a standing committee of correspondence and inquiry whose +business was "to obtain the most early and authentic intelligence of all +such acts and resolutions of the British Parliament, or proceedings of +Administration, as may relate to or affect the British colonies in +America, and to keep up and maintain a correspondence and communication +with our sister colonies, respecting these important considerations; and +the result of such their proceedings, from time to time, to lay before +this House." The committee was also instructed to obtain information +regarding "the principles and authority on which was constituted a court +of inquiry, said to have been lately held in Rhode Island, with powers +to transmit persons accused of offences committed in America to places +beyond the seas to be tried." The speaker was instructed to transmit to +the speakers of the different assemblies of the British colonies on the +continent copies of the resolutions, that they might lay them before +their assemblies and request them to appoint a person or persons to +communicate from time to time with the committee of the burgesses. + +The Virginia suggestion was first acted upon by the Rhode Island +assembly, which on May 15 informed Virginia of the appointment of a +committee of correspondence. Before the close of the month the +assemblies of Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts had +appointed similar committees. The South Carolina assembly acted in July, +Georgia in September, Maryland and Delaware in October, and North +Carolina in December. The New York assembly appointed its committee on +January 20, 1774, and New Jersey on February 8. The Pennsylvania +assembly dissolved without taking action. + +The committees did not prove to be active agents, because (1) "there was +little or nothing for them to do;" (2) they "were chosen from members of +the assembly, all of whom were desirous of going home when the assembly +adjourned"; (3) "the assembly committees were extremely cautious about +acting on their own authority." "However, the choice of such committees +was not entirely without result. The popular assembly in each colony +received preliminary testing. Constitutional questions were raised and +discussed, and arguments disseminated.... More important still had been +the demonstration that a body could be created which might continue to +act in successful opposition to the crown when the royal governors +dissolved or prorogued the assemblies." + + +THE TEA CONTROVERSY + +Attempted relief of the East India Company.--During this period George +III and his ministers took the fatal step of attempting to force tea +upon the colonies. The colonists had refrained from using tea which paid +a duty and had supplied themselves with smuggled tea from France, +Sweden, and Holland. At this time the East India Company was on the +verge of bankruptcy, a condition due in part to the loss of American +customers. In the company's warehouses a vast amount of tea had +accumulated. As a measure of relief the directors of the company advised +the repeal of the tea duty, but "a course which went direct to the point +was not of a nature to find favor with George the Third and his +Ministers." Instead they allowed the company a drawback of the entire +tea duty in England, but the tea was to be subject to the three penny +tax payable in the colonies. + +The tea arrives.--George III was soon to learn that he could not force +tea down colonial throats. Late in 1773 several tea-laden ships arrived +at American ports. In Charleston the agents of the company resigned, and +when the duty was not paid, the collector seized the tea and stored it +in a damp cellar. In Philadelphia a public meeting resolved that the +duty on tea was illegal and persons who assisted in its being landed +were declared public enemies. Under pressure of public opinion the +consignees resigned and the captain of the tea vessel wisely decided not +to unload his cargo. "When New York learned that the tea-ships allotted +to it had been driven by a gale off the coast, men scanned the horizon, +like the garrison of Londonderry watching for the English fleet in Lough +Foyle, in their fear lest fate should rob them of their opportunity of +proving themselves not inferior in mettle to the Bostonians." + +The Boston Tea Party.--The Massachusetts people had recently been +greatly irritated by certain private letters of Hutchinson, Oliver, and +Paxton. The letters had been obtained in England by Franklin and had +been sent under the seal of secrecy to some of the Massachusetts leaders +who, however, published them. Before the excitement subsided three +tea-laden vessels arrived at Boston. Hutchinson refused to allow the +ships to leave until regularly cleared and this could not be done until +the entire cargo had been unloaded. A mass meeting held in the Old South +Church resolved that the tea should not be landed, and when the governor +ordered the dispersal of the meeting, the bearer of the proclamation met +with insult. Neighboring towns agreed to assist Boston, with force if +necessary, and a guard watched the vessels to see that none of the tea +was landed. On December 17 the cargo would be seized by the collector +for non-payment of duty. On the evening of December 16, fifty or sixty +men disguised as Indians boarded the tea ships, rifled the chests, and +threw the contents into the bay. + +The course of Massachusetts.--The British government was being sorely +tried by Massachusetts. On January 29, 1774, a petition of the general +court for the removal of Hutchinson and Oliver came before the Privy +Council Committee for Foreign Plantations. The petition was pronounced a +seditious document. Franklin was summoned before the committee, was +charged with intercepting letters, and was dismissed from the deputy +postmaster-generalship. Soon after the Boston Tea Party, the assembly +voted to impeach Justice Oliver for accepting a salary from the crown. +In retaliation Hutchinson dissolved the assembly and soon left the +colony. + + +LORD NORTH'S COERCIVE POLICY + +The intolerable acts.--The revolutionary acts which were taking place in +America, especially those in Massachusetts, caused deep concern in +England. Pitt and Burke favored conciliation as the only means of +preserving the empire, but the king insisted upon repression. The +ministry speedily adopted a legislative program to punish Massachusetts, +and parliament legalized the ministerial policy by passing the so-called +intolerable acts. + +Boston Port Act.--The first of these acts closed the port of Boston from +June 1, 1774, until such time as "it shall be made to appear to his +Majesty, in his privy council, that peace and obedience to the laws +shall be so far restored in the said town of Boston, that the trade of +_Great Britain_ may safely be carried on there, and his Majesty's +customs duly collected." The king was not to open the port until the +inhabitants of Boston had given full satisfaction to the East India +Company and to the revenue officers and others who had suffered by the +recent outbreaks. + +Massachusetts Government Act.--By the "regulating act" the people of +Massachusetts were deprived of most of their chartered rights. After +July 1, 1774, the council was to be appointed by the king instead of by +the assembly. The governor was to appoint and remove, without the +consent of the council, all judges of the inferior courts, the attorney +general, provosts, marshals, and other officers belonging to the council +or courts of justice. Sheriffs were also appointed by the governor but +could not be removed without the consent of the council. The chief +justice and judges of the superior court were to be appointed by the +governor, but were to hold their commissions during the king's pleasure, +and they could not be removed unless by order of the crown. Grand and +petit juries were to be summoned by the sheriffs instead of being chosen +in town meetings. Except for elections, town meetings were to be called +only by consent of the governor and discussion was to be limited to +subjects stated in the leave. The people were still allowed to elect the +assembly. + +Administration of Justice Act--The third act provided, "That if any +inquisition or indictment shall be found, or if any appeal shall be sued +or preferred against any person, for murther, or other capital offence, +in the province of the _Massachusetts Bay_, and it shall appear, by +information given upon oath to the governor.., that the fact was +committed by the person against whom such inquisition or indictment +shall be found, or against whom such appeal shall be sued or +preferred..., either in the execution of his duty as a magistrate, for +the suppression of riots, or in the support of the laws of revenue, or +in acting in his duty as an officer of revenue, or in acting under the +direction and order of any magistrate, for the suppression of riots, or +for the carrying into effect the laws of revenue, or in aiding and +assisting in any of the cases aforesaid; and if it shall also appear, to +the satisfaction of the said governor ... that an indifferent trial +cannot be had within the said province, in that case, it shall and may +be lawful for the governor ... to direct, with the advice and consent of +the council, that the inquisition, indictment, or appeal, shall be tried +in some other of his Majesty's colonies, or in _Great Britain_." The act +also made it possible to transport witnesses to the scene of the trial. + +Quartering Act, June 2, 1774.--The fourth law was entitled "An act for +the better providing suitable quarters for officers and soldiers in his +Majesty's service in North America." It provided that, if any officers +or soldiers should be without quarters for twenty-four hours after a +proper demand had been made, the governor might order that uninhabited +houses, outhouses, barns, or other buildings be made fit for quarters. +The law was to remain in force until March 24, 1776. Though the act was +general in its terms, in reality it was intended "to facilitate the +establishment of a temporary military government in Massachusetts." Of +ominous import was the appointment of General Gage as governor of +Massachusetts. + +The Quebec Act.--The Quebec Act which extended the province of Quebec to +the Ohio River also aroused the anger of Massachusetts, New York, +Connecticut, and Virginia, as it deprived those colonies of large tracts +of western lands which they claimed under their ancient charters. It was +not intended as a coercive act, but was so considered in the colonies. + + +THE FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS + +Call for a congress.--On May 10 a copy of the Port Act was received in +Boston. On the twelfth the committee of correspondence met with eight +neighboring committees and recommended non-intercourse with Great +Britain. The other colonies were asked to follow the same course. While +this was taking place the four additional regiments which Gage had +called for began to arrive and on June 1, 1774, the port was blocked by +men-of-war. Boston began to receive money and supplies from other towns +and colonies, and a new impetus was given to the formation of committees +of correspondence. Committees in New York and Philadelphia recommended +the appointment of delegates to a general congress. The Virginia +burgesses resolved to set aside June 1 as a day of fasting and prayer. +The governor dissolved the house, but the burgesses assembled on May 27 +at the Raleigh Tavern and adopted a resolution calling for a congress. +Copies of the resolution were sent to the other assemblies. + +On June 17 the Massachusetts assembly resolved, "That a meeting of +committees from several colonies ... is highly expedient and necessary, +to consult upon the present state of the colonies, and the miseries to +which they are and must be reduced by the operation of certain acts of +Parliament respecting America, and to deliberate and determine upon wise +and proper measures, to be by them recommended to all the colonies, for +the recovery and establishment of their just rights and liberties, civil +and religious, and the restoration of union and harmony between Great +Britain and the colonies, most ardently desired by all good men: +Therefore, resolved, that the Hon. James Bowdoin, Esq., the Hon. Thomas +Cushing, Esq., Mr. Samuel Adams and Robert Treat Paine, Esqrs., be +appointed a committee ... to meet with such committees or delegates from +the other colonies as have been or may be appointed, either by their +respective houses of burgesses or representatives, or by convention, or +by the committees of correspondence appointed by the respective houses +of assembly, in the city of Philadelphia, or any other place that shall +be judged most suitable by the committee, on the 1st day of September +next; and that the speaker of the house be directed, in a letter to the +speakers of the house of burgesses or representatives in the several +colonies, to inform them of the substance of these resolves." + +Meeting of the First Continental Congress.--Every colony but Georgia +responded to the call. In September over fifty delegates assembled in +Carpenters' Hall at Philadelphia. Among them were John and Samuel Adams +of Massachusetts, John Dickinson of Pennsylvania, Richard Henry Lee, +Patrick Henry and George Washington of Virginia, Roger Sherman of +Connecticut, John Jay of New York, and Edward and John Rutledge of South +Carolina. "The congress of 1774 was not thought of by the people as a +congress in the modern legislative sense. It was rather a convention of +ambassadors of subordinate, but distinct communities which had found it +needful to take counsel of one another regarding a crisis in their +common relations to the parent state, in order, if possible, to adopt +some common plan of action. It was essentially an advisory or +consultative body. In another aspect it may be regarded as the +completion of the revolutionary party organization of which the basis +was laid in the committees of correspondence." + +The Suffolk Resolves approved.--The delegates were soon divided into +well-defined groups; the radicals led by Samuel Adams wanted resistance, +the conservatives headed by Joseph Galloway favored compromise. The +radicals succeeded in getting Congress to approve the resolves recently +drawn up in the Suffolk County convention in Massachusetts. The resolves +declared that no obedience to the recent acts of parliament was due from +Massachusetts, advised that no money be turned into the treasury by the +tax-collectors until the restoration of the constitution, denounced as +enemies the king's councillors who had not resigned, and threatened +armed resistance. Congress published these resolves with its resolutions +commending the course of Boston. + +A plan of union.--The conservatives favored a plan of union proposed by +Galloway, which provided for a crown appointed president-general and a +council of deputies chosen every three years by the legislatures. The +acts of the council were to be subject to parliamentary veto and acts of +parliament relating to the colonies might be vetoed by the council. The +plan was defeated by a narrow margin. + +The Declaration and Resolves.--On September 7 a committee of two from +each colony had been appointed to draw up a statement of the rights of +the colonies, instances of their violation, and means of restoring them. +Agreement on the committee's report was reached on October 14. The +declaration of grievances thus adopted complained that parliament had +imposed taxes upon them and under various pretences, but in fact for the +purpose of raising revenue, had established a board of commissioners +with unconstitutional powers, and had extended the jurisdiction of the +admiralty courts, not only for collecting duties, but for trial of +causes arising merely within the body of a county. Complaint was also +made that judges had been made dependent on the crown for salaries, that +standing armies had been kept in times of peace, and that the removal to +distant places for trial of prisoners charged with treason and certain +other crimes had been legalized. The intolerable acts were described as +"impolitic, unjust, and cruel, as well as unconstitutional." Other +complaints were the dissolution of assemblies when they attempted to +deliberate on grievances, and treating with contempt petitions for +redress. + +Congress accordingly resolved that the inhabitants of the English +colonies in North America were "entitled to life, liberty and property: +and they had never ceded to any foreign power whatever, a right to +dispose of either without their consent;" that they were entitled to the +same rights as their ancestors; "that the foundation of English liberty, +and of all free government, is a right in the people to participate in +their legislative council: and as the English colonies are not +represented ... in the British parliament, they are entitled to a free +and exclusive power of legislation in their several provincial +legislatures, where their right of representation can alone be +preserved, in all cases of taxation and internal policy, subject only to +the negative of their sovereign." For the mutual interests of both +countries they consented to parliamentary regulation of external +commerce. The right of trial by their peers of the vicinage, rights +confirmed by royal charters and secured by provincial codes, and the +right of assembly and petition were asserted. Keeping of a standing army +in time of peace without the consent of the legislature of the colony +where the army was kept was declared illegal. The exercise of +legislative power by a crown appointed council was declared +"unconstitutional, dangerous and destructive to the freedom of American +legislation." + +"All and each of which the ... deputies, in behalf of themselves, and +their constituents, do claim, demand, and insist on, as their +indubitable rights and liberties; which cannot be legally taken from +them, altered or abridged by any power whatever, without their own +consent, by their representatives in their several provincial +legislatures." + +The acts passed by parliament since 1763 to which they were opposed were +then enumerated. "To these grievous acts and measures, Americans cannot +submit, but in hopes their fellow subjects in Great-Britain will, on a +region of them, restore us to that state, in which both countries found +happiness and prosperity, we have for the present, only resolved to +pursue the following peaceable measures: 1. To enter into a +non-importation, non-consumption, and non-exportation agreement or +association. 2. To prepare an address to the people of Great-Britain, +and a memorial to the inhabitants of British America: and 3. To prepare +a loyal address to his majesty, agreeable to resolutions already entered +into." + +Non-importation, non-consumption, and non-exportation.--By commercial +restrictions the delegates hoped to force the British government to +change its policy. On September 22 Congress voted to request colonial +merchants and others not to place orders for British goods and to delay +or suspend orders already sent until Congress could make known its +policy. Five days later it resolved that from December 1 there should be +no importation of goods from Great Britain or Ireland, or of British or +Irish make, and that such goods be neither used nor purchased. On +September 30 it was resolved that exportation to Great Britain. Ireland, +and the British West Indies ought to cease after September 10, 1775, +unless grievances were redressed, and a committee was appointed to +formulate a plan for the enforcement of non-importation, +non-consumption, and non-exportation. + +The Association.--On October 20 the delegates adopted the "Association" +which provided that after December 1 British or Irish goods, East India +tea, molasses, syrups, paneles, coffee, and pimento from the British +plantations or from Dominica, wines from Madeira or the Western Islands, +and foreign indigo should not be imported into British America. It was +agreed that slaves should not be imported or purchased after December 1, +and slave traders were not to be allowed to rent vessels or purchase +goods. Non-exportation was not to be put into force until September 10, +1775, but if redress had not been obtained by that time, American goods +would be cut off from Great Britain, Ireland, or the West Indies. Rice, +however, might be exported to Europe. Congress agreed to encourage +frugality, economy, and industry, to promote agriculture, the arts, and +manufactures, especially of wool, and to discourage extravagance and +dissipation. Merchants and manufacturers were not to raise prices. A +committee in each county, city, and town was to observe the conduct of +persons, and if violations of the Association were discovered, the truth +was to be published in the newspapers. If any colony did not accede to +the Association, intercourse with that colony was to be cut off. + +Attempts to obtain cooeperation of other Colonies.--Congress also made an +effort to obtain the cooperation of neighboring colonies by an address +to the people of Quebec and by letters to the inhabitants of St. Johns, +Nova Scotia, Georgia, and East and West Florida. A memorial to the +people of British America, an address to the people of Great Britain, +and a petition to the king were also prepared. May 10, 1775, was set as +the date for the assembly of another congress, and on October 26 the +First Continental Congress dissolved. + +North's conciliatory resolution.--In January, 1775, parliament began +consideration of the petition to the king and other papers relating to +America. Chatham moved the withdrawal of the troops from Boston but the +motion was defeated. On February 1 he presented a plan of conciliation +based upon mutual concessions, but this was also rejected. On February +20 Lord North undertook the unexpected role of conciliator by a +resolution which was considered in committee of the whole and passed by +the commons a week later. The resolution provided "that when the +Governour, Council, and Assembly, or General Court, of any ... colonies +in _America_, shall propose to make provision ... for contributing their +proportion to the common defence, (such proportion to be raised under +the authority of the General Court, or General Assembly, of such +Province or Colony, and disposable by Parliament,) and shall engage to +make provision also for the support of the Civil Government, and the +Administration of Justice, in such Province or Colony, it will be +proper, if such proposal shall be approved by his Majesty and ... +Parliament ... to forbear, in respect of such Province or Colony, to +levy any Duty, Tax, or Assessment, or to impose any farther Duty, Tax, +or Assessment, except only such Duties as it may be expedient to +continue to levy or to impose for the regulation of commerce; the nett +produce of the Duties last mentioned to be carried to the account of +such Province or Colony respectively." + +The Restraining Act.--The effect of North's resolution was nullified by +the Restraining Act, which, in spite of Burke's powerful speech on +conciliation, became law on March 13. This act confined the commerce of +the New England colonies to Great Britain, Ireland, and the British West +Indies, and prohibited the New Englanders from fishing in the northern +fisheries, until "the trade and commerce of his Majesty's subjects may +be carried on without interruption." In April the act was extended to +New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and South +Carolina. The British government thus closed the door of conciliation +and made the American Revolution inevitable. + + +READINGS + +Adams, J., _Works_, II, 337-517; Adams, S., _Writing_, II-III; Becker, +C.L., _Beginnings of the American People_, 202-253; Beer, G.L., _British +Colonial Policy, 1754-1765_, 72-315; Bigelow, J., _The Life of Benjamin +Franklin_, II, 7-337; Channing, E., _A History of the United States_, +III, 29-154; Dickinson, J., _Writings_, in Historical Society of +Pennsylvania, _Memoirs_, XIV, 307-406; Doyle, J.A., "The Quarrel with +Great Britain, 1761-1776," in _Cambridge Modern History_, VII, 148-208; +Fisher, S.G., _The Struggle for American Independence_, I, 1-300; +Frothingham, Richard, _The Rise of the Republic_, 158-455; Henry, W.W., +_Patrick Henry_, I, 24-357; Howard, G.E., _Preliminaries of the +Revolution_; Hutchinson, P.O., _The Diary and Letters of his Excellency +Thomas Hutchinson_, I; Johnson, E.R., _History of Domestic and Foreign +Commerce of the United States_, I, 84-121; _Journals of the Continental +Congress_, I (Worthington C. Ford, ed.); Lecky, W.E.H., _History of +England in the Eighteenth Century_, III, 290-460; Lincoln, C.H., _The +Revolutionary Movement in Pennsylvania, 1760-1776_; MacDonald, William, +_Select Charters_, 272-396; Trevelyan, G.O., _The American Revolution_, +Part I, 1-253; Tyler, M.C., _Literary History of the American +Revolution_, I; _Patrick Henry_, 32-134; Van Tyne, C.H., _The American +Revolution_, 3-24; Becker, C.L., _The Eve of the Revolution_; Eckenrode, +H.J., _The Revolution in Virginia_; Schlesinger, A.M., _The Colonial +Merchants and the American Revolution, 1763-1776_. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV + +FROM LEXINGTON TO INDEPENDENCE (1775-1776) + + +THE OPENING OF HOSTILITIES + +Enforcement of the Association.--The Association adopted by the +Continental Congress was approved throughout the colonies. In county and +town meetings, in assemblies, provincial congresses, or special +conventions, the patriot party expressed its approval. Though the New +York assembly refused to sanction the proceedings of Congress, the +committee of correspondence and many counties chose inspection +committees. In Georgia the patriots had a difficult time, but when the +provincial congress assembled at Savannah in March, 1775, forty-five of +the deputies ratified the Association and local inspection committees +were formed. + +Military preparations.--Throughout the colonies military preparations +were in progress. In October, 1774, Charles Lee wrote from Philadelphia +to an English nobleman, "Virginia, Rhode Island and Carolina are forming +corps. Massachusetts Bay has long had a sufficient number instructed to +become instructive of the rest. Even this Quakering province is +following the example." In December the provincial convention of +Maryland recommended that all males between the ages of sixteen and +fifty should form themselves into military companies. Delaware made +provision for the arming and drilling of militia. Connecticut ordered +the towns to double their military supplies, and Rhode Islanders seized +forty-four cannon from the Newport batteries. + +Whigs, neutrals, and Tories.--In spite of the military ardor thus +displayed, public opinion was by no means a unit. In general the people +were divided into three groups, patriots, neutrals, and Loyalists. Among +the patriots, or Whigs as they were called, was a small group of +ultra-radicals who favored independence. A great majority of the Whigs +stood for strenuous opposition to British policy but not for +independence. The neutrals in the main presented three shades of +opinion: those with patriot sympathies but who were still wavering, +those who were indifferent or were religiously opposed to violence, and +those who had Loyalist leanings but had not made a definite decision. +The third great group was composed of Loyalists or Tories. These were +not all of like mind, one portion being openly in favor of the king but +not ready to take up arms, the rest being openly belligerent. As the +Revolution progressed shadings within groups gradually disappeared, +wavering neutrals linked themselves with patriots or Loyalists, and +sections became distinctly Whig or Tory. + +Even before the adoption of the Association, ill feeling showed itself. +As Howard says, "Tarring and featherings was becoming the order of the +day.... Loyalists were bitterly stigmatized as Tories and traitors, and +the cause of liberty was sullied by acts of intolerance and +persecution." Channing says, "The story of tarring and featherings, +riotings and burnings becomes monotonous, almost as much so as the +reading of the papers that poured forth from counties, towns, +conventions, meetings, congresses, and private individuals." + +Revolution in Massachusetts.--The people of Massachusetts refused to +submit to the Regulating Act. The "mandamus" councillors were threatened +with violence and either declined the appointment or resigned, and the +courts were unable to sit. On September 1, 1774, Gage sent soldiers to +seize some powder stored near Boston and a rumor spread that the war +ships had fired on Boston. The militia began to gather from neighboring +counties, and Israel Putnam summoned the Connecticut militia to march to +the assistance of Boston. + +Gage refused to allow the meeting of the assembly called for October 5, +but most of the representatives met at Salem where they declared +themselves a provincial congress. A few days later the congress moved to +Concord and then to Cambridge. It appointed a committee of safety which +was empowered to call out the militia, and other committees attended to +the collecting of stores and general defence. After the gathering of the +second provincial congress on February 1, 1775, the committee of safety +under the leadership of John Hancock and Joseph Warren was authorized to +distribute arms. + +Lexington.--On April 18 the watchful patriots discovered that British +troops were preparing for an expedition, and William Dawes and Paul +Revere were sent to spread the alarm. Soon after dawn of April 19 the +British troops approached Lexington where they found sixty or seventy +minutemen under arms. When they did not obey the order to lay down their +arms and disperse, a shot was fired, followed by a volley which killed +eight and wounded ten of the colonials. The regulars went on to Concord +where another encounter occurred at the old North Bridge where the +British had stationed a guard. After destroying some stores, the troops +started back toward Boston. By this time the militia had gathered, and +the incensed farmers and villagers from behind trees, rocks, and fences +poured in a deadly fire which did not slacken until the soldiers were +relieved at Lexington by troops under Lord Percy. When the march was +resumed the battle began again, nor did it cease until the weary +soldiers reached Charlestown. + +[Illustration: Boston with Environs During the Revolution (Based on map +in G.O. Trevelyan, _The American Revolution_, Part I, at end).] + +Boston besieged.--The news of Lexington started thousands of New England +volunteers toward Boston. John Stark led the New Hampshire men; Israel +Putnam left his plow in the furrow to lead the Connecticut volunteers; +and Nathanael Greene headed the Rhode Islanders. The volunteer forces in +a few weeks were reinforced by large bodies of colonial troops. The +Massachusetts congress voted to raise thirteen thousand six hundred men, +and it called upon the other New England colonies to bring the army up +to thirty thousand. The Rhode Island assembly voted to raise fifteen +hundred men, and Connecticut six thousand, two-thirds of whom were to be +sent to the aid of Boston. Gage, who had been reinforced with troops +under Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne, found his army of six or seven +thousand veterans shut up in Boston by an undisciplined and poorly +organized force, which, however, outnumbered him three or four to one. + +Bunker Hill.--The city was open to attack from Dorchester Heights and +the Charlestown hills. To forestall the British, the colonials decided +to occupy Bunker Hill. On the night of June 16 Colonel William Prescott +was sent to fortify the position. For reasons which are not entirely +clear, he led his men to Breed's Hill where a redoubt was constructed. +When dawn disclosed the fortification, the warships and batteries opened +fire. Prescott asked for reinforcements and small detachments came to +his assistance. A British council of war was called. Clinton suggested +the seizure of the causeway on Charlestown neck, a movement which would +have cut off the colonial force from the mainland. But Gage and Howe, +underestimating the fighting ability of their opponents, foolishly +insisted upon a frontal attack. Twice the British were repulsed with +staggering losses, but during the third charge the colonials exhausted +their ammunition and were forced to retreat, first to Bunker Hill and +then back to their own lines. Though the colonials technically had +suffered a defeat, great was the rejoicing over the battle, for colonial +troops had proven their prowess against the British regulars and had +taken a toll of two for one. + +Ticonderoga and Crown Point--While the troops were gathering about +Boston, it occurred to Benedict Arnold that Ticonderoga would be an easy +prize. He submitted his ideas to Warren and the committee of safety, who +authorized him to proceed with not over four hundred men to reduce the +fort. On the way to Boston Arnold had divulged his thoughts to certain +Connecticut friends who immediately organized an expedition with the +same object. Ethan Allen and others from the Hampshire grants had also +conceived the idea of capturing the fortress and were on the march when +joined by Arnold, who had gone forward ahead of his troops. Immediately +the question of rank arose and after considerable discussion Allen and +Arnold agreed to command jointly for the time being. + +On May 10 Ticonderoga surrendered without a struggle and this was +followed by an easy conquest of Crown Point and Ft. George. By this time +Allen completely ignored his colleague, but the arrival of about a +hundred of Arnold's men gave him his opportunity. Having captured a +British schooner Arnold decided to make a raid on St. Johns. The town +was easily captured and a British sloop fell into the hands of the +audacious colonial. The operations supplied the Whig army with much +needed artillery and stores, and it opened the way for operations in +Canada. + +Rebellion in Virginia.--Virginia at the same time was in a state of +rebellion. The second revolutionary convention assembled at Richmond in +March, 1775, and Patrick Henry boldly sounded the call to arms. The +governor, Lord Dunmore, in alarm ordered the removal of the gunpowder +from the magazine at Williamsburg and soon several thousand armed men +made ready to march on the capital. When some of the leaders hesitated, +Henry placed himself at the head of an armed band and marched toward +Williamsburg. The governor discreetly agreed to pay for the powder, but +two days later (May 6, 1775) issued a proclamation charging the people +"not to aid, abet, or give countenance to the said Patrick Henry, or any +other persons concerned in such unwarrantable combinations." In May a +legal assembly was called but the members appeared in arms, and an +attempted conciliation failed when it became known that a trap was +prepared to kill any one who tampered with the magazine. Fearful of the +mob, the governor fled to a war vessel. + +The Mecklenburg Resolves.--The news of Lexington aroused every colony. +South Carolina immediately raised two regiments. In North Carolina some +of the frontiersmen held a meeting at Charlotte, Mecklenburg County, and +passed resolutions that crown commissions in the colonies were null and +void, and that colonial constitutions were suspended. They also made +governmental regulations until Congress could provide laws for them. The +original resolutions were destroyed and afterward were reproduced from +memory in the form of the so-called "Mecklenburg Declaration of +Independence" of May 20. Reliable historians now reject the authenticity +of this document, but the original resolves were undoubtedly genuine. + + +THE SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS + +The delegates.--The Second Continental Congress assembled at +Philadelphia on May 10, 1775, all but Georgia and Rhode Island being +represented. On May 13 Lyman Hall, representing St. John's parish, +Georgia, arrived, but not until July 20 was notice received that Georgia +had acceded to the Association and appointed delegates. Stephen Hopkins, +the first Rhode Island delegate to appear, arrived May 18. Peyton +Randolph of Virginia was elected president, but he found it necessary to +leave Congress on May 24, and John Hancock was chosen president. Most of +the delegates had been in the first Congress; among the new members was +Benjamin Franklin, who had recently returned from England; Thomas +Jefferson was elected to represent Virginia in the place of Peyton +Randolph. + +Nature of the work of Congress.--The conservative Whigs were still in +the majority. They favored another petition to the king, but the state +of war was recognized by all and Congress shouldered the responsibility +of directing the Revolution as a defensive war. The early activities of +Congress were devoted mainly to the raising, organizing, and equipping +of the armies, to building and equipping a fleet, to perfecting the +organization of the Revolution, to protecting the frontiers and +obtaining alliances with the Indians, to enforcing the Association, to +justifying the Revolution and seeking aid outside of the thirteen +colonies, and to seeking redress from the British crown. + +Military preparations.--Congress worked strenuously to raise troops and +to obtain munitions and other stores. Efforts were made to stimulate +recruiting, to perfect the organization of the militia, and to hasten +the assembling of forces. The manufacture of cannon, guns, and gunpowder +was encouraged and attempts were made to increase the supplies of lead, +nitre, and salt. Congress recommended to the various assemblies and +conventions that they provide sufficient stores of ammunition for their +colonies and that they devise means for furnishing with arms such +effective men as were too poor to buy them. + +Organization of the army.--The armies already in the field were +recognized by Congress. On June 14 a committee was appointed to draft +rules for the army and on the following day Washington was appointed to +command the continental forces. Arrangements were soon made for the +appointment of four major-generals, eight brigadier-generals, and minor +officers. The first major-generals were Artemus Ward, Charles Lee, +Philip Schuyler, and Israel Putnam, Schuyler being placed in command of +the New York department. Rules and regulations for the army were also +adopted and provision was made for the establishment of a hospital. + +Organization of the navy.--For the protection of the coasts Congress at +first depended upon the efforts of individual colonies, recommending +that they make provision, by armed vessels or otherwise, for the +protection of their harbors and navigation on their coasts. Colonial +vessels were utilized to capture British transports, but it soon became +evident that a navy under congressional control would be more effective. +During October, 1775, Congress decided to fit out four vessels and on +November 28 adopted rules for the regulation of the navy. On December 13 +provision was made for the building of thirteen war craft and on the +twenty-second officers were appointed. Ezek Hopkins was made +commander-in-chief of the fleet; the captains were Dudley Saltonstall, +Abraham Whipple, Nicholas Biddle, and John B. Hopkins. Among the +first-lieutenants was John Paul Jones. + +Prizes and privateers.--On November 25 Congress adopted regulations +regarding prizes, and advised the legislative bodies to erect admiralty +courts or to give to the local courts admiralty jurisdiction. It also +provided "That in all cases an appeal shall be allowed to Congress, or +such person or persons as they shall appoint for the trials of appeals." +In March, 1776, Congress resolved "That the inhabitants of these +colonies be permitted to fit out armed vessels to cruize on the enemies +of these United Colonies." In April Congress adopted a form of +commission and instructions to commanders of privateers, and decided to +issue letters of marque and reprisal. + +First steps in financing the Revolution.--The financing of the +Revolution was one of the most difficult tasks confronting Congress. The +first step in raising money was taken on June 3, 1775, when a committee +was appointed to borrow L6,000 to purchase gunpowder. A committee was +also appointed to bring in an estimate of money necessary to be raised. +On June 22 Congress resolved to emit $2,000,000 in bills of credit and +pledged the "confederated colonies" for their redemption. Once embarked +upon the perilous course of paper finance, issue followed issue in rapid +succession. At first the promissory notes passed readily, but they soon +began to depreciate and eventually became worthless. Nevertheless they +carried the Revolution through its most trying years. + +Establishment of a post office.--The need of "speedy and secure +conveyance of intelligence from one end of the Continent to the other" +was recognized and a committee was appointed to consider the +establishment of posts. On July 26 the post office was established, +Benjamin Franklin being elected Postmaster General. He was authorized to +establish "a line of posts ... from Falmouth in New England to Savannah +in Georgia, with as many cross posts as he shall think fit." + +An Indian policy adopted.--Control of the Indians was vital for the +safety of the frontier. It was felt that if the British ministry should +induce the tribes to commit hostile acts, the colonies would be +justified in entering into alliances with Indian nations. It was hoped +that the Iroquois might be kept neutral. "Talks" were prepared, goods +to be used as presents were purchased, and money was provided. The +frontier was laid off into three departments which were placed under +commissioners. The Six Nations and tribes to the north of them were in +the northern department; tribes between the Iroquois and the Cherokee +were in the middle department; and the Cherokee and Indians south of +them were in the southern department. + +Enforcement of the Association.--Congress continued the policy of trade +restriction. On May 17 it resolved that exports to Quebec, Nova Scotia, +the Island of St. Johns, Newfoundland, Georgia except St. John's parish, +and to East and West Florida, must cease, and that supplies must not be +furnished to the British fisheries. After Georgia appointed delegates, +the colony was admitted to the Association. On June 2 Congress resolved +that no bill of exchange, draught, or order of any British officer +should be honored, and that no money, provisions, or other necessaries +be furnished the British army or navy. + +On June 26 Congress resolved that, as attempts were being made to divide +the people of North Carolina and defeat the Association, it was +recommended to that colony to associate for the defence of American +liberty and to organize the militia, Congress offering to provide pay +for a thousand men in the colony. On July 4 a resolution was adopted +that the restraining acts were "unconstitutional, oppressive, and +cruel," and that commercial opposition should be made to them. + +As doubts had arisen with respect to the true spirit and construction of +the Association, on August 1 Congress defined it as follows: "Under the +prohibition ... to export to, or import from, the Islands of Great +Britain and Ireland, this Congress intends to comprise all exportation +to, and importation from, the islands of Jersey, Guernsey, Sark, +Alderney, and Mann, and every European island and settlement within the +British dominions: and that under the denomination of the West Indies, +this Congress means to comprehend all the West India islands, British +and foreign, to whatever state, power, or prince belonging, or by +whomsoever governed, and also the Summer islands, Bahama Islands, +Berbicia and Surinam on the Main, and every island and settlement within +the latitude of the southern line of Georgia and the Equator." + +The necessity of obtaining supplies forced Congress to make special +provisions for the importation of munitions of war. On July 15, 1775, a +resolution was adopted that "every vessel importing Gun powder, Salt +petre, Sulphur, provided they bring with the sulphur four times as much +salt petre, brass field pieces, or good muskets fitted with Bayonets, +within nine Months from the date of this resolution, shall be permitted +to load and export the produce of these colonies, to the value of such +powder and stores aforesd, the non-exportation agreement +notwithstanding." On November 2 Congress adopted a resolution to close +the ports until March 1, but from time to time special provisions were +made for the exportation and importation of goods. The delegates +frequently discussed the question of opening the ports, as shown by John +Adams's _Autobiography_ which says: "This measure ... labored +exceedingly, because it was considered as a bold step to independence. +Indeed, I urged it expressly with that view, and as connected with the +institution of government in all the States, and a declaration of +national independence." On April 6, 1776, the ports were opened to world +commerce except trade with Great Britain and her possessions. + +Letter to the people of Canada.--The congressional leaders hoped to +strengthen their resistance by obtaining the cooeperation of the +Canadians. A letter "to the oppressed inhabitants of Canada" was +approved on May 29. Congress condoled with them "on the arrival of that +day, in the course of which, the sun could not shine on a single freeman +in all your extensive dominion.... By the introduction of your present +form of government, or rather present form of tyranny, you and your +wives and your children are made slaves.... We are informed you have +already been called upon to waste your lives in a contest with us. +Should you, by complying in this instance, assent to your new +establishment [the Quebec Act], and a war break out with France, your +wealth and your sons may be sent to perish in expeditions against their +islands in the West Indies. We yet entertain hopes of your uniting with +us in the defence of our common liberty." + +Attempts to influence public opinion in the British Empire.--Congress +hoped by appeals to the inhabitants of the British Isles to arouse +public opinion, thereby bringing pressure to bear upon a Ministry and +subservient parliament which had shown themselves to be irresponsible +and tyrannous. Addresses to the people of Great Britain and Ireland were +accordingly prepared. A letter to the Lord Mayor, aldermen, and liveries +of London was drawn up expressing thanks "for the virtuous and +unsolicited resentment you have shown to the violated rights of a free +people." A letter of friendship was sent to the assembly of Jamaica and +a communication regarding commerce was sent to Bermuda. + +Statement to the army.--On July 6 Congress approved a declaration +setting forth the causes and necessity of taking up arms, which was to +be published by Washington upon his arrival at Boston. The declaration +presented the usual arguments regarding constitutional rights and gave +an account of the progress of events. That independence was desired was +denied in the following words: "We have not raised armies with ambitious +designs of separating from Great Britain, and establishing independent +states. We fight not for glory or for conquest.... In our own native +land, in defence of the freedom that is our birth right,... and for the +protection of our property ... we have taken up arms." + +Petition to the king.--The radicals believed that a war of independence +could not be avoided, but the conservatives restrained them, hoping that +the force of public opinion, a bold show of resistance, and commercial +restrictions would change the ministerial policy. Another direct appeal +to the king was decided upon and on May 29 resolutions were adopted, +"that with a sincere design of contributing by all the means in our +power, not incompatible with just regard for the undoubted rights and +true interests of these colonies, to the promotion of this most +desirable reconciliation, an humble and dutiful petition be presented to +his Majesty." The petition, signed on July 8, was couched in respectful +terms as the following quotation shows: "We ... beseech your Majesty, +that your royal authority and influence may be graciously interposed to +procure us relief from our afflicting fears and jealousies, occasioned +by the system before mentioned, and to settle peace through every part +of your dominions, with all humility submitting to your Majesty's wise +consideration whether it may not be expedient for facilitating those +important purposes, that your Majesty be pleased to direct some mode, by +which the united applications of your faithful colonists to the throne, +in pursuance of their common councils, may be improved into a happy and +permanent reconciliation; and that, in the mean time, measures may be +taken for preventing the further destruction of the lives of your +Majesty's subjects; and that such statutes as more immediately distress +any of your Majesty's colonies may be repealed." + +Reply to Lord North.--As several of the colonies were desirous of +knowing the congressional attitude toward Lord North's conciliatory +resolution, on July 31 Congress adopted a formal report which closed +with the following statement: "When the world reflects how inadequate to +justice are these vaunted terms; when it attends to the rapid and bold +succession of injuries, which have been aimed at these colonies, when it +reviews the pacific and respectful expostulations, which ... were the +sole arms we opposed to them; when it observes that our complaints were +either not heard at all, or were answered with new and accumulated +injury,... when it considers the great armaments with which they have +invaded us, and the circumstances of cruelty with which they have +commenced and prosecuted hostilities; when these things we say, are laid +together and attentively considered, can the world be deceived into an +opinion that we are unreasonable, or can it hesitate to believe with us, +that nothing but our own exertions may defeat the ministerial sentence +of death or abject submission." + +Stubborn attitude of the government.--George III and his ministers had +gained no wisdom from the rebellious attitude in America. The petition, +which had been entrusted to Richard Penn, reached London on August 14, +but not until a week later did Lord Dartmouth, the secretary for the +colonies, consent to look at a copy of the document and not until +September was it presented to the king. On August 23 George III +published a proclamation which declared the Americans rebels, and after +his examination of the petition, the king saw no reason for revising it. +At the next session of parliament acts were passed which prohibited +trade with the thirteen colonies, ordered the seizure and confiscation +of ships engaged in trade with them, and permitted British commanders +to impress sailors from seized vessels. + +The German mercenaries.