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+Project Gutenberg's Antonio Stradivari, by Horace William Petherick
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Antonio Stradivari
+
+Author: Horace William Petherick
+
+Release Date: June 26, 2011 [EBook #36535]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANTONIO STRADIVARI ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Linda Cantoni, David E. Brown, Bryan Ness and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  ANTONIO STRADIVARI.
+
+
+
+
+  PRINTED BY E. SHORE AND CO.,
+
+  3, GREEN TERRACE, ROSEBERY AVENUE, LONDON, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: HORACE PETHERICK.]
+
+
+
+
+  _"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. VIII._
+
+
+  ANTONIO STRADIVARI,
+
+  BY
+  HORACE PETHERICK.
+
+  _Of the Music Jury, International Inventions Exhibition,
+  South Kensington, 1885; International Exhibition,
+  Edinburgh, 1890; Expert in Law Courts, 1891;
+  Vice-President of the Cremona Society._
+
+  COPYRIGHT.
+
+  London:
+  "THE STRAD" OFFICE, 3. GREEN TERRACE, ROSEBERY AVENUE, E.C.
+  E. DONAJOWSKI, 26, CASTLE STREET, BERNERS STREET, W.
+  D. R. DUNCAN, 186, FLEET STREET, E.C.
+
+  1900
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  Date and Place of Birth of Antonio Stradivari--His Instructor
+    in the Art of Violin Making--Peculiarity of His Early
+    Work, Nothing Striking, but Slowly Progressive--Which
+    of the Designs of His Master He was Most Impressed
+    by, and His Own Modifications for Improvement--His
+    Departure from the House of His Master Free to Carry
+    Out His Own Inclinations                                           1
+
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+  Details of Further Improvements upon His New Designs--Modification
+    of the Soundholes--The Amati Varnish and
+    Stradivari's--His Secrecy of Method in Working--His
+    Knowledge of What was Wanted and Efforts at Advance
+    in Tone Quality                                                    8
+
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+  The Date of the True Stradivarian Individuality--Alterations
+    in Design--Proportions Settled for Good--The Exceptions--The
+    "Long Strad"--The "Inlaid Strads"--An
+    Acknowledged Master of His Art--Black Edging--The
+    Arching and Channelling--The Brescians, the Amatis and
+    Stradivari                                                        13
+
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+
+  Lesser Known Patterns of Stradivari--The Treatment of the
+    Scroll by Him--The Individuality and Maturing of the
+    Style--The Purfling                                               19
+
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+
+  Stradivari's Great Success--His So-called "Grand Epoch"--His
+    Patrons--His Violins Reputed for Tone when Quite
+    New and Sought After--The Help He Received--His
+    Assistants and Pupils--Parts of the Work Requiring His
+    Individual Touch--The Members of His Family who may
+    have Assisted Him--Stradivari's Varnish--His Imitators            22
+
+
+  CHAPTER VI.
+
+  Some Modifications in Stradivari's Works--Variation in Finish
+    of Details--The Interior of His Violins--The Blocks and
+    Linings--The Bar--Thicknesses of the Tables--Heads or
+    Scrolls of His Different Periods                                  42
+
+
+  CHAPTER VII.
+
+  Stradivari's Tone and System--Those of His Pupils and
+    Assistants--Qualities of Tone Produced in Different
+    Localities                                                        56
+
+
+  CHAPTER VIII.
+
+  The Reputed Golden Period of Stradivari Late in Life--His
+    Later Modifications of Design--Signs of Old Age Appearing--The
+    Help He Received                                                  70
+
+
+  CHAPTER IX.
+
+  Evidences in Stradivari's Work of Old Age--His Death and
+    Burial--Work Left by Him--The Advance in Value of His
+    Work Since His Decease                                            79
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF PLATES.
+
+
+  PORTRAIT OF HORACE PETHERICK                           _Frontispiece_.
+
+  PORTRAIT OF ANTONIO STRADIVARI                       _To face page_  1
+
+  THE HOUSE OF STRADIVARI                                  "     "     4
+
+  STRADIVARI'S WORKSHOP                                    "     "     6
+
+  PATTERNS OF VIOLINS                                          _page_  6
+
+  ILLUSTRATIONS OF SOUNDHOLES                          _To face page_ 48
+
+  ILLUSTRATIONS OF SCROLLS, FIG. _a._                      "     "    50
+
+      "         "     "     FIG. _b._                      "     "    52
+
+      "         "     "     FIG. _c._                      "     "    54
+
+      "         "     "     FIG. _d._                      "     "    56
+
+  CHURCH OF ST. DOMENICO, CREMONA                          "     "    80
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+It was in the month of April, 1898, when THE STRAD monthly magazine had
+completed its eighth year of issue, that the Editor Suggested that then
+might be an appropriate time for giving a biographical sketch of the
+great Cremonese master in serial form, expressed in a manner interesting
+and instructive as possible. With this view I took up the subject with
+some enthusiasm and proposed to work upon lines which I believed to be
+bound by truth. All references to peculiarities in connection with
+Stradivari's designs, construction and purposes should be the result of
+my own personal observation during many years of experience as
+connoisseur and expert. In formulating my results of study of a great
+number--possibly the majority--of the instruments of the master
+extant--I have abstained as far as possible from using technical terms
+not readily comprehended by a reader coming newly to the subject, and I
+trust all persons reading through the matter now collected, added to,
+and presented in book form, will find their time not mis-spent at least
+when they arrive at the conclusion.
+
+                                  HORACE PETHERICK.
+  Croydon.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+It was during the second half of the sixteenth century that the violin,
+with its well recognised combined excellences of artistic form and
+musical sonority, was started on its way in the world to supply a want
+and prove its fitness as a leading instrument at once and for future
+times. So happily was this effected, so complete and mature was it in
+conception, that the advancing intellect of three centuries has proved
+incompetent to insert any fresh and permanent addition to its original
+simple arrangement. Precisely as it came from the hands of an artistic
+and inventive genius in the city of Brescia so we have it now, unchanged
+in its essential details of construction, although having its natural
+qualities made more evident after undergoing the modern adjustment with
+regard to accessories of detail, or regulation as it is termed. This has
+been effected by simply enlarging some parts for the purpose of allowing
+more freedom and convenience in the execution of more modern music, its
+elaboration of rhythm, besides the extended range of notes in the higher
+positions of the register, necessitating this. As might have been
+expected in connection with the then still living Renaissance period, on
+the violin making its appearance it was soon taken in hand by men of
+superlative talent, who stamped it with their own individuality in which
+was a marvellous perception of artistic quality. All that was to be
+done by means of proportion, form and colour, not setting aside the
+essentials of refined sonority, were combined, each aiding in the grand
+total and producing that known and so much sought after at the present
+day--a beautiful Italian violin. For about a century or more many
+Italian liutaros were busily engaged in sending forth under competition
+works which are now by the cognoscenti treated as unrivalled excellence
+of quality, classical, and the outcome of genius. Each worker being
+anxious to maintain the standard of excellence, or take a step forward
+in the practice of their art, the culminating point seems to have been
+reached when the artist under consideration in the following pages was
+executing his masterpieces in Cremona.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: ANTONIO STRADIVARI.]
+
+
+
+
+ANTONIO STRADIVARI.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+DATE AND PLACE OF BIRTH OF ANTONIO STRADIVARI--HIS INSTRUCTOR IN THE
+  ART OF VIOLIN MAKING--PECULIARITY OF HIS EARLY WORK, NOTHING
+  STRIKING, BUT SLOWLY PROGRESSIVE--WHICH OF THE DESIGNS OF HIS MASTER
+  HE WAS MOST IMPRESSED BY, AND HIS OWN MODIFICATIONS FOR
+  IMPROVEMENT--HIS DEPARTURE FROM THE HOUSE OF HIS MASTER, FREE TO
+  CARRY OUT HIS OWN INCLINATIONS.
+
+
+The year 1614, although not particularly noticeable at the time for its
+portentous events, was destined to be one of considerable interest to
+those who are enthusiastic lovers of the delightful quality of sound
+emitted by a certain section--and that only--of a class of stringed
+instruments which have made the city of Cremona famous throughout the
+civilised world. For in that city and in that year was born a male
+child, whose surname was eventually to eclipse by its own refulgence the
+renown of the city itself. Its paternal name was Stradivari, people
+trouble themselves very little about the prefix Antonio, common enough
+in Italy, and which was the Christian name given him by his parents. Of
+these we can only say, that as might be supposed, they were of a
+respectable portion of the middle class socially considered and from
+which have sprung all over the world--with few exceptions--the greatest
+luminaries of the whole firmament of intellect.
+
+Of his private life during manhood we know very little, of his boyhood
+nothing. But we may fairly and truly draw our conclusions that as the
+time arrived when he was supposed fit for training to fight life's
+battle, he had already exhibited talent indicative of fitness for that
+artistic branch of industry in which he was hereafter to be the
+world-wide acknowledged head.
+
+That his special abilities were thoroughly recognised by his parents
+receives much emphasis from the fact of his being offered to, and
+received as pupil by, Nicolas Amati, greatest of that great family of
+stringed instrument makers. Young Antonio was thus placed in the most
+favourable situation possible for the fructifying and development of his
+own particular talents. That portion of his life which was spent with
+the great master of line in violin facture, will, probably, in its
+details always remain a blank to us: but there is a lightning like flash
+thrown out by the fact of old Nicolas Amati bequeathing his collection
+of tools, patterns, etc., to Antonio Stradivari, and, be it noticed, not
+to his own son, then over thirty years of age. That the future master of
+his craft had been a steady and beloved pupil of his great teacher,
+there is no room for doubt; indeed, steadiness, fixity of purpose and
+honest intention, are manifested in his work during the whole of his
+career. The earliest of his handiwork has become known to us while he
+was with Nicolas Amati. In this he exhibits extreme delicacy of
+handling, and seemingly, in the confidence of his master, certain little
+modifications in the design of the sound holes were permitted, or
+perhaps passed as improvements, but there is nothing eccentric or
+extravagant introduced, a gentle addition, or a trifle less here and
+there, being the way in which he ever cautiously worked out his idea of
+improvement, and this latter seems to have been the moving spirit during
+his whole life.
+
+At no time do we meet with sudden departures, or what are sometimes
+termed flashes of genius--the onward progress of his style of design
+and its execution was as unimpassioned as his life was uneventful. When
+we examine the earliest known work of his hand--it may be observed on
+some of the late violins of his master--there is plainly perceptible the
+efforts at excelling where at all possible; and if, as is extremely
+probable--his master was sometimes desirous that the purfling should be
+somewhat bolder than was to the taste of his refined pupil, this was
+inserted with a delicacy and precision beyond what had been before
+deemed the acme of finish.
+
+His departure from the house of Nicolas Amati had to be taken some day
+in the ordinary course of events, and he would then act alone in
+competition among the growing swarms of makers who were now busy as bees
+in most parts of Italy. The start is generally reckoned to have occurred
+between the years 1664 and 1666, it may have been in 1665, when he had
+reached his twenty-first year.
+
+That old Nicolas Amati was right in his estimate that young Antonio
+Stradivari's natural abilities augured well for his success
+as a liutaro, was now to be proven. With the best possible
+recommendation--that of being trained by the most distinguished maker of
+the city--he carried others no less necessary for the long course of
+thought and labour that he was about to enter upon. These were, an
+earnest desire for improvement in all his undertakings, natural,
+indigenous ability for tasteful design and its mechanical execution and
+the power of steady concentration of the faculties, backed up withal by
+a sound, physical constitution in which "nerves of iron" must have been
+a conspicuous element.
+
+To those who at the time may have been looking forward with some
+speculation as to what young Stradivari would put forth now that his
+course was free and untrammelled before him, there was probably some
+disappointment at finding no signs of striking originality, no spasmodic
+struggles of genius to assert itself by throwing aside those
+individualities, general and detailed, which were so well marked in the
+work of his great teacher, and which as pupil he had been studiously
+and conscientiously carrying out. On the contrary, his efforts seem to
+have been rather to draw the mantle thrown by his master closer around
+him than to dispense with any part of its protective power. Thus we see
+in his works of this period which have remained to us, very little more
+than replicas of those of his master in which he for some years perhaps
+had taken no inconsiderable part. But in doing this, the intention and
+power of selection guided by sound judgment at once asserted itself. He
+did not take that pattern known to us moderns by the name of "grand,"
+and which term was in all likelihood quite unthought of by either
+himself or his master. Who invented it is a question that may be left
+complacently to the bookworm of the future.
+
+[Illustration: THE HOUSE OF ANTONIO STRADIVARI.]
+
+There is really nothing in the so-called "grand" pattern of Nicolas
+Amati that seems to agree happily with that title, it is, on the other
+hand, one in which the love of dainty elegance of contour has been
+allowed almost unrestricted play by its author, and to an extent
+undreamt of before. He perceived, however, that there was a limit, a
+step further, and disaster would be certain; Nicolas was sufficiently
+wide awake not to take it, but left it for his hosts of imitators, many
+of whom, not gifted with the same perspicuity, "rushed in where angels
+fear to tread," their just reward being laughter and derision. The
+attainment of elegance at the expense of strength and stability was not
+at all in agreement with Stradivari's artistic tastes, and we
+accordingly have no evidence of his having touched the so-called "Grand
+Amati;" that which he did take up with was less complex in the
+subdivision of its curves, and a more simple looking thing altogether.
+To him it may have seemed to have more of the true characteristic
+quality always accompanying the grand in art, that of simplicity. It was
+this pattern, and this only, so far as our information goes--that
+Stradivari took as the basis on which any future developments should be
+grounded. He worked upon it for some time seemingly to his own
+contentment and probably the satisfaction of his patrons, these being
+sufficiently numerous and influential to enable him ere many years had
+passed to think of purchasing a house.[A] This he accomplished in the
+year 1680, when he was thirty-six years of age. Now be it noted
+Stradivari had been working on the simplest of Amati patterns for
+fourteen years, and during that time from his steady industry the number
+of violins, besides other instruments of the family, which left his
+atelier must have been very large. The similarity in type and regularity
+of excellence in finished workmanship was almost enough to have
+impressed the connoisseurs of the day that there was no originality or
+speculation in the maker, but it was just about this time that the
+independency of thought began to manifest itself; it was almost as if
+the acquisition of the freehold property had stimulated the
+self-reliance which had no doubt always been present, but which was now
+to show itself more clearly in his art. He had been in practise long and
+successfully enough to give a right claim to mastership. The veteran
+Nicolas Amati, who was now over eighty years of age, had probably been
+doing little or nothing for some time, and so his pupil, with all his
+admiration for the retiring chief, felt at full liberty to do really as
+he liked.
+
+[Illustration: STRADIVARI'S WORKSHOP.]
+
+  [Our illustration of Stradivari's atelier is from a painting by
+  Rinaldi, the sketch for which was made on the premises. The church
+  of St. Domenico, Cremona, was demolished some twenty years since and
+  our illustration is from a photo taken just before the event. The
+  Chapel of the Rosary, being the place where Antonio Stradivari was
+  interred, is the one below and to the right of the tower and lighter
+  in colour than the others.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 1. Grand Nicolas Amati. No. 2. Nicolas Amati pattern
+of Stradivari. No. 3. First independent pattern of Stradivari.]
+
+The step he took, insignificant enough to the casual observer now, must
+have been equally so then, but proved one of the most important ever
+taken in this branch of art, considering the restraints necessarily
+encompassing any efforts at original design. This is perhaps the more
+evident when the main features of the Amati designs and others of the
+time are analysed. It will be seen that the upper and lower thirds of
+the design have much in common with each other, and that the middle or
+waist partakes also of the same characteristics, the whole being a
+series of full rounded curves, varied as required, to harmonise and
+flow with ease and grace to the squared corners. The slightest possible
+narrowing or decrease in the size of the upper of the waist curve and a
+corresponding enlargement of the lower part, served in the hands of
+Stradivari to impart a different aspect to the whole pattern. The waist,
+now less pinched in at the middle, looked longer without being really
+so. The parts above the upper corners and those below the lower ones
+were modified, the large curves becoming a little flatter just before
+blending with the smaller ones. From these alterations, each one
+trifling in itself, there resulted what may be called the first or
+earliest Stradivari pattern; in it were the germs of all the succeeding
+ones that contributed more and more to the fame of their designer as
+they appeared. The natural caution or indisposition to throw aside one
+pattern before a fair trial of the newest had proved acceptable to his
+numerous patrons, was possibly the cause of Stradivari's running the
+older designs alongside the newest creations of his fancy. Thus we find
+that mixed with the innovations are what he might have called his old
+Amati pattern, probably off the same moulds that he had used when first
+starting in business on his own account, or even before.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+DETAILS OF FURTHER IMPROVEMENTS UPON HIS NEW DESIGNS--MODIFICATION
+  OF THE SOUND HOLES--THE AMATI VARNISH AND STRADIVARI'S--HIS SECRECY
+  OF METHOD IN WORKING--HIS KNOWLEDGE OF WHAT WAS WANTED, AND EFFORTS
+  AT ADVANCE IN TONE QUALITY.
+
+
+Leaving the consideration in general of the designs of Stradivari's
+early days, that is, for such a long life, we may look over some of the
+details. It is well known to connoisseurs that the handiwork of Nicolas
+Amati was during his best days of the utmost delicacy; in his later work
+we notice an approach to heaviness in some respects. The very beautiful
+subdivisions and subtleties of the curves in pattern and modelling began
+to disappear and the purfling became bolder. Young Stradivari, when
+working on some of his master's violins, seems to have been allowed to
+do some of this, probably with the material given out by old Nicolas.
+The work of the young man may be known by its greater decision, such as
+would be reasonably expected; but after leaving the Amati household the
+natural bent towards exceeding refinement soon asserted itself. The
+purfling, particularly after some years, is narrower, and inserted with
+a precision and ease in its course impossible to excel, even if
+approachable. The mitring at the corners ends in a bent point in the
+manner introduced by Hieronymus Amati and not, as has been stated, by
+Stradivari; the latter carried out the ideas of Nicolas in making it
+very sharp and this mannerism he continued throughout the whole of his
+career.
+
+Stradivari from the first made his sound holes more perpendicular than
+those of his master; after leaving him, they also became more slender
+and the upper and lower wings wider and closer to the opposing curve.
+The precision and sharpness of the cutting of these parts has become the
+standard of excellence to which hundreds of Stradivari's imitators of
+different countries and times have striven to attain. It is, perhaps, in
+these parts of the different instruments--for Stradivari soon got to
+work on all the four sizes, besides other kinds not played with the
+bow--that his fine nervous system manifests itself, the sureness of his
+knife when passing along from one point to another leaving an edge
+upright and clean as cut glass, yet with a free grace of line never
+excelled by any master of the renaissance period.
+
+Of the parts the young assistant of Nicolas Amati was allowed to put his
+individuality to, conspicuously stands the scroll. The one typical of
+Nicolas's later days, although free and elegant, yet had a somewhat
+heavier touch about it, possibly the master was gradually losing his
+muscular power, more necessary to exert in this matter of detail than
+any other. Stradivari began his own type by bringing the first turn from
+the axis or "eye" a little higher up than that of his master; the axis
+itself is a trifle larger and flatter, the edges of the turns are
+squared off with a machine-like exactness that does not interfere with
+the ease and flow of line. The peg box is strong and ample, after a few
+years it became massive, more so occasionally than is to be met with at
+any other time, the grooves down the back are not so deep, the
+termination or shell likewise and a little wider.
+
+That Nicolas Amati would by any possibility neglect to duly initiate his
+favourite pupil in the mysteries and secrecies whereby his work should
+receive its final crowning adornment, its envelopment in the thin film
+of glory, is not to be thought of. The lustrous solution that was so
+fitting an accompaniment to the dainty designs of the Amatis, was from
+the first handled with a masterly dexterity and perfect knowledge by
+Stradivari. Most of the early work is covered with the orange or amber
+colour that were the prevailing tints on the early productions of the
+brothers Amati as well as Nicolas. It is somewhat curious that most of
+the prominent varnishers among the liutaros of Italy seemed to prefer
+this in their early days: or was it that the deeper or more intense
+colours required longer experience in management? Anyhow, so it was, and
+Stradivari seems to have been no exception to the general rule. If a
+well preserved early Stradivari is placed side by side with one of "the
+brothers" or Nicolas Amati's amber coloured specimens, the varnish
+enveloping them will be seen to be precisely alike, whether considered
+in respect of transparency, consistency or thickness. Here is art
+indication that for the best part of a century, these clever artificers
+of Cremona had the same stuff, used it in precisely the same manner, to
+a hair's breadth, for they knew there was no going beyond it; every part
+of the process was methodically carried out in compliance with certain
+laws known to, or instituted by, previous masters. There is an old Latin
+motto implying that "the perfection of art is to conceal art";--it it
+has often been quoted in illustrative reference, sometimes with sly
+humour, at others in most serious vein, for instance, when an eminent
+judge's judicial wig was known to have beneath it another of equally
+natural pretentions, and when quoted as the motto for the year in a
+Royal Academy catalogue, to be interpreted by the noble army of
+"rejected outsiders" as meaning extra efforts that year by the Council
+at concealment or suppression of art that was superior to their own.
+
+But if there ever was an instance in which this motto could with
+strictest appropriateness be applied, it was the work of Stradivari.
+Most if not all of the known masters have at times shown by some little
+accident or other, their method of working, thus, notwithstanding the
+extremely careful and finished work of the Amati family, there is
+occasionally to be seen some unobliterated signs--truly very slight--of
+their having traced their pattern on the wood for either the sound holes
+or the turns of the scroll. Stradivari left no evidence of this, nor are
+any distinct traces left inside or out that would betray the manner,
+kind of tool, or direction of working. Further, in most beautiful
+specimens by the "brothers Amati," besides other great varnishers, some
+faint indications have been seen of imperfectly dissolved resin, but not
+so with Stradivari, who carried out to the letter in this department of
+his art, that steadfastness of purpose in striving to do in the best
+way, that which his judgment had pronounced to be the best thing to
+accomplish. He further carried this out afterwards in the application of
+the deeper coloured, and usually softer, varnishes, which when
+manipulated by other masters of the same school, have frizzled or
+cockled from some cause. This is seldom if at all to be observed in any
+of Stradivari's work, he seems to have taken every possible precaution
+for preventing change in aspect after the instrument had received his
+final touches.
+
+We may now retrace our steps for awhile and take up another thread of
+the fabric of Stradivari's individuality, that which is in fact by
+dealers ignored and by players adored. There can be no question that
+during his minority under the great Amati, young Antonio must have been
+much interested in his master's fame for imparting a fine quality of
+tone to his instruments. It must soon have been apparent to him that
+success in his career would not be achieved by progress in the artistic
+part of his work alone. The critics of the day, who must have been
+sufficiently numerous and exacting in accordance with the advanced state
+of the art, would naturally be alive to any subtleties of difference
+between the productions of the reigning king of liutaros and his
+successor. The onward progress of musical composition and increase in
+the numbers of public performers, virtuosi, and others, demanded from
+an artificer taking this position, at least equal skill in producing
+those essential qualities for which the city of Cremona had become
+famous. Old master and young man probably had many a talk over what was
+best to be done to keep pace with the increasing requirements of the
+moment, and the time approaching when the hand of the former in the
+course of nature would lose its cunning. The hour came, the man was
+ready. Stradivari started forth from his master's house with full
+confidence in having a true and good grasp of the wants of the moment
+and those looming in the future. In the good patronage which soon came
+to him, was contained the assurance that his estimate, although formed
+so early, was perfectly correct; thenceforward he saw no reason for
+alteration in the type of acoustical quality that distinguishes all of
+his instruments, and that which he had once for all fixed upon.
+
+Briefly the acoustical quality of his instruments may be described as a
+further development of the tone brought to such a high degree of
+excellence by the great Amati; an increase in the volume and energy,
+with more equality of scale, while retaining all the other qualities
+that had caused players and listeners alike to be delighted, and which
+had given such renown to the great family of liutaros in Cremona.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE DATE OF THE TRUE STRADIVARIAN INDIVIDUALITY--ALTERATIONS IN
+  DESIGN--PROPORTIONS SETTLED FOR GOOD--THE EXCEPTIONS--THE "LONG
+  STRAD"--THE "INLAID STRADS"--AN ACKNOWLEDGED MASTER OF HIS
+  ART--BLACK EDGING--THE ARCHING AND CHANNELLING--THE BRESCIANS, THE
+  AMATIS AND STRADIVARI.
+
+
+We now resume our consideration of the progressive development of the
+Stradivarian design as exhibited in the instruments of 1680 to 1690 or a
+little later. At the earliest of these dates the complete independency
+or self consciousness of power, as a master liutaro, is already
+perceptible. There is no possibility of these violins having been made
+on the moulds used during his bachelorship. People sometimes speak of
+these instruments as being "Amatisé," which is great nonsense; had
+Stradivari died somewhere between 1680 and 1690, they would have been
+rapturous in their admiration of his originality and widely separated
+ideas from those of the Amati, but as he lived many years on and gave
+forth many more manifestations of his own individuality, the likeness of
+these 1680 and 1690 to old Nicolas is eagerly searched for and often
+supposed to be evident. It was at this time that Stradivari probably
+made more new moulds or blocks on which to construct, than at any other.
+With some few exceptions those that were now being made could be used
+for any of his violins during the remainder of his career. The average
+proportions remain the same, the differences are minute in measurement,
+notwithstanding their effectiveness in helping to a different expression
+in the designs. The exceptions referred to and made between the above
+dates are of a diverse kind. There is the well-known "long Strad," of
+which one author has said that it "has received the title," "not from
+increased length, but from the appearance of additional length which its
+narrowness gives it, and which is particularly observable between the
+sound holes." The actual measurements of this pattern are, length
+14-3/16 inches by greatest width 8 inches bare as contrasted with the
+ordinary 14 by 8-1/8; it will therefore be evident at once that there is
+a positive increase in length, and a decrease in width. These violins
+are not very rare as compared with the total work of Stradivari extant.
+Another variation, but now very seldom seen, is a pattern that may be
+said to be somewhat opposite in its tendencies, as it is a trifle
+shorter, but of full average width, with a proportionately wider waist.
+This type of violin must have been sufficiently plentiful at one time,
+as one of the first Gaglianos made a deliberate copy of it; that is, so
+far as his Neapolitan idiosyncrasy and pride would permit. Besides these
+were the "inlaid Strads," instruments of the greatest beauty in all
+respects, but having instead of the ordinary purfling a broad black
+fillet and diamond or lozenge shaped ivory insertions alternated with
+smaller circular ones; they are further embellished with a floral
+inlaying round the sides or ribs and also on the sides and back of the
+scroll. These instruments--Stradivari is known to have made a quartette
+of them for the Spanish court--are of the greatest rarity. They are said
+to be all known, but this statement seems open to question when coupled
+with the assertion that Stradivari made other similar but very small
+violins. The known ones are of very full size, the parties ordering them
+at the time possibly being alive to the advantages of quantity as well
+as quality. Public opinion since the time these were made has not grown
+in appreciation of the additional ornamentation. The violin pure and
+simple, with its single line of purfling only as it left the hands of
+the first master of the art of Brescia, is the one which has found the
+most lasting favour with connoisseurs and the public generally.
+Decorative additions, in various and more or less eccentric or
+extravagant styles, have been introduced from time to time by
+enterprising liutaros of different countries, but the discerning portion
+of the public will have none, and thereby pronounce the violin to be an
+unfit subject for extra clothing; beauty unadorned, adorned is most, is
+a figure of speech quite applicable to the simplicity of the violin as a
+work of art.
+
+Stradivari, who had now acquired--at the period 1680-90--a standing as
+an acknowledged master of his craft, showed in his handiwork a decided
+leaning in consonance with this, as--excepting these "inlaid Strads"--he
+carefully refrained from introducing any of the little tricks, or
+fanciful alteration of details, that so many, even of his own
+countrymen, seem to have been led to affix to their productions. After
+all, the "inlaid Strads" were probably so made, not at their maker's
+suggestion, but by desire of the patrons holding a high social position.
+Double purfled violins seem never to have left his hands, as none appear
+to be extant and no mention is made of any.
+
+There is one particular part of the finishing of the violin which calls
+for remark, and in the absence of evidence to the contrary must be put
+to the responsibility of Stradivari. This is known as the "black
+edging." It cannot come properly under the term decoration, as it has no
+variety in its management and consists only of the blackening of the
+squaring off of the junction of the ribs; likewise at the edges of the
+turns of the scroll and continued down the front and back of the peg-box
+to the shell. Its first appearance is not possible to determine and will
+probably remain unknown. Nicolas Amati did not introduce it, his work
+being of the kind that had no accommodation, or sufficient surface for
+it. Once begun, however, Stradivari seems to have persistently held to
+it. There is no proof positive that it was henceforth his invariable
+rule to put this kind of finish. The parts concerned are the first to
+receive and show signs of wear; therefore an instrument must be very
+fresh indeed to have much "black edging" left. Viewed from an artistic
+standpoint it cannot be considered an improvement, or any adornment,
+for, however neatly it is executed, the work of hand beneath is more or
+less obscured. Further, the eye of the connoisseur is distracted by it,
+and the neatness of the work is not seen to advantage until the black
+has become nearly effaced. Other makers of renown, besides Stradivari,
+adopted this method of putting the final touches to their work, Giuseppe
+Guarneri, I.H.S., Carlo Bergonzi, and other later makers, among them
+Storioni.
+
+Concerning the rise of the arching, or modelling of the periods above
+referred to, there has been much erroneous supposition in connection
+therewith. That all the early "Strads" were of high build, that the
+progress was gradual towards the "flat model," that Stradivari was
+feeling his way and becoming enlightened as to the necessity of reducing
+the arching in order to obtain a fuller and more telling tone with
+better ring; further, that the channelling or "scooping" near the border
+was gradually reduced for the same reasons, and that these things did
+not reveal themselves at once, but gently dawned upon his perceptions;
+moreover, that he earnestly communed with nature, made numberless
+experiments concerning her acoustical and other mysteries, and that the
+outcome was faintly looming in the horizon and soon was to blossom forth
+as the golden period, with grand pattern, all of which is really nothing
+more than grand "tomfoolery" spread abroad a generation since by critics
+"having an eye" only to such things that seemed to them agreeable with
+the conditions and surroundings of money getting commodities.
+
+These worthies were forgetful of the fact that the different varieties
+of flat and high model, channelling deep or none at all, long waists
+and short waists, sound holes long, short, near or wide apart, had been
+well, if not exhaustively treated by the artists of the Brescian school.
+To assume that those refined artificers, the Amati family and their
+disciples, were not conversant with everything for or against the use of
+a flat model would be crediting them with but little mental capacity,
+particularly in respect of their perceptive faculties. Both Stradivari
+and his teacher must have been well acquainted with the different high
+and low modelling of Gasparo da Salo, as well as that of his pupil
+Maggini, and others. He must have been aware that his own most generally
+used model of medium elevation, with slight exceptions both ways, was
+anticipated by each in turn. This, by the bye, disposes of any theory
+that Stradivari's distinctive quality of tone resulted, as is often
+stated, from his adopting a different elevation to what had been in use
+before. It may be fairly argued that if it had been true, as some
+writers have stated, that the flatter the model the better and stronger
+is the tone, then Stradivari would have been less gifted with sound
+judgment than he has been hitherto credited with; some of his early
+modellings, 1680-90, being as flat, if not more so, than any known
+during his whole career. For his selection of the particular degree of
+rise the reasons--for there were several--are not difficult to
+assign:--firstly, it was in consonance with his effort at achieving the
+most harmonious result--artistically in his designs; the less determined
+rise in the arching being more agreeable with the disposition of line in
+the pattern that he had been settling down to--posterity has
+emphatically endorsed his views in this respect; secondly, having
+noticed that a more shallow curve in the arching was quite favourable
+for the exhibition of gracefulness, while it was accompanied by more
+strength and permanency, with less liability during time and usage to
+develop a stony or bumpy appearance. But while thus looking acutely
+forward to future eventualities in one direction, Stradivari was no less
+careful to avoid reducing his model too much. Knowing the soundpost
+would be certainly shifted occasionally, he saw in the very flat model a
+source of danger lurking in the difficulty of seeing and getting at the
+post, even with the usual appliances at the command of the professional
+repairer or regulator, while the sound holes would be much more liable
+to damage than when the sufficiently raised arching permits a fair use
+of the "post setter." He was also careful, while keeping the depth and
+width of the channelling within reasonable bounds, not to let the
+arching spring or commence too near the border, as the screw cramps of
+the repairer, especially the large sized ones used in olden times would,
+unless most skilfully and cautiously applied, soon register the progress
+of the repairer on the varnish to the destruction of the beauty of
+appearance as a whole. These, then, appear to be the cogent reasons for
+the adoption of the medium rise in the modelling by Stradivari.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+LESSER KNOWN PATTERNS OF STRADIVARI--THE TREATMENT OF THE SCROLL BY
+  HIM, THE INDIVIDUALITY AND MATURING OF THE STYLE--THE PURFLING.
+
+
+During the period of 1690-1700 the modification of parts of the pattern
+and details was slight but nevertheless important. Occasionally the
+upper corners drooped a little more, and when they are now seen in fine
+preservation seem rather long in comparison with later ones, but they
+are not really so, it being in the expression no doubt arising from the
+greater robustness in the treatment of the corners which now were
+becoming in aspect more square, but with the usual peculiarities
+retained. There was also about this time another modification sent
+forth, a pattern that has the waist curve narrowed in a trifle at about
+two-thirds of the way upward, causing a slight suspicion of a wish to
+return to his old Nicolo Amati period, but it seems to have been only
+momentary, and beautiful as these violins are, they do not appear to
+have been repeated. They are in consequence very rare.
+
+Accompanying these little variations there was a slight change in the
+treatment of the scroll; it became less massive, while all the principal
+features of detail were retained, the grooves at the back were deepened
+a little as they ran down to the shell, which last was made a degree
+less shallow. In the earlier part of this period the general contour has
+a little more flow in the disposition of line, but later on this was
+checked, as if not meeting with the full approval of the master, whose
+goal of ambition was kept steadily in view from the first--that of
+introducing a design that should worthily rank as classical, and in its
+details and execution be such, that no weak spot or point of failure
+should be discernable under the closest scrutiny. The sound holes now
+received further attention and, it might be almost said, for the last
+time, as they were continued to the end of Stradivari's career with no
+particular or intentional modification. In length there was no
+alteration, but the design seems more condensed, more compact, yet
+slightly wider in the opening. This is all accomplished without losing
+the smallest touch of grace, and although firm in the extreme it has the
+opposite of any tendency to hard geometrical form. Stradivari seems to
+have had some feeling of contentment with it, for although little
+differences of measurement in minute particulars occur afterwards, no
+modification in character is attempted. He was most exact in imparting
+his own individuality in every instance. It is in this department of the
+liutaro's art that the imitators or forgers of Stradivari's work have
+found such an insurmountable block in the way of success. The
+impossibility hitherto of imparting the requisite identical expression,
+notwithstanding the most careful examination and tracing, constantly
+adds force to an old saying among dealers that "to make a perfectly
+successful imitation of Stradivari he must be a Stradivari himself." In
+this view it is obvious that a maker having the sure consciousness of
+possessing the power of the master would no longer make tracings of him,
+but bring out his own originals. Among the scores and scores of
+imitators, some of them having achieved considerable renown as such, the
+best of them have not succeeded further than giving their own impress to
+their tracing of the master's work. This is quite apart from their
+failure to reproduce the master touch in other branches of the liutaro's
+art.
+
+In the composition of his purfling he had been, before the periods under
+consideration, somewhat unsettled, but he now seemed to have come to a
+conclusion that the middle or light coloured portion, should be a
+trifle wider than the dark or outer portion. This was also for a
+permanency with but little variation. The three parts are probably of
+the same kind of wood, with the outer portion darkened by artificial
+means and not wood with its natural colour, as in so many early works.
+But there was no change in the manner of insertion. There was the same
+firm, upright handling of the purfling tool, which, as in his early
+period, was sent along with unerring precision and cut its way through
+hard and soft wood cleanly and equally well. In this respect of
+mechanical dexterity, the great master has had few rivals; he was
+apparently equally at home in subduing to his requirements a log of
+tough, curled maple, as in gently reducing the exquisitely refined
+growth of pine that was to act as a soundboard in throwing out the
+luscious quality of tone associated with his name. It was not always so
+among the most eminent of Italian liutarios. Many of them have left
+unmistakeable evidence of impatience when trying to overcome the
+resistance of the tortuously grained maple in turn with the much softer
+and straight threaded pine. There was a peculiarity connected with the
+purfling that must not be overlooked, and that is, its passing through
+the little pegs at the upper and lower part of the instrument, and which
+is most carefully attended to by modern close imitators, so that people
+should be convinced, if possible, that their's is the real thing.
+Stradivari, however, may not have conceived the idea of there ever being
+in the future the swarms of his imitators, who, for the last century,
+have been but too evident in consequence of the daily increasing
+admiration or even reverence for his work. It is not surprising,
+therefore, that for some reason known only to himself, he, on rare
+occasions, did not run the purfling through the peg, or to be more
+strictly correct, the peg was inserted clear of the purfling line. That
+this peg peculiarity is no point of recognition may be inferred from the
+fact that Stradivari's teacher, Nicolas Amati, treated it in like
+manner, besides several of his contemporaries.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+STRADIVARI'S GREAT SUCCESS--HIS SO-CALLED "GRAND EPOCH"--HIS
+  PATRONS--HIS VIOLINS REPUTED FOR TONE WHEN QUITE NEW AND SOUGHT
+  AFTER--THE HELP HE RECEIVED--HIS ASSISTANTS AND PUPILS--PARTS OF THE
+  WORK REQUIRING HIS INDIVIDUAL TOUCH--THE MEMBERS OF HIS FAMILY WHO
+  MAY HAVE ASSISTED HIM--STRADIVARI'S VARNISH--HIS IMITATORS.
+
+
+The period 1700-15 or thereabouts, found Stradivari not only an
+acknowledged master of his craft but among his contemporaries recognised
+as the head. His business had been all along steadily flourishing, his
+patrons had been of high social position, some most illustrious, others
+actually royal. Among the latter the King of Poland stands out in relief
+as having specially sent an envoy to Cremona and that he had to wait
+three months before he could return with his commission fulfilled.
+Whether he ran in danger of being decapitated for "hanging about"
+Cremona so long is not known, but one thing is certain, that patrons
+royal, illustrious, of high social standing and refined tastes, wanted
+the newly made violins of Stradivari that could never have been played
+upon, almost in the absolute sense of the term, while they could have
+easily obtained well seasoned, well tried instruments of makers who had
+lived long before. Here is "a nut to crack" for those who persistently
+assert the necessity and efficacy of age and use to bring tone to
+maturity. If any further evidence should be thought necessary to
+support the assumption of the equal excellence of the new Stradivarius
+with those that remain with us at the present time, it is contained in
+the praise of those who heard and used them when quite fresh, declaring
+the agreeableness of the tone to be beyond rivalry.
+
+Stradivari may be said to have been now in the enjoyment of the
+plentitude of his powers. Success was attendant upon him without
+intermission. Tradition says he was reputed in the locality as
+positively rich, but we do not hear of his aspiring to civic honours as
+alderman, vestryman, guardian or councilman--common or otherwise--as the
+outcome of the possession of full coffers. Stradivari simply went on
+making fiddles. In a position to secure the best materials in the
+respect of quality, artistically and acoustically considered, he put the
+best workmanship upon them; also he further selected the best help
+which, in common with all eminently successful artists, he must have
+found it necessary to employ.
+
+We now arrive at a point when the question may be fairly put, how much
+help did he have, and of what kind was it?
+
+As Stradivari left no record behind as to the number of pupils trained
+on his premises, or assistants who came perhaps as improvers, we are
+left to do our best in the way of inference. In the first place we may
+take up the acknowledged fact of his having turned out an enormous
+number of musical instruments during his very lengthy career; and it
+must be remembered that his energies were not centred alone in turning
+out magnificent violins, but that the viola, violoncello, double-bass,
+besides some of the then not quite obsolete viols of different sizes and
+fantastic forms, received his attention. These had to be produced at the
+requirements of his patrons, of whom many had probably not yet
+completely emerged from the misty musical atmosphere with which the
+fanciful forms with florid decorations seemed so intimately bound.
+Further, the fittings for them had to be made presumably on the
+premises of the maestro and not as at present in foreign parts. At the
+time there was not existent that extensive and special manufacture of
+bridges, tailpieces, tail-pins, and pegs that forms a large and
+significant branch of commerce at the present day. That the violin
+bridge especially was a production of the Stradivari establishment and
+not "made in Germany," is sufficiently indicated by its present form
+having been introduced by Stradivari. On comparing it with the different
+patterns of bridges that had been issued by the previous masters of
+Cremona, it will be seen at once that the master mind of Stradivari had
+effected improvements that have their counterpart in the designs of his
+violin patterns. We may notice the successful efforts at stability with
+simplicity, just enough of detail that would lend itself in completing
+the harmony of the whole design, while dispensing with every unnecessary
+angle or curve. Of the fingerboard and tailpiece we cannot speak in the
+same terms; the master seems to have accepted the manner of treating
+these parts as handed down by preceding generations from Gasparo da
+Salo, and thought there was no need for alteration. The design of the
+inlaid ornamentation on both these accessories, was, of course, of a
+kind with which the house of Stradivari would be identified and the
+execution also in accordance. Of the tailpin and pegs, with the
+decoration of both, the same may be said.
+
+All these particulars point to considerable time spent in direct
+supervision after the preliminary designs had been made by the
+principal. This would reduce the available time for direct manual labour
+at his disposal. There would occasionally be some time spent in the
+discrimination for purchasing of particular choice kinds of pine and
+maple, these requiring the closest attention. Whether samples were
+brought for Stradivari's inspection by agents or their principals, or
+whether the maestro took journeys to particular districts where the
+exact kind of wood suitable to his requirements was to be had, we know
+not, but there seems to be much probability that the latter was his
+mode of obtaining that splendid growth of pine, both in appearance and
+tone-producing quality, with which he brought about such beautiful
+results. This, when obtained, had to be carefully stored away until such
+time as it might be required for immediate use. The cutting down and
+sawing up into lengths for different instruments would not be such as a
+maker with less patronage would personally engage in; we can therefore
+place this aside from the time consuming duties. There is, in the
+foregoing, enough and much over for reasonable inference that with a
+master, such as Stradivari, having the refined taste and adaptability
+for work, there was a considerable amount, if not all, of the merely
+mechanical work done according to his command or under his eye. This
+would naturally enough increase in proportion as the business connection
+grew. There would be in this nothing differing from what has been
+habitual with eminent professors in all branches of art; as far back as
+Phædias, Praxitelles and Appelles of the ancient classic Greek period.
+Later on it is well known that many of the masterpieces of the
+Renaissance period had much work upon them other than that immediately
+from the master's own hand. If this were not permissible, the number of
+the grandest creations of artistic genius would be most seriously
+limited. Raphael and his contemporaries, Rubens and Rembrandt, besides
+many other masters, are well known to have had numerous pupils in their
+studios engaged in carrying out ideas previously determined upon and
+drawn out for their guidance. These assistants were gradually drawn into
+the way and habit of thinking of their masters, and on leaving them,
+their own individuality or natural tendency uniting with what they had
+absorbed of their master's manner, the blending of the two became a
+fresh production of style. If we take this as our guide in summing up
+the probable amount of help that was drawn upon by Stradivari during his
+career, especially that part at which, in our consideration of him and
+his works, we had arrived, it cannot possibly lead us far from the
+actual facts. Taking into account the known pupils or assistants who
+received the benefits of personal instruction from Antonio Stradivari,
+they are more numerous than we can affix to the name of any other
+master, as it must be borne in mind that Stradivari had initiated a
+fresh style, the influence of which was destined to be of a far more
+reaching character than any hitherto coming to the front. The
+Stradivarian school became the foremost, most numerous and soon was to
+be the most imitated, of all. Among the earliest of his pupils (the
+precise number or even the names of all will never be known), may be
+placed Alexander Gagliano of Naples, working with him about the period
+of 1680 and some years later, one or two others of the Gagliano family
+may have been workmen in the Stradivari atelier. Lorenzo Guadagnini,
+Joannes Battista, his son and Josef of Pavia all claim to have lent a
+helping hand and received instruction, and there is nothing in their
+work that is in contradiction. The first became a great master of the
+Milanese school and was afterwards rivalled by his son, who was more
+cosmopolitan and not identified with one place in particular. I cannot
+include the names of Montagnana or Gobetti, which have been frequently
+referred to by various authors as pupils of Stradivari; a close
+examination of their style and workmanship leads to a different fountain
+of inspiration, notwithstanding which they both unquestionably were at
+one time influenced by the work of the great Cremonese artist as it
+arrived in Venice. Of Carlo Bergonzi, a great master, it is a well
+established fact that he worked with Stradivari and probably did much
+more for him as assistant than is generally acknowledged, but that he
+was originally a pupil is not in keeping with the early and varying
+patterns which have gone under his name. Further on it will be necessary
+to refer to this luminary of the art. We must not forget the two sons of
+Stradivari, Franciscus and Omobono, who received their initiation at the
+hands of their father and worked with him for many years, carrying on
+the business after his decease. Rumour has brought forth another name
+as pupil or workman with Stradivari, and whose identification with some
+fine specimens of the liutaro's art may yet prove an interesting study.
+A relative of the master, we should expect to find his work strongly
+tinged with the Stradivarian characteristics. His tickets are said to
+have been all removed in very early times after their insertion and that
+one only is known to have been preserved intact. Of the great rival--in
+public estimation--of Stradivari, Joseph Guarnerius, I.H.S., it can only
+be said there is not a single feature in his handiwork, style or tone,
+agreeing with the supposition that he at any time was his pupil or
+assistant, moreover, having by me distinct evidence of his pupilage of
+another maker of a different school, will of course prevent the
+inclusion of his name.
+
+The number of pupils and assistants who worked with or under the
+supervision of Stradivari in his prime, might, if we knew all, be more
+considerable than we should be prepared to expect. The proportion in the
+usual course of nature, of those able to single out a path for
+themselves, prove their individuality superior to their fellows or
+eventually become of great eminence, must of necessity have been
+comparatively small. There may have been many working "on and off" under
+the eye of the master at different periods who were without ambition or
+the talent to rise above the position of humble helpers among their more
+talented brethren, born to be assistants only, and, in consequence,
+never heard of outside the studio. These, and the before mentioned, must
+all have had something to do with the instruments their master was
+sending forth into the world; the more clever ones being intrusted with
+some responsibility on particular work. It is not impossible to fix upon
+the parts the assistants probably would be allowed to work upon. In the
+first place, all the designing, drawing out and tracing down of the
+pattern on to the mould, or on to the unprepared blocks that were to be
+carved into necks, scrolls, or marked out for ribs, would be
+Stradivari's.
+
+The different stages succeeding each other would be most likely as
+follows--firstly, the master having been commissioned by a wealthy
+patron to make of his best pattern and highest finish a quartet of
+instruments, he would take from his store of choice pine and sycamore,
+which he had taken so much trouble and skill in collecting together,
+such pieces that appeared to him suitable for the instruments to be
+constructed. The upper and lower tables had previously been hewn or sawn
+to size, then the jointed back and front, if both were so, planed
+carefully and made ready for the master's work, which would first come
+on to the wood as a careful tracing from his original design. Sometimes
+the tracing down may have been done by some advanced pupil or competent
+assistant. We may fairly assume the presence here of one or two, if not
+more, assistants, besides a pupil or improver. One would be selected for
+the bow-sawing of the pattern, another afterwards receiving it for
+roughly gouging out according to measurements at hand or marked by the
+master. Another had meanwhile the bending of the thin slips for the ribs
+to the necessary curves, or working down the corner and end blocks that
+had been affixed to the mould. Another, if not the same, might have been
+carrying out the first stages of the working of the scroll, or perhaps a
+very competent and trusty assistant would be allowed, under the eye of
+the master, to work on more advanced forms, making ready for the final
+or necessary touches of the master hand. The sound holes may have been
+traced down and even the upper and lower circular holes bored. Further,
+it is not impossible, that after the modelling back and front had been
+sufficiently advanced, the glueing and screwing down was intrusted to an
+assistant, and even some of the finishing up with glass paper or other
+material in use at the time and place, of parts of minor importance.
+These are, perhaps, the majority of the details in which the
+individuality of the handwork of the master was not obligatory in
+evidence.
+
+In summing up what could have been done by other hands than those of the
+busy master, it would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, unless
+we admit its presence, to account for the extremely large output of the
+great Cremonese, even when taking fully into the balance his very
+industrious habits and extraordinary long working career. Assuming the
+above view to be reasonable, the number of new instruments which left
+the Stradivari house must have been very large. It is well known that
+the master undertook the repairs of musical instruments, which
+department would require some personal attention or supervision, even if
+actually executed by his assistants or his two sons, Francescus and
+Omobono, who, when their father died, were not very young, the first
+being sixty-five years of age, and the other fifty-five. They had most
+likely worked with their parent for about forty years and must have done
+much of making and repairing, that is, crediting them with some of their
+father's industrial tendencies. Stradivari had two other sons by his
+first wife, Francesca Ferraboschi, one, Giulio, died 1707, aged forty;
+the other, Allesandro, in 1732, aged fifty-five. Nothing seems to be
+known as to whether they were brought up by their father in his own
+craft or not; if they were, there was time for them also to have done
+much work with him. There was a son by his second wife, Antonia
+Zambelli, who died 1727, aged twenty-four, who under the same
+circumstances may have helped. We have thus five sons of Stradivari,
+who, if they were all taught the art, may have been working together,
+besides other assistants at the same time. Carlo Bergonzi has already
+been mentioned, but although he came late into the field, yet there
+seems a slight indication that he may have had to supply the place of
+others who had departed for the carrying out of their own schemes.
+
+Having so far roughly estimated the kind and amount of work, not
+necessarily his own, on the violins that were sent forth by Antonio
+Stradivari, we may glance at the particulars of detail that demanded his
+handiwork and that solely. That there were keen connoisseurs living at
+the time of Stradivari, as also in the previous century and earlier,
+there is no room for doubting. Workers in art reduce their inspirations
+to tangible forms helped by colour that people may see them and,
+comparing them with what may have gone before and have been executed at
+the same time, pass judgment on them. In like manner Stradivari, like
+other masters before him, knew that his handiwork would be scrutinised
+as well as the tone of his instruments. It was therefore obligatory that
+purchasers should know his work, that in fact his sign manual should be
+always present. Contemporaneous with him were makers, artists, who had
+been initiated in the mysteries of the manufacture and application of
+the wonderful varnishes which have since by their qualities made them
+famous throughout the civilised world. There was nothing, however, in
+the material or its application that could, under the closest
+examination, be discerned as different to what might be seen on the best
+instruments of the Amatis--these must have been numerous at the
+time--the Ruggieris or the Venetian masters, but these did not in the
+application invariably work up to a certain standard of excellence,
+whereas Stradivari always did. There was a consummate beauty of result
+in this branch of the liutaro's art known at the time to many, beyond
+which it seemed not possible to go. It was, therefore, more in the
+construction and workmanship then, that the sign manual was perceptible.
+With this view Stradivari seems to have been careful to let the evidence
+of no hand but his own be seen in parts that were sure to be closely
+scrutinised as evidence.
+
+Standing first perhaps in importance would be the cutting of the sound
+holes, the design and careful drawing of these being completed, and cut
+in metal--it is said thin copper was used by him--they may have been
+mostly traced down by himself on the pine of the upper table prepared
+and in readiness to receive it, although this part without much danger
+could have been done by an intelligent and experienced assistant. The
+cutting and finishing with the thin keen edged knife, however, must be
+his, the slightest shaving over the traced line or not quite up to it
+would be sufficient to impart a totally different character to the
+whole. There is no part of the violin in which the sum total of the
+native characteristics and ability are shown to such exactitude as the
+cutting of these all important and expressive openings. In those of
+Stradivari is to be seen the same firmness of purpose and strict curbing
+of the fancy from proceeding too far, or allowing stability to be over
+balanced by love of gracefulness, as seen in the designs of his eminent
+master. To allow no weak part to be perceptible; strength of line with
+sufficient grace, admirable proportion and balance, and yet withal
+sufficient expression of mobility and freedom from heaviness were each,
+seemingly in turn, given the best attention by the great genius of
+Cremona. It is not using extravagant language when they are termed the
+eyes of the violin, for it is to these that experienced connoisseurs
+turn their attention at once when inspecting a violin of character newly
+placed before them. Cut by an Italian, cut by a Frenchman, by a German,
+by a nobody in particular or who understood nothing about it, are the
+thoughts arising in the mind. Each country has its peculiar and native
+rendering of every sound hole that was first designed in Italy. This
+tendency to impart their own national characteristics by each native
+workman, runs parallel with that in pictorial art in the transferring to
+various materials the impressions received after study of the original
+or animated reality. To many the sound holes of an Italian gem of the
+highest class are but sound holes that are more neatly done or prettier
+than usual. To others they will be the expression in that simple form of
+an exquisitely acute perception of what will excite pleasurable emotions
+with regard to delicately balanced proportions, graceful flow of line,
+and freedom from all appearance of effort. That there is much in little
+concerning this, is proved by the non-success of all foreign copyists
+to give a reproduction of the Italian native touch to these details.
+That this is not an overdrawn description, may be seen on a close
+comparison between an original Stradivari of almost any period and the
+most closely traced, laboriously studied and keenly cut sound holes of
+any of the modern imitators. All have failed signally over these two
+apparently simple openings on the surface of the upper table.
+
+Notwithstanding this, it may be said there are scarcely two violins
+alike in respect of expression of these adornments of the structure,
+each instrument is made to convey its own impression, or display its
+particular kind of beauty. There is a difference, scarcely to be
+measured mathematically, that in one will be suggestive of masculine
+strength, while in another it will be exquisite feminine grace.
+
+In none of the imitations of the master are there seen these qualities
+expressed in the same degree and kind. It has often been said, and there
+is more than a substratum of truth in the remark, that, "to copy a
+Stradivari successfully"--of course, in the fullest sense of the
+word--"the copyist must be a Stradivari himself." There might,
+appropriately, be an addition put to this, namely, that a man who could
+work up to the dizzy height of his ambition in this way, would not copy,
+but make originals.
+
+Another detail of the workmanship always attended to by the master
+himself, was that of the purfling. Much has been said of the wonderful
+accuracy of Stradivari's purfling and that as a purfler he stands
+unrivalled. This must not be taken in the widest sense, as there have
+been, and are living, scores and scores of makers who have cut a rut
+round the border of a fiddle as sharply, and inserted the three
+conventional lines of dark and light wood as deftly as it could be by
+the hand of any man, be he named Amati, Stradivari, Ruggieri, Tononi, or
+Montagnana. There is a degree of evenness and keenness of cutting and
+clean insertion beyond which it is not possible to go. But there the
+imitators come to a full stop. Without the inventive power which will
+make this curious, simple, yet wonderful little fillet, aid in giving
+the desired expression to the whole work, the imitator is not--as people
+say nowadays--in the race. The finishing of the border, the corners and
+the delicate and often very elaborate system of curves around the sound
+holes, the hollowing of the wings of these latter, and the final
+surfacing of both back and front, I have no doubt had Stradivari's
+individual attention. All the delicate and small work of the scroll,
+perfecting that elegant flow of line and finish of each turn of the
+volute, as if everything depended on the exactness of its individuality,
+obliterating all marks of the tooling and giving his own impress to the
+gouging of the shell and even the completion of the peg-box; then last
+and not least, the preparation and application of that pellucid envelope
+that was to serve two purposes, utility and enrichment of effect.
+
+With regard to this, much has been written and said about its
+incomparable quality, its elasticity, colour and transparency, with
+other excellences needless to dilate upon. Summarily taken as a whole,
+the simple fact is, that in no respect is his varnish different, or
+better than that of his predecessors, the Amatis and masters of the
+Brescian school; it had been done before and his most famous
+contemporaries were doing it still, and he was in this position for the
+simple reason that no better could be done.
+
+If it was not possible for Stradivari to improve upon the varnish of the
+Amatis who had preceded him and the masters in the art belonging to the
+Brescian school,--among whom may be mentioned Giovanni Maggini, Antonio
+Mariani, and the first one to use it on violins, Gasparo da Salo--it was
+strictly in accordance with his invariable rule of putting forth his
+best that he so dexterously manipulated it, probably both as to its
+composition and final application, that faultiness in some respects to
+be seen in specimens of other masters is not noticeable in his. Thus, as
+is well known, the Brescians, perhaps without exception, were often
+very careless regarding the thickness of the film, it being occasionally
+of irreproachable evenness, at other times having almost the appearance
+of being laid on with a large brush in great haste. On some connoisseurs
+this haphazard fulness of treatment, this oft times generously effusive
+manner, carried out with a careless consciousness of power, acts as a
+charm, inciting to intense admiration the like of which is roused by the
+rich, juicy brush of Rembrandt and the masters of the Venetian school of
+painters. But this is not the perfect realization of aim with regard to
+the envelopment of masterpieces by the old Italian liutaros; in the
+instances referred to, and sufficiently numerous, we wonder at the
+wealth of material and smile at its manipulation. Antonio Stradivari
+would in no wise act thus at any time. To him it was enough that he was
+possessor in full of the knowledge of materials, and to deviate from the
+good paths pursued by the artistic Amatis, was not to be considered for
+a moment; we therefore find that with him the best material was laid
+with the utmost skill and care. It must be indeed rare that "frizzling,"
+or contraction of the upper surface of the varnish, is to be seen to any
+appreciable extent. I do not recollect one instance, while with the
+Ruggieris, most of the Venetian school, and a number of makers of lesser
+note, it is quite common.
+
+Concerning the colour or variety of tints adopted by Stradivari at most
+times, it was most likely done to the requirements of his different
+patrons, many having a desire for the rich orange, some, the light red
+or "cherry" tint, while others were not content with any than the red or
+rich full bodied port wine tint. The simple brown seems to have been
+less in demand, as it is during the period under consideration, rather
+exceptional. While using the lustrous coverings for his works with
+consummate skill, there is one qualification that must not be lost sight
+of. Beautiful, refined and artistic in the strictest sense of the term,
+Stradivari never gave way to a desire to outbid the rest of the
+fraternity for congratulations in respect of gorgeousness, he seems
+never to have fallen back upon his reserves in the direction of
+intensity of colour. Thus if a finely preserved specimen of his orange
+varnish is viewed side by side with one by Joseph Guarnerius, I.H.S.,
+the extra degree of fieriness will be on the side of the latter, but it
+by no means places Stradivari on a lower level, as the combined
+qualities of his work, taken as a sum total, is not reached by any
+liutaro of old Italy.
+
+It may be fairly taken as certain that if there was any master having at
+command all the necessaries for turning out musical instruments of
+matchless superiority, both as to acoustical and artistic qualities, it
+was Stradivari, and many connoisseurs would expect to find nothing but
+maple used of the richest curl, and that would throw up with delightful
+effect the lustrous varnish so carefully laid upon it; but, strangely
+enough, his most magnificently curled backs and sides are mixed with a
+few that are comparatively plain. A variety of reasons might be assigned
+for this, but that which bears the greatest probability about it
+is--that the instruments being chiefly made to order, the maple of
+richest curl was not always to be had, at least in time for the
+construction as required. In other respects these plainer mapled
+instruments are fully equal to anything that came from his hands. Of the
+proper tone-giving pine he seems never to have been short; there it is,
+always of beautiful growth, having, like his own handiwork, both
+delicacy and strength and of a general appearance such as would attract
+the eye of the veriest tyro in the liutaro's art. How many imitators of
+the great manipulator have looked at this growth of pine and wondered
+where the old master obtained it! and how he knew that it possessed the
+proper qualifications for his purpose. Swiss pine of course! obtained
+from the lower parts of the forests of the Alps, is an immediate loud
+response, and cut only from the south or sunniest side of the particular
+tree when found of course.
+
+This idea was started in the early part of this century in books on the
+violin, professing to tell the reader all about it or nearly so, and he
+had only to go, get the stuff, and make Stradivari violins, in fact with
+the addition of the amount of scientific knowledge of the subject
+peculiar to modern imitators, he would make "old Strad" "take a back
+seat." This has been often tried by would-be "Strads," "Guarneris," or
+"Bergonzis," and full of specious promises that if you will but purchase
+their wares you be rewarded for your pains by being possessor of
+everything good that they could endow the instrument with. Keep it,
+persevere, and the precious qualities will come; some were daring enough
+to assert that they were already there, if even your mental vision was
+so obtuse as not to perceive it, absurd prejudice was the cause of this
+they said, oblivious to the fact that the best musicians of Stradivari's
+time used the violins fresh from the atelier of the master perfectly
+new, expressing their unbounded admiration for their beautiful acoustic
+properties or "pleasurable sounds."
+
+Is the like said of new violins at the present time? These imitators,
+some of them might be with perfect truth termed forgers, are legion, as
+in the case of everything that is of a high standard of excellence and
+which makes acquisition desirable. These artificers had their day, so
+far as forcing their imitations upon the credulous and unwary could be
+accomplished, and others have replaced them, yet there aloft still sits
+the grand master upon his high eminence, unapproached, with the whole
+world clamouring and struggling for the possession of what in the
+earnestness of his purpose was only his everyday work.
+
+Before leaving the imitators and forgers, for they are distinct one from
+the other, the first simply taken being honest, the other not, it may be
+as well to refer as briefly as possible to the general aspect as
+afforded by such specimens of Stradivari's art that remain with us after
+fairly constant usage during the generations that have passed since his
+decease. Most connoisseurs and dealers are well acquainted with the
+appearance of a "Strad" of fine model, work and varnish that has done
+its duty in former times, and is yet able and willing to answer all
+requirements of the present day and many to come. If the instrument has
+not been hidden and forgotten in the cabinet of some deceased collector,
+but has been handed down from one player to another, kept in healthy
+exercise, not meddled with, muddled, and maddened by the numerous
+would-be improvers, bridge regulators, sound post agitators and varnish
+vivifiers, then--it will probably present an appearance of what is
+called handsome wear, or as a writer has termed it, "adorned, not
+injured, by a century's fair wear."
+
+Striking the eye first will be the varnish that has been chipped off
+from the back chiefly, often from a large space of a rough triangular
+form; the front being usually more smoothly denuded of its lustrous
+envelope. This chipping away of the varnish from the maple has been
+effected a long time ago, and is the result of a custom in olden times
+of hanging the instrument after use on a peg attached to the wall, or
+may be the interior of a cabinet. Fiddle-cases seem to have been used
+almost solely for travelling purposes. They are now in general use as
+the best means of preservation against damage and a good resting place
+at all times. During the last century there were scores and scores of
+makers in Italy who were ready, willing to, and did turn out excellent
+instruments with fine, artistical and acoustical properties, but the
+race has died out and their remaining works are of daily increasing
+value, and consequently much under lock and key, out of harm's way as
+much as possible. This old habit of hanging up violins not wanted for
+the moment was, as a matter of course, effected with a slight bang or
+two each time, and a corresponding cost, small or large, according to
+the blow to the top layer of varnish most highly charged with colour.
+Each instrument used in this way will declare to the sufficiently acute
+observer, its course of handling and even the peculiarities to some
+extent of the owner; for it will be seen that the chippings give
+indication of different degrees of energy or hurry, when the violin has
+come in contact with the more or less hard surface of the wall.
+
+It must be borne in mind that the times referred to were prior to the
+introduction of wall-papers; the good, old-fashioned panelling of oak or
+hard wood, often of bold design, shattered or nicked away much of the
+old, delicate and precious varnish used for enveloping the works of the
+Italian masters. All these constantly recurring slight collisions by
+degrees brought about the results that have been defined by some as
+picturesque wear or accidental adornment, if such a thing be reasonable.
+Besides this there was going on the wear caused by handling by one or
+another of players, rough or mild, contact with the garments, especially
+the sleeves, all being larger and looser than are fashionable at the
+present time. The action of these would be more gentle if more
+continuous. It is noticeable at the lower end of the back of the violin,
+which is often worn away much below the penetration of the varnish, the
+corners being rounded down and if rather protuberant, even losing their
+original character. The upper table of pine being incapable of equal
+resistance to the destroying influence, wears away sooner, also the
+border at the lower end and at both sides of the tail-piece--for the old
+performers placed their chins on the contrary side to what is thought
+best now--and the right upper shoulder where the palm of the hand and
+part of the wrist is apt to work, too often, against the edge. We thus
+see when a handsome, fairly worn specimen of Stradivari's work comes
+under our notice, the different pieces of tell-tale evidence, varying of
+course in degree with each instrument. Now all this must have been going
+on during the time the master's works were being sent out to parts of
+Italy and to other countries. It had been progressing and was showing
+the onward march of Father Time in the instruments left by the Brescian
+makers a century before.
+
+As before observed, the varnish of Stradivari has, often as not, been
+worn, chipped or cracked off in, as some fanciers still call it, a
+picturesque manner or adornment, although from the highest prices being
+given for those specimens that have the least of it, the taste seems to
+be growing healthily in favour of perfection of preservation as far as
+is possible.
+
+It would be out of reason to suppose that full consideration of the
+subject was omitted by a genius with such far reaching mental vision as
+Stradivari. That he gave all the necessary study and forethought to the
+effects of ordinary wear and such as was occasionally going on within
+his knowledge, there is evidence enough. He saw how the delicate work of
+his master, Nicolas Amati, was rapidly disappearing under sometimes
+rough and too often ruffianly usage. It was not in his power to prevent
+or interfere with this by any peculiarity of construction or quality of
+the varnish used by him. But this he doubtless knew--that the generally
+substantial work and total absence of any weak point of detail in design
+and execution was all that an artist could do. This strength shown over
+all of Stradivari's designs, even from the commencement, shows that in
+his grasp of the highest scale of requirement he was also anticipatory
+and in this wise, that he followed up the self evident principle in art,
+that the best combination of forms, proportions and masses will answer
+best for their permanence.
+
+The numismatist knows full well how, on the coins used in various
+countries, the masters of basso-relievo had concentrated their skill on
+the subject. The balance of projection and depression for good and
+proper effect under different situations of light and shade, or even
+independently of them on occasion--is of paramount importance in all
+branches of art in their widest range. The omission of proper thoughtful
+attention in this direction is one of the obstacles to success among
+copyists in any direction of art. In architecture the imitator or
+restorer of some early English mouldings has often made ignominious
+failures from the non-application of knowledge of this kind: just a
+trifling variation from the original while in progress being deemed of
+little consequence, but when finished and left for exhibition under the
+truth testing rays of the sun, the qualities that should have been there
+are, as the saying is, "conspicuous by their absence." In full view of
+the above and with an intelligence unsurpassable, Antonio Stradivari so
+arranged his forms and masses in construction that under fair usage and
+wearing down of the projecting parts, the original beauty of the whole
+should be retained as long as possible. A fine Stradivari much worn
+still retains its air of distinction, and very much of its material must
+have disappeared under bad treatment to make it beyond recognition
+almost at a glance.
+
+There can be very little question of there being more than mere
+admiration for the appearance. Simply viewed, there is the spice of
+romance in connection with it, the history is written in language more
+or less intelligible of the knocks and bruises inflicted, unwillingly in
+most instances, but not invariably so. And here attention may perhaps be
+appropriately drawn in these pages to what has been asserted by a few,
+very few, dealers and others, whose general intelligence should have
+been a guarantee against the dissemination of utter nonsense and which
+has even been in print! that--just think of this--Antonio Stradivari,
+the acknowledged master liutaro of Cremona in his own day, and of whose
+growing fame no one can foretell the limits--actually imitated wear and
+tear of varnish on his violins. I have not the print at hand, and so
+cannot give the exact words in which this scum from the boilings of a
+distorted imagination was conveyed; nor point to the first unfortunate
+who let it flow abroad. In all probability it came from the same old
+source, a desire to lift up to a high level worthless imitations of the
+master, confuse the public mind so as to make it more and more difficult
+to tell "t'other from which."
+
+A fine specimen, and well known, of Stradivari's art was once lying on a
+table before me. An amateur of considerable attainments and honesty of
+purpose then present was dilating upon its many beauties and fine
+preservation; he, I soon found, had by some means become infected with
+the absurd notion of the varnish having been artistically pecked away by
+the original maker! Just fancy this--Raphael slitting a hole in his
+chef-d'oeuvre to make it look old--Michael Angelo chipping some bits
+from the ceiling of the Sistine just before the scaffolding was removed,
+or Phidias snapping off a limb and browning the raw surface to please
+future connoisseurs.
+
+They might all have done this with an equal deficiency of reason and
+consistency if we allow for one moment any possibility of the genius of
+such a stamp as that of Antonio Stradivari descending to such depravity.
+Those who have lent themselves to this incongruous notion, hastily
+generalising from insufficient particulars, have strangely overlooked
+the fact that the same kind of chipping is seen on the violins of other
+masters, Joseph Guarnerius, Carlo Bergonzi, and others of the Cremonese
+and Venetian School, besides--going far back--the older ones of Brescia
+and Pesaro, any number in fact over all Italy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+SOME MODIFICATIONS IN STRADIVARI'S WORKS--VARIATION IN FINISH OF
+  DETAILS--THE INTERIOR OF HIS VIOLINS--THE BLOCKS AND
+  LININGS--THICKNESSES OF THE TABLES--HEADS OR SCROLLS OF HIS
+  DIFFERENT PERIODS.
+
+
+We will now resume our consideration of the handiwork of the Cremonese
+master as regards other details. We left him steadily working through
+his so-called "Grand epoch" or, more strictly speaking, his period of
+finely settled designs in outline and modelling. He had arrived at the
+goal of his ambition and produced works of excellence which--taking them
+as a whole--it seemed impossible to improve upon. He was henceforth
+content to put into them such slight modifications as would prevent too
+great similarity. Thus we find some were flatter in the arching, others
+a little shorter, being a trifle under the usual fourteen inches, others
+again were over it, but there was the same general contour, his now
+well-known accentuated design, complete as possible in all its details.
+
+From the great number of finished works that were turned out one after
+another, it is quite reasonable to assume that there would be
+occasionally some little evidence of extra pressure of business and
+consequently less time spent over minor details. That this actually
+occurred at times there is no doubt and can be perceived clearly when
+looked for. One instance occurs to me in which the purfling had been cut
+off a trifle short at the corners and did not quite fill up and make a
+good mitreing, otherwise all along the border the easy, swift, yet
+powerful stroke was maintained up to his usual standard of accuracy. In
+other instances the point or "bee-sting," as it is sometimes called, is
+not so sharply defined perhaps in two corners, while the others were the
+perfection of minute finish.
+
+It seems fairly certain that the great Cremonese was not at the time
+thinking of the almost microscopical scrutiny of critics certain to
+occur one hundred and eighty or so years in the future. These little
+differences in accuracy of unimportant detail or accidents of work may
+be taken as evidence that Stradivari was labouring day by day to meet
+the requirements of patrons different in disposition and perhaps
+patience. When at the same period he has been allowed to put his full
+time and attention to his work, then we find the four corners of equal
+unsurpassable finish, and other minute details over the whole structure
+so intently studied that nothing could possibly go beyond. These should
+really and appropriately be termed his "grand pattern." There is present
+in those instances the combined excellences in the highest degree of
+mechanical precision, beautiful proportion and drawing, such as no
+master designer of the Renaissance could surpass, the choicest
+materials, including splendid varnish, the whole united and capped with
+that essential, a beautiful tone.
+
+A few words about the interior of Stradivari's instruments; one kind of
+work is perceptible in all of them. There is not, as we may see in the
+works of other masters, that off-handed, or even slovenly want of finish
+inside while the whole attention of the maker has been concentrated on
+the exterior. With Stradivari all is well done, the blocks, end and
+corner ones are carefully faced and have little, if any can be seen, of
+the tool marks left upon them. The linings let into the corners are in
+every instance done with minute exactness. The wood of these and the
+blocks is a kind of Italian poplar, sometimes called willow and by the
+French sallow; it is light and has no threads like pine to cause
+difficulty in the manipulation. Too much importance has been attached by
+critics to the presence of this wood in Stradivari's violins. That it
+had nothing whatever to do with the excellence of tone quality is clear
+from the fact of makers of inferior skill and less renown for tone
+having used it in the same parts. The most likely reason is--as most
+repairers have concluded--the absence of thread, its lightness,
+pliability and evenness of texture, being thereby adapted for the
+necessary long strips for fitting round the curves. Some makers used it
+invariably, while others did so occasionally, perhaps not always having
+a stock on hand. When for some reasons, such as being worm eaten or
+badly fractured, it has been found compulsory to remove them and
+substitute others in their place and of other wood, there has been no
+perceptible deterioration in the tone either as regards quality or
+quantity. Not only so, but there is the fact that many of the Italian
+masters and their numerous pupils, to say nothing of makers of a lower
+order, as often as not sent forth their violins without linings, some
+even without corner blocks. In most of these instances, however, the
+ribs were left very stout in substance in order to retain a sufficient
+holding surface for the glue. The subtle curvings of the ribs of an
+Amati, and more so of a Stradivari, almost precluded the use of a very
+thick material, especially so when the curl or figure was bold and
+elaborate. In consonance with this, we find with Stradivari that the
+thin plate or veneer from which the ribs have been cut is not thick, but
+of accurate and equal measurement along its course. The linings being
+equally true and fitting in the closest manner to the ribs, are in their
+original state somewhat stouter, the middle or waist ones parting
+slightly on approaching the corner blocks each way and thus giving a
+gradually increasing area of attachment (diag. _h_). All of the four
+blocks are well trimmed off and their surfaces levelled, being quite
+regular in their form and size and trimmed to proper measurement. The
+end blocks serving to sustain the greatest amount of strain
+longitudinally, are also found well finished, in contrast with so many
+seen in instruments by makers of eminence that are simply hacked roughly
+into size and shape. They were carefully estimated in their proportion
+for strength sufficient to resist the strain caused by the size, length,
+and pull of the strings in use at the time of Stradivari, and with
+something to spare, so that even now, under the enormous strain of the
+modern high pitch, when in perfect and original condition they are equal
+to their task. In a number of instances, when much repairing, good or
+bad has been done, the end, and often the corner blocks, have been
+replaced by modern ones. There is, of course, under these circumstances
+less of Stradivari present, but it has often been a case of painful
+necessity or question of expense as to the choice between two steps for
+restoration to health and particularly for strength. The form viewed
+vertically adopted by Stradivari was that of a parallelogram with two
+rounded corners (diag. _i_.). The upper block was left a little thicker,
+the junction or root of the neck necessitating this. The renewal of one
+or both of these has also been caused incidentally by the deep insertion
+of the modern and longer neck, thus lessening much of the grip or
+purchase of the block on both upper and lower table. The same may be
+said of the nut over which the tail string passes, this being--owing
+also to the rise of the modern tone pitch and increase of tension--much
+larger than in Stradivari's day, and he may in a sense be said to have
+had to buckle to modern requirements.
+
+[Illustration: DIAGRAM _h_.]
+
+[Illustration: DIAGRAM _i_.]
+
+While the seat as it were of our criticism is at the present moment in
+the interior portion of the admirable structures bequeathed to us by the
+great Cremonese, we may consider further the surface work of this part.
+Everyone knows that the interior of a violin is left unvarnished by
+violin makers. Stradivari was in no way anxious to become an exception
+to this rule. The reasons for its adoption were, and are, still
+obviously wise, although not necessitous. He knew that his work, in
+common with that of other craftsman, would be liable to fracture, and
+that in the process of restoration the surfaces and junction of parts
+must be laid bare, and varnish where not obviously necessary would be an
+obstruction.
+
+For the satisfaction of the anxious inquirer it may be stated that
+varnishing the interior has, to my knowledge, been tried by an excellent
+modern workman as an experiment and did not bring any adequate reward
+by perceptible improvement in tone quality. In another instance, to
+prevent the encroachment of the collector's arch-enemy, the worm, the
+innovation seemed to have proved ineffectual. Stradivari may have tried
+this and perhaps, for once at least, met with failure. The bar--there is
+but one--ofttimes erroneously called sound-bar or bass-bar--is, in
+common with all the violins of the old Italian school, quite inadequate
+for modern requirement, that of supporting the upper table on the fourth
+string side against the pressure caused by the tension of the third and
+fourth, the heaviest strings.
+
+That the length, thickness and disposition of the bar has much to do
+with the good going order of every violin there is no disputing.
+Stradivari did not live long enough to make acquaintance with the
+numberless proposals for acquiring his quality by making this part
+longer, shorter, thicker, or thinner, besides various modes of
+attachment. That some of them would have raised a smile on the features
+of the veteran Cremonese, we may be quite sure. That he was quite
+content with the size of the bar in general use during his life-time
+there can be no doubt, as there is no record or evidence of any
+experiments having been made by him, fair argument that none were
+considered necessary; the instruments finished, the ordinary bar of the
+period was inserted and there was an end. The whole of the interior
+indicates an absence of any question of improvement on what had been
+done before by his master Nicolas Amati and his predecessors, apart from
+good finish.
+
+A few words as to the thickness of the upper and lower tables. Of this
+much has been written, an extremely small portion being from actual
+observation, and most of the other parts being reiterated assertions
+started many years back by people whose supposed knowledge rested solely
+upon simple conviction, without an iota of _bona fide_ evidence in
+support. To them the fact, well known to everyone engaged in the
+manufacture of sound-boards of musical instruments, that a very thick
+sound-board produces different results to that of a very thin one, was
+sufficient, therefore the secret of Stradivari with regard to his tone,
+was "the adjustment of the thicknesses," whatever that may mean. The
+assertion seeming perhaps rather bare, and wanting some sort of support,
+was bolstered up with another no less instructive, that if you "pinged,"
+or tapped the separated upper and lower tables of a Stradivari so that
+they each gave out a note there would be found the difference of a tone
+between them! Here was something for the "babes and sucklings" of the
+craft of violin making to swallow. It was stated also which table would
+give the higher tone. Unfortunately for some would-be Stradivaris, the
+particulars of the tonal difference were copied loosely and reversed and
+so came "confusion worse confounded."
+
+  The illustrations of sound holes, or _f f_ commonly so called, will,
+  it is hoped, be interesting as showing the modification or
+  development from those of Nicolas Amati to the latter part of the
+  period of Stradivari's career, called "the grand." They are all
+  reproduced from fine specimens of the great Cremonese masters, and
+  are the exact size of the originals. The first (_a_) shows the _f_
+  of a violin of the Nicolas Amati's late period, 1663, unaffected--at
+  least in this detail--by the individuality of his hereafter eminent
+  pupil. (_b_) While still going under the name of Nicolas Amati,
+  1678, the _f_ shows the actual interference of Stradivari, it is
+  more vertical, but the peculiarities of the upper and lower wings
+  are retained. (_c_) 1684. The design is quite changed, there is some
+  return to the flow or inclination of Amati, but the whole thing is
+  more extended, is slender, and the upper and lower wings are
+  widened, this modification was retained for a permanency. (_d_)
+  1690. There is some return to the vertical design, but the width of
+  the wings is retained, while the lower part of the design is of
+  larger proportions. (_e_) 1700. The design is more equalised and is
+  more substantial. (_f_) 1715. The same proportions are kept with an
+  increase of gracefulness. It will be perceived the lower wing
+  approaches at its lowest part the opposing curve more closely, the
+  upper one likewise; in some specimens of this period it is still
+  closer. (_g_) 1725. While the upper part is very like the preceding,
+  the lower part is more contracted and curled up. There is a somewhat
+  heavier expression about the upper part in consequence.
+
+[Illustration: _a_ _b_ _c_ SEE PAGE 48.]
+
+[Illustration: _d_ _e_ _f_ _g_ SEE PAGE 48.]
+
+
+History does not relate which of those parties who may have practically
+followed up the experiments were successful in arriving at the goal of
+their ambition; they may even still be continuing the struggle for
+supremacy with their master.
+
+We have not to look far for ascertaining whether these assertions have
+borne fruit. There has been time enough for works built upon these
+so-called discoveries of fixed principles to have settled down, and the
+popular verdict now is--that those which guided Antonio Stradivari have
+yet to be discovered. The numbers of announcements of fresh
+discoveries--repeated _ad nauseam_--are in themselves some evidence that
+what has gone before was founded on deceptive evidence, and therefore to
+begin anew was the only course left.
+
+The illustrations of scrolls by Nicolas Amati and Antonio Stradivari,
+being from good specimens by the masters, will be interesting as showing
+the progression of the modification in detail under the hands of the
+latter. In fig. _a_, Nicolas Amati, c. 1670, it will be seen that the
+first or smallest turn after leaving the axis or "eye" is kept for some
+distance rather close. Every effort seems to have been made for keeping
+the turns or winding from being too circular, there being a general dip
+downward and forward. The gouging is deep from the commencement. The aim
+of the artist in the whole design appears to have been towards
+perfection of gracefulness.
+
+Fig. _b_. Antonio Stradivari, 1683, the openness and bold swing of the
+first turn at once on leaving the "eye" is very striking, it also
+commences higher up, there is almost an absence of flow or downward
+tendency. The throat underneath the volute is very massive, although all
+the edges are finished off with the utmost delicacy and sharp tooling.
+All the details of scroll carving by Stradivari at this period are
+marvels of mechanical dexterity of handling. The different depths of the
+gouging are carefully calculated for solidity of effect, each portion
+being deep in proportion to its width, the smaller turns thus having
+less depth than the larger. With the Amatis there seemed to be a
+striving after attainment of the greatest depth possible in the smaller
+gougings, those nearest the axis reaching frequently to almost the same
+depth of level as the outer or broadest one. In no part of his work does
+Stradivari show more clearly the result of careful calculation after
+closely studying the work of his master and others that had gone before.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. _a_. SEE PAGE 49.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. _b_. SEE PAGE 49.]
+
+Fig. _c_. The period 1715 shows the result of further calculation for
+general effect and a consequent modification in respect of minor
+details; there is present, as always, the sufficiently bold swing of the
+first turn from the axis. In choice specimens the point of commencement
+is as sharply and clearly defined as the mitreing of the purfling at the
+four corners of the body of the violin and which it seems impossible to
+excel. The throat, with the whole of the peg-box, is reduced slightly
+but consistently with strength and beauty of appearance. The public
+verdict has remained unshaken with regard to these scrolls being in
+respect of the combination of excellencies the best carvings of the
+great artist. They are in the most trifling degree smaller than those
+carved before the period of 1700. Among those cut about the 1710-15
+period, or even later, are a few that seem to have been intentionally
+both smaller and more upright. Although having all the essential
+excellencies of detail they can scarcely be considered as coming up to
+the standard of the others in respect of refined grandeur. This type may
+be said to be mixed up and continued with more or less persistency to
+the last, and of this Fig. _d_ gives a good representation. There is
+frequently a more emphatic or energetic gouging at the commencement of
+the turns, a more developed "ear" as it is often termed. It is gouged
+with quite as much care as the rest. Speculation has been rife as to the
+possible influence or even personal help of Joseph Guarneri at this
+point, but there is no solid foundation for surmising the presence of
+one or the other. If the gouging of this part may be said to bear any
+sort of resemblance to the emphatic or impetuous touch of Joseph, it is
+confined strictly to this portion; other essentials are wanting that
+would be absolutely necessary for crediting artists of distinctly
+opposite tendencies with--it might be almost rightly termed--tampering
+with each other's designs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. _c_. SEE PAGE 50.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. _d_. SEE PAGE 50.]
+
+But if the name of Carlo Bergonzi is brought into the field of
+speculation--granting for a moment that Stradivari was not very likely
+to step aside occasionally from his accustomed groove--then we have much
+more of a possibility or even probability in the matter. It has always
+been asserted, and I believe never contradicted, that Carlo Bergonzi was
+for a time actually working in the atelier of Stradivari--whether as
+pupil or only assistant matters not--but we have in the fact of his
+presence a distinct factor in any of the supposed anomalies of the later
+periods of the grand Cremonese master. To this, however, we may put some
+consideration further on. There is further in these later scrolls a
+modification, alteration, or supposed attempt at improvement in the
+edging of the turns, these being left a trifle stouter than at the
+commencement of Stradivari's career.
+
+This is continued along over the top and down the back of the scroll to
+the shell, which seems to be a little less elongated than the early
+specimens. It may be more apparent than real in most instances in
+consequence of the bolder edging. The hollowing of the "shell" is
+seemingly less delicate, but this may be taken as a natural result of
+the foregoing. Further on these details will come in again for review.
+
+To continue our remarks on the question of "thicknesses and their
+adjustment" with each other. This is a department of the luthier's art,
+to which perhaps much more attention has been directed by theorisers
+than by practical workers. The latter class have no doubt been
+influenced by the former to a considerable extent, oftentimes having
+their views expressly carried out under their personal supervision. By
+musical amateurs it is found to be a good theme for conversation when
+the excellencies of the works of various masters are dilated upon. That
+the richness of quality in a "Joseph" is the result of his having left
+"his wood" thick in certain parts and not so much in others, and that
+this, combined with the flat modelling, was the secret, and that it was
+written that some of the Josephs were too thick in the back, and
+therefore the freedom of the vibration was checked and the tone to some
+degree stifled and deficient in penetrative power.
+
+Among my early musical acquaintances, I remember an amateur violinist
+who would "wax eloquent" on the power of his Strad, asserting that it
+was owing in a great measure to its having been "left thick by the
+maker" all round near the border. This, no doubt, many other amateurs,
+acquainted with what used to be in print on the subject, will recognise
+as being in opposition to what had been accepted as being the rule
+generally observed by Stradivari, that the arching in its thickness
+gently decreased towards the border where it was about a third less than
+at the centre. This gentle gradation was said to be the cause of the
+beautiful "silky" and "sympathetic" quality so prominently
+characteristic of his instruments. The explanation of "the thing in
+action," as mechanicians would term it, was thus--the greatest thickness
+being at the part all round by the feet of the bridge, was able to
+sustain the vibration, or the successive shocks caused by the bow, which
+were transmitted through the wood of the upper table and were gradually
+lessened in intensity as the thickness decreased toward the border,
+where they subsided, or were lost.
+
+I do not know what explanation was given, if any, of the "system" of
+thickness adopted much by some of the Milanese school, which was that of
+hewing away the wood until it was thinnest at the part all round by the
+feet of the bridge and thickest by the lower wings of the sound holes.
+Judging by the before mentioned assertions as to the association of
+power of energetic vibration with the thickest wood under the bridge,
+these Milanese makers were acting very wrongly, but, strange to say,
+many instruments of very great power were made by them under these
+conditions.
+
+Many years ago I was conversing on the subject of thicknesses with an
+English maker of experience and who seemed to believe in certain
+"thicknesses," and having then as yet made no practical experiments
+myself in the matter, I put the following to him. There are many violins
+to be met with that through ill-usage and pressure on the bridge have
+depressions instead of the level wood at the part we should expect it to
+be, and yet the tone is considered fine, how is this? The answer was
+remarkable, and not unworthy of the class of makers to which he
+belonged--that although the wood had become thinner from pressure, "the
+original amount was all there," it was only squeezed closer together.
+The instruments were, no doubt, "rightly gauged" in the first instance.
+"Now there," he said, pointing to a 'cello hanging up almost out of
+reach and looking in rather a woe-begone condition, is a bass that
+"never would go well because it was badly gauged when first made." Age
+and usage were to be of no avail in bringing this wretched piece of
+workmanship up to the standard of the average.
+
+This last assertion might have been of considerable weight had the maker
+been a personal pupil of Stradivari, but the public verdict has been
+that there was a great gulf between the two, and that the first had not
+been initiated into the secret of the others. Foreign as well as English
+makers have announced in the most impressive manner at their command
+that their instruments were identical in all respects, including the
+system of thicknesses in the originals, buy them, use them, and be
+convinced that in time they would be just as good as the real thing.
+
+The foregoing is perhaps enough to indicate whether or not the secret of
+Stradivari, or indeed any of the other Italian masters, great or small,
+had been discovered by caliper measurement. It is strange that the
+impression has held sway so strongly that the genius of the great
+master lay in his manner of distribution of the thick and thin parts of
+the upper and lower table. The first thought in this direction would be
+that if the theory was good, its practical application with ordinary
+skill and care would be sure to bring about the desired result. But more
+than this has been done in experimenting on originals and copies from
+time to time. We have within a mile of Charing Cross no lack of workmen
+capable of gauging and copying with sufficient exactness the thicknesses
+of any Stradivari brought to them, if that were all, or the principal
+means necessary for reproducing the famous qualities of the great
+Cremonese. It seems to be forgotten that hundreds of clever workmen have
+lived since his time, in his own as well as other countries, who have
+given the most assiduous application to the making of exact copies and
+with a like result--that of total failure. For a moment let us turn our
+thoughts to the nature of the materials comprised in the sum total of
+the structure known as a violin. We have for the upper table, or front,
+a thin slab of wood known as pine, from a species of tree that grows all
+over the world. The varieties are, however, innumerable and the purposes
+to which they are put, equally so. For the lower table, or back, a more
+dense and tough wood is used. That the particular kind used in the
+construction of the famous instruments of the great masters, and mostly
+that known as curled maple or "hare wood," was chiefly on account of its
+beauty, is evident from the fact that all the best Italian makers had
+recourse at times to other and less showy wood. Beech was occasionally
+used by Carlo Bergonzi. Other tough woods grown in Italy, even poplar,
+have been used by some makers, seemingly when the supply of better
+looking material ran short. That there are extant some "Strads" with
+backs of some plain wood other than maple is more than likely. We have,
+then, for the upper table of the violin a wood of soft but elastic
+consistency, the strength of which lies mainly in the threads running
+lengthwise, and which, when the wood is cut in the manner usual with
+all violin makers since its invention, serve the purpose of small joists
+running from end to end of the upper table. The soft material lying
+between these is very susceptible to damp, especially when fresh cut.
+Thus, if a piece of pine be cut ever so smooth with a sharp gouge or
+chisel, a slightly wetted brush drawn along the surface will at once
+cause the softer parts to swell and so leave a ribbed or "corduroy"
+appearance when it is dry. This will serve to show how far this wood is
+suitable for regulating by such very minute differences as would be
+necessary when the thicknesses theory is confided in and efforts made to
+reduce it to practice. The exactness reasonably expected of such a
+master of quality as Stradivari would be upset in an instant by the
+application of a little moisture, and which either by accident or during
+the process of repairing would be fairly certain to occur some time or
+other to every violin that left the hands of its maker.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+STRADIVARI'S TONE AND SYSTEM--THOSE OF HIS PUPILS AND
+  ASSISTANTS--QUALITIES OF TONE PRODUCED IN DIFFERENT LOCALITIES.
+
+
+We may now refer to actual observation or close examination of
+Stradivari's work with reference to the question of system, whether
+there is evidence of its presence and how followed by him. That his
+violins should have been from time to time well measured by the very
+numerous army of identical imitators, fair copyists, and all sorts of
+connoisseurs and theorists during the present century will be at once
+admitted, and the results may be summed up in a few words. Stradivari
+did not leave clearly defined any evidence of a system of gauging which
+he strictly followed, at any rate in such a manner as to enable the
+least approach by such to be made by any followers in his steps with any
+measure of success. In short, he was guided by the exigencies of the
+moment as to the amount of wood left in his ordinary or choicer
+specimens.
+
+It has been stated before that his quality of tone was one, not several,
+and for these his patrons flocked to him, as his admirers have also more
+and more earnestly sought for him since the supply has ceased. But it
+was not desirable that the greatest possible power should be given to
+instruments that were in many cases to simply charm a small family
+circle of friends in an apartment of modest dimensions. He would,
+therefore, naturally enough vary the amount of wood left. This would be
+quite in accordance with what is perfectly well known to all makers and
+repairers of experience--that with a violin if very "thickly timbered,"
+the tone is less easy of emission, or actually weak. On the other hand,
+if too thin the emission is comparatively easy, but lacks intensity and
+is termed "hollow." Under these circumstances we should expect to find a
+variation in the thicknesses of different violins of Stradivari, which
+is in accordance with fact.
+
+Some connoisseurs have been in their enthusiasm too hasty in their
+reference of general principles from a few particular instances and
+their researches--as time thereafter showed--did not bear the fruit so
+anxiously looked forward to.
+
+An instance comes to mind of two well known dealers, one British, the
+other foreign, meeting together one day and opening some half-a-dozen
+Strads, that appeared up to that moment to have had their interiors
+undisturbed, or perhaps it might be said untampered with. What a
+meeting! and what a parting! let us hope that each table, upper or
+lower, that had so long been working in harmony, eventually became again
+properly mated and gave no cause for lawyers to "put their fingers in
+the pie." The results of the examination is related thus:--"In no two of
+the instruments were thicknesses alike; some had thick places and thin
+places; some were thicker on one side than the other; all were thicker
+in the centre of the upper table and all had these as three to five for
+the back."
+
+Another is that of a well known continental repairer in his day,
+relating how he had repaired a very large number of real Strads and
+found the upper tables to be of the same thickness, two and a half m's.
+all over, but that the backs varied in thickness. Some discrepancies
+here seemingly. To add to this, a correspondent says the Strads he has
+measured "have certainly not been thickest in the centre of the upper
+table."
+
+My own observations as to thicknesses I am afraid will not afford much
+comfort to those who have been hopeful at any time that the calipers
+would drag forth the precious secret. I recollect many years back seeing
+a very fresh Strad, and a hasty measurement possible at the time
+revealed too much wood, that is judging according to our modern ideas of
+regulation.
+
+One instance of a Strad, once my own property, comes to my mind. It had
+something wrong with the interior that necessitated opening. The violin
+was of good reputation for its tone of fine quality, quantity and ease
+of emission. There was no help for it; much against my inclination the
+separation of the upper table from the ribs would have to take place,
+either by my own hands, or those of some other person, the rectification
+being impossible from the exterior as it sometimes may be. With all
+necessary care, guided by past experience, the opening was safely
+accomplished, and after a very interesting examination of the interior,
+which to an ordinary observer would have seemed but peering into a dirty
+old wooden box, having nothing perceptibly different from any other, was
+in what would be called a fair state of preservation. I took the
+calipers in hand, expecting to learn something, but found all the
+original thicknesses had been lost under the hands of numerous
+repairers.