--A reorganization of the cabinet had forced the +amiable Dartmouth out of the colonial office, his successor being Lord +George Germaine. Lord Rochford was made secretary of state for the +southern department, and Lord Suffolk was retained in the northern +department to which office fell the business with Germany. The British +army was sadly in need of recruits. In Scotland the men of Argyllshire +and Inverness-shire readily entered the army for colonial service, but +in Ireland and England the people showed little enthusiasm for a war +which was intended to subdue their freedom-loving brethren over the +seas. To raise the necessary troops the king turned to the continent. An +attempt to obtain the use of the Scotch troops which had long been in +Dutch service failed and Catherine II refused to furnish Russian +infantry, but in Germany British overtures met with better success. The +Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, the Duke of Brunswick, and some other needy +princes were willing to sell the services of their subjects for British +gold. During the war over thirty thousand mercenaries were hired in +Germany for service in America. In the words of Lecky, "The conduct of +England in hiring German mercenaries to subdue the essentially English +population beyond the Atlantic, made reconciliation hopeless, and the +Declaration of Independence inevitable." + + +PROGRESS OF THE WAR + +Burning of Falmouth.--Events were also taking place in America which +were convincing the public that the war for independence must be fought +to the bitter end. In October, 1775, four British war vessels sailed +into the harbor of Falmouth, now known as Portland, and set fire to the +town. Three-fourths of the dwellings were destroyed and a thousand +unoffending people were made homeless. + +The Canadian campaign.--The efforts of Congress to enlist the Canadians +in the colonial cause did not meet with success and the invasion of +Canada was determined upon. Two forces were sent northward. One under +Richard Montgomery was to proceed by the Lake Champlain route, seize +Montreal, and then march to Quebec. The other under Benedict Arnold was +to go up the Kennebec and down the Chaudiere, and join the other force. +Montgomery captured Montreal and then made a juncture with Arnold. On +December 31 an attack was made on Quebec, but Montgomery was killed, +Arnold was wounded, and the forces were repulsed. But in spite of +terrible sufferings in his army, Arnold kept Quebec in a state of +blockade the rest of the winter. + +Siege of Boston.--When Washington arrived at Cambridge, he found a +disorganized army which was short of food, ammunition, and uniforms, and +without hospital service. Fortunately the British did not take advantage +of the situation, and gradually the commander brought order out of +chaos. By March, 1776, Washington was prepared to make an offensive +move. Taking advantage of the fact that the British had not fortified +Dorchester Heights, on the night of March 4 colonial troops seized the +position which commanded Boston. On the seventeenth the British army, +accompanied by about a thousand Loyalists, sailed for Halifax. + +Fighting in Virginia and North Carolina.--While Washington was besieging +Boston, Lord Dunmore was making reprisals along the Virginia rivers. +After the defeat of some of his Loyalist supporters at Great Bridge, the +governor caused the burning of Norfolk on January 1, 1776. North +Carolina was also torn by civil war. Governor Martin had been driven +from the colony, and from the refuge of a war vessel commissioned Donald +McDonald to collect an army of Loyalists in the central and western +counties. He also appealed to Sir Henry Clinton for aid. With a force of +sixteen hundred men McDonald marched toward the coast, but on February +27, 1776, he was met by patriot forces at Moore's Creek and his Loyalist +army was practically annihilated. When Clinton's fleet appeared off the +coast, ten thousand North Carolina militia were ready to meet him. +Clinton lingered for a time off Cape Fear and then sailed to Charleston +where he hoped to arouse the Loyalists of the coasts and the German +settlers of the interior. + +Defence of Charleston.--Edward Rutledge with six thousand militia +prepared to defend the city. Colonel Moultrie, with his forces back of +rude fortifications on Sullivan's Island, made ready to defend the +harbor. On June 28 the fleet attacked. Most of the British shot buried +themselves in the palmetto logs and banks of sand from behind which +Moultrie's men poured a fire which wrought havoc on the crowded decks. +An attempt to make a landing proved a failure and Charleston was saved. + + +THE LOYALISTS + +The people not united.--Up to 1774 the majority of Americans were not +united in opposition to British policy, but acts of violence and +retaliation, the meeting of Congress, and the organization of +revolutionary committees, brought about a rapid crystallization of +public opinion. Loyalty to Great Britain was the normal state. The Whigs +were the nullifiers and eventually the secessionists. That they were +able to perfect an organization and carry on a successful rebellion has +obscured the fact that they were in reality but an active minority. The +masses were indifferent or were loyal supporters of Great Britain. It is +impossible to estimate accurately the number of Loyalists; they varied +with localities and fluctuated with the fortunes of war. Some historians +estimate them as a third of the population, others as one-half. + +The Tory element in the colonies.--The great Loyalist stronghold was New +York. There the moderate Tories had controlled the situation for several +years. They had favored the assembling of the First Continental +Congress, but when that body adopted the Association, they opposed it. +After the battle of Lexington the Whigs grew in power and succeeded in +setting up a provincial congress. But several counties remained +Loyalist, and until the occupation of New York City by British troops a +state of civil war existed in the province. After that event the British +lines furnished a refuge for Tories from all the colonies. + +Next to New York Pennsylvania contained the largest Tory element. There +the Quakers, the proprietary interests, and a large German population +combined to oppose the Whig movement. In New Jersey, Maryland, and +Delaware, the Tory element was so numerous that only with the greatest +difficulty did the Whigs obtain the support of those colonies for +independence. In New England the Loyalists were not powerful. In +Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island they formed an +insignificant part of the population, but in the region which afterward +became the state of Vermont and in Connecticut they were numerous enough +to be a menace. + +In the South, Virginia was dominated by the Whigs. The impolitic acts of +Lord Dunmore had alienated all but a small element of the population. +The Scotch merchants of Norfolk and many planters had supported the +governor, but his reprisals on the coast, his proclamation offering +freedom to negroes and indented servants who would enlist, and the +burning of Norfolk destroyed the Tory power in the province. North +Carolina, which had recently been torn by the War of the Regulators was +probably about equally divided, and in South Carolina and Georgia the +farmers and cattlemen of the interior were usually Loyalists; but the +British naval demonstrations and the defeat of Tory bands did much to +win converts to the Whig cause in the three southern colonies. + +A classification of the Loyalists.--The Loyalists, or Tories as they +were called in derision, have been classified by Professor Van Tyne as +the office holders whose incomes depended upon the existing regime; +those whose friends were among the official class or who depended upon +that class for preferment; the majority of the Anglican clergy; the +conservative people of all classes, especially the wealthy merchants, +the aristocracy of culture, of dignified professions and callings, and +of hereditary wealth, and those who held office by virtue of wise +selection; the king worshipers, who were moved by theory of government +rather than by concrete facts; the legality Tories who believed that +parliament had a constitutional right to tax the colonies; the religious +Tories whose dictum was fear God and honor the king; and the factional +Tories who were influenced by family feuds and political animosities. + +The religious division.--The religious factor was one of the most +important causes of division. An Anglican bishopric for the colonies had +long been contemplated and the dissenting churches believed that the +ministry was about to urge its establishment. In New England where the +Congregational church was in the ascendency and in those sections where +the Presbyterians and Baptists were powerful, the establishment of an +episcopate was especially feared. Already the Anglican church numbered +three hundred parishes in America. Throughout the colonies it was the +church of the official class and in the South it was the church of the +aristocracy. The southern Episcopalians were divided on the paramount +political questions, but in New York the religious and political parties +coincided. New York politics for many years had been factional, the De +Lanceys who were Episcopalians being leaders in invariable opposition to +the Livingstons who were Presbyterians. Both in New York and Connecticut +those of the Episcopal faith were almost invariably Loyalists. + +The Tory argument.--The Tories believed in no taxation without +representation, but they differed with the Whigs in their interpretation +of the word representation. The Tories accepted the English meaning +which was based upon the idea that a man enjoyed representation not by +the fact that he had voted for a member of parliament but by his +belonging to one of the three great estates of the nation, each estate +being represented in parliament. They admitted that this was an +imperfect type of representation, but it was the ancient constitutional +type. They believed that the relationship of the colonies to the mother +country should be defined more clearly, but they did not believe that +the Whigs had a right to demand a fundamental change in the constitution +of the British Empire. + +Moses Coit Tyler has pointed out that the other Tory arguments were +based upon questions of expediency, (1) Was it expedient to reject the +taxing power of parliament? (2) Was separation from the empire +expedient? The Whigs argued that parliamentary taxes might become +confiscatory. The Tories replied that parliament recognized the +principle that all parts of the empire should be taxed equitably and +justly, and that a powerful minority, which counted among its members +Fox and Burke, were bent upon protecting the colonies. The Tories could +see no reason for separation. They pointed out that until the beginning +of 1776 the Whigs had consistently disavowed the idea of independence. +Why then this sudden change? The Tories believed that concessions were +about to be made which would make separation unnecessary and +undesirable. + +Persecution of the Loyalists.--After Lexington the Loyalists became +intolerable to the Whigs. They must show their allegiance to the +patriot cause or suffer the consequences. The favorite method of +persecution was tarring and feathering, but riding the Tory on the +liberty pole or ducking occurred frequently. Under the direction of the +revolutionary committees freedom of speech was suppressed and the +liberty of the press was destroyed. Any one who opposed the Association +was considered an enemy; he must agree or be persecuted. When the +Loyalists attempted to form counter associations, they were met with +stern methods of repression. Whig clergymen held conferences in Loyalist +communities to try to convert them, and obdurate places were visited by +armed bands. When the Tories attempted to arm, their leaders were +seized. + +Congress attempts to control the Loyalists.--The Loyalists were lacking +in organization, and when the governors were driven from the colonies, +they lost their natural leaders. When calls for aid came from the +deposed officials, many Tories formed bands and attempted to cooeperate +with the British forces. So serious was the situation that Congress, as +early as October, 1775, recommended to the revolutionary governments +that they arrest every person who might endanger the colonies or "the +liberties of America." On December 30 a congressional committee reported +that the Tories of Tryon County, New York, had collected arms and +munitions, and that several Loyalists had enlisted in British service. +Orders were issued to General Schuyler to seize the stores, disarm the +Tories, and apprehend their leaders. + +Congress extends the olive branch.--Congress hoped to win over a large +part of the Loyalists and on January 2, 1776, it passed a pacific +resolution which stated that as certain honest, well-meaning, but +uniformed people had been deceived by ministerial agents, it recommended +to the various committees and friends of American liberty to treat such +persons with kindness and attention, to view their errors as proceeding +from want of information, to explain to them the true nature of the +controversy, and to try to convince them of the justice of the American +cause. The colonial governments were instructed to frustrate the +machinations of enemies and restrain wicked practices. It was the +opinion of Congress that the more dangerous ones should be placed in +custody, and to accomplish this the local authorities were given the +right to call to their aid the continental troops. + +The Queen's County Tories.--Immediately afterward Congress learned that +the Tories of Queen's County, New York, were especially troublesome. +Congress accordingly decided that they should be put outside of the +protection of the United Colonies, that all trade and intercourse with +them should cease, and that none of them should be allowed to travel or +reside outside of that county without a certificate from the +revolutionary government of New York. Violators of this provision were +to be imprisoned for three months and lawyers were forbidden to try +causes for them. Troops were sent into the county. + +Disarming of the Loyalists.--A congressional committee which had under +consideration the defence of New York, on March 14 advised the disarming +of the Loyalists on Staten Island. Congress immediately ordered that +eight thousand men be sent to the defence of New York and recommendation +was made to all the colonies to disarm all persons "notoriously +disaffected to the cause of America," or who refused to associate to +defend, by arms, the United Colonies. The confiscated arms were to be +used in arming troops. + + +THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE + +The colonies advised to form temporary governments.--Up to the beginning +of 1776 the Whigs disavowed the purpose or desire for independence. But +in spite of the view of the conservatives, Congress had been forced to +assume the direction of the war and had been called upon to advise +several of the colonies regarding the course to be pursued in organizing +their governments. In answer to an inquiry from Massachusetts, Congress +replied that no obedience was due to the parliamentary act altering the +charter, and that the governor and lieutenant-governor were to be +considered absent and the offices vacant. As there was no council, the +provincial convention was advised to write letters to the inhabitants of +the places which were entitled to representation in the assembly, +requesting them to choose representatives; and when the assembly was +chosen, it was to elect councillors, "which assembly and council should +exercise the powers of Government, until a Governor, of his Majesty's +appointment, will consent to govern the colony according to its +charter." New Hampshire was advised to call a full and free +representation of the people who might establish such a form of +temporary government as would "produce the happiness of the people and +most effectually secure peace and good order in the province" during the +dispute with Great Britain. Similar advice was given to South Carolina +and Virginia. + +Paine's "Common Sense."--The attitude of the British government, the +events on the Canadian frontier and about Boston, and the burning of +Falmouth and Norfolk, fanned the flames of rebellion to a white heat. +When Tom Paine issued his pamphlet _Common Sense_, "the first open and +unqualified argument in championship of the doctrine of American +Independence," he found a receptive audience. The pamphlet held up to +scorn the idea of kingship, argued that the security and happiness of +the British people were due to their character and not to their +constitution, asserted that the British colonial system was based upon +English self-interest, and that only injuries and disadvantages would +result from continued allegiance to Great Britain. Reconciliation, Paine +argued, would result in the ruin of America, because England, ruled by +self-interest, would still be the governing power, because any +arrangement which might be obtained would be a temporary expedient, and +because nothing but independence would keep the peace of the American +continent. From every point of view, independence, he declared, was +necessary. "The period of debate is closed. Arms, as the last resort, +must decide the contest.... By referring the matter from argument to +arms, a new era for politics is struck; a new method of thinking hath +arisen. All plans, proposals, and so forth, prior to the nineteenth of +April ... are like the almanacs of last year." The pamphlet met with +immediate success. It was read throughout the colonies and convinced +thousands that independence was necessary. + +The independence movement in the three southern colonies.--Early in 1776 +three southern colonies took definite steps toward independence. In +February a small revolutionary group in Savannah instructed delegates to +agree to any measure for the general good which might be adopted by +Congress. In March South Carolina gave similar instructions, and on +April 12 the provincial congress of North Carolina instructed its +delegates to concur with representatives from other colonies in +declaring independence. In spite of the action of South Carolina, the +colony was probably unconvinced of the necessity of separation from +Great Britain until the Charleston hostilities. + +Congress advises the colonies to suppress the authority of Great +Britain.--On May 10 Congress recommended to the various assemblies and +conventions that where no sufficient government had been established, +such governments as would best conduce to the happiness and safety of +the people and of America in general should be established. Five days +later Congress adopted a preamble to this resolution which contained the +significant statement that the exercise of every kind of authority under +the British crown should be suppressed and all the powers of government +exerted under the authority of the people of the colonies. + +The German mercenaries.--On May 21 Congress received copies of the +treaties which Great Britain had made with the Duke of Brunswick, the +Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, and the Count of Anhalt-Zerbst, by which they +agreed to furnish about seventeen thousand troops to be used against the +rebellious colonies. These treaties were immediately published and were +a potent force in bringing some of the wavering colonies to instruct +their delegates for independence. + +Lee's Resolution.--In Virginia a convention was called to form a new +government, and on May 15 the Virginia delegates in Congress were +instructed to propose independence. Accordingly on June 7 Richard Henry +Lee moved in Congress "That these United Colonies are, and of right +ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from +all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection +between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally +dissolved. That it is expedient forthwith to take the most effectual +measures for forming foreign alliances. That a plan of confederation be +prepared and transmitted to the respective Colonies for their +consideration and approbation." + +The debate on the resolution.--A declaration of independence at that +time was opposed by James Wilson, Robert R. Livingston, John Dickinson, +Edward Rutledge, and others. They declared that they were friends of the +measure but thought that it should be postponed until the people +demanded it. The middle colonies, they thought, "were not yet ripe for +bidding adieu to British connection, but ... were fast ripening." They +argued that a declaration which was not unanimous would cause foreign +powers either to refuse to make alliances with the colonies or to insist +upon hard terms. It was believed that a successful termination of the +New York campaign would make alliances possible on excellent terms. + +John Adams, Lee, Wythe, and others argued for an immediate declaration. +They saw no reason for waiting for every colony to express itself. They +argued that a declaration of independence alone could bring about +desired alliances. Without it the colonies would never know whether or +not aid could be obtained from France or Spain. It was pointed out that +the New York campaign might not be successful and that an alliance ought +to be made while affairs bore a hopeful aspect. If an alliance were made +at once with France, she might assist in cutting off British supplies +and might divert enemy forces by an attack on the British West Indies. +It was also pointed out that an immediate alliance would assist the +people, who were in need of clothing and money. + +Committees appointed.--It was decided to get the consent of the colonies +before issuing the declaration, but a committee composed of Thomas +Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. +Livingston was appointed to prepare the document. Congress also decided +to appoint committees to formulate a plan of confederation and to draft +a form of treaties. + +New England takes formal action.--The New England colonies had favored +independence for some time. They now took formal action. In May Rhode +Island instructed its delegates to agree to any acts which would hold +the colonies together. In June Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New +Hampshire instructed their delegates to support Lee's resolution. + +The independence movement in the middle colonies.--The middle colonies +still stood out and Congress made great efforts to induce them to give +their support. After a hard struggle with Governor William Franklin, on +June 22 the provincial congress of New Jersey authorized its delegates +to agree to independence. Pennsylvania had been held back by the +Quakers, Germans, and proprietary interests. When the conservative +assembly refused to sanction independence, a vast crowd assembled in +Philadelphia and voiced its displeasure. The Loyalists were terrorized +and a patriot convention was formed which agreed to favor independence. +Delaware formed a new government but failed to instruct its delegates +regarding independence. In Maryland the provisional government induced +Governor Eden to leave the colony and a special convention called by the +council of safety gave the delegates the desired instructions. New York +failed to express itself in favor of the great measure. + +The Declaration of Independence.--On July 1 Lee's motion was debated in +Congress, John Adams speaking for an immediate declaration of +independence and Dickinson for delay. When the debate closed, nine +states voted in the affirmative. Pennsylvania and South Carolina opposed +immediate action; the Delaware vote was a tie, and the New York +delegates were excused from voting. The final vote was postponed until +the next day. The arrival of Rodney of Delaware gave the vote of that +state for the Declaration. Dickinson and Morris did not appear and the +other delegates from Pennsylvania voted in the affirmative. The South +Carolina delegates, influenced by news that a great British fleet was +off New York, took matters in their own hands and voted for +independence. New York alone stood out. + +The congressional committee had entrusted the preparation of the +Declaration to Thomas Jefferson. After it had undergone the fire of +criticism, on the evening of July 4 the document was approved by twelve +states. On the following day copies signed by President Hancock and +Secretary Thomson were sent to the various assemblies. The other +signatures were added later. Although the New York delegates had not +voted for the Declaration, on July 9 the New York provincial congress +approved it, completing the long chain of states which stretched along +the Atlantic seaboard from Nova Scotia to East Florida. + +Contents of the Declaration.--This immortal document begins by setting +forth certain "self-evident truths" concerning the rights of mankind and +the nature of government. Then follow in nearly thirty paragraphs a list +of charges against King George III, and a review of the efforts of the +colonies to obtain redress. The last paragraph declares, in the +resounding words of Lee's Resolution, "That these United Colonies are, +and of right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are +absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all +political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and +ought to be totally dissolved." A new nation had been born. + + +READINGS + +MILITARY EVENTS AND THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS + +Bolton, C.K., _The Private Soldier under Washington_; Channing, Edward, +_History of the United States_, III, 155-206; Fiske, John, _The American +Revolution_, I, 100-197; Greene, F.V., _The Revolutionary War_, 1-27; +_Journals of the Continental Congress_ (Worthington C. Ford, ed.), +II-VI; Lecky, W.E.H., _History of England in the Eighteenth Century_, +III, 461-500; Smith, J.H., _Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony_, I, +107-165; Trevelyan, G.O., _The American Revolution_, I, 254-390; Van +Tyne, C.H., _The American Revolution_, 24-49; Winsor, Justin, _Narrative +and Critical History_, VI, 1-274; Adams, C.F., _Studies Military and +Diplomatic_, 1775-1865, pp. 1-21. + +THE LOYALISTS + +Flick, A.C., _Loyalism in New York_ (Columbia University, _Studies in +History_, etc., XIV, No. 1.); Tyler, M.C., "The Party of the Loyalists +in the American Revolution," in _The American Historical Review_, I, +24-45; Van Tyne, C.H., _The Loyalists in the American Revolution_; +Wallace, S., _The United Empire Loyalists_. + +THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE + +Friedenwald, H., _The Declaration of Independence_; Hazelton, J.H., _The +Declaration of Independence_; Trevelyan, G.O., _The American +Revolution_, II, 133-171; Van Tyne, C.H., _The American Revolution_, +50-101; Becker, C.L., _The Eve of the Revolution_, 200-256. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV + +THE STRUGGLE FOR THE MUDDLE STATES (1776-1777) + + +THE CONTEST FOR NEW YORK + +Preparations to defend New York.--After the evacuation of Boston it was +realized that New York would be a probable point of attack and great +exertions were made to put it in a state of defence. Washington arrived +on April 13, 1776; his troops, delayed by bad roads, came straggling in, +and new levies began to arrive, the army being gradually augmented until +it numbered about twenty thousand men. But the effective fighting force +was several thousand less, for disease was ever present. Furthermore the +raw recruits were poorly trained and equipped, and there were not enough +artillerymen to man the batteries. The only cavalrymen who appeared were +a small force from Connecticut and these, for reasons best known to +himself, Washington did not retain in service. The defences were +strengthened by works at Paulus Hook on the Jersey shore, and others on +Governor's Island and at Red Hook on Long Island. Eleven redoubts were +erected on Manhattan Island along the battery and up to a point opposite +Hell Gate, and the hamlet of Brooklyn was fortified with seven redoubts. +Obstructions were placed in the Hudson and a second line of defence was +established at Forts Washington and Lee. Many historians point out that +New York should have been abandoned, for Washington's army was too small +to cope with the British, the Tories were certain to keep the enemy +informed of the movements, the defences were not powerful enough to +control the water approaches, and an active enemy could run by the +defenses and land troops in the rear of the American army. To make the +situation worse, the line of hills on Long Island, known as Brooklyn +Heights, commanded New York. To occupy them it was necessary to divide +the army, and in case of defeat, the defenders would be separated by a +difficult channel from the main army on Manhattan Island. As Trevelyan +observes, Washington "placed, and kept, his troops in a position where +they were certain to be defeated, and where, when defeated, they would +most probably be surrounded and destroyed." + +The British plan.--The British government hoped to annihilate the armies +and cut off New England from the other colonies. By occupying New York +and sending converging armies, one from the north, the other up the +Hudson, the government believed that it could accomplish its purpose. +Large reinforcements were sent to Quebec, and during July and August, +1776, British forces were concentrated on Staten Island and a great +fleet assembled. The first forces to arrive at New York were those under +General Howe which he brought from Halifax. Large reinforcements under +Admiral Lord Howe and forces under Clinton and Cornwallis augmented the +army until it numbered about thirty thousand men. + +An attempt at conciliation.--Lord Howe hoped that peace could be made, +and soon after his arrival, he addressed a letter to "George Washington, +Esquire," but the epistle, which failed to recognize the position of the +commander-in-chief, was returned. A personal envoy from Lord Howe also +met with a rebuff. The British admiral had prepared a circular letter to +several of the royal governors setting forth his authority as +commissioner and stating the conciliatory terms sanctioned by the +cabinet. These contained a mere promise of pardon to those who returned +to allegiance and assisted in the restoration of tranquillity. In fact +John Adams was marked out for a halter, but this was not divulged. The +letters fell into the hands of Congress which ordered that they be +published "that the good people of these United States may be informed +of what nature are the commissioners, and what the terms, with the +expectation of which, the insidious court of Britain has endeavoured to +amuse and disarm them...." + +Battle of Long Island.--General Howe finally decided to attack the +American position on Long Island. On the twenty-second and twenty-third +of August twenty thousand troops and forty cannon were disembarked at +Gravesend Bay, six or seven miles south of Brooklyn, but not until the +evening of the twenty-sixth did the British advance. Washington had been +misinformed as to the size of the landing force and had stationed only +nine thousand men on Long Island. These were under General Nathanael +Greene, but stricken by illness, he was forced to retire from the +command on August 23, and Sullivan who succeeded him was superseded by +Putnam on the twenty-fifth. Washington spent the twenty-sixth on the +island and superintended the disposition of the forces. + +The chief line of defence was the densely wooded Brooklyn Heights which +were crossed by several roads. One ran up from Gravesend near the coast; +four miles to the eastward two wagon roads from Flatbush penetrated the +heights; three miles farther east a highway ran from the village of +Jamaica. About five thousand men were sent to defend the Gravesend and +Flatbush roads but Jamaica Pass was neglected. The British frontal +attacks met with stubborn resistance from the forces of Stirling and +Sullivan, but their valor was useless for a large British force pushed +along the Jamaica road and got in the rear of the American positions. A +portion of the army succeeded in getting back to the Brooklyn +intrenchments, but Sullivan and Stirling with about eleven hundred men +were captured and several hundred were killed. + +The withdrawal from Brooklyn.--Howe, who remembered the disastrous +frontal attack at Bunker Hill, decided not to attack the Brooklyn +defences until supported by the fleet, which was held back by an adverse +wind. His caution saved the American army. Washington saw that Brooklyn +was untenable and he secretly planned to evacuate it. A brave show of +force was made by bringing over three regiments and by keeping up a +fusillade while water craft were being collected. Favored by a +subsidence of the storm and by a fog, during the night of the +twenty-ninth the entire army was successfully withdrawn. + +Harlem.--After the battle of Long Island the British commissioners made +overtures to Congress and a committee composed of Franklin, Edward +Rutledge, and John Adams went to Staten Island for a conference, but it +failed completely. There was nothing to do but to fight it out. That +Manhattan Island should have been abandoned immediately after the defeat +at Brooklyn Heights has been maintained by strategists, but Congress +hesitated to evacuate New York City and Washington does not appear to +have insisted upon a withdrawal. As Trevelyan observes, "It is equally +difficult to explain satisfactorily why Howe was so long about +landing..., and why Washington was so slow in evacuating the city." On +September 10 Hancock informed Washington that Congress did not desire to +have him hold the city longer than he thought proper. Washington +immediately acted. The removal of stores was hastened and most of the +troops were withdrawn to Harlem Heights about halfway up the island, but +Putnam was left in the city with some infantry and artillery, and five +brigades were posted at points along the eastern shore. Not until +September 13 did the British begin the movement for the occupation of +Manhattan Island. On that day and the next several war vessels moved up +into the East River and at eleven o'clock on the morning of the +fifteenth British forces landed at Kip's Bay. There the American troops +disgraced themselves by slight resistance followed by a confused flight. +Howe neglected to follow up his initial success; had he done so he could +have cut off the garrison of New York, but his procrastination allowed +Putnam's force to rejoin the main army. Not until four in the afternoon +did the British commence "a stately progress northward" and not until +the next morning did they attack the American position. This time +Washington's troops behaved well and the British were checked. + +White Plains.--For four weeks the British army remained in front of the +American position at Harlem. Howe finally decided upon his plan of +campaign; leaving a force to protect New York City, on October 12 he +moved his main army to the Westchester Peninsula with the object of +getting on the flank and rear of the American army, and cutting off its +supplies from the east; war ships were sent up the Hudson to cut off a +retreat into New Jersey. After his landing on the peninsula Howe's +movements were very slow and it was not until October 25 that he took up +a position a few miles south of White Plains, The dilatory movement had +given Washington the opportunity of moving his army to the mainland, and +when Howe finally arrived near White Plains, he found the American army +blocking his advance. + +The British commander had just been heavily reinforced and his +overwhelming army should have made short work of Washington's forces, +but again Howe failed to win a decisive victory. On October 28 he +ordered a general engagement and the first assault drove in the American +outposts. A mile to the west of the main position was Chatterton's Hill +which was held by fourteen hundred men. Against this hill Howe sent +eight regiments. Five which advanced for a frontal attack were checked +and the defenders only retired when outflanked by the other three. A +general engagement did not develop and on October 31 Washington retired +to a line of heights somewhat back of his former position. + +[Illustration: Northern New Jersey, New York and Its Environs during the +Revolution (Based on map in G.O. Trevelyan, _The American Revolution_, +Part II, Vol. I, at end).] + +The withdrawal from Quebec.--While Washington's army rested at White +Plains, heartening news came from the north; and especially good news it +was, for during the summer the reports from the Canadian border had been +filled with stories of defeat and distress. Congress had made great +efforts to reinforce the army before Quebec, but on May 1 when General +Thomas arrived to take command, he had found less than two thousand men +assembled and half of them were in the hospitals. Within a week the +first British reinforcements arrived and Carleton took the offensive. +Thomas was forced to fall back to Sorel and the Americans were driven +from their camp near Montreal. + +The army falls back to Crown Point.--On June 5 General John Sullivan +arrived at Sorel with three thousand troops. As Thomas had died of the +smallpox Sullivan took command. He determined to attack Three Rivers but +the surprise failed and his troops were routed. On June 14 an English +fleet carrying Carleton's army came up the river. Sullivan immediately +broke up his camp and retired to Crown Point, where for the time being +he was out of reach of the enemy, for Carleton's vessels were of too +deep draft to navigate the Sorel River. But disease proved to be more +dangerous than the British, for smallpox and dysentery carried off the +men by hundreds. + +Ticonderoga becomes the base.--General Philip Schuyler was in command of +the northern department with headquarters at Albany and General Horatio +Gates was now in charge at Crown Point. In July Gates withdrew most of +the depleted force to Ticonderoga. Large numbers of troops were sent +north so that by August the garrison numbered thirty-five hundred. +Arnold equipped a fleet of small vessels which he hoped would delay if +it would not check the British advance. + +Valcour Island.--During the summer Carleton's shipyard at St. Johns was +busy building the fleet which would give him control of Lake Champlain. +On October 4 Carleton advanced with an army of twelve thousand men. +Arnold started with his fleet manned by only five hundred men to harass +the advance. He ran into the narrow channel between Valcour Island and +the western shore and there on October 11 encountered the light advance +craft of the British fleet. For five hours he held his own. During the +night he withdrew his shattered boats to an island twelve miles to the +south where he attempted to repair the damage. On October 13 when the +fog lifted, it disclosed the British fleet. Arnold immediately sent off +his best vessels and with his crippled ships stayed to fight. One vessel +struck its colors but Arnold ran his flag ship and four gondolas into a +creek and burned them. He then hastened to Ticonderoga where he +displayed tremendous energy in strengthening the fortifications. The +spirited fight on the lake, the strength of the American position, and +the lateness of the season convinced Carleton that it was useless to +continue the operations. On November 3 he evacuated Crown Point and +began the withdrawal to Canada. Washington was thus relieved from the +danger of an enemy from the north. + +Tactical movements.--Before he was aware of Carleton's withdrawal, Howe +had determined to force Washington's army into the open. He sent a force +of Hessians to occupy the northern end of Manhattan Island and on +November 5 moved his main army to Dobb's Ferry on the Hudson, from which +vantage point he could strike at Fort Washington, advance toward Albany, +or threaten Philadelphia. Washington's position was endangered and the +situation was made doubly precarious by the fact that his army was being +depleted by desertions and by the termination of enlistments. To +counteract the British movement he sent one corps to Hackensac in New +Jersey, and Heath's division was stationed at Peekskill to protect the +Hudson. Charles Lee was left at White Plains with about seven thousand +men subject to future orders. + +Forts Washington and Lee.--The British moved next against Forts +Washington and Lee, which, garrisoned by about five thousand men, were +under the supervision of General Greene. They ought to have been +abandoned, but Washington unfortunately left the decision to his +subordinate who believed that they could be held. On November 16 +overwhelming forces advanced against Fort Washington which was obliged +to surrender. Cornwallis secretly sent six thousand troops across the +Hudson and on November 20 advanced against Fort Lee. He all but +surprised it and Greene, with the greatest difficulty, succeeded only in +saving the garrison. + + +THE NEW JERSEY CAMPAIGN + +Retreat to the Raritan.--The fall of the forts had added greatly to the +difficulty of the situation, for Washington's army was in danger of +being enveloped. To avert disaster he determined to retreat into New +Jersey. He accordingly crossed the Passaic and moved to Newark. The +forces under Lee were ordered to join the retreating army, but that vain +and conceited officer, who had visions of becoming commander-in-chief as +soon as Washington was eliminated, refused to obey orders. On November +28 Washington marched out of Newark and as his rear guard left the town +the advanced guard of the British entered it. The American army pushed +on to New Brunswick where it found a temporary haven behind the Raritan. +On December 1 Cornwallis's troops reached the river, but there he was +halted by an order from Howe not to advance until he arrived with +reinforcements. + +Expedition against Rhode Island.--A week later Howe came up with a +single brigade. Instead of concentrating his troops to crush the remnant +of Washington's army, the British commander decided to send two +divisions to conquer Rhode Island. They easily occupied the island but +it was a fruitless venture for "several thousand Royal troops were +thenceforward locked up in a sea-girt strip of land no larger than the +estate of many an English Lord-Lieutenant." + +Retreat across the Delaware.--Washington's army was constantly reduced +by desertion and sickness, and the New Jersey people failed to rally to +his assistance. It has been estimated that not a hundred men enlisted +during the retreat across the state. The people of New Jersey paid +dearly for their indifference, for during the winter they were +constantly subjected to indignities from the Hessians who were billeted +upon them. Among the atrocious acts was the pillaging of Princeton +College. Taking advantage of British inactivity, Washington prepared to +retire beyond the Delaware, from New Brunswick having ordered the +collection of boats for many miles along the river front. Covering his +retreat with fourteen hundred of his best troops under Stirling, the +army and stores were landed on the Pennsylvania shore. When the British +troops arrived on the eastern bank, they were forced to halt, for not a +boat was available and the short-sighted Howe had failed to provide his +army with pontoons. + +To the British commander the campaign was over and he prepared to go +into winter quarters, fancying that the rebellion was practically +crushed and that the spring campaign would be a mere parade. The Whig +use appeared to be lost and gloomy forebodings and grumblings of +discontent took the place of declamation and heroics. On December 10 +Congress resolved to defend Philadelphia but two days later it adjourned +and hied away to Baltimore. Washington's lack of authority had +frequently hampered his military operations, but this difficulty was now +removed, for before adjournment Congress resolved, that until otherwise +ordered, Washington was to have full power to direct operations. + +Washington's army reinforced.--The dispirited army which crossed the +Delaware was soon strongly reinforced. After many days of inaction, +General Lee had left his camp at White Plains with the intention, as he +grandiloquently put it, of reconquering New Jersey. After the retreat of +Carleton, Schuyler had sent seven battalions under Sullivan to assist +Washington, but Lee succeeded in getting control of four of them. On +December 13 he was captured at a tavern at Baskingridge. As soon as +Sullivan heard of it, he started the troops for the Delaware and on the +twentieth of December joined Washington. Four other battalions from +Schuyler's army arrived shortly afterward and General Mifflin brought in +a goodly body of Pennsylvania militia. Before Christmas the army +numbered eight thousand. + +Position of the Hessians.--To the east of the Delaware was a Hessian +division under Colonel Von Donop, Colonel Rail being stationed at +Trenton with three regiments. Rail had taken to measures to strengthen a +naturally weak position; highways converged to the north of the village +and artillery stationed at the junction could sweep the streets. +Scouting parties and spies informed Washington that Rail's troops were +scattered through the town and that the place was practically without +defences. + +Trenton.--Washington determined to strike. With the greatest secrecy he +perfected his plans. One body of troops under Cadwalader was to attack +Von Donop's position at Bordentown and Ewing with a thousand men was to +strike at troops stationed on Assumpink Creek, while Washington with +Greene and Sullivan in command of twenty-four hundred men and eighteen +cannon were to advance against Trenton from the north. During a furious +tempest on Christmas night Washington succeeded in crossing the +Delaware, but Ewing failed to get over and Cadwalader crossed too late +to cooeperate. At four in the morning Washington's troops began the weary +march toward Trenton. While the valiant army was toiling over the frozen +roads, the Hessians were sleeping off the effects of their Christmas +wassail. At 8:15 the American forces drove in the Hessian outposts. +Aroused from his bed Rail tried to make a stand, but the streets were +raked with round shot and the sharpshooters fired relentlessly into the +huddled Hessians, several hundred of whom fled across the Assumpink +Creek bridge and escaped to Bordentown. Rail tried to rally his men but +fell mortally wounded. When Sullivan cut off the retreat to the south +and Greene ordered up his reserves, resistance ended. Nine hundred +prisoners, a thousand muskets, six field pieces, and a large quantity of +stores fell into the hands of the successful commander. But not in terms +of men and guns should the battle of Trenton be judged. Its importance +lies in the fact that Washington had won a clean cut victory when the +Whig cause was tottering and by that victory had raised the drooping +spirits of a despairing nation. + +Movements of the armies.--When the news of Trenton reached New York, it +roused the British from their fancied security. Lord Cornwallis at the +head of eight thousand men proceeded by forced marches toward the west. +Washington had determined to hold a position east of the Delaware, and +on December 30 he again crossed the river and by January 2, 1777, had +assembled five thousand men and forty pieces of artillery just below +Trenton. As Cornwallis approached the American position, he realized the +costliness of a frontal attack, and decided that as soon as his forces +assembled he would attempt a flanking movement from Allentown. + +Princeton, January 3, 1777.--Washington saw the danger and decided on a +daring plan. On the night of January 2 all was activity in the American +camp. Sentinels challenged, infantry moved about in the light of the +camp fires, and the sound of pick and shovel was plainly audible to the +British. But in the darkness to the rear another kind of activity was in +progress. Cannon, stores, and baggage were being silently moved to +Bordentown and Burlington, and at one in the morning the bulk of the +army began a stealthy march which at daybreak brought them out within a +mile and a half of Princeton. Three of Cornwallis's regiments had +remained there during the night and were now under way. Suddenly the +first of these troops under Colonel Mawhood found themselves confronted +by the American advance guard. The British charged bravely, scoring an +initial success, but Washington's presence in front of his lines +steadied the troops and they soon forced a retreat. Sullivan then led +the advance against the two remaining regiments, which were driven +through and beyond Princeton, leaving three hundred prisoners in +Washington's hands. The roar of the guns brought the unwelcome tidings +to Cornwallis that the American army had escaped, had cut across his +rear, and had defeated three of his crack regiments. + +Morristown.--Five miles beyond Princeton Washington turned to the north +and soon established his army in a powerful position at Morristown where +they remained in security the rest of the winter. Howe made no attempt +to dislodge his opponent, but concentrated ten thousand troops in camps +at New Brunswick and Perth Amboy. The Jersey people had been cured of +their Toryism; supplies poured into the American camp, while the British +experienced the greatest difficulty in securing fuel and food, and by +March 1 were reduced to a ration of salt provisions and "ammunition +bread." When Washington reached Morristown he had about four thousand +men and during the winter his army did not increase, but he made the +most of the opportunity to drill his men and perfect his organization. +Throughout the country men were drilling for the spring campaign, powder +mills were being built, and lead mines were being opened. The greatest +shortage was in muskets, but fortunately these were obtained from +France. + +Middlebrook.--In May, 1777, everything was in readiness and Washington +led his army to a powerful position at Middlebrook, only a few miles +from the British camp at New Brunswick. On June 13 Howe transferred +large forces to the southern bank of the Raritan, but he failed to draw +Washington from his point of vantage and on the nineteenth he began the +withdrawal of his army to Staten Island, having had the satisfaction +only of a rear guard action with Stirling's division. + + +THE STRUGGLE WITH BURGOYNE + +British plans for 1777.