+
+The supposed system or rule followed by Stradivari--that is, according
+to what critics and writers have declared was his habit--was certainly
+not demonstrated in this instance: in fact the eyesight alone was
+sufficient to perceive that whatever theory the master had believed in
+as necessary for the production of his inimitable quality, or whatever
+rule as to gauging should be followed in order to obtain enough power
+and freedom of emission were, in the present instance, we will not say
+ignored, but quite imperceptible; and why? because the fiddle at one
+time had been what we moderns--with our ideas of regulation and
+fitting--would term "too thick in the wood." The instrument had
+undergone much affliction from various physicians, but, judging from
+various little details of evidence, been at almost all times highly
+prized. Here and there were the studs or buttons of various kinds of
+pine stuck by repairers of different nationalities and degrees of skill,
+some placed with apparent good intention, others without reason at all,
+while several parts bore indications of studs having at one time rested
+there and been afterwards removed by succeeding repairers. Now all these
+men had a thought of doing their work properly, and in finishing off
+their studs with gouge or glass-paper, had whipped off around each spot
+some of the precious wood of Stradivari, with a general result of a
+series of hollows and gentle prominences not at all pleasing to the eye
+of the believer in the thickness theory, but nevertheless instructive.
+
+Other instances in which the master's work--while still good and
+serviceable, with much evidence of unskilful repair, or want of proper
+attention at the time of accident, have come under my notice, enough,
+long ago, to have, as the saying is, "knocked into a cocked hat," all
+that has been put forth regarding the mathematical precision of the
+thicknesses over the different parts of a violin by Antonio Stradivari.
+One or two further remarks may be interesting on this part of our
+subject. The fact must not be lost sight of that the pupils of the now
+well established master of his art in Cremona were working either at
+that place likewise, or in the large cities of Italy, and had become
+famous, or were soon to be so and themselves surrounded by learners of
+the art. All these had been initiated in the secrets, if any, of their
+craft and in the particulars which distinguished them from others, or we
+may say, they were of the Stradivari school, showing in a more or less
+degree the same species of tone which the master had brought to
+maturity, and which he retained with consistency and never swerved from
+to his latest day.
+
+It is quite a reasonable supposition that most, if not all, of the
+personal pupils were taught by the master, or had the way pointed out to
+them by which they might, with the right ear for discrimination of tone
+quality and enough of industry, impart to their works the identical
+qualities of those of their teacher. But what are the facts left for our
+consideration in connection with caliper measurement? the pupils
+admittedly of his teaching, among whom we may mention Lorenzo
+Guadagnini, his son Joannes Battista, Alexandri Gagliano, one or two of
+his sons and Carlo Bergonzi, as the best known, each adopted their own,
+or shall we say, left no more evidence for us of having a set rule for
+thicknesses than their master. The nearest approach to the asserted
+system of Stradivari, that of a gentle declination of substance in the
+wood down to the edge, was made by Lorenzo Guadagnini in his extra sized
+violins; but then the tone, wonderfully fine, is not Stradivari, but
+Guadagnini. Carlo Bergonzi's system, if we may for a moment call it, was
+quite unlike Stradivari, and yet connoisseurs have frequently credited
+him with having got "the same beautiful quality of tone." From these few
+references it will be sufficiently plain that the grand secret of tone
+quality must not be sought for with the aid of calipers, so we will
+dismiss this part of our subject and proceed to other considerations.
+
+Besides those who have pinned their faith to the thicknesses, there are
+those who take up with the "air mass" theory. I am afraid the arguments
+in favour of this last will not bear even so much knocking about as
+those just considered.
+
+We have in the first place to take into account the fact of the larger
+modern bar taking up more room than the old obsolete one of, not only
+Stradivari, but all the other masters of his time and before. The upper
+and lower end blocks have been enlarged in many instances to obtain a
+better hold on the upper and lower table. These alterations have been
+each of necessity, not of ignorance or mere whim, and moreover have
+proved efficacious for the end in view. The restorers, or regulators who
+have performed these operations must--according to the "air mass"
+theory--have been acting quite "in the teeth" of it and Stradivari's
+regulation, further there is not one fiddle in a hundred--perhaps not
+that--which has been in use for a generation but what shows a sinking
+one side or the other, or, when the modelling is full, a depression in
+the middle of the upper table, and very frequently a greater fulness at
+the back where the sound post touches and presses from the inside. These
+alterations, individually or collectively, alter the "air mass" of the
+interior, and the violin thus, according to the theory, contains within
+itself the elements of its own early dissolution, so far as fine quality
+is concerned. Facts, however, go to prove the contrary, and with the
+modern regulator's efforts to obtain the best amount of a good thing
+known to be present, it is quite probable that Stradivari himself never
+heard his instruments to such advantage as they may be now,
+notwithstanding the unreasonably high pitch to which violinists are
+obliged to conform their tuning.
+
+There was another theory promulgated many years back by certain people
+of some degree of eminence in their own walk in life. A grand discovery
+was announced, that the excellence of the violins of Stradivari
+consisted in the tonal difference between the upper and lower tables
+peculiar no doubt to that master. This sort of committee of scientific
+experimenter, violin dealer and author, did not--while centralising
+their efforts on the violins of one master--say whether the same
+relationship existed between the back and front of a Nicola Amati,
+Maggini or Gasparo de Salo, they made something of a slip when they
+mentioned the violins of the great Joseph Guarnerius as showing the same
+tonal difference.
+
+It would have been very interesting to have heard of results after
+further trials by the same experimenters upon upper or lower tables of
+violins by now not very much less celebrated makers, who, although of
+the same class or school, were living--for those times--far away from
+the central luminary of the Cremonese art. What would have been said of
+Montagnana of Venice? a star of the first magnitude, curiously near in
+quality and quantity to the great centre to which he was willing to pay
+obeisance and throw out a reflected light; of Gobetti, perhaps more
+"Straddy" than any other Italian, Gofrilleri, Seraphino, two or three of
+the Tononis, besides other lights of lesser magnitude, with exceedingly
+fine qualities, but perhaps open to the charge of intermittency.
+Further, several of the Milanese school,--offshoots of the Amati and
+Stradivari,--of Lorenzo Guadagnini, a master of his art in all its
+details, if ever there was one, his son Joannes Battista, steadier in
+his working, but more uncertain in his results--shifting from place to
+place, may have had some connection with this--and the occasionally fine
+artificers of the same place, Landolfi, the Grancinos and Testores and
+later on Balestrieri of Mantua and Storioni of Cremona. These men,
+always good, and when circumstances were favourable, great in their art,
+often grand in their individuality and power, were, by these modern
+scientific interrogators placed aside or quietly ignored, apparently
+either as unworthy of their recognition, or of such inferior renown as
+not to come within the scope of their investigations.
+
+A close and searching inquiry into the causes that enabled different
+masters of their art to bring about the desirable end of their labours,
+that of imparting a distinct quality and individuality of tone, might
+have enabled them to get at least a hint as to the means whereby
+Stradivari gratified the tastes of his patrons at the time and
+connoisseurs in general of the present day. As indicated before, the
+Venetian masters were--probably by the same means--able to put before
+their patrons that kind of tone most in agreement with the luxurious
+surroundings of the Venetian nobility, or offered and found acceptable
+to the musical public generally there.
+
+A prolonged, earnest examination of the peculiarities of tone attached
+to the violins of the makers of the chief seats of violin making, has
+led to the inference that the difference in kind or degree was not from
+individual choice, but chiefly owing to outside influence.
+
+What is known as the old Brescian type of tone was doubtless suitable
+to the tastes of musical circles, among whom the then new style of
+musical instrument was introduced in Brescia. When settled down, the
+Amati family, a group of thorough artists, proved themselves alive to
+the requirements of the fresh district that was henceforth to be the
+scene of their labours for generations. The Brescian quality had either
+been found by them, or was known beforehand, to be too ponderous or
+insufficiently endowed with the more feminine quality desirable in the
+minds of the Cremonese. The Amatis seem to have been in full possession
+of the means necessary for producing the kind of violin in demand and
+supplied it.
+
+As time went on, musical compositions changed in style, advancing by
+degrees towards the culminating point of nearly a century later. The
+simple, oft-times wondrously sweet, yet quaint effusions of the early
+composers for the violin, were gradually giving more and stronger
+indication of what was possible and likely to follow soon and in its
+turn, like all other things, become antiquated and old-fashioned.
+Undoubtedly, it was this progressive condition of the music of the
+period that induced Stradivari, early in his career, if not at the time
+he was with Nicolo Amati, to take up the study of tone calibre as a
+matter of essential importance, in order not only to keep pace with the
+times, but if possible, anticipate further advances in musical
+development.
+
+It was daily becoming more evident that the qualities of refinement and
+sympathy would not in themselves be sufficient in an instrument with
+such a future as the violin seemed to have. Melodic forms were being
+modified, while harmony was becoming more varied and divided.
+
+The art of appropriate phrasing was also being studied, while practical
+musicians were bowing to the necessity of leaving old stereotyped forms
+for those having more emotional qualities. In short, the violin wanted
+in Cremona was one of substantial power and suitable for more dramatic
+expression on the part of the performer. To bring forth a violin of this
+desirable type, Stradivari directed his energies. With what measure of
+success, the whole musical world up to the present day have emphatically
+declared.
+
+Now, we may ask, was the difference of tone between the violins of
+Stradivari and those of the other makers of the Brescian, Cremonese,
+Venetian, Milanese, or Neapolitan school, in consequence of the tonal
+difference between the upper and lower table, as supposed to have been
+discovered by the modern Parisian investigator? was it resulting from
+the correct air mass inside? the relative thickness of the tables, or we
+may as well include the straight and fine grain theorists, the amber
+varnish in the wood theorists, the wood of great age theorists, and the
+generations of use theorists, and lastly those who mix them altogether.
+If Stradivari practically worked upon one, some or all of these
+theories, there is still more mystery concerning the close proximity at
+which his pupils or assistants arrived, several of whom we might
+conclude were possessed of all necessary means of acquiring to the full
+their master's excellencies.
+
+Just for a moment or two we may turn aside and notice the kind of
+variation or the distinguishing difference between the tone in the
+general acceptation of the term--of Antonio Stradivari and other makers,
+or, as time has proved, masters of their art, if not on an equal
+standing with him. There is frequently among musicians a disposition to
+set down as inferior any tone that may seem to differ in degree or kind
+with that of Stradivari; that is the ideal type, it must be Stradivari
+and no other; some have even gone so far as to say, "there is only one
+quality," that of Stradivari, and when other masters did not produce it,
+they were unable to do so; this is more than a hint at condemnation of
+the head of the Cremona school as having been very lax in the proper and
+thoughtful training of his number of pupils; this latter an almost
+necessary consequence of eminent rank, taken apart from the usual
+assistance found to be obligatory from pressure of work. If we glance
+over the Italian schools taken one after another, the facts, if
+acknowledged, will be seen to point in other directions. Taking for
+instance the Milanese master, Lorenzo Guadagnini, who tells us himself
+that he learnt his art under Antonio Stradivari, we find distinct traces
+of it in his tone, the general calibre is the same and most of the fine,
+distinguishing features noticed in the tone produced by his master; the
+difference, however, is that which is peculiar to the master makers of
+Milan, that of a slightly less reedy emission of sound. Some have called
+it harder, which is not a correct description. Chords are produced with
+it as easily and roundly as with any other, the individual notes blend
+beautifully and give an impression of homogeneousness in no wise
+inferior to anything produced in Italy. There was no apparent difficulty
+in the way of Milan acquiring and cultivating the variety of Italian
+tone known as the Cremonese had they been so disposed; we are therefore
+led to infer that each place with its musical world held its own
+opinions as to the most satisfactory quality of tone for its purpose and
+considered it the best. Milan is situated in Lombardy, north-west of
+Cremona, and distant from it between forty and fifty miles; not a very
+long way at any time, but quite sufficient for each place to cultivate
+or indulge in any artistic or musical fancies or whims independently of
+the other. We find maker after maker in Milan keeping within certain
+limits as regards the quality of tone produced there; I do not know of
+one whose instruments emitted other than the Milanese quality.
+
+We may, I think, safely assume that so far from loosely and
+superficially instructing his pupils, Stradivari's tuition was of a
+deeper, far-reaching kind than has ever been suspected. If the tone of
+Lorenzo Guadagnini is compared with that of the makers who were working
+in Milan when he arrived, it will not be difficult to perceive that the
+Milanese type is still retained, although much enlarged and matured, in
+fact become freshly developed, throwing out the additional qualities for
+the obtaining of which the great master of Cremona had carefully
+trained his gifted pupil. All this is not in the least interfered with
+by the fact of Joannes Battista Guadagnini's tone differing in some
+respects--and more at times--with that of his father, but rather helped
+by it; both assert on their tickets that they were instructed by
+Stradivari, and both show the results of their training in that
+largeness and impressiveness which is so much beloved of violinists and
+which without doubt came from their great teacher. Josef, the son of
+Joannes Battista Guadagnini, appears also to have either been instructed
+by Stradivari or to have assisted under his personal supervision--which
+would amount to much the same thing. We may perceive in the tone of this
+maker also the influence of the great master in the same directions as
+are manifested in the works of his father and grandfather, they are all
+of the Stradivarian school.
+
+Let us now turn in another direction. Alexandri Gagliano of Naples tells
+us that he too was a pupil of Stradivari, and looking at his work there
+is nothing about it inconsistent with his statement; his typical design
+is formed upon that of Stradivari, and many of his details of
+workmanship are such as can only have been carried out as the result of
+either a lengthy study, or from being under the immediate supervision of
+the master.
+
+The quality of tone produced by the Neapolitans is as distinct as
+possible from that of Milan, it is clear, lively, suggestive of a sunny
+clime, and free in its emission, but leaves an impression on the ear of
+a lack of sufficient profundity, nearly the opposite in fact of the
+early Brescian school. Here the best of the Gaglianos--for it is not at
+all certain that there were not more than two of them assisting at
+different times in Stradivari's atelier--brought the same kind of
+improvement to Naples as the Guadagninis did to Milan, the scale was
+better regulated so as to give greater breadth of effect,
+notwithstanding the general quality--seemingly native to the
+place--being uninterfered with. Here then was the influence of
+Stradivari having taught his pupils the means whereby the particular
+tone quality most appreciated in the locality could be brought forward
+in its most developed, or mature condition.
+
+Carlo Bergonzi we shall have to consider more fully further on, and for
+the present only refer to him as a pupil or assistant much more in
+immediate connection with the atelier of Stradivari than any maker known
+to us. Irregular workman as he was, swayed about this way and that by
+matters unknown to us, he kept steadfast to the Stradivarian lines to
+the end. The rest of his family were either his own pupils, or they may
+have even been at times with his master, as they all--so far as I am
+acquainted with them--are of the same school. These particulars all
+point in one direction--that Stradivari was not anxious and made no
+special efforts at introducing any new kind of tone--development of that
+already in existence was his aim, and on this line he appears to have
+led his immediate or personal pupils.
+
+There is great probability that some very clever workmen whose names are
+lost to us, were with Stradivari for a time, long or short, and were
+able to imbibe the valuable precepts enjoined similarly on the other
+disciples. It is not at present known whether the sons of Stradivari had
+pupils or assistants, the rarity of their work seems to point to the
+contrary; their father having been so successful from the commercial
+point of view, apart from the higher aspect of his career, there may
+have been--we might say--the usual disposition amongst sons of
+successful fathers to take life more easily and repose among the laurels
+won for them, requiring only a little caretaking. There is some
+possibility of Thomas Balestrieri, of Mantua, having worked for a time
+under Stradivari, but not as a pupil; there is much in his work
+suggestive of this theory. His tone quality does not belong to the Amati
+school, in which tradition has it he was trained. He may have gone as
+help to Stradivari--for loose as was his general tendency, he could work
+finely when the fit was on him. Whether he went or not, there remains
+tone quality evidence of the strong influence of Stradivari, besides
+the throwing aside of the Amati traditions concerning proportions,
+curves and archings.
+
+Of the other places to which personal pupils of the master went, we may
+take a passing glance at Genoa, a city not replete with makers of
+refinement, or numerous, but nevertheless with some sterling qualities.
+Among them and the most "Straddy" is Bernardus Calcanius; his earliest
+dates, if we can rely upon them, and they may prove at any moment to
+have been earlier than hitherto known, almost preclude the possibility
+of his having worked under Stradivari except as a youth. The influence
+of the master is, however, decidedly paramount in his work and no other
+tendency being noticeable, if not an immediate pupil, he took all
+possible pains to acquire the excellencies that were to his knowledge
+peculiar to Stradivari alone.
+
+Among the Venetian makers there does not seem to be one that can--from
+his style and workmanship--be picked out as showing all necessary
+evidence of his having qualified under the great Cremonese as a personal
+pupil. Nevertheless there is much indication, and such as cannot be
+passed over, of the influence of Stradivari among the aristocracy of the
+business there. This was not, as in the instances of the other schools
+of violin making outside Cremona, in the first ten years of the century,
+but after the different individuals of the group of eminent Venetians
+must have been well known and of established reputation. In this there
+is some apparent indication of one if not more of the party having taken
+a trip to Cremona and brought back a few hints of no inconsiderable
+value, perhaps received personally from the master. On the other hand,
+if this was not the case, his works must have been brought into Venice
+and their merits artistically as well as acoustically well thought over.
+The outcome was a change, the Amati genius hitherto presiding
+uninterfered with, seemingly immutable, had to give way to that which
+was pronounced an improvement or a step higher in the progress of the
+liutaro's art. As in Cremona, the Amati characteristics were too deeply
+rooted in the affections of the Venetians to be eradicated, and we
+consequently find in the designs of a few of the prominent makers the
+strong influence of Stradivari in conflict with that of Nicolas Amati,
+and the two swaying in balance with the settled convictions of the
+followers of Jacobus Stainer.
+
+Having now taken a glance round at the chief centres of violin making
+that had during Stradivari's lifetime been strongly influenced by him,
+directly by means of his pupils or indirectly by the arrival there of
+his works, we may note that his qualities artistically or acoustically
+considered, while giving him a commanding position, did not reach so far
+as to annihilate, during competition, those of the Amatis, especially
+where the latter had been of long standing and followed earnestly in
+detail, they kept side by side as in Cremona. The influence of
+Stradivari beyond the borders of Italy had yet to receive its due
+acknowledgment from the crowds of imitators which have now become known
+or have pushed themselves in front of the public gaze.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE REPUTED GOLDEN PERIOD OF STRADIVARI LATE IN LIFE--HIS LATER
+  MODIFICATIONS OF DESIGN--SIGNS OF OLD AGE APPEARING--THE HELP HE
+  RECEIVED.
+
+
+We can now return back to Cremona, where we left the master in what
+might almost be termed the heydey of success, as he seems to have had
+full obeisance as the reigning chief among liutaros. The amount of work
+put forward--estimating carefully by what remains to us after the lapse
+of some hundred and eighty years or more--must have been possibly larger
+than is suspected and now might appear incredible if it were catalogued
+in detail, were it not for the extreme probability that minor or mere
+mechanical parts of the many instruments other than violins, violas, or
+violoncellos were effectively carried out under the supervision of
+Antonio Stradivari, his sons and assistants, of these probably what
+under the circumstances might even be termed a numerous staff.
+
+The period 1700 to 1725 has been referred to by some writers as "the
+golden period" of Stradivari, not inaptly if we are to understand it in
+a pecuniary sense, as his income at the time was no doubt of a very
+satisfactory nature, but if taken from the standpoint of artistic
+elegance and finish in detail the master himself seems to have had some
+slight misgivings, as there are well-known indications in his latter
+days of having used some of his early patterns, as if a desire had
+arisen in his mind to return to his old love.
+
+That some signs of advancing age should not be apparent in Stradivari's
+work during the period of 1715 to 1725 would scarcely be expected. It is
+just at this time, however, that he gives the strongest evidence of
+being the extraordinary man that he was. In 1715 and thereabouts, a time
+of all others, some critics might put it, when his most magnificent gems
+of art were sent out into the world, he was a veteran seventy-one years,
+a time of life that few people would look forward to as being
+appropriate for executing unrivalled masterpieces, but rather as having
+for some time retired for final rest after a full complement of working
+days; here, however, was a peerless artist actually in his prime! and as
+busy, possibly so, as at any early times.
+
+At 1720 to 1725 a close student of his work of hand may discern some
+signs of what was to follow, it might be said naturally. In the first
+place the purfling gradually assumes a heavier aspect, it is a trifle
+bolder or thicker in substance, although sent round the borders of the
+instrument with apparently the same masterly handling and iron
+nervousness of the preceding years. The edging is also a degree stouter.
+Occasionally the corners are made to a more obtuse angle, adding to the
+whole design a more stolid look, as if mere elegance was about to be
+thrown aside and more simplicity and grandeur were being sought for.
+This was not continued, the master seemed afraid of going too far
+towards heaviness, he therefore cautiously withdrew to his own old
+lines. Sometimes--possibly taking up and constructing upon some of his
+old and early moulds--the corners are brought out more prominently, but
+with more substance than in his early days; the result is delightful for
+the connoisseur's eye. Accompanying these minute modifications there
+will be noticed an increase slight and gradual in the expression of
+heaviness in the sound holes. If possible there is more freedom from
+mere symmetrical proportion, they are placed less accurately level, one
+being a trifle higher than the other, this by the bye was common with
+him at all times, although usually with a subtlety that left them
+unnoticed by an ordinary observer. This slight irregularity has been
+sometimes misinterpreted as one of the little secrets of the master
+whereby he obtained his excellent sonority; "discovered" was the
+exclamation, and a new rule laid down on Stradivari's lines--never place
+your sound holes on the same level, always one a trifle higher and you
+will get what the master was so famous for. The result, so far, has been
+a disappointment which laid bare some evidence that these over zealous
+enthusiasts were not sufficiently acquainted with the canons of Italian
+art. There was another peculiarity creeping on with regard to these
+sound holes--that of an enlargement of the curve opposing the lower
+wing, at first it gave a more staid aspect to the part, there was less
+sprightliness and youth about it, nevertheless it was fine at times,
+even magnificent, there being still the same determination of purpose,
+that of combining maturity of elegance with strength. Afterwards, the
+change--and if all the works of these later years could be seen, saved
+from the destructive ravages of time and wear, it would be pronounced
+scarcely perceptible in its progressive degrees--came creeping on, old
+age gradually insinuating itself in the mechanical part of the design.
+
+From 1725 to 1737 was a time forming a proportion of Stradivari's career
+during which, if he arouses less enthusiasm among his admirers for the
+"work of hand," he outbalances it by far in exciting our astonishment at
+the man himself. In the year 1725, he was then eighty-one years of age,
+and his work, regarded from the standpoint of "periods" as given, or
+arbitrarily laid down by critics of the first half of the present
+century, was what is now known as just past the "golden" or "grand"
+period; that is, some signs of decadence in the finish of the
+instruments which he sent forth were for the first time becoming
+apparent. It is generally believed that Stradivari was still
+industriously engaged in constructing instruments of different kinds
+and sizes as before, and that his time was occupied to the full in
+producing works in rapid succession, as in an uninterrupted stream. That
+the first part of this was probably quite true we can readily agree to,
+also that the out-put was continuous. Both, however, will need a little
+qualification when the surrounding circumstances are carefully weighed.
+Allowing the master possession of unusual mental and physical powers,
+with zeal unabated at the period included within the dates 1725 and
+1735, it would be too much for us to believe him capable of working with
+the certainty and celerity of former years; with all his extraordinary
+abilities he would now be a less prolific worker.
+
+This is in agreement with the number of works that have come down to us,
+and as the time advanced it became less and less until a veritable
+specimen of his latest period is extremely rare.
+
+It has before been referred to that the sons of Stradivari worked with
+him for many years. They must have, from continual practice, been able
+to fit their own workmanship on to the designs of their father to a
+nicety that could not be surpassed. Their own individual designs are
+very seldom seen, consequent, no doubt, on so much of their time being
+devoted to helping their father, and until his death they must have
+rarely made on their own account.
+
+There were other assistants who lent a helping hand in different
+branches of the work, among whom we will not omit mention of Carlo
+Bergonzi, a great master himself, but little inferior to Stradivari, and
+a good deal better than either of the sons.
+
+The circumstances under which Carlo Bergonzi worked in the Stradivari
+establishment are not known; it is by no means certain that he received
+his early tuition in the place, but that he became an influence of
+considerable weight admits of no question. Whether he worked on the
+premises, or--his own being at one time or other next door--was an
+outside help no data is to hand that we can rely on, certain it is that
+his talent must have been fully recognised by the younger Stradivaris as
+their work declares.
+
+Many years back there was some discussion about concerning the extent to
+which Carlo Bergonzi helped, or what part he undertook, if it were
+admitted that some of the Stradivari violins of the latest period were
+not entirely the work of the master. There was much said for and against
+the possibility or probability of there being any of Carlo Bergonzi's
+handiwork to be seen on any of the late Strads. No one seems to have
+questioned the presence of the influence of Bergonzi's style in the work
+of Franciscus Stradivari, the eldest of the sons, who, after labouring
+for many years on his father's moulds and patterns, might have
+reasonably been tempted to take a "leaf from the book" of such a master
+in designing as his friend and fellow-assistant, Carlo Bergonzi.
+
+To take any sort of hint from that wonderful, although fitful genius,
+Giuseppe Guarneri, working within earshot, was not to be entertained for
+a moment, as the style of workmanship, the calibre and quality of tone
+belonging to his manner, was quite opposed to Stradivarian teaching, and
+besides which there are no records or traditions indicating even usual
+social intercourse. We are therefore thrown upon our own resources in
+estimating any connection of Carlo Bergonzi with the late work of
+Antonio Stradivari. The instruments themselves will be the only guide
+and, without doubt, in the face of other evidence, had it been present,
+the best. Stradivari's work during the last ten or more years of his
+life was showing exactly what we should expect of the man when working
+at a patriarchal age. The stamp of the veteran handicraftsman may be
+traced not unfrequently on the works of other eminent makers of Cremona,
+including Andreas, Hieronymus, Nicolas, and his son Hieronymus and
+others down to the latest period of Cremonese art, when Laurentius
+Storioni was proving that if in its last struggles it was not quite
+dead.
+
+The distinguishing characteristics of old age work may be briefly
+summed up in a few words--heaviness in design and uncertainty of
+execution. Good, even brilliant, conceptions may be started on new work,
+but the execution of them shows weakness, or even inability to carry
+them out well. We will apply this as a kind of test when overlooking the
+specimens handed down to us as being the production of the great
+Cremonese master at the age of between eighty and ninety-three years of
+age. If doing this simply from the connoisseur's point of view, without
+admitting any such influences as present or past monetary value, former
+ownership, in short, thrusting aside all considerations of pedigree, we
+shall soon have to divide them into two sections, one of which will be
+acknowledged by all connoisseurs to be really representative of the true
+Stradivarian manner adhered to strictly through a long working career,
+but with the only fault of not quite so well being said of it. Thus the
+sound holes, as before referred to in the tracings, were becoming
+heavier at the lower part and with a tendency in other details towards
+ruggedness. The varnish has a thicker and less dainty aspect, although
+of excellent quality still, but there is an impression of heaviness. In
+the carving of the scroll the same character prevails, the edges of the
+turns are stouter and at the back the grooves down to the shell are less
+refined in their execution. All these little specialities of touch, but
+no modifications, are the natural manifestation of the peculiar physical
+condition of the master at a very advanced age.
+
+Let us now turn to the other section, that over some of which there is
+excellent reason for disputation, over others none.
+
+It will be readily acceded that Stradivari at no time during his career
+ever favoured any exaggeration of curve in the design of his sound
+holes, there was always present the indication of a desire for a fine
+balance of parts, in fact, his ideal seems always to have been that of
+increasing, if possible, the elegance of the Amati sound holes while
+adding to its substantial aspect.
+
+In some of what we have called the second section we find a lively, fine
+and rich transparent varnish such as Carlo Bergonzi was particularly an
+adept at; on the same instrument will be sound holes, that a moment's
+consideration will remove any hesitation as to the design being other
+than Carlo Bergonzi. As this remarkable artist had several types of
+sound holes, and no one knows how many subtypes, at his finger ends, a
+little knowledge of his two most opposite ones will bring at once to
+mind that he must have had a hand in no inconsiderable portion of what
+is called Stradivari's late work, as here is found the inclining inwards
+of his sound holes with the smaller upper part and heavier lower end.
+This will be found accompanied by the square looking upper part of the
+waist curve, the two things being alone almost sufficient to stamp the
+whole as being by Carlo Bergonzi, but here pedigree has stepped in and
+it was always called a Stradivari.
+
+This is the one type of sound holes which has to be placed aside for a
+moment; the other type is of an opposite kind and very often to be seen
+accompanying the longer looking pattern of Carlo Bergonzi: it is free in
+design, having the upper and lower wings fully developed, that is, the
+straight cut of the wing is of full length, this individuality coming
+from Stradivari.
+
+It is this portion of the details of the design that has led so many
+Students of the works of the Cremonese masters astray, they see the
+Stradivarian design, or we may call it peculiarity, and too hastily
+conclude as to its being the actual work of hand of the master. A little
+further consideration of the adjoining portions of the sound holes would
+bring to mind how little Stradivari was disposed towards any thinness of
+the opening out of the part leading from the wing to the nicks: if he
+had a tendency one way or the other, it would be towards more fulness,
+but his ideal being a beautiful equilibrium of all parts, this is
+clearly a point telling against the work as coming from his hand
+entirely. There is another part, too, that Stradivari seems to have most
+earnestly avoided, that of making the top portion of the sound hole
+design reach over towards the centre, somewhat after the tendency of
+Andrea Guarneri, this causes the lower part to seem turned up more
+suddenly, it is, however, only by contrast between the two parts that
+this is so. Carlo Bergonzi's sound holes are more sprightly and
+vertical, and with their more mature style should not be confused with
+those of the preceding maker. Here, then, are two distinct types of
+sound holes independently of those referred to of earlier periods, to be
+seen attached to violins that have perhaps through several generations
+of owners been attributed to Antonio Stradivari, and in consequence been
+sold again and again for large sums. Here is evidence of there being
+something in a name. Had these instruments been carefully and properly
+analysed, with a strict regard to the habit of the master in respect of
+intention in design and execution at early and later periods, the
+mistake would not have occurred. The conclusions rushed at seem to have
+been that there was the proper age of the instrument, the varnish was of
+fine Cremonese type, the pattern and sound holes thought to be
+"Straddy," therefore it must be a Stradivari.
+
+On the other hand, there is no obtainable evidence that these violins
+did not issue in new condition from Stradivari's atelier; we have in
+previous pages considered the amount of help at his elbow, and that this
+would be more and more called into requisition is but a reasonable
+conjecture: that it was actually the case is helped by the fact of
+violins being extant in which the age of the master is stated on the
+ticket--presumably written by himself. Possibly he felt some degree of
+pride in having accomplished, at the patriarchal age of about ninety
+years, work generally associated with the time and vigour of middle age.
+The existence of these violins, there may have been several more made
+than are known, has much significance, for the fact of his age being
+inserted may be fairly taken as indirect evidence not to be lightly put
+aside, that they were by himself looked upon as an accomplished work
+quite out of his usual way. Had he been constantly putting forth
+instruments made by his own hands, there would not have been anything
+unusual about them, but these, with date and age marked, seem to be a
+declaration of the master--see--I have made a violin at the age here
+stated! In these there is present exactly what would be expected in such
+work--indication of insufficiency of the physical powers for carrying
+into execution the dictates of the mental. The intellect of this wonder
+of humanity appears to have remained unclouded to the last.
+
+The other violins of about the same epoch, and going under the master's
+name, have a manner of work that ought to have been perceived as being
+also distinct. Mere hastiness or slovenliness of work is not identical
+with the effect of inability to achieve mechanical neatness. It is this
+slovenliness of handiwork which Carlo Bergonzi gave way to so
+frequently; he could, when in the humour, work beautifully; this, with
+his fine perception of elegance of line, was possibly the secret of his
+being admitted into the atelier of Stradivari and of his influence over
+the sons. There may have been other special particulars regarding him
+that helped in the matter of which there does not appear to be any
+record.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+EVIDENCES IN STRADIVARI'S WORK OF OLD AGE--HIS DEATH AND
+  BURIAL--WORK LEFT BY HIM--THE ADVANCE IN VALUE OF HIS WORK SINCE HIS
+  DECEASE.
+
+
+Returning to the analysis of the individuality of the mechanical work on
+the violins of the latest epoch of Stradivari, one or two further
+details are worth consideration. The size, style and tool work of the
+scroll have always been admitted to take up a large share in the
+estimation of evidence present for identification of authorship. In some
+of the late specimens of Stradivari we can see at once that the hand has
+become less firm, the bold turns seem to have lost much of their former
+vigorous expression, and although thick enough in edge are closer, and
+impress the connoisseur of the inability of the artificer to spend more
+time and attention than was absolutely necessary. The groove down the
+back to the shell is less refined than previously, besides being more
+heavily gouged at the termination. Almost in contrast with these parts
+there are seen on other "very late Strads" a neatly cut shell widening
+out a trifle and minus the thick edging; an examination of the turns of
+the scroll will reveal the fact of its having been gouged in quite a
+different manner, the declevity being more concave, the result of
+running the gouge along the course instead of towards the centre which
+was the manner of the Amatis. This hollowing out of the turns was so
+frequently done by Carlo Bergonzi that it might be called his most
+natural mode of treatment; we can here see what evidence there is of
+this maker's probable help in the work of his master. If we admit the
+possibility of these being entirely Antonio Stradivari's handiwork, then
+there were more phenomenal aspects of the master's working powers left
+for our consideration than he had hitherto given the slightest hint of
+during his extraordinarily long career.
+
+[Illustration: THE CHURCH OF ST. DOMENICO.]
+
+Taking therefore all the facts at our command in connection with the
+circumstances of the time, and the artist himself with his extended
+life, sifting these carefully we find the residue left is,--that his
+working powers gradually lessened in a perfectly natural way and that
+such entire work as left his hands during the last few, say six or seven
+years was, taken at the best, small in quantity; they came forth as from
+the last flickering embers of a decaying power whose influence,
+bequeathed to the world at large, was destined to increase indefinitely
+and whose secrets were left unrevealed, to be sought for earnestly, but
+in vain, by generation after generation.
+
+Time, he with his hour glass, passing by the home of Antonio Stradivari
+in Cremona, found him full of years and honour among his own little
+world of friends and acquaintances, for beyond the borders of his
+country his name could have been known to few, and those only
+recognising him as a clever and successful practitioner in perhaps their
+own craft; his world wide fame had as yet received but a slight impetus
+when it became known that no more of the unapproachable gems of art were
+to issue from the unassuming house in the square of S. Domenico,
+Cremona.
+
+Antonio Stradivari died in his 94th year at Cremona on the 18th of
+December, 1737, and was buried in the chapel of the Rosary in the Church
+of San Domenico. This church was situated exactly opposite his house,
+where, standing at his door--as he must have done many a time--the tomb
+which was to be his final resting-place came directly on the line of
+vision in front of him, but within the third recess or chapel past
+the intervening wall. So far as our scanty knowledge goes, there were no
+circumstances connected with his death that called for any special
+notice at the time. Possibly little more was remarked by the neighbours
+than that the aged musical instrument maker of the Piazza di San
+Domenico had died, and his two sons were to carry on the business.
+Perhaps none of them gave a thought to the immensely enhanced value of
+each of his works of art--or as they may have described them--the goods
+that he sold--that might be remaining two centuries forward.
+
+He had lived to an almost patriarchal age, over ninety-three years. It
+is rare to find in the world's history a leading light among professors
+of science or art completing such a career of almost incessant labour
+both mental and physical. It is still more so to find the work of such a
+genius, large as was the quantity, increasing in value by "leaps and
+bounds" as time progressed after his decease. Most probably at the
+present day--supposing there to be extant as much as one-eighth of what
+he put forth--and that may be very much over the mark, the market value
+of what is recognised as his handiwork would still be a very long way
+above that of the whole of the work put forth throughout his life. It is
+on record that when he died there were ninety violins remaining unsold.
+There may be several good reasons for this; among them the fact that
+Carlo Bergonzi and Joseph Guarneri were working in rivalry at the time,
+and bidding for public favour less on account of fine workmanship than
+force and magnificence of style and general aspect, and that public
+attention was to some extent diverted in their direction; further, and
+perhaps more cogent, the recognition of the great brilliancy and
+largeness of Joseph Guarneri's tone, that must have seemed to the
+musical cognoscenti of Cremona remarkably fresh and vigorous.
+
+But when the master had departed it was not long before the loss was
+seen to be irreparable. His work was sought for, there being none other
+of the kind to supply its place; further and further as time advanced
+it was becoming more and more evident that his like was not to be hoped
+for, notwithstanding the favour with which the public viewed the two
+rivals who were destined to work for a comparatively short period. When
+these two at last disappeared, it was a signal for another rise in the
+monetary value of Stradivari's work, and which was to continue
+progressing indefinitely until such time when there may be signs of an
+approaching renaissance.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[A] Our illustration of this house is from a photo. It will be noticed
+that it has not an imposing exterior and not much indication of the more
+spacious premises in the rear where the great master worked.
+
+
+
+
+ADVERTISEMENTS.
+
+
+
+
+  _ELEVENTH YEAR OF ISSUE._
+
+  _The Largest Circulation in the World of any paper amongst
+    Violinists._
+
+  THE STRAD
+
+  _A Monthly Journal for Professionals and Amateurs of all Stringed
+    Instruments played with the Bow._
+
+  Published on the First of every Month. Price 2d.,
+  Annual Subscription, Post Free, 2s. 6d.
+
+
+  =THE STRAD= is the only recognised organ of the string family and
+  has subscribers in every country of the civilised world. Our
+  circulation has increased to so great an extent that we are enabled
+  to engage as contributors
+
+  =THE LEADING WRITERS in the VIOLIN WORLD=.
+
+  _The following eminent Authors, Critics and Players are writing for
+  the paper_: BASIL ALTHAUS, ESQ., ARTHUR BROADLEY, ESQ., LANCASTRIAN,
+  ANDRE LA TARCHE, ESQ., ROBIN H. LEGGE, ESQ., J. MATTHEWS, ESQ.,
+  WALTER H. MAYSON, ESQ., REV. MEREDITH MORRIS, HORACE PETHERICK,
+  ESQ., DR. T. L. PHIPSON, E. VAN DER STRAETEN, ESQ., &c., &c.
+
+  =THE STRAD= contains technical articles by the leading artists.
+
+  =THE STRAD=, in the Answers to Correspondents column, gives minute
+  information on every detail connected with the Violin by Experts.
+
+  =THE STRAD= gives all the important doings of Violinists at home and
+  abroad all the year round.
+
+  =THE STRAD= gives early critical notices of all important New Music
+  for Stringed Instruments, with numbers to show the grade of
+  difficulty of every piece.
+
+  =THE STRAD= gives every month a beautifully executed portrait on
+  fine art paper, of some leading celebrity in the violin world,
+  together with a biographical sketch.
+
+  Now appearing,
+
+  =VIOLIN MAKING.= BY WALTER H. MAYSON.
+
+  _Copiously Illustrated._
+
+  This important work goes minutely into every detail of the Luthier's
+  Art, and is the only work on Violin Making that has ever been
+  actually written by a Violin Maker.
+
+  This series of articles commenced in the January issue, 1900.
+
+  All Subscriptions, Advertisements, etc., to be addressed to the
+  Manager, HARRY LAVENDER, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, London,
+  E.C.
+
+  LONDON:
+  "STRAD" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+  _"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. I._
+
+  _Crown 8vo., Cloth, 2/6, Post Free, 2/9._
+
+  _"THE STRAD" LIBRARY EDITION is the only Authorised Edition of_
+
+  Technics of Violin Playing
+  ON
+  JOACHIM'S METHOD
+
+  BY
+  CARL COURVOISIER.
+
+  With Folding Plates, Containing Fifteen Illustrations.
+
+
+  LETTER FROM DR. JOACHIM
+  [COPY].
+
+  MY DEAR MR. COURVOISIER: I have read the book on Violin Playing you
+  have sent me, and have to congratulate you sincerely on the manner
+  in which you have performed a most difficult task, _i.e._, to
+  describe the best way of arriving at a correct manner of playing the
+  violin.
+
+  It cannot but be welcome to thoughtful teachers, who reflect on the
+  method of our art, and I hope that your work will prove useful to
+  many students.
+
+  Believe me, my dear Mr. Courvoisier, to be most faithfully yours,
+
+                                                         JOSEPH JOACHIM.
+
+  Berlin, November 3rd, 1894.
+
+
+  The New and Revised Edition of "Technics of Violin Playing" issued
+  by THE STRAD is the only authorised edition of my work. The
+  several English editions which have all appeared without my knowledge
+  are _incomplete_ and _faulty_.
+
+  CARL COURVOISIER.
+
+
+  LONDON:
+  "STRAD" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+  _"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. II._
+
+  _Crown 8vo., Cloth, 2/6, Post Free, 2/9._
+
+  HOW TO STUDY THE VIOLIN
+
+  By J. T. CARRODUS
+
+
+  CONTENTS.
+
+  Strings and Tuning. The Bow and Bowing. Faults and their Correction.
+  Scales and their Importance. Course of Study. Advice on Elementary
+  Matters. Concerning Harmonics, Octaves, etc. Orchestral Playing.
+  Some Experiences as a Soloist. With full page portraits of Carrodus,
+  Molique, Paganini, Spohr, Sivori, De Beriot, Blagrove and Sainton,
+  and a photo-reproduction of Dr. Spohr's testimonial to Carrodus.
+
+  "An interesting series of articles 'How to Study the Violin,' which
+  Carrodus contributed to THE STRAD, and completed only a week or two
+  before his death, have now been collected in cheap book form. The
+  technical hints to violin students, which are practical, plainly
+  worded, and from such a pen most valuable."--_Daily News._
+
+  "But a few weeks before his sudden death the most distinguished of
+  native violinists completed in THE STRAD a series of chats to
+  students of the instrument associated with his name. These chats are
+  now re-issued, with a sympathetic preface and instructive
+  annotations. All who care to listen to what were virtually the last
+  words of such a conscientious teacher will recognise the pains taken
+  by Carrodus to render every detail as clear to the novice as to the
+  advanced pupil. Pleasant gossip concerning provincial festivals at
+  which Carrodus was for many years 'leader,' of the orchestra, ends a
+  little volume worthy a place in musical libraries both for its
+  practical value and as a memento of the life-work of an artist
+  universally esteemed."--_Daily Chronicle._
+
+  "It is surely, hardly necessary to direct the attention of students
+  to the unique value of the hints and advice given by so experienced
+  and accomplished a virtuoso as the late Mr. Carrodus, so that it
+  only remains to state that the 'Recollections' make delightful
+  reading, and that the book, as a whole, is as entertaining as it is
+  instructive. The value of the _brochure_ is enhanced by an excellent
+  portrait of Mr. Carrodus, as well as of a number of other violin
+  worthies, and the printing, paper, and get up generally are good as
+  could possibly be."--_Musical Answers._
+
+
+  LONDON:
+  "STRAD" OFFICE, 3, GREEN TERRACE, ROSEBERY AVENUE, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+  _"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. III._
+
+  _Crown 8vo., Cloth 2/6, Post Free 2/9._
+
+  THE BOW
+
+  Its History, Manufacture and Use
+
+  BY
+  HENRY SAINT-GEORGE.
+
+  With Full Page Illustrations (exact size) by Photo Process.
+
+
+  MONS. EMILE SAURET writes--"I have read it with great interest, and
+  think that it supplies a real want in giving musicians such an
+  excellent description of all matters referring to this important
+  instrument."
+
+  SIGNOR GUIDO PAPINI writes--"Thanks so much for your splendid and
+  interesting book. You are quite successful and all the artists and
+  amateurs are indebted to you for a so exact and correct '_Texte_' on
+  the subject."
+
+  ADOLF BRODSKY writes--"I am delighted with the book and find it very
+  instructive, even for those who think to know everything about the
+  bow. It is very original and at times very amusing. No violinist
+  should miss the opportunity to buy it."
+
+  THE TIMES.--"A useful treatise on the Bow, in which the history,
+  manufacture and use of the bow are discussed with considerable
+  technical knowledge."
+
+  DAILY TELEGRAPH.--"To the student there is much of interest in the
+  work, which has the advantage of being copiously illustrated."
+
+  DAILY NEWS.--"This book seems practically to exhaust its subject."
+
+
+  LONDON:
+  "STRAD" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+  _"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. IV._
+
+  _Crown 8vo., Cloth 5/-, Post Free 5/4._
+
+  CELEBRATED VIOLINISTS,
+  PAST AND PRESENT
+
+  _Translated from the German of_
+  A. EHRLICH.
+
+  _And Edited with Notes and Additions by_
+  ROBIN H. LEGGE.
+
+  _WITH EIGHTY-NINE PORTRAITS._
+
+
+  PRESS NOTICES.
+
+  "Those who love their fiddles better than their fellows, and who
+  treasure up every detail that can be found and recorded about their
+  favourite and cherished players will not fail to provide themselves
+  with a copy of this book."--_Musical Opinion._
+
+  "This book of 280 pages is a most interesting and valuable addition
+  to the violinist's library. It contains 89 biographical sketches of
+  well-known artists, ancient and modern, of all nations. This is not
+  intended to be a perfect dictionary of violinists; the aim of the
+  Editor of the present volume being merely to give a few more
+  up-to-date details concerning some of the greatest of stringed
+  instrument players, and we must concede that no name of the first
+  importance has been omitted. Germany is represented by 21 names,
+  Italy by 13, France by 10, England by 4, Bohemia by 8, Belgium by 7,
+  and the fair sex by seven well-known ladies, such as Teresina Tua,
+  Therèse and Marie Milanollo, Lady Hallé, Marie Soldat, Gabrielle
+  Wietrowetz, and Arma Senkrah. Altogether this is most agreeable
+  reading to the numerous army of violinists, both professionals and
+  amateurs, and after careful examination we can find nothing but
+  praise for this translation into English of a book well-known on the
+  Continent."--_The Piano, Organ and Music Trades Journal._
+
+
+  LONDON:
+  "STRAD" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+  _"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. V._
+
+  _Crown 8vo., Cloth 2/6, Post Free 2/9._
+
+  TECHNICS OF
+  VIOLONCELLO PLAYING
+
+  BY
+  E. VAN DER STRAETEN.
+
+  COPIOUSLY ILLUSTRATED.
+
+
+  _Copy of Letter received by the Author from the great 'cellist,
+  SIGNOR ALFRED PIATTI._
+
+                              Cadenabbia, Lake of Como, March 9th, 1898.
+
+  DEAR SIR,--I received the book you kindly sent me on "The Technics
+  of Violoncello Playing," which I found excellent, particularly for
+  beginners, which naturally was your scope. With many thanks for
+  kindly remembering an old ex-violoncello player.
+
+                                       Believe me, yours sincerely,
+                                                          ALFRED PIATTI.
+
+
+  _Copy of Letter received by the Author from the eminent 'cellist,
+  HERR DAVID POPPER._
+
+                                          Budapest, February 22nd, 1898.
+
+  DEAR SIR,--In sending me your book on "The Technics of Violoncello
+  Playing" you have given me a real and true pleasure. I know of no
+  work, tutors and studies not excepted, which presents so much
+  valuable material, so much that is absolutely to the point,
+  avoiding--I might say, on principle--all that is superfluous and
+  dispensable. Every earnest thinking violoncello student will in
+  future make your book his own and thereby receive hints which will
+  further and complete the instructions of his master.
+
+  I congratulate you and ourselves most heartily on the new violoncello
+  book. With kind regards,
+
+                                             Yours most sincerely,
+                                                           DAVID POPPER.
+
+
+  LONDON:
+  "STRAD" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+  _"THE STRAD LIBRARY," No. VI._
+
+  _Crown 8vo., Cloth, 2/6, Post Free 2/9._
+
+  VIOLIN PLAYING
+
+  BY
+  JOHN DUNN
+
+
+  CONTENTS
+
+  INTRODUCTORY--Qualities indispensable to the ideal Violinist--Hints
+  on the Choice of a Teacher--Some Tricks of pretending professors
+  exposed.
+
+  ON THE CHOICE OF A VIOLIN AND BOW--Advice regarding general
+  adjustment and repairs.
+
+  ON THE CHOICE OF STRINGS--Stringing the Instrument and keeping the
+  Pegs in Order.
+
+  ON THE GENERAL POSTURE--The manner of holding the Violin and Bow as
+  accepted by the leading artists of the day.
+
+  ON FINGERING GENERALLY--The various positions--Scales
+  recommended--The Modern Orchestral "Principal" or (so-called)
+  Leader.
+
+  ON GLIDING--Special Characteristics of some of the most Eminent
+  Players.
+
+  DOUBLE STOPPING--The main difficulty in Double Stopping--How to gain
+  independence of Finger.
+
+  BOWINGS--Smooth Bowings--Solid Staccato--Spiccato--Spring Bow--Mixed
+  Bowings.
+
+  TONE PRODUCTION--Character of Tone--Rules and Conditions necessary
+  to produce a good tone--Style and Expression.
+
+
+  LONDON:
+  "STRAD" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+  _"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. VII._
+
+  _Crown 8vo, Cloth, 2/6, Post Free 2/9._
+
+  CHATS TO 'CELLO STUDENTS
+
+  BY
+  ARTHUR BROADLEY.
+
+
+  CONTENTS.
+
+  Preliminary remarks--'Cello Difficult to Master--Choice of a
+  Teacher--Choice of an Instrument and Bow. How to Hold the
+  Instrument--Attitude of the Player--Use of a Sliding Pin
+  Recommended--Correct Way of Holding the Bow--Some Incorrect Sketches
+  of Same. General Knowledge--Eccentricity not Necessarily a Mark of
+  Genius--Musical Notation--Common Errors with Respect to the Actual
+  Position of the Various Clefs--Tenor Clef Indispensable to the
+  'Cellist. Early Attempts at 'Cello Playing--Firmness in
+  Fingering--The Left Hand--Correct Method of Placing the Left Hand
+  Fingers. General Remarks on Bowing--Useful Method of Combining
+  Scale Practice with Study of Various Bowings--Smooth
+  Bowings--Crescendo--Diminuendo--The Slur. Bowing
+  Continued--Martelé--Detached Stroke--Mixed Bowings--The Various
+  Divisions of the Bow. On "Staccato" Bowing-Spiccato--Slurred
+  Springing-Bow--Varieties of Phrasing Occasioned by the Portion of
+  Bow Used--Sautillé--Dotted Notes. On the Positions--The Individual
+  Requirements of the Orchestral Player and Soloist--The Necessity of
+  "Stretching" for the Intervals--Locality of the Neck Positions--The
+  Enharmonic Difference of Sharp and Flat Keys--Absolute Pitch--How to
+  Leap any Awkward Interval--The Positions not Determined by
+  Mathematical Rules, but by the "Ear"--Shifting--"Economy of Motion"
+  _v._ "Effect"--Choice of Positions. Portamento--The Various Uses of
+  Gilding--Some Exaggerations Exposed--How to Leap Great Intervals
+  without "Howling"--Combination of Glissando and Sforzando.
+  Double-Stopping--Useful in Developing the Hand--How to Determine the
+  Fingering of Various Intervals--Gliding in Double Stops--Chords--A
+  Correct Manner of Playing Chords. Arpeggios--Their Evolution from
+  Various Chords--The Bowing of Arpeggios. Graces and
+  Embellishments--The Use of the Thumb--Extensions--Octaves.
+  Scientific Basis of Harmonics--Some Peculiar Laws which Govern a
+  Vibrating String--"Natural" and "Artificial" Harmonics--Manner of
+  Bowing Harmonics--Special Effects--"Trick Staccato"--Various Methods
+  of Producing Chromatic Scale Passages--"Sul Ponticello" Bowing and
+  "Bowed" Harmonics--Flautando--Pizzicato Glide and Grace Notes!
+  Delivery--Style--"Form" _v._ "Feeling"--Conception--Essentials of a
+  "Fine" Delivery--Orchestral Playing.
+
+
+  LONDON:
+  "STRAD" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
+
+
+  Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_.
+
+  Passages in bold are indicated by =bold=.
+
+  Inconsistencies in spelling and hypenation have been retained from the
+    original.
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+    Page 22: "be" changed to "he"
+    Page 31: "connoissiers" changed to "connoisseurs"
+    Page 39: "ignominous" changed to "ignominious"
+    Page 60: "Guadaguini" changed to "Guadagnini"
+
+  Page numbers in the "List of Plates" for the ILLUSTRATIONS OF SCROLLS
+    have been retained, but illustrations have been moved to be next to
+    the paragraph in which they are referred.
+
+
+
+
+
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+
+Project Gutenberg's Antonio Stradivari, by Horace William Petherick
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Antonio Stradivari
+
+Author: Horace William Petherick
+
+Release Date: June 26, 2011 [EBook #36535]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANTONIO STRADIVARI ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Linda Cantoni, David E. Brown, Bryan Ness and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
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+
+
+
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="giant">ANTONIO STRADIVARI.</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="center">PRINTED BY E. SHORE AND CO.,<br/>
+3, GREEN TERRACE, ROSEBERY AVENUE, LONDON, E.C.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x"></a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/frontispiece.png" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">HORACE PETHERICK.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="center"><span class="u"><i>"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. VIII.</i></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="giant">ANTONIO STRADIVARI,</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">BY</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">HORACE PETHERICK.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Of the Music Jury, International Inventions Exhibition,<br/>
+South Kensington, 1885; International Exhibition,<br />
+Edinburgh, 1890; Expert in Law Courts, 1891;<br />
+Vice-President of the Cremona Society.</i></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="big">COPYRIGHT.</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">London:<br />
+"THE STRAD" <span class="smcap">Office, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.</span><br />
+E. DONAJOWSKI, <span class="smcap">26, Castle Street, Berners Street, W.</span><br />
+D. R. DUNCAN, <span class="smcap">186, Fleet Street, E.C.</span><br />
+<br />
+1900</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">CONTENTS.</span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="big"><a href="#Page_1">CHAPTER I.</a></span></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><p class="hang">Date and Place of Birth of Antonio Stradivari&mdash;His Instructor
+in the Art of Violin Making&mdash;Peculiarity of His Early
+Work, Nothing Striking, but Slowly Progressive&mdash;Which
+of the Designs of His Master He was Most Impressed
+by, and His Own Modifications for Improvement&mdash;His
+Departure from the House of His Master Free to Carry
+Out His Own Inclinations</p></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="big"><a href="#Page_8">CHAPTER II.</a></span></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><p class="hang">Details of Further Improvements upon His New Designs&mdash;Modification
+of the Soundholes&mdash;The Amati Varnish and
+Stradivari's&mdash;His Secrecy of Method in Working&mdash;His
+Knowledge of What was Wanted and Efforts at Advance
+in Tone Quality</p></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="big"><a href="#Page_13">CHAPTER III.</a></span></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><p class="hang">The Date of the True Stradivarian Individuality&mdash;Alterations
+in Design&mdash;Proportions Settled for Good&mdash;The Exceptions&mdash;The
+"Long Strad"&mdash;The "Inlaid Strads"&mdash;An
+Acknowledged Master of His Art&mdash;Black Edging&mdash;The
+Arching and Channelling&mdash;The Brescians, the Amatis and
+Stradivari</p></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="big"><a href="#Page_19">CHAPTER IV.</a></span></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><p class="hang">Lesser Known Patterns of Stradivari&mdash;The Treatment of the
+Scroll by Him&mdash;The Individuality and Maturing of the
+Style&mdash;The Purfling</p></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="big"><a href="#Page_22">CHAPTER V.</a></span></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><p class="hang">Stradivari's Great Success&mdash;His So-called "Grand Epoch"&mdash;His
+Patrons&mdash;His Violins Reputed for Tone when Quite
+New and Sought After&mdash;The Help He Received&mdash;His
+Assistants and Pupils&mdash;Parts of the Work Requiring His
+Individual Touch&mdash;The Members of His Family who may
+have Assisted Him&mdash;Stradivari's Varnish&mdash;His Imitators</p></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="big"><a href="#Page_42">CHAPTER VI.</a></span></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><p class="hang">Some Modifications in Stradivari's Works&mdash;Variation in Finish
+of Details&mdash;The Interior of His Violins&mdash;The Blocks and
+Linings&mdash;The Bar&mdash;Thicknesses of the Tables&mdash;Heads or
+Scrolls of His Different Periods</p></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="big"><a href="#Page_56">CHAPTER VII.</a></span></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><p class="hang">Stradivari's Tone and System&mdash;Those of His Pupils and
+Assistants&mdash;Qualities of Tone Produced in Different
+Localities</p></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="big"><a href="#Page_70">CHAPTER VIII.</a></span></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><p class="hang">The Reputed Golden Period of Stradivari Late in Life&mdash;His
+Later Modifications of Design&mdash;Signs of Old Age Appearing&mdash;The
+Help He Received</p></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="big"><a href="#Page_79">CHAPTER IX.</a></span></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><p class="hang">Evidences in Stradivari's Work of Old Age&mdash;His Death and
+Burial&mdash;Work Left by Him&mdash;The Advance in Value of His
+Work Since His Decease</p></td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr></table>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">LIST OF PLATES.</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+
+<tr><td>PORTRAIT OF HORACE PETHERICK</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_x"><i>Frontispiece.</i></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>PORTRAIT OF ANTONIO STRADIVARI</td><td align="right">      <i>To face page</i><a href="#Page_1">  1</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>THE HOUSE OF STRADIVARI</td><td align="right">"<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>STRADIVARI'S WORKSHOP</td><td align="right">"<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><a href="#Page_5">6</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>PATTERNS OF VIOLINS</td><td align="right"><i>page</i>  <a href="#Page_6">6</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>ILLUSTRATIONS OF SOUNDHOLES</td><td align="right">         <i>To face page</i> <a href="#Page_48">48</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>ILLUSTRATIONS OF SCROLLS, FIG. <i>a.</i></td><td align="right">"<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 2.75em;">FIG. <i>b.</i></span></td><td align="right">"<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><a href="#Page_50">52</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 2.75em;">FIG. <i>c.</i></span></td><td align="right">"<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><a href="#Page_51">54</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 2.75em;">FIG. <i>d.</i></span></td><td align="right">"<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><a href="#Page_51">56</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>CHURCH OF ST. DOMENICO, CREMONA</td><td align="right">"<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></span></td></tr></table>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">PREFACE.</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="cap">IT was in the month of April, 1898, when <span class="smcap">The Strad</span>
+monthly magazine had completed its eighth year
+of issue, that the Editor Suggested that then might
+be an appropriate time for giving a biographical sketch
+of the great Cremonese master in serial form, expressed
+in a manner interesting and instructive as possible.
+With this view I took up the subject with some enthusiasm
+and proposed to work upon lines which I
+believed to be bound by truth. All references to
+peculiarities in connection with Stradivari's designs,
+construction and purposes should be the result of my
+own personal observation during many years of experience
+as connoisseur and expert. In formulating my
+results of study of a great number&mdash;possibly the majority&mdash;of
+the instruments of the master extant&mdash;I have
+abstained as far as possible from using technical terms
+not readily comprehended by a reader coming newly to
+the subject, and I trust all persons reading through the
+matter now collected, added to, and presented in book
+form, will find their time not mis-spent at least when
+they arrive at the conclusion.</p>
+
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Horace Petherick.</span></p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Croydon.</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">INTRODUCTION.</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="cap">IT was during the second half of the sixteenth century
+that the violin, with its well recognised combined
+excellences of artistic form and musical sonority,
+was started on its way in the world to supply a want and
+prove its fitness as a leading instrument at once and for
+future times. So happily was this effected, so complete
+and mature was it in conception, that the advancing
+intellect of three centuries has proved incompetent to
+insert any fresh and permanent addition to its original
+simple arrangement. Precisely as it came from the
+hands of an artistic and inventive genius in the city of
+Brescia so we have it now, unchanged in its essential
+details of construction, although having its natural
+qualities made more evident after undergoing the modern
+adjustment with regard to accessories of detail, or regulation
+as it is termed. This has been effected by simply
+enlarging some parts for the purpose of allowing more
+freedom and convenience in the execution of more
+modern music, its elaboration of rhythm, besides the
+extended range of notes in the higher positions of the
+register, necessitating this. As might have been expected
+in connection with the then still living Renaissance
+period, on the violin making its appearance it was soon
+taken in hand by men of superlative talent, who stamped
+it with their own individuality in which was a marvellous
+perception of artistic quality. All that was to be
+done by means of proportion, form and colour, not setting
+aside the essentials of refined sonority, were combined,
+each aiding in the grand total and producing that known
+and so much sought after at the present day&mdash;a beautiful
+Italian violin. For about a century or more many
+Italian liutaros were busily engaged in sending forth
+under competition works which are now by the cognoscenti
+treated as unrivalled excellence of quality,
+classical, and the outcome of genius. Each worker
+being anxious to maintain the standard of excellence, or
+take a step forward in the practice of their art, the
+culminating point seems to have been reached when the
+artist under consideration in the following pages was
+executing his masterpieces in Cremona.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/sradavarius_playing.png" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">ANTONIO STRADIVARI.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">ANTONIO STRADIVARI.</span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">CHAPTER I.</span></p>
+
+<p class="subtitle"><span class="smcap">Date and Place of Birth of Antonio Stradivari&mdash;His
+Instructor in the Art of Violin Making&mdash;Peculiarity
+of his Early Work, Nothing
+Striking, but Slowly Progressive&mdash;Which of
+the Designs of his Master he was most Impressed
+by, and his Own Modifications for
+Improvement&mdash;His Departure from the House
+of his Master, Free to Carry Out his own
+Inclinations.</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="cap">THE year 1614, although not particularly noticeable
+at the time for its portentous events, was destined
+to be one of considerable interest to those who are
+enthusiastic lovers of the delightful quality of sound
+emitted by a certain section&mdash;and that only&mdash;of a class
+of stringed instruments which have made the city of
+Cremona famous throughout the civilised world. For in
+that city and in that year was born a male child, whose
+surname was eventually to eclipse by its own refulgence
+the renown of the city itself. Its paternal name was
+Stradivari, people trouble themselves very little about
+the prefix Antonio, common enough in Italy, and which
+was the Christian name given him by his parents. Of
+these we can only say, that as might be supposed, they
+were of a respectable portion of the middle class socially
+considered and from which have sprung all over the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+world&mdash;with few exceptions&mdash;the greatest luminaries of
+the whole firmament of intellect.</p>
+
+<p>Of his private life during manhood we know very
+little, of his boyhood nothing. But we may fairly and
+truly draw our conclusions that as the time arrived when
+he was supposed fit for training to fight life's battle, he
+had already exhibited talent indicative of fitness for
+that artistic branch of industry in which he was hereafter
+to be the world-wide acknowledged head.</p>
+
+<p>That his special abilities were thoroughly recognised
+by his parents receives much emphasis from the fact of
+his being offered to, and received as pupil by, Nicolas
+Amati, greatest of that great family of stringed instrument
+makers. Young Antonio was thus placed in the
+most favourable situation possible for the fructifying and
+development of his own particular talents. That portion
+of his life which was spent with the great master of line
+in violin facture, will, probably, in its details always
+remain a blank to us: but there is a lightning like flash
+thrown out by the fact of old Nicolas Amati bequeathing
+his collection of tools, patterns, etc., to Antonio Stradivari,
+and, be it noticed, not to his own son, then over
+thirty years of age. That the future master of his craft
+had been a steady and beloved pupil of his great teacher,
+there is no room for doubt; indeed, steadiness, fixity of
+purpose and honest intention, are manifested in his work
+during the whole of his career. The earliest of his
+handiwork has become known to us while he was with
+Nicolas Amati. In this he exhibits extreme delicacy of
+handling, and seemingly, in the confidence of his master,
+certain little modifications in the design of the sound
+holes were permitted, or perhaps passed as improvements,
+but there is nothing eccentric or extravagant introduced,
+a gentle addition, or a trifle less here and there, being the
+way in which he ever cautiously worked out his idea of
+improvement, and this latter seems to have been the
+moving spirit during his whole life.</p>
+
+<p>At no time do we meet with sudden departures, or
+what are sometimes termed flashes of genius&mdash;the on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>ward
+progress of his style of design and its execution was
+as unimpassioned as his life was uneventful. When we
+examine the earliest known work of his hand&mdash;it may be
+observed on some of the late violins of his master&mdash;there
+is plainly perceptible the efforts at excelling where at all
+possible; and if, as is extremely probable&mdash;his master
+was sometimes desirous that the purfling should be somewhat
+bolder than was to the taste of his refined pupil,
+this was inserted with a delicacy and precision beyond
+what had been before deemed the acme of finish.</p>
+
+<p>His departure from the house of Nicolas Amati had to
+be taken some day in the ordinary course of events, and
+he would then act alone in competition among the growing
+swarms of makers who were now busy as bees in
+most parts of Italy. The start is generally reckoned to
+have occurred between the years 1664 and 1666, it may
+have been in 1665, when he had reached his twenty-first
+year.</p>
+
+<p>That old Nicolas Amati was right in his estimate that
+young Antonio Stradivari's natural abilities augured
+well for his success as a liutaro, was now to be proven.
+With the best possible recommendation&mdash;that of being
+trained by the most distinguished maker of the city&mdash;he
+carried others no less necessary for the long course of
+thought and labour that he was about to enter upon.
+These were, an earnest desire for improvement in all his
+undertakings, natural, indigenous ability for tasteful
+design and its mechanical execution and the power of
+steady concentration of the faculties, backed up withal
+by a sound, physical constitution in which "nerves of
+iron" must have been a conspicuous element.</p>
+
+<p>To those who at the time may have been looking
+forward with some speculation as to what young Stradivari
+would put forth now that his course was free and untrammelled
+before him, there was probably some disappointment
+at finding no signs of striking originality, no
+spasmodic struggles of genius to assert itself by throwing
+aside those individualities, general and detailed, which
+were so well marked in the work of his great teacher,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+and which as pupil he had been studiously and conscientiously
+carrying out. On the contrary, his efforts
+seem to have been rather to draw the mantle thrown by
+his master closer around him than to dispense with any
+part of its protective power. Thus we see in his works
+of this period which have remained to us, very little more
+than replicas of those of his master in which he for some
+years perhaps had taken no inconsiderable part. But
+in doing this, the intention and power of selection guided
+by sound judgment at once asserted itself. He did not
+take that pattern known to us moderns by the name of
+"grand," and which term was in all likelihood quite
+unthought of by either himself or his master. Who
+invented it is a question that may be left complacently
+to the bookworm of the future.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/strad_shop.png" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">THE HOUSE OF ANTONIO STRADIVARI.</p>
+
+<p>There is really nothing in the so-called "grand"
+pattern of Nicolas Amati that seems to agree happily
+with that title, it is, on the other hand, one in which the
+love of dainty elegance of contour has been allowed
+almost unrestricted play by its author, and to an extent
+undreamt of before. He perceived, however, that there
+was a limit, a step further, and disaster would be certain;
+Nicolas was sufficiently wide awake not to take it, but
+left it for his hosts of imitators, many of whom, not
+gifted with the same perspicuity, "rushed in where
+angels fear to tread," their just reward being laughter
+and derision. The attainment of elegance at the expense
+of strength and stability was not at all in agreement with
+Stradivari's artistic tastes, and we accordingly have no
+evidence of his having touched the so-called "Grand
+Amati;" that which he did take up with was less complex
+in the subdivision of its curves, and a more simple
+looking thing altogether. To him it may have seemed
+to have more of the true characteristic quality always
+accompanying the grand in art, that of simplicity. It
+was this pattern, and this only, so far as our information
+goes&mdash;that Stradivari took as the basis on which any
+future developments should be grounded. He worked
+upon it for some time seemingly to his own contentment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+and probably the satisfaction of his patrons, these being
+sufficiently numerous and influential to enable him ere
+many years had passed to think of purchasing a house.<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a>
+This he accomplished in the year 1680, when he was
+thirty-six years of age. Now be it noted Stradivari had
+been working on the simplest of Amati patterns for fourteen
+years, and during that time from his steady industry
+the number of violins, besides other instruments of the
+family, which left his atelier must have been very large.
+The similarity in type and regularity of excellence in
+finished workmanship was almost enough to have
+impressed the connoisseurs of the day that there was no
+originality or speculation in the maker, but it was just
+about this time that the independency of thought began
+to manifest itself; it was almost as if the acquisition of
+the freehold property had stimulated the self-reliance
+which had no doubt always been present, but which was
+now to show itself more clearly in his art. He had been
+in practise long and successfully enough to give a right
+claim to mastership. The veteran Nicolas Amati, who
+was now over eighty years of age, had probably been
+doing little or nothing for some time, and so his pupil,
+with all his admiration for the retiring chief, felt at full
+liberty to do really as he liked.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi"></a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/strad_worshop.png" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">STRADIVARI'S WORKSHOP.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">[Our illustration of Stradivari's atelier is from a painting by
+Rinaldi, the sketch for which was made on the premises. The
+church of St. Domenico, Cremona, was demolished some twenty years
+since and our illustration is from a photo taken just before the event.
+The Chapel of the Rosary, being the place where Antonio Stradivari
+was interred, is the one below and to the right of the tower and
+lighter in colour than the others.]</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_006_1-3.png" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="center"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">No. 1.</span><span style="margin-left: 7em;">No. 2.</span><span style="margin-left: 7em;">No. 3.</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="caption">No. 1. Grand Nicolas Amati.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;No. 2. Nicolas Amati pattern
+of Stradivari. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;No. 3. First independent pattern of Stradivari.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The step he took, insignificant enough to the casual
+observer now, must have been equally so then, but
+proved one of the most important ever taken in this
+branch of art, considering the restraints necessarily
+encompassing any efforts at original design. This is
+perhaps the more evident when the main features of the
+Amati designs and others of the time are analysed. It
+will be seen that the upper and lower thirds of the design
+have much in common with each other, and that the
+middle or waist partakes also of the same characteristics,
+the whole being a series of full rounded curves, varied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+as required, to harmonise and flow with ease and grace
+to the squared corners. The slightest possible narrowing
+or decrease in the size of the upper of the waist
+curve and a corresponding enlargement of the lower part,
+served in the hands of Stradivari to impart a different
+aspect to the whole pattern. The waist, now less
+pinched in at the middle, looked longer without being
+really so. The parts above the upper corners and those
+below the lower ones were modified, the large curves
+becoming a little flatter just before blending with the
+smaller ones. From these alterations, each one trifling
+in itself, there resulted what may be called the first or
+earliest Stradivari pattern; in it were the germs of all
+the succeeding ones that contributed more and more to
+the fame of their designer as they appeared. The
+natural caution or indisposition to throw aside one
+pattern before a fair trial of the newest had proved
+acceptable to his numerous patrons, was possibly the
+cause of Stradivari's running the older designs alongside
+the newest creations of his fancy. Thus we find that
+mixed with the innovations are what he might have
+called his old Amati pattern, probably off the same
+moulds that he had used when first starting in business
+on his own account, or even before.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">CHAPTER II.</span></p>
+
+<p class="subtitle"><span class="smcap">Details of Further Improvements upon his New
+Designs&mdash;Modification of the Sound Holes&mdash;The
+Amati Varnish and Stradivari's&mdash;His
+Secrecy of Method in Working&mdash;His Knowledge
+of what was Wanted, and Efforts at
+Advance in Tone Quality.</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="cap">LEAVING the consideration in general of the designs
+of Stradivari's early days, that is, for such a long
+life, we may look over some of the details. It is
+well known to connoisseurs that the handiwork of Nicolas
+Amati was during his best days of the utmost delicacy;
+in his later work we notice an approach to heaviness in
+some respects. The very beautiful subdivisions and
+subtleties of the curves in pattern and modelling began
+to disappear and the purfling became bolder. Young
+Stradivari, when working on some of his master's violins,
+seems to have been allowed to do some of this, probably
+with the material given out by old Nicolas. The
+work of the young man may be known by its greater
+decision, such as would be reasonably expected; but
+after leaving the Amati household the natural bent
+towards exceeding refinement soon asserted itself. The
+purfling, particularly after some years, is narrower, and
+inserted with a precision and ease in its course
+impossible to excel, even if approachable. The mitring
+at the corners ends in a bent point in the manner
+introduced by Hieronymus Amati and not, as has been
+stated, by Stradivari; the latter carried out the ideas of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+Nicolas in making it very sharp and this mannerism he
+continued throughout the whole of his career.</p>
+
+<p>Stradivari from the first made his sound holes more
+perpendicular than those of his master; after leaving
+him, they also became more slender and the upper and
+lower wings wider and closer to the opposing curve.
+The precision and sharpness of the cutting of these
+parts has become the standard of excellence to which
+hundreds of Stradivari's imitators of different countries
+and times have striven to attain. It is, perhaps, in these
+parts of the different instruments&mdash;for Stradivari soon
+got to work on all the four sizes, besides other kinds
+not played with the bow&mdash;that his fine nervous system
+manifests itself, the sureness of his knife when passing
+along from one point to another leaving an edge upright
+and clean as cut glass, yet with a free grace of line
+never excelled by any master of the renaissance period.</p>
+
+<p>Of the parts the young assistant of Nicolas Amati
+was allowed to put his individuality to, conspicuously
+stands the scroll. The one typical of Nicolas's later
+days, although free and elegant, yet had a somewhat
+heavier touch about it, possibly the master was gradually
+losing his muscular power, more necessary to exert in
+this matter of detail than any other. Stradivari began
+his own type by bringing the first turn from the axis or
+"eye" a little higher up than that of his master; the
+axis itself is a trifle larger and flatter, the edges of the
+turns are squared off with a machine-like exactness that
+does not interfere with the ease and flow of line. The
+peg box is strong and ample, after a few years it became
+massive, more so occasionally than is to be met with at
+any other time, the grooves down the back are not so
+deep, the termination or shell likewise and a little
+wider.</p>
+
+<p>That Nicolas Amati would by any possibility neglect
+to duly initiate his favourite pupil in the mysteries and
+secrecies whereby his work should receive its final
+crowning adornment, its envelopment in the thin film of
+glory, is not to be thought of. The lustrous solution<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+that was so fitting an accompaniment to the dainty
+designs of the Amatis, was from the first handled with
+a masterly dexterity and perfect knowledge by Stradivari.
+Most of the early work is covered with the
+orange or amber colour that were the prevailing tints on
+the early productions of the brothers Amati as well as
+Nicolas. It is somewhat curious that most of the
+prominent varnishers among the liutaros of Italy seemed
+to prefer this in their early days: or was it that the
+deeper or more intense colours required longer experience
+in management? Anyhow, so it was, and Stradivari
+seems to have been no exception to the general
+rule. If a well preserved early Stradivari is placed side
+by side with one of "the brothers" or Nicolas Amati's
+amber coloured specimens, the varnish enveloping them
+will be seen to be precisely alike, whether considered in
+respect of transparency, consistency or thickness. Here
+is art indication that for the best part of a century,
+these clever artificers of Cremona had the same stuff,
+used it in precisely the same manner, to a hair's breadth,
+for they knew there was no going beyond it; every
+part of the process was methodically carried out in
+compliance with certain laws known to, or instituted
+by, previous masters. There is an old Latin motto
+implying that "the perfection of art is to conceal art";&mdash;it
+it has often been quoted in illustrative reference,
+sometimes with sly humour, at others in most serious
+vein, for instance, when an eminent judge's judicial wig
+was known to have beneath it another of equally natural
+pretentions, and when quoted as the motto for the year
+in a Royal Academy catalogue, to be interpreted by the
+noble army of "rejected outsiders" as meaning extra
+efforts that year by the Council at concealment or
+suppression of art that was superior to their own.</p>
+
+<p>But if there ever was an instance in which this motto
+could with strictest appropriateness be applied, it was
+the work of Stradivari. Most if not all of the known
+masters have at times shown by some little accident or
+other, their method of working, thus, notwithstanding the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+extremely careful and finished work of the Amati family,
+there is occasionally to be seen some unobliterated signs&mdash;truly
+very slight&mdash;of their having traced their pattern
+on the wood for either the sound holes or the turns of
+the scroll. Stradivari left no evidence of this, nor are
+any distinct traces left inside or out that would betray
+the manner, kind of tool, or direction of working.
+Further, in most beautiful specimens by the "brothers
+Amati," besides other great varnishers, some faint indications
+have been seen of imperfectly dissolved resin, but
+not so with Stradivari, who carried out to the letter in
+this department of his art, that steadfastness of purpose
+in striving to do in the best way, that which his judgment
+had pronounced to be the best thing to accomplish.
+He further carried this out afterwards in the application
+of the deeper coloured, and usually softer, varnishes,
+which when manipulated by other masters of the same
+school, have frizzled or cockled from some cause. This is
+seldom if at all to be observed in any of Stradivari's
+work, he seems to have taken every possible precaution
+for preventing change in aspect after the instrument had
+received his final touches.</p>
+
+<p>We may now retrace our steps for awhile and take
+up another thread of the fabric of Stradivari's individuality,
+that which is in fact by dealers ignored and
+by players adored. There can be no question that
+during his minority under the great Amati, young
+Antonio must have been much interested in his
+master's fame for imparting a fine quality of tone to his
+instruments. It must soon have been apparent to him
+that success in his career would not be achieved by progress
+in the artistic part of his work alone. The critics
+of the day, who must have been sufficiently numerous
+and exacting in accordance with the advanced state of
+the art, would naturally be alive to any subtleties of
+difference between the productions of the reigning king
+of liutaros and his successor. The onward progress of
+musical composition and increase in the numbers of
+public performers, virtuosi, and others, demanded from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+an artificer taking this position, at least equal skill in
+producing those essential qualities for which the city of
+Cremona had become famous. Old master and young
+man probably had many a talk over what was best to
+be done to keep pace with the increasing requirements
+of the moment, and the time approaching when the
+hand of the former in the course of nature would
+lose its cunning. The hour came, the man was ready.
+Stradivari started forth from his master's house with
+full confidence in having a true and good grasp of
+the wants of the moment and those looming in the
+future. In the good patronage which soon came to
+him, was contained the assurance that his estimate,
+although formed so early, was perfectly correct; thenceforward
+he saw no reason for alteration in the type
+of acoustical quality that distinguishes all of his
+instruments, and that which he had once for all fixed
+upon.</p>
+
+<p>Briefly the acoustical quality of his instruments may
+be described as a further development of the tone
+brought to such a high degree of excellence by the great
+Amati; an increase in the volume and energy, with more
+equality of scale, while retaining all the other qualities
+that had caused players and listeners alike to be
+delighted, and which had given such renown to the
+great family of liutaros in Cremona.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">CHAPTER III.</span></p>
+
+<p class="subtitle"><span class="smcap">The Date of the True Stradivarian Individuality&mdash;Alterations
+in Design&mdash;Proportions Settled
+for Good&mdash;The Exceptions&mdash;The "Long Strad"&mdash;The
+"Inlaid Strads"&mdash;An Acknowledged
+Master of his Art&mdash;Black Edging&mdash;The Arching
+and Channelling&mdash;The Brescians, the
+Amatis and Stradivari.</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="cap">WE now resume our consideration of the progressive
+development of the Stradivarian design
+as exhibited in the instruments of 1680 to
+1690 or a little later. At the earliest of these dates the
+complete independency or self consciousness of power,
+as a master liutaro, is already perceptible. There is no
+possibility of these violins having been made on the
+moulds used during his bachelorship. People sometimes
+speak of these instruments as being "Amatisé," which
+is great nonsense; had Stradivari died somewhere
+between 1680 and 1690, they would have been rapturous
+in their admiration of his originality and widely
+separated ideas from those of the Amati, but as he
+lived many years on and gave forth many more manifestations
+of his own individuality, the likeness of these
+1680 and 1690 to old Nicolas is eagerly searched for
+and often supposed to be evident. It was at this time
+that Stradivari probably made more new moulds or
+blocks on which to construct, than at any other. With
+some few exceptions those that were now being made
+could be used for any of his violins during the remainder<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+of his career. The average proportions remain the
+same, the differences are minute in measurement, notwithstanding
+their effectiveness in helping to a different
+expression in the designs. The exceptions referred to
+and made between the above dates are of a diverse kind.
+There is the well-known "long Strad," of which one
+author has said that it "has received the title," "not
+from increased length, but from the appearance of
+additional length which its narrowness gives it, and
+which is particularly observable between the sound
+holes." The actual measurements of this pattern are,
+length 14<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>16</sub> inches by greatest width 8 inches bare as
+contrasted with the ordinary 14 by 8<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub>; it will therefore
+be evident at once that there is a positive increase in
+length, and a decrease in width. These violins are not
+very rare as compared with the total work of Stradivari
+extant. Another variation, but now very seldom seen,
+is a pattern that may be said to be somewhat opposite in
+its tendencies, as it is a trifle shorter, but of full average
+width, with a proportionately wider waist. This type of
+violin must have been sufficiently plentiful at one time,
+as one of the first Gaglianos made a deliberate copy of it;
+that is, so far as his Neapolitan idiosyncrasy and pride
+would permit. Besides these were the "inlaid Strads,"
+instruments of the greatest beauty in all respects, but
+having instead of the ordinary purfling a broad black
+fillet and diamond or lozenge shaped ivory insertions
+alternated with smaller circular ones; they are further
+embellished with a floral inlaying round the sides or ribs
+and also on the sides and back of the scroll. These
+instruments&mdash;Stradivari is known to have made a
+quartette of them for the Spanish court&mdash;are of the
+greatest rarity. They are said to be all known, but this
+statement seems open to question when coupled with
+the assertion that Stradivari made other similar but very
+small violins. The known ones are of very full size, the
+parties ordering them at the time possibly being alive to
+the advantages of quantity as well as quality. Public
+opinion since the time these were made has not grown in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+appreciation of the additional ornamentation. The
+violin pure and simple, with its single line of purfling
+only as it left the hands of the first master of the art of
+Brescia, is the one which has found the most lasting
+favour with connoisseurs and the public generally.
+Decorative additions, in various and more or less eccentric
+or extravagant styles, have been introduced from
+time to time by enterprising liutaros of different countries,
+but the discerning portion of the public will have none,
+and thereby pronounce the violin to be an unfit subject
+for extra clothing; beauty unadorned, adorned is most,
+is a figure of speech quite applicable to the simplicity of
+the violin as a work of art.</p>
+
+<p>Stradivari, who had now acquired&mdash;at the period
+1680-90&mdash;a standing as an acknowledged master of his
+craft, showed in his handiwork a decided leaning in
+consonance with this, as&mdash;excepting these "inlaid
+Strads"&mdash;he carefully refrained from introducing any
+of the little tricks, or fanciful alteration of details, that
+so many, even of his own countrymen, seem to have been
+led to affix to their productions. After all, the "inlaid
+Strads" were probably so made, not at their maker's
+suggestion, but by desire of the patrons holding a high
+social position. Double purfled violins seem never to
+have left his hands, as none appear to be extant and no
+mention is made of any.</p>
+
+<p>There is one particular part of the finishing of the
+violin which calls for remark, and in the absence of
+evidence to the contrary must be put to the responsibility
+of Stradivari. This is known as the "black edging."
+It cannot come properly under the term decoration, as
+it has no variety in its management and consists only of
+the blackening of the squaring off of the junction of the
+ribs; likewise at the edges of the turns of the scroll and
+continued down the front and back of the peg-box to
+the shell. Its first appearance is not possible to determine
+and will probably remain unknown. Nicolas
+Amati did not introduce it, his work being of the kind
+that had no accommodation, or sufficient surface for it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+Once begun, however, Stradivari seems to have persistently
+held to it. There is no proof positive that it
+was henceforth his invariable rule to put this kind of
+finish. The parts concerned are the first to receive and
+show signs of wear; therefore an instrument must be
+very fresh indeed to have much "black edging" left.
+Viewed from an artistic standpoint it cannot be considered
+an improvement, or any adornment, for, however
+neatly it is executed, the work of hand beneath is more
+or less obscured. Further, the eye of the connoisseur is
+distracted by it, and the neatness of the work is not seen
+to advantage until the black has become nearly effaced.
+Other makers of renown, besides Stradivari, adopted
+this method of putting the final touches to their work,
+Giuseppe Guarneri, I.H.S., Carlo Bergonzi, and other
+later makers, among them Storioni.</p>
+
+<p>Concerning the rise of the arching, or modelling of
+the periods above referred to, there has been much
+erroneous supposition in connection therewith. That
+all the early "Strads" were of high build, that the progress
+was gradual towards the "flat model," that Stradivari
+was feeling his way and becoming enlightened as
+to the necessity of reducing the arching in order to
+obtain a fuller and more telling tone with better ring;
+further, that the channelling or "scooping" near the
+border was gradually reduced for the same reasons, and
+that these things did not reveal themselves at once, but
+gently dawned upon his perceptions; moreover, that he
+earnestly communed with nature, made numberless
+experiments concerning her acoustical and other
+mysteries, and that the outcome was faintly looming in
+the horizon and soon was to blossom forth as the golden
+period, with grand pattern, all of which is really nothing
+more than grand "tomfoolery" spread abroad a generation
+since by critics "having an eye" only to such
+things that seemed to them agreeable with the conditions
+and surroundings of money getting commodities.</p>
+
+<p>These worthies were forgetful of the fact that the
+different varieties of flat and high model, channelling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+deep or none at all, long waists and short waists, sound
+holes long, short, near or wide apart, had been well, if
+not exhaustively treated by the artists of the Brescian
+school. To assume that those refined artificers, the
+Amati family and their disciples, were not conversant
+with everything for or against the use of a flat model
+would be crediting them with but little mental capacity,
+particularly in respect of their perceptive faculties.
+Both Stradivari and his teacher must have been well
+acquainted with the different high and low modelling of
+Gasparo da Salo, as well as that of his pupil Maggini,
+and others. He must have been aware that his own
+most generally used model of medium elevation, with
+slight exceptions both ways, was anticipated by each in
+turn. This, by the bye, disposes of any theory that
+Stradivari's distinctive quality of tone resulted, as is
+often stated, from his adopting a different elevation to
+what had been in use before. It may be fairly argued
+that if it had been true, as some writers have stated,
+that the flatter the model the better and stronger is the
+tone, then Stradivari would have been less gifted with
+sound judgment than he has been hitherto credited
+with; some of his early modellings, 1680-90, being as
+flat, if not more so, than any known during his whole
+career. For his selection of the particular degree of
+rise the reasons&mdash;for there were several&mdash;are not difficult
+to assign:&mdash;firstly, it was in consonance with his effort
+at achieving the most harmonious result&mdash;artistically
+in his designs; the less determined rise in the arching
+being more agreeable with the disposition of line
+in the pattern that he had been settling down to&mdash;posterity
+has emphatically endorsed his views in this
+respect; secondly, having noticed that a more shallow
+curve in the arching was quite favourable for the exhibition
+of gracefulness, while it was accompanied by more
+strength and permanency, with less liability during time
+and usage to develop a stony or bumpy appearance.
+But while thus looking acutely forward to future eventualities
+in one direction, Stradivari was no less careful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+to avoid reducing his model too much. Knowing the
+soundpost would be certainly shifted occasionally, he
+saw in the very flat model a source of danger lurking in
+the difficulty of seeing and getting at the post, even with
+the usual appliances at the command of the professional
+repairer or regulator, while the sound holes would be
+much more liable to damage than when the sufficiently
+raised arching permits a fair use of the "post setter."
+He was also careful, while keeping the depth and width
+of the channelling within reasonable bounds, not to let
+the arching spring or commence too near the border, as
+the screw cramps of the repairer, especially the large
+sized ones used in olden times would, unless most
+skilfully and cautiously applied, soon register the progress
+of the repairer on the varnish to the destruction of
+the beauty of appearance as a whole. These, then,
+appear to be the cogent reasons for the adoption of the
+medium rise in the modelling by Stradivari.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">CHAPTER IV.</span></p>
+
+<p class="subtitle"><span class="smcap">Lesser Known Patterns of Stradivari&mdash;The
+Treatment of the Scroll by Him, the Individuality
+and Maturing of the Style&mdash;The
+Purfling.</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="cap">DURING the period of 1690-1700 the modification
+of parts of the pattern and details was slight
+but nevertheless important. Occasionally the
+upper corners drooped a little more, and when they are
+now seen in fine preservation seem rather long in comparison
+with later ones, but they are not really so, it
+being in the expression no doubt arising from the
+greater robustness in the treatment of the corners
+which now were becoming in aspect more square, but
+with the usual peculiarities retained. There was also
+about this time another modification sent forth, a pattern
+that has the waist curve narrowed in a trifle at about
+two-thirds of the way upward, causing a slight suspicion
+of a wish to return to his old Nicolo Amati period, but
+it seems to have been only momentary, and beautiful
+as these violins are, they do not appear to have been
+repeated. They are in consequence very rare.</p>
+
+<p>Accompanying these little variations there was a
+slight change in the treatment of the scroll; it became
+less massive, while all the principal features of detail
+were retained, the grooves at the back were deepened a
+little as they ran down to the shell, which last was made
+a degree less shallow. In the earlier part of this period
+the general contour has a little more flow in the disposition
+of line, but later on this was checked, as if not
+meeting with the full approval of the master, whose goal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+of ambition was kept steadily in view from the first&mdash;that
+of introducing a design that should worthily rank
+as classical, and in its details and execution be such,
+that no weak spot or point of failure should be discernable
+under the closest scrutiny. The sound holes now
+received further attention and, it might be almost said,
+for the last time, as they were continued to the end of
+Stradivari's career with no particular or intentional
+modification. In length there was no alteration, but
+the design seems more condensed, more compact, yet
+slightly wider in the opening. This is all accomplished
+without losing the smallest touch of grace, and although
+firm in the extreme it has the opposite of any tendency
+to hard geometrical form. Stradivari seems to have
+had some feeling of contentment with it, for although
+little differences of measurement in minute particulars
+occur afterwards, no modification in character is
+attempted. He was most exact in imparting his own
+individuality in every instance. It is in this department
+of the liutaro's art that the imitators or forgers of Stradivari's
+work have found such an insurmountable block in
+the way of success. The impossibility hitherto of imparting
+the requisite identical expression, notwithstanding
+the most careful examination and tracing, constantly
+adds force to an old saying among dealers that "to
+make a perfectly successful imitation of Stradivari he
+must be a Stradivari himself." In this view it is obvious
+that a maker having the sure consciousness of possessing
+the power of the master would no longer make tracings
+of him, but bring out his own originals. Among the
+scores and scores of imitators, some of them having
+achieved considerable renown as such, the best of them
+have not succeeded further than giving their own impress
+to their tracing of the master's work. This is quite apart
+from their failure to reproduce the master touch in other
+branches of the liutaro's art.</p>
+
+<p>In the composition of his purfling he had been, before
+the periods under consideration, somewhat unsettled, but
+he now seemed to have come to a conclusion that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+middle or light coloured portion, should be a trifle wider
+than the dark or outer portion. This was also for a
+permanency with but little variation. The three parts
+are probably of the same kind of wood, with the outer
+portion darkened by artificial means and not wood with
+its natural colour, as in so many early works. But there
+was no change in the manner of insertion. There was
+the same firm, upright handling of the purfling tool,
+which, as in his early period, was sent along with unerring
+precision and cut its way through hard and soft wood
+cleanly and equally well. In this respect of mechanical
+dexterity, the great master has had few rivals; he was
+apparently equally at home in subduing to his requirements
+a log of tough, curled maple, as in gently reducing
+the exquisitely refined growth of pine that was to act as
+a soundboard in throwing out the luscious quality of
+tone associated with his name. It was not always so
+among the most eminent of Italian liutarios. Many of
+them have left unmistakeable evidence of impatience
+when trying to overcome the resistance of the tortuously
+grained maple in turn with the much softer and straight
+threaded pine. There was a peculiarity connected with
+the purfling that must not be overlooked, and that is,
+its passing through the little pegs at the upper and
+lower part of the instrument, and which is most carefully
+attended to by modern close imitators, so that
+people should be convinced, if possible, that their's is
+the real thing. Stradivari, however, may not have conceived
+the idea of there ever being in the future the
+swarms of his imitators, who, for the last century, have
+been but too evident in consequence of the daily increasing
+admiration or even reverence for his work. It is not
+surprising, therefore, that for some reason known only
+to himself, he, on rare occasions, did not run the purfling
+through the peg, or to be more strictly correct, the peg
+was inserted clear of the purfling line. That this peg
+peculiarity is no point of recognition may be inferred from
+the fact that Stradivari's teacher, Nicolas Amati, treated
+it in like manner, besides several of his contemporaries.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">CHAPTER V.</span></p>
+
+<p class="subtitle"><span class="smcap">Stradivari's Great Success&mdash;His So-called "Grand
+Epoch"&mdash;His Patrons&mdash;His Violins Reputed
+for Tone when Quite New and Sought After&mdash;The
+Help He Received&mdash;His Assistants and
+Pupils&mdash;Parts of the Work Requiring His
+Individual Touch&mdash;The Members of His Family
+who may have Assisted Him&mdash;Stradivari's
+Varnish&mdash;His Imitators.</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="cap">THE period 1700-15 or thereabouts, found Stradivari
+not only an acknowledged master of his craft but
+among his contemporaries recognised as the head.