--Howe's plan for the campaign of 1777 called for +fifteen thousand more troops. With this addition he believed that he +could crush Washington and conquer Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New +York. The subjugation of the southern colonies would then be attempted, +followed by operations in New England. But Lord Germaine thought +otherwise. Ignoring the general in the field, he planned to send a force +under St. Leger down the Mohawk Valley, a second army under Burgoyne to +penetrate New York by the Lake Champlain route, while Howe was to +proceed up the Hudson Valley. The three armies were to meet at Albany. +The plan looked good on paper, but it failed to take into account the +long distances to be traversed and the difficulties of transportation on +the frontier. When Germaine planned the campaign, he should have sent +precise orders to Howe, but this he failed to do, and on May 18 he even +wrote acquiescing in the proposed expedition against Philadelphia and +expressing the hope that the business might be concluded in season so +that Howe could cooeperate with Burgoyne. + +Ticonderoga and Ft. Independence.--On June 15, 1777, General Schuyler +learned that Burgoyne's army was in motion and that St. Leger was +concentrating forces on the upper Mohawk. The American army was in a +sorry plight for smallpox and dysentery were still the bane of the +northern department. Congress had done much to destroy efficiency by +temporarily removing Schuyler. At a time when all should have been +working in harmony, Gates was intriguing with members of Congress to +overthrow his superior. The advance part of the army was at Ticonderoga. +Across the narrow bay Fort Independence had been erected and a bridge +connected the fortifications, which were commanded by General St. Clair +who had only twenty-five hundred men to man works which demanded ten +thousand defenders. + +[Illustration: The Region of Burgoyne's Invasion (The large map is based +on E.G. Foster's _Historical Chart_; the inset is from Trevelyan, _The +American Revolution_, Part II, Vol. I).] + +Burgoyne captures the forts.--Late in June Burgoyne's flotilla carrying +about eight thousand soldiers reached Crown Point. His engineers soon +discovered the fundamental weaknesses of the American position. Mt. Hope +dominated the passage to Lake George and Sugar Hill towered above the +forts. On July 2 the former position was occupied by the British and on +July 5 St. Clair saw Sugar Hill bristling with cannon. He realized that +the forts were untenable and on the night of July 6 he loaded his +stores and light artillery on barges and sent them under convoy to +Skenesborough. The main body of troops under St. Clair attempted to +reach the same place by a circuitous route which led through +Hubbardtown. + +The disastrous retreat.--Burgoyne's vessels broke through the +impediments and pursued the American flotilla. They encountered it at +anchor in South Bay and short work they made of it. The Americans +destroyed the stores and buildings on the shore before they retreated. +General Fraser had been sent in pursuit of St. Clair's forces and at +Hubbardtown he fell in with the American rear guard and defeated it. St. +Clair succeeded in getting his troops to Ft. Edward where he joined +Schuyler. Only three thousand men barred the way to Albany. + +The withdrawal to Stillwater.--Schuyler sent out calls for help to New +England, to New York, and to Washington. While waiting for +reinforcements he destroyed the standing crops, drove off the stock, and +broke up the roads. Having despoiled the country, he abandoned Fort +Edward and withdrew to Stillwater on the west bank of the Hudson. It was +not long before reinforcements began pouring in. Although his army was +inferior to that of Howe, Washington sent on Morgan's riflemen and he +ordered Putnam to send two brigades. General Lincoln was sent to +organize the New England militia and Benedict Arnold was called from +Connecticut to help Schuyler. + +Bennington.--Burgoyne reached the head of Lake Champlain on July 10, but +from that point his progress was exceedingly slow, the twenty miles to +Ft. Edwards being traversed in as many days. Schuyler's work of +devastation had been complete and the British commissariat suffered +accordingly. To replenish his depleted stores, Burgoyne embarked upon a +rash enterprise. At Bermington large quantities of stores had been +collected and a Tory named Philip Skene suggested that they would be an +easy prize. Burgoyne followed Skene's advice and sent Colonel Baum with +five or six hundred troops to make the capture. Near Bennington John +Stark was in command of two brigades of New England troops and at +Manchester were the remnants of regiments which had retreated from +Hubbardtown. On August 15 Baum came in touch with Stark's forces, but he +hesitated to attack and proceeded to intrench. The New England troops +gradually encircled the position, and when they attacked on the +afternooon of the sixteenth, they killed, wounded, or captured nearly +the entire force. While the Americans were engaged in plundering the +camp, they were suddenly attacked by another force of six hundred under +Breymann, sent by Burgoyne at Baum's request. Things were going badly +for Stark's men when Seth Warner with forces from Manchester arrived. +After a sharp contest Breymann's troops were driven from the field with +a loss of a third of the rank and file. The day's fighting had deprived +the invaders of a considerable force which they could not afford to lose +in the face of an army which was increasing daily. + +Oriskany.--While Burgoyne was advancing, St. Leger was invading the +Mohawk Valley. On August 3 his army of British regulars, Hessians, +Canadians, Tories, and Indians invested Ft. Stanwix. Colonel Herkimer +gathered the Tryon County militia and went to the relief of the fort, +but at Oriskany, which was only six miles from the fort, he was +surprised. In the desperate battle the losses were higher in proportion +to men engaged than in any other battle of the war. Herkimer was killed +and so badly cut up were the militia that the expedition was unable to +proceed. + +Ft. Stanwix relieved.--Schuyler realized the danger of a flank attack +from the Mohawk Valley. St. Leger must be checked. Schuyler called for a +volunteer to lead a relief expedition. Arnold offered his services and +at the head of eight hundred men advanced up the valley. As he proceeded +his force was continually increased by recruits. As he approached Ft. +Stanwix, Arnold succeeded in creating the impression that his army was +of overwhelming numbers. The Senecas were the first to desert St. Leger +and the Tories soon made off to the woods. Abandoned by his allies, St. +Leger retreated, leaving behind stores, tents, and artillery. The battle +of Bennington and the retirement from the Mohawk Valley sealed the fate +of Burgoyne. + +Gates supersedes Schuyler.--By the middle of August Schuyler had the +satisfaction of being in command of a force which outnumbered Burgoyne's +army. But on August 19 Horatio Gates arrived at Albany with a commission +to take command. Gates was a man of little ability, but of an +unscrupulous, intriguing, and ambitious nature. He had spent many +months at the seat of government influencing members of Congress, a task +made easy by the fact that the New England delegates disliked Schuyler. +With victory already assured, Gates came forward to reap the honors. +Burgoyne was in a sorry plight. His line of communication was in danger +of being cut and his force had been reduced to about six thousand +effectives. In vain he looked for despatches from Howe, but though he +had sent ten messengers, an ominous silence was his only answer. Two +courses were open to him; an ignominious retreat or an advance that at +best was but a forlorn hope. Fortunately for the American cause he chose +the latter. + +First battle of Bemis's Heights, September 19.--On September 13 the +British army crossed the Hudson on a bridge of boats and encamped at +Saratoga. Six miles to the south was a table land called Bemis's Heights +which the Americans had fortified. Between the heights and the river +stretched a pasture five hundred yards in width. It was a position +easily defended provided Gates extended his left wing. This he failed to +do and Burgoyne, quick to see the opportunity for a turning movement, +disposed his forces in such a manner that while Philips in command of +the British left and Burgoyne in the center engaged the American army, +General Fraser on the right could encircle the heights. Arnold saw the +danger and besought Gates to let him attack the British right. Gates +finally consented and Arnold immediately flung his men against Fraser's +position. A confused fight occurred in the tangled underbrush, and +though Morgan's riflemen got out of hand, the effect of the attack was +to stop Fraser's advance. Having been reinforced, Arnold threw his +troops against the British center at Freeman's Farm. A very hot +engagement ensued and victory would probably have resulted had Gates +engaged Philips, but the American commander failed to attack and the +British left came to the assistance of the hard-pressed center. At +nightfall Arnold fell back a short distance, but he had saved the +American army and had inflicted such great injury that Burgoyne was +unable to continue the battle the next day. + +Clinton fails to cooeperate.--The British commander fortified his +position and there his army remained inactive for more than a +fortnight. The situation was daily becoming more critical, for Lincoln +had succeeded in cutting the line of communication with Canada. A +belated despatch had reached Burgoyne informing him of Howe's expedition +against Philadelphia. He also received information which led him to +believe that Clinton expected to clear the Hudson and come to his +relief. Early in October Clinton captured three forts on the lower +Hudson, but instead of following up his success, he returned to New York +and left the northern army to its fate. + +Second battle of Bemis's Heights.--The situation in the American camp +was far from harmonious. Gates had not mentioned Arnold's division in +his official report of the recent battle. This slight was followed by +studied insults and cowardly persecution. The protests of the regimental +officers caused Arnold to postpone his resignation, but Gates deprived +him of his command and elevated Lincoln. On October 7 Burgoyne again +prepared to attack the American lines. His initial assault was repulsed +and Fraser was mortally wounded. Soon after the fighting began Arnold +put himself at the head of his old troops and broke the British center. +The British right wing was also forced back, but Gates did nothing to +follow up the advantage. Arnold seized the opportunity and assaulted +Freeman's Farm. There he was repulsed but he turned his troops against a +redoubt on the right and carried it by assault. The redoubtable general, +however, was severely wounded, his thigh bone being shattered, but his +generalship had won the battle which broke the British army. + +Burgoyne's surrender.--The day after the battle Gates pushed forward his +left wing, a movement which threatened to pen Burgoyne between the +Hudson and a hostile army. The British commander should have sunk his +heavy guns in the river and beaten a hasty retreat, but instead he +attempted to save his stores and artillery. He fell back eight miles and +took a position on the north bank of Fishkill Creek near Saratoga. Gates +threw a force across the Hudson which prevented a crossing, troops were +posted on the flank of the British Camp and the main army was drawn up +on the south bank of Fishkill Creek. The British were trapped and +Burgoyne at last realized that the game was up. On October 13 he called +a council of war at which it was decided to negotiate terms. Gates +demanded an unconditional surrender, but Burgoyne refused and the next +day Gates, who appears neither to have been able to win a battle or to +make the most of a fortunate situation created by the bravery and skill +of another, agreed that Burgoyne should surrender with the honors of war +and that his army should be given free passage to Great Britain upon the +condition that they would not serve in North America during the war. +Congress, to its shame, did not carry out the agreement and the troops +were kept as prisoners in America. + + +THE CONTEST FOR PHILADELPHIA + +Howe moves on Philadelphia.--While the northern army was struggling with +Burgoyne, another great contest was taking place in Pennsylvania. +Germaine had not given Howe definite orders to cooeperate with Burgoyne +and, in fact, had approved the proposed expedition against Philadelphia. +After the retirement from before Middlebrook, Howe's movements were a +mystery to Washington. In July he learned that the British fleet was +being prepared for a voyage, but whether the enemy would sail up the +Hudson, or strike at Boston, Philadelphia, or Charleston, he could not +tell. To forestall an advance northward Washington moved his army toward +the New York highlands. On July 31 he heard that the British fleet had +appeared in Delaware Bay. Immediately the American army was started for +Philadelphia, but before the city was reached the astonishing news came +that the fleet had disappeared. Washington immediately went into camp +twenty miles north of Philadelphia to await developments. Two weeks +later the British fleet sailed into Chesapeake Bay and on August 25 the +army, which numbered seventeen thousand, began to disembark at the Head +of Elk at the northern end of the bay. + +Battle of the Brandywine.--As soon as Washington heard of the British +landing, he started his army southward. On August 24 eleven thousand men +paraded through the spacious streets of Philadelphia and on September 9 +the army was posted on the north bank of the Brandywine. The main road +to Philadelphia crossed the stream at Chad's Ford and here Wayne's +division was stationed. Below the ford the steep banks were defended by +a small force of militia. Above Wayne were Greene's well-drilled +brigades, and the right was held by Sullivan. On September 10 Howe +concentrated his army at the Kennet Square meeting house, where he +divided it into two columns. At four the next morning Cornwallis in +command of one column started for the upper fords of the Brandywine; by +making this wide detour it was hoped that he could get in the rear of +the American right wing. An hour later General von Knyphausen in command +of the other column advanced toward Chad's Ford. He drove a small group +of skirmishers across the stream, arranged his army as if for an +assault, and opened with his artillery. Washington spent the morning in +uncertainty, but at length Sullivan sent word that Cornwallis's troops +were getting in his rear. Washington immediately ordered him to throw +his entire force across the path of the enemy, but the movement was not +carried out with precision and soon the wings of Sullivan's force were +routed. Stirling, who held the center, made a gallant defence, but with +both flanks exposed, he was forced to retire. When Von Knyphausen heard +the firing, he advanced across Chad's Ford, and carried Wayne's +intrenchments. Washington had ordered Greene to go to Sullivan's +assistance. His men covered four miles in about forty minutes and then +came into action against Cornwallis's victorious troops. For an hour the +battle raged with great intensity, and as darkness set in, Greene drew +off his men. His stubborn fight had saved the army, which was brought +together at Chester. + +Paoli.--Washington moved his army thirty-five miles up the Schuylkill +and the British encamped south of the river near Valley Forge. To harass +the rear of Howe's army Washington sent Wayne's division across the +Schuylkill. At 1 A.M. on September 21 this force was surprised near the +Paoli Tavern. The British fell upon the American camp with sword and +bayonet, and before the grim work was over Wayne had lost more than +three hundred men. + +The British in Philadelphia.--On September 23 the British army crossed +the Schuylkill and began to advance toward Philadelphia. When the news +reached the city a Whig exodus began, probably a third of the population +taking their departure. Congress removed the prisoners, archives, and +most of the stores; upon Washington it conferred dictatorial powers +for sixty days in the vicinity, and then adjourned to Lancaster and +later to York. On September 25 Howe entered the capital. + +[Illustration: Morristown, New Jersey, to Head of Elk, Maryland (1777) +(Based on map in G.O. Trevelyan, _The American Revolution_, Part. III, +op. p. 492).] + +Germantown.--Within a week Washington was ready to try to retake the +city. The approach from the northwest lay through Germantown. In the +outskirts Howe had stationed a strong force of infantry. Near the center +of the village the fine brick mansion of Benjamin Chew, the Chief +Justice of Pennsylvania, formed the pivot of the second line of defence +which was commanded by Colonel Musgrave. A mile to the rear lay the bulk +of the British army. Washington planned to advance in four columns. +Armstrong with the Pennsylvania militia on the right was to get in the +rear of the British left. Sullivan commanded the next column to the east +and was followed by the reserve under Stirling. A third column was +commanded by Greene, and the Maryland and New Jersey militia, forming +the fourth column, were to strike the British right. Save for a few +shots fired by Armstrong's men, the militia failed to get into the +fighting. + +The dawn of October 4 broke in a dense fog, which destroyed the +possibility of cooeperation and led to much confusion. Sullivan's men +arrived first and soon drove the British from their advanced position. +Then followed an attack which centered at Chew's house where Musgrave +and his men had taken refuge. The sound of the firing attracted some of +Greene's men who joined in the attack. The brick walls proved too strong +for the American three-pounders, and most of the forces of Sullivan and +Greene passed on to attack the next line where five brigades of royal +troops were drawn up along a narrow lane. The American units became +separated, Greene having advanced a considerable distance ahead of +Sullivan's troops. Suddenly Sullivan's force broke and fled in an +unaccountable panic. This placed Greene in great jeopardy, for his flank +was exposed and British reinforcements were approaching, but he coolly +saved his men and guns. So heavy were the British losses that no serious +attempt was made to follow the retreating army which was able to get +away with all its artillery. + +Opening the Delaware.--Philadelphia was firmly held by the British but +the Delaware was still closed. At Billingsport a fort had been built +and an obstruction had been thrown across the river. Another obstruction +blocked the passage below Mud Island, on which stood Fort Mifflin and +opposite on the Jersey shore was Ft. Mercer. A flotilla of small craft +patrolled the Delaware. On October 4 part of Lord Howe's fleet anchored +in the river and two days later the obstruction at Billingsport was +removed. On October 22 Colonel von Donop attempted to capture Ft. Mercer +but he met with a bloody repulse. After this defeat the British +proceeded with more caution in the reduction of Ft. Mifflin. Shore +batteries were constructed which bombarded Mud Island for days. On +November 15 two battleships navigated the difficult channel and soon +battered the walls of the fort to pieces. At nightfall the garrison +abandoned the fortress. Four days later Ft. Mercer was evacuated when an +overwhelming force advanced against it, and on November 21 most of the +American vessels were set on fire by their crews. Communication with New +York was thus opened and Howe prepared to settle down in Philadelphia +for the winter. + +Valley Forge.--In marked contrast to the comfort of the British camp was +the condition of the American army. Washington had chosen Valley Forge +for his winter quarters and there a fortified camp was constructed and +rude cabins erected to house the men. The camp soon became a charnel +house, for Congress failed to supply the necessary food and clothing, +and sickness inevitably resulted. For days the men were without meat and +existed on dough baked in the embers. "Fire-cake" and water became the +ration for breakfast, dinner, and supper. Blankets were lacking and the +men were soon barefooted and in tatters. On Christmas day the winter +broke with great severity and soon the hospitals, which were mere hovels +unsupplied with beds, were crowded with the dying. + +The Conway Cabal.--The anguish of Washington was intensified by an +intrigue which threatened to deprive him of his command. This centered +about Gates and an Irish soldier of fortune named Conway who had been +sent over from France by Silas Deane. In November, 1777, Congress had +vested the management of military affairs in a Board of War. Gates was +made president of the board and Conway was appointed inspector general +of the army. They were supported by the New England delegates in +Congress and by those who opposed the Fabian policy of Washington. +Fortunately the intrigues of Conway and Gates to displace Washington +became known to the public and so great was the popularity of the +commander-in-chief that Congress dared not remove him. + + +READINGS + +Charming, Edward, _History of the United States_, III, 210-273; Fisher, +S. G., _The Struggle for American Independence_, I, 490-574, II, 1-174; +Fiske, John, _The American Revolution_, I, 198-344, II, 25-81, 110-115; +Greene, F. V., _The Revolutionary War_, 28-131; Hildreth, Richard, +_History of the United States of America_, III, 140-162, 186-237; Lecky, +W.E.H., _History of England in the Eighteenth Century_, IV, 1-41, 55-98; +Smith, J.H., _Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony_, I, 193-606, II; +Trevelyan, G.O., _The American Revolution_, II, 172-349, III, 1-147, IV, +111-319; Van Tyne, C.H., _The American Revolution_, 102-135, 157-174, +227-247; Winsor, Justin, _Narrative and Critical History_, VI, 275-447; +Adams, C.F., _Studies Military and Diplomatic_, 1775-1865, pp. 22-173. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI + +THE WAR AS AN INTERNATIONAL CONTEST + + +THE FRENCH ALLIANCE + +The French motives.--On February 6, 1778, France entered into an +alliance with the United States. That event changed the war from a +struggle between England and her former colonies to an international +contest in which Spain and Holland were soon engaged. The motives of +France in entering the contest have been variously ascribed to revenge +for the loss of her possessions and the desire to regain them, to the +intellectual movement in France, to the desire to build up French +commerce at the expense of England, and to the fear that Great Britain +would adjust the difficulties with the colonies and unite with them in +an attack upon the French West Indies. Professor Corwin, who has +recently examined the question, concludes that these explanations are +not adequate. He contends that the basic principle of French diplomacy +was the maintenance of leadership in Europe, and that in return for this +commanding position, France was willing to forego the extension of her +dominion. In the Seven Years' War French prestige had been destroyed; to +rebuild it was the object of her statesmen. + +The policy of Vergennes.--In 1774 Louis XVI became king. No better +intentioned ruler ever mounted a throne but his weak will and +vacillating course led to his undoing. For two years Turgot was the +reigning influence at the council board. He installed a system of +economy and reform, which, had it been adhered to, would probably have +saved France from the throes of her great revolution. Turgot's plans ran +counter to the policy of Vergennes, the foreign minister, who desired to +see his country take its place in the sun as the dictator of European +politics. The attainment of Vergennes's policy was based upon three main +ideas: the preservation of peace on the continent by a close alliance +with Austria; a renewal of the Family Compact with Spain; and the +humbling of England. The last was to be accomplished by the building up +of the French navy, by secretly aiding the colonies, and when the time +seemed auspicious, by entering into an alliance with them, an alliance +in which Vergennes hoped that Spain would join. To win over the latter +power and to overcome the aversion of Louis XVI to aiding rebellious +subjects were the immediate problems of Vergennes. + +Vergennes wins over the king.--A secret agent, Bonvouloir, was sent to +America to ascertain the condition of the colonies. His first report, +which reached Paris in March, 1776, gave a favorable statement of the +military situation. Vergennes immediately attempted to convince the king +that secret aid should be given the colonies. He argued that the +prolongation of the struggle would be advantageous to France and Spain +as it would weaken both contestants, and he pointed out that England +would probably attack the French West Indies as soon as the present war +was over. Aided by Beaumarchais, the author of _Le Mariage de Figaro_, +Vergennes countered the advice of Turgot and won over the king to his +plan. + +Deane and Beaumarchais.--The secret committee on foreign correspondence +of the Continental Congress in March, 1776, sent Silas Deane to Paris. +His presence became known to Lord Stormont, the British ambassador, who +demanded his deportation, but France refused and continually aided him +in securing supplies. The French government also loaned the colonies a +million livres and obtained a similar amount for them from Spain. When +news of the Declaration of Independence reached Paris, Vergennes urged +that France and Spain enter the war, but Washington's defeats around New +York held back both countries. France continued to aid the colonies, the +business being transacted by Beaumarchais through the fictitious house +of Hortalez et Cie. Beaumarchais also drew heavily upon his private +fortune to assist the colonies. + +Franklin.--The delay of France in making an open alliance caused +Congress to appoint a commission composed of Silas Deane, Arthur Lee, +and Benjamin Franklin Of all colonials Franklin was the best known in +Europe. As a scientist, philosopher, wit, and statesman, his name was +familiar to all classes in the French capital. His unpretentious dress, +unaffected manners, and simplicity of life made him seem to Parisians +the impersonation of the natural man of Rousseau's philosophy. On the +street, at the theater, in the salon, Franklin was the center of +interest. Artists made busts of him and jewelers exhibited his +countenance on medallions, watches, and snuff-boxes. Franklin soon +discovered that he could not hurry matters; he quietly bided his time, +never losing an opportunity to win supporters to the American cause. +Even the court became enthusiastic, and Marie Antoinette, with little +understanding or prophetic vision, applauded the republicans of America. + +The American proposals.--In January, 1777, the commissioners presented +their views to Vergennes. They proposed that France and Spain furnish +the United States eight ships of the line, twenty or thirty thousand +stand of arms, and a large quantity of cannon and ammunition. Congress +in return offered the two nations a commercial treaty and a guarantee of +their possessions in the West Indies. Vergennes was unable to comply but +he advanced two hundred and fifty thousand livres as the first +instalment of a secret loan of two millions. In February the +commissioners suggested that, if France and Spain became involved in war +because of a treaty with the United States, the states would not +conclude a separate peace. In March they proposed a triple alliance +between France, Spain, and the United States. The bait for Spain was the +conquest of Portugal, and the war was to continue until England was +expelled from North America and the West Indies. + +The attitude of Spain.--The American proposals included both France and +Spain, and in the latter country the commissioners met with a stumbling +block. Spain at first showed a friendly attitude. Through the firm of +Josef Gardoqui and Sons supplies were secretly furnished to the United +States, but when Arthur Lee attempted to go to Madrid, he was turned +back by the Spanish authorities, who preferred to work in secret. In +February, 1777, the Count de Florida Blanca became minister of foreign +affairs. To Florida Blanca Spain's interests must take precedence over +those of France in determining Spanish policy. Difficulties with +Portugal had been adjusted, and Florida Blanca could see no advantage in +an immediate war with Great Britain. He was willing to keep the contest +in America going until both parties were exhausted. Then Spain and +France might enter the war, Spain to get the Floridas and France to +obtain Canada. But as to the recognition of American independence, king +and minister were unalterably opposed. + +Lafayette.--Of no little importance in bringing France and the United +States together was the coming of the young nobleman Lafayette to +America. Fired by the Declaration of Independence, he determined to +enlist in the American cause. In April, 1777, Lafayette with the Baron +de Kalb and several other officers sailed for America. They reached +Philadelphia on July 27 but Congress gave them a chilly reception. +Nothing daunted, Lafayette proudly announced that he asked nothing but +the opportunity of serving as a volunteer. Congress was deeply impressed +by his unselfish attitude and promptly made him a Major-General. +Washington received him gladly, took him into his military family and +through the long war, with the exception of a period when he was +promoting American interests in France, he served as a trusted officer +of the commander-in-chief. + +The French alliance.--During the summer of 1777 the American question +was held in abeyance at Paris but Burgoyne's surrender stirred Vergennes +to action. He appears to have feared that Great Britain was about to +effect a reconciliation with the United States. To prevent it he +believed that France must openly espouse the American cause. One more +effort was made to draw Spain into the alliance, but the reply proved +unfavorable. On January 7, 1778, at a French royal council meeting the +final decision was made and on February 6 treaties of commerce and +alliance were signed. The latter agreement was described as a defensive +alliance to maintain effectually the liberty, sovereignty, and +independence of the United States, as well in matters of government as +in commerce. + +Lord North attempts conciliation.--When news of Burgoyne's surrender +reached London, hope of subduing the rebellion by force was temporarily +abandoned and Lord North was empowered to try his hand at conciliation. +On February 17, 1778, the Prime Minister presented his plan to the +Commons. He proposed (1) the repeal of the tea duty, (2) the passage of +an act removing apprehension regarding parliamentary taxation of the +colonies, (3) opening the port of Boston, (4) restoration of the +Massachusetts charter, (5) opening the fisheries, (6) restoration of +commerce, and (7) full pardon to those engaged in rebellion. (8) +Prisoners charged with treason were not to be brought over the sea for +trial, and (9) no bill for changing a colonial constitution was to be +introduced in parliament except at the request of the colony involved. +(10) Regulation of colonial courts was to follow colonial opinion, and +(11) officials were to be elected by popular vote subject, however, to +the approval of the king. (12) The royal treasury was to assist in the +withdrawal of colonial currency, and (13) a promise was given that the +question of colonial representation in parliament would be considered. + +The Carlisle Commission.--A royal commission was to visit America to +settle points in dispute. Headed by the Earl of Carlisle, the commission +proceeded to Philadelphia but it was soon discovered that nothing could +be accomplished. General Howe had been recalled and Clinton, who was +placed in command, was under orders to evacuate Philadelphia. The +alliance with France was already known in America and nothing short of a +recognition of independence would satisfy the Whig leaders. + +Change in British plans.--The French alliance brought about a complete +change in British plans. Henceforth garrisons were to be kept in New +York, Newport, Canada, and the Floridas, and hostilities on the mainland +were to be devoted to the destruction of coastwise trade and coast +towns, and to the harassing of the frontiers by Indian raids. Attacks in +force were to be made on the French possessions in the West Indies. + +Evacuation of Philadelphia and the battle of Monmouth.--In pursuance of +this plan in May, '78, the British prepared to evacuate Philadelphia. +General Howe returned to England and Clinton took command. Most of the +stores, some of the troops, and about three thousand Loyalists were +placed on transports, and the main army on June 18 started on its march +across New Jersey. Washington succeeded in getting in touch with the +British army ten days later at Monmouth. Clinton's forces were stretched +out to such an extent that it was difficult to bring them into action. +Washington sent Lee to attack, but after a slight demonstration, the +poltroon ordered a retreat. Lee's cowardice gave the British time to +form and a bloody battle followed which ended only with nightfall. In +the darkness the British army broke camp and when morning dawned it was +beyond the reach of Washington. + +The coming of D'Estaing.--On April 15 Admiral D'Estaing sailed from +Toulon in command of twelve ships of the line and five frigates which +carried four thousand infantry. The voyage was pursued in a leisurely +fashion which gave Lord Howe time to get his transports out of the +Delaware and concentrate the fleet at New York. It also made it possible +for a reinforcement under Commodore Byron to arrive in American waters. +Not until July 8 was D'Estaing's fleet within the Delaware capes. After +landing Gerard, the French minister, the admiral proceeded to New York. +Though the French fleet was superior to the British, D'Estaing failed to +attack. + +The failure at Newport.--Instead he entered into a plan with Washington +to take Newport which was garrisoned by five or six thousand British +troops. Sullivan, with about a thousand continental soldiers and several +thousand militia, was to cooeperate with the French fleet. The opening +was auspicious. The war vessels ran by the batteries and anchored in the +inner waters. The British commander to prevent capture destroyed several +frigates and small craft. On August 9 Sullivan moved nine thousand +troops to the island. The same day Howe's fleet appeared at the entrance +of Narragansett Bay and D'Estaing, carrying his infantry with him, +sailed out to meet the enemy. Before the fleets could engage a terrific +storm arose which scattered the vessels. Howe finally regained New York +and D'Estaing sailed to Boston for repairs, leaving Sullivan unsupported +and in a precarious position. When word came that Clinton was sending +large reinforcements, Sullivan abandoned the siege. + +D'Estaing in the West Indies.--D'Estaing lingered at Boston ten weeks +and then sailed for the West Indies. Before his arrival a French force +from Martinique had captured Dominica. The English retaliated by +capturing St. Lucia, and when D'Estaing attempted to relieve it, he was +replused. On June 18, 1779, the French occupied St. Vincent and on July +2 Grenada. On July 6 Byron attacked the French fleet off Grenada, but +D'Estaing had the better of the fighting although he failed to follow +up his victory. After attempting the relief of Savannah, the French +commander despatched part of his fleet to the West Indies and then +sailed for Europe. + +Stony Point and the evacuation of Newport.--After the Newport failure +Washington drew a cordon about New York and strengthened the line of the +Hudson. On May 31, 1779, Clinton seized the fortifications at Stony +Point and Verplanck's Point, but on July 16 General Wayne carried the +works at Stony Point. Clinton also sent raiding parties to the +Chesapeake and along the Connecticut coast, but in October he ordered +the evacuation of Newport and concentrated his forces at New York. + +The second French expedition.--Washington still hoped for effective help +from the French fleet in the West Indies, but his hopes were blasted +early in 1780 by the arrival in the islands of British naval +reinforcements under Admiral Rodney, who during April and May fought +three indecisive actions with the French fleet. Largely through the +influence of Lafayette France was induced to send a large force to +America in 1780. In July a fleet of seven vessels convoying six thousand +men commanded by Rochambeau arrived at Newport. The second division, +however, was blockaded at Brest and was unable to sail. Washington's +hopes mounted high but they were soon dashed again, for Clinton, who had +just returned to New York after the capture of Charleston, was able to +send a considerable armament to blockade the French at Newport, and +there they remained for months to come. + +Arnold's treason.--During the long contest Washington had often been +disappointed by the incompetence of his subordinates, but Nathanael +Greene and Benedict Arnold had seldom been found wanting. The former was +soon to win fame as the conqueror of the South; the other chose a path +which made his name despised. Arnold had not been justly treated by +Congress, although he had the absolute confidence of Washington. +Brooding over his wrongs and convinced that the country would welcome +the reestablishment of the king's authority, he determined to play the +part of a General Monk. While in command of Philadelphia, he entered +into a treasonable correspondence with Clinton. He then asked for the +command of the great fortress at West Point. This was readily given to +him and there he perfected his plans to deliver this key position of the +Hudson to the British. Clinton sent Major Andre to communicate with +Arnold, but upon his return on September 23, 1780, Andre was captured +and on his person were found papers which disclosed the plot. Andre was +condemned and hung as a spy, but Arnold made good his escape to the +British lines. + + +THE WAR IN THE WEST + +Competition for the support of the Indians.--The westward movement +across the mountains was almost simultaneous with the outbreak of the +Revolution, and the western settlements were soon drawn into the +current. The frontiersmen held back the Indian allies of the British, +and by settlement and conquest secured large areas of the back country. +At the opening of the war both British and Americans made great efforts +to secure the support of the Indians, but in the main the tribes favored +the British who did not encroach upon their lands and whose posts on the +frontiers were centers for the distribution of presents and for the work +of the traders. During the war British agents were kept at work among +the tribes, distributing presents and weapons, and often leading the +Indian raids. + +The Cherokee War.--In the summer of 1776 the Cherokee went on the +warpath. From their villages in the southern Alleghanies they were in a +position to raid the frontier settlements of Georgia, the Carolinas, +Virginia, and Tennessee. The Cherokee towns were in three groups. The +upper towns inhabited by the Overhill Cherokee were along the mountain +streams that ran into the Tennessee. The lower towns were in the +foothills of the back country of Georgia and South Carolina. In the +mountainous region between were the middle towns. During June and July +Cherokee war parties, at times assisted by Creeks and Tories, fell upon +the Georgia and Carolina frontiers and upon the Watauga settlements. The +Georgia invaders were met by Colonel Samuel Jack at the head of two +hundred rangers who drove them back and destroyed one or two of the +lower towns. In North Carolina the Indians came down the Catawba and +drove the settlers into the blockhouses. General Griffith Rutherford +raised the frontier levies and chased the Indians back to their +villages. In South Carolina the Cherokees from the lower and middle +towns, aided by Tories and led by the British agent, Cameron, descended +upon the settlements. Colonel Andrew Williamson collected eleven hundred +militia, defeated the invaders, and by the middle of August destroyed +the lower towns. In July seven hundred Overhill Cherokee raided the +Watauga settlements. One party under Chief Dragging Canoe attacked the +settlers about Eaton's Station, but the frontiersmen sallied forth and +defeated the Indians at Island Flats. For three weeks Fort Watauga was +invested by another band, but so stubborn was the defence conducted by +Robertson and Sevier that the Indians abandoned the siege. The +Carolinians and Virginians determined to carry the war into the enemy's +country. In September Rutherford and Williamson completely destroyed the +valley towns of the Cherokee; and in October Colonel William Christian +led the Virginia troops into the Overhill country, destroyed the +principal village, and brought the warriors to terms. + +Indian raids in the Northwest, 1776-1778.--In the Northwest the memory +of the Battle of the Kanawha kept the Indians quiet for a time while the +diplomats struggled for mastery. Colonel George Morgan was made +congressional agent at Fort Pitt, while Hamilton at Detroit was the most +active British agent on that frontier. In the fall of 1776 Hamilton sent +raiding parties along the border. During 1777 the frontiers of +Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Kentucky were kept in a state of terror. +Colonel Morgan urged an expedition against Detroit, and when his advice +was rejected, he resigned. Governor Patrick Henry sent Virginia militia +to relieve Kentucky and Congress sent General Hand to defend the upper +Ohio. Hand and his successor, McIntosh, had little success, for the +raids continued and by the end of 1778 Kentucky was nearly depopulated. + +Willing's raids.--In 1777 James Willing, a former resident of Natchez, +obtained permission from Congress to make an expedition down the +Mississippi to secure the neutrality of the Tories in the Southwest. +Descending the Ohio from Pittsburg, his expedition became a raid on the +Loyalist plantations along the Mississippi. Far from having the desired +effect, the raid drove the inhabitants into active resistance. In May +Willing led a second expedition down the Mississippi but he failed to +win over the inhabitants. The Chickasaw and Choctaw went over to the +British side. The Southwest had thus definitely taken its stand against +the United States. + +Clark conquers the Northwest.--To Virginia fell the task of conquering +the Northwest. The chief actor in the enterprise was George Rogers +Clark, who, though only twenty-six, had already played a prominent part +in Kentucky. With one hundred and seventy-five frontiersmen, mainly +Virginians, in June, 1778, Clark descended the Ohio to Fort Massac, +crossed Illinois, and in July took Kaskaskia, Prairie du Rocher, St. +Philippe, and Cahokia, and French sympathizers secured the submission of +Vincennes. Hamilton at once organized a force at Detroit to retake the +lost posts. In December he occupied Vincennes without difficulty, but +was unable to proceed farther. In February, 1779, after a difficult +march over flooded prairies, Clark captured Hamilton and his force. In +December, 1778 the Virginia legislature erected the territory north of +the Ohio into the county of Illinois, John Todd being made civil and +Clark military head. Clark planned the capture of Detroit, but was +unable to get the necessary aid. Instead, in 1780 he founded Fort +Jefferson on the Mississippi near the mouth of the Ohio and it soon +became the center of a settled area. + +Depredations of the Iroquois and Tories.--On the New York frontier +Burgoyne's invasion had aroused the Iroquois and even after his defeat +the Six Nations, except the Tuscaroras, Oneidas, and part of the +Mohawks, adhered to the British. Many Tory refugees settled among the +Indians and incited them to go on the warpath. In July, 1778, a force of +Tories and Iroquois, mainly Senecas, descended into the Wyoming Valley +and laid it waste, killing and capturing many of the inhabitants. +Continental troops presently reoccupied the valley and in October the +Indian town of Unadilla. The Indians and Tories retaliated by a descent +on Cherry Valley. The depredations continued in 1779. Troops sent out +from Ft. Stanwix destroyed the Onondaga villages. The Indians then +assailed the Schoharie Valley and the western settlements in Ulster +County, and spread destruction about Pittsburg. + +Expeditions sent into the Iroquois country.--So extensive were the +depredations that Congress decided to send an overwhelming force into +the Iroquois country. Three brigades from Washington's army were +assembled at Wyoming under Sullivan. While he was waiting for a New York +brigade to join him, Chief Brant and his warriors burned Minisink and +ambushed the militia who went in pursuit. Sullivan at the head of five +thousand men passed up the Chemung branch of the Susquehanna, defeated a +strong force of Indians and Tories on the site of modern Elmira, and +then burned eighteen Indian villages and destroyed the crops. Sullivan, +however, failed to attack Niagara which was a British stronghold. +Another expedition from Pittsburg ascended the Alleghany and destroyed +the Indian villages along the river. These operations scattered the +Indians and Tories but did not destroy them, and frequent depredations +occurred on the New York and Pennsylvania frontiers during the remainder +of the war. + + +SPAIN IN THE WAR[1] + +Spain enters the war.--When Spain became a factor in the war in 1779, a +new element entered the contest in the West. During 1778 Vergennes did +not relax his efforts to induce Spain to become a belligerent. But +Carlos III and Florida Blanca had no intention of risking a war with +Great Britain unless they were well paid for their assistance. Not until +they were certain that France would assist in the recovery of Gibraltar +and the Floridas did they consent to make war. On another point the king +was insistent; he refused to recognize the independence of the United +States. The secret convention of Aranjuez between France and Spain was +signed on April 12, 1779, and in June Spain definitely entered the war. + +Galvez on the lower Mississippi.--Orders were given at once to seize the +British posts on the Mississippi. With a hastily built fleet, Bernardo +de Galvez, the Governor of Louisiana, ascended the Mississippi at the +head of fifteen hundred men. On September 7 he took Fort Bute at +Manchac, and then proceeded to Baton Rouge which he captured, the +capitulation including Fort Panmure at Natchez. Meanwhile Grandpre had +taken two small British outposts and a fleet had captured eight British +vessels on Lake Pontchartrain. + +[1] See map on page 400. + +British attack on St. Louis.--As soon as war was declared, the British +planned to capture New Orleans. An expedition from the north was to +descend the Mississippi, attack St. Louis, reconquer the Illinois +country, and meet General Campbell at Natchez with a force from +Pensacola. The campaign against St. Louis was directed by Sinclair, +commander at Mackinac. Emmanuel Hesse, a trader, was sent to assemble a +force of Indians at the Fox-Wisconsin portage. In March, 1780, seven +hundred and fifty men left Mackinac and joined Hesse at Prairie du +Chien. To cooeperate Charles Langlade was sent with Indians via Chicago, +while Captain Bird, despatched from Detroit, was to raid Kentucky. None +of the plans succeeded. Leyba, the commander at St. Louis, was +forewarned and was aided by George Rogers Clark. On May 26 the British +attacked St. Louis but were repulsed and forced to withdraw. Bird's +expedition also miscarried, and Campbell's movement was frustrated by +Galvez. + +The Spanish expedition against St. Joseph.--Sinclair at once planned a +second expedition for the spring of 1781. Learning of the project, +Cruzat, the new commander at St. Louis, prepared a counter stroke. He +despatched parties up the Mississippi and to Peoria, and sent sixty-five +men under Puree to destroy the stores at St. Joseph. On February 12 the +post was taken in a surprise attack and the stores destroyed. + +Capture of Mobile and Pensacola.--Meanwhile more important events had +been taking place on the Gulf of Mexico. In February, 1780, Galvez +sailed from New Orleans with two thousand men to capture Fort Charlotte +at Mobile, and on March 14 the place capitulated. Going to Cuba for +reinforcements, after losing one fleet in a hurricane, in February, +1781, he sailed with fourteen hundred men to attack Pensacola. After a +siege of nearly two months, General Campbell with more than eight +hundred men surrendered. A simultaneous French and Spanish attack on +Jamaica was next planned, and Galvez sailed for Santo Domingo to command +the Spanish forces, but the campaign was made unnecessary by the ending +of the war. Spain had played an important part. She had defeated the +British attempt to gain control of the Mississippi, had enabled Clark +to maintain his hold on the Northwest, and had recovered Mobile and +Pensacola. + + +THE WAR ON THE SEA AND THE DUTCH ALLIANCE + +Washington's fleets.--From the beginning of the war American vessels +were an important factor. They captured supply ships and transports, +harassed commerce, captured many small war vessels, and protected +trading vessels. At the opening of hostilities Washington turned to New +England to supply him with vessels, and during the siege of Boston he +sent out ten armed craft which made several important captures of arms +and supplies. When operations were transferred to New York, he also +engaged several vessels which rendered good service. + +Congress provides a navy.--Largely through the influence of the Rhode +Island delegates, Congress was convinced that a navy should be provided, +and by January, 1776, ten vessels had been purchased and the building of +thirteen others authorized. Before the end of the war over forty vessels +were added to the high seas fleet in addition to minor craft on Lake +Champlain. + +First cruise of the fleet.--In February, 1776, Esek Hopkins, who had +been appointed commander-in-chief of the navy, put to sea with a fleet +of eight vessels. He cruised to the West Indies, captured New +Providence, and sailed away with eighty-eight cannon, fifteen mortars, +and a large quantity of stores. The fleet sailed to Long Island and off +the eastern end it captured two small vessels, but on April 6 it allowed +the _Glasgow_ to escape. + +Nature of the operations during 1776-1777.--By the end of 1776 the navy +had been increased to twenty-five vessels. During the year it was +constantly engaged in commerce destroying, and in capturing transports +and small war craft. The operations were confined mainly to American and +West Indian waters, although before the end of the year the _Reprisal_, +which carried Franklin to France, had captured several vessels in +European waters. During 1777 the congressional vessels, privateers, and +state cruisers captured four hundred and sixty-seven vessels, many being +taken near the British Isles. The depredations caused great alarm in +England and the West Indies; merchants were often deterred from +shipping goods, insurance rates and prices rose, and the demands for +escorts became insistent. + +Privateers.