+His business had been all along steadily flourishing, his
+patrons had been of high social position, some most
+illustrious, others actually royal. Among the latter the
+King of Poland stands out in relief as having specially
+sent an envoy to Cremona and that he had to wait three
+months before he could return with his commission
+fulfilled. Whether he ran in danger of being decapitated
+for "hanging about" Cremona so long is not known,
+but one thing is certain, that patrons royal, illustrious,
+of high social standing and refined tastes, wanted the
+newly made violins of Stradivari that could never have
+been played upon, almost in the absolute sense of the
+term, while they could have easily obtained well seasoned,
+well tried instruments of makers who had lived long
+before. Here is "a nut to crack" for those who persistently
+assert the necessity and efficacy of age and use
+to bring tone to maturity. If any further evidence should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+be thought necessary to support the assumption of the
+equal excellence of the new Stradivarius with those that
+remain with us at the present time, it is contained in
+the praise of those who heard and used them when quite
+fresh, declaring the agreeableness of the tone to be
+beyond rivalry.</p>
+
+<p>Stradivari may be said to have been now in the
+enjoyment of the plentitude of his powers. Success
+was attendant upon him without intermission. Tradition
+says he was reputed in the locality as positively
+rich, but we do not hear of his aspiring to civic honours
+as alderman, vestryman, guardian or councilman&mdash;common
+or otherwise&mdash;as the outcome of the possession
+of full coffers. Stradivari simply went on making
+fiddles. In a position to secure the best materials in
+the respect of quality, artistically and acoustically considered,
+he put the best workmanship upon them; also
+he further selected the best help which, in common with
+all eminently successful artists, he must have found it
+necessary to employ.</p>
+
+<p>We now arrive at a point when the question may be
+fairly put, how much help did he have, and of what kind
+was it?</p>
+
+<p>As Stradivari left no record behind as to the number
+of pupils trained on his premises, or assistants who came
+perhaps as improvers, we are left to do our best in the
+way of inference. In the first place we may take up the
+acknowledged fact of his having turned out an enormous
+number of musical instruments during his very lengthy
+career; and it must be remembered that his energies
+were not centred alone in turning out magnificent violins,
+but that the viola, violoncello, double-bass, besides some
+of the then not quite obsolete viols of different sizes and
+fantastic forms, received his attention. These had to be
+produced at the requirements of his patrons, of whom
+many had probably not yet completely emerged from the
+misty musical atmosphere with which the fanciful forms
+with florid decorations seemed so intimately bound.
+Further, the fittings for them had to be made presumably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+on the premises of the maestro and not as at
+present in foreign parts. At the time there was not
+existent that extensive and special manufacture of
+bridges, tailpieces, tail-pins, and pegs that forms a large
+and significant branch of commerce at the present day.
+That the violin bridge especially was a production of
+the Stradivari establishment and not "made in Germany,"
+is sufficiently indicated by its present form
+having been introduced by Stradivari. On comparing
+it with the different patterns of bridges that had been
+issued by the previous masters of Cremona, it will be
+seen at once that the master mind of Stradivari had
+effected improvements that have their counterpart in the
+designs of his violin patterns. We may notice the successful
+efforts at stability with simplicity, just enough
+of detail that would lend itself in completing the harmony
+of the whole design, while dispensing with every unnecessary
+angle or curve. Of the fingerboard and tailpiece
+we cannot speak in the same terms; the master
+seems to have accepted the manner of treating these
+parts as handed down by preceding generations from
+Gasparo da Salo, and thought there was no need for
+alteration. The design of the inlaid ornamentation on
+both these accessories, was, of course, of a kind with
+which the house of Stradivari would be identified and
+the execution also in accordance. Of the tailpin and
+pegs, with the decoration of both, the same may be said.</p>
+
+<p>All these particulars point to considerable time spent
+in direct supervision after the preliminary designs had
+been made by the principal. This would reduce the
+available time for direct manual labour at his disposal.
+There would occasionally be some time spent in the discrimination
+for purchasing of particular choice kinds of
+pine and maple, these requiring the closest attention.
+Whether samples were brought for Stradivari's inspection
+by agents or their principals, or whether the maestro
+took journeys to particular districts where the exact
+kind of wood suitable to his requirements was to be had,
+we know not, but there seems to be much probability<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+that the latter was his mode of obtaining that splendid
+growth of pine, both in appearance and tone-producing
+quality, with which he brought about such beautiful
+results. This, when obtained, had to be carefully stored
+away until such time as it might be required for immediate
+use. The cutting down and sawing up into
+lengths for different instruments would not be such as a
+maker with less patronage would personally engage in;
+we can therefore place this aside from the time consuming
+duties. There is, in the foregoing, enough and much
+over for reasonable inference that with a master, such
+as Stradivari, having the refined taste and adaptability
+for work, there was a considerable amount, if not all, of
+the merely mechanical work done according to his command
+or under his eye. This would naturally enough
+increase in proportion as the business connection grew.
+There would be in this nothing differing from what has
+been habitual with eminent professors in all branches of
+art; as far back as Phædias, Praxitelles and Appelles
+of the ancient classic Greek period. Later on it is well
+known that many of the masterpieces of the Renaissance
+period had much work upon them other than that
+immediately from the master's own hand. If this were
+not permissible, the number of the grandest creations of
+artistic genius would be most seriously limited. Raphael
+and his contemporaries, Rubens and Rembrandt, besides
+many other masters, are well known to have had
+numerous pupils in their studios engaged in carrying out
+ideas previously determined upon and drawn out for
+their guidance. These assistants were gradually drawn
+into the way and habit of thinking of their masters, and
+on leaving them, their own individuality or natural
+tendency uniting with what they had absorbed of their
+master's manner, the blending of the two became a fresh
+production of style. If we take this as our guide in
+summing up the probable amount of help that was
+drawn upon by Stradivari during his career, especially
+that part at which, in our consideration of him and his
+works, we had arrived, it cannot possibly lead us far<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+from the actual facts. Taking into account the known
+pupils or assistants who received the benefits of personal
+instruction from Antonio Stradivari, they are more
+numerous than we can affix to the name of any other
+master, as it must be borne in mind that Stradivari had
+initiated a fresh style, the influence of which was
+destined to be of a far more reaching character than any
+hitherto coming to the front. The Stradivarian school
+became the foremost, most numerous and soon was to
+be the most imitated, of all. Among the earliest of his
+pupils (the precise number or even the names of all will
+never be known), may be placed Alexander Gagliano of
+Naples, working with him about the period of 1680 and
+some years later, one or two others of the Gagliano
+family may have been workmen in the Stradivari atelier.
+Lorenzo Guadagnini, Joannes Battista, his son and
+Josef of Pavia all claim to have lent a helping hand and
+received instruction, and there is nothing in their work
+that is in contradiction. The first became a great
+master of the Milanese school and was afterwards
+rivalled by his son, who was more cosmopolitan and not
+identified with one place in particular. I cannot
+include the names of Montagnana or Gobetti, which have
+been frequently referred to by various authors as pupils
+of Stradivari; a close examination of their style and
+workmanship leads to a different fountain of inspiration,
+notwithstanding which they both unquestionably were
+at one time influenced by the work of the great
+Cremonese artist as it arrived in Venice. Of Carlo
+Bergonzi, a great master, it is a well established fact
+that he worked with Stradivari and probably did much
+more for him as assistant than is generally acknowledged,
+but that he was originally a pupil is not in keeping with
+the early and varying patterns which have gone under
+his name. Further on it will be necessary to refer
+to this luminary of the art. We must not forget the
+two sons of Stradivari, Franciscus and Omobono, who
+received their initiation at the hands of their father and
+worked with him for many years, carrying on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+business after his decease. Rumour has brought forth
+another name as pupil or workman with Stradivari, and
+whose identification with some fine specimens of the
+liutaro's art may yet prove an interesting study. A
+relative of the master, we should expect to find his work
+strongly tinged with the Stradivarian characteristics.
+His tickets are said to have been all removed in very
+early times after their insertion and that one only is
+known to have been preserved intact. Of the great
+rival&mdash;in public estimation&mdash;of Stradivari, Joseph
+Guarnerius, I.H.S., it can only be said there is not a
+single feature in his handiwork, style or tone, agreeing
+with the supposition that he at any time was his
+pupil or assistant, moreover, having by me distinct
+evidence of his pupilage of another maker of a different
+school, will of course prevent the inclusion of his
+name.</p>
+
+<p>The number of pupils and assistants who worked
+with or under the supervision of Stradivari in his prime,
+might, if we knew all, be more considerable than we
+should be prepared to expect. The proportion in the
+usual course of nature, of those able to single out a path
+for themselves, prove their individuality superior to their
+fellows or eventually become of great eminence, must of
+necessity have been comparatively small. There may
+have been many working "on and off" under the eye of
+the master at different periods who were without
+ambition or the talent to rise above the position of
+humble helpers among their more talented brethren,
+born to be assistants only, and, in consequence, never
+heard of outside the studio. These, and the before
+mentioned, must all have had something to do with the
+instruments their master was sending forth into the
+world; the more clever ones being intrusted with some
+responsibility on particular work. It is not impossible
+to fix upon the parts the assistants probably would be
+allowed to work upon. In the first place, all the designing,
+drawing out and tracing down of the pattern on to
+the mould, or on to the unprepared blocks that were to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+be carved into necks, scrolls, or marked out for ribs,
+would be Stradivari's.</p>
+
+<p>The different stages succeeding each other would be
+most likely as follows&mdash;firstly, the master having been
+commissioned by a wealthy patron to make of his best
+pattern and highest finish a quartet of instruments, he
+would take from his store of choice pine and sycamore,
+which he had taken so much trouble and skill in collecting
+together, such pieces that appeared to him suitable for
+the instruments to be constructed. The upper and
+lower tables had previously been hewn or sawn to size,
+then the jointed back and front, if both were so, planed
+carefully and made ready for the master's work, which
+would first come on to the wood as a careful tracing
+from his original design. Sometimes the tracing down
+may have been done by some advanced pupil or competent
+assistant. We may fairly assume the presence
+here of one or two, if not more, assistants, besides a
+pupil or improver. One would be selected for the bow-sawing
+of the pattern, another afterwards receiving it for
+roughly gouging out according to measurements at hand
+or marked by the master. Another had meanwhile the
+bending of the thin slips for the ribs to the necessary
+curves, or working down the corner and end blocks that
+had been affixed to the mould. Another, if not the same,
+might have been carrying out the first stages of the
+working of the scroll, or perhaps a very competent and
+trusty assistant would be allowed, under the eye of
+the master, to work on more advanced forms, making
+ready for the final or necessary touches of the master
+hand. The sound holes may have been traced down
+and even the upper and lower circular holes bored.
+Further, it is not impossible, that after the modelling
+back and front had been sufficiently advanced, the
+glueing and screwing down was intrusted to an assistant,
+and even some of the finishing up with glass
+paper or other material in use at the time and place,
+of parts of minor importance. These are, perhaps, the
+majority of the details in which the individuality of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+the handwork of the master was not obligatory in
+evidence.</p>
+
+<p>In summing up what could have been done by other
+hands than those of the busy master, it would be
+extremely difficult, if not impossible, unless we admit
+its presence, to account for the extremely large output
+of the great Cremonese, even when taking fully into the
+balance his very industrious habits and extraordinary
+long working career. Assuming the above view to be
+reasonable, the number of new instruments which left
+the Stradivari house must have been very large. It
+is well known that the master undertook the repairs of
+musical instruments, which department would require
+some personal attention or supervision, even if actually
+executed by his assistants or his two sons, Francescus
+and Omobono, who, when their father died, were not
+very young, the first being sixty-five years of age, and
+the other fifty-five. They had most likely worked with
+their parent for about forty years and must have
+done much of making and repairing, that is, crediting
+them with some of their father's industrial tendencies.
+Stradivari had two other sons by his first wife,
+Francesca Ferraboschi, one, Giulio, died 1707, aged
+forty; the other, Allesandro, in 1732, aged fifty-five.
+Nothing seems to be known as to whether they were
+brought up by their father in his own craft or not; if they
+were, there was time for them also to have done much
+work with him. There was a son by his second wife,
+Antonia Zambelli, who died 1727, aged twenty-four, who
+under the same circumstances may have helped. We
+have thus five sons of Stradivari, who, if they were all
+taught the art, may have been working together, besides
+other assistants at the same time. Carlo Bergonzi has
+already been mentioned, but although he came late into
+the field, yet there seems a slight indication that he may
+have had to supply the place of others who had departed
+for the carrying out of their own schemes.</p>
+
+<p>Having so far roughly estimated the kind and amount
+of work, not necessarily his own, on the violins that were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+sent forth by Antonio Stradivari, we may glance at the
+particulars of detail that demanded his handiwork and
+that solely. That there were keen connoisseurs living
+at the time of Stradivari, as also in the previous century
+and earlier, there is no room for doubting. Workers in
+art reduce their inspirations to tangible forms helped by
+colour that people may see them and, comparing them
+with what may have gone before and have been executed
+at the same time, pass judgment on them. In like manner
+Stradivari, like other masters before him, knew that his
+handiwork would be scrutinised as well as the tone of
+his instruments. It was therefore obligatory that purchasers
+should know his work, that in fact his sign
+manual should be always present. Contemporaneous
+with him were makers, artists, who had been initiated
+in the mysteries of the manufacture and application of
+the wonderful varnishes which have since by their
+qualities made them famous throughout the civilised
+world. There was nothing, however, in the material or
+its application that could, under the closest examination,
+be discerned as different to what might be seen on the
+best instruments of the Amatis&mdash;these must have been
+numerous at the time&mdash;the Ruggieris or the Venetian
+masters, but these did not in the application invariably
+work up to a certain standard of excellence, whereas
+Stradivari always did. There was a consummate beauty
+of result in this branch of the liutaro's art known at
+the time to many, beyond which it seemed not possible
+to go. It was, therefore, more in the construction and
+workmanship then, that the sign manual was perceptible.
+With this view Stradivari seems to have been careful to
+let the evidence of no hand but his own be seen in parts
+that were sure to be closely scrutinised as evidence.</p>
+
+<p>Standing first perhaps in importance would be the
+cutting of the sound holes, the design and careful drawing
+of these being completed, and cut in metal&mdash;it is
+said thin copper was used by him&mdash;they may have been
+mostly traced down by himself on the pine of the upper
+table prepared and in readiness to receive it, although<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+this part without much danger could have been done by
+an intelligent and experienced assistant. The cutting
+and finishing with the thin keen edged knife, however,
+must be his, the slightest shaving over the traced line or
+not quite up to it would be sufficient to impart a totally
+different character to the whole. There is no part of the
+violin in which the sum total of the native characteristics
+and ability are shown to such exactitude as the cutting
+of these all important and expressive openings. In those
+of Stradivari is to be seen the same firmness of purpose
+and strict curbing of the fancy from proceeding too far,
+or allowing stability to be over balanced by love of gracefulness,
+as seen in the designs of his eminent master.
+To allow no weak part to be perceptible; strength of
+line with sufficient grace, admirable proportion and
+balance, and yet withal sufficient expression of mobility
+and freedom from heaviness were each, seemingly in
+turn, given the best attention by the great genius of
+Cremona. It is not using extravagant language when
+they are termed the eyes of the violin, for it is to these
+that experienced connoisseurs turn their attention at once
+when inspecting a violin of character newly placed before
+them. Cut by an Italian, cut by a Frenchman, by a
+German, by a nobody in particular or who understood
+nothing about it, are the thoughts arising in the mind.
+Each country has its peculiar and native rendering of
+every sound hole that was first designed in Italy. This
+tendency to impart their own national characteristics by
+each native workman, runs parallel with that in pictorial
+art in the transferring to various materials the impressions
+received after study of the original or animated reality.
+To many the sound holes of an Italian gem of the highest
+class are but sound holes that are more neatly done or
+prettier than usual. To others they will be the expression
+in that simple form of an exquisitely acute perception
+of what will excite pleasurable emotions with
+regard to delicately balanced proportions, graceful flow
+of line, and freedom from all appearance of effort. That
+there is much in little concerning this, is proved by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+non-success of all foreign copyists to give a reproduction
+of the Italian native touch to these details. That this
+is not an overdrawn description, may be seen on a close
+comparison between an original Stradivari of almost any
+period and the most closely traced, laboriously studied
+and keenly cut sound holes of any of the modern imitators.
+All have failed signally over these two apparently simple
+openings on the surface of the upper table.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding this, it may be said there are scarcely
+two violins alike in respect of expression of these adornments
+of the structure, each instrument is made to convey
+its own impression, or display its particular kind of
+beauty. There is a difference, scarcely to be measured
+mathematically, that in one will be suggestive of masculine
+strength, while in another it will be exquisite
+feminine grace.</p>
+
+<p>In none of the imitations of the master are there seen
+these qualities expressed in the same degree and kind.
+It has often been said, and there is more than a substratum
+of truth in the remark, that, "to copy a Stradivari
+successfully"&mdash;of course, in the fullest sense of the
+word&mdash;"the copyist must be a Stradivari himself."
+There might, appropriately, be an addition put to this,
+namely, that a man who could work up to the dizzy
+height of his ambition in this way, would not copy, but
+make originals.</p>
+
+<p>Another detail of the workmanship always attended
+to by the master himself, was that of the purfling. Much
+has been said of the wonderful accuracy of Stradivari's
+purfling and that as a purfler he stands unrivalled.
+This must not be taken in the widest sense, as there
+have been, and are living, scores and scores of makers
+who have cut a rut round the border of a fiddle as
+sharply, and inserted the three conventional lines of dark
+and light wood as deftly as it could be by the hand of
+any man, be he named Amati, Stradivari, Ruggieri,
+Tononi, or Montagnana. There is a degree of evenness
+and keenness of cutting and clean insertion beyond
+which it is not possible to go. But there the imitators<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+come to a full stop. Without the inventive power which
+will make this curious, simple, yet wonderful little fillet,
+aid in giving the desired expression to the whole work,
+the imitator is not&mdash;as people say nowadays&mdash;in the
+race. The finishing of the border, the corners and the
+delicate and often very elaborate system of curves
+around the sound holes, the hollowing of the wings of
+these latter, and the final surfacing of both back and
+front, I have no doubt had Stradivari's individual
+attention. All the delicate and small work of the scroll,
+perfecting that elegant flow of line and finish of each
+turn of the volute, as if everything depended on the
+exactness of its individuality, obliterating all marks of
+the tooling and giving his own impress to the gouging
+of the shell and even the completion of the peg-box; then
+last and not least, the preparation and application of
+that pellucid envelope that was to serve two purposes,
+utility and enrichment of effect.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to this, much has been written and said
+about its incomparable quality, its elasticity, colour and
+transparency, with other excellences needless to dilate
+upon. Summarily taken as a whole, the simple fact is,
+that in no respect is his varnish different, or better than
+that of his predecessors, the Amatis and masters of the
+Brescian school; it had been done before and his most
+famous contemporaries were doing it still, and he was
+in this position for the simple reason that no better
+could be done.</p>
+
+<p>If it was not possible for Stradivari to improve upon
+the varnish of the Amatis who had preceded him and
+the masters in the art belonging to the Brescian school,&mdash;among
+whom may be mentioned Giovanni Maggini,
+Antonio Mariani, and the first one to use it on violins,
+Gasparo da Salo&mdash;it was strictly in accordance with his
+invariable rule of putting forth his best that he so
+dexterously manipulated it, probably both as to its
+composition and final application, that faultiness in
+some respects to be seen in specimens of other masters
+is not noticeable in his. Thus, as is well known, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+Brescians, perhaps without exception, were often very
+careless regarding the thickness of the film, it being
+occasionally of irreproachable evenness, at other times
+having almost the appearance of being laid on with a
+large brush in great haste. On some connoisseurs this
+haphazard fulness of treatment, this oft times generously
+effusive manner, carried out with a careless consciousness
+of power, acts as a charm, inciting to intense
+admiration the like of which is roused by the rich, juicy
+brush of Rembrandt and the masters of the Venetian
+school of painters. But this is not the perfect realization
+of aim with regard to the envelopment of masterpieces
+by the old Italian liutaros; in the instances
+referred to, and sufficiently numerous, we wonder at the
+wealth of material and smile at its manipulation.
+Antonio Stradivari would in no wise act thus at any
+time. To him it was enough that he was possessor in
+full of the knowledge of materials, and to deviate from
+the good paths pursued by the artistic Amatis, was not
+to be considered for a moment; we therefore find that
+with him the best material was laid with the utmost
+skill and care. It must be indeed rare that "frizzling,"
+or contraction of the upper surface of the varnish, is to
+be seen to any appreciable extent. I do not recollect
+one instance, while with the Ruggieris, most of the
+Venetian school, and a number of makers of lesser note,
+it is quite common.</p>
+
+<p>Concerning the colour or variety of tints adopted by
+Stradivari at most times, it was most likely done to the
+requirements of his different patrons, many having a
+desire for the rich orange, some, the light red or
+"cherry" tint, while others were not content with any
+than the red or rich full bodied port wine tint. The
+simple brown seems to have been less in demand, as it
+is during the period under consideration, rather exceptional.
+While using the lustrous coverings for his
+works with consummate skill, there is one qualification
+that must not be lost sight of. Beautiful, refined and
+artistic in the strictest sense of the term, Stradivari<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+never gave way to a desire to outbid the rest of the
+fraternity for congratulations in respect of gorgeousness,
+he seems never to have fallen back upon his reserves in
+the direction of intensity of colour. Thus if a finely
+preserved specimen of his orange varnish is viewed side
+by side with one by Joseph Guarnerius, I.H.S., the
+extra degree of fieriness will be on the side of the latter,
+but it by no means places Stradivari on a lower level,
+as the combined qualities of his work, taken as a sum
+total, is not reached by any liutaro of old Italy.</p>
+
+<p>It may be fairly taken as certain that if there was any
+master having at command all the necessaries for turning
+out musical instruments of matchless superiority, both
+as to acoustical and artistic qualities, it was Stradivari,
+and many connoisseurs would expect to find nothing but
+maple used of the richest curl, and that would throw up
+with delightful effect the lustrous varnish so carefully
+laid upon it; but, strangely enough, his most magnificently
+curled backs and sides are mixed with a few
+that are comparatively plain. A variety of reasons
+might be assigned for this, but that which bears the
+greatest probability about it is&mdash;that the instruments
+being chiefly made to order, the maple of richest curl
+was not always to be had, at least in time for the construction
+as required. In other respects these plainer
+mapled instruments are fully equal to anything that
+came from his hands. Of the proper tone-giving pine
+he seems never to have been short; there it is, always
+of beautiful growth, having, like his own handiwork,
+both delicacy and strength and of a general appearance
+such as would attract the eye of the veriest tyro in the
+liutaro's art. How many imitators of the great manipulator
+have looked at this growth of pine and wondered
+where the old master obtained it! and how he knew
+that it possessed the proper qualifications for his purpose.
+Swiss pine of course! obtained from the lower parts of
+the forests of the Alps, is an immediate loud response,
+and cut only from the south or sunniest side of the
+particular tree when found of course.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>This idea was started in the early part of this century
+in books on the violin, professing to tell the reader all
+about it or nearly so, and he had only to go, get the
+stuff, and make Stradivari violins, in fact with the
+addition of the amount of scientific knowledge of the
+subject peculiar to modern imitators, he would make
+"old Strad" "take a back seat." This has been often
+tried by would-be "Strads," "Guarneris," or "Bergonzis,"
+and full of specious promises that if you will but
+purchase their wares you be rewarded for your pains by
+being possessor of everything good that they could
+endow the instrument with. Keep it, persevere, and the
+precious qualities will come; some were daring enough
+to assert that they were already there, if even your
+mental vision was so obtuse as not to perceive it, absurd
+prejudice was the cause of this they said, oblivious to
+the fact that the best musicians of Stradivari's time used
+the violins fresh from the atelier of the master perfectly
+new, expressing their unbounded admiration for their
+beautiful acoustic properties or "pleasurable sounds."</p>
+
+<p>Is the like said of new violins at the present time?
+These imitators, some of them might be with perfect
+truth termed forgers, are legion, as in the case of everything
+that is of a high standard of excellence and which
+makes acquisition desirable. These artificers had their
+day, so far as forcing their imitations upon the credulous
+and unwary could be accomplished, and others have
+replaced them, yet there aloft still sits the grand master
+upon his high eminence, unapproached, with the whole
+world clamouring and struggling for the possession of
+what in the earnestness of his purpose was only his
+everyday work.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving the imitators and forgers, for they are
+distinct one from the other, the first simply taken being
+honest, the other not, it may be as well to refer as
+briefly as possible to the general aspect as afforded by
+such specimens of Stradivari's art that remain with us
+after fairly constant usage during the generations that
+have passed since his decease. Most connoisseurs and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+dealers are well acquainted with the appearance of a
+"Strad" of fine model, work and varnish that has done
+its duty in former times, and is yet able and willing to
+answer all requirements of the present day and many to
+come. If the instrument has not been hidden and forgotten
+in the cabinet of some deceased collector, but has
+been handed down from one player to another, kept in
+healthy exercise, not meddled with, muddled, and maddened
+by the numerous would-be improvers, bridge
+regulators, sound post agitators and varnish vivifiers,
+then&mdash;it will probably present an appearance of what is
+called handsome wear, or as a writer has termed it,
+"adorned, not injured, by a century's fair wear."</p>
+
+<p>Striking the eye first will be the varnish that has been
+chipped off from the back chiefly, often from a large
+space of a rough triangular form; the front being usually
+more smoothly denuded of its lustrous envelope. This
+chipping away of the varnish from the maple has been
+effected a long time ago, and is the result of a custom in
+olden times of hanging the instrument after use on
+a peg attached to the wall, or may be the interior
+of a cabinet. Fiddle-cases seem to have been used
+almost solely for travelling purposes. They are now
+in general use as the best means of preservation
+against damage and a good resting place at all times.
+During the last century there were scores and scores of
+makers in Italy who were ready, willing to, and did
+turn out excellent instruments with fine, artistical and
+acoustical properties, but the race has died out and
+their remaining works are of daily increasing value, and
+consequently much under lock and key, out of harm's
+way as much as possible. This old habit of hanging up
+violins not wanted for the moment was, as a matter
+of course, effected with a slight bang or two each time,
+and a corresponding cost, small or large, according to
+the blow to the top layer of varnish most highly charged
+with colour. Each instrument used in this way will
+declare to the sufficiently acute observer, its course of
+handling and even the peculiarities to some extent of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+owner; for it will be seen that the chippings give indication
+of different degrees of energy or hurry, when the
+violin has come in contact with the more or less hard
+surface of the wall.</p>
+
+<p>It must be borne in mind that the times referred to
+were prior to the introduction of wall-papers; the good,
+old-fashioned panelling of oak or hard wood, often of
+bold design, shattered or nicked away much of the old,
+delicate and precious varnish used for enveloping the
+works of the Italian masters. All these constantly recurring
+slight collisions by degrees brought about the
+results that have been defined by some as picturesque
+wear or accidental adornment, if such a thing be reasonable.
+Besides this there was going on the wear caused
+by handling by one or another of players, rough or mild,
+contact with the garments, especially the sleeves, all
+being larger and looser than are fashionable at the
+present time. The action of these would be more gentle
+if more continuous. It is noticeable at the lower end of
+the back of the violin, which is often worn away much
+below the penetration of the varnish, the corners being
+rounded down and if rather protuberant, even losing
+their original character. The upper table of pine being
+incapable of equal resistance to the destroying influence,
+wears away sooner, also the border at the lower end and
+at both sides of the tail-piece&mdash;for the old performers
+placed their chins on the contrary side to what is thought
+best now&mdash;and the right upper shoulder where the palm
+of the hand and part of the wrist is apt to work, too
+often, against the edge. We thus see when a handsome,
+fairly worn specimen of Stradivari's work comes under
+our notice, the different pieces of tell-tale evidence, varying
+of course in degree with each instrument. Now all
+this must have been going on during the time the
+master's works were being sent out to parts of Italy and
+to other countries. It had been progressing and was
+showing the onward march of Father Time in the instruments
+left by the Brescian makers a century before.</p>
+
+<p>As before observed, the varnish of Stradivari has,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+often as not, been worn, chipped or cracked off in, as
+some fanciers still call it, a picturesque manner or adornment,
+although from the highest prices being given for
+those specimens that have the least of it, the taste seems
+to be growing healthily in favour of perfection of preservation
+as far as is possible.</p>
+
+<p>It would be out of reason to suppose that full consideration
+of the subject was omitted by a genius with
+such far reaching mental vision as Stradivari. That he
+gave all the necessary study and forethought to the
+effects of ordinary wear and such as was occasionally
+going on within his knowledge, there is evidence enough.
+He saw how the delicate work of his master, Nicolas
+Amati, was rapidly disappearing under sometimes
+rough and too often ruffianly usage. It was not in his
+power to prevent or interfere with this by any peculiarity
+of construction or quality of the varnish used by
+him. But this he doubtless knew&mdash;that the generally
+substantial work and total absence of any weak point of
+detail in design and execution was all that an artist
+could do. This strength shown over all of Stradivari's
+designs, even from the commencement, shows that in his
+grasp of the highest scale of requirement he was also
+anticipatory and in this wise, that he followed up the
+self evident principle in art, that the best combination
+of forms, proportions and masses will answer best for
+their permanence.</p>
+
+<p>The numismatist knows full well how, on the coins
+used in various countries, the masters of basso-relievo
+had concentrated their skill on the subject. The balance
+of projection and depression for good and proper effect
+under different situations of light and shade, or even
+independently of them on occasion&mdash;is of paramount
+importance in all branches of art in their widest range.
+The omission of proper thoughtful attention in this
+direction is one of the obstacles to success among copyists
+in any direction of art. In architecture the imitator
+or restorer of some early English mouldings has often
+made ignominious failures from the non-application of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+knowledge of this kind: just a trifling variation from
+the original while in progress being deemed of little consequence,
+but when finished and left for exhibition under
+the truth testing rays of the sun, the qualities that
+should have been there are, as the saying is, "conspicuous
+by their absence." In full view of the above
+and with an intelligence unsurpassable, Antonio Stradivari
+so arranged his forms and masses in construction
+that under fair usage and wearing down of the projecting
+parts, the original beauty of the whole should be retained
+as long as possible. A fine Stradivari much worn still
+retains its air of distinction, and very much of its
+material must have disappeared under bad treatment to
+make it beyond recognition almost at a glance.</p>
+
+<p>There can be very little question of there being more
+than mere admiration for the appearance. Simply
+viewed, there is the spice of romance in connection with
+it, the history is written in language more or less intelligible
+of the knocks and bruises inflicted, unwillingly in
+most instances, but not invariably so. And here attention
+may perhaps be appropriately drawn in these pages
+to what has been asserted by a few, very few, dealers
+and others, whose general intelligence should have been
+a guarantee against the dissemination of utter nonsense
+and which has even been in print! that&mdash;just think of
+this&mdash;Antonio Stradivari, the acknowledged master
+liutaro of Cremona in his own day, and of whose
+growing fame no one can foretell the limits&mdash;actually
+imitated wear and tear of varnish on his violins. I have
+not the print at hand, and so cannot give the exact
+words in which this scum from the boilings of a distorted
+imagination was conveyed; nor point to the first unfortunate
+who let it flow abroad. In all probability it came
+from the same old source, a desire to lift up to a high
+level worthless imitations of the master, confuse the
+public mind so as to make it more and more difficult
+to tell "t'other from which."</p>
+
+<p>A fine specimen, and well known, of Stradivari's art
+was once lying on a table before me. An amateur of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+considerable attainments and honesty of purpose then
+present was dilating upon its many beauties and fine
+preservation; he, I soon found, had by some means
+become infected with the absurd notion of the varnish
+having been artistically pecked away by the original
+maker! Just fancy this&mdash;Raphael slitting a hole in his
+chef-d'&oelig;uvre to make it look old&mdash;Michael Angelo
+chipping some bits from the ceiling of the Sistine just
+before the scaffolding was removed, or Phidias snapping
+off a limb and browning the raw surface to please future
+connoisseurs.</p>
+
+<p>They might all have done this with an equal deficiency
+of reason and consistency if we allow for one moment
+any possibility of the genius of such a stamp as that of
+Antonio Stradivari descending to such depravity. Those
+who have lent themselves to this incongruous notion,
+hastily generalising from insufficient particulars, have
+strangely overlooked the fact that the same kind of
+chipping is seen on the violins of other masters, Joseph
+Guarnerius, Carlo Bergonzi, and others of the Cremonese
+and Venetian School, besides&mdash;going far back&mdash;the older
+ones of Brescia and Pesaro, any number in fact over all
+Italy.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">CHAPTER VI.</span></p>
+
+<p class="subtitle"><span class="smcap">Some Modifications in Stradivari's Works&mdash;Variation
+in Finish of Details&mdash;The Interior of
+His Violins&mdash;The Blocks and Linings&mdash;Thicknesses
+of the Tables&mdash;Heads or Scrolls of
+His Different Periods.</span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="cap">WE will now resume our consideration of the
+handiwork of the Cremonese master as regards
+other details. We left him steadily working
+through his so-called "Grand epoch" or, more strictly
+speaking, his period of finely settled designs in outline
+and modelling. He had arrived at the goal of his
+ambition and produced works of excellence which&mdash;taking
+them as a whole&mdash;it seemed impossible to improve
+upon. He was henceforth content to put into them
+such slight modifications as would prevent too great
+similarity. Thus we find some were flatter in the
+arching, others a little shorter, being a trifle under the
+usual fourteen inches, others again were over it, but
+there was the same general contour, his now well-known
+accentuated design, complete as possible in all
+its details.</p>
+
+<p>From the great number of finished works that were
+turned out one after another, it is quite reasonable to
+assume that there would be occasionally some little
+evidence of extra pressure of business and consequently
+less time spent over minor details. That this actually
+occurred at times there is no doubt and can be perceived<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+clearly when looked for. One instance occurs to me
+in which the purfling had been cut off a trifle short at
+the corners and did not quite fill up and make a good
+mitreing, otherwise all along the border the easy, swift,
+yet powerful stroke was maintained up to his usual
+standard of accuracy. In other instances the point or
+"bee-sting," as it is sometimes called, is not so sharply
+defined perhaps in two corners, while the others were
+the perfection of minute finish.</p>
+
+<p>It seems fairly certain that the great Cremonese was
+not at the time thinking of the almost microscopical
+scrutiny of critics certain to occur one hundred and
+eighty or so years in the future. These little differences
+in accuracy of unimportant detail or accidents of work
+may be taken as evidence that Stradivari was labouring
+day by day to meet the requirements of patrons different
+in disposition and perhaps patience. When at the same
+period he has been allowed to put his full time and
+attention to his work, then we find the four corners of
+equal unsurpassable finish, and other minute details over
+the whole structure so intently studied that nothing
+could possibly go beyond. These should really and
+appropriately be termed his "grand pattern." There
+is present in those instances the combined excellences
+in the highest degree of mechanical precision, beautiful
+proportion and drawing, such as no master designer of
+the Renaissance could surpass, the choicest materials,
+including splendid varnish, the whole united and capped
+with that essential, a beautiful tone.</p>
+
+<p>A few words about the interior of Stradivari's instruments;
+one kind of work is perceptible in all of them.
+There is not, as we may see in the works of other
+masters, that off-handed, or even slovenly want of finish
+inside while the whole attention of the maker has been
+concentrated on the exterior. With Stradivari all is
+well done, the blocks, end and corner ones are carefully
+faced and have little, if any can be seen, of the tool
+marks left upon them. The linings let into the corners
+are in every instance done with minute exactness. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+wood of these and the blocks is a kind of Italian poplar,
+sometimes called willow and by the French sallow; it is
+light and has no threads like pine to cause difficulty in
+the manipulation. Too much importance has been
+attached by critics to the presence of this wood in
+Stradivari's violins. That it had nothing whatever to
+do with the excellence of tone quality is clear from the
+fact of makers of inferior skill and less renown for
+tone having used it in the same parts. The most
+likely reason is&mdash;as most repairers have concluded&mdash;the
+absence of thread, its lightness, pliability and evenness
+of texture, being thereby adapted for the necessary long
+strips for fitting round the curves. Some makers used
+it invariably, while others did so occasionally, perhaps
+not always having a stock on hand. When for some
+reasons, such as being worm eaten or badly fractured,
+it has been found compulsory to remove them and
+substitute others in their place and of other wood, there
+has been no perceptible deterioration in the tone either
+as regards quality or quantity. Not only so, but there
+is the fact that many of the Italian masters and their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+numerous pupils, to say nothing of makers of a lower
+order, as often as not sent forth their violins without
+linings, some even without corner blocks. In most of
+these instances, however, the ribs were left very stout in
+substance in order to retain a sufficient holding surface
+for the glue. The subtle curvings of the ribs of an
+Amati, and more so of a Stradivari, almost precluded
+the use of a very thick material, especially so when the
+curl or figure was bold and elaborate. In consonance
+with this, we find with Stradivari that the thin plate or
+veneer from which the ribs have been cut is not thick,
+but of accurate and equal measurement along its course.
+The linings being equally true and fitting in the closest
+manner to the ribs, are in their original state somewhat
+stouter, the middle or waist ones parting slightly on
+approaching the corner blocks each way and thus giving
+a gradually increasing area of attachment (diag. <i>h</i>). All
+of the four blocks are well trimmed off and their surfaces
+levelled, being quite regular in their form and size and
+trimmed to proper measurement. The end blocks
+serving to sustain the greatest amount of strain longitudinally,
+are also found well finished, in contrast with so
+many seen in instruments by makers of eminence that
+are simply hacked roughly into size and shape. They
+were carefully estimated in their proportion for strength
+sufficient to resist the strain caused by the size, length,
+and pull of the strings in use at the time of Stradivari,
+and with something to spare, so that even now, under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+the enormous strain of the modern high pitch, when in
+perfect and original condition they are equal to their
+task. In a number of instances, when much repairing,
+good or bad has been done, the end, and often the corner
+blocks, have been replaced by modern ones. There is,
+of course, under these circumstances less of Stradivari
+present, but it has often been a case of painful necessity
+or question of expense as to the choice between two steps
+for restoration to health and particularly for strength.
+The form viewed vertically adopted by Stradivari was
+that of a parallelogram with two rounded corners (diag. <i>i</i>.).
+The upper block was left a little thicker, the junction or
+root of the neck necessitating this. The renewal of one
+or both of these has also been caused incidentally by the
+deep insertion of the modern and longer neck, thus
+lessening much of the grip or purchase of the block on
+both upper and lower table. The same may be said of
+the nut over which the tail string passes, this being&mdash;owing
+also to the rise of the modern tone pitch and increase
+of tension&mdash;much larger than in Stradivari's day,
+and he may in a sense be said to have had to buckle to
+modern requirements.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_00h.png" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Diagram</span> <i>h</i>.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_00i.png" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Diagram</span> <i>i</i>.</p>
+
+<p>While the seat as it were of our criticism is at the
+present moment in the interior portion of the admirable
+structures bequeathed to us by the great Cremonese, we
+may consider further the surface work of this part.
+Everyone knows that the interior of a violin is left unvarnished
+by violin makers. Stradivari was in no way
+anxious to become an exception to this rule. The reasons
+for its adoption were, and are, still obviously wise,
+although not necessitous. He knew that his work, in
+common with that of other craftsman, would be liable to
+fracture, and that in the process of restoration the surfaces
+and junction of parts must be laid bare, and varnish
+where not obviously necessary would be an obstruction.</p>
+
+<p>For the satisfaction of the anxious inquirer it may be
+stated that varnishing the interior has, to my knowledge,
+been tried by an excellent modern workman as an experiment
+and did not bring any adequate reward by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+perceptible improvement in tone quality. In another
+instance, to prevent the encroachment of the collector's
+arch-enemy, the worm, the innovation seemed to have
+proved ineffectual. Stradivari may have tried this and
+perhaps, for once at least, met with failure. The bar&mdash;there
+is but one&mdash;ofttimes erroneously called sound-bar
+or bass-bar&mdash;is, in common with all the violins of the
+old Italian school, quite inadequate for modern requirement,
+that of supporting the upper table on the fourth
+string side against the pressure caused by the tension of
+the third and fourth, the heaviest strings.</p>
+
+<p>That the length, thickness and disposition of the bar
+has much to do with the good going order of every
+violin there is no disputing. Stradivari did not live long
+enough to make acquaintance with the numberless
+proposals for acquiring his quality by making this part
+longer, shorter, thicker, or thinner, besides various
+modes of attachment. That some of them would have
+raised a smile on the features of the veteran Cremonese,
+we may be quite sure. That he was quite content with
+the size of the bar in general use during his life-time
+there can be no doubt, as there is no record or evidence
+of any experiments having been made by him, fair
+argument that none were considered necessary; the
+instruments finished, the ordinary bar of the period was
+inserted and there was an end. The whole of the interior
+indicates an absence of any question of improvement on
+what had been done before by his master Nicolas Amati
+and his predecessors, apart from good finish.</p>
+
+<p>A few words as to the thickness of the upper and
+lower tables. Of this much has been written, an
+extremely small portion being from actual observation,
+and most of the other parts being reiterated assertions
+started many years back by people whose supposed
+knowledge rested solely upon simple conviction, without
+an iota of <i>bona fide</i> evidence in support. To them the
+fact, well known to everyone engaged in the manufacture
+of sound-boards of musical instruments, that a very
+thick sound-board produces different results to that of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+very thin one, was sufficient, therefore the secret of
+Stradivari with regard to his tone, was "the adjustment
+of the thicknesses," whatever that may mean. The
+assertion seeming perhaps rather bare, and wanting
+some sort of support, was bolstered up with another no
+less instructive, that if you "pinged," or tapped the
+separated upper and lower tables of a Stradivari so that
+they each gave out a note there would be found the
+difference of a tone between them! Here was something
+for the "babes and sucklings" of the craft of
+violin making to swallow. It was stated also which
+table would give the higher tone. Unfortunately for
+some would-be Stradivaris, the particulars of the tonal
+difference were copied loosely and reversed and so
+came "confusion worse confounded."</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">The illustrations of sound holes, or <i>f&nbsp;f</i> commonly so called, will,
+it is hoped, be interesting as showing the modification or development
+from those of Nicolas Amati to the latter part of the period of
+Stradivari's career, called "the grand." They are all reproduced
+from fine specimens of the great Cremonese masters, and are the
+exact size of the originals. The first (<i>a</i>) shows the <i>f</i> of a violin of
+the Nicolas Amati's late period, 1663, unaffected&mdash;at least in this
+detail&mdash;by the individuality of his hereafter eminent pupil. (<i>b</i>)
+While still going under the name of Nicolas Amati, 1678, the <i>f</i> shows
+the actual interference of Stradivari, it is more vertical, but the
+peculiarities of the upper and lower wings are retained. (<i>c</i>) 1684.
+The design is quite changed, there is some return to the flow or
+inclination of Amati, but the whole thing is more extended, is
+slender, and the upper and lower wings are widened, this modification
+was retained for a permanency. (<i>d</i>) 1690. There is some
+return to the vertical design, but the width of the wings is retained,
+while the lower part of the design is of larger proportions. (<i>e</i>) 1700.
+The design is more equalised and is more substantial. (<i>f</i>) 1715.
+The same proportions are kept with an increase of gracefulness.
+It will be perceived the lower wing approaches at its lowest
+part the opposing curve more closely, the upper one likewise; in
+some specimens of this period it is still closer. (<i>g</i>) 1725. While the
+upper part is very like the preceding, the lower part is more contracted
+and curled up. There is a somewhat heavier expression
+about the upper part in consequence.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_048a-c.png" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">SEE PAGE <a href="#Page_48">48.</a></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_048d-g.png" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">SEE PAGE <a href="#Page_48">48.</a></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+
+<p>History does not relate which of those parties who
+may have practically followed up the experiments were
+successful in arriving at the goal of their ambition; they
+may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> even still be continuing the struggle for supremacy
+with their master.</p>
+
+<p>We have not to look far for ascertaining whether
+these assertions have borne fruit. There has been time
+enough for works built upon these so-called discoveries
+of fixed principles to have settled down, and the popular
+verdict now is&mdash;that those which guided Antonio Stradivari
+have yet to be discovered. The numbers of
+announcements of fresh discoveries&mdash;repeated <i>ad nauseam</i>&mdash;are
+in themselves some evidence that what has gone
+before was founded on deceptive evidence, and therefore
+to begin anew was the only course left.</p>
+
+<p>The illustrations of scrolls by Nicolas Amati and
+Antonio Stradivari, being from good specimens by the
+masters, will be interesting as showing the progression
+of the modification in detail under the hands of the
+latter. In fig. <i>a</i>, Nicolas Amati, c. 1670, it will be seen
+that the first or smallest turn after leaving the axis or
+"eye" is kept for some distance rather close. Every
+effort seems to have been made for keeping the turns or
+winding from being too circular, there being a general
+dip downward and forward. The gouging is deep from
+the commencement. The aim of the artist in the whole
+design appears to have been towards perfection of
+gracefulness.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Fig. <i>b</i>. Antonio Stradivari, 1683, the openness and
+bold swing of the first turn at once on leaving the "eye"
+is very striking, it also commences higher up, there is
+almost an absence of flow or downward tendency. The
+throat underneath the volute is very massive, although
+all the edges are finished off with the utmost delicacy
+and sharp tooling. All the details of scroll carving by
+Stradivari at this period are marvels of mechanical
+dexterity of handling. The different depths of the
+gouging are carefully calculated for solidity of effect,
+each portion being deep in proportion to its width, the
+smaller turns thus having less depth than the larger.
+With the Amatis there seemed to be a striving after
+attainment of the greatest depth possible in the smaller<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+gougings, those nearest the axis reaching frequently to
+almost the same depth of level as the outer or broadest
+one. In no part of his work does Stradivari show more
+clearly the result of careful calculation after closely
+studying the work of his master and others that had
+gone before.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_049a.png" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"> <span class="smcap">Fig.</span> <i>a</i>. <span class="smcap">See Page</span> <a href="#Page_49">49.</a></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii"></a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_049b.png" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> <i>b</i>. <span class="smcap">See Page</span> <a href="#Page_49">49.</a></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Fig. <i>c</i>. The period 1715 shows the result of further
+calculation for general effect and a consequent modification
+in respect of minor details; there is present, as
+always, the sufficiently bold swing of the first turn from
+the axis. In choice specimens the point of commencement
+is as sharply and clearly defined as the mitreing of
+the purfling at the four corners of the body of the violin
+and which it seems impossible to excel. The throat,
+with the whole of the peg-box, is reduced slightly but
+consistently with strength and beauty of appearance.
+The public verdict has remained unshaken with regard
+to these scrolls being in respect of the combination of
+excellencies the best carvings of the great artist. They
+are in the most trifling degree smaller than those carved
+before the period of 1700. Among those cut about the
+1710-15 period, or even later, are a few that seem to
+have been intentionally both smaller and more upright.
+Although having all the essential excellencies of detail
+they can scarcely be considered as coming up to the
+standard of the others in respect of refined grandeur.