--The swift sailing craft of the Yankee skippers made ideal +blockade runners and commerce destroyers, and hundreds of them put to +sea. During the war Massachusetts commissioned nine hundred and +ninety-eight. While the greater number of these vessels put out from New +England, other states gave many commissions, Maryland alone +commissioning two hundred and fifty. It is estimated that during the war +the privateers captured or destroyed six hundred vessels with cargoes +valued at $18,000,000, besides making several important captures of +troops and supplies. + +State navies.--With the exception of New Jersey and Delaware, the states +had navies, the largest being those of Massachusetts, Connecticut, +Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina. At times these +operated independently, sometimes in conjunction with privateers, and at +other times as adjuncts of the regular navy. They were used chiefly to +protect the trade in home waters and for coast defence. + +The Penobscot expedition.--The most pretentious operation undertaken by +a state navy was the attempt to capture Penobscot in 1779. The British +had established a naval base near the mouth of the Penobscot River and +Massachusetts determined to break it up. Fifteen hundred men were loaded +on privateers and transports, and were convoyed by the _Warren_, the +_Diligent_, and the _Providence_. The expedition arrived off the +Penobscot late in July, but before it could take the fort, a larger +British fleet appeared (August 13). The privateers and transports +scattered, but the three war vessels were forced to run up the river +where their crews destroyed them. + +The navy during 1778-1779.--During 1778 the British navy succeeded in +greatly decreasing the depredations of American vessels. By the close of +the year the national navy was reduced to fourteen. But in 1779 the +fleet was somewhat rehabilitated by the securing of several French +vessels. + +The Bonhomme Richard and the Serapis.--In 1779 the most famous sea-fight +of the Revolution occurred. John Paul Jones was given command of an old +French East Indiaman which was refitted with forty-two guns and renamed +the _Bonhomme Richard_. In August the French frigate _Alliance_ and +three small vessels accompanied the _Bonhomme Richard_ on a cruise along +the west coast of Ireland, northern Scotland, and the eastern coast of +England, several prizes being taken. On September 23 off Flamborough +Head Jones sighted a large merchant fleet convoyed by the forty-four gun +frigate Serapis and the smaller _Countess of Scarborough_. The _Bonhomme +Richard_ engaged the _Serapis_ in one of the most thrilling of naval +battles. For three and a half hours the frigates fought at close range, +much of the time being lashed together. Although Jones's vessel was in a +sinking condition, he refused to surrender. When the English captain had +lost more than a third of his crew, he pulled down his flag. The +_Pallas_ captured the _Countess of Scarborough_. Jones placed his crew +on board the _Serapis_, and the squadron soon after arrived at the Dutch +port of Texel. + +Decline of the navy.--When Charleston surrendered in 1780, four ships +fell into British hands and only six vessels were left in the American +navy. At the same time parliament voted to increase the naval service. +The American coast was closely blockaded, and though cruisers +occasionally got through, the navy ceased to be an important factor in +the war. + +The league of armed neutrals.--As the war progressed England's exercise +of the right of search on the high seas provoked the neutral powers. At +that time international law recognized a belligerent's right to seize +enemy's goods, but not the vessel in which they were being carried. +England acted within the law, but her seizures worked great hardship +upon neutrals. Largely through the influence of Frederick the Great, who +had not forgiven England for abandoning him in the Seven Years' War, +Catherine II of Russia was induced to champion the cause of the neutral +states. On February 26, 1780, she addressed a message to the neutral +courts which asserted, (1) that neutral vessels should be allowed to +navigate freely even upon the coasts of powers at war; (2) that, with +the exception of contraband, goods belonging to the subjects of +belligerents should be free in neutral ships; (3) that naval stores and +provisions of neutrals should not be considered contraband; (4) that a +port must be effectively guarded to constitute a blockade; and (5) that +the above principles should be considered as rules in determining the +legality of prizes. Denmark and Sweden promptly entered into an +agreement with Russia mutually to protect their commerce, by force if +necessary, the arrangement being known as the League of Armed +Neutrality. The principles proclaimed by the Czarina were approved by +France and Spain. The Netherlands joined the league in November, 1780; +Prussia came in in May, 1781, and the Empire in October. Even Portugal, +the ancient ally of England, and Turkey became parties to the league. + +Attitude of the Netherlands.--At the opening of the American Revolution +there were two parties in The Netherlands; the English party headed by +the stadtholder, William V, and the Anti-Orange party which had strong +French leanings. The strength of the Anti-Orange party lay chiefly in +Holland and in the large cities, especially in Amsterdam where the great +merchants were powerful. The Dutch people watched the contest between +the United States and Great Britain with a filial interest, looking upon +it as a counterpart of their own struggle for independence, but policy +forced the government to remain neutral. + +St Eustatius.--The Dutch merchants saw an opportunity for immense +profits in supplying the United States with war materials. The Dutch +island of St. Eustatius in the West Indies became the center for a vast +trade in contraband goods. The island became a veritable storehouse for +the goods of all nations and here the American skippers brought tobacco +and indigo, or gave promissory notes or continental currency in exchange +for munitions of war. Great Britain complained of the trade and +succeeded in getting the States General to prohibit the export of arms +and munitions except by special permission from the Dutch admiralty, but +nevertheless the traffic went merrily on. When British war vessels began +to patrol the waters about the island and search vessels for contraband, +it aroused the ire of the Dutch merchants. + +The Scotch brigade and the Jones incident.--Two incidents added greatly +to the ill-feeling which was growing rapidly between the two countries. +The British government asked for the loan of the Scotch brigade, a body +of troops which had been in Dutch service for many years. The government +gave a suave answer. It was willing to loan the soldiers, but not for +service outside of Europe. As George III wanted the troops for American +service, the answer was practically a refusal. Another incident which +increased the irritation was the sojourn of John Paul Jones at Texel. +For over two months he remained on Dutch soil, while the government +quibbled over its rights to order his departure. + +British seizures.--During 1778 British seizures of Dutch vessels +increased and the demands of the merchants for convoys became more and +more insistent. France took advantage of the situation to bring The +Netherlands to her side. Special commercial privileges in France had +been granted to several of the Dutch cities. France now decided to force +the Dutch government to take a more decided stand toward England by +cutting off the special privileges to all the Dutch cities except +Amsterdam. This led to a demand for an immediate adjustment with France +and for convoys to protect Dutch vessels against British seizures. A +climax was reached on December 31, 1779, when an encounter occurred +between the convoys of a Dutch fleet and British war vessels. The result +was soon evident, for The Netherlands began to build a large fleet. + +The secret agreement.--The United States maintained secret agents in The +Netherlands throughout the war. For several years they made unsuccessful +attempts to obtain a loan, but the authorities of Amsterdam finally +communicated to C.W.F. Dumas, the United States representative, that +they desired to conclude a treaty provided Congress would not enter into +engagements with Great Britain which might prove harmful to Dutch +interests. Jean de Neufville, a prominent Amsterdam merchant, at the +suggestion of Van Berckel, the pensionary of Amsterdam, visited +Aix-la-Chapelle in 1778, where he met William Lee, an American +representative to Germany and Austria; together they formulated the +draft of a treaty which, however, was not to be considered until after +the recognition of American independence by Great Britain. The agreement +had no legal force, for Amsterdam could not enter into a treaty without +the consent of the other provinces. + +The declaration of war.--In 1780 Henry Laurens sailed for The Hague for +the purpose of negotiating a loan and making a treaty with The +Netherlands. On September 3 he was captured off Newfoundland. Among his +papers was a copy of the secret compact drawn by Neufville and Lee. The +British government demanded from the States General a disavowal of the +action of Amsterdam and the punishment of Van Berckel. The States +General finally disavowed the act but declared its incompetence to +punish Van Berckel. On November 20, in the midst of the controversy, the +States General decided to join the league of armed neutrals. When this +became known at London, the British minister was ordered home, and on +December 20 George III issued a manifesto which was a virtual +declaration of war. + + +READINGS + +THE FRENCH AND SPANISH ALLIANCES + +Corwin, E.S., _French Policy and the American Alliance of 1778_, pp. +1-216; Hale, E.E., _Franklin in France_; Lecky, W.E.H., _History of +England in the Eighteenth Century_, IV, 42-54, 99-129, 166-185; Perkins, +J.B., _France in the American Revolution_; Phillips, P.C., _The West in +the Diplomacy of the American Revolution_; Trescot, W.H., _Diplomacy of +the American Revolution_; Trevelyan, G.O., _The American Revolution_, +Part II, 387-476; Van Tyne, C.H., _The American Revolution_, 203-226; +Wharton, F., _The Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence of the United +States_, I. + +THE WEST IN THE REVOLUTION + +Alvord, C.W., "Virginia and the West," in _Mississippi Valley Historical +Review_, III, 19-38; Alvord, C.W., ed., _Kaskaskia Records, 1778-1700_, +Introduction; Gayarre, C, _History of Louisiana, the Spanish +Domination_, ch. 3; Hamilton, P.J., _Colonial Mobile_, ch. 31; Hamilton, +P.J., _The Colonization of the South_, ch. 23; James, J.A.,.ed., _George +Rogers Clark Papers, 1771-1781_, Introduction; Roosevelt, Theodore, _The +Winning of the West_, I, 272-327, II, 1-213; Teggart, F.J., "The Capture +of St. Joseph, Michigan, by the Spaniards in 1781," in _Missouri +Historical Review_, V, 214-228; Thwaites, R.G., and Kellogg, L.P., +editors, _Frontier Defense on the Upper Ohio, 1778_, Introduction and +maps; _The Revolution on the Upper Ohio, 1775-1777_, Introduction and +maps; Van Tyne, C.H., _The American Revolution_, 269-288; Winsor, +Justin, _The Westward Movement_, 101-187; Esarey, L., _A History of +Indiana_, I, 47-91; McElroy, R.M., _Kentucky in the Nation's History_, +62-113. + +THE NAVY, ARMED NEUTRALITY, AND DUTCH INTERVENTION + +Clowes, W.L., _The Royal Navy_, L.H., 353-538; Edler, F., _The Dutch +Republic and the American Revolution_ (Johns Hopkins University, +_Studies in History and Political Science_, XXIX, 187-424); Jameson, +J.F., "St. Eustatius in the American Revolution," in _The American +Historical Review_, VIII, 683-708; Maclay, E.S., _A History of American +Privateers_, 43-222; _A History of the United States Navy_, I, 34-151; +Paullin, C.O., _The Navy of the American Revolution_; Trevelyan, G.O., +_George the Third and Charles Fox_, II, 36-72; Van Loon, H.W., _The Fall +of the Dutch Republic_, 174-287; Van Tyne, C.H., _The American +Revolution_, 309-319. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII + +THE CLOSING YEARS OF THE REVOLUTION (1778-1781) + + +THE WAR IN THE SOUTH + +Conquest of Georgia.--When France became the ally of the United States, +British statesmen realized that the conquest of New England and the +middle states was impossible, but they still hoped to conquer the South. +From East Florida the British forces could strike at Georgia, and in +November, 1778, the operations began. Thirty-five hundred men were sent +south from New York, and General Prevost with two thousand soldiers +advanced from Florida. On December 29 British forces captured Savannah +and shortly afterward occupied Augusta. Within six weeks Georgia was +under British control. + +Reconquest fails.--General Lincoln, who had been placed in command in +the South, determined to reconquer Georgia. He sent Ashe with fifteen +hundred men to recapture Augusta, but the force was surprised and +defeated. When Lincoln moved against Augusta, Prevost advanced against +Charleston. The manoeuvre succeeded and Lincoln was forced to hasten +back to assist in the defence of the city. Prevost, his purpose +accomplished, slowly retired to Savannah. Numerous letters were sent to +the French admiral asking him to cooeperate against the British. In +September, 1779, D'Estaing sailed for Savannah; Lincoln advanced to +assist him, and the city was besieged. On October 9 an attempt was made +to carry the works by assault, but the allies were repulsed with a loss +of over eight hundred men. Lincoln wished to continue the siege but +D'Estaing refused. Despatching a portion of his fleet to the West +Indies, with the rest he sailed for France, and Lincoln withdrew to +Charleston. + +Capture of Charleston.--With Georgia secure, Clinton determined to make +another attempt to capture Charleston. He sailed from New York with over +eight thousand men, and twelve hundred were brought from Savannah. On +February 11, 1780, the troops from New York were landed thirty miles +south of Charleston and they soon advanced to the Ashley River. Lincoln +should have abandoned the city but instead he foolishly determined to +defend it. Gradually Clinton drew his lines about the city. On April 13 +Tarleton defeated the American cavalry which had kept the lines of +communication open, and when British reinforcements arrived from New +York the investment was completed. Soon the garrison and inhabitants +were almost starving. On May 6 Tarleton dispersed the mounted militia at +the crossing of the Santee River; on the following day Fort Moultrie +surrendered, and the situation became hopeless. On May 12 Lincoln signed +articles of capitulation; over five thousand men, nearly four hundred +pieces of artillery, and vast quantities of military stores fell into +British hands. + +Completion of the conquest of South Carolina.--After the fall of +Charleston, Clinton sent out three expeditions; one northward under +Tarleton against Buford's regiment which was advancing from Virginia, +another toward Augusta, and a third toward Camden. Buford started to +retreat but Tarleton overtook him at the Waxhaws and almost annihilated +his force. The other expeditions met with little resistance and Clinton, +believing that the conquest of South Carolina was complete, sailed for +New York with a portion of the army, leaving Cornwallis in command of +about eight thousand men. + +Gathering of a new army.--Several weeks before the fall of Charleston, +Washington had sent DeKalb southward with Maryland and Delaware +regiments and these were reinforced by militia as they advanced. South +of the Virginia line they passed through a barren country, shortage of +supplies and poor roads making their progress very slow. At the Deep +River they encamped and there they were joined by Gates who had been +appointed by Congress to the command of the southern department. Gates +pressed on toward Camden, receiving local reinforcements as he advanced. + +Camden.--A British force had collected at Camden and Cornwallis hastened +from Charleston to take command. Gates decided to attempt a surprise +attack on the British force at Camden, thirteen miles away. Cornwallis +contemplated a similar movement against Gates and the two armies left +their encampments about the same hour on the night of August 15. At +daybreak they met, but the militia proved to be no match for the British +soldiers and fled almost without firing a shot. The regulars stood firm +for a time, but when DeKalb fell mortally wounded and Tarleton's cavalry +swept along their flank and rear, the line gave way and the retreat +turned into a rout. Gates fled from the field and such was his haste +that three days later he was at Hillsborough, nearly two hundred miles +away. Shortly afterward Tarleton surprised and dispersed Sumter's band, +and resistance seemed completely broken. + +[Illustration: The War in the South (1778-1781) (Based on E.G. Foster, +_Illustrative Historical Chart_).] + +Partisan warfare.--British arms had defeated the American armies, but +the people of South Carolina were not conquered. The merciless raids of +Tarleton's cavalry and Ferguson's Loyalists kept the spirit of +resistance alive. Marion, Sumter, and Shelby gathered bands of patriots, +who from swamp and forest pounced down on isolated detachments, captured +the escorts of supply trains, intercepted messengers, and broke up +companies of Loyalists. Between July and December, 1780, twenty-seven +battles or skirmishes were fought on Carolina soil. + +King's Mountain.--Next to Tarleton, Major Ferguson was probably the most +hated and most feared of Cornwallis's officers. His camp at Ninety-Six +became a center of Loyalist recruiting, and his band of partisans grew +to a thousand strong. They lived on the country, and the property of no +man was safe. Ferguson boasted that if the frontiersmen from over the +Alleghanies troubled him, he would cross the mountains, lay waste their +valleys, and hang their leaders. On September 20, 1780, the borderers +under the leadership of Colonel William Campbell, Sevier, and Shelby +gathered at Sycamore Shoals on the Watauga River and started across the +mountains. Ferguson heard of their coming and decided to teach the +frontiersmen a lesson. He pitched his camp on the crest of King's +Mountain, a position which would have been impregnable had his opponents +been drilled in the tactics of European battlefields. But the Watauga +men had been schooled in Indian warfare. Three times they charged up the +steep mountain sides. After an hour of hot fighting the resistance began +to weaken, and when Ferguson was killed, his troops threw down their +arms and asked for quarter. The victory of the mountaineers is justly +looked upon as the turning point in the war in the South, for it gave +new fife to the waning cause in the Carolinas. + +Greene in command.--The difficult task of reconquering the South was +assigned to General Nathanael Greene. On December 2 he arrived at +Charlotte where Gates handed over to him a poorly disciplined and +half-starved force of about two thousand men. With this insignificant +army and aided by local militia and the partisan bands, Greene was +confronted with the task of reconquering a province which was occupied +by a skillful general whose veteran army outnumbered him four to one. +His plan of campaign was matured with rare judgment. He proposed to use +a mobile force of about two thousand men to keep Cornwallis busy, while +Marion and Sumter harassed the enemy, prevented foraging, and broke up +convoys. + +The Cowpens.--Early in January, 1781, the main British army was at +Winnsborough. Hoping to divide it, Greene sent Morgan with about a +thousand men to threaten Augusta and Ninety-Six. The rest of the +American army was stationed at Cheraw, sixty miles east of Winnsborough. +When Cornwallis heard of Morgan's raid, he sent Tarleton in pursuit with +eleven hundred men. Tarleton came in touch with Morgan at The Cowpens. +The battle at first was stoutly contested, but Colonel Washington's +cavalry turned the scale and Tarleton's force was almost annihilated. + +Greene's retreat.--Morgan had accomplished his purpose and immediately +started to rejoin the main army. When Greene heard of the victory, he +realized that Cornwallis would retaliate, and a pitched battle with the +larger British army meant disaster. Furthermore reinforcements were on +their way from Virginia and Maryland. Greene's decision was a vital one. +He determined to fall back to make a juncture with Morgan and to draw +Cornwallis away from his base into a hostile and difficult country. +Turning over the command of the main army to Huger with orders to march +northward with all speed, Greene rode nearly a hundred and fifty miles +in a pouring rain and joined Morgan in his bivouac on the Catawba. He +had judged Cornwallis rightly. The British general divested his army of +all unnecessary baggage and pressed forward, but in spite of his +efforts, the American army escaped him. From river to river Greene +retreated while Huger fell back rapidly, the two lines gradually +converging until on February 8 they united at Guilford. From there the +retreat was continued across the Dan into Virginia. The Fabian policy +had succeeded, for Cornwallis had been drawn over two hundred miles from +his base and had gotten in such a position that, even if he won a +battle, a victory would be barren. + +Guilford.--Cornwallis was running short of supplies and he could not +with safety continue the pursuit. He decided to fall back to +Hillsborough. Greene, whose army had been considerably reinforced, +decided to follow the retiring British. When Cornwallis learned that the +American army was advancing, he determined to risk a battle. On March +15 the armies met at Guilford. Greene posted his force of about +forty-five hundred men in three lines, while the British army was +stretched out in one long row without supporting reserves, a disposition +made necessary by the fact that it numbered only twenty-two hundred and +fifty men. When the British charged, the Carolina militia-men who +occupied the front fine gave way and fled from the field. The Virginia +militia who held the second line stood their ground more firmly, but +when their right flank was enveloped, they too retreated. The hard +fighting came when the British met the continental troops of the third +line. Twice the British regulars were repulsed, and had Greene followed +up the success, he might have won a victory. But he had no intention of +risking the destruction of his army. When the British advanced for a +final assault, Greene decided to fall back. Covering his retreat with +the first Virginia regiment, he retired from the field. He had lost the +battle, but the result was as valuable as a victory. + +Cornwallis retreats to Wilmington.--Cornwallis had lost nearly thirty +per cent, of his fighting force; he was almost without supplies, and his +foragers were being picked off by the Carolina guerrillas. His hospital +service was deplorable. Leaving seventy of his most sorely wounded men +to the tender mercies of General Greene, Cornwallis loaded the rest of +his wounded on carts, and started on the long journey to Wilmington, the +nearest base of supplies. + +The reconquest of South Carolina and Georgia.--Greene followed +Cornwallis only as far as the Deep River and then turned to reconquer +South Carolina. In this work he was ably assisted by Marion, Sumter, +Pickens, and Lee, who during April, May, and June captured several of +the outlying British posts, the most important being Augusta, which +evacuated on June 5. On April 25 Greene encountered Lord Rawdon's force +near Camden. The British won the battle, but again they possessed a +barren field, for so heavy were their losses that they retreated to +Charleston. Greene next invested Ninety-Six. When he heard that Rawdon +was marching to its relief, he attempted to carry it by storm. The +assault failed and Greene gave up the siege. Lord Rawdon was unable to +maintain his army away from his base. He accordingly ordered the +evacuation of Ninety-Six and returned to Charleston. Soon afterward he +sailed for England, leaving Stewart in command. The last important +engagement occurred on September 8 at Eutaw Springs. The American army +was again defeated, but Greene as usual gathered the fruits of victory, +for Stewart, who had lost forty per cent of his effectives, moved back +to Charleston. In a campaign of eleven months Greene had lost every +pitched battle, but the interior of the Carolinas and Georgia had been +cleared of the enemy, who retained only Savannah, Charleston, and +Wilmington. + + +THE YORKTOWN CAMPAIGN + +Arnold and Cornwallis in Virginia.--When Benedict Arnold joined the +British, he was rewarded with a brigadier-general's commission and sent +to Virginia to cut off Greene's retreat if Cornwallis succeeded in +driving that astute commander out of the Carolinas. Arnold marched up +the James River and burned Richmond, but when the Virginia militia +gathered in large numbers, he retreated to Portsmouth, where Lafayette, +who had been sent to command in Virginia, held him in check. In the +spring of 1781 Cornwallis transferred his forces to Petersburg, and +Arnold was sent to Connecticut to conduct a campaign of rapine. +Reinforcements were sent from New York and with an army of over seven +thousand men Cornwallis began the conquest of Virginia, but he received +no Loyalist support and he failed to crush the forces of Lafayette. +After several weeks of ineffectual campaigning, he retired to Yorktown +where he established himself behind strong fortifications. + +Rodney and De Grasse in the West Indies.--The safety of Cornwallis's +army depended upon the control of the sea. Since the beginning of the +war the British had kept the sea lanes open. Time and again the fleet +had enabled them to win victories or to extricate themselves from +dangerous positions. Washington realized this and the burden of his +letters to Franklin was the necessity of naval superiority. Vergennes +made every effort to equip an overwhelming fleet and in March, 1781, a +great armament under De Grasse sailed for the West Indies. And none too +soon did they arrive, for Rodney was carrying all before him. In January +he had been reinforced by eight ships of the line under Hood and on +February 3 the British fleet captured St. Eustatius. This was followed +by the seizure of St. Martin and Saba. On April 28 De Grasse arrived at +Martinique and on the following day he fought an indecisive action with +Hood. An attempt on St. Lucia failed but soon afterward he captured +Tobago. He then repaired to Martinique where he received despatches from +Washington which determined him to sail for the Chesapeake. + +Washington's plans.--When the news reached Washington that De Grasse had +left France, he conferred with Rochambeau. Together they drew up a +despatch to the French admiral in which they gave him his choice of +cooeperating with the land forces against New York or of sailing to the +Chesapeake. When De Grasse received the despatch, he determined to +strike at Cornwallis. On August 14 Washington received his reply and he +immediately formulated a masterly plan of action. He decided to move +Rochambeau's force and a portion of the continental army to Virginia, +leaving General Heath with several New England regiments at West Point. +Letters were written with the express intention that they should be +intercepted by the British. These and the sudden activity of American +engineers in constructing extensive works near Sandy Hook convinced +Clinton that he had better sit tight behind his defences. + +De Grasse and Graves.--On August 30 De Grasse arrived in the Chesapeake +and on September 5 a fleet of nineteen British vessels under Admiral +Graves appeared off Cape Henry. The fleets engaged and Graves's fleet +was so badly crippled that it was forced to return to New York. +Unmolested, a fleet of transports from Rhode Island carrying supplies +and siege guns, and convoyed by eight war vessels, sailed into the +Chesapeake. At the crucial moment the British had lost control of the +seas. + +The assembling of the army.--On August 20 the allied army began the +passage of the Hudson, but not until they were near Philadelphia were +the officers informed of their destination. At the Head of Elk +Washington learned that De Grasse had arrived and that he had brought +three thousand French infantry from the West Indies. After the allied +army reached Williamsburg, it was reinforced by the troops under +Lafayette, by the West Indian contingent, and by thirty-five hundred +Virginia militia. With an army of sixteen thousand men and the greatest +fleet that had ever assembled in American waters, Washington was in a +position to win an overwhelming victory. + +Yorktown.--The siege of Yorktown began on September 28. Earthworks were +thrown up within six hundred yards of the British lines and on October 9 +a terrific bombardment began. Five days later two outlying works were +carried by storm and at short range the allied artillery did fearful +execution. On the sixteenth a British counter-attack failed and on the +following day an attempt to escape across the river was frustrated. When +this failed the British commander knew that his fate was sealed. On +October 19 Cornwallis surrendered and seven thousand soldiers became +prisoners of war. + +The last struggle in the West Indies.--Yorktown was the last important +event on the mainland, but the fighting continued in the West Indies. On +January 11, 1782, De Grasse captured St. Christopher and on the +twentieth took Nevis. After receiving reinforcements, he planned the +conquest of Jamaica, but the arrival of twelve ships from England so +strengthened the British fleet that the project was not carried out. On +April 12 Rodney defeated De Grasse in a final engagement off Dominica, +an event which profoundly influenced the peace negotiations. + + +THE TREATY OF PEACE + +Western Questions.--The conquests of George Rogers Clark, the entrance +of Spain into the war, and the operations of Galvez turned the attention +of congressional leaders to peace terms. Would Spain be willing to grant +the United States free navigation of the Mississippi? How much territory +in the Southwest would Spain demand? Would France support Spanish +pretensions? Such were the questions which disturbed American statesmen. +To advance the interests of the United States, on October 4, 1779, +Congress appointed John Adams peace commissioner and John Jay +representative at Madrid. + +Adams and Vergennes.--Adams arrived at Paris in February, 1780. He +surprised Vergennes by disclosing powers to conclude treaties of peace +and commerce with Great Britain. The protests and arguments of the +French minister finally convinced Adams that he had better wait until he +received new instructions from Congress, but he offended Vergennes by +charging that France was purposely not exerting herself to the utmost. +Vergennes distrusted Adams, for he thought that he represented the New +England viewpoint which, Vergennes had been led to believe, was friendly +to Great Britain. He informed Adams that in the future he would deal +with Franklin. + +Congressional instructions of June 15, 1781.--La Luzerne, the French +representative at Philadelphia, made great efforts to have Adams curbed +and to prevent a premature negotiation with Great Britain. In this he +was assisted by the low state of affairs in the fall and winter of 1780. +Congress finally decided to place the negotiations in the hands of a +commission composed of Franklin, Jefferson, Jay, Adams, and Henry +Laurens. Jefferson did not leave the United States and Laurens, who was +captured by the British, did not arrive at Paris in time to take an +important part in the negotiations. The instructions of the +commissioners gave them considerable liberty of action, but they were to +undertake nothing without the knowledge of the French ministers and were +ultimately to be governed by their advice and opinion. + +Jay in Spain.--In the meantime Jay had been having a difficult time in +Spain. He was not officially received, and though granted occasional +interviews by Florida Blanca, he was unable to make any progress toward +the formulation of a treaty. When he was called to Paris in the summer +of 1782 to take part in the peace negotiations, he had no illusions +concerning the objects of Spain, objects which he seems to have believed +were seconded by France. + +The changed situation in 1782.--The commissioners were in a far stronger +position than their instructions of 1781 implied. Yorktown had proved +that American independence was assured, and Rodney's recent victory had +weakened France at a time when her apparent support of Spain was liable +to become troublesome. The situation in England had also changed. Lord +North had fallen from power and at the head of the new ministry was +Rockingham. Shelburne held the portfolio for the home and colonial +departments and Fox was secretary of state for foreign affairs. This +ministry held together from March until July, 1782, when Rockingham +died. Fox, who had been unable to agree with Shelburne regarding the +handling of American affairs, resigned, and Shelburne became Prime +Minister. + +Opening of negotiations with Great Britain.--On July 9, when Adams was +at The Hague and before Jay had arrived, Franklin opened the negotiation +with Oswald, the British agent, by presenting the basis of a treaty by +which Great Britain was asked to acknowledge the independence of the +United States, to settle boundaries and confine Canada within the bounds +which maintained before the passage of the Quebec Act, and to +acknowledge the right of Americans to fish on the Newfoundland banks and +elsewhere. + +Jay's suspicions of Vergennes.--The first hitch in the negotiations +occurred when it was found that Oswald was instructed to conclude a +peace or truce with the "colonies or plantations." On August 10 Jay and +Franklin conferred with Vergennes about Oswald's commission. Jay +contended that independence should be acknowledged by Great Britain +before a treaty was negotiated, but Vergennes thought that this was of +little consequence. When the question of conflicting Spanish and +American claims was brought up, Vergennes became reticent, but his +principal secretary, Rayneval, said that he thought the United States +claimed too much. On September 7 Rayneval presented a memorial which +proposed that the lands west of the mountains be divided into three +Indian territories; lands north of the Ohio to be under the protection +of Great Britain; south of the river the territory to be divided so that +Spain would control the southwestern portion and the United States the +northeastern part. On September 9 Jay learned that Rayneval had left +secretly for England. Jay became thoroughly alarmed, for he believed +that if the United States would not yield territory to Spain, Vergennes +was ready to force his views by negotiating with England. Whether or not +Jay was right in his suspicions has been a much argued question. No +matter what the ultimate answer may be, the views of Jay became the +determining factor in the course pursued by the American commissioners. +Without consulting Franklin, Jay prevailed upon Benjamin Vaughan to +visit Shelburne with the object of counteracting Rayneval's supposed +mission and to let Shelburne know that the American commissioners were +not to be bound by French views. A satisfactory commission was +immediately issued to Oswald and negotiations proceeded with +seriousness. + +Proposal of October 8, 1782.--In October the American commissioners +submitted proposals to Oswald. This preliminary draught provided that +the independence of the United States be recognized by Great Britain and +that the boundaries were to be as follows: "The said States are bounded +north by a line drawn from the northwest angle of Nova Scotia, along the +highlands which divide those rivers which empty themselves into the +river St. Lawrence, from those which fall into the Atlantic Ocean, to +the northernmost head of Connecticut River; thence down along the middle +of that river to the 45th degree of north latitude, and thence due west +in the latitude 45 degrees north from the equator, to the +northwesternmost side of the river St. Lawrence...; thence straight to +the south end of the Lake Nipissing, and thence straight to the source +of the river Mississippi; west by a line to be drawn along the middle of +the river Mississippi, from its source to where the said line shall +intersect the 31st degree of north latitude; south by a line to be drawn +due east from the termination of the line last mentioned, in the +latitude of 31 degrees north of the equator, to the middle of the river +Apalachicola or Catahouchi; thence along the middle thereof to its +junction with the Flint River; thence straight to the head of St. Mary's +River; thence down along the middle of St. Mary's River to the Atlantic +Ocean, and east by a line to be drawn along the middle of St. John's +River from its source to its mouth in the bay of Fundy...." The subjects +of Great Britain and the United States were to enjoy the use of the +fisheries, common commercial privileges, and the free navigation of the +Mississippi. No provision was made for compensation to Loyalists, or for +the collection by English merchants of debts in America. + +Proposals of November 5.--The preliminary proposal was unsatisfactory to +Shelburne. He accordingly sent Henry Strachey, an under official, to +assist Oswald in making other arrangements. About this time Adams also +arrived from The Hague. The negotiations proceeded without serious +complications and in November a second draught was ready. In several +important particulars it differed from the previous document. The Maine +boundary on the east was to be a line drawn through the middle of the +St. Croix River to its source, and thence directly north to the +highlands which divide the rivers of the Atlantic from those which empty +into the St. Lawrence; the line was to follow those highlands to the +northwesternmost head of the Connecticut River, thence down that river +to the forty-fifth parallel, and then straight west until it struck the +Mississippi. British creditors were to "meet with no lawful impediment +to recovering the full value or sterling amount of such _bona fide_ +debts as were contracted before the year 1775," but compensation to +Loyalists was studiously omitted. A secret article was added to the +effect, that if at the end of the war Great Britain should be, or should +be put, in possession of West Florida, the boundary separating that +province from the United States should be "a line drawn from the mouth +of the river Yazoo,... due east to the river Apalachicola, and thence +along the middle of that river to its junction with the Flint River, +etc." + +British proposal of November 25.--The failure to provide for the +Loyalists caused the English government to submit other propositions +which differed in two important particulars from the previous proposals. +The northern boundary was changed west of the point where the +Connecticut River crossed the forty-fifth parallel. From that point it +was to follow the present international boundary to the Lake of the +Woods, and from the northwestern point of that lake was to run due west +to the Mississippi. The southern boundary was to leave the Mississippi +at "the northernmost part of the 31st degree of north latitude," then +"to be drawn due east ... in the latitude of 31 degrees north of the +equator to the middle of the river Apalachicola," and from there it was +to follow the line of the proposal of October 8. Articles were also +inserted which provided that restitution should be made of all estates, +rights, and properties in America which had been confiscated during the +war, that no one was to suffer in life or person, or be deprived of +property on account of the part which he had taken in the war, that +imprisoned Loyalists were to be set at liberty and pending prosecutions +dropped. The right of Americans in the use of the fisheries were +somewhat abridged. + +Provisional articles of November 30.--The British proposals were +satisfactory to the American commissioners except those regarding the +Loyalists and the fisheries. After considerable discussion an agreement +was reached and provisional articles were signed. The people of the +United States were given unrestricted fishing privileges "on the Grand +Bank and on all the other banks of Newfoundland," in the Gulf of St. +Lawrence, and elsewhere, and the right of curing fish along the +unsettled bays, harbors, and creeks of Nova Scotia, and on the shores of +the Magdalen Islands and Labrador. The idea of indemnity for Loyalists +was not incorporated, the articles merely pledging that Congress would +make recommendations to the state legislatures that there should be no +more confiscations or prosecutions, and that claimants of confiscated +lands be allowed to use legal means of recovering them and might go at +liberty for one year without personal risk. The articles also provided +that the treaty should not be concluded until terms of peace had been +agreed upon between France and Great Britain. The action of the American +commissioners in arriving at an agreement without consulting the French +ministers was not pleasing to Vergennes, but Franklin adroitly pacified +him. It is probable that Vergennes did not have a deep feeling of +resentment, for he soon obtained a loan of six million livres for the +United States. + +Preliminary agreements between England, France, and Spain.--Preliminary +articles between England, France, and Spain were drawn in January, 1783. +Spain failed to obtain Gibraltar, but received Minorca and the Floridas. +France received no territory on the mainland of North America. French +fishermen were granted important rights in the Newfoundland fisheries, +and Great Britain gave to France Dunkirk, St. Lucia and Tobago, Senegal, +and Goree, and certain recent conquests, and guarantees of commercial +privileges in India. France restored to Great Britain Grenada, the +Grenadines, St. Vincent, Dominica, St. Christopher, Nevis, and +Montserrat, and territory on the Gambia River. + +Final agreements.--On September 3, 1783, all the definitive treaties +were signed, the treaty between the United States and Great Britain +being the same as the provisional articles of November 30. In the treaty +the boundaries of the United States were apparently defined with +exactness, but the statement of the Maine and northwestern boundaries +proved to be ambiguous and became the subject of future disputes with +Great Britain; the southern boundary agreement led to future +difficulties with Spain, as did the question of the navigation of the +Mississippi. The treaty was, however, a great triumph for American +diplomacy. The United States had emerged from the contest as an +independent power, with a vast domain stretching from the Mississippi to +the Atlantic, and from the Great Lakes to the Floridas. + +The dispersion of the Loyalists.--During the war many Loyalists had fled +to England, to Canada, to the West Indies, or to Florida. A still larger +number had taken refuge behind the British lines, or had joined the +British Army. After the treaty, as persecutions continued, the British +government arranged for the transportation of all who wished to leave +the United States, offered them homes in the other British colonies, +granted half pay to the officers after their regiments were reduced, and +appointed a commission to provide compensation for losses. Many +thousands of Loyalists left the country. Of these the more influential +went to England. About two hundred families went to the West Indies. The +larger number migrated to Canada, where, as "United Empire Loyalists," +they laid the foundation of British Canada. + + +READINGS + +THE WAR IN THE SOUTH AND THE YORKTOWN CAMPAIGN + +Fisher, S.G., _The Struggle for American Independence_, II, 228-535; +Greene, F.V., _The Revolutionary War_, 180-281; Lecky, W.E.H., _History +of England in the Eighteenth Century_, IV, 130-165, 199-220; McCrady, +Edward, _History of South Carolina in the Revolution_, 1780-1783; +Trevelyan, G.O., _George the Third and Charles Fox_, II, 94-172. + +THE TREATY OF PEACE + +Channing, Edward, _History of the United States_, LII, 346-373; Corwin, +E.S., _French Policy and the American Alliance_, 217-377; Fiske, John, +_The Critical Period_, 1-49; Lecky, W.E.H., _History of England in the +Eighteenth Century_, IV, 255-322; McLaughlin. A.C., _The Confederation +and the Constitution_, 3-34; Wharton, Francis, _The Revolutionary +Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States_, V-VI; Winsor, Justin, +_The Westward Movement_, 203-224. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII + +GOVERNMENTAL DEVELOPMENT DURING THE REVOLUTION + + +The Association a step toward sovereignty.--The First Continental +Congress was called to deliberate and determine upon measures to recover +rights and liberties of which the colonies had been deprived and to +restore harmony with Great Britain. Although the Congress was +consultative in nature, it completed the revolutionary organization and +made unity of action possible. The adoption of the Association was a +fundamental step toward sovereignty. It could only be interpreted to +mean that the colonies intended to enforce their will upon the mother +country. Furthermore, Congress provided means to enforce the Association +within colonies. While the petitions and addresses which were sent forth +were couched in respectful terms, the tone of the declaration and +resolves was distinctly revolutionary, and when considered in connection +with the Association, it becomes evident that the iron hand of a +sovereign power was even then visible through the mists of revolution. + + +THE SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS + +Nature of Congress.--The Second Continental Congress which convened at +Philadelphia on May 10, 1775, was a purely revolutionary body, a +"creature of emergency." In its inception it was in no sense a sovereign +body, but was rather a great central committee, representing the +revolutionary elements in the various colonies, which assumed the +supreme directing power until 1781. The colonies had displayed no +regularity in the method of selecting the delegates. The two New +Hampshire delegates were chosen by a convention of deputies who had been +appointed by various towns. The five delegates of Massachusetts were +chosen by the provincial congress. The Rhode Island assembly chose two +delegates, and the Connecticut house of representatives five. In New +York twelve delegates were selected by a provincial convention. The +five delegates from New Jersey were chosen by the assembly, as were the +nine from Pennsylvania and the three from Delaware. In Maryland a +meeting of deputies chose seven delegates, three or more of whom might +represent the colony. In Virginia a convention of delegates selected +seven. In North Carolina a convention chose three delegates who were +approved by the assembly, and in South Carolina the assembly appointed +five. Georgia at first was represented by a delegate from a single +parish. + +Original powers of the delegates.--The delegates were not empowered to +perform sovereign acts, but were considered as a central revolutionary +committee, which was to take such measures as would be best calculated +to recover and establish American rights and liberties, restore harmony +between Great Britain and her colonies, and advance the best interests +of the colonies. As the revolutionary movement spread and acts of +violence occurred, necessity forced Congress to perform many acts which +were not contemplated in the original instructions of the delegates; but +from first to last it was lacking in sovereign powers and was always the +creature of the states. + +Causes of the weakness of Congress.--The fundamental cause of the +weakness of Congress was its lack of legal powers. When executive acts +were necessary, the delegates were never certain that their joint action +would be upheld by the states. Congress had no power to enforce its +will, or to coerce an unruly state. Another source of weakness was the +constantly changing personnel of Congress, the numbers varying from +twenty-four to a hundred. Many of the strongest members were sent on +foreign missions, leaving important work to be done by men who had had +little experience in public affairs. Sectional jealousy frequently +interfered with concerted action; the small states feared the larger +ones; states holding no western lands were suspicious of those with such +possessions; and theological differences made it difficult for New +Englanders to work with delegates from the middle and southern states. +In 1777 when Vermont was asking to be admitted as a state, New England +and New York found their interests to be conflicting, as both claimed +jurisdiction over the Green Mountain country. Some of the members +stooped to petty acts for self-aggrandizement, breeding suspicion in +the minds of many. Congress was housed at Philadelphia in the state +house, which was poorly arranged for a body whose business was mainly +conducted by committees. Military necessity twice forced Congress to +hasten from the city, the first time in December, 1776, when it fled to +Baltimore, the second time after the battle of the Brandywine, when it +became an exile, first at Lancaster and later at York. + +Nature of the business of Congress.--Dr. Albion W. Small has classified +the business of Congress under the following heads: (1) To dispose of +sundry applications in behalf of individuals; (2) to consider requests +for advice and aid to individual colonies; (3) to act as the mouthpiece +of the patriotic party; (4) to serve as an organ of communication +between the collective colonies and other communities or individuals; +(5) to devise peace plans and measures for the general good; (6) to +devise offensive and defensive measures to be urged upon the individual +colonies; (7) to raise, organize, and regulate a continental army, and +assume general direction of military affairs. + +Organization of Congress and conduct of business.--When Peyton Randolph +found it necessary to leave Congress, the delegates chose John Hancock +president and Charles Thomson secretary, the latter serving until 1781. +Most of the work was carried on by committees. When a vote was taken in +Congress, the members did not cast their ballots as individuals, but +each state delegation cast a solid affirmative or negative vote. Usually +committees met in the morning from 7 to 10, Congress from 10 A.M. to 4 +or 5 P.M., and committees from 6 to 10 P.M. The president's duties were +manifold, for in addition to acting as presiding officer, he carried on +correspondence with the commander-in-chief, with state governors, and +with, local committees. + +Early acts of Congress.--In spite of the conservatives who at first were +in the majority and who desired to hold in check the revolutionary +forces, circumstances forced Congress to exercise executive authority +long before the Declaration of Independence. In June, 1775, Congress +ordered the raising and organizing of an army, authorized a loan for the +purchase of gunpowder, and issued $2,000,000 in bills of credit. In +September provision was made for the fitting out of a navy, and steps +were taken to open relations with foreign powers, to supervise the +frontiers, and to establish a post-office. In the chaos which resulted +from the overthrow of the chartered governments, several of the state +revolutionary bodies appealed to Congress for advice. In answer to the +Massachusetts appeal, Congress advised that, as no obedience was due to +parliament and as the crown officials were absent, the provincial +congress was to summon the representatives to an assembly which was to +choose a council, and together the two bodies were to govern until +difficulties were adjusted with the crown. Similar advice was given to +New Hampshire, South Carolina, and Virginia. The various colonies were +also advised to erect prize courts. In March, 1776, it advised the +colonies to disarm the Loyalists, and soon afterward authorized the +fitting out of privateers and opened the ports to all countries not +subject to Great Britain. In May it urged all colonies which had not yet +formed state governments to do so and declared that British authority +should be suppressed. On July 4, 1776, it adopted the Declaration of +Independence. + +Judicial functions.--With the increase of privateering, prize courts +became necessary, and in November, 1775, Congress advised the colonies +to erect courts in which cases of capture might be tried by jury and +appeals made to Congress. During 1776 the custom was followed of +appointing a congressional committee to hear each appeal, but in +January, 1777, a standing committee of five was appointed to hear all +appeals. The increasing business and the need of legally trained men +made it apparent that the committee system could not long handle the +prize cases, and in January, 1780, a permanent court of appeals was +established, which may be looked upon as a forerunner of the supreme +court. + +Military affairs.--When hostilities began, Congress acted on the theory +that the colonies were loyal to the king, but were opposing Gage's +ministerial army. Events soon forced it to take measures of defence, +committees being appointed in May, 1775, to consider how military stores +might be procured. On June 15 Washington was chosen commander-in-chief +and on the following day a committee was appointed to draw up his +commission and instructions. Congress also selected four major-generals, +eight brigadier-generals, a quartermaster-general and +commissary-general. Later a clothier-general was appointed. + +At first military affairs were handled by congressional committees, but +in January, 1776, a committee was appointed to consider the +establishment of a war office. Five months later Congress adopted the +committee's plan which provided for a Board of War and Ordnance to +consist of five members of Congress and a secretary. In 1777 this +congressional board was done away with and a new board, consisting of +persons who were not members of Congress, was created, Gates being +placed at its head. Congress also appointed an inspector-general, Thomas +Conway being the first incumbent, being followed by Steuben. The system +of supplying the army was found to be deficient and to rectify matters +the commissary department was reorganized in 1777 and again in 1778. +Congress continued to keep in touch with the army by sending special +committees to examine actual conditions. + +Naval affairs.--To handle maritime affairs a naval committee was +appointed whose "active life lasted from October, 1775, until January, +1776, during which time it laid the foundation of the navy." On December +14, 1775, a marine committee, composed of one member from each colony, +was chosen to take charge of the building and fitting out of vessels, +and this committee soon assumed direction of naval affairs. Agents to +superintend the work of construction were employed, and on the +recommendation of the committee, Congress appointed prize agents. In +November, 1776, a board of three naval experts was created to execute +business under the direction of the maritime committee and a similar +board was appointed in April, 1777, to handle affairs in New England +alone. The marine committee continued until October, 1779. By that time +it became evident that a more efficient system was needed and Congress +appointed a Board of Admiralty consisting of three commissioners and two +members of Congress. The board remained in charge of naval affairs until +the governmental reorganization of 1781. + +Foreign affairs.--To direct diplomacy was one of the difficult functions +of a Congress whose members were but little versed in the intricacies of +foreign courts. In the fall of 1775 a "secret committee on foreign +correspondence" was chosen. In March, 1776, Silas Deane was sent to +France, and in September of the same year a commission to handle +American interests in Europe, composed of Franklin, Jefferson, and +Deane, was appointed. Jefferson, however, remained in America and Arthur +Lee was substituted. To obtain financial aid had been the chief object +up to the Declaration of Independence, but after that Congress and its +agents directed their energies not only to the securing of funds, but to +obtain recognition by France and Spain, and to make military and +commercial alliances. In 1777 the secret committee was changed to the +"committee on foreign affairs," an organization which conducted the +foreign policy up to 1781. + + +FINANCIAL AFFAIRS + +Fiscal machinery.--The most difficult problem which Congress had to +solve was the raising of sufficient funds to carry on the Revolution. To +handle the public moneys and devise means for raising revenue, fiscal +machinery gradually came into existence. In 1775 two treasurers were +appointed to receive and disburse public funds. Soon a committee of +claims of thirteen members was appointed, and in February, 1776, a +standing committee of five known as the Treasury Board, which supervised +financial officials and attended to the emission of instruments of +credit. This board, under which was an auditor-general at the head of +the office of accounts, was the germ of the later treasury. In 1778 the +book-keeping system was remodeled and a comptroller, auditor, treasurer, +and two chambers of accounts were provided. In 1779 the old treasury +board was set aside and in its place a commission of five was appointed, +of which three were not congressional delegates. + +Bills of credit.--Congress had three principal means of raising money: +by issuance of bills of credit, by requisitions upon the states, and by +domestic and foreign loans. In addition there was a considerable income +from prizes and captures. The need of raising money drove Congress to +the doubtful expedient of issuing large quantities of paper money +unbacked by bullion or specie but based upon the credit of the states. +Between June, 1775, and November, 1779, Congress authorized the issuance +of $241,552,780 in denominations varying from one-sixth of a dollar to +sixty-five dollars. In addition the states issued over $200,000,000 in +paper money. Such large amounts of unbacked paper could lead to but one +result, a steadily increasing depreciation. At first the people took the +continental money with little protest, but as issue followed issue in +rapid succession, depreciation set in, and by January, 1779, the ratio +of currency to specie was eight to one, by June twenty to one, and by +the end of that year forty to one. In May, 1781, it ceased to pass as +currency. Financiers have found it difficult to estimate the specie +value of the various issues, but a careful economist has calculated that +it was worth between $37,000,000 and $41,000,000. + +Requisitions upon the states.--As military demands became more and more +insistent, Congress found it necessary to make requisitions upon the +states. The demands were met in a niggardly manner; between November, +1777, and February, 1781, the moneys received, figured in specie value, +amounted to only $2,737,000. In 1780 Congress was driven to demanding +specific supplies, such as corn, meat, and hay. + +Domestic loans.--With the exception of a small loan for the purchase of +gunpowder, Congress did not authorize a domestic loan until October, +1776, when it voted to borrow $5,000,000 at four per cent, and to +establish state loan offices. Subsequent loans were at six per cent. +After money from foreign loans began to come in in September, 1777, +interest on the domestic debt was paid, enabling Congress to borrow more +freely than before. From October, 1776, to September, 1777, only +$3,787,000 was obtained from the states, and during the rest of the war +$63,289,000 in paper was subscribed. + +Foreign loans.--Most of the foreign financial aid came from France. In +the years before France formally recognized the independence of the +American states, large sums were loaned to Congress. In May, 1776, +Vergennes secured a loan of a million livres from the French treasury +and also obtained a small loan from Spain. Through the fictitious +company of "Hortalez et Cie" in Paris organized by Beaumarchais, and the +Spanish firm of Josef Gardoqui and Sons, large quantities of clothing, +military stores, and considerable sums of money were placed at the +disposal of the revolutionary agents. During 1777-1780 Congress borrowed +from France $1,633,500. + + +STATE GOVERNMENTS DURING THE REVOLUTION + +Organization of state governments.--As resistance to British authority +intensified during 1775, the colonies took steps to organize for +resistance. The colonial governors were forced to leave and the +committees of safety assumed temporary executive functions. In most of +the colonies revolutionary conventions were called which took over the +legislative power until it became apparent that the difficulties with +Great Britain could not be settled. As it grew more and more evident +that the war was to be fought for independence, the conventions took +steps to organize state governments. Several of them asked advice +concerning such action from the Continental Congress, and that body +finally advised all the colonies to proceed on the assumption that they +no longer owed allegiance to the crown. The constitutional convention +introduced a new principle in the theory of the state. Up to this time +governmental authority had rested in England. Henceforth the powers of +sovereignty were to emanate from the will of the people, the +constitutional convention being the embodiment of the sovereign will. + +Type of state governments.--In the formation of governments the states +were guided by experience in colonial statecraft. The new constitutions +disclosed the influence of the struggle with Great Britain, the framers +seeking to protect the commonwealths from the possibility of +encroachment of the executive at the expense of the legislative +departments. The influence of the political philosophy which insisted +that the separation of the departments of government was the safeguard +of popular rights was also apparent in the new constitutions. Although +they displayed a marked divergence on minor points, in general a common +type of government prevailed. In most of the states the legislative +department was in two parts, a lower and an upper house; the lower, +usually elected for a year, represented the people at large, and the +upper, serving for longer periods, represented the wealthier classes. In +all but one state a property qualification was required for voters and +representatives, and in most cases the property qualification was higher +for members of the upper chamber. There was no uniformity in +designation, the lower chamber being variously called the house of +representatives, house of commons, or assembly; the upper house was +usually called the legislative council, but in Virginia it was known as +the senate, a designation afterward commonly adopted. The executive was +usually weak, being vested either in a governor with limited power or in +a small group. So well adapted to the needs of a state were the colonial +charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island, that they continued to use +their charters as constitutions for many years, merely substituting the +authority of the people for that of the king. + +Variations from type.--Several of the state constitutions contained +unusual features. In Pennsylvania the radical convention in 1776 framed +a constitution which provided for a legislature of one chamber and an +executive council which could not veto an act of the assembly. Every +seven years a council of censors was to be chosen by the voters to see +that the constitution had not been violated. By a two-thirds vote the +censors could summon a convention to amend the constitution. Georgia +also set up a unicameral legislature. The Virginia constitution of 1776 +contained a declaration of independence. It also provided that all bills +must originate in the lower house and that money bills could not be +amended by the senate. A privy council of eight members was chosen by a +joint ballot of both houses. This body and the two houses selected the +governor. The South Carolina constitution of 1778 provided for the +election of the upper house by the people and the governor was deprived +of the veto power. By the New York constitution of 1778, the governor +was elected by the people, but he had neither appointive nor veto power, +those functions being exercised respectively by a council of +appointments chosen from the senate by the assembly, and by a council of +revision composed of the governor, chancellor, and two or more judges of +the supreme court. Objections raised by the council of revision could be +defeated by a two-thirds vote of both houses. The first constitution of +Massachusetts provided for a legislature of two houses, the upper +chamber acting as a multiple executive. In 1780 a new constitution was +accepted by the people. This provided that the governor be given +military powers and the appointment of judges. He was to be advised by a +council of nine elected from the senate by both houses. + +Selection of the judiciary.--Divergences appeared in the methods of +selecting judges. In Connecticut and Rhode Island they were appointed +annually by the assemblies. In Georgia the chief justice was appointed +by the assembly, but the people elected the county judges annually; in +New Jersey, Delaware, and Pennsylvania the assemblies chose the judges +for seven years; in Massachusetts, New York, and Maryland the governor +and council appointed the judges who held office during good behavior; +in other states the legislatures appointed them for varying terms. + +The courts.--The states established superior tribunals which were +authorized to review and correct decisions of inferior courts. In +Georgia the county courts, when presided over by the chief-justice, +acted as a final court of appeal. In New Jersey the governor and council +constituted the highest appellate tribunal. In Virginia the constitution +provided for a court of appeals which passed upon the constitutionality +of laws and heard appeals. In Maryland and South Carolina the appellate +courts were composed of the presiding officers of the district courts. +In the other colonies the supreme court fulfilled the same function. The +colonial system of county courts to try the smaller civil cases, and +courts of session, composed of justices of the peace, for trial of petty +criminal cases were retained. + +English law the basis of American jurisprudence.--The English common-law +forms of writs and legal process were continued with all their +technicalities, a usage which has been one of the stumbling blocks in +the attempts to simplify legal methods in the United States. "Either by +the constitutions or by legislative enactments, English common law, and +all those English statutes hitherto recognized and acted upon in the +colonies respectively, were made the basis of state jurisprudence. The +force of law was also continued to all existing colonial statutes until +repealed or altered, except in South Carolina, where a particular +enumeration and reenactment was made of the colonial statutes intended +to be recognized." + +The revolutionary state of Vermont.--In the Green Mountain region a new +state was in the making. There New York claimed jurisdiction but her +authority had never been established and in April, 1775, the inhabitants +of the mountain country held a convention, eventually drew up a +constitution, and asked Congress to recognize Vermont as a state. New +York succeeded in defeating the movement in Congress, but the +Vermonters, nothing daunted, proceeded to organize their government. The +new revolutionary state soon became embroiled in disputes with New +Hampshire and Massachusetts. These and the continued opposition of New +York caused Congress to delay recognition, and Vermont was not formally +admitted to the union until 1791, but to all intents and purposes it was +a sovereign state from 1775. + +Attempts at Western State-Making.--In the course of the Revolution, +likewise, the settlements beyond the Alleghanies were trying experiments +in state-making. The Watauga Association in eastern Tennessee, the +Transylvania government in Kentucky, and the Nashborough, Association +are all examples. These western communities reverted to the compact +theory of government, and their experiences illustrate the democratic +tendencies of the frontier. As yet, however, the communities were too +weak to succeed in the midst of conflicting elements and each reverted +for a time to the subordinate position of a county of the older state. + + +THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION + +The confederation movement.--When danger from without threatened, a +union of the colonies as a device of safety had often been suggested, +but separatist tendencies had always proved too strong for the +federationists. Franklin had been a friend of the idea of union, in 1754 +having penned the Albany plan. In July, 1775, when it became apparent +that the colonies were facing a great war, he proposed a league of +friendship whose affairs should be conducted by a general congress in +which each colony should have representation according to its +population. Franklin's plan was not adopted, but it focused attention +upon the growing need of a confederation. The Continental Congress was a +revolutionary body which had no power save the sufferance of states +which were themselves revolutionary. Whether or not those states were to +retain sovereign powers depended entirely on the outcome of the +struggle. To insure a successful issue, it was believed that a more +perfect organ than the Continental Congress should be devised to conduct +the Revolution. + +Work of the confederation committee.--When Lee's independence resolution +was introduced in the Continental Congress on June 7, 1776, it was +accompanied by a motion to appoint a committee to draw up articles of +confederation. On June 12 a committee composed of one delegate from each +colony was chosen, among the members being John Dickinson, Samuel Adams, +Roger Sherman, and Edward Rutledge. On July 12 the committee reported a +plan of confederation, drawn mainly by Dickinson, which provided that +each state should have a single vote in a central congress, and that an +affirmative vote of nine states should be necessary to pass any measure. + +Adoption of the articles.--Stress of business, military events which +forced the hasty departure of Congress from Philadelphia on several +occasions, and divergence of views prevented speedy action. On two ideas +only was there agreement. The delegates were convinced that the English +imperial system was wrong in its theory of taxation; whatever the form +of the central government might be, it must not take from the states the +power of taxation. They were also agreed that the executive power of the +central government must be weak. The debates turned upon three main +questions, taxation, representation, and congressional power to settle +boundary disputes. Dickinson's plan proposed that taxation should be +apportioned among the states according to population; this aroused the +opposition of the Southerners, who objected to the slaves being counted +as population. Franklin objected to Dickinson's proposal of one vote per +state on the ground that it was an inequitable arrangement. In reply it +was argued that the confederation was a league of friendship to be +formed for a specific purpose and in consequence each state ought to +have equal power. In regard to congressional power to settle boundary +disputes, a difference arose between those states which possessed +western lands and those which did not. Not until November, 1777, did +Congress give the articles a favorable vote and on June 26, 1778, a form +of ratification was adopted. Delegates from the New England states, New +York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and South Carolina signed the articles on +July 9, North Carolina on July 21, Georgia on July 24, and New Jersey on +November 26, 1778; Delaware on May 5, 1779, and Maryland not until March +1, 1781. In consequence of the tardy action of Maryland, the +Continental Congress continued to conduct the war almost to its +conclusion. + +The more important provisions of the articles.--The preamble stated that +the delegates had agreed "to certain articles of Confederation and +perpetual union." Article I named the confederacy "The United States of +America." Article II said, "Each State retains its sovereignty, freedom +and independence, and every power, jurisdiction and right, which is not +by this confederation expressly delegated to the United States, in +Congress assembled." Article III stated the purpose of the entrance of +the states into a league of friendship as follows: "for their common +defence, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general +welfare." Article IV declared that the free inhabitants of each state +should be "entitled to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in +the several States" and provided for the extradition of criminals. It +also stated that, "Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these +States to the records, acts and judicial proceedings of the courts and +magistrates of every other State." + +Article V provided that delegates should "be annually appointed in such +manner as the legislature of each State shall direct," and that Congress +should convene annually on the first Monday in November. No state was to +be represented in Congress by less than two nor more than seven members, +and in determining questions, each state should have one vote. + +Article VI dealt mainly with prohibitions upon the states. Without the +consent of Congress, no state was to enter into treaties, confederation, +or alliance with foreign courts, nor was any state to lay imposts or +duties which might interfere with any stipulations in treaties entered +into between the United States and foreign powers. Such naval and +military forces were to be maintained by the states in time of peace as +Congress might deem necessary, and no state was to engage in war without +the consent of Congress unless actually invaded or in danger of Indian +attack. + +Article VIII provided that expenses incurred for common defence or for +the general welfare, when allowed by Congress, should be defrayed out of +a common treasury, to "be supplied by the several states, in proportion +to the value of all land within each state, granted to or surveyed for +any person, as such land and the buildings and improvements thereon +shall be estimated according to such mode as the United States in +Congress assembled, shall from time to time direct and appoint." + +Article IX dealt with the congressional powers. Congress was given the +exclusive power (1) of determining peace or war except in the cases +mentioned in Article VI, (2) of sending and receiving ambassadors, (3) +of entering into treaties and alliances, provided such agreements did +not interfere with the rights of the states to lay such imposts and +duties on foreign goods as they were subjected to by foreigners, or +prohibit exportation or importation, (4) of establishing rules for +deciding prize cases, (5) of granting letters of marque and reprisal in +time of peace, (6) of establishing admiralty courts, and (7) of settling +disputes between two or more states, an elaborate procedure in such +cases being prescribed. + +Congress was also given the exclusive power (8) of regulating the alloy +and value of coin struck by its authority or by that of a state, (9) of +fixing the standard of weights and measures, (10) of regulating affairs +with Indians not members of states provided state rights were not +infringed, (11) of establishing and regulating post offices and postage, +(12) of appointing military officers except regimental officers, (13) of +appointing naval officers, and (14) of making rules and regulations for +the army and navy. + +Other powers of Congress were (15) "to appoint a committee, to sit in +the recess of Congress, to be denominated 'a Committee of the States,' +and to consist of one delegate from each State; and to appoint such +other committees and civil officers as may be necessary for managing the +general affairs of the United States under direction..., (16) to +ascertain the necessary sums of money to be raised for the service of +the United States, and to appropriate and apply the same for defraying +the public expenses, (17) to borrow money or emit bills on the credit of +the United States, (18) to build and equip a navy, and (19) "to agree +upon the number of land forces, and to make requisition from each state +for its quota, in proportion to the number of white inhabitants in each +state." With the exception of a vote upon adjournment, all measures +required the assent of nine states. No period of adjournment was to be +longer than six months. + +Article X provided that the committee of the states should be authorized +to execute the delegated powers of Congress during recesses. Article XII +stated that bills of credit, loans, and debts should be considered as a +charge against the United States and for whose payment the United States +and the public faith were pledged. Article XIII provided that every +state should abide by the acts of Congress, that the union should be +perpetual, and that no alteration should be made in the articles by +Congress unless afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every state. + +Fundamental weaknesses of the articles.--Admirable as this document was +in many respects, it contained weaknesses which were certain to make the +union temporary rather than perpetual. It failed to give the central +government sufficient power. The articles were distinctly the instrument +of a confederation of sovereign states, and not the constitution of a +federal state. Congress was not given the power to raise money or to +regulate commerce. It could not compel the states to pay the national +debts, to live up to treaties, or to raise armies. The articles provided +for no distinct executive department, but this was remedied in part by +congressional acts. With the exception of the fourth, fifth, and seventh +provisions of Article IX, judicial matters were left to the states. The +required vote of nine state to pass measures necessarily hindered the +passage of needed regulations. The requirement that every state +legislature must give its consent before an amendment could be passed +made it well-nigh impossible to change the instrument. + + +GOVERNMENTAL REORGANIZATION + +Organization of executive departments.--The failure of the congressional +committee system to perform executive functions had grown more apparent +as the war progressed, and in the closing days of the Second Continental +Congress measures were taken to concentrate the executive departmental +work under individual heads. During January and February, 1781, the +Continental Congress created four new offices: superintendent of +finance, secretary at war, secretary of marine, and secretary of foreign +affairs, a foreshadowing of the later cabinet. The policy thus +inaugurated was continued under the new Congress which held its first +sitting on March 2, 1781. + +The work of Robert Morris.--The failure of the bills of credit, the +insufficiency of state support, and the weakness of foreign credit had +made it evident that the financial system must be reorganized; +accordingly the treasury commission was abolished and finances were +placed in the hands of Robert Morris, a successful merchant of +Philadelphia who had rendered valuable assistance as a member of the +Pennsylvania assembly and of Congress. Morris realized that retrenchment +and economy must be his watchwords. In the words of Dewey, he endeavored +"to collect the requisitions from the States, to create a national +revenue and impost, and place the revenue on a specie basis...." He also +sought to establish foreign credit and to found a United States bank. At +every turn he was handicapped by local prejudice, petty bickerings over +taxation, and the lack of power of the central government. + +Foreign loans and requisitions upon states.--The adoption of the +Articles of Confederation immediately strengthened foreign credit, for +during 1781-1783 loans of $4,719,000 were obtained from France, $174,017 +from Spain, and $1,304,000 from the bankers of Holland. The loans from +Spain and Holland, however, probably would not have been obtained had it +not been for the entry of those powers into the war. Requisitions upon +states during the same period yielded $3,058,000 in specie value, but +the proposals of Morris to institute a land tax, poll tax, excise, and +tariff came to naught. + +The Bank of North America.--In 1780 Congress had tried to establish a +financial institution called the Bank of Pennsylvania, but it had been +of little service. Morris planned a sounder institution to be known as +the Bank of North America with a capitalization of not over $10,000,000. +Only $70,000 was raised by private subscription and the government set +aside $200,000 in specie which had recently arrived from France. From +this bank during 1782-1783 the government borrowed on short term loans +$1,272,842. As Congress repaid the bank before other creditors, a small +working balance was maintained on which the government could draw for +immediate needs. + +War and navy departments.--Owing to factional quarrels, it was not until +January, 1782, that General Benjamin Lincoln was made secretary at war. +No one was appointed for the department of marine, and the work was +turned over to the already overburdened superintendent of finance. The +office of agent of marine was created, and this Morris held from +September, 1781, until November, 1784. + +Department of foreign affairs.--The first secretary of foreign affairs +was Robert R. Livingston of New York, a former member of the committee +which formulated the Declaration of Independence and famous later as +minister to France at the time of the Louisiana purchase. He held office +from August, 1781, to June, 1783, being succeeded in 1784 by John Jay. +The department as conducted under Livingston consisted of the secretary, +two assistant secretaries, and a clerk. + +Conclusion.--Thus during the stress of war national and state +governments had come into existence. Necessity had forced the people to +act and though the leaders at times groped blindly and took many a false +step, the political capacity of the American people had asserted itself +and triumphed. They profited by their experiences and showed themselves +ready to cast aside useless institutions and try new ones which gave +fair promise of success. A government of the people, for the people, and +by the people had come into existence which challenged the doctrine that +the sovereign ruled by right divine. + + +READINGS + +Bolles, A.S., _Financial History of the United States, 1774-1780_; +Bullock, C.J., _Finances of the United States from 1775 to 1789_; +Channing, Edward, _History of the United States_, III, 431-462; Dewey, +D.R., _Financial History of the United States_, 33-56; Foster, J.W., _A +Century of American Diplomacy_, 1-40; Guggenheim, J.C., "The Development +of the Executive Departments, 1775-1789," in J. Franklin Jameson, +_Essays in the Constitutional History of the United States in the +Formative Period, 1775-1789_; Hatch, L.C., _Administration of the +American Revolutionary Army_; Hildreth, Richard, _The History of the +United States of America_, III, 374-410; Learned, H.B., _The President's +Cabinet_, 47-63; McLaughlin, A.C., _The Confederation and the +Constitution_, 35-70; Paullin, C.O., _The Navy of the American +Revolution_, 31-251; Small, A.W., "The Beginnings of American +Nationality," in Johns Hopkins University, _Studies in History and +Political Science_, 8th Series, Parts I and II; Sumner, W.G., _The +Financier and Finances of the American Revolution_; Van Tyne, C.H., _The +American Revolution_, 175-202; Hunt, G., _The Department of State_, +1-37. + + + + +INDEX + +Abenaki Indians, 257, 266; + war of, 313. +Abercromby, General James, in French and Indian War, 376, 377, 378. +Acadia, colonization, 85-86; + captured by England, restored to France, 86, 87; + during War of Spanish Succession, English expeditions against, 271; + conquest of, 272; + attacked by French during War of Austrian Succession, 364, 365; + French policy in, 366; + during French and Indian War, 374. +Acapulco, Mexico, commercial port, 86. +Acatic, Nueva Galicia, in the Mixton War, 40. +Accau, explorer in Minnesota with Father Hennepin, 100. +Acoma, New Mexico pueblo, 46, 72, 73. +Adams, John, defence of British soldiers, 443; + in First Continental Congress, 452; + argues for Declaration of Independence, 479; + member of committee for drafting the Declaration, 479; + diplomacy in France and Holland, 532-533; + peace negotiations, 533-538. +Adams, Samuel, circular letter, 440-441; + trouble with Governor Bernard, 443; + the man of the town meeting, 445-446; + in First Continental Congress, 451; + on committee to draft Articles of Confederation, 550. +_Adelantados_, 54-55. +Administration of Justice Act, 450. +Admiralty, English, 182-183; + courts, 349. +Africa, early ideas concerning, 1-2; + Ptolemy's conception of, 1-2; + trade with desired, 5; + exploration of west coast, 5; + Prester, John, 5; + Senegal and Goree captured by English, 380; + Senegal given to British by Peace of Paris, 382. +African Company, formed to break Dutch monopoly, 196. +Agriculture, in Spanish colonies, 21, 75; + in French Canada, 92, 93; + in French West Indies, 94-95; + in New England, 216-217, 330-331; + in the Middle English colonies, 120, 122, 124, 128, 332; + in the South, 333-335, + in the British West Indies, 339-341; + in Bermudas, 130; + in Dutch colonies, 169, 170, 171, 173. +Aguas Calientes, 58, 59; + mines of, 58. +Aguayo, Marquis of, expedition to Texas, 296-297. +Aguilar, Marcos de, governor in Mexico, 48. +Aijado Indians, 243. +Ailly, Pierre d', author of _Imago Mundi_, 2, 7. +Aix-la-Chapelle, Peace of, 366. +Alabama Indians, 251, 270. +Alabama River, 62. +Alamance, battle of the, 415. +Alarcon, Hernando de, explores Colorado River, 45. +Alarcon, Martin de, governor of Texas, and of Coahuila, 294-295. +Albany, 332. +Albany Congress, 371, 411. +Albemarle, Duke of. _See_ Monk. +Albermarle district, settlement, 207; + population, 211; + Culpeper rebellion, 211. +Alberoni, 279, 359. +Albornoz, royal _contador_ of New Spain, 48. +Albuquerque, New Mexico, founding of, 290. +Alburquerque, Portuguese viceroy in India, 24. +Alcala, University of, 76. +_Alcaldes_, 14, 34, 55. +_Alcaldia Mayor_, administrative district, 59. +Aleutian Islands, Russian fur trade, 388. +Alexander, Pillars of, 1. +Alexander VI, Pope, assignation of discoveries between Spain and + Portugal, 11. +Alexander, Sir William, grant on Long Island, 150. +Algonquin Indians, friendly to French, 257; + a barrier to English expansion, 414. +Alibamon, judicial department of Louisiana, 279. +Alleghany Mountains, Spanish explorations in, 1566-1568, 64; + Spanish trade in, 211; + French and English traders cross, 101-102; + English traders cross, 211, 258, 367. 369; + in the French and Indian War, 372-374, 378; + Proclamation of 1763, 404, 411; + settlers cross, 413; + a barrier to settlement, 414; + in the American Revolution, 512. +Allen, Ethan, 462. +Allouez, Jesuit missionary in New France, 96, 97, 101. +Alva, Duke of, 52. +Alvarado, Pedro de, lieutenant of Cortes, 33, 36; + _alcalde mayor_ of City of Mexico, 34; + conquest of Guatemala and San Salvador, 37-38; + claim to Cibola, 44; + explorations in Peru and the South Sea, 46-47; + governor and captain-general of Guatemala, 49; + death, 47, 49. +Amadas, Philip, takes possession of Roanoke Island, 110. +Amazon Island, Cortes seeks, 37. +Amazons, kingdom of, sought by Raleigh, 110. +Amherst, Jeffrey, English general, 377, 378, 379, 381, 409; + plan of defence of British New World possessions, 403-404; + governor-general of Canada, 419. +Amichel, province of, 26, 37; + map showing, 43. +Andre, Major John, hanged as a spy, 512. +Andros, Edmund, governor of New York, 197, 262, 263; + governor-general of the Dominion of New England, 194; + overthrow, 194-195. +Anglican Church, in the eighteenth century, 337-338. +Anguilla, Island, government, 206. +Anian, Strait of, 24, 25, 67-68, 72. _See_ the Strait of Anian. +Annapolis Royal, 272. +Anne of Austria, regent of France, 80. +Anne, Queen of England, colonial policy, 350-352. +Anson, Commodore George, attacks Spanish possessions, 363; + admiral in French and Indian War, 377. +Anticosti Island, 82, 420. +Antigua, settled by English, 133, 252; + incorporated with Leeward Islands, 206; + population, 340. +Anza, Juan Bautista, opens route from Arizona to California, 391; + leads colony from Sonora to San Francisco, 391; + governor of New Mexico, explores in Colorado, 292. +Apache Indians, 45: + enslavement of, 23; + hostility, 285; + wars with, 298, 305, 401; + missions for, 299. +Apalachee (Apalachen), Indian settlement, 41, 42, 98; + missions, 247, 253, 254, 270; + revolt of, 270. +Apalachicola Indians, 269. +Appeals, 351-352. +Appointments, 352. +Arabs, theories of concerning geography, 1-2. +Aragon, kingdom of, 13-14. +Argall, Captain Samuel, expedition against French settlements, 86, 136. +Aricara Indians, 283. +Arika Indians, alliance with English, 270. +Arispe, capital of Provincias Internas, 387. +Aristotle, his conception of the world, 1. +Arizona, 72,236; + Kino's explorations in, 302; + mining excitement at Arizonac, 304; + Keller and Sedelmayr in, 304; + land route to California, 391. + _See_ Pimeria Alta, Sonora. +Arkansas region, De Soto and Moscoso in, 42; + Onate in, 73; + judicial department of Louisiana, 280; + French traders in, 283-286; + English traders in, 102, 400; + Tonty's fort in, 100, 102; + under Spanish rule, 400. + _See_ La Harpe, Du Tisne, Tonty. +Arkansas Post (Fort Carlos III), 398. +Arkansas River (Napestle River), 42, 73, 100, 102, 283-285; + Spanish expeditions to, 291. +Arlington, Earl of, proprietary grant in Virginia, 185; + interest in Hudson's Bay Company, 213. +Armada, "the Invincible," defeat of, 52-53, 105. +Arnold, Benedict, operations at Ticonderoga and Crown Point, 462; + invasion of Canada, 471; + at Valcour Island, 487-488; + in campaign against Burgoyne, 495-499; + treason, 511-512; + in the British army, 530. +Arriola, Andres de, founds Pensacola, 275. +Arroyo Hondo, boundary between Texas and Louisiana, 300. +Arteaga, expedition up Pacific coast, 395. +Arthur, Gabriel, on Tennessee River, 1673, 211. +Articles of Confederation, confederation movement, 549; + work of the confederation committee, 550; + adoption of the articles, 550-551; + provisions, 551-555; + weaknesses, 553. +Aruba Island, settled by the Dutch, 167. +Asia, classical ideas regarding, 1; + early contact with America, 2; + visits of Polo, 3; + trade route to, 5; + search for northwest passage to, 106, 108, 164, 213; + Portuguese trading settlements in China and Japan, 24; + China a market for Russian trade, 388. +_Asiento of 1713_, The, 273, 289. +Asinai (Hasinai, Tejas, Texas), Indians, 251. +Assemblies, control of the elections and purse, 352; + increasing power, 357, 426-427. +Association, the, adopted by the First Continental Congress, 455; + enforcement, 458, 466-467; + an act of sovereignty, 539. +Association for the Defense of the Protestant Religion, 189. +Atondo y Antillon, Admiral, attempt to colonize Baja California, + 241-242. +Atzcapotzalco, Aztec center, Mexico, 28. +Aubry, in command in Louisiana after cession to Spain, 396-397. +Audiencia, of Santo Domingo, 20; + of the Confines of Panama and Nicaragua, 50; + of Guatemala, 50; + of Havana, 398; + of Mexico (New Spain), + creation of, 38, 48; + friction with Cortes, 42; + powers, 48; + composition, 48; + replacement of, 49; + Second Audiencia, 49; + of Manila, 68; + of Nueva Galicia (Guadalajara), 55; + expeditions sent out by, 55-56, 387; + of Panama, 49, 50; + of Nicaragua, 50. +Augusta, Georgia, founded, 316; + fur traders of, 369; + evacuated by British, 529. +Austin, Ann, 189. +Austria, 359-360. +Avalon, 125. +Avalos, lieutenant of Cortes, 36, 37. +Avila, Alonso de, envoy for Cortes to Audiencia of Santo Domingo, + and to the court of Charles V, 34. +Avino, mine of, 56. +Axacan (Virginia), 117. +Ayllon, colony in Carolina, 26. +Ays, Florida, settlement at, 64. +Ayscue, Sir George, expedition to West Indies and Virginia, 153. +Azcue, Fernando de, expedition across Rio Grande, 248. +Azilia, project for colonizing Georgia, 315. +Aztecs, arrival in Valley of Mexico, 27-28; + development of power, 28; + discontent of subject peoples, 33; + revolt against, 33; + overthrown by Cortes, 33; + limits of Aztec conquest, 39. + + +Bacon, Roger, his conception of geography, 2. +Bacon's Rebellion, 185-187. +Baffin, William, discovers Baffin Bay, 213. +Bahama Channel, route of Spanish treasure ships, 62, 64. +Bahama Islands, 10; + enslavement of Indians on, 23; + settlement, 152, 206. +Bahia (Brazil), captured by Dutch West India Company, 252. +Baja California. _See_ California, Lower. +Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, 28, 29, 42; + discovery of the Pacific, 25; + executed by Pedrarias, 29. +Balearic Isles, 13. +Baltimore, Lord. _See_ Calvert. +Bank, of England, 351; + of North America, 554; + of Pennsylvania, 554. +Baptists, in Rhode Island, 220; + in West New Jersey, 226; + in South Carolina, 231. +Barbados, occupied by the English, 132, 252; + attached to the Windward Islands government, 206; + unrest, 207; + migrations, 207; + furnishes settlers for South Carolina, 208, 210; + trade with South Carolina, 210; + influence upon South Carolina, 230, 231; + social and economic conditions in the eighteenth century, 340. +Barbuda, Island, 206, 252. +Barcelona, 10; + county of, 13. +Barker, English freebooter, 66. +Barlowe, Arthur, expedition of 1585, 110. +Barroto, seeks La Salle's colony, 249. +Barrowists, 135. +Bartram, botanist and traveler, cited, 408. +Bastidas, Spanish explorer, 24. +Baton Rouge, captured by Galvez, 515. +Bay of the Bidayes (Galveston Bay), visited by La Harpe, 283. +Bay of Chaleurs, 82. +Bay of Espiritu Santo (Matagorda Bay), 249, 297. +Bay of Juan Ponce, 64. +Bay of St. Bernard, 283. +Beaumarchais, Pierre Augustin Caron de, assists United States + during Revolution, 506. +Behaim's globe, 7. +Bellefeuille, explores Tennessee River, 102. +Beltran, Fray Bernaldino, expedition to New Mexico, 72. _See_ Espejo. +Bemis Heights, first battle of, 497; + second battle of, 498. +Benavides, Fray Alonso de, Franciscan Missionary, 243; + report on New Mexico in 1630, 243. +Benbow, John, English vice-admiral, victories in West Indies, 268. +Bennington, Battle of, 495-496. +Bergen, New Jersey, 198. +Bering, Vitus, 388; + explores American coast, 388. +Berkeley, John, Lord Berkeley, receives West New Jersey, 198; + sells territory to the Quakers, 200; + Carolina proprietor, 208. +Berkeley, Sir William, governor of Virginia, 159; + struggle with the Commonwealth, 160; + begins second administration, 183; + abuses in administration, 184; + Bacon's rebellion, 185-187; + expedition to the West, 211; + Carolina proprietor, 208. +Bermuda Islands, visited by English, 118; + charters of 1612 and 1614, 120; + settlement, 130, 251; + population, 130; + economic importance, 130; + government, 130; + during Puritan Revolution, 152; + Somers Island Company dissolved, 206; + a crown colony, 206; + migration of settlers, 206; + Scotch migration, 324. +Bernard, Francis, Governor of Massachusetts, 440, 441, 442-443. +Bethencourt, de, Norman voyager to the Canaries, 4. +Biencourt, French official in Acadia, 85-86. +Bienville, Governor of Louisiana: first administration, 276; + under the Compagnie d'Occident, 279-280, 284; + royal governor, 280-281. +Bigot, intendant in Canada, 368,375. +Bill Williams Fork (River in Arizona), Farfan on, 73; + Sedelmayr on, 304. +Bills of credit, 544-545. +Biloxi, Mississippi, founded by French, 267, 276: + settlement moved to Mobile Bay, 276; + judicial department of Louisiana, 279. +Bimini, De Leon seeks, 40. +Black Code of Louisiana, The, 280, 398. +Blair, William, 229. +Blathwayt, William, secretary of Lords of Trade, 182. +Block, Adrian, Dutch trader, 165. +Blommaert, Samuel, Patroon, 170; + in Sweden, 175. +Board of Admiralty, created, 543. +Board of Trade, 346-347, 348, 354. +Board of War and Ordnance, 543. +Bobadilla, rule in West Indies, 17. +Bodega y Quadra, expeditions up Pacific coast, 395; + discovers Bodega Bay, 395. +Boisbriant, French commander in Illinois, 284. +_Bonhomme Richard_, sea-fight with the _Serapis_, 518-519. +_Book of the Tartars_, 3. +Boone, Daniel, on Watauga River,413; + effort to colonize Kentucky, 416; + opens "Wilderness Road," 417. +Boonesborough, Kentucky, founded, 417. +Boscawen, English admiral, 377, 380. +Bosque, Fernando del, expedition across Rio Grande, 248. +Boston, settled, 142; + population, 331; + resolutions against sending troops, 442; + Massacre, 443; + committee of correspondence, 446; + Tea Party, 447-448; + Port Act, 449; + siege, 461, 471. +Bourgmont, on Missouri and Kansas rivers, 1724, 284. +Boyano, Spanish explorer in North Carolina, 1567, 64. +Braddock, Major General Edward, campaign and defeat, 371-372. +Bradford, New Jersey, 199. +Bradford, Governor William, at Scrooby, 137; + _History of Plymouth Plantation_, 137; + elected governor of Plymouth, 139. +Bradstreet, English lieutenant-colonel, expedition against Fort + Frontenac, 378. +Brandenburgers, in the West Indies, 253. +Brandywine, Battle of, 499-500. +Brant, Iroquois chief, 515. +Brazil, Portugal's claims to, 11, 24; + French attempts to colonize, 84, 251; + Dutch colonization in, 166; + Brazos River, Texas, Coronado on, 1541, 45; + De Mezieres on, 401. +Breboeuf, French Jesuit, work among the Hurons, 88. +Breed's Hill, 461. +Brewster, William, at Scrooby, 137. +British East India Company, 70. +Brooke, Lord, interest in the Caribbean, 133; + holdings in Connecticut Valley, 149; + obtains lands in New Hampshire, 157. +Brooklyn, captured by the British, 484. +Brownists, 135. +Bruselas (Costa Rica), founding of, 31. +Bucarely, Viceroy of New Spain, 1771-1779; + sends explorers to Northern Pacific, 395. +Buddhist priest, supposed visit to America, 499 A.D., 2. +Buen Aire Island, settled by Dutch, 167. +Buffalo Plains, Spanish expeditions to, 72, 73. +Bunker Hill, Battle of, 461-462. +Burgoyne, General John, at Boston, 441; + New York campaign, 493-499. +Burke, Edmund, on conciliation, 456. +Burlington, New Jersey, body of laws, 201; + description of, 225-226. +Burma, Portuguese in, 24. +Bustamente y Tagle, expedition down Arkansas River against + Comanches, 291. +Bute Ministry, policy of, 429-430. +Button, Sir Thomas, explores Hudson Bay, 213. +Buzzard's Bay, settled by Pilgrims, 139. +Byllynge, Edward, proprietor West Jersey, 201, 202. +Bylot, explores Baffin Bay, 213. +Byng, English admiral, defeats Spanish fleet, 359. +Byron, Commodore John, in American Revolution, 510. + + +_Cabildo_, Spanish town council, 20; + membership and functions, 20. +Cabinet, development in the reign of Anne, 350-351; + system, 353. +Cabo del Engano, discovered by Ulloa, 44. +Cabot, John, explorations of, 26, 105-106. +Cabral, Portuguese explorer, 24. +Cabrillo, Juan Rodriguez, explores Pacific coast, 47. +Cacaxtle Indians, in Texas, expedition against, 248. +Cadereyta[**check], Nuevo Leon, founded, 247. +Cadillac, Lama the, founder of Detroit and of Louisiana, governor + of Louisiana, 277-278, 282. +Cadodacho Indians, La Harpe visits, 283. +Cahokia, captured by Clark, 514. +Cakchiquels, Indians of Guatemala, conquest of, 38. +Calderon, Bishop of Cuba, visits Florida in 1674, 254. +Cale, province sought by De Soto, 41. +Calender Stone, Aztec, 27. +Calicut, voyage to, 5. +California (Lower and Upper): expedition of Cabrillo and Ferrelo, 47; + on route of Manila trade, 68; + raids of Drake and Cavendish, 70; + new explorations, Cermeno and Vizcaino, 70-71; + Onates expedition by land, 73; + insular theory of California geography, 73, 241. +California, Lower: Cortes's colony in, 42; + Ulloa's voyage round the Peninsula, 44; + seventeenth century efforts to occupy, 240-242; + pearl fisheries, 240; + Iturbi's voyage, 240; + later attempts, 240-241; + Kino and Atondo, 242; + Jesuit occupation, 306-308; + Salvatierra and companions, 306; + expulsion of the Jesuits, 307, 386; + Franciscans in, 386; + Galvez in, 386; + Dominicans in, 391. +California, Upper: threatened by Russia, 388; + derision of Spain to occupy, 388; + the Portola expedition, 389; + Junipero Serra, 389; + San Diego and Monterey founded, 389; + plans for expansion, 389; + map, 390; + a land route from Arizona, 391; + San Francisco founded, 391; + communication with New Mexico attempted, 391; + explorations of Garces, Escalante, and Dominguez, 392; + Neve governor, 392; + founding of pueblos San Jose and Los Angeles, 392; + the halfway post at Yuma and the Yuma massacre, 393-394; + Santa Barbara and San Buenaventura founded, 394; + northern explorations by sea, 394-395. +Calvert, Cecilius, second Lord Baltimore, 126; + receives proprietary grant of Maryland, 126; + his powers and rights, 127, 128. +Calvert, Charles, proprietor of Maryland, 188-189. +Calvert, George, stockholder in Virginia Company, 125; + early history, 125; + becomes Baron of Baltimore, 125; + application for Virginia grant, 125-126; + death, 126. +Calvert, Leonard, governor of Maryland, 129. +Calvinism, in France, 78; + in New York, 222. +Cambridge