+This type may be said to be mixed up and continued
+with more or less persistency to the last, and of this
+Fig. <i>d</i> gives a good representation. There is frequently
+a more emphatic or energetic gouging at the commencement
+of the turns, a more developed "ear" as it is often
+termed. It is gouged with quite as much care as the
+rest. Speculation has been rife as to the possible
+influence or even personal help of Joseph Guarneri at
+this point, but there is no solid foundation for surmising
+the presence of one or the other. If the gouging of this
+part may be said to bear any sort of resemblance to the
+emphatic or impetuous touch of Joseph, it is confined
+strictly to this portion; other essentials are wanting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+that would be absolutely necessary for crediting artists
+of distinctly opposite tendencies with&mdash;it might be
+almost rightly termed&mdash;tampering with each other's
+designs.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_050c.png" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"> <span class="smcap">Fig.</span> <i>c</i>. <span class="smcap">See Page</span> <a href="#Page_50">50.</a></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii"></a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_050d.png" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"> <span class="smcap">Fig.</span> <i>d</i>. <span class="smcap">See Page</span> <a href="#Page_50">50.</a></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>But if the name of Carlo Bergonzi is brought into the
+field of speculation&mdash;granting for a moment that Stradivari
+was not very likely to step aside occasionally from
+his accustomed groove&mdash;then we have much more of a
+possibility or even probability in the matter. It has
+always been asserted, and I believe never contradicted,
+that Carlo Bergonzi was for a time actually working in
+the atelier of Stradivari&mdash;whether as pupil or only
+assistant matters not&mdash;but we have in the fact of his
+presence a distinct factor in any of the supposed
+anomalies of the later periods of the grand Cremonese
+master. To this, however, we may put some consideration
+further on. There is further in these later
+scrolls a modification, alteration, or supposed attempt at
+improvement in the edging of the turns, these being left
+a trifle stouter than at the commencement of Stradivari's
+career.</p>
+
+<p>This is continued along over the top and down the
+back of the scroll to the shell, which seems to be a little
+less elongated than the early specimens. It may be more
+apparent than real in most instances in consequence of
+the bolder edging. The hollowing of the "shell" is
+seemingly less delicate, but this may be taken as a
+natural result of the foregoing. Further on these details
+will come in again for review.</p>
+
+<p>To continue our remarks on the question of "thicknesses
+and their adjustment" with each other. This is
+a department of the luthier's art, to which perhaps much
+more attention has been directed by theorisers than by
+practical workers. The latter class have no doubt been
+influenced by the former to a considerable extent, oftentimes
+having their views expressly carried out under their
+personal supervision. By musical amateurs it is found
+to be a good theme for conversation when the excellencies
+of the works of various masters are dilated upon. That<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+the richness of quality in a "Joseph" is the result of
+his having left "his wood" thick in certain parts and
+not so much in others, and that this, combined with the flat
+modelling, was the secret, and that it was written that
+some of the Josephs were too thick in the back, and
+therefore the freedom of the vibration was checked and
+the tone to some degree stifled and deficient in penetrative
+power.</p>
+
+<p>Among my early musical acquaintances, I remember
+an amateur violinist who would "wax eloquent" on
+the power of his Strad, asserting that it was owing in a
+great measure to its having been "left thick by the
+maker" all round near the border. This, no doubt,
+many other amateurs, acquainted with what used to
+be in print on the subject, will recognise as being in
+opposition to what had been accepted as being the
+rule generally observed by Stradivari, that the arching
+in its thickness gently decreased towards the border
+where it was about a third less than at the centre.
+This gentle gradation was said to be the cause of
+the beautiful "silky" and "sympathetic" quality so
+prominently characteristic of his instruments. The
+explanation of "the thing in action," as mechanicians
+would term it, was thus&mdash;the greatest thickness being at
+the part all round by the feet of the bridge, was able to
+sustain the vibration, or the successive shocks caused by
+the bow, which were transmitted through the wood of
+the upper table and were gradually lessened in intensity
+as the thickness decreased toward the border, where
+they subsided, or were lost.</p>
+
+<p>I do not know what explanation was given, if any, of
+the "system" of thickness adopted much by some of the
+Milanese school, which was that of hewing away the
+wood until it was thinnest at the part all round by the
+feet of the bridge and thickest by the lower wings of the
+sound holes. Judging by the before mentioned assertions
+as to the association of power of energetic vibration with
+the thickest wood under the bridge, these Milanese
+makers were acting very wrongly, but, strange to say,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+many instruments of very great power were made by
+them under these conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Many years ago I was conversing on the subject of
+thicknesses with an English maker of experience and
+who seemed to believe in certain "thicknesses," and
+having then as yet made no practical experiments myself
+in the matter, I put the following to him. There are
+many violins to be met with that through ill-usage and
+pressure on the bridge have depressions instead of the
+level wood at the part we should expect it to be, and yet
+the tone is considered fine, how is this? The answer
+was remarkable, and not unworthy of the class of makers
+to which he belonged&mdash;that although the wood had
+become thinner from pressure, "the original amount was
+all there," it was only squeezed closer together. The
+instruments were, no doubt, "rightly gauged" in the
+first instance. "Now there," he said, pointing to a
+'cello hanging up almost out of reach and looking in
+rather a woe-begone condition, is a bass that "never
+would go well because it was badly gauged when first
+made." Age and usage were to be of no avail in bringing
+this wretched piece of workmanship up to the standard
+of the average.</p>
+
+<p>This last assertion might have been of considerable
+weight had the maker been a personal pupil of Stradivari,
+but the public verdict has been that there was a
+great gulf between the two, and that the first had not
+been initiated into the secret of the others. Foreign as
+well as English makers have announced in the most
+impressive manner at their command that their instruments
+were identical in all respects, including the system
+of thicknesses in the originals, buy them, use them, and
+be convinced that in time they would be just as good as
+the real thing.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing is perhaps enough to indicate whether
+or not the secret of Stradivari, or indeed any of the other
+Italian masters, great or small, had been discovered by
+caliper measurement. It is strange that the impression
+has held sway so strongly that the genius of the great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+master lay in his manner of distribution of the thick and
+thin parts of the upper and lower table. The first
+thought in this direction would be that if the theory was
+good, its practical application with ordinary skill and
+care would be sure to bring about the desired result.
+But more than this has been done in experimenting on
+originals and copies from time to time. We have within
+a mile of Charing Cross no lack of workmen capable of
+gauging and copying with sufficient exactness the thicknesses
+of any Stradivari brought to them, if that were
+all, or the principal means necessary for reproducing the
+famous qualities of the great Cremonese. It seems to
+be forgotten that hundreds of clever workmen have lived
+since his time, in his own as well as other countries,
+who have given the most assiduous application to the
+making of exact copies and with a like result&mdash;that
+of total failure. For a moment let us turn our
+thoughts to the nature of the materials comprised in
+the sum total of the structure known as a violin.
+We have for the upper table, or front, a thin slab of
+wood known as pine, from a species of tree that grows
+all over the world. The varieties are, however, innumerable
+and the purposes to which they are put,
+equally so. For the lower table, or back, a more dense
+and tough wood is used. That the particular kind used
+in the construction of the famous instruments of the
+great masters, and mostly that known as curled maple
+or "hare wood," was chiefly on account of its beauty,
+is evident from the fact that all the best Italian makers
+had recourse at times to other and less showy wood.
+Beech was occasionally used by Carlo Bergonzi. Other
+tough woods grown in Italy, even poplar, have been
+used by some makers, seemingly when the supply of
+better looking material ran short. That there are extant
+some "Strads" with backs of some plain wood other
+than maple is more than likely. We have, then, for the
+upper table of the violin a wood of soft but elastic
+consistency, the strength of which lies mainly in the
+threads running lengthwise, and which, when the wood<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+is cut in the manner usual with all violin makers since
+its invention, serve the purpose of small joists running
+from end to end of the upper table. The soft material
+lying between these is very susceptible to damp, especially
+when fresh cut. Thus, if a piece of pine be cut ever so
+smooth with a sharp gouge or chisel, a slightly wetted
+brush drawn along the surface will at once cause the
+softer parts to swell and so leave a ribbed or "corduroy"
+appearance when it is dry. This will serve to show how
+far this wood is suitable for regulating by such very
+minute differences as would be necessary when the
+thicknesses theory is confided in and efforts made to
+reduce it to practice. The exactness reasonably expected
+of such a master of quality as Stradivari would be upset
+in an instant by the application of a little moisture, and
+which either by accident or during the process of repairing
+would be fairly certain to occur some time or other
+to every violin that left the hands of its maker.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">CHAPTER VII.</span></p>
+
+<p class="subtitle"><span class="smcap">Stradivari's Tone and System&mdash;Those of his
+Pupils and Assistants&mdash;Qualities of Tone
+Produced in Different Localities.</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="cap">WE may now refer to actual observation or close
+examination of Stradivari's work with reference
+to the question of system, whether there is
+evidence of its presence and how followed by him. That
+his violins should have been from time to time well
+measured by the very numerous army of identical
+imitators, fair copyists, and all sorts of connoisseurs and
+theorists during the present century will be at once
+admitted, and the results may be summed up in a few
+words. Stradivari did not leave clearly defined any
+evidence of a system of gauging which he strictly
+followed, at any rate in such a manner as to enable the
+least approach by such to be made by any followers in
+his steps with any measure of success. In short, he
+was guided by the exigencies of the moment as to the
+amount of wood left in his ordinary or choicer specimens.</p>
+
+<p>It has been stated before that his quality of tone was
+one, not several, and for these his patrons flocked to him,
+as his admirers have also more and more earnestly
+sought for him since the supply has ceased. But it was
+not desirable that the greatest possible power should be
+given to instruments that were in many cases to simply
+charm a small family circle of friends in an apartment
+of modest dimensions. He would, therefore, naturally
+enough vary the amount of wood left. This would be
+quite in accordance with what is perfectly well known to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+all makers and repairers of experience&mdash;that with a
+violin if very "thickly timbered," the tone is less easy of
+emission, or actually weak. On the other hand, if too
+thin the emission is comparatively easy, but lacks
+intensity and is termed "hollow." Under these circumstances
+we should expect to find a variation in the
+thicknesses of different violins of Stradivari, which is in
+accordance with fact.</p>
+
+<p>Some connoisseurs have been in their enthusiasm too
+hasty in their reference of general principles from a few
+particular instances and their researches&mdash;as time thereafter
+showed&mdash;did not bear the fruit so anxiously looked
+forward to.</p>
+
+<p>An instance comes to mind of two well known
+dealers, one British, the other foreign, meeting together
+one day and opening some half-a-dozen Strads, that
+appeared up to that moment to have had their interiors
+undisturbed, or perhaps it might be said untampered
+with. What a meeting! and what a parting! let
+us hope that each table, upper or lower, that had so
+long been working in harmony, eventually became
+again properly mated and gave no cause for lawyers
+to "put their fingers in the pie." The results of the
+examination is related thus:&mdash;"In no two of the
+instruments were thicknesses alike; some had thick
+places and thin places; some were thicker on one side
+than the other; all were thicker in the centre of the
+upper table and all had these as three to five for the
+back."</p>
+
+<p>Another is that of a well known continental repairer in
+his day, relating how he had repaired a very large number
+of real Strads and found the upper tables to be of the
+same thickness, two and a half m's. all over, but that the
+backs varied in thickness. Some discrepancies here
+seemingly. To add to this, a correspondent says the
+Strads he has measured "have certainly not been
+thickest in the centre of the upper table."</p>
+
+<p>My own observations as to thicknesses I am afraid
+will not afford much comfort to those who have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+hopeful at any time that the calipers would drag forth
+the precious secret. I recollect many years back seeing
+a very fresh Strad, and a hasty measurement possible
+at the time revealed too much wood, that is judging
+according to our modern ideas of regulation.</p>
+
+<p>One instance of a Strad, once my own property, comes
+to my mind. It had something wrong with the interior
+that necessitated opening. The violin was of good
+reputation for its tone of fine quality, quantity and ease
+of emission. There was no help for it; much against
+my inclination the separation of the upper table from the
+ribs would have to take place, either by my own hands,
+or those of some other person, the rectification being
+impossible from the exterior as it sometimes may be.
+With all necessary care, guided by past experience, the
+opening was safely accomplished, and after a very
+interesting examination of the interior, which to an
+ordinary observer would have seemed but peering into
+a dirty old wooden box, having nothing perceptibly
+different from any other, was in what would be called a
+fair state of preservation. I took the calipers in hand,
+expecting to learn something, but found all the original
+thicknesses had been lost under the hands of numerous
+repairers.</p>
+
+<p>The supposed system or rule followed by Stradivari&mdash;that
+is, according to what critics and writers have declared
+was his habit&mdash;was certainly not demonstrated in this
+instance: in fact the eyesight alone was sufficient to
+perceive that whatever theory the master had believed
+in as necessary for the production of his inimitable
+quality, or whatever rule as to gauging should be
+followed in order to obtain enough power and freedom of
+emission were, in the present instance, we will not say
+ignored, but quite imperceptible; and why? because the
+fiddle at one time had been what we moderns&mdash;with our
+ideas of regulation and fitting&mdash;would term "too thick
+in the wood." The instrument had undergone much
+affliction from various physicians, but, judging from
+various little details of evidence, been at almost all times<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+highly prized. Here and there were the studs or buttons
+of various kinds of pine stuck by repairers of different
+nationalities and degrees of skill, some placed with
+apparent good intention, others without reason at all,
+while several parts bore indications of studs having at
+one time rested there and been afterwards removed by
+succeeding repairers. Now all these men had a thought
+of doing their work properly, and in finishing off their
+studs with gouge or glass-paper, had whipped off around
+each spot some of the precious wood of Stradivari, with
+a general result of a series of hollows and gentle prominences
+not at all pleasing to the eye of the believer in
+the thickness theory, but nevertheless instructive.</p>
+
+<p>Other instances in which the master's work&mdash;while
+still good and serviceable, with much evidence of unskilful
+repair, or want of proper attention at the time of
+accident, have come under my notice, enough, long ago,
+to have, as the saying is, "knocked into a cocked hat,"
+all that has been put forth regarding the mathematical
+precision of the thicknesses over the different parts of
+a violin by Antonio Stradivari. One or two further
+remarks may be interesting on this part of our subject.
+The fact must not be lost sight of that the pupils of the
+now well established master of his art in Cremona were
+working either at that place likewise, or in the large
+cities of Italy, and had become famous, or were soon to
+be so and themselves surrounded by learners of the art.
+All these had been initiated in the secrets, if any, of
+their craft and in the particulars which distinguished
+them from others, or we may say, they were of the
+Stradivari school, showing in a more or less degree the
+same species of tone which the master had brought to
+maturity, and which he retained with consistency and
+never swerved from to his latest day.</p>
+
+<p>It is quite a reasonable supposition that most, if not
+all, of the personal pupils were taught by the master,
+or had the way pointed out to them by which they
+might, with the right ear for discrimination of tone
+quality and enough of industry, impart to their works<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+the identical qualities of those of their teacher. But
+what are the facts left for our consideration in connection
+with caliper measurement? the pupils admittedly of his
+teaching, among whom we may mention Lorenzo
+Guadagnini, his son Joannes Battista, Alexandri Gagliano,
+one or two of his sons and Carlo Bergonzi, as the
+best known, each adopted their own, or shall we say, left
+no more evidence for us of having a set rule for thicknesses
+than their master. The nearest approach to the asserted
+system of Stradivari, that of a gentle declination of substance
+in the wood down to the edge, was made by
+Lorenzo Guadagnini in his extra sized violins; but then
+the tone, wonderfully fine, is not Stradivari, but Guadagnini.
+Carlo Bergonzi's system, if we may for a moment
+call it, was quite unlike Stradivari, and yet connoisseurs
+have frequently credited him with having got "the same
+beautiful quality of tone." From these few references
+it will be sufficiently plain that the grand secret of tone
+quality must not be sought for with the aid of calipers,
+so we will dismiss this part of our subject and proceed to
+other considerations.</p>
+
+<p>Besides those who have pinned their faith to the
+thicknesses, there are those who take up with the "air
+mass" theory. I am afraid the arguments in favour of
+this last will not bear even so much knocking about as
+those just considered.</p>
+
+<p>We have in the first place to take into account the fact
+of the larger modern bar taking up more room than the
+old obsolete one of, not only Stradivari, but all the other
+masters of his time and before. The upper and lower
+end blocks have been enlarged in many instances to
+obtain a better hold on the upper and lower table.
+These alterations have been each of necessity, not of
+ignorance or mere whim, and moreover have proved
+efficacious for the end in view. The restorers, or regulators
+who have performed these operations must&mdash;according
+to the "air mass" theory&mdash;have been acting
+quite "in the teeth" of it and Stradivari's regulation,
+further there is not one fiddle in a hundred&mdash;perhaps not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+that&mdash;which has been in use for a generation but what
+shows a sinking one side or the other, or, when the
+modelling is full, a depression in the middle of the upper
+table, and very frequently a greater fulness at the back
+where the sound post touches and presses from the inside.
+These alterations, individually or collectively, alter the
+"air mass" of the interior, and the violin thus, according
+to the theory, contains within itself the elements of its
+own early dissolution, so far as fine quality is concerned.
+Facts, however, go to prove the contrary, and with the
+modern regulator's efforts to obtain the best amount of
+a good thing known to be present, it is quite probable
+that Stradivari himself never heard his instruments to
+such advantage as they may be now, notwithstanding
+the unreasonably high pitch to which violinists are
+obliged to conform their tuning.</p>
+
+<p>There was another theory promulgated many years
+back by certain people of some degree of eminence in
+their own walk in life. A grand discovery was
+announced, that the excellence of the violins of Stradivari
+consisted in the tonal difference between the upper
+and lower tables peculiar no doubt to that master. This
+sort of committee of scientific experimenter, violin dealer
+and author, did not&mdash;while centralising their efforts on
+the violins of one master&mdash;say whether the same relationship
+existed between the back and front of a Nicola
+Amati, Maggini or Gasparo de Salo, they made something
+of a slip when they mentioned the violins of the
+great Joseph Guarnerius as showing the same tonal
+difference.</p>
+
+<p>It would have been very interesting to have heard of
+results after further trials by the same experimenters
+upon upper or lower tables of violins by now not very
+much less celebrated makers, who, although of the same
+class or school, were living&mdash;for those times&mdash;far away
+from the central luminary of the Cremonese art. What
+would have been said of Montagnana of Venice? a star
+of the first magnitude, curiously near in quality and
+quantity to the great centre to which he was willing to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+pay obeisance and throw out a reflected light; of
+Gobetti, perhaps more "Straddy" than any other
+Italian, Gofrilleri, Seraphino, two or three of the
+Tononis, besides other lights of lesser magnitude, with
+exceedingly fine qualities, but perhaps open to the
+charge of intermittency. Further, several of the Milanese
+school,&mdash;offshoots of the Amati and Stradivari,&mdash;of
+Lorenzo Guadagnini, a master of his art in all its details,
+if ever there was one, his son Joannes Battista, steadier
+in his working, but more uncertain in his results&mdash;shifting
+from place to place, may have had some connection
+with this&mdash;and the occasionally fine artificers of
+the same place, Landolfi, the Grancinos and Testores
+and later on Balestrieri of Mantua and Storioni of
+Cremona. These men, always good, and when circumstances
+were favourable, great in their art, often grand
+in their individuality and power, were, by these modern
+scientific interrogators placed aside or quietly ignored,
+apparently either as unworthy of their recognition, or of
+such inferior renown as not to come within the scope of
+their investigations.</p>
+
+<p>A close and searching inquiry into the causes that
+enabled different masters of their art to bring about the
+desirable end of their labours, that of imparting a distinct
+quality and individuality of tone, might have enabled
+them to get at least a hint as to the means whereby
+Stradivari gratified the tastes of his patrons at the time
+and connoisseurs in general of the present day. As
+indicated before, the Venetian masters were&mdash;probably
+by the same means&mdash;able to put before their patrons that
+kind of tone most in agreement with the luxurious surroundings
+of the Venetian nobility, or offered and found
+acceptable to the musical public generally there.</p>
+
+<p>A prolonged, earnest examination of the peculiarities
+of tone attached to the violins of the makers of the chief
+seats of violin making, has led to the inference that the
+difference in kind or degree was not from individual
+choice, but chiefly owing to outside influence.</p>
+
+<p>What is known as the old Brescian type of tone was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+doubtless suitable to the tastes of musical circles, among
+whom the then new style of musical instrument was
+introduced in Brescia. When settled down, the Amati
+family, a group of thorough artists, proved themselves
+alive to the requirements of the fresh district that was
+henceforth to be the scene of their labours for generations.
+The Brescian quality had either been found by them, or
+was known beforehand, to be too ponderous or insufficiently
+endowed with the more feminine quality desirable
+in the minds of the Cremonese. The Amatis seem to
+have been in full possession of the means necessary for
+producing the kind of violin in demand and supplied it.</p>
+
+<p>As time went on, musical compositions changed in
+style, advancing by degrees towards the culminating
+point of nearly a century later. The simple, oft-times
+wondrously sweet, yet quaint effusions of the early composers
+for the violin, were gradually giving more and
+stronger indication of what was possible and likely to
+follow soon and in its turn, like all other things, become
+antiquated and old-fashioned. Undoubtedly, it was this
+progressive condition of the music of the period that
+induced Stradivari, early in his career, if not at the time
+he was with Nicolo Amati, to take up the study of tone
+calibre as a matter of essential importance, in order not
+only to keep pace with the times, but if possible, anticipate
+further advances in musical development.</p>
+
+<p>It was daily becoming more evident that the qualities
+of refinement and sympathy would not in themselves be
+sufficient in an instrument with such a future as the
+violin seemed to have. Melodic forms were being
+modified, while harmony was becoming more varied and
+divided.</p>
+
+<p>The art of appropriate phrasing was also being studied,
+while practical musicians were bowing to the necessity
+of leaving old stereotyped forms for those having more
+emotional qualities. In short, the violin wanted in
+Cremona was one of substantial power and suitable for
+more dramatic expression on the part of the performer.
+To bring forth a violin of this desirable type, Stradivari<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+directed his energies. With what measure of success,
+the whole musical world up to the present day have
+emphatically declared.</p>
+
+<p>Now, we may ask, was the difference of tone between
+the violins of Stradivari and those of the other makers
+of the Brescian, Cremonese, Venetian, Milanese, or
+Neapolitan school, in consequence of the tonal difference
+between the upper and lower table, as supposed to have
+been discovered by the modern Parisian investigator?
+was it resulting from the correct air mass inside? the
+relative thickness of the tables, or we may as well include
+the straight and fine grain theorists, the amber varnish
+in the wood theorists, the wood of great age theorists,
+and the generations of use theorists, and lastly those who
+mix them altogether. If Stradivari practically worked
+upon one, some or all of these theories, there is still
+more mystery concerning the close proximity at which
+his pupils or assistants arrived, several of whom we
+might conclude were possessed of all necessary means of
+acquiring to the full their master's excellencies.</p>
+
+<p>Just for a moment or two we may turn aside and
+notice the kind of variation or the distinguishing
+difference between the tone in the general acceptation of
+the term&mdash;of Antonio Stradivari and other makers, or,
+as time has proved, masters of their art, if not on an
+equal standing with him. There is frequently among
+musicians a disposition to set down as inferior any tone
+that may seem to differ in degree or kind with that of
+Stradivari; that is the ideal type, it must be Stradivari
+and no other; some have even gone so far as to say,
+"there is only one quality," that of Stradivari, and
+when other masters did not produce it, they were unable
+to do so; this is more than a hint at condemnation of
+the head of the Cremona school as having been very
+lax in the proper and thoughtful training of his number
+of pupils; this latter an almost necessary consequence
+of eminent rank, taken apart from the usual assistance
+found to be obligatory from pressure of work. If we
+glance over the Italian schools taken one after another,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+the facts, if acknowledged, will be seen to point in other
+directions. Taking for instance the Milanese master,
+Lorenzo Guadagnini, who tells us himself that he learnt
+his art under Antonio Stradivari, we find distinct traces
+of it in his tone, the general calibre is the same and
+most of the fine, distinguishing features noticed in the
+tone produced by his master; the difference, however,
+is that which is peculiar to the master makers of Milan,
+that of a slightly less reedy emission of sound. Some
+have called it harder, which is not a correct description.
+Chords are produced with it as easily and roundly as
+with any other, the individual notes blend beautifully
+and give an impression of homogeneousness in no wise
+inferior to anything produced in Italy. There was no
+apparent difficulty in the way of Milan acquiring and
+cultivating the variety of Italian tone known as the
+Cremonese had they been so disposed; we are therefore
+led to infer that each place with its musical world held
+its own opinions as to the most satisfactory quality of
+tone for its purpose and considered it the best. Milan
+is situated in Lombardy, north-west of Cremona, and
+distant from it between forty and fifty miles; not a very
+long way at any time, but quite sufficient for each place
+to cultivate or indulge in any artistic or musical fancies
+or whims independently of the other. We find maker
+after maker in Milan keeping within certain limits as
+regards the quality of tone produced there; I do not
+know of one whose instruments emitted other than the
+Milanese quality.</p>
+
+<p>We may, I think, safely assume that so far from loosely
+and superficially instructing his pupils, Stradivari's
+tuition was of a deeper, far-reaching kind than has ever
+been suspected. If the tone of Lorenzo Guadagnini is
+compared with that of the makers who were working in
+Milan when he arrived, it will not be difficult to perceive
+that the Milanese type is still retained, although much
+enlarged and matured, in fact become freshly developed,
+throwing out the additional qualities for the obtaining
+of which the great master of Cremona had carefully<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+trained his gifted pupil. All this is not in the least
+interfered with by the fact of Joannes Battista Guadagnini's
+tone differing in some respects&mdash;and more at
+times&mdash;with that of his father, but rather helped by it;
+both assert on their tickets that they were instructed by
+Stradivari, and both show the results of their training
+in that largeness and impressiveness which is so much
+beloved of violinists and which without doubt came from
+their great teacher. Josef, the son of Joannes Battista
+Guadagnini, appears also to have either been instructed
+by Stradivari or to have assisted under his personal
+supervision&mdash;which would amount to much the same
+thing. We may perceive in the tone of this maker also
+the influence of the great master in the same directions
+as are manifested in the works of his father and grandfather,
+they are all of the Stradivarian school.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now turn in another direction. Alexandri
+Gagliano of Naples tells us that he too was a pupil of
+Stradivari, and looking at his work there is nothing about
+it inconsistent with his statement; his typical design is
+formed upon that of Stradivari, and many of his details
+of workmanship are such as can only have been carried
+out as the result of either a lengthy study, or from being
+under the immediate supervision of the master.</p>
+
+<p>The quality of tone produced by the Neapolitans is as
+distinct as possible from that of Milan, it is clear, lively,
+suggestive of a sunny clime, and free in its emission,
+but leaves an impression on the ear of a lack of sufficient
+profundity, nearly the opposite in fact of the early
+Brescian school. Here the best of the Gaglianos&mdash;for it
+is not at all certain that there were not more than two
+of them assisting at different times in Stradivari's atelier&mdash;brought
+the same kind of improvement to Naples as
+the Guadagninis did to Milan, the scale was better
+regulated so as to give greater breadth of effect, notwithstanding
+the general quality&mdash;seemingly native to
+the place&mdash;being uninterfered with. Here then was the
+influence of Stradivari having taught his pupils the
+means whereby the particular tone quality most appreciated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+in the locality could be brought forward in its
+most developed, or mature condition.</p>
+
+<p>Carlo Bergonzi we shall have to consider more fully
+further on, and for the present only refer to him as a
+pupil or assistant much more in immediate connection
+with the atelier of Stradivari than any maker known to
+us. Irregular workman as he was, swayed about this
+way and that by matters unknown to us, he kept steadfast
+to the Stradivarian lines to the end. The rest of
+his family were either his own pupils, or they may have
+even been at times with his master, as they all&mdash;so far
+as I am acquainted with them&mdash;are of the same school.
+These particulars all point in one direction&mdash;that
+Stradivari was not anxious and made no special efforts
+at introducing any new kind of tone&mdash;development of
+that already in existence was his aim, and on this
+line he appears to have led his immediate or personal
+pupils.</p>
+
+<p>There is great probability that some very clever workmen
+whose names are lost to us, were with Stradivari
+for a time, long or short, and were able to imbibe the
+valuable precepts enjoined similarly on the other
+disciples. It is not at present known whether the sons
+of Stradivari had pupils or assistants, the rarity of their
+work seems to point to the contrary; their father having
+been so successful from the commercial point of view,
+apart from the higher aspect of his career, there may
+have been&mdash;we might say&mdash;the usual disposition amongst
+sons of successful fathers to take life more easily and
+repose among the laurels won for them, requiring only a
+little caretaking. There is some possibility of Thomas
+Balestrieri, of Mantua, having worked for a time under
+Stradivari, but not as a pupil; there is much in his
+work suggestive of this theory. His tone quality does
+not belong to the Amati school, in which tradition has
+it he was trained. He may have gone as help to
+Stradivari&mdash;for loose as was his general tendency, he
+could work finely when the fit was on him. Whether
+he went or not, there remains tone quality evidence of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+the strong influence of Stradivari, besides the throwing
+aside of the Amati traditions concerning proportions,
+curves and archings.</p>
+
+<p>Of the other places to which personal pupils of the
+master went, we may take a passing glance at Genoa,
+a city not replete with makers of refinement, or numerous,
+but nevertheless with some sterling qualities. Among
+them and the most "Straddy" is Bernardus Calcanius;
+his earliest dates, if we can rely upon them, and they
+may prove at any moment to have been earlier than
+hitherto known, almost preclude the possibility of his
+having worked under Stradivari except as a youth. The
+influence of the master is, however, decidedly paramount
+in his work and no other tendency being noticeable, if
+not an immediate pupil, he took all possible pains to
+acquire the excellencies that were to his knowledge
+peculiar to Stradivari alone.</p>
+
+<p>Among the Venetian makers there does not seem to be
+one that can&mdash;from his style and workmanship&mdash;be
+picked out as showing all necessary evidence of his
+having qualified under the great Cremonese as a personal
+pupil. Nevertheless there is much indication, and such
+as cannot be passed over, of the influence of Stradivari
+among the aristocracy of the business there. This was
+not, as in the instances of the other schools of violin
+making outside Cremona, in the first ten years of the
+century, but after the different individuals of the group
+of eminent Venetians must have been well known and of
+established reputation. In this there is some apparent
+indication of one if not more of the party having taken
+a trip to Cremona and brought back a few hints of no
+inconsiderable value, perhaps received personally from
+the master. On the other hand, if this was not the case,
+his works must have been brought into Venice and their
+merits artistically as well as acoustically well thought
+over. The outcome was a change, the Amati genius
+hitherto presiding uninterfered with, seemingly immutable,
+had to give way to that which was pronounced
+an improvement or a step higher in the progress of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+the liutaro's art. As in Cremona, the Amati characteristics
+were too deeply rooted in the affections of the
+Venetians to be eradicated, and we consequently find in
+the designs of a few of the prominent makers the strong
+influence of Stradivari in conflict with that of Nicolas
+Amati, and the two swaying in balance with the settled
+convictions of the followers of Jacobus Stainer.</p>
+
+<p>Having now taken a glance round at the chief centres
+of violin making that had during Stradivari's lifetime
+been strongly influenced by him, directly by means of
+his pupils or indirectly by the arrival there of his works,
+we may note that his qualities artistically or acoustically
+considered, while giving him a commanding position, did
+not reach so far as to annihilate, during competition, those
+of the Amatis, especially where the latter had been of
+long standing and followed earnestly in detail, they kept
+side by side as in Cremona. The influence of Stradivari
+beyond the borders of Italy had yet to receive its due
+acknowledgment from the crowds of imitators which
+have now become known or have pushed themselves in
+front of the public gaze.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">CHAPTER VIII.</span></p>
+
+<p class="subtitle"><span class="smcap">The Reputed Golden Period of Stradivari Late in
+Life&mdash;His Later Modifications of Design&mdash;Signs
+of Old Age Appearing&mdash;The Help He
+Received.</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="cap">WE can now return back to Cremona, where we left
+the master in what might almost be termed the
+heydey of success, as he seems to have had full
+obeisance as the reigning chief among liutaros. The
+amount of work put forward&mdash;estimating carefully by
+what remains to us after the lapse of some hundred
+and eighty years or more&mdash;must have been possibly
+larger than is suspected and now might appear incredible
+if it were catalogued in detail, were it not
+for the extreme probability that minor or mere
+mechanical parts of the many instruments other than
+violins, violas, or violoncellos were effectively carried
+out under the supervision of Antonio Stradivari, his
+sons and assistants, of these probably what under the
+circumstances might even be termed a numerous staff.</p>
+
+<p>The period 1700 to 1725 has been referred to by some
+writers as "the golden period" of Stradivari, not inaptly
+if we are to understand it in a pecuniary sense, as his
+income at the time was no doubt of a very satisfactory
+nature, but if taken from the standpoint of artistic
+elegance and finish in detail the master himself seems to
+have had some slight misgivings, as there are well-known
+indications in his latter days of having used some of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+early patterns, as if a desire had arisen in his mind to
+return to his old love.</p>
+
+<p>That some signs of advancing age should not be
+apparent in Stradivari's work during the period of 1715
+to 1725 would scarcely be expected. It is just at this
+time, however, that he gives the strongest evidence of
+being the extraordinary man that he was. In 1715 and
+thereabouts, a time of all others, some critics might put
+it, when his most magnificent gems of art were sent out
+into the world, he was a veteran seventy-one years, a
+time of life that few people would look forward to as
+being appropriate for executing unrivalled masterpieces,
+but rather as having for some time retired for final rest
+after a full complement of working days; here, however,
+was a peerless artist actually in his prime! and as busy,
+possibly so, as at any early times.</p>
+
+<p>At 1720 to 1725 a close student of his work of hand
+may discern some signs of what was to follow, it might
+be said naturally. In the first place the purfling
+gradually assumes a heavier aspect, it is a trifle bolder
+or thicker in substance, although sent round the borders
+of the instrument with apparently the same masterly
+handling and iron nervousness of the preceding years.
+The edging is also a degree stouter. Occasionally the
+corners are made to a more obtuse angle, adding to the
+whole design a more stolid look, as if mere elegance was
+about to be thrown aside and more simplicity and
+grandeur were being sought for. This was not continued,
+the master seemed afraid of going too far towards
+heaviness, he therefore cautiously withdrew to his own
+old lines. Sometimes&mdash;possibly taking up and constructing
+upon some of his old and early moulds&mdash;the
+corners are brought out more prominently, but with
+more substance than in his early days; the result is
+delightful for the connoisseur's eye. Accompanying
+these minute modifications there will be noticed an
+increase slight and gradual in the expression of heaviness
+in the sound holes. If possible there is more
+freedom from mere symmetrical proportion, they are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+placed less accurately level, one being a trifle higher
+than the other, this by the bye was common with him at
+all times, although usually with a subtlety that left them
+unnoticed by an ordinary observer. This slight irregularity
+has been sometimes misinterpreted as one of the
+little secrets of the master whereby he obtained his
+excellent sonority; "discovered" was the exclamation,
+and a new rule laid down on Stradivari's lines&mdash;never
+place your sound holes on the same level, always one a
+trifle higher and you will get what the master was so
+famous for. The result, so far, has been a disappointment
+which laid bare some evidence that these over
+zealous enthusiasts were not sufficiently acquainted with
+the canons of Italian art. There was another peculiarity
+creeping on with regard to these sound holes&mdash;that of
+an enlargement of the curve opposing the lower wing,
+at first it gave a more staid aspect to the part, there
+was less sprightliness and youth about it, nevertheless it
+was fine at times, even magnificent, there being still the
+same determination of purpose, that of combining
+maturity of elegance with strength. Afterwards, the
+change&mdash;and if all the works of these later years could
+be seen, saved from the destructive ravages of time and
+wear, it would be pronounced scarcely perceptible in its
+progressive degrees&mdash;came creeping on, old age gradually
+insinuating itself in the mechanical part of the design.</p>
+
+<p>From 1725 to 1737 was a time forming a proportion
+of Stradivari's career during which, if he arouses less
+enthusiasm among his admirers for the "work of hand,"
+he outbalances it by far in exciting our astonishment at
+the man himself. In the year 1725, he was then eighty-one
+years of age, and his work, regarded from the
+standpoint of "periods" as given, or arbitrarily laid
+down by critics of the first half of the present century,
+was what is now known as just past the "golden" or
+"grand" period; that is, some signs of decadence in the
+finish of the instruments which he sent forth were for
+the first time becoming apparent. It is generally believed
+that Stradivari was still industriously engaged in constructing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+instruments of different kinds and sizes as
+before, and that his time was occupied to the full in producing
+works in rapid succession, as in an uninterrupted
+stream. That the first part of this was probably quite
+true we can readily agree to, also that the out-put was
+continuous. Both, however, will need a little qualification
+when the surrounding circumstances are carefully
+weighed. Allowing the master possession of unusual
+mental and physical powers, with zeal unabated at the
+period included within the dates 1725 and 1735, it would
+be too much for us to believe him capable of working
+with the certainty and celerity of former years; with all
+his extraordinary abilities he would now be a less prolific
+worker.</p>
+
+<p>This is in agreement with the number of works that
+have come down to us, and as the time advanced it
+became less and less until a veritable specimen of his
+latest period is extremely rare.</p>
+
+<p>It has before been referred to that the sons of
+Stradivari worked with him for many years. They
+must have, from continual practice, been able to fit
+their own workmanship on to the designs of their father
+to a nicety that could not be surpassed. Their own
+individual designs are very seldom seen, consequent, no
+doubt, on so much of their time being devoted to helping
+their father, and until his death they must have rarely
+made on their own account.</p>
+
+<p>There were other assistants who lent a helping hand in
+different branches of the work, among whom we will not
+omit mention of Carlo Bergonzi, a great master himself,
+but little inferior to Stradivari, and a good deal better
+than either of the sons.</p>
+
+<p>The circumstances under which Carlo Bergonzi
+worked in the Stradivari establishment are not known;
+it is by no means certain that he received his early
+tuition in the place, but that he became an influence of
+considerable weight admits of no question. Whether he
+worked on the premises, or&mdash;his own being at one time
+or other next door&mdash;was an outside help no data is to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+hand that we can rely on, certain it is that his talent
+must have been fully recognised by the younger Stradivaris
+as their work declares.</p>
+
+<p>Many years back there was some discussion about
+concerning the extent to which Carlo Bergonzi helped,
+or what part he undertook, if it were admitted that some
+of the Stradivari violins of the latest period were not
+entirely the work of the master. There was much said
+for and against the possibility or probability of there
+being any of Carlo Bergonzi's handiwork to be seen on
+any of the late Strads. No one seems to have questioned
+the presence of the influence of Bergonzi's style in the
+work of Franciscus Stradivari, the eldest of the sons, who,
+after labouring for many years on his father's moulds and
+patterns, might have reasonably been tempted to take a
+"leaf from the book" of such a master in designing as
+his friend and fellow-assistant, Carlo Bergonzi.</p>
+
+<p>To take any sort of hint from that wonderful,
+although fitful genius, Giuseppe Guarneri, working
+within earshot, was not to be entertained for a moment,
+as the style of workmanship, the calibre and quality
+of tone belonging to his manner, was quite opposed
+to Stradivarian teaching, and besides which there are no
+records or traditions indicating even usual social intercourse.
+We are therefore thrown upon our own resources
+in estimating any connection of Carlo Bergonzi with the
+late work of Antonio Stradivari. The instruments themselves
+will be the only guide and, without doubt, in the
+face of other evidence, had it been present, the best.
+Stradivari's work during the last ten or more years of his
+life was showing exactly what we should expect of the
+man when working at a patriarchal age. The stamp
+of the veteran handicraftsman may be traced not unfrequently
+on the works of other eminent makers of
+Cremona, including Andreas, Hieronymus, Nicolas, and
+his son Hieronymus and others down to the latest period
+of Cremonese art, when Laurentius Storioni was proving
+that if in its last struggles it was not quite dead.</p>
+
+<p>The distinguishing characteristics of old age work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+may be briefly summed up in a few words&mdash;heaviness in
+design and uncertainty of execution. Good, even
+brilliant, conceptions may be started on new work, but
+the execution of them shows weakness, or even inability
+to carry them out well. We will apply this as a kind of
+test when overlooking the specimens handed down to us
+as being the production of the great Cremonese master
+at the age of between eighty and ninety-three years of
+age. If doing this simply from the connoisseur's point
+of view, without admitting any such influences as
+present or past monetary value, former ownership, in
+short, thrusting aside all considerations of pedigree, we
+shall soon have to divide them into two sections, one of
+which will be acknowledged by all connoisseurs to be
+really representative of the true Stradivarian manner
+adhered to strictly through a long working career, but
+with the only fault of not quite so well being said of it.
+Thus the sound holes, as before referred to in the
+tracings, were becoming heavier at the lower part and
+with a tendency in other details towards ruggedness.
+The varnish has a thicker and less dainty aspect, although
+of excellent quality still, but there is an impression of
+heaviness. In the carving of the scroll the same
+character prevails, the edges of the turns are stouter and
+at the back the grooves down to the shell are less refined
+in their execution. All these little specialities of touch,
+but no modifications, are the natural manifestation of the
+peculiar physical condition of the master at a very
+advanced age.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now turn to the other section, that over some
+of which there is excellent reason for disputation, over
+others none.</p>
+
+<p>It will be readily acceded that Stradivari at no time
+during his career ever favoured any exaggeration of curve
+in the design of his sound holes, there was always present
+the indication of a desire for a fine balance of parts, in fact,
+his ideal seems always to have been that of increasing, if
+possible, the elegance of the Amati sound holes while
+adding to its substantial aspect.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>In some of what we have called the second section we
+find a lively, fine and rich transparent varnish such as
+Carlo Bergonzi was particularly an adept at; on the
+same instrument will be sound holes, that a moment's
+consideration will remove any hesitation as to the design
+being other than Carlo Bergonzi. As this remarkable
+artist had several types of sound holes, and no one
+knows how many subtypes, at his finger ends, a little
+knowledge of his two most opposite ones will bring at
+once to mind that he must have had a hand in no inconsiderable
+portion of what is called Stradivari's late
+work, as here is found the inclining inwards of his sound
+holes with the smaller upper part and heavier lower end.
+This will be found accompanied by the square looking
+upper part of the waist curve, the two things being
+alone almost sufficient to stamp the whole as being by
+Carlo Bergonzi, but here pedigree has stepped in and it
+was always called a Stradivari.</p>
+
+<p>This is the one type of sound holes which has to be
+placed aside for a moment; the other type is of an opposite
+kind and very often to be seen accompanying the longer
+looking pattern of Carlo Bergonzi: it is free in design,
+having the upper and lower wings fully developed, that
+is, the straight cut of the wing is of full length, this
+individuality coming from Stradivari.</p>
+
+<p>It is this portion of the details of the design that has
+led so many Students of the works of the Cremonese
+masters astray, they see the Stradivarian design, or we
+may call it peculiarity, and too hastily conclude as to its
+being the actual work of hand of the master. A little
+further consideration of the adjoining portions of the
+sound holes would bring to mind how little Stradivari was
+disposed towards any thinness of the opening out of the
+part leading from the wing to the nicks: if he had a tendency
+one way or the other, it would be towards more fulness,
+but his ideal being a beautiful equilibrium of all parts,
+this is clearly a point telling against the work as coming
+from his hand entirely. There is another part, too, that
+Stradivari seems to have most earnestly avoided, that of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+making the top portion of the sound hole design reach
+over towards the centre, somewhat after the tendency of
+Andrea Guarneri, this causes the lower part to seem
+turned up more suddenly, it is, however, only by contrast
+between the two parts that this is so. Carlo
+Bergonzi's sound holes are more sprightly and vertical,
+and with their more mature style should not be confused
+with those of the preceding maker. Here, then, are two
+distinct types of sound holes independently of those referred
+to of earlier periods, to be seen attached to violins
+that have perhaps through several generations of owners
+been attributed to Antonio Stradivari, and in consequence
+been sold again and again for large sums. Here is
+evidence of there being something in a name. Had
+these instruments been carefully and properly analysed,
+with a strict regard to the habit of the master in respect
+of intention in design and execution at early and later
+periods, the mistake would not have occurred. The
+conclusions rushed at seem to have been that there was
+the proper age of the instrument, the varnish was of fine
+Cremonese type, the pattern and sound holes thought to
+be "Straddy," therefore it must be a Stradivari.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, there is no obtainable evidence
+that these violins did not issue in new condition from
+Stradivari's atelier; we have in previous pages considered
+the amount of help at his elbow, and that this would be
+more and more called into requisition is but a reasonable
+conjecture: that it was actually the case is helped by the
+fact of violins being extant in which the age of the
+master is stated on the ticket&mdash;presumably written by
+himself. Possibly he felt some degree of pride in having
+accomplished, at the patriarchal age of about ninety
+years, work generally associated with the time and vigour
+of middle age. The existence of these violins, there may
+have been several more made than are known, has much
+significance, for the fact of his age being inserted may
+be fairly taken as indirect evidence not to be lightly put
+aside, that they were by himself looked upon as an
+accomplished work quite out of his usual way. Had he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+been constantly putting forth instruments made by his
+own hands, there would not have been anything unusual
+about them, but these, with date and age marked, seem
+to be a declaration of the master&mdash;see&mdash;I have made a
+violin at the age here stated! In these there is present
+exactly what would be expected in such work&mdash;indication
+of insufficiency of the physical powers for carrying into
+execution the dictates of the mental. The intellect of
+this wonder of humanity appears to have remained
+unclouded to the last.</p>
+
+<p>The other violins of about the same epoch, and going
+under the master's name, have a manner of work that
+ought to have been perceived as being also distinct.
+Mere hastiness or slovenliness of work is not identical
+with the effect of inability to achieve mechanical neatness.
+It is this slovenliness of handiwork which Carlo
+Bergonzi gave way to so frequently; he could, when
+in the humour, work beautifully; this, with his fine
+perception of elegance of line, was possibly the secret of
+his being admitted into the atelier of Stradivari and of
+his influence over the sons. There may have been other
+special particulars regarding him that helped in the
+matter of which there does not appear to be any record.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">CHAPTER IX.</span></p>
+
+<p class="subtitle"><span class="smcap">Evidences in Stradivari's Work of Old Age&mdash;His
+Death and Burial&mdash;Work Left by Him&mdash;The
+Advance in Value of His Work Since His
+Decease.</span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="cap">RETURNING to the analysis of the individuality
+of the mechanical work on the violins of the
+latest epoch of Stradivari, one or two further
+details are worth consideration. The size, style and
+tool work of the scroll have always been admitted to
+take up a large share in the estimation of evidence
+present for identification of authorship. In some of the
+late specimens of Stradivari we can see at once that the
+hand has become less firm, the bold turns seem to have
+lost much of their former vigorous expression, and
+although thick enough in edge are closer, and impress
+the connoisseur of the inability of the artificer to spend
+more time and attention than was absolutely necessary.
+The groove down the back to the shell is less refined
+than previously, besides being more heavily gouged at
+the termination. Almost in contrast with these parts
+there are seen on other "very late Strads" a neatly cut
+shell widening out a trifle and minus the thick edging;
+an examination of the turns of the scroll will reveal the
+fact of its having been gouged in quite a different
+manner, the declevity being more concave, the result of
+running the gouge along the course instead of towards
+the centre which was the manner of the Amatis. This
+hollowing out of the turns was so frequently done by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+Carlo Bergonzi that it might be called his most natural
+mode of treatment; we can here see what evidence
+there is of this maker's probable help in the work of his
+master. If we admit the possibility of these being
+entirely Antonio Stradivari's handiwork, then there were
+more phenomenal aspects of the master's working
+powers left for our consideration than he had hitherto
+given the slightest hint of during his extraordinarily
+long career.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/church.png" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption"> THE CHURCH OF ST. DOMENICO.</p>
+
+<p>Taking therefore all the facts at our command in connection
+with the circumstances of the time, and the
+artist himself with his extended life, sifting these carefully
+we find the residue left is,&mdash;that his working
+powers gradually lessened in a perfectly natural way and
+that such entire work as left his hands during the last
+few, say six or seven years was, taken at the best, small
+in quantity; they came forth as from the last flickering
+embers of a decaying power whose influence, bequeathed
+to the world at large, was destined to increase indefinitely
+and whose secrets were left unrevealed, to be sought for
+earnestly, but in vain, by generation after generation.</p>
+
+<p>Time, he with his hour glass, passing by the home of
+Antonio Stradivari in Cremona, found him full of years
+and honour among his own little world of friends and
+acquaintances, for beyond the borders of his country his
+name could have been known to few, and those only
+recognising him as a clever and successful practitioner
+in perhaps their own craft; his world wide fame had as
+yet received but a slight impetus when it became known
+that no more of the unapproachable gems of art were
+to issue from the unassuming house in the square of
+S. Domenico, Cremona.</p>
+
+<p>Antonio Stradivari died in his 94th year at Cremona
+on the 18th of December, 1737, and was buried in the
+chapel of the Rosary in the Church of San Domenico.