Agreement, 142. +Cambridge, settled, 145. +Camden, fighting at, 525-526. +Campbell Colonel William, at King's Mountain, 527. +Canada, search for Northwest passage, Frobisher, Davis, Gilbert, + 60, 108-109; + early French voyages, 81-82; + Acadia settled, 85-86; + St. Lawrence Valley exploration, settlements, fur trade, + seigniories, 86-93; + Newfoundland fisheries, 106; + Hudson's Bay Company, 212-214, 423; + struggle for fur country, 257-261; + in Wars of English and Spanish Successions, 262-267, 271-273; + Verendrye in the West, 287-288; + in War of Austrian Succession, 364-366; + in French and Indian War, 374-383; + under British rule, 403-406, 419-424; + the Montreal traders, 421-424; + during American Revolution, 450, 462, 467, 470; + Loyalists, 421, 472-476; 493, 538. + _See_ Acadia, Colonial administration, English colonies, French + colonies, French and Indian War, fur trade, Hudson's Bay Company, + Jesuits, Loyalists, Montreal, Northwest Company, Quebec, the + intercolonial wars. +Canada Company, 141. +Canadian River, Onate expedition to, 73. +Canary Islands, discovery of, 3; + other visits to, 4; + acquired by Spain, 8; + factor in trans-Atlantic navigation, 8; + natives of as colonists in Florida and Texas, 255, 298. +Cancer, Fray Luis, expedition to Florida, 61. +Cano, Francisco del, explorer in Coahuila, 59. +Cape Ann, settlement, 140. +Cape Blanco, California, 5, 71. +Cape Bojador, 2. +Cape Breton Island, 273, 365-383; + siege and defence of Louisbourg, 364-365. +Cape Fear, 26. +Cape Fear River, Ayllon at, 41. +Cape Finisterre, battles off, 365. +Cape Gaspe, 82, 87. +Cape of Good Hope, discovery of, 5; + trade route to Far East, 5. +Cape Horn, discovery of, 165. +Cape Mendocino, California on route of Manila galleon, 70. +Cape Nun, early voyages to, 3-4. +Cape St. Vincent, 4. +Cape Verde, reached by Portuguese, 5. +Cape Verde Islands, discovery of, 5. +Capuchins, in Louisiana, 280. +Carabajal, Luis de, governor of Kingdom of New Leon, 60; + expeditions and colonies, 60-61; + arrest and condemnation, 61. +Caria, Island of, 25. +Caribs, enslaved, 23; + De Leon's war against, 40. +Cardenas, discovers Grand Canyon, 45. +Cardona, Thomas, monopoly of pearl fishing, 240. +Caribbean Sea. _See_ West Indies, Lesser Antilles, and + individual islands. +Carleton, General Sir Guy, 487, 488. +Carlisle Commission, 509. +Carlisle, Lord, receives grant in the Caribbean, 132. +Carlos III, attitude toward American Revolution, 515. +Carmelites, in Louisiana, 280. +Carolinas, Gordillo and Quexos in Chicora, 26; + Ayllon's colony of San Miguel in, 40-41; + De Soto in North Carolina Piedmont, 42; + attempt of De Luna and Villafane at Santa Elena (Port Royal), 61-62; + Ribaut's Huguenot colony at Port Royal, 62, 84; + Spanish post at Santa Elena, 64; + exploration of Pardo and Boyano, 64; + missions at Santa Elena and Orista, 64-65; + Menendez's expeditions up coast, 65; + traders in, 102; + Carolina traders cross the Alleghanies, 102; + grant to Sir Robert Heath, 207; + settlement of Albemarle district, 207; + charters of 1663 and 1665, 207-208; + the proprietors, 208; + Locke's constitution, 208; + settlements, 208, 254; + effect on Spanish frontier policy, 254; + development of the colony, 210; + unrest at Charleston, 210-211; + the Albemarle region, 211; + Culpeper's rebellion, 211; + under William III, 346; + separation, 313; + Yamassee War, 314; + overthrow of proprietors, 314-315. + _See_ also Albemarle District, North Carolina, South Carolina. +Carpenters' Hall, 452. +Carpini, John de Plano, author of _Book of the Tartars_, 3. +Carrero, Alonso, explorer in Central America, 32. +Cartagena, despoiled in War of English Succession, 262; + bombarded and besieged in War of Jenkins' Ear, 361, 363. +Carteret, Sir George, grant in the Jerseys, 198; + obtains East New Jersey, 198-199; + Carolina proprietor, 208; + interest in Hudson's Bay Company, 213. +Carteret, Philip, governor of East New Jersey, 198-199. +Cartier, Jacques, in the St. Lawrence, 81-82; + map showing explorations, 83. +Carver, Governor John, goes to Leyden, 137; + removal to Plymouth, 137; + confirmed as governor, 138; + death, 139. +_Casa de Contratacion_, 19; + duties and organization, 19; + subordinate to Council of Indies, 20. +Casas Grandes (Nueva Vizcaya), 56, 242. +Casco Bay settlement, 140; + submits to Massachusetts, 158; + attacks on, 262, 263. +Castaneda, explores coast of Central America, 29. +Castile, kingdom of, 13-14; + ownership of Spanish America, 19. +Castilla del Oro, province of, settlement, organization, and + jurisdiction of, 28-29. +Catalonia, 13. +Catawba Indians, hostile to French of Louisiana, 270, 369. +Catherine de Medici, 78. +Catherine II, of Russia, the League of Armed Neutrals, 519. +Catholic Church, 13-14; + Charles V protector of, 16; + its agencies against the Reformation, 52; + leaders, 78, 79; + in Maryland, 128, 229; + in New York, 223; + in Canada under British rule, 420. + _See_ California, Canada, Louisiana, Florida, New Mexico, + Texas, Missions. +Catholic League, The, 79. +Cattle industry, in Spanish colonies, 19, 21, 58, 75, 240; + in the English colonies, 310, 334. +Cavendish, Thomas, English freebooter, 70; + circumnavigation of the globe, 108. +Cavelier, Abbe Jean, brother of La Salle, urges colonization of + Louisiana, 275. +Cavelier, Robert, sieur de la Salle. _See_ La Salle. +Cayman Islands, granted to Providence Island Company, 133. +Cebu, Philippines, settled by Spaniards, 68. +Cedros (Cerros) Islands, 71, 307. +Celaya, Mexico, founded, 59. +Cempoalla, Cortes at, 33. +Central America, exploration of eastern coasts, 23-26; + Maya and Nahua civilizations, 26-28; + Castilla del Oro, 28-29; + Balboa and Pedrarias, 29; + Panama founded, 29; + discovery of the Pacific and South Sea exploration, 29-31; + map, 30; + conquest of Costa Rica and Nicaragua, 31; + of Guatemala, San Salvador and Honduras, 31, 37, 38, 39; + of Yucatan, 38; + exploration of the San Juan River, 31-32; + the dukedom of Veragua, 32; + continued struggle, 32. +Cermeno, Sebastian Rodriguez, explores California coast, 71. +Cerro de la Plata, Texas, 248. +Ceuta, Moorish stronghold, 4. +Ceylon, visited by the Polos, 3; + acquired by Portugal, 24. +Ceynos, _oidor_ of New Spain, 49. +Chagres, Central America, captured by England, 361. +Chalchuites, mine of, 56. +Challons, Henry, voyage of 1606, 116. +Champlain, Samuel de, explorations, 85, 87; + associated with Sieur de Monts, 86; + sends expedition in search of Northwest Passage, 88; + last days, 88. +Chamuscado, Francisco Sanchez, expedition to New Mexico, 72. +Chancellor, Richard, expedition to Russia, 106. +Chapuis, Jean, expedition to New Mexico, 286. +Chapultepec, Mexico, 28. +Charcas (San Luis Potosi), Mexico, founded, 59. +Charles I, of England, policy of, 112-114; + the tobacco business, 124-125; + end of personal rule, 152. +Charles II, of England, grant to the Duke of York, 178; + restoration, 179; + general policy, 179; + navigation acts, 180-181; + policy of imperial defense, 181; + fiscal system, 181; + orders return of Governor Berkeley, 187; + attitude toward Massachusetts, 189-190; + grants charters to Connecticut and Rhode Island, 190; + royal commissioners, 190-191; + sends Edward Randolph, 192-193; + annulment of Massachusetts charter, 193; + royal commission to the colonies, 197; + issues charter to Hudson's Bay Company, 213-214. +Charles III, of Spain, reforms of, 384-385. + _See_ Carlos II. +Charles V, emperor, 14, 16; + his inheritance, 16; + elected Holy Roman Emperor, 16; + his European contests, 16; + expansion of New Spain during his reign, 16; + emigration policy, 21; + sale of Spain's claim to the Moluccas, 46; + abdication, 52. +Charleston, South Carolina, + founded, 210, 254; + social conditions, 231; + Spanish expedition against, 270; + commerce, 335; + defense against British, 471; + captured by Clinton, 524-525. +Charlestown, Massachusetts, settled, 142. +Charles Town, South Carolina, 208. +Charlotiana, proposed colony of, 411. +Charlotte Bay, Menendez at, 64. +Chauvin, French fur trader, associated with de Monts, 85. +Charnisay, struggle with LaTour in Acadia, 86. +Cherokee Indians, unite against France, 270; + French influence, 314; + Cuming's Mission, 315; + attack English during French and Indian War, 369, 378-379; + cede lands, 412, 417; + retard expansion, 414; + war during the Revolution, 512-513. +Cherry Valley, 514. +Chesapeake Bay, Menendez's plans for, 64; + Jesuit mission at, 65. +Chester, Governor of West Florida, 407. +Chiametla, Mexico, Ibarra at, 56. +Chiaha, Georgia, Boyano at, 64. +Chiapas, Mexico, population in 1574, 75. +Chichen Itza, Maya ruins, 27. +Chickasaw Indians, French alliance with, 276; + French war with, 281; + hostile to English, 403, 407, 414; + on the British side during Revolution, 514. +Chickasaw Trail, 211-212, 369. +Chico, conquistador in Jalisco, 36, 37. +Chicora, region in Carolina, attempt to colonize, 26, 40-41. +Chihuahua, Mexico, 41, 56; + industrial development, 58; + advance of settlement in, 242; + Missions established, 242; + discovery of the mines, 289; + advance down the Conchos Valley, 290; + capital of the Interior Provinces, 387. +Chile, trade with, 66. +China, early contact with America, 2; + travelers' tales of, 3; + Portuguese trading settlements in, 24; + search for northwest passage to, 82, 88, 100; + market for Russian traders, 388. +Chipewyan Indians, trade with Hudson's Bay Company, 214. +Chirinos, _veedor_ of New Spain, 48. +Choctaw Indians, hostile to French, 280, 281; + French smuggling among, 406; + at war with Chickasaws, 407; + retard English expansion, 414; + on the British side during Revolution, 514. +Cholula, Mexico, Cortes at, 33. +Chozas, Father Pedro, Franciscan Missionary in Georgia, 65. +Christian, Col. William, 513. +Christiansen, Dutch navigator, 165. +Church, Benjamin, expedition against Acadia, 271. +Cibola (New Mexico), search for, 42-46. +Cipango. _See_ Japan. +Claiborne, William, trouble with Maryland, 128. +Clarendon, Earl of (Edward Hyde), Carolina proprietor, 208. +Clark, Daniel, speculator at Natchez, 408. +Clark, George Rogers, conquers Northwest, 514; + assists Spanish commander at St. Louis, 516. +Clamorgan, fur trader at St. Louis, explores Missouri River, 402. +Clifford, English freebooter, 66. +Clinton, Gen. Sir. H., at siege of Boston, 461; + at Charleston, 471; + captures forts on the Hudson, 498; + in command of British forces in America, 509; + evacuation of Philadelphia, 509; + Monmouth, 509-510; + reinforces Newport, 510; + seizes points on the Hudson, 511; + orders raids, 511; + orders evacuation of Newport, 511; + concentration at New York, 511; + blockades Newport, 511; + correspondence with Arnold, 511; + captures Charleston, 524-525. +Coahuila, province of, Vaca crosses, 41; + Tlascaltecan Indians used as colonists in, 60; + founding of, 248; + development, 248-249, 292,387; + map, 250. +Coca, Alabama, Spanish colony at, 61, 62. + _See_ Coosa. +Coddington, William, Rhode Island + magistrate, 148; + governor, 159. +Codrington, English general, attacks Guadeloupe, 1703, 268. +Codrington College, 339. +Coiba, Island of, Balboa granted, 29. +Colbert, controller general of finances of France, 81; + policy with regard to New France, 81, 94. +Coligny, Admiral, Huguenot leader, 52, 78-79. +Colima, founded, 37. +College of New Jersey, 339. +Colleton, James, governor of Carolinas, 211. +Colleton, Sir John, interest in Carolinas, 207-208. +Colonial administration: _Spanish_, beginnings in the West Indies, + 8, 19-23; + establishment of the viceroyalty of New Spain, 47-50; + under Philip II, 52-55; + the merchant fleets, 66; + administrative subdivisions, 75-76; + frontier administration in the 17th century, 234-237; + Jesuit control in Lower California, 306-307; + reorganization of New Spain after 1763; + the reforms of Charles III and Galvez, 384-388; + in Louisiana, 397-398; + _French_, Colbert's policy, 81; + in Canada, 85, 87, 90; + reorganization, 91; + Talon, 92; + seignorial grants, 92; + in West Indies, 93-96; + in Louisiana, 276; + the Company of the Indies, 278-280; + the royal governors, 280-281; + English, policy of the Early Stuarts, 113-114; + regulation of tobacco industry, 122-125; + during the Commonwealth and the Protectorate, 153; + under the Later Stuarts, 179-183; + William III's reorganizations, 343-350; + under Anne, 350-352; + under the Whigs, 353-357; + organization of new possessions after French and Indian War, + 403-423; + on the Eve of the American Revolution, 425-426; + _Dutch_, in New Netherlands, 166, 167-168; + patroon system, 169-170; + struggle for popular rights, 172-173. +Colonial Currency Act, 431. +Colorado River, exploration of, 45; + Grand Canyon discovered, 45; + Kino, Keller, Sedelmayr, and Consag at, 302, 304. +Colorado, State; Spanish explorers in, 291-292. +Columbia River, discovered by Heceta, 395. +Columbus, Bartholomew, in England, 7. +Columbus, Christopher, early life, 7; + sojourn in Spain, 7; + commission, 8; + discovery of America, 8-10; + map showing voyages, 9; + sojourn in West Indies, and return to Europe, 10; + rule in West Indies, 16-19; + second and third voyages, 16-17; + charges against, 17; + fourth voyage, 24; + attempted colony on Veragua coast, 28. +Columbus, Diego, rule and work of in West Indies, 17, 20. +Comanche Indians, barrier to French expansion, 285; + treaty with, 286; + French advance through country of, 286. +Commerce and Trade, with Africa, 5; + with Asia, 5; + Portuguese in the East, 24; + slave trade, 5, 23, 107, 196, 197, 253, 385; + of Spanish Colonies, 8, 16-19, 29, 46, 47, 75, 118, 164, 166, + 234, 251-252, 268, 269, 273, 292, 307, 359, 384, 398, 400; + Casa de Contratacion, 19-20; + trading voyages, 23-24; + San Juan River route, 31-32; + route of fleets, 62, 64; + Spanish monopoly, 65-66; + freebooters, 62, 66-67, 70; + Puerto Bello, 32, 360, 361; + Vera Cruz port, 66; + the Manila galleon, 66-70, 307; + Acapulco port, 86; + pearl fisheries, 68, 71, 240, 243-244; + the Pichilingues, 240; + reforms of Chas. III, 385; + Louisiana trade, 398; + Spanish horse trade, 400; + French West India Company, 91-92, 94, 96; + Company of St. Christopher, 93, 94; + Company of Hundred Associates, 87, 90; + Company of New France, 91; + Company of Isles of America, 94; + Compagnie du Nord, 273; + Crozat's grant, 276-278; + Compagnie d'Occident, 279-284; + Dutch commercial expansion, 164-166; + in Java, 164; + in Guiana, 166-167, 251-252; + Dutch East India Company, 164-165; + Dutch West India Company, 166, 252; + in New Netherlands, 173-174; + Danes in West Indies, 253; + Russian trade in China, 388; + Early English trade expansion, 105-107; + East India Company, 70, 108, 447; + Muscovy Company, 106; + Eastland Company, 108; + Venetian Company, 107; + Newfoundland fisheries, 106; + Northeast Passage, 106, 108, 164, 213; + Hawkins in Brazil, 107; + Company of Cathay, 109; + Guiana, 130-132; + Canada Company, 141; + Council of Trade, 114, 182; + Committee on Trade and Plantations, 153, 344; + Navigation Acts, 153, 180-181, 348-349, 351, 354-355; + Mercantilist System, 179; + Admiralty Courts, 182-183, 349; + Customs Officials, 183, 439; + Council for Trade and Plantations, 182; + Board of Trade, 346-348, 543; + African Company, 196, 199; + Hudson's Bay Company, 212-214; + Asiento of 1713, 273, 289; + Trade of New England, 217, 331; + Rhode Island, 216; + Massachusetts, 217; + New York, 221-222, 331-332; + Pennsylvania and New Jersey, 225-226; + Delaware, 332-333; + Virginia and Maryland, 188, 228-229, 333-334; + South Carolina, 102, 230-231; + English Florida, 407-408; + Detroit, 422; + of Bermudas, 130; + of Barbados, 210, 340; + of West Indies, 339-341, 356, 398; + St. Eustatius Island, 341, 428; + Leeward Islands, 340; + smuggling, 359-360, 361, 385, 398, 406, 428; + Grenville's policy, 429-437; + Townshend Acts, 438-439; + North's policy, 449-451; + policy of First Continental Congress, 454-455; + Board of Admiralty, 543. +Commission for Foreign Plantations, trouble with Massachusetts, + 145-146. +Committees of Correspondence, 436, 445-447. +Committee on Foreign Correspondence, 543. +Committee on Trade and Plantations, 153, 344. +Committee for Foreign Plantations, 153. +Committee of Trade, Plantations, and Foreign Affairs, 153. +Compagnie d'Occident, rule in Louisiana, 278-280; + trade in the trans-Mississippi West, 282. +Compagnie du Nord, competition with Hudson's Bay Company, 273. +Company of Cathay, 109. +Company of Hundred Associates, 87, 90. +Company of the Indies. _See_ Compagnie d'Occident. +Company of Isles of America, organization, 93; + activities and settlements, 94. +Company of New France, surrender of rights, 91. +Company of Royal Adventurers trading to Africa, 196. +Company of St. Christopher, 93, 94. +Compostela, capital of Nueva Galicia, 39, 45, 55. +Conant, Roger, 141. +Conchos Indians, 242. +Conchos River, 72; + Spanish advance down valley of, 290. +Congregational Church, in New England, 220; + in New York, 223; + in East New Jersey, 224; + in South Carolina, 231. +Connecticut, early claimants, 149; + migration of 1635-1636, 149; + Pequot War, 149-150; + "Fundamental Orders," 150; + code of 1650, 155; + member of New England Confederation, 156; + incorporation of new towns, 158; + charter of 1662, 190; + attitude toward royal commissioners, 191; + King Philip's War, 191-192; + Dominion of New England, 194-195; + charter restored, 195; + population, 216; + religion, 220; + education, 220; + restoration of charter, 334; + protest against Grenville's policy, 432; + navy, 518. +Consag, Father Fernando, explores Gulf of California, 304, 307. +Conspiracy of Pontiac, impedes English occupation of Ohio Valley, + 409, 417. +Continental Army, 464. +Continental Congress. _See_ First Continental Congress, + Second Continental Congress. +Convention of Aranjuez, 515. +Conway Cabal, 503-504. +Cook, Captain James, voyage to Nootka Sound, 395. +Cooper, Anthony Ashley. Lord Ashley, Carolina proprietor, 207-208; + interest in Hudson's Say Company, 213. +Copala, Mexico, Ibarra seeks, 56. +Coppermine River, discovered by Hearne, 424. +Corazones, Sonora, settlement at, 45. +Cordova, Francisco Hernandez de, conquests in Central America, + explores Yucatan, 25, 31, 32. +Cornwallis, Edward, Governor of Acadia, 366. +Cornwallis, Gen. Lord, captures Ft. Lee, 489; + New Jersey campaign, 489-493; + at Brandywine, 500; + in command in South, 525; + Camden, 525-526; + operations in the Carolinas, 527-529; + in Virginia, 530; + Yorktown, 532. +Coronado, Francisco Vasquez, governor of Nueva Galicia, 40; + expedition to Cibola and Quivira (New Mexico and Kansas), 44-46; + conquest of Pueblo Indians, 45. +_Corregidores_, 14, 49. +_Corregimientos_, 55, 76. +Cortes, Hernando, 25, 31; + conquests, 32-38; + revolt of and departure from Cuba, 32; + founds Vera Cruz, 33; + at Mexico City, 33; + contest for royal favor, 34; + governor and captain-general, 34; + spread of his conquests, 36-39; + expelled from Vera Cruz, 36; + march to Honduras, 38; + return to Spain, 38; + explorations on South Sea and in California, 42-44, 46; + contest for leadership, 44; + administrator, 47-48; + _residencia_, 48; + honored in Spain, 49. +Cortes, Martin, second Marquis of the Valley, 53-54. +_Cortes_, governing bodies in Castile and Aragon, 14. +Costa Rica, conquest of, 31. +Cotton, John, pastor of Boston church, 146; + the Hutchinsonian Controversy, 148. +Council for Foreign Plantations, 181. +Council for New England, 136-137; + grants patent to Plymouth, 319; + land grants, 140; + resigns charter, 146. +Council for Trade and Plantations, 182. +Council of Blood, 52. +Council of the Indies, organization, duties, and authority, 19-20; + promulgates _New Laws_, 50. +Council of the Inquisition, 14; + expulsion of Jews and Moors, 14. +Council of State, English, 152, 153. +Council of Trade of 1622, 114; + of 1625, 114; + of 1660, 182. +Council of Trent, 52. +Council of Virginia, 113. +_Coureurs de bois_, 90, 100, 102, 257, 422. +Courten, William, proprietor in Barbados and Carolina, 132, 133. +Court of High Commission, 135. +Couture, Jean, on Tennessee River, 102. +"Cowpens," established on the English frontier. +Cowpens, battle at, 528. +Coxe, Daniel, New Jersey proprietor, 202. +Craven, William, Lord Craven, Carolina proprietor, 208. +Cree Indians, trade of Hudson's Bay Company with, 214. +Creek Indians, Spanish missions among, 255; + French influence, 314; + English diplomacy and trade among, 316, 407, 412; + retard English expansion, 414. +Criminals, 336. +Croghan, surveys in Ohio Valley, 413. +Croix, Teodoro de, first commandant-general of the Interior + Provinces, 387, 304; + plans war on Apaches, 401. +Cromwell, Oliver, heads military party, 152; + member of Committee of Trade, Plantations, and Foreign Affairs, + 153; + Lord Protector, 154; + conquers Jamaica, 253. +Crown Colonies, British, established in 1763, 404. +Crown Point, 313, 462, 487. +Crozat, Antoine, trade monopoly in Louisiana, 276-277; + government, 277; + attempts at trade expansion, 278; + surrender of patent, 278. +Crusades, effect on travel and geographical knowledge, 3. +Cruzate, Governor, attempts to reconquer New Mexico, 246. +Cuartelejo, El, Colorado, Urribarri's expedition to, 291; + Villazur's, 296. +Cuauhtemoc, Aztec ruler, executed by Cortes, 33, 38. +Cuba, explored by Columbus and Ocampo, 10, 17, 25; + Cortes in, 32; + decline of, 67; + English attempt to conquer, 363. +Cubero, governor of New Mexico, subdues Pueblos, 247; + founds Albuquerque, 290; + sends expedition to El Cuartelejo, 291. +Cuernavaca, Mexico, estates of Cortes at, 53. +Culiacan, founded, 39; + visited by Vaca, 41; point of departure for Friar Marcos, 44; + for Coronado, 45; + for Ibarra, 56; + population, 58. +Culpeper, Thomas, Lord, proprietary grant in Virginia, 185; + governor of Virginia, 187. +Cumberland settlement, Tennessee, 419. +Cuming, Sir Alexander, mission to the Cherokees, 315. +Curacao, settled by the Dutch, 167, 252; + trade, 428. +Cusihuiriachic, Chihuahua, settled, 242. +Customs officials, 183, 439. + + +Dale, Sir Thomas, deputy-governor of Virginia, 119; + policy, 121. +Danes, in the West Indies, 253. +Daniel, Robert, English colonel, 269. +Davenport, Reverend John, a founder of New Haven, 156. +Davidson County, North Carolina, 419. +Davila, Gil Gonzalez. _See_ Gonzalez. +Davis, John, seeks northwest passage, 66, 109. +Dawes, William, 460. +Deane, Silas, mission to France, 506. +De Chastes, in fur trading company, 85. +De Caylus, French admiral, 365. +Declaration of Independence, 476-481. +Declaratory Act, 438. +Deerfield, Massachusetts, massacre at, 271. +Delaware province, economic and social conditions in the eighteenth + century, 332-333; + separation from Pennsylvania, 350. +Delaware Indians, 416. +Delaware, Lord, governor of Virginia, 118-119. +Delaware River, Washington's retreat across, 489-492; + opened by the British, 502. +De Leon, Alonso, governor of Coahuila, 248; + founds Texas, 249, 251. +De Leon, Juan Ponce, explores coast, 17, 25, 26; + war against the Caribs, 40; + attempts to colonize Florida, 40. +De Leon, Luis Ponce, governor in Mexico, holds _residencia_ of + Cortez, 48. +DeLepe, explorer, 24. +Delgado, Marcos, explores western Florida, 249. +DeLignery, 287, campaign in Wisconsin, 1715, 287. +De Louvigny, victory over Foxes in Wisconsin, 1716, 275, 287. +De Luna, Tristan, expedition to Florida, 61-62. +De Medici, Catherine, 78. +De Medici, Mary, 79, 80. +De Mezieres, Athanase, rule in Red River Valley, 398, 401. +Denmark, joins League of Armed Neutrals, 520. +Denonville, Governor, campaign against Iroquois, 258-259. +Department of foreign affairs (United States), 555. +De Soto, Hernando, in Central America, 31; + governor of Florida, 41; + expedition of, 41-42, 44; + death, 42. +D'Estaing, Comte, in command of French fleet, 510; + failure at Newport, 510; + in West Indies, 510-511; + fails to relieve Savannah, 511, 524. +_Destruction of the Indies, The_, work by Las Casas, 50. +De Tracy, lieutenant-colonel of New France, 94. +Detroit, founding of, 101; + occupied by French, 267, 368; + fur trading post, 422: + during American Revolution, 513, 514. +De Troyes, captures Hudson Bay posts, 261. +Diaz, Bartholomew, explores African coast, 5. +Diaz, Melchior, explores Colorado River, 45. +Dickinson, John, member of the Stamp Act Congress, 436; + author of the _Farmer's Letters_, 439: + member of First Continental Congress, 452; + attitude toward Declaration of Independence, 478; + on committee to draw up Articles of Confederation, 550. +Dieskau, Baron, 374. +Dinwiddie, lieutenant-governor of Virginia, 369. +Disallowance, 351-352. +Dollard, resistance to Iroquois, 91. +Dolores y Viana, Father, missionary in Texas, 299. +Dominica Island, captured by French, 510; + battle between Rodney and De Grasse, 532. +Dominicans, in New Spain, 61; + field of work, 236. +Dominguez, Father Francisco, explores Utah Basis, 392. +Donelson, pioneer in Kentucky, 419. +Dongan, Thomas, governor of New York, 197-198; + policy toward Indians, 258. +Dorchester, settled, 142. +Dorchester Heights, 471. +Douro River, Portugal, 4, 13. +Dover, New Hampshire, 140; + Puritan settlers, 157; + claimed by Massachusetts, 157. +Drake, Francis, freebooter in West Indies, 66; + raid on Pacific coast, 70; + accompanies Hawkins, 107; + attack on Nombre de Dios, 107; + on Chagres River, 107; + circumnavigates globe, 108; + rescues Roanoke Island colonists, 110. +Drake's Bay, California, 70. +Ducasse, French naval commander, in intercolonial wars, 262, 268, 269. +Duchesneau, intendant of New France, 97; + recalled, 98. +Ducour, French commander, surrenders Louisbourg, 377. +Dudley, Thomas, deputy governor, 142; + governor, 146. +_Duke's Laws_, 197. +Duluth, fur trader in Minnesota and Wisconsin, 100. +Dunmore, Lord, governor of Virginia, 413; + war with Indians of Ohio Valley, 417; + difficulties in 1775, 462-463. +Duquesne, Marquis, governor-general of Canada, 368; + plans to occupy Ohio country, 368. +Durango, Mexico, founding of, 56; + industrial development, 58; + capital of Nueva Vizcaya, 242. +Durham, Massacre at, 266. +Du Rivage, French explorer on Red River, 1719, 283. +Dutch, destroy English settlement on Schuylkill River, 155; + in American Revolution, 520-522; + revolt of the Netherlands, 52; + Dutch freebooters in the Caribbean, 66; + commercial expansion of the Netherlands, 164; + East Indian trade, 164; + Henry Hudson, 165; + Cape Horn route discovered, 165; + the West India Company, 166; + the Dutch in Brazil, Guiana, and the Antilles, 166, 251-252; + New Netherlands, 167-174; + the government, 167; + Peter Minuit, 167-168; + the patroon system, 169-170; + frontier rivals, 170; + Van Twiller and Kieft, 170-171; + Indian wars, 172; + Stuyvesant, 172; + struggle for popular government, 172-173; + industries, 173-174; + conquest of New Sweden, 175-177; + New Netherlands absorbed by the English, 177-178, 196-197; + Dutch pirates on the Pacific, 240. +Dutch East India Company, 164-165. +Dutch Reformed Church, 223. +Dutch West India Company, 166, 252. +Du Tisne, explores Osage and Arkansas country, 283. +Dyer, Mary, 189. + + +East India Company, English, formed, 70, 105; + tea concessions, 447. +East Indies, commerce of, 70. +Eastland Company, 106. +East New Jersey, population, 221; + social conditions, 223-224; + religion, 224; + education, 224. + _See_ New Jersey. +Eaton, Theophilus, a founder of New Haven, 150. +Eaton's Station, 513. +Echagaray, ordered to explore Bay of Espiritu Santo, 249. +Ecija, expedition from Florida to Virginia, 1609, 118-119. +Edict of Nantes, 79. +Edisto Island, ravaged by Spaniards, 1686, 255. +Education, in New Spain, 50, 53; + colleges and universities, 76; + in New England, 220-221; + in New York, 222-223; + in East New Jersey, 224; + in Chesapeake Bay region, 229; + in South Carolina, 231; + in English colonies in the eighteenth century, 338-339. +Edwards, Jonathan, 338. +Elcano, completes Magellan's voyage round the world, 25. +Eleutheria Island, settled, 152. +Eliot, John, missionary to Indians, 156. +Elizabethtown, New Jersey, 199. +Elizabeth, Queen of England, policy, 105; +English expansion during reign, 107-111. +El Paso district, beginnings of, 245; + attached to New Mexico, 245. +Emigration. _See_ Immigration and Population. +_Encomiendas_, origin of, 22; + granting of in conquests, 31, 34, 40, 55; + upheld by Cortes, 47-48; _New Laws_ concerning, 50; + cessation of, in West Indies, 67; + in New Spain, 55, 75. +Endicott, John, founds Salem, 141. +England, the Tudor Period, 104-105; + under the early Stuarts, 112-113; + the Puritan movement, 135-136; + the Restoration, 179; + the mercantilist system, 179; + the Triple Alliance, 359; + in the War of Jenkins's Ear, 361-364; + in the War of the Austrian Succession, 364-366; + in the Seven Years' War, 369-383; + new possessions after 1763, 403-424; + controversy with American colonies, 425-555. +English colonies in North America, general history: + beginning of English expansion, 1485-1603, 104-110; + the Tudor period, 104-105; + commercial expansion, 105-107; + the Cabots, 105; + Newfoundland fisheries, 106; + Muscovy and Levant companies, 106; + Elizabethan sea-dogs, 107-108; + search for a Northwest passage, 108-109; + attempts to colonize Virginia and Guiana, 109-110; + the colonies under the early Stuarts, 112-113; + colonial administration, 113; + the founding of Virginia, 114-125; + the founding of Maryland, 125-129; + the Bermudas, 129; + Guiana, 130; + the Lesser Antilles, 132; + Providence Island Company, 133; + the beginnings of New England, 135-150; + the Puritan movement, 135-136; + Plymouth colony, 136-141; + attempts on New England coast, 141-142; + Massachusetts Bay Colony, 142-146; + Rhode Island and Connecticut, 146-151; + the English colonies during the revolutionary period, 152-163; + the old colonies under the later Stuarts, 179-195; + colonial policy and administration, 179-181; + machinery of government, 181-183; + expansion under the later Stuarts, 196-214; + New York, 196-198; + the Jerseys, 198-202; + Pennsylvania, 202-206; + expansion in the islands, 206-207; + the Carolinas, 207-211; + Western trade and exploration, 211; + Hudson's Bay Company, 212-214; + English Mainland colonies at end of 17th century described-- + society, industry, education, religion, population, 216-232; + the struggle with the French for the fur country, 257-261; + the War of the English Succession, 261-267; + the War of the Spanish Succession, 267-273; + the English in the Piedmont, 309-328; + the Westward Movement, 309-311; + defense of the northern frontier, 311-312; + reorganization of the Carolinas, 312-315; + Georgia, the buffer colony, 315-316; + the German and Swiss migration, 316-322; + the Scotch-Irish, 322-326; + significance of settlement of the Piedmont, 326-328; + the English colonies in the middle 18th century, population, + industry, labor systems, society, religion, education, 329-339; + Barbados, Leeward Isles, and Jamaica, 339-341; + the English colonial system, 343-357; + reorganizations by William III, 343-350; + development during the reign of Anne, 350-352; + under the Whigs, 353-357; + a quarter century of conflict with France and Spain, 359-383; + Spain and the powers, 359-361; + War of Jenkins' Ear, 361-364; + War of the Austrian Succession, 364-366; + the conflict in the Ohio Valley, 366-369; + the French and Indian War, 369-382; + the Peace of Paris, 382; + the new British possessions, 1763-1783, 403-424; + general provisions for defense, government, and fur trade, 403-406; + occupation of the Floridas, 406-409; + military occupation of the Illinois country, 409-410; + western land schemes, 411-413; + the westward movement into Tennessee, Kentucky, and the Upper + Ohio country, 413-419; + the province of Quebec, 410-421; + the northern, fur traders, 421-424; + the causes of the American Revolution, 425-456; + the background of the conflict, 425-429; + the policy of the Grenvile Ministry, 429-437; + the repeal of the Stamp Act, 431-432; + the Townshend Acts, 438-443; + organized resistance, 443-447; + the Tea Controversy, 447-449; + Lord North's Coercive Policy, 440-451; + the First Continental Congress, 451-456; + the opening of hostilities, 458-463; + the Second Continental Congress, 463-470; + the Loyalists, 472-476; + the Declaration of Independence, 476-480; + the struggle for the middle states, 482-504; + the war as an international contest, 505-522; + the French Alliance, 505-512; + the war in the West, 512-515; + Spain in the war, 521-522; + the dose of the war, 524-532; + the treaty of peace, 532-538; + governmental development during the Revolution, 539-555. +Episcopal Church, in New England, 220; + in New York, 222; + in Pennsylvania, 226; + in Virginia, 229; + in Maryland, 229; + in South Carolina, 231. +Eric the Red, colonization of Greenland, 2. +Escalante, Father Silvestre de, explores Utah Basin, 392. +Escandon, Colonel Jose de, colonizes Gulf Coast, 299-300, 385. +Escobar, Cristobal, Jesuit provincial, urges colonization of Colorado + River, 304, 307. +Espanola (Haiti), 10; + spread of settlements in, 17; + gold mining, 19; + other industries, 19; + emigration to, encouraged, migration from to mainland forbidden, 21; + decline of, 67. + _See_ also West Indies. +Espejo, Antonio de, expedition to New Mexico, 72. +Espinosa, Gaspar de, explores Central America, 29-30, 42. +Espinosa, Fray Isidro Felix, Franciscan missionary and historian in + Texas, 292, 293. +Espiritu Santo, settlement in Texas, 36; + Bay of, 249, 297. +Esquivel, Juan de, colonizes Jamaica, 17. +Estete, explores Nicaragua, 32. +Estrada, royal treasurer of New Spain, 48; + governor in Mexico, 48. +Eutaw Springs, 530. +Executive departments of United States government, 553, 554-555. + _See_ Second Continental Congress. +Exeter, New Hampshire, settled, 157. + + +Fabry de la Bruyere, expedition up Canadian River, 286. +Fages, Pedro, expedition against the Yumas, 394. +Falmouth burned, 470. +Far East, travelers in, and books regarding, 3; + change in trade route to, 5. +Farfan, Marcos, explores Arizona, 73. +Farmar, Major Robert, expedition to the Illinois, 406. +_Farmer's Letters_, 439-440. +Farnese, Elizabeth, 279, 359, 360, 361. +Fenwick, John, 201. +Ferdinand and Isabella, 13-14. + _See_ also Isabella, Queen of Spain. +Ferrelo, explores north Pacific coast with Cabrillo, 47. +Feudalism, in Maryland, 125-129. +Finlay, James, Montreal fur magnate, 423. +Finley, explorer in Kentucky, 413. +First Continental Congress, call, 451-452; + meeting, 452; + Suffolk resolves, 452; + plan of union, 452-453; + declaration and resolves, 453-454; + commercial agreements, 454-455; + Association, 455; + attempts to secure cooperation of other colonies, 455; + beginnings of sovereignty, 539. +Fisher, Mary, 189. +Fishing industry of New England, 217, 331. +Fletcher, Colonel Benjamin, governor of New York, 345. +Florida Blanca, Count of, Spanish Minister of Foreign Affairs, 507-508; + policy, 515. +Floyd, John, prospector in Kentucky, 416. +Florida, Indians, 23; + explored, 125, 126; + assigned to Narvaez, 37; + Spanish attempts to colonize: + De Leon, 40; + Ayllon, 40-41; + De Soto, 42; + Fray Luis Cancer, 61; + De Luna, 61-62; + French attempts to colonize, and expulsion of by Spain, 62-63, 83-84, 251; + founding of St. Augustine, 62; + map, 63; + new settlements, 64; + Jesuit missions, 64-65; + Franciscan missions, 65; + Pareja's work on Indian languages, 65, 253; + missions in Apalachee district, 247; + English encroachment, 253-255; + Pensacola founded, 255, 275; + during War of Spanish Succession, 269-271; + siege of St. Augustine, 269-270; + destruction of the Apalachee missions, 269-270; + Spanish expedition against Charleston, 270; + Indian uprising, 270; + the Tuscarora War, 271; + Pensacola captured by French, 295; + ceded to England, 382, 384; + captaincy-general of, 387. +Florida, East, under British rule, 404; + occupation and development, 408-409; + refuge for Loyalists, 409. +Florida, West, joined with Louisiana, 398; + extent under British rule, 404; + possession taken by British, 406; + posts in, 406; + boundary and the river forts, 406-407; + center of control for Indians and for trade of the Southwest, 407; + politics and government, 407; + development under British rule, 407-408; + immigration encouraged, 408; + land speculation, 408; + Loyalist refuge during the Revolution, 408. +Fonseca, Archdeacon, head of Spanish department of Indian affairs, + 16, 19, 34; + victory of Cortes over, 34. +Fonseca Bay, discovered, 29. +Font, Father Pedro, Franciscan missionary with Anza, explores in + California, 391. +Forbes, English commander, expedition against Fort Duquesne, 377, 378. +Fort Bute, captured by Galvez, 515. +Fort Casimir, 177. +Fort Caroline, French fort in Florida, 62, 84. +Fort Christina, 175. +Fort Crevecoeur, Illinois, 98. +Fort Edward, 495. +Fort Elfsborg, 175. +Fort Frederica, 316. +Fort Frontenac, abandoned, 259; + reoccupied, 265. +Fort George, 462. +Fort Good Hope, 170. +Fort Independence, 493-494. +Fort Jefferson, 514. +Fort King George, 315. +Fort Lee, captured by the British, 488-489. +Fort Mercer, 503. +Fort Miami, LaSalle at, 98. +Fort Mifflin, 503. +Fort Orange (Albany), 167. +Fort Panmure, at Natchez, captured by Galvez, 515. +Fort Rosalie, at Natchez, 278, 280. +Fort St. Louis, built by La Salle in Texas, 99. +Fort Stanwix, 496. +Fort Tombecbe, Alabama, 281, 406. +Fort Toulouse, on Alabama River, fur depot and Jesuit mission, 278. +Fort Washington, captured by British, 488. +Fox, George, visit to New Jersey, 109; + religious views, 202; + visit to America, 203. +Fox Channel, 213. +Fox Indians, wars with, 284, 285, 287; + massacre, 287. +France, during colonial period, 52-53, 78-80, 88, 89, 279, 295, + 359, 360, 363, 364, 375; + causes of alliance with the United States, 505; + policy of Vergennes, 505-506; + Deane and Beaumarchais, 506; + Franklin's influence, 506-507; + American proposals, 507; + Lafayette, 508; + the alliance, 508; + operations of D'Estaing, 510-511; + Rochambeau, 511; + alliance of 1779 with Spain, 515; + peace treaty, 532-538; + loans to the United States, 554. +Franche Comte, 52. +Francis I of France, 16. +Franciscans, in New Spain: + in Nueva-Vizcaya, 58; + Monastery at Saltillo, 59; + in Florida, 65; + field of work, 236; + in Chihuahua, 242; + in New Mexico, 243, 245, 246-247, 290; + take over work of the Jesuits in northeastern provinces, 386. + _See also_ Serra, Garces, Missions. +Franco-Spanish border, 300-301; + Texas-Louisiana boundary, 300; + New Mexico border, 300-301. +Franklin, Benjamin, influence on education, 339; + plan of union, 371; + interest in the West, 412; + agent for Pennsylvania and Massachusetts, 437; + the intercepted letters, 448; + member of Second Continental Congress, 463; + Post Master General, 465; + member of committee for drafting the Declaration of Independence, 479; + diplomacy in France, 506-507; + peace negotiations, 533-538; + views regarding the Articles of Confederation, 550. +Franklin, William, Governor of New Jersey, land scheme, 411; + attempts to defeat Independence, 479. +Frederick the Great and League of Armed Neutrals, 519. +Freebooters in New World, 62, 66, 70. + _See_ Privateers. +Freedom of the press, 356-357. +Freeman's Farm, 497, 498. +French colonies in North America, France during the colonial period, 78-81; + early colonizing efforts, 81-84; + first voyages, 81; + Carriers and Roberval, 81-82; + Ribaut and Laudonniere, 82-84; + Acadia, 85-86; + the fur monopoly, 85; + Port Royal, 85; + Charnisay and LaTour, 86; + the English conquest, 86; + the St. Lawrence Valley, 86-93; + Quebec founded, 86; + Champlain, 87-88; + Company of Hundred Association, 87; + English conquest, 87; + Nicolet, 88; + the Jesuits, 88; + map, 89; + Montreal founded, 90; + the New Company, 90; + _Coureurs de bois_, 90; + reorganization, 91; + centralist system established, 91; + Laval, 91; + Iroquois War, 91; + the West India Company, 91; + Talon, 92; + Seigneurial grants, 92; + the West Indies, 93-96; + the West India Company, 94; + map, 95; + the Upper Lake region and the Mississippi Valley, 96-102; + two lines of approach, 96; + Upper Lake posts and missions, 96; + Marquette and Joliet, 96-97; + Frontenac, 97; + La Salle's fur trade monopoly, 98; + descends the Mississippi, 98; + his colony in Texas, 98-99; + explores in the Southwest, 100; + Duluth, Le Sueur, and Perrot on the upper Mississippi, 100-101; + the Illinois country, 101; + on the Tennessee, 101-102; + Anglo-French rivalry during Wars of English and Spanish Successions, + 214, 257-273; + the founding of Louisiana, 275-278; + Iberville, 275; + Spanish resistance, 275. + Biloxi, 270; + alliances with the tribes, 276; + Bienville, 276; + Crozat, 276; + Natchitoches, Fort Toulouse, and Natchez, 278; + Louisiana under the Company of the Indies, 278-280; + the Mississippi Bubble, 278; + New Orleans founded, 279; + War with Spain, 279; + government, 279; + the Natchez War, 280; + Louisiana under royal governors, 280-286; + Bienville again, 281; + the Chickasaw war, 281; + the Illinois country attached to Louisiana, 281; + the Missouri lead mines, 282; + the French in the trans-Mississippi West, 282-286; + La Harpe, DuTisne, Bourgmont, 283-284; + advance toward New Mexico, 284-286; + the western fur-trade, 284; + Mallet, Fabry, Satren, Chapuis, 286; + the far Northwest, 287-288; + the Fox wars, 281; + new Sioux posts, 287; + Verendrye and the Post of the Western Sea, 287-288; + Franco-Spanish border conflicts, 289, 291-297, 300-301; + the struggle with England, 359-383: + the War of the Austrian Succession, 364-366; + the conflict on the Upper Ohio, 366-369; + the French and Indian War, 369-383; + the fall of Quebec, 379; + the Peace of Paris, 382; + France expelled from America, 363. +French and Indian War: + approach of, 366-369; + preparations in Acadia, 366; + activities on the Ohio, 366-369; + the Ohio Company, 367; + the French frontier strengthened, 367-368; + French occupation of the upper Ohio, 368-369; + Washington's mission, 369; + the southern frontier, 369; + Virginia prepares, 369-370; + Washington's first campaign, 370; + apathy of colonial legislatures, 370-371; + the Albany convention, 371; + preparations for war, 371; + the council of governors, 371-372; + Braddock's campaign, 372; + harrying of the frontiers, 372-374; + map of the western frontier, 1763, 373; + operations in Acadia, 374; + the Crown Point campaign, 374; + the Niagara campaign, 374-375; + diplomatic revolution, 375; + French preparations, 375; + English preparations, 375-376; + fall of Oswego, 376; + Pitt becomes the moving spirit, 376; + Louisbourg and Ft. William Henry, 376; + English victories in India, 376, 377; + preparations and plans, 1758, 377; + capture of Louisbourg, 377; + Abercromby's defeat, 377-378; + Frontenac and Duquesne, 378; + Kerlerec and the southern Indians, 378; + the Cherokee War, 378-379; + operations in the West Indies, 379; + the campaigns of 1759; + Niagara captured, 379; + the fall of Quebec, 379-380; + important naval operations, 380; + the French fail to recapture Quebec, 381; + capture of Montreal, 381; + George III becomes king, 381; + operations in the West Indies and the Philippines, 382; + the Peace of Paris, 382. +French West India Company, 91-92, 94, 96; + settlements in the West Indies, 252. +Fresnillo, Mexico, mine of, 56. +Frobisher, Benjamin and Joseph, Montreal fur magnates, 423. +Frobisher, Martin, voyages in search of a northwest passage, 66, 108-109. +Frontenac, Count, governor and lieutenant-general of New France, + 96, 259, 263; + sends Joliet in search of the Mississippi, 96; + founding of Fort Frontenac, 97; + change in government and resulting friction, 97; + recalled, 98; + reappointed, 259, 263; + conduct of French campaign in War of the English Succession, 263, 264; + his Indian policy, 263; + reopens the fur trade, 265. +Fuenleal, Sebastian Ramirez de, president of Audiencia of New Spain, 49. +Fuerte River Valley, Sinaloa, Jesuit missions in, 239. +Fuller, William, heads rebellion in Maryland, 162. +"Fundamental Orders" of Connecticut, 150. +Fur Trade: early French in Acadia, 85; + of St. Lawrence Valley, 87-90, 213-214; + _coureurs de bois_, 90; + of Mississippi Valley, 98-102; + rivalry of French and English, 102; + in New England, 155,158, 217; + of the Dutch, 165-166, 167, 171, 173-174; + of Carolinas, 211; + Hudson's Bay Company, 214-215, 260-261; + in New York, 222; + in Pennsylvania, 226; + of South Carolina, 231, 255; + struggle for the northern fur country, 257-261; + French sphere of influence, 257; + English policy, 257-258; + French policy under La Barre and Denonville, 258-259; + temporary French ascendency, 261; + the Alabama border, 270; + in English colonies in the 18th century, 331, 332, 334, 335, 367; + in French Louisiana, 270, 276-278; + in trans-Mississippi West, 284-285, 300, 396; + in the Saskatchewan Valley, 287-288; + Russian, on the Pacific coast, 388; + in Louisiana under Spain, 398, 400-402; + in New British possessions after 1763, regulations, 404-406, 421-422; + in West Florida, 407; in the Ohio Valley, 409; + in Canada, 421-423; + the Northwest Company, 423; + competition with Hudson's Bay Company, 423-424. +Fusang, conjecture concerning location, 2. + + +Gadsden, Christopher, member of the Stamp Act Congress, 436. +Gage, General Thomas, 410, 459, 461. +Gali, Francisco de, ordered to explore Pacific Coast, 70. +Galissoniere, Marquis de la, governor of Canada, 368. +Galloway, Joseph, 452-453. +Galveston Bay, La Harpe at, 283. +Galvez, Bernardo de, governor of Louisiana, 398,401; + operations on the lower Mississippi, 515; + captures Mobile and Pensacola, 516. +Galvez, Jose, visitador general to New Spain, 385; + Minister of the Indies, 387; + reform of the revenue system, 385; + tobacco monopoly, 385; + in Lower California, 386; + organized expedition to Alta California, 386, 387; + pacification of Sonora, 386; + plans for intendant system, 386-387; + creation of new dioceses, 387; + captaincy-general of Havana, 387. +Gama, Vasco da, voyage to Calicut, 5, 24. +Gamara, seeks La Salle's colony, 249. +Garay, governor of Jamaica, explorations, 25-26, 37. +Garces, Father Francisco, Franciscan missionary, explorations from San + Xavier del Bac, 391; + with Anza, opens land route to California, 391; + seeks route from New Mexico, 391, 393; + founds mission-pueblo at Yuma, 393; + massacred, 393. +_Gaspee affair_, 444-445. +Gates, General Horatio, at Crown Point, 487; + intrigues with Congress, 493; + in command against Burgoyne, 496-499; + Conway Cabal, 503-504; + in the South, 525; + defeated at Camden, 525-526. +Gates, Sir Thomas, governor of Virginia, 118. +Geography, growth of knowledge, 1-4. +George I, 353; + colonial system under the Whigs, 353-357. +George II, colonial system under the Whigs, 353-357. +George III, becomes king, 381; + policy, 429; + proclamation of rebellion in America, 460-470; + the American Revolution, 425-555. + Georgia, De Soto crosses, 42; + Spanish post in Guale (northern Georgia), 1566, 64; + Boyano explores, 1567, 64; + Jesuit missions in Guale and Orista, 1568, 64-65; + Franciscan missions on coast, 573-597, 65; + destroyed in uprising, 1597, 65; + restored to resist English, 253-254; + Yamassee revolt against Spaniards, 255; + English attack on missions, 255; + English traders among Creeks, 255; + Anglo-Spanish border raids during War of Spanish Succession, Spanish + frontier contracted, 270; + early English movement into, 315; + Azilia, 315; + motives of Oglethorpe, 315; + charter, 315; + government, 316; + early English settlements, 316; + defense, 316; + German migration, to, 321; + Scotch-Irish migration to, 326; + economic conditions, 335; + defense against Spaniards during War of Jenkins' Ear, 361-362, 363-364; + trouble with the governor, 444; + attitude toward the Association 458; + Cherokee War, 512-513; + conquest by British, 534; + reconquered by Greene, 529-530. +Georgian Bay, explored, 87, 88. +Germaine, Lord George, 470, 493. +German mercenaries, 470, 478. +German migration to America, causes, 316-317; + early movement to Pennsylvania, 317-318; + migration to New York, 318-319; + later migration to New York, 318-319; + later migration to Pennsylvania, 319; + to New Jersey, 319; + to Maryland, 319-320; + to Virginia, 320; + to North Carolina, 320; + to South Carolina, 321; + to Georgia, 321; + to New England, 321-322; + to Nova Scotia, 322. +Germantown, battle of, 502. +Germany, 16. +Geronymite friars, in West Indies, 23. +Gibraltar, Anglo-Spanish conflict over, 359, 360. +Gila River, 45; + plans for exploration, 304; + Garces on, 391; + Yuma mission on, 393. +Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, voyage of, 66; + attempts to found a colony, 109. +Gillam, Zachariah, voyages to Hudson Bay, 213. +Gist, Christopher, explores Ohio Valley, 367. +Glen, governor of South Carolina, 369. +Goa, India, Portuguese in, 24. +Godyn, Samuel, 170. +Golfo Dulce, Cortes visits, 38. +Gomez, Stephen, explores North Atlantic coast, 26. +Gondomar, Spanish ambassador in England, 132. +Gonzalez, Davila, Gil, expeditions in Central America, 29-30, 31, 38. +Gordillo, explores Atlantic coast, 26. +Gorges, Lord Edward, land grants, 140, 146. +Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, sends vessels to New England, 136; + land grants, 140, 146, 157; + interest in Canada and Laconia companies, 141; + loss of estates, 157-158. +Gorges, Sir Robert, land grant, 140; + attempted settlement at Weymouth, 140. +Gorges family, opposition to Massachusetts Bay Company, 141. +Gourgues, Dominique de, attacks Spaniards in Florida, 64, 84. +Governor's Island, 171. +Granada, Nicaragua, founding of, 31; + population, 75. +Granada, Spain, conquest of kingdom of, 13. +Gran Quivira (Kansas), expedition of Coronado to, 45; + of Humana, 72-73; + of Onate, 73; + of Alonso de Vaca, 243. +Grand Canyon of the Colorado, discovered, 45. +Grant, Colonel, expedition against Cherokees, 379. +Grant, James, first English governor of East Florida, 408-409. +Grasse, De, French admiral, in the West Indies, 530-531; + defeats Graves, 531; + defeated by Rodney, 532. +Graves, Admiral, 531. +Graydon, John, English vice-admiral, commander of West Indian fleet, + 268. +"Great Awakening," 338. +Great Bridge, 471. +Great Khan, visits of Europeans to court of, 3. +Greene, Nathanael, in command of Rhode Island volunteers, 461; + loses Ft. Washington, 488-489; + at Trenton, 491; + at Brandywine, 500; + at Germantown, 502; + in command in the South, 527; + retreat, 528; + Guilford, 528-529; + reconquest of South Carolina and Georgia, 529-530. +"Green Sea of Darkness," Arabian notion of, 2. +Greenbrier Company, 411. +Greenland, discovery and colonization, 2-3. +Grenada, acquired by England, 404; + occupied by the French, 510; + restored to Great Britain, 537. +Grenville, Sir Richard, freebooter, 60; + expedition to Roanoke Island, 110. +Grenville Ministry, 430-436. +Grijalva, exploring expeditions, 25, 32. +Grimaldi, Spanish minister, 388. +Groseilliers, fur trader in Great Lake region, influence in + establishment of the Hudson's Bay Company, 213. +Guachichile Indians, Coahuila, 59. +Guadalajara, seat of Audiencia, 27, 40, 50, 55, 58, 75, 387; + seat of Province of Santiago de Jalisco, 249. +Guadalajara, New Mexico officer leads pearl hunting expedition in + Texas, 244. +Guadeloupe Island, international contests over, 93, 252, 262, 382. +Guadiana (Durango), diocese of, 242. +Guale (Georgia), Spanish presidio in, 64; + Jesuit mission in, 64-65. +Guanajauto, mines, 58; + founding of City of Santa Fe de, 58. +Guanaja Islands, 25. +Guatemala, Maya civilization, 27; + conquest of, 31, 37-38, 39; + expedition of Nino to, 42; + Audiencia of, 50; + population, 75. +Guerrero (state), Mexico, Zacatilla founded in, 37. +Guiana, 66, 80; + tales about, 110; + English interests in, 130, 132; + early English expeditions to, 132; + Spanish opposition to English settlement, 132; + Dutch colonization, 166-167; + English, Dutch, and French posts, 251-252. +Guilford, Connecticut, 150. +Guilford, New Jersey, 199. +Guilford, battle of, 528-529. +Guillen, Father, Jesuit missionary in California, 307. +Guise, Francis and Henry, 53, 78, 79. +Gutierrez, Alonso, governor of Veragua, 32. +Guzman, Nuno de, governor of Victoria Garayana (Panuco), 37, 48; + president of Audiencia of Mexico, 38, 48; + conquest of Sinaloa (Nueva Galicia), 39, 40; + claim to Cibola, 44; + enmity to Cortes, 48. + + +Haiti, Columbus's expedition to, 10; + named Espanola, 10. _See_ Espanola. +Halifax, Lord, 354, 366. +Halifax, Nova Scotia, founding, 366. +Hamilton, English major-general in War of Austrian Succession, 268. +Hamilton, British commander at Detroit, raids of, 513, 514; + captured, 514. +Hampton Court Conference, 136. +Hancock, John, trouble with customs officials, 441-442; + distributes arms, 460; + president of Second Continental Congress, 463, 541. +Hapsburgs, French hostility to, 80. +Harcourt, Robert, attempts to colonize Guiana, 132. +Harlem, battle of, 485. +Harper's Ferry, founded, 320. +Harrod, pioneer settler in Kentucky, 413, 416. + +Harrodsburg, Kentucky, 416, 417. +Hartford, Dutch fort at, 149; founding of the town, 149. +Havana, Cuba, founded, 19; + decline of, 67; + captaincy-general and intendancy of, 387; + Louisiana attached to, 398; + Audiencia of, 398. +Harvard College, 220-221, 339. +Harvey, Sir John, governor of Virginia, 124-125. +Hawkins, John, English freebooter, 66; + slave trade, 107. +Hawkins, William, voyages to Guiana and Brazil, 107. +Hazard, Samuel, plan for western colony, 411. +Hearne, Samuel, explorations, 423-424; + reaches Arctic Ocean and discovers Lake Athabasca, 424. +Heath, Sir Robert, grant in the Carolinas, 207. +Heceta, Bruno de, expedition up North Pacific coast, 395. +Henderson, Judge Richard, land speculator in Kentucky, 413; + founds Transylvania, 417-418. +Henley House, Hudson's Bay Company post, 423. +Hennepin, Recollet missionary among the Illinois, 97, 101; + in Minnesota, 98; + meets Duluth, 100. +Henry, Alexander, Montreal fur magnate, 423. +Henry, Patrick, buys Spanish horses in the West, 400; + in the Parson's Cause, 429; + Virginia Resolutions, 435-436; + member of First Continental Congress, 452; + heads armed resistance, 462-463; + sends militia to Kentucky, 513. +Henry VII, policy, 104; + Cabot, 105-106. +Henry the Navigator, prince of Portugal, 4-5; + his objects, 5; + explorations, 5; + map showing, 6; + beginning of slave trade, 5. +Henry IV, of France (Henry of Navarre), 53; + Huguenot leader, 78, 79; + reforms of, as king, 79; + assassination, 79. +Henry VII of England, 7. +Herkimer, Colonel Nicholas, 496. +_Hermandad_, local police, 14; + recognized as state agency by Ferdinand and Isabella, 14. +Hessians, in American Revolution, 489-491. +Heyn, Piet, capture of Bahia, 166; + capture of Vera Cruz fleet, 252. +Hidalgo, Father Francisco, missionary in Texas, 249, 292. +Hill, General Sir John, expedition against Quebec, 272. +Hillsboro, North Carolina, 415. +Hillsborough, Earl of, colonial secretary, 406, 413, 419, 441. +Hispaniola, English corruption of Espanola, which _see_. +Hoboken, New Jersey, 198. +Holburne, English vice-admiral in French and Indian War, 376. +Holland. _See_ Netherlands, Dutch. +Honduras, conquest and settlement, 24, 31, 38-39 +Hooke, Sir Humphrey, leases in Virginia, 185. +Hopkins, Ezek, 464, 517. +Hopkins, John B., 465. +Horses, Spanish trade in with English colonies, 400. +Hortalez et cie, 506. +Howard of Effingham, Lord, governor of Virginia, 187-188. +Howe, Admiral Lord, attempt at conciliation, 483; + at Philadelphia, 503; + and D'Estaing, 510. +Howe, General Sir William, at Boston, 461; + New York campaign, 483-486, 488-489; + failure to cooeperate with Burgoyne, 493; + Philadelphia campaign, 499-503; + recalled, 509. +Huasteca country (Tamaulipas), conquered by Cortes, 37. +Hubbardtown, 495. +Hudson Bay, exploration of, 212-213. +Hudson, Henry, exploration 1609, 165; + discovery of Hudson Bay, 213. +Hudson's Bay Company, established, 213; + trading houses, 214; + methods, 214; + French rivalry, 214, 288; + struggle for fur country, 257-261; + posts, 260-261; + in Wars of English and Spanish Successions, 273; + activity following Peace of Utrecht, 423; + Hearne's explorations, 423-424; + rivalry with Northwest Company, 424. +Huehuetoca, Canal of (Mexico), 53. +Huguenots, in France, 78, 79; + colonizing efforts, 62, 82-83; + in New England, 216; + in South Carolina, 230. +Humana, Gutierrez de, expedition to New Mexico and Quivira, 72-73. +Hundred Associates. _See_ Company of the Hundred Associates. +Hurdaide, Captain Diego, commander in Sinaloa, 237, 239. +Huron Indians, wars with Iroquois, 258, 259. +Hurtado, Juan P., expedition against Apaches, 290. +Hutchinson, Anne, doctrines, 148; + controversy in Boston congregation, 148; + banishment, 148; + at Portsmouth and Newport, 148. +Hutchinson, Thomas, 443, 444, 448. + + +Ibarra, Diego de, Conquistador of Zacatecas, 55; + cattle business, 58. +Ibarra, Francisco de, miner at Zacatecas, 55-56; + list of mines opened, 56; + governor of Nueva Vizcaya, 56; + explorations, colonies, mines in northern Mexico, 56, 58; + death, 58. +Iberville, founder of Louisiana, 102, 261, 265, 266, 270, 275, 276. +Iceland, discovery and colonization, 2. +Illinois, La Salle in, 98; + Sulpicians and Jesuits (Cahokia and Kaskaskia), 101; + Tonty's fur trade, 101; + St. Denis' post at Cairo, 102; + Indians of, 258; + a judicial department of Louisiana, 280, 281; + prosperity under Company of the Indies, 281-282; + Fort Chartres, Ste. Genevieve, Vincennes, 281-282; + Missouri lead-mines, 282; + English plans to occupy, 409; + conspiracy of Pontiac, 409-410; + the Loftus expedition, 410; + establishment of English government, 410; + Quebec Act, 411; + character of population, 420; + conquered by G.R. Clark, 514. +_Imago Mundi_, possible influence on Columbus, 2, 7. +Immigration and population, Spanish colonies, 21, 75; + Sinaloa and Sonora, 240, 305-306; + Chihuahua, 289; + New Mexico, 73, 243, 244, 290; + California, 391-393; + French Canada, 93, 94; + Quebec, 419; + Loyalists in Canada, 421, 538; + French West Indies, 93, 94; + Louisiana, 279, 395-396; + the Illinois country, 281; + Bermudas, 130; + Lesser Antilles, 133, 340, 341; + Barbados, 216, 340, 341; + English mainland colonies, about 1700, 216; + Virginia, 121, 227; + Maryland, 127, 128, 227; + New England. 138, 143, 216, 217: + New Jersey, 200-201, 221; + New York, 221; + Pennsylvania and Delaware, 206, 224; + the Carolinas, 208, 230; + West Florida, 407-408; + Ohio Valley, 413-419; + German and Swiss migration, 316-322; + Scotch, Irish, 322-326; + English colonies in middle 18th century, 329-330; + on the eve of the Revolution, 425-426; + dispersion of the Loyalists, 538; + New Netherlands, 167; + New Sweden, 175. +Inde, Mexico, mines of, 56. +Indented servants, 122, 229, 336, 409. +Independents, 135, 137. _See_ Pilgrims. +India, visited by the Polos, 3; + travelers' tales regarding, 3; + discovery of new route to, 51; + Portuguese empire in, 24; + British administration of, 34; + during the French and Indian War. _See_ French and Indian War; + Events of the War in India. +Indian Ocean, Ptolemy's conception of, 1. +Indiana Company, 418. +Indians, in Spanish colonies, so-named by Columbus, 10; + Spanish policy in West Indies, 22-23; + rebellion in 1495, 22; + slavery 23, 31, 37, 56, 60-61, 72, 75; + Maya and Nahua civilization, 26-28; + native caciques used in conquest, 39; + Mixton War, 40; + Pueblo civilization in New Mexico, 46; + _New Laws_ concerning, 50, 53; + native alcaldes, 55; + Tlascaltecans as colonists, 50-60; + decline in West Indies, 67; + rebellion at Acoma, 73; + schools for, 76; + missions as frontier defense, 236; + Yaqui wars, 239; + Pueblo revolt in New Mexico, 245; + wars on North Mexican frontier, 245-246, 248; + in Eastern Texas, 251; + Apalachee revolt, 254; + Yamassee revolt, 255; + Moqui and Zuni resistance, 290; + Navajo, Yuta, and Comanche depredations in New Mexico, 290-291; + captives sold as slaves, 291; + the Jumanos, 243, 244, 285, 291; + destroy Vulazur's parry, 296; + Apache wars in Texas, 298-299; + the Tonkawa missions, 299; + Pima revolt in Arizona, 305; + Yuma massacre, 393-394; + Spanish policy in Louisiana, 400-401; + war on Apaches, 401; + hostilities in New Netherlands, 171-172; + in French colonies; + Huron and Iroquois wars, 88, 91, 258-259, 265; + Anglo-French rivalry for northern tribes, 257-259; + Abenaki wars, 262-265; + Frontenac's policy, 263; + competition for southern Indians, 269, 270, 276; + Natchez war on French, 278, 280; + the Chickasaw War, 281; + French among Western tribes (Asinais, Orcoquisas, Cadodachos, + Bidayes, Touacaras, Wichitas, Osages, Missouris, Pawnees, Otos, + Iowas, Kansas, Mandaos), 282-284; + Winnebagoes,296; + Apache-Comanche barrier to French advance, 285, 286; + Fox Wars, 287; + Sioux posts, 287; + Verendrye among Manfan Cheyennes, Crows, Little Foxes, Bows, 288; + in English colonies: early attacks in Virginia, 117-119, 122; + relations with Pilgrims, 138-139; + land title theory of Roger Williams, 147; + Wilhams and the Narragansetts, 147; + Pequot War, 159-160; + English missionary work among, 156; + Opechancanough's War, 185; + the Susquehanna War, 185-186; + King Philip's War, 191-192; + Iroquois treaty with Dongan, 198; + Penn's treaty, 205; + war in the Carolinas, 210; + policy of Hudson's Bay Company, 214; + the English among the Creeks, 255; + English war on Apalachees, 270; + Indian slavery in Carolina, 270; + the Tuscarora War, 271, 320; + barriers to Westward Movement, 310-414; + Yamassee War, 314; + Creeks and Cherokees, 314, 316; + alliances on Georgia frontier, 362; + during French and Indian War, 372; + Kerlerec and southern Indians, 378; + Cherokee War, 378; + English policy after 1763, 404-407; + Pontiac's War, 409-410; + land cessions in West, 412; + ravages in Kentucky, 416; + Lord Dunmore's War, 417; + policy of Continental Congress, 465-466; + in American Revolution, 496, 512-515. + _See_ names of individual tribes. Indigo, 535. +Innocent IV, Pope, legate sent to the Great Khan, 3. +Inquisition, The, 52; Council of the, 14. +Intendancies, in New Spain, 387. +Intolerable Acts, 449-451. +Iriarte, seeks La Salle's colony, 249. +Irish, in New England, 216; in New York, 222. + _See_ Scotch-Irish. +Iroquois Indians (Confederation, The Six Nations), 86, 91; + Dongan's treaty with, 198, 257, 258-259, 265, 365, 369; + cession of 1765, 412; + in the Revolution, 514-515. +Isabella of Spain, aids Columbus, 7, 8, 16. +Island Flats, 513. +Italy, 13, 16. +Iturbi, Juan de, pearl hunting voyages, 240; + believes California an island, 240. + + +Jack, Col. Samuel, 512. +Jackson, William, English privateer, 252. +Jalisco, conquest of, 37, 39. +Jamaica, Island, under Spain, 17, 67; + granted to Providence Island Company, 133; + English conquest, 153, 234, 253; + committee for, 153; + conditions in the eighteenth century, 340-341. +Jamaica Pass, 484. +James I of England, general policy, 112, 113; + treaty with Spain, 114; + the London Company, 123; + non-conformists, 136. +James, Duke of York, proprietor of New York, 178; + Lord High Admiral, 182; + proprietary grant of New Netherlands, 196-197; + attitude toward representative government in New York, 197-198; + interest in Hudson's Bay Company, 213. + _See_ James II. +James II, consolidation of colonies, 194; + "Glorious Revolution," 194-195; + difficulties with Carolina settlers, 210-211. + _See_ James, Duke of York. +Jamestown, founded, 116-117; + Spanish resistance, 118, 251. +Janos, Chihuahua, founded, 242. +Japan, early contact with America, 2; + Polo's knowledge of, 3; + Portuguese trading settlements in, 24. + _See_ Cipango. +Java, visited by the Polos, 3; + Dutch in, 164. +Jay, John, member of First Continental Congress, 452; + in Spain, 533; + peace negotiations, 534-538; + secretary of foreign affairs, 555. +Jefferson, Thomas, member of Second Continental Congress, 463; + writes Declaration of Independence, 479, 480. +Jeffreys, Herbert, acting governor of Virginia, 187. +Jenkins, Thomas, 361. + _See_ also The War of Jenkins' Ear. +Jerez, Mexico, founded, 59. +Jesuits, in Spanish colonies; + general field, 236; + Nueva Vizcaya, 58; + Florida (Georgia, South Carolina, Virginia),64-65; + Sinaloa and Sonora (Fuerte, Mayo, Yaqui, Sonora valleys), 237-240; + map, 238; + Chihuahua, 242; + in Pimeria Alta (Arizona), 301-396; + Lower California, 305-307; + expulsion, 1767, 386; + in French colonies: Canada, 87-88, 90, 91; + on the Maine border, 271; + on lakes Michigan and Syperior, 96; + in the Illinois country, 101, 280, 282; + Father Piquet's mission in New York, 368; + Louisiana (Alabama), 278; + in Maryland, 127-128; + expelled, 162. +Jews, in New England, 216; + in New York, 223. +Jimenez, discovers Lower California, 42. +John the Great, ruler of Portugal, 4. +Johnstone, George, governor of West Florida, 407,408. +Joliet, exploration of the Mississippi, 96-97. +Jones, John Paul, appointment, 465; + the _Bonhomme Richard_ and _Serapis_, 518-519; + at Texel, 520-521. +Jonquiere, Marquis de la, governor-general of Canada, 368. +Johnson, William, Indian agent, 365, 372, 374, 379. +Jordan River, Cape Fear, Ayllon at, 40. +Jumano Indians, Texas, expeditions to, 243, 244, 285. + +Kalb, Baron de, 508, 525-526. +Kanawha, battle of the, 513. +Kaskaskia, 410; + captured by Clark, 514. +Kaunitz, Austrian Minister of State, 375. +Keller, Father, Jesuit missionary and explorer in Arizona, 304. +Kelsey, Henry, expedition to Winnipeg, 214. +Kent Island, 128. +Kentucky, beginnings of, 416; + Indian ravages, 416; + Lord Dunmore's war, 417; + Henderson and Transylvania, 417-418; + Virginia's claim of sovereignty over, 418; + organization as Kentucky. County, Virginia, 418; + in the Revolution, 513. +Kentucky County, Virginia, erected, 418. +Kerlerec, Governor of Louisiana, 285, 301, 378. +Kerr, English commodore, in war of the Spanish Succession, 268. +Kidd, Captain, pirate, 350. +Kieft, William, director-general of New Netherlands, 171; + trouble with Indians, 171-172; + the Council of Twelve, 171. +King Philip's War, 191-192. +King William's War. _See_ War of the English Succession. +King's College, 339. +"King's posts," fur trade at, in English colonies, 421. +King's Mountain, battle, 527. +Kingston, Jamaica, founded, 262. +Kino, Father Eusebio, Jesuit missionary and explorer, 301-304; + in Lower California, 241-242; + his map of Pimeria Alta, 303; + missions and ranches established in Arizona, 302; + search for land route to California, 302; + his death, 304; + aid given to Lower California, 306. +Kirke, Captain, expedition against French, 87, 141. +Kittery, Maine, claimed by Massachusetts, 157. +Kocherthal, Joshua von, 318. +Knights of Alcantara, 14. +Knights of Calatrava, 14. +Knights of Santiago, 14; + Otomi chief made member of, 39. +Knollys, English freebooter, 66. +Knowles, Admiral Charles, attack on Espanola, 366. +Kublai Khan, visit of the Polos to, 3. + + +Labadists, 318. +La Barre, governor of New France, 94, 258, 261. +Labrador, 420. +La Clede, fur trader, founds St. Louis, 396. +Laconia Company, 141. +La Cosa, explorations of, 24. +Lafayette, Marquis de, enlists in the American cause, 508; + influences France to send a second expedition, 511; + in Virginia, 530; + in Yorktown campaign, 531. +La Harpe, Benard de, French explorer and trader in the West, + 283-284, 295. +La Junta missions, Chihuahua, 245, 290. +Lake Athabasca, discovery, 424. +Lake Chapala, Mexico, 36. +Lake Erie, La Salle on, 98. +Lake Michigan, French posts on, 96. +"Lake of New Mexico," Coahuila, 59. +Lake Ontario, discovered, 87. +Lake Superior, trading posts on, 90, 287; + Jesuit missions on, 96. +Lake Tezcuco, Cortes's fleet on, 33. +La Navidad, fort built by Columbus, in Espanola, 10. +"Land of War," Central America, 39. +Land grants and speculation in the Ohio Valley, 411-413. +Langlade, Charles, French trader leads attack on English, 368. +La Paz, California, attempts to colonize, 42, 71, 240-242, 307. +La Plata River, discovered by Vespuccius, 24. +La Pointe, Jesuit mission on Lake Superior, 96. +Larios, Father Juan, Franciscan missionary, in Coahuila and + Texas, 248. +La Salle, Jean Cavelier, Sieur de, 97, 98; + at Fort Frontenac, 97; + in Illinois, 98; + descends Mississippi, 98; + colony in Texas, 98-99, 249, 283; + assassination, 100. +Las Casas, Father Bartolome de, 23; + opposition to the _encomienda_, 23, 50; + conquest of Guatemala, 39. +Las Casas, Francisco de, lieutenant of Cortes in Honduras, 38. +La Tour, Charles de, rule in Acadia, contest with Charnisay, 86. +Laud, William, Archbishop of Canterbury, tyranny, 113; + heads commission to handle dependencies, 114; + struggle with Massachusetts Bay Colony, 142-143, 145-146. +Laudonniere, French colonizer in Florida, 62, 84. +Laurain, French explorer on the Missouri River, 282. +Laurens, Henry, sent to the Netherlands, 521; + his capture, 522. +Laval, Abbe, bishop in Canada, 91. +La Verendrye, fur trade monopoly, 287; + his "Post of the Western Sea," 287-288. +Law, John, the Mississippi Bubble, 278-279. +Lazarus (Philippine) Islands, 67. +Lea, Captain Charles, attempts to colonize Guiana, 132. +League of Armed Neutrals, 519-520. +League of Hanover, 360-375. +Leake, Captain John, 271. +Lee, Arthur, diplomat, 506; + attempts to get Spanish assistance, 507. +Lee, Charles, 411, 464, 488, 489, 490, 509. +Lee, Richard Henry, member of Western Land Company, 411; + member of the First Continental Congress, 452; + Independence Resolution, 478. +Leeward Islands, made a province, 206; + granted an assembly, 206; + extension of power, 206; + social and economic conditions in the eighteenth century, 340. +Legazpi, Miguel Lopez de, expedition to Philippines, 68; + conquest of islands, 68. +Leisler's Rebellion, 198, 263. +Le Jeune, French Jesuit superior at Quebec, 88. +Le Moyne, Charles, 275; + seignorial grant, 93. +Leon, Alonso de. _See_ De Leon. +Leon (Cerralvo), City of, 60, 61, 247. +Leon, Nicaragua, founding of, 31. +Leon, kingdom of in New Spain, 13. +Lesser Antilles, slave hunting in, 23; + English settlements in, 132-133; + Dutch colonization, 167; + subdivisions, 247. + _See_ individual islands. +Le Sueur, fur trader in Minnesota and Wisconsin, 101; + quoted, 97. +Levant Company, 107. +Levasseur, French trader, occupies Tortuga, 94. +Levis, Chevalier de, 375, 381. +Lewis, Colonel Andrew, 417. +Lewis and Clark, exploration of, 402. +Lexington, battle of, 460-461. +Leyva, expedition to New Mexico, 72-73. +Lief, son of Eric, discovery of Vinland, 2. +Linares, Duke of, viceroy of New Spain, 293. +Linares, Diocese of, 387. +Lincoln, General Benjamin, organizes New England militia, 495; + operations in Georgia, 524; + at Charleston, 524-525; + secretary of war, 554. +Lindsay, explorer in Ohio valley, 413. +Line of Demarcation, 11. +Link, Father, Jesuit explorer in Lower California, 307. +Lisbon, Columbus' reception at, 10. +Little Rock, Arkansas, La Harpe visits vicinity, 284. +Littleton, James, Commodore, 269. +Livingston, Robert R., member of committee for drafting the + Declaration of Independence, 479; + secretary of foreign affairs, 555. +Llano River country, Texas, mineral deposits, 298, 299. +"Llanos de Cibola" (Buffalo Plains), 45. +Lloyd, Thomas, president of the Pennsylvania council, 205. +Loaisa, expedition to Far East, 46. +Locke, John, prepares a constitution for the Carolinas, 208. +London Company, Charter of 1606, 116; +Charter of 1609, 117-118; +Charter of 1612, 120; charter annulled, 123. +London Gazette, 408. +Long Island, early English settlements, 150-151, 222; + granted to Duke of York, 196-197; + battle of, 483-484. +Lopez, Fray Nicolas, Franciscan missionary, 245. +Lords of Trade, 182. +Loreto, California, founded, 306; + capital moved from, 392. +Los Adaes, mission founded, 295; + presidio and capital of Texas, 297, 298. +Los Angeles, California, founding of pueblo of, 392-393. +Loudoun, English commander, 376. +Louis XVI, attitude toward American Revolution, 505-506. +Louisiana, Under France, founding of, 275-278; + Pensacola founded, 275; + Biloxi founded, 276; + Iberville's Indian alliances, 276; + Bienville's first administration, 276; + Crozat's grant, 276-278; + attempts at commercial expansion, 278; + Indian difficulties, 278; + population, 278, 279, 281; + map, 277; + under Company of the Indies, 278-280; + the Mississippi Bubble, 278-279; + New Orleans founded, 279; + war with Spain, 279; + organization of the government, 279-280; + ecclesiastical divisions, 280; + the Natchez War, 280; + under the royal governors, 280-282; + Bienville's second administration, 280-281; + Chickasaw War, 281; + the Illinois district, 251-252; + slavery, 282; + Missouri lead mines, 282; + _Under Spain, 1762-1783_, 395-402; + ceded to Spain, 382-383, 395; + state of the province, 395-306; + population, 396; + industries, 396; + dissatisfaction with the cession, 306; + expulsion of the Spanish governor, Ulloa, 397; + O'Reilly, administration of, 397-398; + first governors, Unzaga and Galvez, 398; + encouragement of commerce, 398, 400; + the English danger, 400; + Texas border abandoned, 400; + fur trade continued, 400-401; + De Mezieres and the control of the Red River tribes, 401; + plans for war on Apaches, 401; + opening of routes to Santa Fe and the upper Missouri, 402. +Louisiana-Texas boundary question, 300, 301. +Louisbourg, Cape Breton Island, siege and defense of, 364-365. +Lovelace, Francis, governor of New York, 197. +Loyal Company, The, 367. +Loyalists, formation of the group, 459; + accompany the British army to Halifax, 471; + element in the colonies, 472-473; + classification of, 473; + religious aspects, 473-474; + their argument, 474; + persecution of, 474-475; + congressional attitude toward, 475-476; + in the Cherokee War, 512-513; + in the Southwest, 513-514; + in New York, 514-515; + at King's Mountain, 527; + attempts of British to protect, 536, 537; + dispersion, 538; + in Florida, 408, 409; + in Canada, 421. +Lucenilla, attempt to colonize California, 241. +Lumbering in New England, 217, 331; + in North Carolina, 334; + in South Carolina, 335. +Lutherans, 222, 226. +Lybyer, cited on trade routes, 5. +Lyford, John, 140-141. +Lyman, General, colony in West Florida, 408. +Lynn, settled, 142. +Lyttleton, Governor of South Carolina, 378. + + +McAfees, the, pioneers in Kentucky, 416. +McDonald, Donald, 471. +Machias Bay settlement, 139. +Machin, Robert, English voyager to Madeira, 4. +Machuco, Diego, explores Nicaragua, 32. +Madagascar, French attempt to colonize, 80. +Madeira, visited by Englishmen, 4. +Magdalena Bay, California, 71. +Magellan, Ferdinand, voyage of, map showing, 6; + discovery of Straits, 25; + conflict aroused by his voyage, 46. +Maine, early settlements, 136, 319, 140; + Canada and Laconia companies, 141; + land grants, 157; + settlements claimed by Massachusetts, 157; + northern part granted to the Duke of York, 196-197; + frontier defense, 312-313; + German migration to, 321, 322; + Scotch-Irish migration to, 325. +Malabar, Portuguese at, 24. +Malacca, 24. +Malay Peninsula, 24. +Maldonado, oidor of New Spain, 49. +Mallet brothers, expedition to New Mexico,285-286. +Malocello, discovery of the Canary Islands, 3. +Manchester, founded, 325. +Mandan Indians, Dakota, reached by Spaniards, 402. +Mandeville, French Commander, 278. +Manhattan Island, purchase and settlement, 167. +Manila, Philippines, Audiencia of, established, 68; + captured by British, 382; + restored to Spain, 382. +Manila galleon, 66, 68; + route of, 68, 70, 307. + _See also_ Acapulco. +Manoa, fabulous city of Guiana, 110. +Manors, in Maryland, 128. +Manufactures, in New England, 217-218; + in Pennsylvania, 226; + in the Chesapeake Bay region, 229; + in middle eighteenth century, 330. +Mansker, pioneer in Kentucky, 413, 419. +Maracaibo, plundered by Jackson, 252. +Maracaibo, Gulf of, 23, 24. +Marcos, Friar, discovery of Cibola, 44. +Margil, Antonia, Franciscan missionary in Texas, 293, 295. +Maria Theresa, 364, 375. +Marine Committee, 543. +Marion, Francis, 527-529. +Maritime science, advance of in 15th century, 4. +Markham, William, deputy-governor of Pennsylvania, 204. +Marquette, Jesuit Missionary, on the Mississippi, 97; + death, 97. +Marques Cabrera, governor of Florida, sends expedition against + English, 255. +Martha's Vineyard, granted to the Duke of York, 196-197. +Martin and Castillo, pearl hunting expedition in Texas, 243-244. +Martinique Island, 93, 252, 262, 382. +Mary, Queen of Scots, 53. +Maryland, Baltimore's application for a grant in Virginia, 125-126; + founding, 125-129; + charter, 126-127; + first settlers, 127; + trouble with Virginia, 127-128; + early social conditions, 128; + government, 128-129; + under Puritan control, 102; + economic conditions, 188; + Charles Calvert, 188-189; + Notley's administration, 189; + rebellion of 1689, 189; + dispute with Pennsylvania over boundary, 203; + population, 227; + settled area, 227; + plantation system, 228; + commerce, 228; + system of labor, 229; + social conditions, 229; + religion, 229; + education, 229; + German migration to, 319-320; + social and economic conditions in the eighteenth century, 333-334; + under William III, 346; + trouble with the governor, 444; + navy, 518. +Mason and Dixon's line, 203. +Mason, John, land grants, 140, 146, 157; + interest in Canada and Laconia companies, 141; + death, 146. +Massachusetts, charter, 141-142; + Cambridge agreement, 142; + the "Great Migration," 142; + towns settled, 142; + form of government, 143; + the New England towns, 143-145; + representative system introduced, 145; + struggle with Laud, 145-146; + controversy with Roger Williams, 146-147; + controversy with Anne Hutchinson, 148; + Body of Liberties, 154-155; + member of the New England Confederation, 156; + claims New Hampshire and Maine settlements, 157-158; + fur trade, 158; + difficulties with Charles II, 180-190; + reception of royal commissioners, 191; + King Philip's War, 191-192; + complaints against, 192; + trouble with Randolph, 192-193; + annulment of the charter, 193; + temporary government, 193; + acquisition of Mason's rights, 193-194; + Dominion of New England, 194; + administration of Andros, 194; + overthrow of Andros, 194-195; + population, 216; + commerce, 217; + manufactures, 217; + religion, 220; + superstitions, 220; + education, 220; + literature, 221; + treaty with Maine Indians, 271; + German migration to, 322; + Scotch-Irish migration to, 324; + charter of 1691, 344; + protests against Grenville's policy, 431-432; + resists the Stamp Act, 436; + protests against the Townshend Acts, 440-441; + trouble with Governor Bernard, 440-442; + convention, 442; + trouble with Hutchinson, 444; + the tea controversy, 448; + Government Act, 449-450; + resistance to the Regulating Act, 459-460; + fighting around Boston, 460-461; + navy, 518. +Massachusetts Bay Colony. _See_ Massachusetts. +Massanet, Father Damian, Franciscan missionary in Coahuila and Texas, + 249, 251. +Massasoit, chief of the Wampanoags, treaty with Plymouth, 138-139. +Matagorda Bay, LaSalle's colony on, 99, 100. +Matehuala, Mexico, founded, 59. +Mauro, Fra, map of the world, 5. +Maximilian I, 16. +May, Cornelius, 165-166. +Maya Indians, 26-27. _See_ Mexico. +Mayflower Compact, 138. +Mayhew, Thomas, missionary to Indians, 156. +Mayo Valley, Sonora, Jesuit missions in, 239. +Mazapil, Mexico, founded, 59. +Mazarin, administration of government of France, 80-81. +Mecklenburg Resolves, 463; + declaration of independence, 463. +Medellin, Mexico, founded, 36. +Medina-Celi, Count of, influence in favor of Columbus, 7. +Medina River, western boundary of Texas, 297. +Mediterranean, trade route to Far East, 5. +Memphis, DeSoto near, 42. +Mendez, Father, Jesuit missionary to Mayos, 239. +Mendoza, Antonio de, viceroy, crushes revolt in Nueva Galicia, 40; + sends expedition to explore Pacific, 46-47; + outfits expedition for Florida, 61; + achievements as administrator, 50; + sent to Peru, 50; + death, 50. +Mendoza, Hurtado de, expedition on west coast, 42. +Mendoza, Juan Dominguez de, expedition to Jumanos in central Texas, + 245. +Menendez de, Aviles, destroys Huguenot settlement, 62; + colonizes Atlantic coast, 64; + explores Alleghanies, 64; + expedition to Chesapeake Bay, 65. +Mennonites, in Pennsylvania, 206. +Mercado, Gines Vasquez de, search for treasure in Durango, 55. +Mercantilist system, 179-180. +Merry Mount, 139. +Mexico, the Nahuas (Aztecs), 27; + Nahua history, 27; + the Triple Alliance, 28; + Conquest of the Valley of Mexico, 32-35; + Cortes, 32; + the march to Mexico, 33; + loss and recapture of the city, 33; + Cortes's contest with Velasquez, 34; + made governor and captain-general, 34; + the spread of the conquest, 36-40; + factors, 36; + Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, and Tehuantepec, 36; + Olid in Michoacan, 36; Colima and + Jalisco, 37; + Amichel and Panuco, 37; + Olid, Casas, and Cortes in Honduras, 38; + Yucatan, 38; + Guzman in Sinaloa, 39; + Queretaro, 39; + the Mirton War, 40; + establishment of the viceroyalty, 47-50; + Cortes as administrator, 47; + his powers curtailed, 48; + first and second audiencias, 48-49; + Cortes made Marquis of the Valley, 49; + Mendoza first viceroy, 49; _New Laws_, 50; + Mendoza sent to Peru, 50; + Mexico under Philip II, 52; + Luis de Velasco, second viceroy, 53; + Martin Cortes, second Marquis of the Valley, 53; + the adelantados, 54; + audiencia and diocese of Nueva Galicia, 55; + the Zacatecas Mines, 55; + Francisco de Ibarra, 55-58; Nueva + Vizcaya founded, 56-58; + Queretaro, Guanajuato, and Aguas Calientes, 58; + San Luis Potosi and Southern Coahuila, 59; + Tlascaltecan colonies, 59; + Parras, 60; + Nuevo Leon, 60; + New Spain at end of 16th century, 75; + frontier administration in the 17th century, 234-237; + the governors, 234; + central control, 235; + frontier autonomy, 235; + the missions, 236; + the Jesuits in Sinaloa and Sonora, 237; + Fathers Tapia and Perez, 237; + Captain Hurdaide, 237; + missions in Fuerte, Mayo, Yaqui and Sonora valleys, 238-239; + Spanish settlements on the Pacific coast, 240; + efforts to occupy Lower California, 240-242; + pearl fishing, 240; + Iturbi's voyages, 240; + later attempts, 240; + the settlement of Chihuahua, 242; + mines of, 289; + the Conchos Valley, 290; + Diocese of Guardiana, 242; + Coahuila occupied, 247-249; + the Nuevo Leon frontier, 247; + Zavala's rule, 247; + Monclova founded, 248; + the College of the Holy Cross of Queretaro, 248; + Pimeria Alta, 301; + Kino, 301-302; + a land route to California, 302; + missions and ranches, 302-303; + the Arizonac Mines, 304; + Keller and Sedelmayr, 304; + the Pima revolt, 305; + the Northwestern frontier in 1763, 305-306; + the Jesuits in Lower California, 306-307; + Salvatierra and his companions, 306; + readjustment following the Seven Years' War, 384-387; + Reforms of Charles III and Galvez, 384-386; + Rubi's tour, 385; + expulsion of the Jesuits, 386; + the Provincias Internas, 386-387; + new dioceses, 387; + the intendancies, 387. +Mexico City (Tenochtitlan), 27; + Chapultepec, 28; + siege and capture by Cortes, 33; + rebuilt as a Spanish city, 34; + markets established, 47; + seat of audiencia and viceroyalty, 48-49; + canal of Huehuetoca, 53; + population, 75; + seat of archbishopric, 76; + of University, 53, 67. +Mexico, Gulf of, mapping of coast, 25-26, 249, 255, 385. +Michillimackinac, fur trade, 422. +Michoacan, 37; + Guzman's march through, 39. +Middlebrook, 493. +Middletown, New Jersey, 198. +Miera y Pachecho, Captain Bernardo de, expedition to Utah Basin, 392. +Milan, 53. +Milford, founded, 150. +Milhet, Jean, delegate to France with protest on the Louisiana + cession, 396. +Mines and mining, in northern Mexico, 55-56, 58. +Minisink, burned, 515. +Minho River, 13. +Minuit, Peter, director-general of New Netherlands, 167, 169; + in Sweden, 175. +Missions, part in Spanish colonial expansion, 235-237. + _See also_ Dominicans; Jesuits; Franciscans; California; + Florida; Georgia; New Mexico. In French Colonies, _see_ Canada, + Catholic Church, Jesuits, Illinois, Louisiana. +Mississippi Bubble, 278-279. +Mississippi Company, 411. +Mississippi River (Rio del Espiritu Santo), discovery of, 26, 41, 42; + plans to occupy its mouth, 249. +Mississippi Valley, French approach to, 96, 102; + work of the Jesuits, 96-97, 101; + Joliet and Marquette, 96-97. + La Salle, 98; + Duluth, 100. +Missouri lead mines, 282. +Mixton war, 40. +Mobile, new site for St, Louis, 276; + judicial department of, 279; + during English rule, 403, 407-408; + captured by Galvez, 516. +Mobile Bay, 42, 249, 255, 276. +Molasses Act, 356. +Moluccas, 42; + Spain claims sold to Portugal, 46. +Monclova, city of, 246, 247. 248, 296, 297. +Monckton, Lieutenant-Colonel, 372, 374. +Mongolia, visit of the Polos to, 3. +Monhegan Island settlement, 140. +Monk, George, Duke of Albermarle, Carolina proprietor, 208; + interest in Hudson's Bay Company, 213. +Monmouth, battle of, 509-510. +Montcalm, Marquis de, in French and Indian War, 375, 376, 377, 380. +Monte Cristi, 428. +Montejo, Francisco de, conqueror of Yucatan, 36, 38. +Montemayor, Luis de, governor of Nuevo Leon, 61. +Monterey, Mexico, 59; + founding of, 61; + Franciscan monastery at, 61. +Monterey, California, 2; + founding, 389; + made capital 392. +Monterey Bay, California, 47, 71, 305, 380. +Montezuma II, Aztec ruler, 28; + death of, 33. +Montgomery, English colonel, 379. +Montgomery, Richard, 470. +Montgomery, Sir Robert, grant of Azilia to, 315. +Montreal, Canada, 82, 90, 257, 263, 265, 272, 419; + association of Montreal, 90; + captured by the English, 381; + center of fur trade, 422. +Montserrat Island, occupied by English, 133, 252; + in Leeward Isles government, 206; + social conditions, 340; + restored to Great Britain, 537. +Moore, Commodore John, 379. +Moore, Governor of South Carolina, destroys Apalachee missions, 270. +Moore's Creek, 471. +Moors (Mohammedans, Berbers), expulsion from Portugal, 4; + from Spain, 13, 14, 53; + Moqui pueblos, 46, 72; + discovery of, 45; + revolt of the Indians, 45. +Moraga, Lieutenant, founds San Jose, California, 392. +Moral, Father, Franciscan missionary in Florida, 254. +Moravian missionaries, among Delawares in the West, 416. +Morgan, Gen. Daniel, 495, 528. +Moro Castle, Havana, captured by British, 382. +Morris, Robert, financier of the Revolution, 554. +Morristown, winter quarters of Washington's army, 492. +Morton, Thomas, founds Merry Mount, 139; + driven out, 139; + opposition to Massachusetts Bay Company, 141. +Moscoso, explores Arkansas and Texas, 42, 61. +Moultrie, Colonel Wm., 471, 472. +Moya Contreras, viceroy of Mexico, plans for exploration, 70-71. +Mulattoes and mestizos, in population of the New World, 306. +Munck, Jens, explorations in Hudson Bay, 213. +Muscovy Company, 106. +Mystic, settled, 142. + + +Nahua civilization, 26-28. +Nanipacna, Alabama, Spanish settlement at, 62. +Nantasket settlement, 140. +Nantes, Edict of, 79. +Nantucket, granted to the Duke of York, 196-197. +Naples, 16, 52, 361. +Narragansett Indians and Roger Williams, 146, 147; + attitude in King Philip's War, 191-192. +Narvaez, Panfilo de, sent to arrest Cortes, 33; + governor of Florida, 37; + attempted conquest of Florida, 41. +Nashborough (Nashville), founded, 419. +Nashborough Association, 549. +Natchez, founded, 278; + a judicial department of Louisiana, 279; + under the English, 406, 407, 408; + captured by Galvez, 515. +Natchez Indians, 278; + war with French, 280. +Natchitoches, founded by St. Denis, 278; + judicial department of Louisiana, 279; + rule of De Mezieres at, 401. +Naval stores, 355-356. +Navidad, port in Mexico, 40, 47, 68. +Navigation acts, of 1650 and 1651, 153; + of 1660, 180; + of 1696, 348-349; + under Anne, 351; + later acts, 354-355. +Navy of the United States, organized, 464; + vessels provided by New England, 517; + congressional provision for, 517; + early operations, 517-518; + state navies, 518; + Penobscot expedition, 518; + operations of John Paul Jones, + 518-519, 520-521; + decline of the navy, 519. +Navy Department, of the United States, 554-555. +Needham, James, reaches the upper Tennessee, 1673, 211. +Negro slavery, 23, 56, 273, 276, 279, 282. +Netherlands (Holland), 16; + revolt against Spain, 52; + independent state, 53; + struggle with Spain, 164; + commercial expansion, 164; + search for northeast passage, 164; + trade to Far East, 164-165; + explorations of Henry Hudson, 165; + discovery of Cape Horn, 165; + trade on Hudson River, 165-166; + settlements in Brazil, Guiana, and the Antilles, 166-167; + New Netherlands, 167-174; + struggle with the Swedes on the Delaware, 175, 177; + absorption of New Netherlands by English, 177-178; + alliance with England and France, 359; + treaty of Seville, 360; + attitude toward American Revolution, 520; + St. Eustatius, 520; + the Scotch brigade and the Jones incident, 520-521; + British seizures, 521; + secret agreement of Amsterdam, 521; + declaration of war, 521-522; + loans to the United States, 554. + _See_ New Netherlands. +Neve, Felipe de, governor of California, 392. +Nevis Island, occupied by English, 133, 252; + in Leeward Isles government, 206; + taken by French, 268; + social conditions, 340; + captured by De Grasse, 532; + restored to Great Britain, 537. +Neville, John, English vice-admiral, 262. +Nevome Indians, Sonora, 239. +New Albion, Drake's name for California, 70. +New Amsterdam, 167-169; + surrender to the English, 197. +Newark, New Jersey, 199. +New Brunswick, 421. +New Company, successor to Company of Hundred Associates, 90. +Newcastle, Duke of, 353-354. +New England, supposed visit of North men, 3; + Confederation, 156-157; + settled area in 1700, 216; + population, 216; + agriculture, 216-217; + fur trade, 217; + fishing, 217; + lumbering, 217; + ship-building, 217; + commerce, 217, 331; + manufactures, 217-218; + standard of living, 218; + social standards, 218; + religion, 220; + superstitions, 220; + education, 220-221; + literature, 221; + French and Indian attacks, 271; + population, 329; + settled area about 1750, 329; + farming, 330-331; + lumbering, 331; + ship-building, 331; + fisheries, 331; + ships furnished during the Revolution, 517-518. + _See_ the individual colonies. +Newfoundland fisheries, 106; + English attacks on, in the War of the Spanish Succession, 271, + 272, 420. +New Gothenborg, 175. +New Hampshire, early settlements, 140; + land grants in, 157; + attempt of Randolph to take it from Massachusetts, 193; + a royal colony, 194; + population, 216; + Scotch-Irish migration to, 325. +New Jersey, granted to the Duke of York, 197; + granted to Carteret and Berkeley, 197; + government of East New Jersey, 198-199; + difficulties with New England men, 199; + Quakers in West New Jersey, 199, 201; + division of New Jersey, 201; + government of West New Jersey, 201; + trouble with the Duke of York, 201; + Burlington, 202; + proprietors of East New Jersey, 202; + German migration to, 319; + economic and social conditions in the eighteenth century, 332; + under William III, 345; + surrender of proprietary rights, 350; + a royal colony, 350. + _See_ West New Jersey, East New Jersey. +New Haven, founded, 150; + government, 150; + code of 1656, 155; + member of the New England Confederation, 156; + confederation and expansion, 158. +_New Laws_, for Spanish America, 50, 55. +New Mexico, + Pueblo Indians, 44, 46, 234, 245; + Coronado's expedition, 40, 46; + exploration in later 16th century, 72-73; + colonization, 73-74; + founding of Santa Fe, 73, 243; + isolation, 242; + in the 17th century, 243-247; + missions, 243; + Benavides's report, in 1630, 243; + missionary and trading expeditions, 243-244; + in 1680, 244-245; + beginnings of El Paso, 245; + revolt of Pueblo Indians, 234, 245-247; + La Junta missions, 245, 290; + Mendoza's expedition to Jumanos, 245; + advance of French toward, 285-286, 300-301; + Moqui and Zuni resistance, 290; + new settlements, 290; + population, 290; + Indian depredations, 290-291; + advance to northeast stimulated by French, 291; + explorers in Colorado, 291-292. +New Netherlands, early settlements, 167; + government, 167; + administration of Peter Minuit, 167, 169; + patroon system, 169-170; + the frontiers strengthened, 170; + administration of Van Twiller, 170-171; + Kieft's administration, 171-172; + Indian war, 172; + administration of Stuyvesant, 172-173; + economic development, 173-174; + conquest of New Sweden, 175, 177; + absorption by England, 177-178, 196-197. +New Netherlands Company, 165-166. +New Orleans, founded, 279, 293; + slavery and agriculture, 279; + population, 279; + judicial department of Louisiana, 279; + under Spanish administration, 398; + emigration to, 408. +Newport, Sir Christopher, voyage to Virginia, 1607, 116-117; + voyage of 1609, 118. +Newport, Rhode Island, founded, 148; + siege of, 510; + evacuated by British, 511; + occupied by Rochambeau, 511. +New Providence Island, occupied by English, 206; + captured by French and Spanish, 268, 269. +New Spain. _See_ Spanish colonies in North America; Mexico. +New Sweden, the New Sweden Company, 175; + founding of Fort Christina, 175; + administration of Governor Printz, 175; + renewed colonization, 175,177; + conquest by the Dutch, 177. +New Sweden Company, 175. +Newtown (Cambridge) settled, 145. +New York, province granted to James, Duke of York, 196-197; + seizure by the English, 197; + administration of Nicolls, 197; + administration of Lovelace, 197; + struggle for representative government, 197-198; + administration of Dongan, 198; + Leisler's rebellion, 198; + attempt to regain control of the Jerseys, 201; + deed to East New Jersey, 202; + dispute with Pennsylvania, 203; + population, 221; + industries, 221-222; + social conditions, 222; + religion, 222-223; + education, 222-223; + large estates, 223; + German migration to, 318-319; + Scotch-Irish migration to, 325; + economic and social conditions in the eighteenth century, 331-332; + a royal colony, 344-345; + protest against Grenville's policy, 432-433; + assembly dissolved, 438-439; + attitude regarding the Association, 458. + _See_ New Netherlands. +New York City, charter granted by Governor Nicolls, 197; + in the eighteenth century, 332; + captured by the British, 482-484. + _See_ New Amsterdam. +Nicaragua, conquest of, 29-30, 31, 32, 42; + audiencia of, 50. +Nicaragua, Lake, 29, 32. +Nicholson, Francis, lieutenant governor of New York, and the Leisler + rebellion, 198; + expedition against Montreal, 272. +Nicolet, Jean, French explorer in Wisconsin, 88. +Nicolls, Richard, governor of New York, 197; + sends colonists to New Jersey, 198. +Nicoya, Gulf of, Central America, 29, 31. +Nicuesa, founder of Nombre de Dios, 28. +_Nina_, one of Columbus' ships, 8. +Ninety-Six, 527, 529. +Nino, Andres, expedition of, 29-30, 42. +"Noche Triste," 33, 36. +Nochistlan, Nueva Galicia, 40. +Nombre de Dios (Porto Bello), 24; + colony at, 28; founding of, 29, 56; + port for Spanish merchant fleet, 66; + population, 75. +Nootka Sound, explored, 395. +North, Lord, prime minister, 443; + coercive acts, 449-451; + conciliatory resolution, 455-456; + attempts conciliation, 508-509; + sends Carlisle commission to America, 509. +North, Captain Robert, attempt to colonize Guiana, 132. +North Carolina (for Spanish activities in _See_ Carolinas); + population, 227; + settled area, 227; + economic conditions, 228-229; + religion, 229; + separation from South Carolina, 313-315; + German migration to, 320; + Swiss migration to, 321; + Scotch-Irish migration to, 326; + social and economic conditions in the 18th century, 333-334; + a royal colony, 354; + the Regulators, 414-415; + protest against Grenville's policy, 433; + in the Revolution, 471, 512-513, 528-529. + _See_ Albemarle District, Carolinas. +Northern Mystery, 68. +Northmen, early maritime exploration, 2; + appearance in England, 2; + discovery and colonization of Iceland, and of Greenland, 2-3; + discovery of Vinland, 2-3. +Northwest Company, fur trade of, 423. +Northeast passage, sought by the English, 106, 108, 213; + sought by the Dutch, 164. +Nova Scotia, 3, 26, 272, 421; + English policy of defense, 312-313; + German migration to, 322. + _See_ Acadia. +Nuevo Almaden (Coahuila), 61, 247. +Nueva Andalucia, Central America, 29. +Nueva Andalucia (Sonora), 239. +Nueva Galicia, conquest of, 39; + Mixton War, 40; + audiencia and diocese of, 55, 56; + growth of, 58. +Nueva Vizcaya, founding of, 56, 58; + development, 58; + Franciscans and Jesuits in, 58; + conflicts with Nuevo Leon, 61; + capital, 242. +Nuevo Leon, Kingdom of, Tlascaltecan Indians as colonists in, 60; + extent of, 60; + development under Carabajal, 60, 61; + administration of Montemayor, 61; + conflicts with Nueva Vizcaya, 61; + frontier, 247; + Zavala's rule, 247. +Nuevo Santander (Tamaulipus), settlement of by Escandon, 299-300. + + +Oaxaca, Mexico, 36, 53, 75. +Ocampo, circumnavigates Cuba, 17, 25. +O'Conor, Hugo, comandante inspector in North Mexican provinces, 386. +Oglethorpe, James, motives, 315; + founding of Georgia, 316; + in war of Jenkins' Ear, 361-362, 363-364. +Ohio Company, The, 367. +Ohio River Valley, Spaniards in, 64; + French in, 98, 101, 102, 257, 281-282, 368-369; + English in, 102, 211, 367; + struggle for, 367-378; + development under English rule, 403-419. +_Oidores_, 48. +Ojeda, explorer, 23, 28. +Ojuelos, Mexico, 59. +Oklahoma, region, early Spanish explorations, 42, 45, 243; + French trade and exploration, 286, 300; + later Spanish activities, 398; + English intruders before Revolution, 401. +Oldham, John, 140-141; + opposition to Massachusetts Bay Company, 141. +Olid, Cristobal de, lieutenant of Cortes, 36; + in Michoacan and Colima, 36-37; + expedition to Honduras, 38. +Olivares, Father Francisco, missionary in Coahuila and Texas, 249, + 292, 293. +Onate, Cristobal de, a founder of Nueva Galicia, 40, 55. +Onate, Juan de, colonizer of New Mexico, 73; + explorations of, 74; + displaced by royal governor, 73; + believes California an Island, 240. +Oneida Indians, 265. +Onondaga Indians, 259, 265. +Opechancanough's War in Virginia, 160. +O'Reilly, Alexander, installs Spanish regime in Louisiana, 397-398, 407. +Orinoco River, 171; + Raleigh's exploration of the delta, 110. +Ore, Fray Luis de, Franciscan missionary in Florida, 253. +Oriskany, Battle of, 496. +Orista, South Carolina, Jesuit mission in, 64. +Orleans, Isle of, surrendered to Spain, 383. +Ormuz, capture of, 24. +Orozco, conquistador with Cortes, 38. +Oswego, founded, 313. +Ortega, Francisco de, founds colony at La Paz, 240. +Osage Indians, 283, 284. +Ostend East India Company, 360. +Ostimuri, Sonora district, 305, 306. +Otermin, effort to reconquer New Mexico, 245, 246. +Otis, James, opposition to writs of assistance, 429; + circular letter, 436; + member of the Stamp Act Congress, 436. +Oto Indians, French among, 284. +Ottawa, River explored, 87; + Indians, 258. +Oxenham, English freebooter, 66. + + +Pacific Ocean, fifth century voyages, 2; + discovery by Portuguese, 24; + by Balboa, 25; + Magellan crosses, 25; + explorations on Central American coast, 29-30; + on Mexican coast, 37, 42-44; + on California coast, 44, 46-47, 70-71, 240-241, 306-307, 389-394; + crossed by Saavedra, 42; + by Villalobos, 47; + Legazpi conquers Philippines, 67-68; + Urdaneta discovers return route, 68; + the Manila galleon, 68; + the Strait of Anian, 70; + raids of Drake and Cavendish, 78; + islands of Rica de Oro and Rica de Plata, 71; + Dutch voyages and raids, 164, 165, 240; + French interest in, 100, 285; + Verendrye's effort to reach, 287-288; + Anson's raid, 363; + in Seven Years' War, 382; + Russian trade and voyages, 383; + Spanish exploration of the Northern Pacific, Perez, Heceta, and + Bodega, 395; + Cook at Nootka Sound, 395. +Padouca Indians, French among, 283. +Paine, Thomas, "Common Sense," 477. +Palenque, Maya center, 27. +Palma, Salvador, Yuma chief, 393. +Palos, Spain, port of sail of Columbus, 5. +Panama, 24, 25; + founding, 29; + Audiencia of, 49, 50; + population, 75. +Panay, Philippines, 68. +Panton, Leslie, and Company, merchants of Pensacola, 407. +Panuco, slave-hunting, 23; + district of, separated from Mexico, 33; + headquarters for Carabajal, 66. +Panuco River, 25, 37. +Paoli, 500. +Paquime (Casas Grandes), Ibarra at, 56. +Paraguay, 306. +Paramaribo, 23. +Pardo, Juan, explores Alleghanies, 1568, 64. +Pareja, Father, Franciscan missionary and writer in Florida, 253. +Paria, Central America, 29. +Parma, Duchess of, 52. +Parral, Mexico, town, garrison, and mission, 242. +Parras, colony established at, 60; + administered by Urdinola, 60; + Santa Maria de, Jesuit mission, 60. +Parras, Laguna de, 59. +Parrilla, Diego Ortiz, Colonel, in Texas, 299; + explorations, 385. +Parson's Cause, 429. +Pastorius, Francis Daniel, 318. +Patroon system, 169-170. +Patzcuaro, Mexico, 36. +Pauw, Michael, 170. +Pawnee Indians, 23, 283; + horse market for Atlantic coast colonies, 400. +Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 366. +Peace of Paris, 382-383. +Peace of Ryswick, 266-267. +Peace of Utrecht, 273, 361. +Pearl Coast, The, 24. +Pearl fisheries, 68, 71, 240, 243-244. +Pearls, Isle of, 29. +Pecos River, 45, 46, 72. +Pedrarias de Avila, governor of Castilla del Oro, 29-31; + expeditions, 29, 31-32; + governor of Nicaragua, 31. +Pemaquid, Maine, 262, 265. +Pembroke and Montgomery, Earl of, receives West Indian grant, 132. +Penalosa, ex-governor of New Mexico, proposes attack on Spanish + colonies, 249. +Penn, Admiral William, conquers Jamaica, 153, 253. +Penn, William, grant of Pennsylvania, 203; + his powers, 204; + founding of Philadelphia, 204; + frame of government, 204; + first sojourn in America, 204-205; + activities in England, 205; + attempts to relieve friction in Pennsylvania, 205; + restored to his proprietorship, 346; + grants Charter of Privileges, 350; + interest in New Jersey, 199; + settles dispute over lands in West New Jersey, 201; + lands in West New Jersey, 201; + holdings in East New Jersey, 202. +Pennsylvania, the Quaker faith, 202; + coming of the Quakers, 202-203; + Penn's grant, 203; + powers of the proprietor, 204; + founding of Philadelphia, 204; + frame of government, 204; + arrival of Penn and establishment of the government, 204-205; + friction in the colony, 205; + growth, 205; + population, 224; + economic conditions, 226; + religion, 226; + education, 226-227; + German migration to, 317-318, 319; +Swiss migration to, 321; + Scotch-Irish migration to, 325-326; + economic and social condition in the eighteenth century, 332-333; + under William III, 345; + Charter of Privileges, 350; + protest against Grenville's policy, 433; + navy, 518. +Penobscot expedition, 518. +Penobscot River settlements, 