+This church was situated exactly opposite his house,
+where, standing at his door&mdash;as he must have done many
+a time&mdash;the tomb which was to be his final resting-place
+came directly on the line of vision in front of him, but
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>within the third recess or chapel past the intervening
+wall. So far as our scanty knowledge goes, there were
+no circumstances connected with his death that called
+for any special notice at the time. Possibly little more
+was remarked by the neighbours than that the aged
+musical instrument maker of the Piazza di San Domenico
+had died, and his two sons were to carry on the business.
+Perhaps none of them gave a thought to the immensely
+enhanced value of each of his works of art&mdash;or as they
+may have described them&mdash;the goods that he sold&mdash;that
+might be remaining two centuries forward.</p>
+
+<p>He had lived to an almost patriarchal age, over ninety-three
+years. It is rare to find in the world's history a
+leading light among professors of science or art completing
+such a career of almost incessant labour both
+mental and physical. It is still more so to find the work
+of such a genius, large as was the quantity, increasing
+in value by "leaps and bounds" as time progressed after
+his decease. Most probably at the present day&mdash;supposing
+there to be extant as much as one-eighth of what
+he put forth&mdash;and that may be very much over the mark,
+the market value of what is recognised as his handiwork
+would still be a very long way above that of the whole
+of the work put forth throughout his life. It is on record
+that when he died there were ninety violins remaining
+unsold. There may be several good reasons for this;
+among them the fact that Carlo Bergonzi and Joseph
+Guarneri were working in rivalry at the time, and bidding
+for public favour less on account of fine workmanship
+than force and magnificence of style and general aspect,
+and that public attention was to some extent diverted
+in their direction; further, and perhaps more cogent, the
+recognition of the great brilliancy and largeness of Joseph
+Guarneri's tone, that must have seemed to the musical
+cognoscenti of Cremona remarkably fresh and vigorous.</p>
+
+<p>But when the master had departed it was not long
+before the loss was seen to be irreparable. His work
+was sought for, there being none other of the kind to
+supply its place; further and further as time advanced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+it was becoming more and more evident that his like was
+not to be hoped for, notwithstanding the favour with
+which the public viewed the two rivals who were destined
+to work for a comparatively short period. When these
+two at last disappeared, it was a signal for another
+rise in the monetary value of Stradivari's work, and
+which was to continue progressing indefinitely until such
+time when there may be signs of an approaching
+renaissance.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">FOOTNOTE:</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> Our illustration of this house is from a photo. It will be
+noticed that it has not an imposing exterior and not much indication
+of the more spacious premises in the rear where the great
+master worked.</p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">ADVERTISEMENTS</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="u">ELEVENTH YEAR OF ISSUE.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>The Largest Circulation in the World of any paper amongst Violinists.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">THE STRAD</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>A Monthly Journal for Professionals and Amateurs of all
+Stringed Instruments played with the Bow.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center">Published on the First of every Month. Price 2d.,
+Annual Subscription, Post Free, 2s. 6d.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>THE STRAD</b> is the only recognised organ of the string family
+and has subscribers in every country of the civilised world. Our
+circulation has increased to so great an extent that we are enabled
+to engage as contributors</p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>THE LEADING WRITERS in the VIOLIN WORLD</b>.</p>
+
+<p><i>The following eminent Authors, Critics and Players are writing for the
+paper</i>: <span class="smcap">Basil Althaus, Esq.</span>, <span class="smcap">Arthur Broadley, Esq.</span>, <span class="smcap">Lancastrian</span>,
+<span class="smcap">Andre la Tarche, Esq.</span>, <span class="smcap">Robin H. Legge, Esq.</span>, <span class="smcap">J. Matthews,
+Esq.</span>, <span class="smcap">Walter H. Mayson, Esq.</span>, <span class="smcap">Rev. Meredith Morris</span>,
+<span class="smcap">Horace Petherick, Esq.</span>, <span class="smcap">Dr. T. L. Phipson</span>, <span class="smcap">E. van der
+Straeten, Esq.</span>, <span class="smcap">&amp;c., &amp;c.</span></p>
+
+<p><b>THE STRAD</b> contains technical articles by the leading artists.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE STRAD</b>, in the Answers to Correspondents column, gives
+minute information on every detail connected with the Violin by
+Experts.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE STRAD</b> gives all the important doings of Violinists at
+home and abroad all the year round.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE STRAD</b> gives early critical notices of all important New
+Music for Stringed Instruments, with numbers to show the grade
+of difficulty of every piece.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE STRAD</b> gives every month a beautifully executed portrait
+on fine art paper, of some leading celebrity in the violin world,
+together with a biographical sketch.</p>
+
+<p>Now appearing,</p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>VIOLIN MAKING.</b> <span class="smcap">By Walter H. Mayson.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Copiously Illustrated.</i></p>
+
+<p>This important work goes minutely into every detail of the
+Luthier's Art, and is the only work on Violin Making that has
+ever been actually written by a Violin Maker.</p>
+
+<p>This series of articles commenced in the January issue, 1900.</p>
+
+<p>All Subscriptions, Advertisements, etc., to be addressed to the
+Manager, <span class="smcap">Harry Lavender</span>, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue,
+London, E.C.</p>
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">London</span>:</p>
+
+<p class="center">"STRAD" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="u">"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. I.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Crown 8vo., Cloth, 2/6, Post Free, 2/9.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>"THE STRAD" LIBRARY EDITION is the only Authorised Edition of</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">Technics of Violin Playing</span></p>
+<p class="center">ON<br/>
+JOACHIM'S METHOD</p>
+
+<p class="center">BY<br/>
+<span class="big">CARL COURVOISIER.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center">With Folding Plates, Containing Fifteen Illustrations.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<p class="center"><span class="big">LETTER FROM DR. JOACHIM</span></p>
+
+<p class="center">[<span class="smcap">Copy</span>].</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">My Dear Mr. Courvoisier</span>: I have read the book on Violin
+Playing you have sent me, and have to congratulate you sincerely
+on the manner in which you have performed a most difficult task,
+<i>i.e.</i>, to describe the best way of arriving at a correct manner of playing
+the violin.</p>
+
+<p>It cannot but be welcome to thoughtful teachers, who reflect on
+the method of our art, and I hope that your work will prove useful
+to many students.</p>
+
+<p>Believe me, my dear Mr. Courvoisier, to be most faithfully yours,</p>
+
+<p class="right">JOSEPH JOACHIM.</p>
+
+<p>Berlin, November 3rd, 1894.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>The New and Revised Edition of "Technics of Violin Playing"
+issued by <span class="smcap">The Strad</span> is the only authorised edition of my work.
+The several English editions which have all appeared without my
+knowledge are <i>incomplete</i> and <i>faulty</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="right">CARL COURVOISIER.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">London</span>:<br/>
+"STRAD" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="u">"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. II.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Crown 8vo., Cloth, 2/6, Post Free, 2/9.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">HOW TO STUDY THE VIOLIN</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="big">By J. T. CARRODUS</span></p>
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p class="center"><span class="big">CONTENTS.</span></p>
+
+<p>Strings and Tuning. The Bow and Bowing. Faults and their
+Correction. Scales and their Importance. Course of Study.
+Advice on Elementary Matters. Concerning Harmonics, Octaves,
+etc. Orchestral Playing. Some Experiences as a Soloist. With
+full page portraits of Carrodus, Molique, Paganini, Spohr, Sivori,
+De Beriot, Blagrove and Sainton, and a photo-reproduction of Dr.
+Spohr's testimonial to Carrodus.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<p>"An interesting series of articles 'How to Study the Violin,' which
+Carrodus contributed to <span class="smcap">The Strad</span>, and completed only a week or
+two before his death, have now been collected in cheap book form.
+The technical hints to violin students, which are practical, plainly
+worded, and from such a pen most valuable."&mdash;<i>Daily News.</i></p>
+
+<p>"But a few weeks before his sudden death the most distinguished
+of native violinists completed in <span class="smcap">The Strad</span> a series of chats to
+students of the instrument associated with his name. These
+chats are now re-issued, with a sympathetic preface and instructive
+annotations. All who care to listen to what were
+virtually the last words of such a conscientious teacher will
+recognise the pains taken by Carrodus to render every detail as clear
+to the novice as to the advanced pupil. Pleasant gossip concerning
+provincial festivals at which Carrodus was for many years 'leader,'
+of the orchestra, ends a little volume worthy a place in musical
+libraries both for its practical value and as a memento of the life-work
+of an artist universally esteemed."&mdash;<i>Daily Chronicle.</i></p>
+
+<p>"It is surely, hardly necessary to direct the attention of students
+to the unique value of the hints and advice given by so experienced
+and accomplished a virtuoso as the late Mr. Carrodus, so that it only
+remains to state that the 'Recollections' make delightful reading,
+and that the book, as a whole, is as entertaining as it is instructive.
+The value of the <i>brochure</i> is enhanced by an excellent portrait of Mr.
+Carrodus, as well as of a number of other violin worthies, and the
+printing, paper, and get up generally are good as could possibly
+be."&mdash;<i>Musical Answers.</i></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">London</span>:<br/>
+"STRAD" OFFICE, 3, <span class="smcap">Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="u">"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. III.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Crown 8vo., Cloth 2/6, Post Free 2/9.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">THE BOW</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="big">Its History, Manufacture and Use</span></p>
+
+<p class="center">BY<br/>
+<span class="big">HENRY SAINT-GEORGE.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center">With Full Page Illustrations (exact size) by Photo Process.</p>
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p>MONS. EMILE SAURET writes&mdash;"I have read it with great
+interest, and think that it supplies a real want in giving musicians
+such an excellent description of all matters referring to this
+important instrument."</p>
+
+<p>SIGNOR GUIDO PAPINI writes&mdash;"Thanks so much for your
+splendid and interesting book. You are quite successful and all the
+artists and amateurs are indebted to you for a so exact and correct
+'<i>Texte</i>' on the subject."</p>
+
+<p>ADOLF BRODSKY writes&mdash;"I am delighted with the book and
+find it very instructive, even for those who think to know everything
+about the bow. It is very original and at times very amusing. No
+violinist should miss the opportunity to buy it."</p>
+
+<p>THE TIMES.&mdash;"A useful treatise on the Bow, in which the
+history, manufacture and use of the bow are discussed with considerable
+technical knowledge."</p>
+
+<p>DAILY TELEGRAPH.&mdash;"To the student there is much of
+interest in the work, which has the advantage of being copiously
+illustrated."</p>
+
+<p>DAILY NEWS.&mdash;"This book seems practically to exhaust its
+subject."</p>
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">London</span>:<br/>
+"STRAD" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="u">"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. IV.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Crown 8vo., Cloth 5/-, Post Free 5/4.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">CELEBRATED VIOLINISTS,<br/>
+PAST AND PRESENT</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Translated from the German of</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="big">A. EHRLICH.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>And Edited with Notes and Additions by</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="big">ROBIN H. LEGGE.</span></p>
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<p class="center"><i>WITH EIGHTY-NINE PORTRAITS.</i></p>
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p class="center"><span class="big">PRESS NOTICES.</span></p>
+
+<p>"Those who love their fiddles better than their fellows, and
+who treasure up every detail that can be found and recorded about
+their favourite and cherished players will not fail to provide themselves
+with a copy of this book."&mdash;<i>Musical Opinion.</i></p>
+
+<p>"This book of 280 pages is a most interesting and valuable
+addition to the violinist's library. It contains 89 biographical
+sketches of well-known artists, ancient and modern, of all nations.
+This is not intended to be a perfect dictionary of violinists; the aim
+of the Editor of the present volume being merely to give a few more
+up-to-date details concerning some of the greatest of stringed instrument
+players, and we must concede that no name of the first
+importance has been omitted. Germany is represented by 21 names,
+Italy by 13, France by 10, England by 4, Bohemia by 8, Belgium by
+7, and the fair sex by seven well-known ladies, such as Teresina
+Tua, Therèse and Marie Milanollo, Lady Hallé, Marie Soldat,
+Gabrielle Wietrowetz, and Arma Senkrah. Altogether this is most
+agreeable reading to the numerous army of violinists, both professionals
+and amateurs, and after careful examination we can find
+nothing but praise for this translation into English of a book well-known
+on the Continent."&mdash;<i>The Piano, Organ and Music Trades
+Journal.</i></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">London</span>:<br/>
+"STRAD" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="u">"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. V.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Crown 8vo., Cloth 2/6, Post Free 2/9.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">TECHNICS OF<br/>
+VIOLONCELLO PLAYING</span></p>
+
+<p class="center">BY<br/>
+<span class="big">E. VAN DER STRAETEN.</span></p>
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<p class="center">COPIOUSLY ILLUSTRATED.</p>
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<p><i>Copy of Letter received by the Author from the great 'cellist,<br/>
+SIGNOR ALFRED PIATTI.</i></p>
+
+<p class="right">Cadenabbia, Lake of Como, March 9th, 1898.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dear Sir</span>,&mdash;I received the book you kindly sent me on "The
+Technics of Violoncello Playing," which I found excellent, particularly
+for beginners, which naturally was your scope. With many
+thanks for kindly remembering an old ex-violoncello player.</p>
+
+<p class="right">Believe me, yours sincerely,<br />
+ALFRED PIATTI.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Copy of Letter received by the Author from the eminent 'cellist,<br/>
+HERR DAVID POPPER.</i></p>
+
+<p class="right">Budapest, February 22nd, 1898.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dear Sir</span>,&mdash;In sending me your book on "The Technics of
+Violoncello Playing" you have given me a real and true pleasure.
+I know of no work, tutors and studies not excepted, which presents
+so much valuable material, so much that is absolutely to the point,
+avoiding&mdash;I might say, on principle&mdash;all that is superfluous and dispensable.
+Every earnest thinking violoncello student will in future
+make your book his own and thereby receive hints which will
+further and complete the instructions of his master.</p>
+
+<p>I congratulate you and ourselves most heartily on the new violoncello
+book. With kind regards,</p>
+
+<p class="right">Yours most sincerely,<br />
+
+DAVID POPPER.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">London</span>:<br/>
+"STRAD" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="u">"THE STRAD LIBRARY," No. VI.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Crown 8vo., Cloth, 2/6, Post Free 2/9.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">VIOLIN PLAYING</span></p>
+
+<p class="center">BY<br/>
+<span class="big">JOHN DUNN</span></p>
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p class="center"><span class="big">CONTENTS</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Introductory</span>&mdash;Qualities indispensable to the ideal Violinist&mdash;Hints
+on the Choice of a Teacher&mdash;Some Tricks of pretending
+professors exposed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">On the Choice of a Violin and Bow</span>&mdash;Advice regarding general
+adjustment and repairs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">On the Choice of Strings</span>&mdash;Stringing the Instrument and
+keeping the Pegs in Order.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">On the General Posture</span>&mdash;The manner of holding the Violin
+and Bow as accepted by the leading artists of the day.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">On Fingering Generally</span>&mdash;The various positions&mdash;Scales
+recommended&mdash;The Modern Orchestral "Principal" or (so-called)
+Leader.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">On Gliding</span>&mdash;Special Characteristics of some of the most
+Eminent Players.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Double Stopping</span>&mdash;The main difficulty in Double Stopping&mdash;How
+to gain independence of Finger.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bowings</span>&mdash;Smooth Bowings&mdash;Solid Staccato&mdash;Spiccato&mdash;Spring
+Bow&mdash;Mixed Bowings.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tone Production</span>&mdash;Character of Tone&mdash;Rules and Conditions
+necessary to produce a good tone&mdash;Style and Expression.</p>
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">London</span>:<br/>
+"STRAD" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="u">"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. VII.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Crown 8vo, Cloth, 2/6, Post Free 2/9.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">CHATS TO 'CELLO STUDENTS</span></p>
+
+<p class="center">BY<br/>
+<span class="big">ARTHUR BROADLEY.</span></p>
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p class="center">CONTENTS.</p>
+
+<p>Preliminary remarks&mdash;'Cello Difficult to Master&mdash;Choice of a
+Teacher&mdash;Choice of an Instrument and Bow. How to Hold the
+Instrument&mdash;Attitude of the Player&mdash;Use of a Sliding Pin Recommended&mdash;Correct
+Way of Holding the Bow&mdash;Some Incorrect
+Sketches of Same. General Knowledge&mdash;Eccentricity not Necessarily
+a Mark of Genius&mdash;Musical Notation&mdash;Common Errors
+with Respect to the Actual Position of the Various Clefs&mdash;Tenor
+Clef Indispensable to the 'Cellist. Early Attempts at 'Cello Playing&mdash;Firmness
+in Fingering&mdash;The Left Hand&mdash;Correct Method of
+Placing the Left Hand Fingers. General Remarks on Bowing&mdash;Useful
+Method of Combining Scale Practice with Study of Various
+Bowings&mdash;Smooth Bowings&mdash;Crescendo&mdash;Diminuendo&mdash;The Slur.
+Bowing Continued&mdash;Martelé&mdash;Detached Stroke&mdash;Mixed Bowings&mdash;The
+Various Divisions of the Bow. On "Staccato" Bowing-Spiccato&mdash;Slurred
+Springing-Bow&mdash;Varieties of Phrasing Occasioned
+by the Portion of Bow Used&mdash;Sautillé&mdash;Dotted Notes. On the
+Positions&mdash;The Individual Requirements of the Orchestral Player
+and Soloist&mdash;The Necessity of "Stretching" for the Intervals&mdash;Locality
+of the Neck Positions&mdash;The Enharmonic Difference of
+Sharp and Flat Keys&mdash;Absolute Pitch&mdash;How to Leap any Awkward
+Interval&mdash;The Positions not Determined by Mathematical Rules,
+but by the "Ear"&mdash;Shifting&mdash;"Economy of Motion" <i>v.</i> "Effect"&mdash;Choice
+of Positions. Portamento&mdash;The Various Uses of Gilding&mdash;Some
+Exaggerations Exposed&mdash;How to Leap Great Intervals
+without "Howling"&mdash;Combination of Glissando and Sforzando.
+Double-Stopping&mdash;Useful in Developing the Hand&mdash;How to
+Determine the Fingering of Various Intervals&mdash;Gliding in Double
+Stops&mdash;Chords&mdash;A Correct Manner of Playing Chords. Arpeggios&mdash;Their
+Evolution from Various Chords&mdash;The Bowing of Arpeggios.
+Graces and Embellishments&mdash;The Use of the Thumb&mdash;Extensions&mdash;Octaves.
+Scientific Basis of Harmonics&mdash;Some Peculiar Laws
+which Govern a Vibrating String&mdash;"Natural" and "Artificial"
+Harmonics&mdash;Manner of Bowing Harmonics&mdash;Special Effects&mdash;"Trick
+Staccato"&mdash;Various Methods of Producing Chromatic Scale
+Passages&mdash;"Sul Ponticello" Bowing and "Bowed" Harmonics&mdash;Flautando&mdash;Pizzicato
+Glide and Grace Notes! Delivery&mdash;Style&mdash;"Form"
+<i>v.</i> "Feeling"&mdash;Conception&mdash;Essentials of a "Fine"
+Delivery&mdash;Orchestral Playing.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">London</span>:<br/>
+"STRAD" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:</span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inconsistencies in spelling and hypenation have been retained from the original.</span></p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Obvious typographical errors have been corrected as follows:</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Page&nbsp;&nbsp; 3: <i>occured</i> changed to <i>occurred</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Page 22: <i>be</i> changed to <i>he</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Page 31: <i>connoissiers</i> changed to <i>connoisseurs</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Page 39: <i>ignominous</i> changed to <i>ignominious</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Page 60: <i>Guadaguini</i> changed to <i>Guadagnini</i></span></p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Page numbers in the <i>List of Plates</i> for the ILLUSTRATIONS OF SCROLLS have been retained, but illustrations have been moved to be next to the paragraph in which they are referred.</span></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Antonio Stradivari, by Horace William Petherick
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+</html>
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+Project Gutenberg's Antonio Stradivari, by Horace William Petherick
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Antonio Stradivari
+
+Author: Horace William Petherick
+
+Release Date: June 26, 2011 [EBook #36535]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANTONIO STRADIVARI ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Linda Cantoni, David E. Brown, Bryan Ness and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  ANTONIO STRADIVARI.
+
+
+
+
+  PRINTED BY E. SHORE AND CO.,
+
+  3, GREEN TERRACE, ROSEBERY AVENUE, LONDON, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: HORACE PETHERICK.]
+
+
+
+
+  _"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. VIII._
+
+
+  ANTONIO STRADIVARI,
+
+  BY
+  HORACE PETHERICK.
+
+  _Of the Music Jury, International Inventions Exhibition,
+  South Kensington, 1885; International Exhibition,
+  Edinburgh, 1890; Expert in Law Courts, 1891;
+  Vice-President of the Cremona Society._
+
+  COPYRIGHT.
+
+  London:
+  "THE STRAD" OFFICE, 3. GREEN TERRACE, ROSEBERY AVENUE, E.C.
+  E. DONAJOWSKI, 26, CASTLE STREET, BERNERS STREET, W.
+  D. R. DUNCAN, 186, FLEET STREET, E.C.
+
+  1900
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  Date and Place of Birth of Antonio Stradivari--His Instructor
+    in the Art of Violin Making--Peculiarity of His Early
+    Work, Nothing Striking, but Slowly Progressive--Which
+    of the Designs of His Master He was Most Impressed
+    by, and His Own Modifications for Improvement--His
+    Departure from the House of His Master Free to Carry
+    Out His Own Inclinations                                           1
+
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+  Details of Further Improvements upon His New Designs--Modification
+    of the Soundholes--The Amati Varnish and
+    Stradivari's--His Secrecy of Method in Working--His
+    Knowledge of What was Wanted and Efforts at Advance
+    in Tone Quality                                                    8
+
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+  The Date of the True Stradivarian Individuality--Alterations
+    in Design--Proportions Settled for Good--The Exceptions--The
+    "Long Strad"--The "Inlaid Strads"--An
+    Acknowledged Master of His Art--Black Edging--The
+    Arching and Channelling--The Brescians, the Amatis and
+    Stradivari                                                        13
+
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+
+  Lesser Known Patterns of Stradivari--The Treatment of the
+    Scroll by Him--The Individuality and Maturing of the
+    Style--The Purfling                                               19
+
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+
+  Stradivari's Great Success--His So-called "Grand Epoch"--His
+    Patrons--His Violins Reputed for Tone when Quite
+    New and Sought After--The Help He Received--His
+    Assistants and Pupils--Parts of the Work Requiring His
+    Individual Touch--The Members of His Family who may
+    have Assisted Him--Stradivari's Varnish--His Imitators            22
+
+
+  CHAPTER VI.
+
+  Some Modifications in Stradivari's Works--Variation in Finish
+    of Details--The Interior of His Violins--The Blocks and
+    Linings--The Bar--Thicknesses of the Tables--Heads or
+    Scrolls of His Different Periods                                  42
+
+
+  CHAPTER VII.
+
+  Stradivari's Tone and System--Those of His Pupils and
+    Assistants--Qualities of Tone Produced in Different
+    Localities                                                        56
+
+
+  CHAPTER VIII.
+
+  The Reputed Golden Period of Stradivari Late in Life--His
+    Later Modifications of Design--Signs of Old Age Appearing--The
+    Help He Received                                                  70
+
+
+  CHAPTER IX.
+
+  Evidences in Stradivari's Work of Old Age--His Death and
+    Burial--Work Left by Him--The Advance in Value of His
+    Work Since His Decease                                            79
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF PLATES.
+
+
+  PORTRAIT OF HORACE PETHERICK                           _Frontispiece_.
+
+  PORTRAIT OF ANTONIO STRADIVARI                       _To face page_  1
+
+  THE HOUSE OF STRADIVARI                                  "     "     4
+
+  STRADIVARI'S WORKSHOP                                    "     "     6
+
+  PATTERNS OF VIOLINS                                          _page_  6
+
+  ILLUSTRATIONS OF SOUNDHOLES                          _To face page_ 48
+
+  ILLUSTRATIONS OF SCROLLS, FIG. _a._                      "     "    50
+
+      "         "     "     FIG. _b._                      "     "    52
+
+      "         "     "     FIG. _c._                      "     "    54
+
+      "         "     "     FIG. _d._                      "     "    56
+
+  CHURCH OF ST. DOMENICO, CREMONA                          "     "    80
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+It was in the month of April, 1898, when THE STRAD monthly magazine had
+completed its eighth year of issue, that the Editor Suggested that then
+might be an appropriate time for giving a biographical sketch of the
+great Cremonese master in serial form, expressed in a manner interesting
+and instructive as possible. With this view I took up the subject with
+some enthusiasm and proposed to work upon lines which I believed to be
+bound by truth. All references to peculiarities in connection with
+Stradivari's designs, construction and purposes should be the result of
+my own personal observation during many years of experience as
+connoisseur and expert. In formulating my results of study of a great
+number--possibly the majority--of the instruments of the master
+extant--I have abstained as far as possible from using technical terms
+not readily comprehended by a reader coming newly to the subject, and I
+trust all persons reading through the matter now collected, added to,
+and presented in book form, will find their time not mis-spent at least
+when they arrive at the conclusion.
+
+                                  HORACE PETHERICK.
+  Croydon.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+It was during the second half of the sixteenth century that the violin,
+with its well recognised combined excellences of artistic form and
+musical sonority, was started on its way in the world to supply a want
+and prove its fitness as a leading instrument at once and for future
+times. So happily was this effected, so complete and mature was it in
+conception, that the advancing intellect of three centuries has proved
+incompetent to insert any fresh and permanent addition to its original
+simple arrangement. Precisely as it came from the hands of an artistic
+and inventive genius in the city of Brescia so we have it now, unchanged
+in its essential details of construction, although having its natural
+qualities made more evident after undergoing the modern adjustment with
+regard to accessories of detail, or regulation as it is termed. This has
+been effected by simply enlarging some parts for the purpose of allowing
+more freedom and convenience in the execution of more modern music, its
+elaboration of rhythm, besides the extended range of notes in the higher
+positions of the register, necessitating this. As might have been
+expected in connection with the then still living Renaissance period, on
+the violin making its appearance it was soon taken in hand by men of
+superlative talent, who stamped it with their own individuality in which
+was a marvellous perception of artistic quality. All that was to be
+done by means of proportion, form and colour, not setting aside the
+essentials of refined sonority, were combined, each aiding in the grand
+total and producing that known and so much sought after at the present
+day--a beautiful Italian violin. For about a century or more many
+Italian liutaros were busily engaged in sending forth under competition
+works which are now by the cognoscenti treated as unrivalled excellence
+of quality, classical, and the outcome of genius. Each worker being
+anxious to maintain the standard of excellence, or take a step forward
+in the practice of their art, the culminating point seems to have been
+reached when the artist under consideration in the following pages was
+executing his masterpieces in Cremona.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: ANTONIO STRADIVARI.]
+
+
+
+
+ANTONIO STRADIVARI.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+DATE AND PLACE OF BIRTH OF ANTONIO STRADIVARI--HIS INSTRUCTOR IN THE
+  ART OF VIOLIN MAKING--PECULIARITY OF HIS EARLY WORK, NOTHING
+  STRIKING, BUT SLOWLY PROGRESSIVE--WHICH OF THE DESIGNS OF HIS MASTER
+  HE WAS MOST IMPRESSED BY, AND HIS OWN MODIFICATIONS FOR
+  IMPROVEMENT--HIS DEPARTURE FROM THE HOUSE OF HIS MASTER, FREE TO
+  CARRY OUT HIS OWN INCLINATIONS.
+
+
+The year 1614, although not particularly noticeable at the time for its
+portentous events, was destined to be one of considerable interest to
+those who are enthusiastic lovers of the delightful quality of sound
+emitted by a certain section--and that only--of a class of stringed
+instruments which have made the city of Cremona famous throughout the
+civilised world. For in that city and in that year was born a male
+child, whose surname was eventually to eclipse by its own refulgence the
+renown of the city itself. Its paternal name was Stradivari, people
+trouble themselves very little about the prefix Antonio, common enough
+in Italy, and which was the Christian name given him by his parents. Of
+these we can only say, that as might be supposed, they were of a
+respectable portion of the middle class socially considered and from
+which have sprung all over the world--with few exceptions--the greatest
+luminaries of the whole firmament of intellect.
+
+Of his private life during manhood we know very little, of his boyhood
+nothing. But we may fairly and truly draw our conclusions that as the
+time arrived when he was supposed fit for training to fight life's
+battle, he had already exhibited talent indicative of fitness for that
+artistic branch of industry in which he was hereafter to be the
+world-wide acknowledged head.
+
+That his special abilities were thoroughly recognised by his parents
+receives much emphasis from the fact of his being offered to, and
+received as pupil by, Nicolas Amati, greatest of that great family of
+stringed instrument makers. Young Antonio was thus placed in the most
+favourable situation possible for the fructifying and development of his
+own particular talents. That portion of his life which was spent with
+the great master of line in violin facture, will, probably, in its
+details always remain a blank to us: but there is a lightning like flash
+thrown out by the fact of old Nicolas Amati bequeathing his collection
+of tools, patterns, etc., to Antonio Stradivari, and, be it noticed, not
+to his own son, then over thirty years of age. That the future master of
+his craft had been a steady and beloved pupil of his great teacher,
+there is no room for doubt; indeed, steadiness, fixity of purpose and
+honest intention, are manifested in his work during the whole of his
+career. The earliest of his handiwork has become known to us while he
+was with Nicolas Amati. In this he exhibits extreme delicacy of
+handling, and seemingly, in the confidence of his master, certain little
+modifications in the design of the sound holes were permitted, or
+perhaps passed as improvements, but there is nothing eccentric or
+extravagant introduced, a gentle addition, or a trifle less here and
+there, being the way in which he ever cautiously worked out his idea of
+improvement, and this latter seems to have been the moving spirit during
+his whole life.
+
+At no time do we meet with sudden departures, or what are sometimes
+termed flashes of genius--the onward progress of his style of design
+and its execution was as unimpassioned as his life was uneventful. When
+we examine the earliest known work of his hand--it may be observed on
+some of the late violins of his master--there is plainly perceptible the
+efforts at excelling where at all possible; and if, as is extremely
+probable--his master was sometimes desirous that the purfling should be
+somewhat bolder than was to the taste of his refined pupil, this was
+inserted with a delicacy and precision beyond what had been before
+deemed the acme of finish.
+
+His departure from the house of Nicolas Amati had to be taken some day
+in the ordinary course of events, and he would then act alone in
+competition among the growing swarms of makers who were now busy as bees
+in most parts of Italy. The start is generally reckoned to have occurred
+between the years 1664 and 1666, it may have been in 1665, when he had
+reached his twenty-first year.
+
+That old Nicolas Amati was right in his estimate that young Antonio
+Stradivari's natural abilities augured well for his success
+as a liutaro, was now to be proven. With the best possible
+recommendation--that of being trained by the most distinguished maker of
+the city--he carried others no less necessary for the long course of
+thought and labour that he was about to enter upon. These were, an
+earnest desire for improvement in all his undertakings, natural,
+indigenous ability for tasteful design and its mechanical execution and
+the power of steady concentration of the faculties, backed up withal by
+a sound, physical constitution in which "nerves of iron" must have been
+a conspicuous element.
+
+To those who at the time may have been looking forward with some
+speculation as to what young Stradivari would put forth now that his
+course was free and untrammelled before him, there was probably some
+disappointment at finding no signs of striking originality, no spasmodic
+struggles of genius to assert itself by throwing aside those
+individualities, general and detailed, which were so well marked in the
+work of his great teacher, and which as pupil he had been studiously
+and conscientiously carrying out. On the contrary, his efforts seem to
+have been rather to draw the mantle thrown by his master closer around
+him than to dispense with any part of its protective power. Thus we see
+in his works of this period which have remained to us, very little more
+than replicas of those of his master in which he for some years perhaps
+had taken no inconsiderable part. But in doing this, the intention and
+power of selection guided by sound judgment at once asserted itself. He
+did not take that pattern known to us moderns by the name of "grand,"
+and which term was in all likelihood quite unthought of by either
+himself or his master. Who invented it is a question that may be left
+complacently to the bookworm of the future.
+
+[Illustration: THE HOUSE OF ANTONIO STRADIVARI.]
+
+There is really nothing in the so-called "grand" pattern of Nicolas
+Amati that seems to agree happily with that title, it is, on the other
+hand, one in which the love of dainty elegance of contour has been
+allowed almost unrestricted play by its author, and to an extent
+undreamt of before. He perceived, however, that there was a limit, a
+step further, and disaster would be certain; Nicolas was sufficiently
+wide awake not to take it, but left it for his hosts of imitators, many
+of whom, not gifted with the same perspicuity, "rushed in where angels
+fear to tread," their just reward being laughter and derision. The
+attainment of elegance at the expense of strength and stability was not
+at all in agreement with Stradivari's artistic tastes, and we
+accordingly have no evidence of his having touched the so-called "Grand
+Amati;" that which he did take up with was less complex in the
+subdivision of its curves, and a more simple looking thing altogether.
+To him it may have seemed to have more of the true characteristic
+quality always accompanying the grand in art, that of simplicity. It was
+this pattern, and this only, so far as our information goes--that
+Stradivari took as the basis on which any future developments should be
+grounded. He worked upon it for some time seemingly to his own
+contentment and probably the satisfaction of his patrons, these being
+sufficiently numerous and influential to enable him ere many years had
+passed to think of purchasing a house.[A] This he accomplished in the
+year 1680, when he was thirty-six years of age. Now be it noted
+Stradivari had been working on the simplest of Amati patterns for
+fourteen years, and during that time from his steady industry the number
+of violins, besides other instruments of the family, which left his
+atelier must have been very large. The similarity in type and regularity
+of excellence in finished workmanship was almost enough to have
+impressed the connoisseurs of the day that there was no originality or
+speculation in the maker, but it was just about this time that the
+independency of thought began to manifest itself; it was almost as if
+the acquisition of the freehold property had stimulated the
+self-reliance which had no doubt always been present, but which was now
+to show itself more clearly in his art. He had been in practise long and
+successfully enough to give a right claim to mastership. The veteran
+Nicolas Amati, who was now over eighty years of age, had probably been
+doing little or nothing for some time, and so his pupil, with all his
+admiration for the retiring chief, felt at full liberty to do really as
+he liked.
+
+[Illustration: STRADIVARI'S WORKSHOP.]
+
+  [Our illustration of Stradivari's atelier is from a painting by
+  Rinaldi, the sketch for which was made on the premises. The church
+  of St. Domenico, Cremona, was demolished some twenty years since and
+  our illustration is from a photo taken just before the event. The
+  Chapel of the Rosary, being the place where Antonio Stradivari was
+  interred, is the one below and to the right of the tower and lighter
+  in colour than the others.]
+
+[Illustration: No. 1. Grand Nicolas Amati. No. 2. Nicolas Amati pattern
+of Stradivari. No. 3. First independent pattern of Stradivari.]
+
+The step he took, insignificant enough to the casual observer now, must
+have been equally so then, but proved one of the most important ever
+taken in this branch of art, considering the restraints necessarily
+encompassing any efforts at original design. This is perhaps the more
+evident when the main features of the Amati designs and others of the
+time are analysed. It will be seen that the upper and lower thirds of
+the design have much in common with each other, and that the middle or
+waist partakes also of the same characteristics, the whole being a
+series of full rounded curves, varied as required, to harmonise and
+flow with ease and grace to the squared corners. The slightest possible
+narrowing or decrease in the size of the upper of the waist curve and a
+corresponding enlargement of the lower part, served in the hands of
+Stradivari to impart a different aspect to the whole pattern. The waist,
+now less pinched in at the middle, looked longer without being really
+so. The parts above the upper corners and those below the lower ones
+were modified, the large curves becoming a little flatter just before
+blending with the smaller ones. From these alterations, each one
+trifling in itself, there resulted what may be called the first or
+earliest Stradivari pattern; in it were the germs of all the succeeding
+ones that contributed more and more to the fame of their designer as
+they appeared. The natural caution or indisposition to throw aside one
+pattern before a fair trial of the newest had proved acceptable to his
+numerous patrons, was possibly the cause of Stradivari's running the
+older designs alongside the newest creations of his fancy. Thus we find
+that mixed with the innovations are what he might have called his old
+Amati pattern, probably off the same moulds that he had used when first
+starting in business on his own account, or even before.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+DETAILS OF FURTHER IMPROVEMENTS UPON HIS NEW DESIGNS--MODIFICATION
+  OF THE SOUND HOLES--THE AMATI VARNISH AND STRADIVARI'S--HIS SECRECY
+  OF METHOD IN WORKING--HIS KNOWLEDGE OF WHAT WAS WANTED, AND EFFORTS
+  AT ADVANCE IN TONE QUALITY.
+
+
+Leaving the consideration in general of the designs of Stradivari's
+early days, that is, for such a long life, we may look over some of the
+details. It is well known to connoisseurs that the handiwork of Nicolas
+Amati was during his best days of the utmost delicacy; in his later work
+we notice an approach to heaviness in some respects. The very beautiful
+subdivisions and subtleties of the curves in pattern and modelling began
+to disappear and the purfling became bolder. Young Stradivari, when
+working on some of his master's violins, seems to have been allowed to
+do some of this, probably with the material given out by old Nicolas.
+The work of the young man may be known by its greater decision, such as
+would be reasonably expected; but after leaving the Amati household the
+natural bent towards exceeding refinement soon asserted itself. The
+purfling, particularly after some years, is narrower, and inserted with
+a precision and ease in its course impossible to excel, even if
+approachable. The mitring at the corners ends in a bent point in the
+manner introduced by Hieronymus Amati and not, as has been stated, by
+Stradivari; the latter carried out the ideas of Nicolas in making it
+very sharp and this mannerism he continued throughout the whole of his
+career.
+
+Stradivari from the first made his sound holes more perpendicular than
+those of his master; after leaving him, they also became more slender
+and the upper and lower wings wider and closer to the opposing curve.
+The precision and sharpness of the cutting of these parts has become the
+standard of excellence to which hundreds of Stradivari's imitators of
+different countries and times have striven to attain. It is, perhaps, in
+these parts of the different instruments--for Stradivari soon got to
+work on all the four sizes, besides other kinds not played with the
+bow--that his fine nervous system manifests itself, the sureness of his
+knife when passing along from one point to another leaving an edge
+upright and clean as cut glass, yet with a free grace of line never
+excelled by any master of the renaissance period.
+
+Of the parts the young assistant of Nicolas Amati was allowed to put his
+individuality to, conspicuously stands the scroll. The one typical of
+Nicolas's later days, although free and elegant, yet had a somewhat
+heavier touch about it, possibly the master was gradually losing his
+muscular power, more necessary to exert in this matter of detail than
+any other. Stradivari began his own type by bringing the first turn from
+the axis or "eye" a little higher up than that of his master; the axis
+itself is a trifle larger and flatter, the edges of the turns are
+squared off with a machine-like exactness that does not interfere with
+the ease and flow of line. The peg box is strong and ample, after a few
+years it became massive, more so occasionally than is to be met with at
+any other time, the grooves down the back are not so deep, the
+termination or shell likewise and a little wider.
+
+That Nicolas Amati would by any possibility neglect to duly initiate his
+favourite pupil in the mysteries and secrecies whereby his work should
+receive its final crowning adornment, its envelopment in the thin film
+of glory, is not to be thought of. The lustrous solution that was so
+fitting an accompaniment to the dainty designs of the Amatis, was from
+the first handled with a masterly dexterity and perfect knowledge by
+Stradivari. Most of the early work is covered with the orange or amber
+colour that were the prevailing tints on the early productions of the
+brothers Amati as well as Nicolas. It is somewhat curious that most of
+the prominent varnishers among the liutaros of Italy seemed to prefer
+this in their early days: or was it that the deeper or more intense
+colours required longer experience in management? Anyhow, so it was, and
+Stradivari seems to have been no exception to the general rule. If a
+well preserved early Stradivari is placed side by side with one of "the
+brothers" or Nicolas Amati's amber coloured specimens, the varnish
+enveloping them will be seen to be precisely alike, whether considered
+in respect of transparency, consistency or thickness. Here is art
+indication that for the best part of a century, these clever artificers
+of Cremona had the same stuff, used it in precisely the same manner, to
+a hair's breadth, for they knew there was no going beyond it; every part
+of the process was methodically carried out in compliance with certain
+laws known to, or instituted by, previous masters. There is an old Latin
+motto implying that "the perfection of art is to conceal art";--it it
+has often been quoted in illustrative reference, sometimes with sly
+humour, at others in most serious vein, for instance, when an eminent
+judge's judicial wig was known to have beneath it another of equally
+natural pretentions, and when quoted as the motto for the year in a
+Royal Academy catalogue, to be interpreted by the noble army of
+"rejected outsiders" as meaning extra efforts that year by the Council
+at concealment or suppression of art that was superior to their own.
+
+But if there ever was an instance in which this motto could with
+strictest appropriateness be applied, it was the work of Stradivari.
+Most if not all of the known masters have at times shown by some little
+accident or other, their method of working, thus, notwithstanding the
+extremely careful and finished work of the Amati family, there is
+occasionally to be seen some unobliterated signs--truly very slight--of
+their having traced their pattern on the wood for either the sound holes
+or the turns of the scroll. Stradivari left no evidence of this, nor are
+any distinct traces left inside or out that would betray the manner,
+kind of tool, or direction of working. Further, in most beautiful
+specimens by the "brothers Amati," besides other great varnishers, some
+faint indications have been seen of imperfectly dissolved resin, but not
+so with Stradivari, who carried out to the letter in this department of
+his art, that steadfastness of purpose in striving to do in the best
+way, that which his judgment had pronounced to be the best thing to
+accomplish. He further carried this out afterwards in the application of
+the deeper coloured, and usually softer, varnishes, which when
+manipulated by other masters of the same school, have frizzled or
+cockled from some cause. This is seldom if at all to be observed in any
+of Stradivari's work, he seems to have taken every possible precaution
+for preventing change in aspect after the instrument had received his
+final touches.
+
+We may now retrace our steps for awhile and take up another thread of
+the fabric of Stradivari's individuality, that which is in fact by
+dealers ignored and by players adored. There can be no question that
+during his minority under the great Amati, young Antonio must have been
+much interested in his master's fame for imparting a fine quality of
+tone to his instruments. It must soon have been apparent to him that
+success in his career would not be achieved by progress in the artistic
+part of his work alone. The critics of the day, who must have been
+sufficiently numerous and exacting in accordance with the advanced state
+of the art, would naturally be alive to any subtleties of difference
+between the productions of the reigning king of liutaros and his
+successor. The onward progress of musical composition and increase in
+the numbers of public performers, virtuosi, and others, demanded from
+an artificer taking this position, at least equal skill in producing
+those essential qualities for which the city of Cremona had become
+famous. Old master and young man probably had many a talk over what was
+best to be done to keep pace with the increasing requirements of the
+moment, and the time approaching when the hand of the former in the
+course of nature would lose its cunning. The hour came, the man was
+ready. Stradivari started forth from his master's house with full
+confidence in having a true and good grasp of the wants of the moment
+and those looming in the future. In the good patronage which soon came
+to him, was contained the assurance that his estimate, although formed
+so early, was perfectly correct; thenceforward he saw no reason for
+alteration in the type of acoustical quality that distinguishes all of
+his instruments, and that which he had once for all fixed upon.
+
+Briefly the acoustical quality of his instruments may be described as a
+further development of the tone brought to such a high degree of
+excellence by the great Amati; an increase in the volume and energy,
+with more equality of scale, while retaining all the other qualities
+that had caused players and listeners alike to be delighted, and which
+had given such renown to the great family of liutaros in Cremona.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE DATE OF THE TRUE STRADIVARIAN INDIVIDUALITY--ALTERATIONS IN
+  DESIGN--PROPORTIONS SETTLED FOR GOOD--THE EXCEPTIONS--THE "LONG
+  STRAD"--THE "INLAID STRADS"--AN ACKNOWLEDGED MASTER OF HIS
+  ART--BLACK EDGING--THE ARCHING AND CHANNELLING--THE BRESCIANS, THE
+  AMATIS AND STRADIVARI.
+
+
+We now resume our consideration of the progressive development of the
+Stradivarian design as exhibited in the instruments of 1680 to 1690 or a
+little later. At the earliest of these dates the complete independency
+or self consciousness of power, as a master liutaro, is already
+perceptible. There is no possibility of these violins having been made
+on the moulds used during his bachelorship. People sometimes speak of
+these instruments as being "Amatise," which is great nonsense; had
+Stradivari died somewhere between 1680 and 1690, they would have been
+rapturous in their admiration of his originality and widely separated
+ideas from those of the Amati, but as he lived many years on and gave
+forth many more manifestations of his own individuality, the likeness of
+these 1680 and 1690 to old Nicolas is eagerly searched for and often
+supposed to be evident. It was at this time that Stradivari probably
+made more new moulds or blocks on which to construct, than at any other.
+With some few exceptions those that were now being made could be used
+for any of his violins during the remainder of his career. The average
+proportions remain the same, the differences are minute in measurement,
+notwithstanding their effectiveness in helping to a different expression
+in the designs. The exceptions referred to and made between the above
+dates are of a diverse kind. There is the well-known "long Strad," of
+which one author has said that it "has received the title," "not from
+increased length, but from the appearance of additional length which its
+narrowness gives it, and which is particularly observable between the
+sound holes." The actual measurements of this pattern are, length
+14-3/16 inches by greatest width 8 inches bare as contrasted with the
+ordinary 14 by 8-1/8; it will therefore be evident at once that there is
+a positive increase in length, and a decrease in width. These violins
+are not very rare as compared with the total work of Stradivari extant.
+Another variation, but now very seldom seen, is a pattern that may be
+said to be somewhat opposite in its tendencies, as it is a trifle
+shorter, but of full average width, with a proportionately wider waist.
+This type of violin must have been sufficiently plentiful at one time,
+as one of the first Gaglianos made a deliberate copy of it; that is, so
+far as his Neapolitan idiosyncrasy and pride would permit. Besides these
+were the "inlaid Strads," instruments of the greatest beauty in all
+respects, but having instead of the ordinary purfling a broad black
+fillet and diamond or lozenge shaped ivory insertions alternated with
+smaller circular ones; they are further embellished with a floral
+inlaying round the sides or ribs and also on the sides and back of the
+scroll. These instruments--Stradivari is known to have made a quartette
+of them for the Spanish court--are of the greatest rarity. They are said
+to be all known, but this statement seems open to question when coupled
+with the assertion that Stradivari made other similar but very small
+violins. The known ones are of very full size, the parties ordering them
+at the time possibly being alive to the advantages of quantity as well
+as quality. Public opinion since the time these were made has not grown
+in appreciation of the additional ornamentation. The violin pure and
+simple, with its single line of purfling only as it left the hands of
+the first master of the art of Brescia, is the one which has found the
+most lasting favour with connoisseurs and the public generally.