139. +Pensacola (bay and settlement), bay discovered by De Soto, 42; + De Luna's expedition to, 61-62; + Ichuse settled, 62; + plans to reoccupy, 255-256; + Pensacola founded, 275; + captured by French, 279-295; + under English rule, 403, 407, 408; + reoccupied by Galvez, 518. +Pequot War, 149-150. +Perez, Captain Juan, with Portola expedition, 389; + voyage up Pacific coast, 395. +Perez, Fray Juan, influence in favor of Columbus, 7. +Perez, Martin, Jesuit missionary in Sinaloa, 55, 237, 239. +Pernambuco, captured by Dutch West India Company, 252. +Perrot, Nicholas, posts of, in Wisconsin, 101. +Peru, 29, 46, 49, 50, 66; + viceroyalty of, 75. +Peter the Great, 388. +Petit Guave, West Indies, 262, 268. +Petition of Right, 112. +Pez, Andres de, explorer of Gulf of Mexico, 249, 255. +Philadelphia, founding, 204; + description of, 226; + in the eighteenth century, 332-353; + First Continental Congress, 452; + Second Continental Congress, 463; + captured by the British, 500-501; + evacuated by the British, 509. +Philip II, of Spain, emigration policy, 21; + inheritance, 52; + agent of the Catholic church in the Counter-Reformation, 52-53; + Spain's weakness under, 53; + decision to colonize Florida, 62; + to establish trade with Philippines, 67; + war with France, 79; + policy toward England, 105. +Philip III, of Spain, policy regarding Virginia, 119. +Philip V, of Spain, 359. +Philippines, Spanish claim to, 46; + expeditions to, 46-47; + occupation of, 54; + conquest of, 67-68; + Legazpi's expedition, 68; + the Manila galleon, 66, 68, 69; + discovery of return route from, 69; + captured by English, 382. +Phips, Sir William, expedition against Port Royal, Acadia, 264; + expedition against Quebec, 264; + orders rebuilding Fort Pemaquid and fort on the Saco, 265. +Pichilingues, pirates in the Gulf of California, 240. +Picolo, Francisco Maria, S.J., in Lower California, 306. +Pickens, General Arthur, 529. +Piedmont, settlement of, 309-329; + significance, 326-328. +Piernas, Pedro, lieutenant-governor at St Louis, 398. +Pilgrims at Scrooby, Gainsborough, and Austerfield, 137; + removal to Leyden, 137; + Use at Leyden, 137; + causes of removal from Holland, 137; + Mayflower Compact, 138. + _See_ Plymouth Colony. +Pillars of Alexander, 1. +Pillars of Hercules, 1. +Pima Revolt, 305. +Pimeria Alta (Sonora and Arizona), Jesuits in, 301-306; + exploration and settlement in Arizona, 302; + Kino's map, 303; + decline and revival of the missions, 303-304; + Arizonac mines, 304; + work of Keller and Sedelmayr, 304; + plans to occupy the Gila and Colorado, 304-305; + the Pima revolt, 305; + the northwestern frontier in 1763, 305-306. +Pimienta, captures English settlement, on Providence Island, 252. +Pinadero, attempt to colonize Lower California, 241. +Pineda, explores Gulf of Mexico, 26, 37. +_Pinta_, one of Columbus's ships, 8. +Pinzon, explores coasts, 24, 25. +Pious Fund of California, 306, 389. +Piquet, French missionary in New York, 368. +Piracy Act, 349-350. +Pirates. _See_ Freebooters. +Pitt, William, 376, 381; + opposition to the Stamp Act, 437. +Pitt-Grafton Ministry, 438. +Pizarro, conqueror of Peru, De Soto with, 41 +Placentia Bay, Newfoundland, 271. +Plantation Duties Act of 1673, 181. +Platte River, Humana expedition to, 1594, 73-74; + French traders on, 285-286, 300; + Spanish plans to settle on, 295; + Villazur expedition destroyed, 1720, 296; + horse market for English colonies, 400; + Spanish fur trade on, 402. +Plowden, Sir Edmund, grant on Long Island, 150. +Plymouth Company, charter, 116; + attempts to colonize, 136. +Plymouth Colony, Mayflower Compact, 138; + settlement at Plymouth, 138; + economic development, 138-139; + trouble with western settlers, 139; + expansion, 139; + government, 139-140; + trouble with settlers at Cape Ann, 140-141; + with Morton's settlers, 141; + member of New England Confederation, 156; + the Dominion of New England, 194; + education, 220; + consolidation with Massachusetts, 340. +Pocahontas, 121. +Pocock, English admiral, captures Havana, 382. +Polo, Marco, Matteo, and Nicolo, in the East, 3, 7. +Pond, Peter, fur trader, 423. +Pontchartrain, French Minister of Marine, 275. +Pontgrave, French fur trader, 85, 86. +Pontiac, conspiracy of, 409, 417, 422. +Pope Alexander VI, assignation of discoveries between Spain and + Portugal, 11. +Pope Innocent IV, sends legate to the Great Khan, 3. +Pope, Indian leader of Pueblo revolt, 245-246. +Population. _See_ Immigration and Population. +Port Royal, Acadia, 85, 86. + _See_ also Acadia. +Port Royal, South Carolina, 62, 210. +Port Royal, Jamaica, destroyed, 262. +Port Royal Sound, Huguenot settlement on, 84. +Porter y Casante, attempt to colonize California, 240. +Portezuelos, Mexico, 59. +Porto Bello. _See_ Puerto Bello. +Portola, expedition to California, 389; + founds San Diego, 389; + Monterey, 389; + discovers San Francisco Bay, 389. +Portolani, 4. +Porto Rico, Island, 17, 19, 67, 253. +Porto Santo, Island, 7. +Portsmouth, New Hampshire, settled, 140; + Puritan settlers in, 157; + claimed by Massachusetts, 157. +Portsmouth, Rhode Island, founded, 148. +Portugal, rise of, 4-5; + Henry the navigator, 4; + exploration and discoveries, 5-6; + map showing expansion, 6; + reception to Columbus, 10; + line of demarkation, 11; + Magellan, 25, 46; + purchase of Moluccas, 46; + a Spanish province, 53, 68; + spice trade, 67; + incorporated with Spain, 107; + joins League of Armed Neutrals, 520. +Post Office, English colonial, 35; + during the Revolution, 465. +Pownall, Thomas, western land scheme, 411. +Pragmatic Sanction, 360. +Presbyterians, in New Jersey, 202, 226; + in South Carolina, 231. +Prescott, Colonel William, 461. +Prester John, supposed Christian king in interior Africa, 5. +Preston, Colonel, 417. +Prevost, Colonel, 406. +Prevost, General Augustine, 524. +Prideaux, expedition against Niagara, 379. +Princeton, battle of, 492. +Princeton College, pillaged by Hessians, 489. +Printing press, established in Mexico, 50. +Printz, Johan, governor of New Sweden, 175. +Privateers, 465,518. +Privateers, English, French, and Dutch, in Spanish waters, 252, 271; + Spanish retaliation, 252. +Privy council, 113, 114, 343-344, 347-348, 354. +Prize courts, 542. +Prizes, 465. +Proclamation of 1763, creates crown colonies, 404; + discourages expansion, 411; + provisions for government and fur trade, 420, 421. +Protestant Reformation, 16, 52; + in France, 78-79. +Providence Island, occupied by English, 133; + English expelled by Spaniards, 134, 252. +Providence Island Company, 133-134. +Providence Plantation, founding, 147; + government, 143. + _See_ Rhode Island. +Provincias Internas (New Spain), organization of, 386-387. +Ptolemy, his conception of the world, 1, 2. +Puaray, New Mexico, 72. +Puebla, Mexico, population, 75. +Pueblo Indians, of New Mexico, 46; + revolt of, 245-247. +Puerto Bello, 32, 360, 361. +Puritan Revolution, attitude of English colonies, 152. +Purry, Jean, 321. +Putnam, Colonel, plants colony on Mississippi, 408. +Putnam, Israel, 459, 461, 464. +Pym, John, interest in the Caribbean, 133. + + +Quakers, Massachusetts persecution, 189; + in New Jersey, 198-202, 226; + in Pennsylvania, 202-206, 226; + in Connecticut, 220; + in Rhode Island, 220; + in New York, 223; + in North Carolina, 229; + in South Carolina, 231. +Quartering Acts, 434-436, 438, 450. +Quebec Act of 1774, 413, 450-451. +Quebec, 257, 264, 272; + founding, 86; + occupied by English, 87; + Jesuit schools in, 88; + during intercolonial wars, 257, 264, 272, 379; + British regulation of fur trade, 404-406, 421-424; + province of, under British administration, 419-421; + population in 1763, 419; + first British settlers, 419; + civil government established, 420; + Proclamation of 1763, 420; + Quebec Act, 420, 421; + boundaries extended, 420; + Loyalists in, 421; + fur trade under the British, 421-424; + American expedition against, 487. + _See_ French and Indian War. +Queen Anne's War. _See_ War of the Austrian Succession. +Queres Indians, New Mexico, 246. +Queretaro, a buffer province, conquest of, 39; + natives as agents of subjugation, 39; + battle of, 58; + founding of town, 58; + College of the Holy Cross at, 249. +Quexos, slave hunter and explorer, 26. +Quiche Indians, Guatemala, conquest of, 38. +Quincy, Josiah, defense of British soldiers, 443. +Quiroga, oidor of New Spain, 49; bishop of Michoacan, 49. +Quivira (Kansas), 45, 72, 73, 243. + + +Radisson, French fur trader, 90, 260; + influence in establishment of Hudson's Bay Company, 213. +Raleigh, Walter, English freebooter and colonizer, 66, 251; + interest in Mediterranean commerce, 107; + charter of 1584, 109; + attempts to colonize Roanoke Island, 110; + expedition to Guiana, 110; + final attempt to colonize Guiana, 132; + death, 132. +Ramon, Domingo, founds colony in Texas, 293, 295, 296. +Randolph, Edward, royal agent, 192; + collector of the customs, 193; + attempt to enforce trade laws, 194; + imprisonment, 194; + surveyor-general of the customs, 344. +Randolph, Peyton, 463. +Rappahannock River, Spanish mission on, 65. +Rawdon, Lord Francis, 529. +Recollet friars, activities in Canada, 87. +Red River, Spanish and French on, 42, 283,284. +Reformation, The. _See_ The Protestant Reformation. +_Regidores_, members of _cabildo_, 20; + manner of obtaining office, 20. +Renault, mining on the Missouri, 282. +Requisitions upon states, 545. +Restoration, the, 179. +Restraining Act, 456. +Revere, Paul, 460. +Revillagigedo, viceroy of New Spain, 305. +Revolution in English colonies, background of the contest and nature + of the causes, 423-429; + legislation during the Grenville Ministry, 429-436; + repeal of the Stamp Act, 436-438; + the Townshend Acts, 438-443; + beginning of organized resistance, 443-447; + the tea controversy, 447-449; + North's coercive policy, 449-451; + First Continental Congress, 451-456; + opening of hostilities, 458-463; + Second Continental Congress, 463-470; + progress of the war, 470-472; + Loyalists, 472-476; + Declaration of Independence, 476-481; + contest for New York, 482-489; + New Jersey campaign, 489-493; + struggle with Burgoyne, 493-499; + contest for Philadelphia, 499-504; + the French alliance, 505-512; + the war in the West, 512-515; + Spain in the war, 515-517; + the war on the sea and the Dutch alliance, 517-522; + the war in the South, 524-530; + the Yorktown campaign, 530-538; + the treaty of peace, 532-538; + governmental development during the Revolution, 539-555. +Ribas, Perez de, missionary and historian in Sinaloa, 239. +Ribaut, Jean, French colonizer; + in Carolina and Florida, 62, 84. +Rica de Oro, Island, 71. +Rica de Plata, Island, 71. +Rice, 231, 313, 334-335, 356. +Richelieu, Cardinal, administration of, government of France, 79-80; + colonial policy, 80. +Rio del Espiritu Santo. _See_ Mississippi River. +Rio Fuerte, Sinaloa, 42, 56. +Rio Grande, 45, 73; + pueblo region of, 46; + population on, in 1680, 244-245; + crossed by expedition from the south, 248. + _See_ New Mexico, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, Texas. +Rivas, explorer of Gulf of Mexico, 249. +Rivera y Moneada, with Portola in California, 389. +Rivera, Juan Maria, explores in Colorado, 291-292. +Rivera, Pedro de, inspects frontier of New Spain, 297, 298,304. +Rhode Island, founding, 147; + confederation, 159; + code, 159; + government, 159; + charter, 190; + attitude toward royal commissioners, 191; + King Philip's War, 191-192; + Dominion of New England, 194-195; + charter restored, 195; + population, 216; + commerce, 216; + religion, 220; + education, 220; + restoration of the charter, 344; + protest against Grenville's policy, 432; + opposes the Stamp Act, 436; + British occupation, 489. + _See_ Providence Plantation, Roger Williams; Anne Hutchinson. +Rich, Sir Nathaniel, interest in the Caribbean, 133. +Rich, Robert, Lord Warwick, interest in colonization, 133; + land grants in New England, 140, 149; + assists Reverend John White, 141. +Rising, John, governor of New Sweden, 177. +Roanoke, lost colony of, 110. +Roanoke Island, 66, 251. +Robertson, James, pioneer in Tennessee, 415, 416, 419; + defense of Watauga, 513. +Roberval, French colonizer, 82; + commissioned viceroy and lieutenant-general of Canada, 82. +Robinson, Rev. John, at Scrooby, 137. +Rochambeau, Comte de, 511. +Rockingham Ministry, 437-438. +Rocky Mountains, 282. +Rodney, Admiral, in the West Indies, 382, 511, 530-531; + defeats de Grasse, 532. +Rodrigo del Rio de Losa, expedition to open mines of Nueva Vizcaya, + 56; + cattle ranches of, 58. +Rodriguez, Fray Agustin, expedition to New Mexico, 72. +Roe, Sir Thomas, expedition to Guiana, 132. +Rolfe, John, 121. +Rosicrucians, 318. +Roxbury settled, 142. +Royal council, Spanish, 14; + divided into three councils, justice, state, and finance, 14. +Rowley, William, English vice-admiral, 365. +Rubi, Marques de, inspects outposts of New Spain, 385-386. +Rui, Captain Francisco, in Missouri. +Rubruquis, William de, sent to court of Great Khan, 3. +Rump Parliament, 152. +Rupert, Prince, interest in Hudson's Bay Company, 213. +Russia, 3, 375, 382, 384; + expansion across Siberia, 388; + expeditions of Bering on Pacific, 388; + fur traders on Aleutian Islands, 388; + rumors of activities of, 394. +Rutherford, Gen. Griffith, 512-513. +Rutledge, Edward, member of the First Continental Congress, 452; + defense of Charleston, 471; + on committee to draw up Articles of Confederation, 550. +Rutledge, John, member of the Stamp Act Congress, 436; + member of the First Continental Congress, 452. + + +Saavedra, Alvaro de, expedition across the Pacific, 42, 46. +Saavedra, Hernando, in Honduras, 38. +Saba Island, settled by Dutch, 167; + captured by English, 206, 531. +Sable Island, 81, 85. +Saco Bay, settlement, 140. +Sagres, on Cape St. Vincent, 4. +St. Augustine, Florida, founding, 62; + Franciscan monastery at, 65; + siege of, in War of the Spanish Succession, 269-270; + attacks on, in War of Jenkins' Ear, 362, 364; + under English rule, 403, 408, 409. +St. Bartholomew's, massacre of, 79. +St. Christopher Island, settled by French, 93, 94, 252; + by English, 132-133, 252; + in the Leeward Isles government, 206; + in wars, 261, 268; + social conditions, 340; + captured by De Grasse, 532; + restored to Great Britain, 537. +St. Clair, Gen. Arthur, in Burgoyne campaign, 494-495. +St. Croix Island, French settlement of, 85. +St. Denis, Louis Juchereau de, founds Natchitoches, 278; + expeditions to Mexico, 278, 282-283, 293; + imprisonment, 283, 295; + raises French expedition, 297. +St. Eustatius Island, settled by the Dutch, 167, 252; + captured by the English, 206, 262; + trade, 341, 428; + in the Revolution, 520; + captured by the English, 530-531. +St. John, French fur trading post, 86. +St. John's River, 62. +St. Joseph, Michigan, captured by Spaniards, 516. +St. Julien, Peter, South Carolina trader, 369. +St Kitts. _See_ St. Christopher. +St. Lawrence River, exploration of, 81, 82; + French settlement, 86-90. +St. Leger's expedition, 493, 496. + +St. Louis, Missouri, La Clede's post at, 396; + emigration to from Illinois, 396; + Spanish regime installed, 397-398; + a center for Indian control and fur trade, 401, 402; + communication with Santa Fe, 402; + British expedition against, 516; + counter expedition to Michigan, 517. +St. Louis of France, sends Rubruquis to Great Khan, 3. +St Louis, Alabama, French settlement, 276; moved to Mobile, 276. +St. Lucia Island, captured by English, 510; + attempted capture by De Grasse, 531; + given to France, 537. +St. Marks Bay, Narvaez at, 41. +St. Martin Island, settled by the Dutch, 167; + captured by English, 531. +St. Mary's, Maryland, 127. +St. Thomas Island, Danes on, 253. +St. Vincent Island, occupied by French, 510; + restored to Great Britain, 537. +Salamanca, University of, 76. +Salazar, royal factor of New Spain, 48. +Salem, Massachusetts, founded, 141; + suffering at, 142; + Roger Williams controversy, 146-147; + witchcraft, 220. +Salmeron, _oidor_ of New Spain, 49. +Saltillo, Coahuila, settlement of, 59; + Franciscan monastery at, 59. +Salvatierra, Juan Maria, Jesuit missionary in Lower California, 306. +San Antonio Mission, California, 389. +San Antonio, Florida, presidio of, 64. +San Antonio, Texas, founded, 293-295; + strengthening of, 298. +San Bernabe, Lower California, 307. +San Blas, naval base for California, 389. +San Bruno, Lower California, 242. +San Buenaventura Mission, California, 394. +San Carlos Mission, California, 389. +San Diego, California, founded, 389. +San Diego Bay, California, discovery of, 47; + exploration of, 71. +Sandoval, Gonzalo de, lieutenant of Cortes, 36, 37. +Sandys, Sir Edwin, and Virginia, 120. +San Esteban (Tampico), founding of, 37. +San Felipe, Sinaloa, 58, 59; + development of, 58; + Jesuit school for boys, 237. +San Felipe, South Carolina, 64. +San Fernando, Villa of, Texas, founded, 298. +San Francisco, California, founding of, 391. +San Francisco Bay, California, 47, 71, 389. +San Francisco Xavier, Sonora, 239. +San Gabriel Mission, California, 391. +San Geronimo, Sonora, founding of, 45; + destruction of, 56; + refounding, 59. +San Jose, pueblo, California, 392. +San Juan, Sinaloa, mines of, 56; + revolt of Indians at, 58. +San Juan, Sonora, mines, 239. +San Juan, Porto Rico, founded, 17; + captured by English, 66; + decline of, 67; + captured by Dutch West India Company, 252. +San Juan River, Nicaragua, exploration of, 31-32. +San Luis, Nicolas de, Otomi Chief, conquest of Queretaro, 39. +San Luis Obispo Mission, California, 391. +San Luis Potosi, conquest and settlement of, 59; + growth of, 59. +San Mateo, Florida, 64. +San Miguel de Gualdape, South Carolina, settlement of, 41. +San Miguel el Grande (Allende), Mexico, 59. +San Pedro mines, Mexico, 59. +San Saba, Texas, mines, 248; + mission, 299. +San Salvador, Central America, conquest, 31, 37-38; + population, 75. +San Salvador Island, discovered and named by Columbus, 8, 10. +San Xavier (San Gabriel) River, Texas, mission and presidio on, 299. +Santa Ana, Father, missionary in Texas, 299. +Santa Barbara mission and presidio, California, 394. +Santa Barbara, Mexico, mines of, 56; + expedition from, 72. +Santa Catalina Island, California, 71, 255; + mission, 255. +Santa Clara Mission, California, 392. +Santa Cruz de Tlatelalco, Mexico, + College of, founded, 50. +Santa Cruz Island, 252. +Santa Elena (Port Royal) South Carolina, 61-62, 64, 65, 253. +Santa Fe Mission, Florida, 2, 69. +Santa Fe, New Mexico, 73, 243, 246, 290. +Santa Fe de Guanajauto, founding of, 58. +Santa Lucia, Florida, 64. +_Santa Maria_, one of Columbus' ships, 8; + wreck of, 10. +Santa Maria de Lagos, Mexico, 59. +Santa Maria de Parras, Coahuila, 60. +Santangel, Luis de, influence in favor of Columbus, 7; + loan to the Castilian treasury, 8. +Santa Cruz, Franciscan College of, at Queretaro, 249. +Santiago de Cuba, founded, 17, 18; + decline of, 67; + captured by Jackson, 252; + English attempt to conquer, 363. +Santo Domingo, 17, 67; + establishment of audiencia, 20; + population, 75; + attacks on during King William's War, 262. +Saratoga, campaign, 497, 498. +Sardinia Island, 13, 359. +Satren, Pierre, expedition to New Mexico, 286. +Sault Ste. Marie, 88; + Jesuit mission, 88, 96. +Saunders, English vice-admiral, 379, 380. +Savannah, founding, 316; + attempted relief by D'Estaing, 511; + captured by the British, 524; + failure to recapture, 524. +Saybrook, 149. +Saye and Sele, Lord, interest in the Caribbean, 133; + holdings in the Connecticut Valley, 149; + obtains lands in New Hampshire, 157. +Sayle, Captain William, governor of the Bermuda Islands, leads + colony to Segatoo, 152; + leads settlers to old Charles Town, 208. +Schenectady, New York, 263. +Schouten, William Cornelius, discovers Cape Horn, 165. +Schuyler, Captain John, 264. +Schuyler, Peter, 265. +Schuyler, Gen. Philip, appointment, 464; + in command of the northern department, 487; + defense of northern New York, 493-496; + superseded by Gates, 496. +Schuylkill River, settlement, 155. +Scotch, in New Jersey, 202; + at Port Royal, 210; + in New England, 216; + in New York, 222. + _See_ Scotch-Irish. +Scotch-Irish, causes of migration, 322-323; + seventeenth century migration, 324; + the great migration, 324; + to New England, 324-325; + to New York, 325; + to Pennsylvania, 325-326; + to the Southern Piedmont, 326; + in North Carolina, 415. +Second Continental Congress, delegates, 463; + nature of the work of the congress, 463-464; + military and naval preparations, 464; + prizes and privateers, 465; + finance, 465; + post office established, 465; + Indian policy, 465-466; + enforcement of the Association, 466-467; + letter to the people of Canada, 467; + attempts to influence public opinion in the British Empire, 468; + statement to the army, 468; + petition to the king, 468-469; + reply to Lord North, 469; + abandons Philadelphia and goes to Baltimore, 490; + second abandonment of Philadelphia, 502; + provides a navy, 517; + its nature, 539; + original powers of the delegates, 540; + causes of weakness, 540; business, 541; + organization and conduct of business, 541; + early acts, 541-542; + judicial functions, 542; + military affairs, 542-543; + naval affairs, 543; + foreign affairs, 543-544; + financial affairs, 544-545; + creates executive offices, 553. +Secretaries of State, 347, 351, 353. +Sedelmayr, Father Jacob, Jesuit missionary and explorer in Arizona, + 304, 307. +Segatoo (Eleutheria) Island, settled, 152. +Segura, Father, Jesuit, founds missions in Florida, Georgia, + Carolina, and Virginia, 1568-1570, 65. +Seignorial grants in New France, 92, 93. +Seneca Indians, 259; + in St. Leger's army, 496. +Senegal, Africa, coast of, explored, 5; + retained by British, 1763, 382. +Separatists, 135. +Sena, Junipero, 386; + president of the California missions, 389; + member of Portola expedition, 389; + goes to Mexico, 389; death, 394. +Seven Years' War, 375, 384. + _See_ French and Indian War. +Sevier, John, Tennessee pioneer, 415, 416; + defense of Watauga, 513; + at King's Mountain, 527. +Seville, 10; + treaty of, 366. +Shaftesbury. _See_ Cooper. +Shawnee Indians, 417. +Sheffield, Lord, land grant to, 140. +Shelby, Isaac, 527. +Shenandoah Valley, settlement, 320. +Sherman, Roger, member of First Continental Congress, 452; + on the committee for drafting Declaration of Independence, 479; + on committee to draw up Articles of Confederation, 550. +Ship-building, 217, 331, 332. +Shirley, governor of Massachusetts, 364. 374, 375-376. +Shrewsbury, New Jersey, 198. +Sicily, 16, 359, 361. +Sieur de Argaud, New World project, 275. +Sieur de Monts, fur trader. 85, 86. +Silao, Mexico, founded, 58. +Silva, Father Juan de, Franciscan missionary in Florida, 65. +Sinaloa, conquest of, 39; + development of, 56, 305-306, 387; + Jesuits in, 237-240; + map of, in seventeenth century, 238. +Sinclair, British commander at Mackinac, expedition against St. + Loins, 516. +Sioux Indians, French among, 287. +Six Nations. _See_ the Iroquois Indians. +Slavery, beginning of the traffic, 5; + slaves in Spain, 13; + enslaving of the Indians, 22, 23, 31, 37, 56, 60-61, 72, 75, 270, 298; + practiced by Mayas and Nahuas, 27; + negro slavery, 23, 56, 273, 276, 279, 281, 282, 361; + in French settlements, 94; + St. Thomas, slave-trading station, 253; + English monopoly of slave-carrying trade, 385; + Dutch slave trade, 196; + English slave trade, 196, 197; + in tobacco colonies, 229; + in South Carolina, 230, 334-335; + in Georgia, 316; + Rhode Island slave trade, 331; + in various colonies, 336; + in the West Indies, 339-341. +Sloughter, Henry, governor of New York, 198, 344-345. +Smith, James, explorer on the Tennessee, 413. +Smith, John, in Virginia, 117; + explorations on the New England coast, 136. +Smuggling, 350-360, 361, 385, 398, 406. +Smythe, Sir Thomas, interest in Mediterranean trade, 107; + in Virginia Company, 120. +Society for Propagating the Gospel, 338. +Solis, Juan de, explorer, 25. +Sombrerete, Mexico, 55, 56. +Somers, Sir George, wrecked on Bermuda Islands, 129; + forms Somers Island Company, 130. +Somers Island Company, 130; + dissolved, 206. +Sonora, Mexico, 41; + Jesuits in, 237, 230-240; + map, 238; + development, 305-306, 387; + Indian disturbances, 1768-1771, 386. + _See_ Pimeria Alta. +Sons of Liberty, 436. +Sosa, Castano de, alcalde-mayor in Nuevo Leon, 60; + expedition to New Mexico, 72. +Sothell, Seth, 211. +Soton, French trader on the Tennessee, 102. +South America, explorations of Portuguese in, 5; + Columbus' discovery of mainland of, 17; + explorations of coasts of, 23-24, 25; + Spanish conquests, 50. +Southampton, on Long Island, settled, 151. +South Carolina (for early history see Carolinas) in later 17th + century, population, commerce, religion, education, society, + 230-231; + separation from North Carolina, 313-315, 354; + Spanish resistance to English advance, 253-256; + Yamassee revolt against Spaniards of Georgia, 255; + English raids on Georgia missions, 255; + South Carolina traders among the Creeks; + Anglo-Spanish border, struggle during War of Spanish Succession, 269-271; + expeditions against Florida, 269-270; + Spanish attack on Charleston, 270. +South Company, 174-175. +South Sea. _See_ Pacific Ocean. +Spain, during the conquest, 13-16; + unification of, 14; + Charles V, 15-16; + under Philip II, 52-53, 67; + decline in the 17th century, 232; + relations to the Powers, 1715-1739, 359-361; + attitude toward American Revolution, 507-508; + in American Revolution, 515-517; + operations on lower Mississippi, 515; + repulse of British at St. Louis, 516; + expedition against St. Joseph, 516; + capture of Mobile and Pensacola, 516-517; + in League of Armed Neutrals, 520; + loans to United States, 554. +Spanish Armada, defeat of, 52-53. +Spanish Colonies in North America, general history, the discovery, + 7-11; + the founding of New Spain, 13-50; + occupation of West Indies, 16-19; + beginnings of colonial administration and policy, 19-23; + exploration of mainland coasts and search for strait, 23-26; + Maya and Nahua civilization, 26-28; + conquest of Central America, 28-32; + conquest of Valley of Mexico, 32-36; + spread of conquest in southern Mexico and Central America, 36-40; + exploration of Florida, Cibola, Quivira, California and Philippines, + 40-47; + establishment of viceroyalty of New Spain, 47-50; + expansion in later 16th century, 52-76; + New Spain under Philip II, 52-55; + the mines of northern Mexico, 55-61; + occupation of the Atlantic seaboard (Florida, Georgia, South + Carolina, Virginia), 61-65; + foreign intrusions in the Atlantic, 65-67; + the Philippines and California, 67-71; + New Mexico founded, 72-75; + Spanish achievement in the sixteenth century, 75-76; + expansion in the 17th century, 233-256; + frontier administration, 234-235; + the missions, 235-237; + Jesuits in Sinaloa and Sonora, 237-240; + efforts to occupy Lower California, 240-242; + Chihuahua settled, 242; + New Mexico in the 17th century, lost and regained, 243-247; + Coahuila founded, 247-249; + first attempts in eastern Texas, 249-251; + struggle with rivals in the West Indies, 251-253; + with the English on the Carolina border, 253-256; + New Spain in the Wars of English and Spanish successions, 261-262, + 267-271; + French intrusions in Louisiana, Texas, and New Mexico, 275-286; + expansion and frontier conflict during early 18th century, 289-307; + development of Chihuahua and New Mexico frontier, 289-290; + explores in Colorado and Utah Basin, 291-292; + the province of Texas, 292-300; + French intrusion, 295-297; 300-301; + occupation of Pimeria Alta, 301-306; + the Jesuits in Lower California, 306-307; + Spanish colonies during intercolonial wars, 359-383; + Florida lost, Louisiana acquired, 382; + readjustments after Seven Years' War, 384-388; + Charles III and Jose de Galvez, 384-387; + expulsion of Jesuits, 386; + the Provinciali Internas, 386-387; + new dioceses, 387; + the intendancies, 387; + the Russian menace, 388; + Alta California founded, 380-394; + communication with New Mexico, 391-392; + explorations in Northern Pacific, 394-395; + Louisiana under Spain, 395-402; + ceded, 382, 395; + hostility to transfer, 396; + O'Reilly's _coup d'etat_, 397; + development of the province, 397-402; + Spain in the American Revolution, 515-517; + Galvez's conquests, 515-516; + English campaign against St. Louis, 516; + Florida restored to Spain, 535-538. +Spice Islands, 24, 46, 68. +Spillberg, Dutch freebooter on the Pacific, 240. +Spotswood, Governor Alexander, expedition to the Blue Ridge + Mountains, 313. +Springfield founded, 149. +Squanto, 138-319. +Stamford founded, 150. +Stamp Act, 433; opposition and resistance +to, 434-436; repealed, 437. +Stamp Act Congress, 436-437. +Standish, Captain Miles, at Leyden, 137; + commanding expedition to Cape Ann, 141. +Staple Act of 1663, 180-181. +Stark, Gen. John, 461, 495-496. +State governments, organization, 546; + types, 546; + variations from type, 547; + selection of judiciary, 548; + courts, 548; + state of Vermont, 548; + western state-making, 549. +Statute of Henry VIII regarding trials for treason, 442. +Stephen, negro, with Vaca, 44. +Stirling, Sir Thomas, 484, 490, 500. +Stone, William, governor of Maryland, 162. +Stoner, pioneer in Kentucky. 413, 417. +Stony Point, captured by Wayne, 511. +Strabo, his conception of the world, 1. +Strait of Anian, 24, 25, 67-68. +Straits of Magellan, 25. +Stuart, John, British Indian superintendent, 407, 412. +Stuyvesant, Peter, director of Curacao 172; + director-general of New Netherlands, 172; + struggle over representation, 172-173; + conquest of New Sweden, 177; + difficulties with the English, 177-178. +Suaque Indians, Sinaloa, 239. +Suffolk Resolves, 452. +Sugar, 340-341. +Sugar Act, 430-431. +Sullivan, Gen. John, at Long Island. 484; + in Northern New York, 487; + at Trenton, 490, 491; + at Brandywine, 500; + at Germantown, 502; + at Newport, 510; + expedition against the Iroquois, 515. +Sully, French minister, 79. +Sulpicians, in the Illinois country, 91, 101. +Sumter, Thomas, South Carolina leader in the Revolution, 526, 527, + 529. +Superstitions in New England, 220. +Surinam, 197. +Swannendael, Dutch settlement, 170. +Swanson and McGillivray, traders in Florida, 407. +Sweden, alliance with France, 80; + expansion movement, 174-175; + settlements on the Delaware, 175; + conquest of New Sweden by Dutch, 175-176. +Swiss migration to South Carolina, 321; + to North Carolina, 321; + to Georgia, 321. +Sylvius, AEneas, _General History and Geography_, 7. + + +Tabasco, Mexico, 33. +Tacuba, Mexico, 28. +Tadoussac, fur trading settlement, 85, 87. +Tagus River, 10, 13. +Talon, first intendant of New France, 92; + administrative activities, 92-93, 96. +Tamaulipas, Mexico. _See_ Hausteca, Panuco, Nuevo Santander. +Tamaral, Father, Jesuit missionary in Lower California, 307. +Tampa Bay, DeSoto at, 41. +Tampico (San Esteban), Mexico, 37. +Tangaxoan, Tarascan chief, 36. +Tano Indians, 246. +Tapia, Cristobal de, attempt to investigate Cortes, 34. +Tapia, Fernando de, Otomi chief in, conquest of Queretaro, 39. +Tapia, Gonzalo de, Jesuit missionary in Sinaloa, 237. +Tarahumare Indians, 242; + revolt of, 246. +Tarascans, Mexican tribe, 28, 36. +Taraval, Father, Jesuit missionary in Lower California, 307. +Tarleton, Sir Banastre, 525, 526, 528. +Tartary, travelers' report of, 3. +Tea controversy, 447-449. +Tegesta, Florida, 64. +Tehuantepec, Mexico, 36. +Tehueco Indians, Sinaloa, 239. +Tejas (Texas) Indians, 245. +Tennessee, settlement of eastern, 414-416; + stimulated by North Carolina troubles, 414-415; + the Watauga settlement, 415; + the Watauga Association, 415-416; + middle, 418-419; + Cumberland settlement, 419; + Davidson County, North Carolina, 419. +Teran, Domingo de, governor of Texas, 251. +Terreros, Don Pedro de, gift to Apache missions, 299. +Texas, Pineda coasts, 26; + Vaca crosses, 41; + Moscoso in, 41; + Coronado in Panhandle, 45; + Espejo crosses, 72; + Castano de Sosa crosses, 72; + Onate crosses Panhandle, 73; + La Salle's colony in, 98-100; + Tonty in, 99; + map, 99; + expeditions from New Mexico to Jumanos, 243-244, 246; + beginnings of El Paso, 245; + the La Junta missions, 245; + Azcue crosses Rio Grande, 248; + Cerro de la Plata, 248; + Bosque-Larios expedition, 248; + the Queretaro friars, 248-249; + search for LaSalle's colony, 249; + eastern Texas occupied (De Leon and Massanet), 249-251; + and then abandoned, 251; + map, 250; + Hurtado in western Texas, 291; + advance of the Coahuila frontier, 292; + plans to reoccupy Texas, 292; + new French intrusion, 278, 283; + St. Denis in Mexico, 278, 292; + eastern Texas reoccupied (Ramon, Espinosa, Margil), 293; + San Antonio founded (Olivares, Alarcon), 293-295; + map, 294; + French invasion (Blondel), 279, 295; + the Aguayo expedition, 296-297; + Texas won for Spain, 297; + expansion of Texas, 297; + Rivera's inspection, 297; + San Antonio strengthened, 298; + Apache wars, 298; + Tonkawa and Apache missions, 298-299; + the Gulf coast occupied (Nuevo Santander), 299; + western boundary, 300; + the Texas-Louisiana boundary, 300; + the Lower Trinity fortified, 301; + readjustment after 1763, 385; + explorations of Parrilla and Escandon, 385; + Rubi's tour, 385; + eastern outposts abandoned, 385, 400; + Gil Ybarbo, 400; + De Mezieres among the northern tribes, 401; + Croix, Ugalde, and the Apache War, 401; + communication with Louisiana and New Mexico (Vial), 402. +Thirty Years' War, 80. +Thomson, Charles, secretary of Second Continental Congress, 541. +Three Rivers, Canada, 257, 419. +Ticonderoga, captured, 462; + an American base, 487; + abandoned, 493-494. +Tidewater, Atlantic, settled in 16th and 17th centuries, 52-231, + _passim_. +Tierra Firme, Las Casas' Utopian colony in, 23. +Tiguex, 45. +Tlascala, resistance to Cortes, 33. +Tlascaltecan Indians (Tlascalans), 28, 59; + used as colonists, 59-66. +Tobacco industry in English colonies, 121, 122-125, 130, 183-184, + 188, 228, 313, 333-334; + Tobago Island, 252; + granted to the Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, 132; + captured by De Grasse, 531; + given to France, 537. +Tobar, discovers Moqui pueblos, 45. +Tocobago, Florida, 64. +Toledo, victory over English at St. Kitts, 252. +Tololotlan, Rio de, Mexico, 37. +Tolosa, Juan de, founder of Zacatecas, 55. +Toltecs, Nahua tribe, settle in Valley of Mexico, 27. +Toluca, Merico, 53, 75. +Tonkawa, missions in Texas, 209. +Tonty, soldier with La Salle, 08, 09; + fur trader, 265, 275, 276. +Topia, Mexico, 56. +Tordesulas, Treaty of, 11. +Tories. _See_ Loyalists. +Torres, Admiral Don Rodrigo de, 363. +Tortola Island, captured by the English, 207. +Tortuga Island, occupied by French, 94; + occupied by the English, 133. +Toscanelli, Florentine geographer, influence on Columbus, 7; + map, 7. +Touacara Indians, Oklahoma. 283. +Townshend Acts, 438-443. +Townshend, Charles, policy, 438. +Trans-Alleghany settlement, English, before the French and Indian + War, 413; + Boone, Croghan, Finley, and other pioneers, 413-414; + the Appalachian barrier, 414; + the Indian barrier, 414; + Indian cessions, 414. +Transylvania, Kentucky, 417, 418, 549. +Treasure ships, Spanish, routes of, 62. +Treasury, United States, 465. +Treasury Board, United States, 544. +Treaty of Tordesulas, 11; + of Breda, 86, 197; + of 1604 between England and Spain, 114; + of 1650 between New Netherlands and New England Confederation, 177; + of Pyrenees, 232; + of Ryswick, 266-267; + of Utrecht, 273; + of Aix-la-Chapelle, 366; + of Paris, 1763, 382-383; + of Lochaber, 412; + of alliance with France, 508; + at end of American Revolution, 532-548. +Trent, Council of, 52. +Trenton, battle of, 491. +Trevino, Baltasar, founder of Zacatecas, 55. +Tribunal de la Santa Hermandad, 53. +Trinidad, Guatemala, population, 75. +Trinidad Bay, California, discovery of, 395. +Trinidad Island, West Indies, 262; + granted to the Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, 132. +Trinity River, Texas, 301, 400. +Trujillo, Honduras, 38, 252. +Tryon, Governor of North Carolina, 415. +Tunica Indians, 410. +Turkish Empire, rise of, supposed effect on trade routes, 5; + opposition of Charles V to westward advance of, 16. +Turk's Island, settled, 152; + attacked, 269. +Turnbull Dr., colonizes East Florida, 309. +Tuscarora War, 271, 320. +_Twenty Reasons_, by Father Las Casas, 50. + + +Ugalde, Juan de, campaigns against Apaches, 401. +Ugarte, Juan de, Jesuit missionary and explorer in Lower California, + 306. +Ulloa, Antonio de, Spanish governor of Louisiana, 396-397. +Ulloa, Francisco de, explores Pacific coast, 44. +Unalaska, rebellion of natives, 388. +Underwood, Captain John, raids Newfoundland, 271. +United Empire Loyalists, 538. + _See_ Loyalists, Canada. +University of Mexico, 76; + founding of, 53. + _See_ Education in Mexico. +Unzaga y Amezaga, Luis de, Spanish governor of Louisiana, 398. +Urdaneta, Fray Andres de, discovers return route from Philippines, 68. +Uraba, Gulf of, 38. +Urdinola, Francisco de, settlement of Saltillo, 59; + lieutenant-governor of Nueva Vizcaya, 60; + commission to conquer New Mexico, 60. +Ursulines, The, in New France, 88. +Usselincx, William, in the Dutch West-India Company, 166; + in Sweden, 174-175. +Utah Basin, explorers and traders in, 291-292, 392. +Utatlan, Guatemala, submission to Cortes, 38. +Utrecht, Peace of, 273, 361. +Uxmal, Maya settlement, 27. +Urribarri, Juan de, expedition to El Quartelejo, 291. + + +Vaca, Alonzo de, expedition to Quivira, 243. +Vaca, Alvar Nunez Cabeza de, treasurer of colony of Florida, 41; + journey across continent, 41, 42; + application for governorship of Florida, 41. +Valcarcel, Antonio de, _alcalde mayor_ of Coahuila, founds + Monclova, 248. +Valcour Island, battle of, 487-488. +Valley Forge,. 503. +Valverde, governor of New Mexico, expedition across Arkansas River, + 295-296. +Vandalia colony, 412-413, 418. +Vane, Governor Harry, in the Hutchinsonian controversy, 148; + member of Committee of Trade, Plantations, and Foreign Affairs, 153. +Van Noort, Oliver, circumnavigation of the globe, 164. +Van Rensselaer, Kiliaen, patroon, 170. +Van Twiller, Wouter, director-general of New Netherlands, 170. +Vargas, Diego de, reconquest of New Mexico, 246-247. +Varkens Kill, settled, 155. +Vaudreuil, governor-general of New France, 375, 381. +Vaughan, Sir William, land grant in Newfoundland, 125. +Velasco, Father, Jesuit missionary, in Sinaloa, writes grammar, 237. +Velasco, Lopez de, author of geographical work on Spanish colonies, 75. +Velasco, Luis de, second viceroy of New Spain, 53; + promotes expansion, 59, 61-62, 67, 71. +Velasquez, Diego, governor of Cuba, 17; + exploring expeditions, 25, 32; + his contest with Cortes, 33, 34. +Venables, conquest of Jamaica, 253. +Venetian Company, 107. +Vera Cruz, founding of, 33, 36, 47; + port of departure for expeditions to Florida, 61, 62; + port for Spanish merchant fleet, 66; + population, 75; + capture of fleet by Heyn, 252. +Vera Paz, Central America, 39. +Veragua, Central America, 28; + dukedom of, 32; + Audiencia of, 49. +Verendrye. _See_ La Verendrye. +Vergennes, Comte de, French minister, policy toward the American + Revolution, 505-506, 507; + perfects an alliance, 508; + sends De Grasse to America, 530; + dealings with John Adams, 532-533; + treaty of peace, 534-538. +Vermont, German migration to, 322; + Scotch-Irish migration to, 325; + organization of, 548-549. +Vernon, Admiral Edward, 361, 363. +Verrazano, exploring expedition, 81. +Vespucius, Americus, explorations of, 24. +Vetch, Colonel Samuel, 272. +Vial, Pedro, explorations in Southwest, 402. +Viceroyalties in Spanish America, New Spain and Peru, 75-76. +Victoria Garayana. _See_ Panuco. +Vila, Captain Vicente, explores Northern Pacific, 389. +Villafane, attempt to colonize Florida, 61-62. +Villalobos, Lopez de, expedition to Philippines, 47, 67. +Villazur, expedition to Platte River, 1720, 279, 284, 291, 296. +Villiers, lieutenant-governor of Arkansas Post, 398. +Vincennes, founded, 282; + captured by Clark, 514; + reoccupied by British, 514; + retaken, 514. + Vining, E.J., identification of Fusang, 2. + Vinland, discovery of, 2. + Virgin Isles, 341. +Virginia, Jesuit mission in, 1570, 65; + Council of, 113; + settlement of, 115-128; + charter of 1606, 116; + Jamestown founded, 116-117; + John Smith, 117; + charter of 1609, 117-118; + the starving time, 118; + governorship of Gates, 118; + under Lord Delaware, 118-119; + Spanish resistance to, 118-119; + under Sir Thomas Dale, 119-121; + charter of 1612, 120; + first governorship of Berkeley, 160; + Indian War of 1644, 160; + struggle with the Commonwealth, 160; + government under the Commonwealth, 160, 162; + growth, 162; + House of Burgesses, 120, + agricultural development, 120-121; + immigration, 121-122; massacre of 1622, 122; + crown regulation of tobacco industry, 122-123; + a royal colony, 123; + population, 123; + plantations, 123-125; + attitude of Charles I, 124; + under Governor Harvey, 124-125: + royal tobacco monopoly, 125; + trouble with Maryland, 127-128; + economic distress, 183; + population in 1680, 183; + Dutch attacks, 184; + abuses in the second administration of Governor Berkeley, 184; + proprietary grants, 185; + Indian War, 185-186; + Bacon's rebellion, 185-186; + Jeffreys in control, 187; + Culpeper, 187; + Howard, 187-188; + population, 227; + settled areas, 227; + plantation system, 228; + commerce, 228-229; + labor system, 229; + religion, 229; + education, 229; + German migration to, 320; + Scotch-Irish migration to, 326; + social and economic conditions in the eighteenth century, 333-334; + under William III, 345; + protests against Grenville's policy, 433; + resolutions, 435-436; + opposition to Townshend Acts, 442; + trouble with the governor, 444; + rebellion in 1775, 462-463; + struggle with Lord Dunmore, 471; + navy, 518; + Yorktown campaign, 530-532. +Vizigoths, kingdom of, in Spain, overthrown by Mohammedan Berbers, 13. +Vizcaino, Sebastian, California expeditions, 71. +Wager, Charles, English Commodore, 268. +Walker, Sir Hovenden, expedition against Quebec, 272. +Wall Street, 172. +Wallen, pioneer in Kentucky, 413. +Walpole, Robert, 353, 360. +Walpole, Thomas, interest in Vandalia, 413. +Wampanoags, 138-139. +War department, of United States, organized, 554-555. +War between England and Spain, 1654-1655, 153. +Wars between the English and Dutch, 1652-1654, 153; + 1667, 1672-1673, 184. +War of the Palatinate, 261. +War of the Austrian Succession, 364, 366; + French attack on Acadia, 364; + capture of Louisbourg, 364-365; + border warfare, Acadia to New York, 365; + naval activity, and battles off Cape Finisterre, 365-366; + Knowles's attack on the Spaniards in West Indies, 366; + peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 366. +War of the English Succession (King William's War) in the colonies, + map, 260; + four years of war in the Caribbean Sea, 261-262; + the war on the Canadian frontiers, 262-266; + the Maine frontier, 262; + French attack on New England frontier and the English defense, 263; English expedition + against Montreal, 263-264; + capture of Port Royal, Acadia, 264; + English expedition against Quebec, 264; + Schuyler's expedition, 265; + attacks of Abenakis and of the French, 265; + the New English frontier, 266; + massacre at Durham, 266; + activities on Hudson Bay, 266-267; + operations of Iberville, 266; + peace of Ryswick, 260-267. +War of Jenkins' Ear, 361-364; + in the West Indies, 361, 363; + on the Georgia frontier, 361-263, 363-364; + attack on St. Augustine, 362, 364. +War of the Polish Succession, 360-361. +War of the Spanish Succession, French expansion during the peace of + Ryswick, 267; + the Spanish succession, 267; + Second Treaty of Partition, 267; + English decision for war, 267-268; + war areas (in America), 268; +West Indies, indecisive struggle, 268-269; + on the Florida border, 269-271; + on the Canadian border, 271-272; + in the Hudson Bay country. 273; + Peace of Utrecht, 273. +Ward, Artemus, 464. +Warren, Joseph, distributes arms, 460. +Warwick, Lord. _See_ Rich, Robert. +Warwick, Rhode Island, settled, 159. +Washington, George, bearer of Dinwiddie's message to the French in + Ohio, 369; + organizes plan of defense, 373-374; + member of Western Land Company, 411; + in northeastern Kentucky, 416; + member of the First Continental Congress, 452; + commander of the continental army, 464; + siege of Boston, 471; + New York operations, 482-487, 488-489; + New Jersey campaign, 489-493; + struggle for Philadelphia, 499-502; + Valley Forge, 503; + Conway Cabal, 503-504; + reception of Lafayette, 508; + Monmouth, 509-510; + draws cordon about New York, 511; + equips a fleet, 517; + on control of the sea, 530; + communicates with De Grasse, 531; + plan to trap Cornwallis, 531; + assembly of forces, 531-532; + Yorktown, 532. +Washington County, North Carolina, organized, 1416. +Watauga settlement, 412; + Association, 415-416; + attacked by Cherokees, 512, 513; + attempt at statehood, 549. +Watertown, settled, 142. +Watling's Island, 10. +Waxhaws, 525. +Wayne, Gen. Anthony, 500, 511. +Webb, Colonel Daniel, 376. +Weiser, Conrad, interpreter to Indians, 365. +Welles, Maine, claimed by Massachusetts, 157. +Welsh, settlers in North Carolina, 415. +Wessagusset, 140. +West, Joseph, governor of the Carolinas, 208; + trouble with Yeamans, 210; + political difficulties, 210. +West Indies, discovery of, 9-10; + Spanish colonies founded, 16-19; + rule of Columbus in, 16-17; + gold discovered, 17; + Santo Domingo founded, 17; + spread of Spanish settlement, 17-19, 251; + map, 18; + Spanish administration, 19-23; + the towns, 20; + immigration, 21; + agriculture, 21; + Indian policy, 22; + depopulation, 19, 22, 67; + French, Dutch, and English intrusions, 65-66, 80; + Spanish decline, 67; + French colonies, 93-96; + Company of St. Christopher's, 93; + French West India Company, 94; + Elizabethan Sea-dogs in, 107-108; + English colonies in the Lesser Antilles, 132-133; + Providence Island Company, 133; + English expansion in, 152; + Jamaica conquered by England, 153, 253; + Dutch settlements in, 166-167; + Dutch West Indian Company, 166; + English expansion and reorganization, 206-207; + unrest in Barbados, 207; + Spanish conflict with rivals in 17th century, 251-253; + privateers, 252; + Spanish retaliation, 252; + Danes and Brandenburgers, 253; + during War of English Succession, 261-263; + during War of Spanish Succession, 268-269; + society in English colonies in the 18th century, 339-341; + the planters, 339; + Barbados and Leeward Islands, 340; + Jamaica, 340-341; + emigration from, 341; + smuggling, 341; + piracy, 349-350; + the Molasses Act, 356; + the West Indies during the War of Jenkins' Ear, 361-363, 365; + during War of Austrian Succession, 366; + during French and Indian War, 379, 382; + Spanish reorganization, 387-388; + trade with Louisiana, 398; + English province of Grenada organized, 404; + relation of trade to American Revolution, 430-431, 454; + war activities during American Revolution, 510-516, 517-520, 530, 532; + in the Treaty of 1783, 537. +Western Sea, efforts to find route to, 287-288. +Western (Lazarus) Islands, 67. +West New Jersey, population, 224; + settled area, 224-225; + social conditions, 224-225; + religion, 226; + education, 226-227. + _See_ New Jersey. +Westsylvania, 418. +Weston, Thomas, gives financial aid to the Pilgrims, 317; + his settlement at Wessagusset, 139; + aid from Plymouth, 139. +West Point, 511-512. +Westward movement, English, characteristics, 309-312; + into the Piedmont, frontier defense, 312-313; + reorganization of the Carolinas, 313-315; + founding of Georgia, 315-316; + German and Swiss migration, 316-322; + Scotch-Irish migration, 322-326; + significance of the settlement of the Piedmont, 326-328; + into the Trans-Alleghany West, 403-419. +Wethersfield founded, 149. +Weymouth, George, voyage to New-England, 116. +Weymouth settlement, 140. +Whigs, 458, 459, 463. _See_ Revolution. +White, Governor John, of Roanoke, 110. +White, Reverend John, forms association, 141. +Whitefield, George, 338. +White Plains, 485, 487. +Wichita, Kansas, Onate at, 73. +Wichita Indians, 45. _See_ Quivira. +Wiehawken, New Jersey, 198. +Wilderness Road, opened by Boone, 417. +William and Mary College, 229, 338-339. +Williams, Roger, at Boston, 146; + at Salem, 146; + at Plymouth, 146; + preaching at Salem, 146-147; + his trial, 147; + founding of Providence, 147; + separation of church and state, 147; + government, 147; + keeps Narragansetts out of Pequot War, 150; + obtains revocation of Coddington patent, 159. +William III, first reorganization of the colonial system, 343-346; + second reorganization, 346-350. + _See_ War of the English Succession. +William of Orange (the Silent), 52. +Windward Islands, 252. +Williamson, Col. Andrew, 513. +Williamsburg, made capital of Virginia, 345. +Willing, James, raids in the Southwest during the Revolution, 513-514. +Willoughby, Sir Hugh, expedition to Russia, 106. +Wilmington, made base by Cornwallis, 529. +Wilson, James, attitude toward Declaration of Independence, 478. +Windsor, founded, 149. +Windward Islands, organized into a province, 206. +Winslow, John, 375. +Winter, English freebooter, 66. +Winthrop, Fitz-John, 263. +Winthrop, John, governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony, 142; + arrives at Salem, 142; + moves to Charlestown, 142; + religious controversies, 147-148. +Winthrop, John Jr., erects Fort Saybrook, 149. +Witchcraft in New England, 220. +Wolfe, Major-General, capture of Quebec, 379-380. +Woolen Act of 1698, 349. +Wrenn, Ralph, English commodore, 262. +Wright, Commodore, English commander in the Caribbean Sea, 262. +Writs of assistance, 428-429. +Wyoming Valley massacre, 514. + + +Yale College, 339. +Yamassee Indians, revolt against Spaniards, 255; + War in South Carolina, 314. +Yaqui Indians, missions among, 239. +Yaqui River Valley, Sonora, 45, 56; + Jesuit missions in, 239. +Yazoo, judicial department of Louisiana, 279; + immigration to, 408. +Ybarbo, Antonio Gil, leader in eastern Texas, 400. +Yeamans, Sir John, expeditions to Carolina, 208; + claims the governorship, 210; + governor, 210. +Yeardley, Sir George, governor of Virginia, 120. +York (Maine), claimed by Massachusetts, 157. +Yorktown campaign, 530-532. +Yucatan, exploration of, 25; + inhabitants of, 27; + conquest of, 38-39. +Yuma, mission pueblos at, 393; + massacre of Spaniards at, 393-394; + punishment for, 394. + + +Zacatecas, mines of, 55, 56; + development of, 59; + population, 75. +Zacatula, Mexico, ship-building port, 37, 42. +Zaguaripa, Mexico, Ibarra at, 56. +Zaldivar, Vincente, pioneer in New Mexico, 73. +Zarate Salmeron, Geronimo de, Franciscan missionary in New Mexico, 243. +Zavala, Martin de, _conquistador_ of Nuevo Leon, 247. +Zenger case, 356-357. +Zultepec, Mexico, 75. +Zumarraga, Bishop of Mexico, 48. +Zuni, New Mexico, pueblos, 44, 45, 46. 72. +Zuniga, Governor of Florida, 269. +Zuniga, Spanish ambassador to England, 118, 119. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Colonization of North America, by +Herbert Eugene Bolton and Thomas Maitland Marshall + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA *** + +***** This file should be named 36619.txt or 36619.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/6/6/1/36619/ + +Produced by Marc D'Hooghe + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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