+Decorative additions, in various and more or less eccentric or
+extravagant styles, have been introduced from time to time by
+enterprising liutaros of different countries, but the discerning portion
+of the public will have none, and thereby pronounce the violin to be an
+unfit subject for extra clothing; beauty unadorned, adorned is most, is
+a figure of speech quite applicable to the simplicity of the violin as a
+work of art.
+
+Stradivari, who had now acquired--at the period 1680-90--a standing as
+an acknowledged master of his craft, showed in his handiwork a decided
+leaning in consonance with this, as--excepting these "inlaid Strads"--he
+carefully refrained from introducing any of the little tricks, or
+fanciful alteration of details, that so many, even of his own
+countrymen, seem to have been led to affix to their productions. After
+all, the "inlaid Strads" were probably so made, not at their maker's
+suggestion, but by desire of the patrons holding a high social position.
+Double purfled violins seem never to have left his hands, as none appear
+to be extant and no mention is made of any.
+
+There is one particular part of the finishing of the violin which calls
+for remark, and in the absence of evidence to the contrary must be put
+to the responsibility of Stradivari. This is known as the "black
+edging." It cannot come properly under the term decoration, as it has no
+variety in its management and consists only of the blackening of the
+squaring off of the junction of the ribs; likewise at the edges of the
+turns of the scroll and continued down the front and back of the peg-box
+to the shell. Its first appearance is not possible to determine and will
+probably remain unknown. Nicolas Amati did not introduce it, his work
+being of the kind that had no accommodation, or sufficient surface for
+it. Once begun, however, Stradivari seems to have persistently held to
+it. There is no proof positive that it was henceforth his invariable
+rule to put this kind of finish. The parts concerned are the first to
+receive and show signs of wear; therefore an instrument must be very
+fresh indeed to have much "black edging" left. Viewed from an artistic
+standpoint it cannot be considered an improvement, or any adornment,
+for, however neatly it is executed, the work of hand beneath is more or
+less obscured. Further, the eye of the connoisseur is distracted by it,
+and the neatness of the work is not seen to advantage until the black
+has become nearly effaced. Other makers of renown, besides Stradivari,
+adopted this method of putting the final touches to their work, Giuseppe
+Guarneri, I.H.S., Carlo Bergonzi, and other later makers, among them
+Storioni.
+
+Concerning the rise of the arching, or modelling of the periods above
+referred to, there has been much erroneous supposition in connection
+therewith. That all the early "Strads" were of high build, that the
+progress was gradual towards the "flat model," that Stradivari was
+feeling his way and becoming enlightened as to the necessity of reducing
+the arching in order to obtain a fuller and more telling tone with
+better ring; further, that the channelling or "scooping" near the border
+was gradually reduced for the same reasons, and that these things did
+not reveal themselves at once, but gently dawned upon his perceptions;
+moreover, that he earnestly communed with nature, made numberless
+experiments concerning her acoustical and other mysteries, and that the
+outcome was faintly looming in the horizon and soon was to blossom forth
+as the golden period, with grand pattern, all of which is really nothing
+more than grand "tomfoolery" spread abroad a generation since by critics
+"having an eye" only to such things that seemed to them agreeable with
+the conditions and surroundings of money getting commodities.
+
+These worthies were forgetful of the fact that the different varieties
+of flat and high model, channelling deep or none at all, long waists
+and short waists, sound holes long, short, near or wide apart, had been
+well, if not exhaustively treated by the artists of the Brescian school.
+To assume that those refined artificers, the Amati family and their
+disciples, were not conversant with everything for or against the use of
+a flat model would be crediting them with but little mental capacity,
+particularly in respect of their perceptive faculties. Both Stradivari
+and his teacher must have been well acquainted with the different high
+and low modelling of Gasparo da Salo, as well as that of his pupil
+Maggini, and others. He must have been aware that his own most generally
+used model of medium elevation, with slight exceptions both ways, was
+anticipated by each in turn. This, by the bye, disposes of any theory
+that Stradivari's distinctive quality of tone resulted, as is often
+stated, from his adopting a different elevation to what had been in use
+before. It may be fairly argued that if it had been true, as some
+writers have stated, that the flatter the model the better and stronger
+is the tone, then Stradivari would have been less gifted with sound
+judgment than he has been hitherto credited with; some of his early
+modellings, 1680-90, being as flat, if not more so, than any known
+during his whole career. For his selection of the particular degree of
+rise the reasons--for there were several--are not difficult to
+assign:--firstly, it was in consonance with his effort at achieving the
+most harmonious result--artistically in his designs; the less determined
+rise in the arching being more agreeable with the disposition of line in
+the pattern that he had been settling down to--posterity has
+emphatically endorsed his views in this respect; secondly, having
+noticed that a more shallow curve in the arching was quite favourable
+for the exhibition of gracefulness, while it was accompanied by more
+strength and permanency, with less liability during time and usage to
+develop a stony or bumpy appearance. But while thus looking acutely
+forward to future eventualities in one direction, Stradivari was no less
+careful to avoid reducing his model too much. Knowing the soundpost
+would be certainly shifted occasionally, he saw in the very flat model a
+source of danger lurking in the difficulty of seeing and getting at the
+post, even with the usual appliances at the command of the professional
+repairer or regulator, while the sound holes would be much more liable
+to damage than when the sufficiently raised arching permits a fair use
+of the "post setter." He was also careful, while keeping the depth and
+width of the channelling within reasonable bounds, not to let the
+arching spring or commence too near the border, as the screw cramps of
+the repairer, especially the large sized ones used in olden times would,
+unless most skilfully and cautiously applied, soon register the progress
+of the repairer on the varnish to the destruction of the beauty of
+appearance as a whole. These, then, appear to be the cogent reasons for
+the adoption of the medium rise in the modelling by Stradivari.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+LESSER KNOWN PATTERNS OF STRADIVARI--THE TREATMENT OF THE SCROLL BY
+  HIM, THE INDIVIDUALITY AND MATURING OF THE STYLE--THE PURFLING.
+
+
+During the period of 1690-1700 the modification of parts of the pattern
+and details was slight but nevertheless important. Occasionally the
+upper corners drooped a little more, and when they are now seen in fine
+preservation seem rather long in comparison with later ones, but they
+are not really so, it being in the expression no doubt arising from the
+greater robustness in the treatment of the corners which now were
+becoming in aspect more square, but with the usual peculiarities
+retained. There was also about this time another modification sent
+forth, a pattern that has the waist curve narrowed in a trifle at about
+two-thirds of the way upward, causing a slight suspicion of a wish to
+return to his old Nicolo Amati period, but it seems to have been only
+momentary, and beautiful as these violins are, they do not appear to
+have been repeated. They are in consequence very rare.
+
+Accompanying these little variations there was a slight change in the
+treatment of the scroll; it became less massive, while all the principal
+features of detail were retained, the grooves at the back were deepened
+a little as they ran down to the shell, which last was made a degree
+less shallow. In the earlier part of this period the general contour has
+a little more flow in the disposition of line, but later on this was
+checked, as if not meeting with the full approval of the master, whose
+goal of ambition was kept steadily in view from the first--that of
+introducing a design that should worthily rank as classical, and in its
+details and execution be such, that no weak spot or point of failure
+should be discernable under the closest scrutiny. The sound holes now
+received further attention and, it might be almost said, for the last
+time, as they were continued to the end of Stradivari's career with no
+particular or intentional modification. In length there was no
+alteration, but the design seems more condensed, more compact, yet
+slightly wider in the opening. This is all accomplished without losing
+the smallest touch of grace, and although firm in the extreme it has the
+opposite of any tendency to hard geometrical form. Stradivari seems to
+have had some feeling of contentment with it, for although little
+differences of measurement in minute particulars occur afterwards, no
+modification in character is attempted. He was most exact in imparting
+his own individuality in every instance. It is in this department of the
+liutaro's art that the imitators or forgers of Stradivari's work have
+found such an insurmountable block in the way of success. The
+impossibility hitherto of imparting the requisite identical expression,
+notwithstanding the most careful examination and tracing, constantly
+adds force to an old saying among dealers that "to make a perfectly
+successful imitation of Stradivari he must be a Stradivari himself." In
+this view it is obvious that a maker having the sure consciousness of
+possessing the power of the master would no longer make tracings of him,
+but bring out his own originals. Among the scores and scores of
+imitators, some of them having achieved considerable renown as such, the
+best of them have not succeeded further than giving their own impress to
+their tracing of the master's work. This is quite apart from their
+failure to reproduce the master touch in other branches of the liutaro's
+art.
+
+In the composition of his purfling he had been, before the periods under
+consideration, somewhat unsettled, but he now seemed to have come to a
+conclusion that the middle or light coloured portion, should be a
+trifle wider than the dark or outer portion. This was also for a
+permanency with but little variation. The three parts are probably of
+the same kind of wood, with the outer portion darkened by artificial
+means and not wood with its natural colour, as in so many early works.
+But there was no change in the manner of insertion. There was the same
+firm, upright handling of the purfling tool, which, as in his early
+period, was sent along with unerring precision and cut its way through
+hard and soft wood cleanly and equally well. In this respect of
+mechanical dexterity, the great master has had few rivals; he was
+apparently equally at home in subduing to his requirements a log of
+tough, curled maple, as in gently reducing the exquisitely refined
+growth of pine that was to act as a soundboard in throwing out the
+luscious quality of tone associated with his name. It was not always so
+among the most eminent of Italian liutarios. Many of them have left
+unmistakeable evidence of impatience when trying to overcome the
+resistance of the tortuously grained maple in turn with the much softer
+and straight threaded pine. There was a peculiarity connected with the
+purfling that must not be overlooked, and that is, its passing through
+the little pegs at the upper and lower part of the instrument, and which
+is most carefully attended to by modern close imitators, so that people
+should be convinced, if possible, that their's is the real thing.
+Stradivari, however, may not have conceived the idea of there ever being
+in the future the swarms of his imitators, who, for the last century,
+have been but too evident in consequence of the daily increasing
+admiration or even reverence for his work. It is not surprising,
+therefore, that for some reason known only to himself, he, on rare
+occasions, did not run the purfling through the peg, or to be more
+strictly correct, the peg was inserted clear of the purfling line. That
+this peg peculiarity is no point of recognition may be inferred from the
+fact that Stradivari's teacher, Nicolas Amati, treated it in like
+manner, besides several of his contemporaries.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+STRADIVARI'S GREAT SUCCESS--HIS SO-CALLED "GRAND EPOCH"--HIS
+  PATRONS--HIS VIOLINS REPUTED FOR TONE WHEN QUITE NEW AND SOUGHT
+  AFTER--THE HELP HE RECEIVED--HIS ASSISTANTS AND PUPILS--PARTS OF THE
+  WORK REQUIRING HIS INDIVIDUAL TOUCH--THE MEMBERS OF HIS FAMILY WHO
+  MAY HAVE ASSISTED HIM--STRADIVARI'S VARNISH--HIS IMITATORS.
+
+
+The period 1700-15 or thereabouts, found Stradivari not only an
+acknowledged master of his craft but among his contemporaries recognised
+as the head. His business had been all along steadily flourishing, his
+patrons had been of high social position, some most illustrious, others
+actually royal. Among the latter the King of Poland stands out in relief
+as having specially sent an envoy to Cremona and that he had to wait
+three months before he could return with his commission fulfilled.
+Whether he ran in danger of being decapitated for "hanging about"
+Cremona so long is not known, but one thing is certain, that patrons
+royal, illustrious, of high social standing and refined tastes, wanted
+the newly made violins of Stradivari that could never have been played
+upon, almost in the absolute sense of the term, while they could have
+easily obtained well seasoned, well tried instruments of makers who had
+lived long before. Here is "a nut to crack" for those who persistently
+assert the necessity and efficacy of age and use to bring tone to
+maturity. If any further evidence should be thought necessary to
+support the assumption of the equal excellence of the new Stradivarius
+with those that remain with us at the present time, it is contained in
+the praise of those who heard and used them when quite fresh, declaring
+the agreeableness of the tone to be beyond rivalry.
+
+Stradivari may be said to have been now in the enjoyment of the
+plentitude of his powers. Success was attendant upon him without
+intermission. Tradition says he was reputed in the locality as
+positively rich, but we do not hear of his aspiring to civic honours as
+alderman, vestryman, guardian or councilman--common or otherwise--as the
+outcome of the possession of full coffers. Stradivari simply went on
+making fiddles. In a position to secure the best materials in the
+respect of quality, artistically and acoustically considered, he put the
+best workmanship upon them; also he further selected the best help
+which, in common with all eminently successful artists, he must have
+found it necessary to employ.
+
+We now arrive at a point when the question may be fairly put, how much
+help did he have, and of what kind was it?
+
+As Stradivari left no record behind as to the number of pupils trained
+on his premises, or assistants who came perhaps as improvers, we are
+left to do our best in the way of inference. In the first place we may
+take up the acknowledged fact of his having turned out an enormous
+number of musical instruments during his very lengthy career; and it
+must be remembered that his energies were not centred alone in turning
+out magnificent violins, but that the viola, violoncello, double-bass,
+besides some of the then not quite obsolete viols of different sizes and
+fantastic forms, received his attention. These had to be produced at the
+requirements of his patrons, of whom many had probably not yet
+completely emerged from the misty musical atmosphere with which the
+fanciful forms with florid decorations seemed so intimately bound.
+Further, the fittings for them had to be made presumably on the
+premises of the maestro and not as at present in foreign parts. At the
+time there was not existent that extensive and special manufacture of
+bridges, tailpieces, tail-pins, and pegs that forms a large and
+significant branch of commerce at the present day. That the violin
+bridge especially was a production of the Stradivari establishment and
+not "made in Germany," is sufficiently indicated by its present form
+having been introduced by Stradivari. On comparing it with the different
+patterns of bridges that had been issued by the previous masters of
+Cremona, it will be seen at once that the master mind of Stradivari had
+effected improvements that have their counterpart in the designs of his
+violin patterns. We may notice the successful efforts at stability with
+simplicity, just enough of detail that would lend itself in completing
+the harmony of the whole design, while dispensing with every unnecessary
+angle or curve. Of the fingerboard and tailpiece we cannot speak in the
+same terms; the master seems to have accepted the manner of treating
+these parts as handed down by preceding generations from Gasparo da
+Salo, and thought there was no need for alteration. The design of the
+inlaid ornamentation on both these accessories, was, of course, of a
+kind with which the house of Stradivari would be identified and the
+execution also in accordance. Of the tailpin and pegs, with the
+decoration of both, the same may be said.
+
+All these particulars point to considerable time spent in direct
+supervision after the preliminary designs had been made by the
+principal. This would reduce the available time for direct manual labour
+at his disposal. There would occasionally be some time spent in the
+discrimination for purchasing of particular choice kinds of pine and
+maple, these requiring the closest attention. Whether samples were
+brought for Stradivari's inspection by agents or their principals, or
+whether the maestro took journeys to particular districts where the
+exact kind of wood suitable to his requirements was to be had, we know
+not, but there seems to be much probability that the latter was his
+mode of obtaining that splendid growth of pine, both in appearance and
+tone-producing quality, with which he brought about such beautiful
+results. This, when obtained, had to be carefully stored away until such
+time as it might be required for immediate use. The cutting down and
+sawing up into lengths for different instruments would not be such as a
+maker with less patronage would personally engage in; we can therefore
+place this aside from the time consuming duties. There is, in the
+foregoing, enough and much over for reasonable inference that with a
+master, such as Stradivari, having the refined taste and adaptability
+for work, there was a considerable amount, if not all, of the merely
+mechanical work done according to his command or under his eye. This
+would naturally enough increase in proportion as the business connection
+grew. There would be in this nothing differing from what has been
+habitual with eminent professors in all branches of art; as far back as
+Phaedias, Praxitelles and Appelles of the ancient classic Greek period.
+Later on it is well known that many of the masterpieces of the
+Renaissance period had much work upon them other than that immediately
+from the master's own hand. If this were not permissible, the number of
+the grandest creations of artistic genius would be most seriously
+limited. Raphael and his contemporaries, Rubens and Rembrandt, besides
+many other masters, are well known to have had numerous pupils in their
+studios engaged in carrying out ideas previously determined upon and
+drawn out for their guidance. These assistants were gradually drawn into
+the way and habit of thinking of their masters, and on leaving them,
+their own individuality or natural tendency uniting with what they had
+absorbed of their master's manner, the blending of the two became a
+fresh production of style. If we take this as our guide in summing up
+the probable amount of help that was drawn upon by Stradivari during his
+career, especially that part at which, in our consideration of him and
+his works, we had arrived, it cannot possibly lead us far from the
+actual facts. Taking into account the known pupils or assistants who
+received the benefits of personal instruction from Antonio Stradivari,
+they are more numerous than we can affix to the name of any other
+master, as it must be borne in mind that Stradivari had initiated a
+fresh style, the influence of which was destined to be of a far more
+reaching character than any hitherto coming to the front. The
+Stradivarian school became the foremost, most numerous and soon was to
+be the most imitated, of all. Among the earliest of his pupils (the
+precise number or even the names of all will never be known), may be
+placed Alexander Gagliano of Naples, working with him about the period
+of 1680 and some years later, one or two others of the Gagliano family
+may have been workmen in the Stradivari atelier. Lorenzo Guadagnini,
+Joannes Battista, his son and Josef of Pavia all claim to have lent a
+helping hand and received instruction, and there is nothing in their
+work that is in contradiction. The first became a great master of the
+Milanese school and was afterwards rivalled by his son, who was more
+cosmopolitan and not identified with one place in particular. I cannot
+include the names of Montagnana or Gobetti, which have been frequently
+referred to by various authors as pupils of Stradivari; a close
+examination of their style and workmanship leads to a different fountain
+of inspiration, notwithstanding which they both unquestionably were at
+one time influenced by the work of the great Cremonese artist as it
+arrived in Venice. Of Carlo Bergonzi, a great master, it is a well
+established fact that he worked with Stradivari and probably did much
+more for him as assistant than is generally acknowledged, but that he
+was originally a pupil is not in keeping with the early and varying
+patterns which have gone under his name. Further on it will be necessary
+to refer to this luminary of the art. We must not forget the two sons of
+Stradivari, Franciscus and Omobono, who received their initiation at the
+hands of their father and worked with him for many years, carrying on
+the business after his decease. Rumour has brought forth another name
+as pupil or workman with Stradivari, and whose identification with some
+fine specimens of the liutaro's art may yet prove an interesting study.
+A relative of the master, we should expect to find his work strongly
+tinged with the Stradivarian characteristics. His tickets are said to
+have been all removed in very early times after their insertion and that
+one only is known to have been preserved intact. Of the great rival--in
+public estimation--of Stradivari, Joseph Guarnerius, I.H.S., it can only
+be said there is not a single feature in his handiwork, style or tone,
+agreeing with the supposition that he at any time was his pupil or
+assistant, moreover, having by me distinct evidence of his pupilage of
+another maker of a different school, will of course prevent the
+inclusion of his name.
+
+The number of pupils and assistants who worked with or under the
+supervision of Stradivari in his prime, might, if we knew all, be more
+considerable than we should be prepared to expect. The proportion in the
+usual course of nature, of those able to single out a path for
+themselves, prove their individuality superior to their fellows or
+eventually become of great eminence, must of necessity have been
+comparatively small. There may have been many working "on and off" under
+the eye of the master at different periods who were without ambition or
+the talent to rise above the position of humble helpers among their more
+talented brethren, born to be assistants only, and, in consequence,
+never heard of outside the studio. These, and the before mentioned, must
+all have had something to do with the instruments their master was
+sending forth into the world; the more clever ones being intrusted with
+some responsibility on particular work. It is not impossible to fix upon
+the parts the assistants probably would be allowed to work upon. In the
+first place, all the designing, drawing out and tracing down of the
+pattern on to the mould, or on to the unprepared blocks that were to be
+carved into necks, scrolls, or marked out for ribs, would be
+Stradivari's.
+
+The different stages succeeding each other would be most likely as
+follows--firstly, the master having been commissioned by a wealthy
+patron to make of his best pattern and highest finish a quartet of
+instruments, he would take from his store of choice pine and sycamore,
+which he had taken so much trouble and skill in collecting together,
+such pieces that appeared to him suitable for the instruments to be
+constructed. The upper and lower tables had previously been hewn or sawn
+to size, then the jointed back and front, if both were so, planed
+carefully and made ready for the master's work, which would first come
+on to the wood as a careful tracing from his original design. Sometimes
+the tracing down may have been done by some advanced pupil or competent
+assistant. We may fairly assume the presence here of one or two, if not
+more, assistants, besides a pupil or improver. One would be selected for
+the bow-sawing of the pattern, another afterwards receiving it for
+roughly gouging out according to measurements at hand or marked by the
+master. Another had meanwhile the bending of the thin slips for the ribs
+to the necessary curves, or working down the corner and end blocks that
+had been affixed to the mould. Another, if not the same, might have been
+carrying out the first stages of the working of the scroll, or perhaps a
+very competent and trusty assistant would be allowed, under the eye of
+the master, to work on more advanced forms, making ready for the final
+or necessary touches of the master hand. The sound holes may have been
+traced down and even the upper and lower circular holes bored. Further,
+it is not impossible, that after the modelling back and front had been
+sufficiently advanced, the glueing and screwing down was intrusted to an
+assistant, and even some of the finishing up with glass paper or other
+material in use at the time and place, of parts of minor importance.
+These are, perhaps, the majority of the details in which the
+individuality of the handwork of the master was not obligatory in
+evidence.
+
+In summing up what could have been done by other hands than those of the
+busy master, it would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, unless
+we admit its presence, to account for the extremely large output of the
+great Cremonese, even when taking fully into the balance his very
+industrious habits and extraordinary long working career. Assuming the
+above view to be reasonable, the number of new instruments which left
+the Stradivari house must have been very large. It is well known that
+the master undertook the repairs of musical instruments, which
+department would require some personal attention or supervision, even if
+actually executed by his assistants or his two sons, Francescus and
+Omobono, who, when their father died, were not very young, the first
+being sixty-five years of age, and the other fifty-five. They had most
+likely worked with their parent for about forty years and must have done
+much of making and repairing, that is, crediting them with some of their
+father's industrial tendencies. Stradivari had two other sons by his
+first wife, Francesca Ferraboschi, one, Giulio, died 1707, aged forty;
+the other, Allesandro, in 1732, aged fifty-five. Nothing seems to be
+known as to whether they were brought up by their father in his own
+craft or not; if they were, there was time for them also to have done
+much work with him. There was a son by his second wife, Antonia
+Zambelli, who died 1727, aged twenty-four, who under the same
+circumstances may have helped. We have thus five sons of Stradivari,
+who, if they were all taught the art, may have been working together,
+besides other assistants at the same time. Carlo Bergonzi has already
+been mentioned, but although he came late into the field, yet there
+seems a slight indication that he may have had to supply the place of
+others who had departed for the carrying out of their own schemes.
+
+Having so far roughly estimated the kind and amount of work, not
+necessarily his own, on the violins that were sent forth by Antonio
+Stradivari, we may glance at the particulars of detail that demanded his
+handiwork and that solely. That there were keen connoisseurs living at
+the time of Stradivari, as also in the previous century and earlier,
+there is no room for doubting. Workers in art reduce their inspirations
+to tangible forms helped by colour that people may see them and,
+comparing them with what may have gone before and have been executed at
+the same time, pass judgment on them. In like manner Stradivari, like
+other masters before him, knew that his handiwork would be scrutinised
+as well as the tone of his instruments. It was therefore obligatory that
+purchasers should know his work, that in fact his sign manual should be
+always present. Contemporaneous with him were makers, artists, who had
+been initiated in the mysteries of the manufacture and application of
+the wonderful varnishes which have since by their qualities made them
+famous throughout the civilised world. There was nothing, however, in
+the material or its application that could, under the closest
+examination, be discerned as different to what might be seen on the best
+instruments of the Amatis--these must have been numerous at the
+time--the Ruggieris or the Venetian masters, but these did not in the
+application invariably work up to a certain standard of excellence,
+whereas Stradivari always did. There was a consummate beauty of result
+in this branch of the liutaro's art known at the time to many, beyond
+which it seemed not possible to go. It was, therefore, more in the
+construction and workmanship then, that the sign manual was perceptible.
+With this view Stradivari seems to have been careful to let the evidence
+of no hand but his own be seen in parts that were sure to be closely
+scrutinised as evidence.
+
+Standing first perhaps in importance would be the cutting of the sound
+holes, the design and careful drawing of these being completed, and cut
+in metal--it is said thin copper was used by him--they may have been
+mostly traced down by himself on the pine of the upper table prepared
+and in readiness to receive it, although this part without much danger
+could have been done by an intelligent and experienced assistant. The
+cutting and finishing with the thin keen edged knife, however, must be
+his, the slightest shaving over the traced line or not quite up to it
+would be sufficient to impart a totally different character to the
+whole. There is no part of the violin in which the sum total of the
+native characteristics and ability are shown to such exactitude as the
+cutting of these all important and expressive openings. In those of
+Stradivari is to be seen the same firmness of purpose and strict curbing
+of the fancy from proceeding too far, or allowing stability to be over
+balanced by love of gracefulness, as seen in the designs of his eminent
+master. To allow no weak part to be perceptible; strength of line with
+sufficient grace, admirable proportion and balance, and yet withal
+sufficient expression of mobility and freedom from heaviness were each,
+seemingly in turn, given the best attention by the great genius of
+Cremona. It is not using extravagant language when they are termed the
+eyes of the violin, for it is to these that experienced connoisseurs
+turn their attention at once when inspecting a violin of character newly
+placed before them. Cut by an Italian, cut by a Frenchman, by a German,
+by a nobody in particular or who understood nothing about it, are the
+thoughts arising in the mind. Each country has its peculiar and native
+rendering of every sound hole that was first designed in Italy. This
+tendency to impart their own national characteristics by each native
+workman, runs parallel with that in pictorial art in the transferring to
+various materials the impressions received after study of the original
+or animated reality. To many the sound holes of an Italian gem of the
+highest class are but sound holes that are more neatly done or prettier
+than usual. To others they will be the expression in that simple form of
+an exquisitely acute perception of what will excite pleasurable emotions
+with regard to delicately balanced proportions, graceful flow of line,
+and freedom from all appearance of effort. That there is much in little
+concerning this, is proved by the non-success of all foreign copyists
+to give a reproduction of the Italian native touch to these details.
+That this is not an overdrawn description, may be seen on a close
+comparison between an original Stradivari of almost any period and the
+most closely traced, laboriously studied and keenly cut sound holes of
+any of the modern imitators. All have failed signally over these two
+apparently simple openings on the surface of the upper table.
+
+Notwithstanding this, it may be said there are scarcely two violins
+alike in respect of expression of these adornments of the structure,
+each instrument is made to convey its own impression, or display its
+particular kind of beauty. There is a difference, scarcely to be
+measured mathematically, that in one will be suggestive of masculine
+strength, while in another it will be exquisite feminine grace.
+
+In none of the imitations of the master are there seen these qualities
+expressed in the same degree and kind. It has often been said, and there
+is more than a substratum of truth in the remark, that, "to copy a
+Stradivari successfully"--of course, in the fullest sense of the
+word--"the copyist must be a Stradivari himself." There might,
+appropriately, be an addition put to this, namely, that a man who could
+work up to the dizzy height of his ambition in this way, would not copy,
+but make originals.
+
+Another detail of the workmanship always attended to by the master
+himself, was that of the purfling. Much has been said of the wonderful
+accuracy of Stradivari's purfling and that as a purfler he stands
+unrivalled. This must not be taken in the widest sense, as there have
+been, and are living, scores and scores of makers who have cut a rut
+round the border of a fiddle as sharply, and inserted the three
+conventional lines of dark and light wood as deftly as it could be by
+the hand of any man, be he named Amati, Stradivari, Ruggieri, Tononi, or
+Montagnana. There is a degree of evenness and keenness of cutting and
+clean insertion beyond which it is not possible to go. But there the
+imitators come to a full stop. Without the inventive power which will
+make this curious, simple, yet wonderful little fillet, aid in giving
+the desired expression to the whole work, the imitator is not--as people
+say nowadays--in the race. The finishing of the border, the corners and
+the delicate and often very elaborate system of curves around the sound
+holes, the hollowing of the wings of these latter, and the final
+surfacing of both back and front, I have no doubt had Stradivari's
+individual attention. All the delicate and small work of the scroll,
+perfecting that elegant flow of line and finish of each turn of the
+volute, as if everything depended on the exactness of its individuality,
+obliterating all marks of the tooling and giving his own impress to the
+gouging of the shell and even the completion of the peg-box; then last
+and not least, the preparation and application of that pellucid envelope
+that was to serve two purposes, utility and enrichment of effect.
+
+With regard to this, much has been written and said about its
+incomparable quality, its elasticity, colour and transparency, with
+other excellences needless to dilate upon. Summarily taken as a whole,
+the simple fact is, that in no respect is his varnish different, or
+better than that of his predecessors, the Amatis and masters of the
+Brescian school; it had been done before and his most famous
+contemporaries were doing it still, and he was in this position for the
+simple reason that no better could be done.
+
+If it was not possible for Stradivari to improve upon the varnish of the
+Amatis who had preceded him and the masters in the art belonging to the
+Brescian school,--among whom may be mentioned Giovanni Maggini, Antonio
+Mariani, and the first one to use it on violins, Gasparo da Salo--it was
+strictly in accordance with his invariable rule of putting forth his
+best that he so dexterously manipulated it, probably both as to its
+composition and final application, that faultiness in some respects to
+be seen in specimens of other masters is not noticeable in his. Thus, as
+is well known, the Brescians, perhaps without exception, were often
+very careless regarding the thickness of the film, it being occasionally
+of irreproachable evenness, at other times having almost the appearance
+of being laid on with a large brush in great haste. On some connoisseurs
+this haphazard fulness of treatment, this oft times generously effusive
+manner, carried out with a careless consciousness of power, acts as a
+charm, inciting to intense admiration the like of which is roused by the
+rich, juicy brush of Rembrandt and the masters of the Venetian school of
+painters. But this is not the perfect realization of aim with regard to
+the envelopment of masterpieces by the old Italian liutaros; in the
+instances referred to, and sufficiently numerous, we wonder at the
+wealth of material and smile at its manipulation. Antonio Stradivari
+would in no wise act thus at any time. To him it was enough that he was
+possessor in full of the knowledge of materials, and to deviate from the
+good paths pursued by the artistic Amatis, was not to be considered for
+a moment; we therefore find that with him the best material was laid
+with the utmost skill and care. It must be indeed rare that "frizzling,"
+or contraction of the upper surface of the varnish, is to be seen to any
+appreciable extent. I do not recollect one instance, while with the
+Ruggieris, most of the Venetian school, and a number of makers of lesser
+note, it is quite common.
+
+Concerning the colour or variety of tints adopted by Stradivari at most
+times, it was most likely done to the requirements of his different
+patrons, many having a desire for the rich orange, some, the light red
+or "cherry" tint, while others were not content with any than the red or
+rich full bodied port wine tint. The simple brown seems to have been
+less in demand, as it is during the period under consideration, rather
+exceptional. While using the lustrous coverings for his works with
+consummate skill, there is one qualification that must not be lost sight
+of. Beautiful, refined and artistic in the strictest sense of the term,
+Stradivari never gave way to a desire to outbid the rest of the
+fraternity for congratulations in respect of gorgeousness, he seems
+never to have fallen back upon his reserves in the direction of
+intensity of colour. Thus if a finely preserved specimen of his orange
+varnish is viewed side by side with one by Joseph Guarnerius, I.H.S.,
+the extra degree of fieriness will be on the side of the latter, but it
+by no means places Stradivari on a lower level, as the combined
+qualities of his work, taken as a sum total, is not reached by any
+liutaro of old Italy.
+
+It may be fairly taken as certain that if there was any master having at
+command all the necessaries for turning out musical instruments of
+matchless superiority, both as to acoustical and artistic qualities, it
+was Stradivari, and many connoisseurs would expect to find nothing but
+maple used of the richest curl, and that would throw up with delightful
+effect the lustrous varnish so carefully laid upon it; but, strangely
+enough, his most magnificently curled backs and sides are mixed with a
+few that are comparatively plain. A variety of reasons might be assigned
+for this, but that which bears the greatest probability about it
+is--that the instruments being chiefly made to order, the maple of
+richest curl was not always to be had, at least in time for the
+construction as required. In other respects these plainer mapled
+instruments are fully equal to anything that came from his hands. Of the
+proper tone-giving pine he seems never to have been short; there it is,
+always of beautiful growth, having, like his own handiwork, both
+delicacy and strength and of a general appearance such as would attract
+the eye of the veriest tyro in the liutaro's art. How many imitators of
+the great manipulator have looked at this growth of pine and wondered
+where the old master obtained it! and how he knew that it possessed the
+proper qualifications for his purpose. Swiss pine of course! obtained
+from the lower parts of the forests of the Alps, is an immediate loud
+response, and cut only from the south or sunniest side of the particular
+tree when found of course.
+
+This idea was started in the early part of this century in books on the
+violin, professing to tell the reader all about it or nearly so, and he
+had only to go, get the stuff, and make Stradivari violins, in fact with
+the addition of the amount of scientific knowledge of the subject
+peculiar to modern imitators, he would make "old Strad" "take a back
+seat." This has been often tried by would-be "Strads," "Guarneris," or
+"Bergonzis," and full of specious promises that if you will but purchase
+their wares you be rewarded for your pains by being possessor of
+everything good that they could endow the instrument with. Keep it,
+persevere, and the precious qualities will come; some were daring enough
+to assert that they were already there, if even your mental vision was
+so obtuse as not to perceive it, absurd prejudice was the cause of this
+they said, oblivious to the fact that the best musicians of Stradivari's
+time used the violins fresh from the atelier of the master perfectly
+new, expressing their unbounded admiration for their beautiful acoustic
+properties or "pleasurable sounds."
+
+Is the like said of new violins at the present time? These imitators,
+some of them might be with perfect truth termed forgers, are legion, as
+in the case of everything that is of a high standard of excellence and
+which makes acquisition desirable. These artificers had their day, so
+far as forcing their imitations upon the credulous and unwary could be
+accomplished, and others have replaced them, yet there aloft still sits
+the grand master upon his high eminence, unapproached, with the whole
+world clamouring and struggling for the possession of what in the
+earnestness of his purpose was only his everyday work.
+
+Before leaving the imitators and forgers, for they are distinct one from
+the other, the first simply taken being honest, the other not, it may be
+as well to refer as briefly as possible to the general aspect as
+afforded by such specimens of Stradivari's art that remain with us after
+fairly constant usage during the generations that have passed since his
+decease. Most connoisseurs and dealers are well acquainted with the
+appearance of a "Strad" of fine model, work and varnish that has done
+its duty in former times, and is yet able and willing to answer all
+requirements of the present day and many to come. If the instrument has
+not been hidden and forgotten in the cabinet of some deceased collector,
+but has been handed down from one player to another, kept in healthy
+exercise, not meddled with, muddled, and maddened by the numerous
+would-be improvers, bridge regulators, sound post agitators and varnish
+vivifiers, then--it will probably present an appearance of what is
+called handsome wear, or as a writer has termed it, "adorned, not
+injured, by a century's fair wear."
+
+Striking the eye first will be the varnish that has been chipped off
+from the back chiefly, often from a large space of a rough triangular
+form; the front being usually more smoothly denuded of its lustrous
+envelope. This chipping away of the varnish from the maple has been
+effected a long time ago, and is the result of a custom in olden times
+of hanging the instrument after use on a peg attached to the wall, or
+may be the interior of a cabinet. Fiddle-cases seem to have been used
+almost solely for travelling purposes. They are now in general use as
+the best means of preservation against damage and a good resting place
+at all times. During the last century there were scores and scores of
+makers in Italy who were ready, willing to, and did turn out excellent
+instruments with fine, artistical and acoustical properties, but the
+race has died out and their remaining works are of daily increasing
+value, and consequently much under lock and key, out of harm's way as
+much as possible. This old habit of hanging up violins not wanted for
+the moment was, as a matter of course, effected with a slight bang or
+two each time, and a corresponding cost, small or large, according to
+the blow to the top layer of varnish most highly charged with colour.
+Each instrument used in this way will declare to the sufficiently acute
+observer, its course of handling and even the peculiarities to some
+extent of the owner; for it will be seen that the chippings give
+indication of different degrees of energy or hurry, when the violin has
+come in contact with the more or less hard surface of the wall.
+
+It must be borne in mind that the times referred to were prior to the
+introduction of wall-papers; the good, old-fashioned panelling of oak or
+hard wood, often of bold design, shattered or nicked away much of the
+old, delicate and precious varnish used for enveloping the works of the
+Italian masters. All these constantly recurring slight collisions by
+degrees brought about the results that have been defined by some as
+picturesque wear or accidental adornment, if such a thing be reasonable.
+Besides this there was going on the wear caused by handling by one or
+another of players, rough or mild, contact with the garments, especially
+the sleeves, all being larger and looser than are fashionable at the
+present time. The action of these would be more gentle if more
+continuous. It is noticeable at the lower end of the back of the violin,
+which is often worn away much below the penetration of the varnish, the
+corners being rounded down and if rather protuberant, even losing their
+original character. The upper table of pine being incapable of equal
+resistance to the destroying influence, wears away sooner, also the
+border at the lower end and at both sides of the tail-piece--for the old
+performers placed their chins on the contrary side to what is thought
+best now--and the right upper shoulder where the palm of the hand and
+part of the wrist is apt to work, too often, against the edge. We thus
+see when a handsome, fairly worn specimen of Stradivari's work comes
+under our notice, the different pieces of tell-tale evidence, varying of
+course in degree with each instrument. Now all this must have been going
+on during the time the master's works were being sent out to parts of
+Italy and to other countries. It had been progressing and was showing
+the onward march of Father Time in the instruments left by the Brescian
+makers a century before.
+
+As before observed, the varnish of Stradivari has, often as not, been
+worn, chipped or cracked off in, as some fanciers still call it, a
+picturesque manner or adornment, although from the highest prices being
+given for those specimens that have the least of it, the taste seems to
+be growing healthily in favour of perfection of preservation as far as
+is possible.
+
+It would be out of reason to suppose that full consideration of the
+subject was omitted by a genius with such far reaching mental vision as
+Stradivari. That he gave all the necessary study and forethought to the
+effects of ordinary wear and such as was occasionally going on within
+his knowledge, there is evidence enough. He saw how the delicate work of
+his master, Nicolas Amati, was rapidly disappearing under sometimes
+rough and too often ruffianly usage. It was not in his power to prevent
+or interfere with this by any peculiarity of construction or quality of
+the varnish used by him. But this he doubtless knew--that the generally
+substantial work and total absence of any weak point of detail in design
+and execution was all that an artist could do. This strength shown over
+all of Stradivari's designs, even from the commencement, shows that in
+his grasp of the highest scale of requirement he was also anticipatory
+and in this wise, that he followed up the self evident principle in art,
+that the best combination of forms, proportions and masses will answer
+best for their permanence.
+
+The numismatist knows full well how, on the coins used in various
+countries, the masters of basso-relievo had concentrated their skill on
+the subject. The balance of projection and depression for good and
+proper effect under different situations of light and shade, or even
+independently of them on occasion--is of paramount importance in all
+branches of art in their widest range. The omission of proper thoughtful
+attention in this direction is one of the obstacles to success among
+copyists in any direction of art. In architecture the imitator or
+restorer of some early English mouldings has often made ignominious
+failures from the non-application of knowledge of this kind: just a
+trifling variation from the original while in progress being deemed of
+little consequence, but when finished and left for exhibition under the
+truth testing rays of the sun, the qualities that should have been there
+are, as the saying is, "conspicuous by their absence." In full view of
+the above and with an intelligence unsurpassable, Antonio Stradivari so
+arranged his forms and masses in construction that under fair usage and
+wearing down of the projecting parts, the original beauty of the whole
+should be retained as long as possible. A fine Stradivari much worn
+still retains its air of distinction, and very much of its material must
+have disappeared under bad treatment to make it beyond recognition
+almost at a glance.
+
+There can be very little question of there being more than mere
+admiration for the appearance. Simply viewed, there is the spice of
+romance in connection with it, the history is written in language more
+or less intelligible of the knocks and bruises inflicted, unwillingly in
+most instances, but not invariably so. And here attention may perhaps be
+appropriately drawn in these pages to what has been asserted by a few,
+very few, dealers and others, whose general intelligence should have
+been a guarantee against the dissemination of utter nonsense and which
+has even been in print! that--just think of this--Antonio Stradivari,
+the acknowledged master liutaro of Cremona in his own day, and of whose
+growing fame no one can foretell the limits--actually imitated wear and
+tear of varnish on his violins. I have not the print at hand, and so
+cannot give the exact words in which this scum from the boilings of a
+distorted imagination was conveyed; nor point to the first unfortunate
+who let it flow abroad. In all probability it came from the same old
+source, a desire to lift up to a high level worthless imitations of the
+master, confuse the public mind so as to make it more and more difficult
+to tell "t'other from which."
+
+A fine specimen, and well known, of Stradivari's art was once lying on a
+table before me. An amateur of considerable attainments and honesty of
+purpose then present was dilating upon its many beauties and fine
+preservation; he, I soon found, had by some means become infected with
+the absurd notion of the varnish having been artistically pecked away by
+the original maker! Just fancy this--Raphael slitting a hole in his
+chef-d'oeuvre to make it look old--Michael Angelo chipping some bits
+from the ceiling of the Sistine just before the scaffolding was removed,
+or Phidias snapping off a limb and browning the raw surface to please
+future connoisseurs.
+
+They might all have done this with an equal deficiency of reason and
+consistency if we allow for one moment any possibility of the genius of
+such a stamp as that of Antonio Stradivari descending to such depravity.
+Those who have lent themselves to this incongruous notion, hastily
+generalising from insufficient particulars, have strangely overlooked
+the fact that the same kind of chipping is seen on the violins of other
+masters, Joseph Guarnerius, Carlo Bergonzi, and others of the Cremonese
+and Venetian School, besides--going far back--the older ones of Brescia
+and Pesaro, any number in fact over all Italy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+SOME MODIFICATIONS IN STRADIVARI'S WORKS--VARIATION IN FINISH OF
+  DETAILS--THE INTERIOR OF HIS VIOLINS--THE BLOCKS AND
+  LININGS--THICKNESSES OF THE TABLES--HEADS OR SCROLLS OF HIS
+  DIFFERENT PERIODS.
+
+
+We will now resume our consideration of the handiwork of the Cremonese
+master as regards other details. We left him steadily working through
+his so-called "Grand epoch" or, more strictly speaking, his period of
+finely settled designs in outline and modelling. He had arrived at the
+goal of his ambition and produced works of excellence which--taking them
+as a whole--it seemed impossible to improve upon. He was henceforth
+content to put into them such slight modifications as would prevent too
+great similarity. Thus we find some were flatter in the arching, others
+a little shorter, being a trifle under the usual fourteen inches, others
+again were over it, but there was the same general contour, his now
+well-known accentuated design, complete as possible in all its details.
+
+From the great number of finished works that were turned out one after
+another, it is quite reasonable to assume that there would be
+occasionally some little evidence of extra pressure of business and
+consequently less time spent over minor details. That this actually
+occurred at times there is no doubt and can be perceived clearly when
+looked for. One instance occurs to me in which the purfling had been cut
+off a trifle short at the corners and did not quite fill up and make a
+good mitreing, otherwise all along the border the easy, swift, yet
+powerful stroke was maintained up to his usual standard of accuracy. In
+other instances the point or "bee-sting," as it is sometimes called, is
+not so sharply defined perhaps in two corners, while the others were the
+perfection of minute finish.
+
+It seems fairly certain that the great Cremonese was not at the time
+thinking of the almost microscopical scrutiny of critics certain to
+occur one hundred and eighty or so years in the future. These little
+differences in accuracy of unimportant detail or accidents of work may
+be taken as evidence that Stradivari was labouring day by day to meet
+the requirements of patrons different in disposition and perhaps
+patience. When at the same period he has been allowed to put his full
+time and attention to his work, then we find the four corners of equal
+unsurpassable finish, and other minute details over the whole structure
+so intently studied that nothing could possibly go beyond. These should
+really and appropriately be termed his "grand pattern." There is present
+in those instances the combined excellences in the highest degree of
+mechanical precision, beautiful proportion and drawing, such as no
+master designer of the Renaissance could surpass, the choicest
+materials, including splendid varnish, the whole united and capped with
+that essential, a beautiful tone.
+
+A few words about the interior of Stradivari's instruments; one kind of
+work is perceptible in all of them. There is not, as we may see in the
+works of other masters, that off-handed, or even slovenly want of finish
+inside while the whole attention of the maker has been concentrated on
+the exterior. With Stradivari all is well done, the blocks, end and
+corner ones are carefully faced and have little, if any can be seen, of
+the tool marks left upon them. The linings let into the corners are in
+every instance done with minute exactness. The wood of these and the
+blocks is a kind of Italian poplar, sometimes called willow and by the
+French sallow; it is light and has no threads like pine to cause
+difficulty in the manipulation. Too much importance has been attached by
+critics to the presence of this wood in Stradivari's violins. That it
+had nothing whatever to do with the excellence of tone quality is clear
+from the fact of makers of inferior skill and less renown for tone
+having used it in the same parts. The most likely reason is--as most
+repairers have concluded--the absence of thread, its lightness,
+pliability and evenness of texture, being thereby adapted for the
+necessary long strips for fitting round the curves. Some makers used it
+invariably, while others did so occasionally, perhaps not always having
+a stock on hand. When for some reasons, such as being worm eaten or
+badly fractured, it has been found compulsory to remove them and
+substitute others in their place and of other wood, there has been no
+perceptible deterioration in the tone either as regards quality or
+quantity. Not only so, but there is the fact that many of the Italian
+masters and their numerous pupils, to say nothing of makers of a lower
+order, as often as not sent forth their violins without linings, some
+even without corner blocks. In most of these instances, however, the
+ribs were left very stout in substance in order to retain a sufficient
+holding surface for the glue. The subtle curvings of the ribs of an
+Amati, and more so of a Stradivari, almost precluded the use of a very
+thick material, especially so when the curl or figure was bold and
+elaborate. In consonance with this, we find with Stradivari that the
+thin plate or veneer from which the ribs have been cut is not thick, but
+of accurate and equal measurement along its course. The linings being
+equally true and fitting in the closest manner to the ribs, are in their
+original state somewhat stouter, the middle or waist ones parting
+slightly on approaching the corner blocks each way and thus giving a
+gradually increasing area of attachment (diag. _h_). All of the four
+blocks are well trimmed off and their surfaces levelled, being quite
+regular in their form and size and trimmed to proper measurement. The
+end blocks serving to sustain the greatest amount of strain
+longitudinally, are also found well finished, in contrast with so many
+seen in instruments by makers of eminence that are simply hacked roughly
+into size and shape. They were carefully estimated in their proportion
+for strength sufficient to resist the strain caused by the size, length,
+and pull of the strings in use at the time of Stradivari, and with
+something to spare, so that even now, under the enormous strain of the
+modern high pitch, when in perfect and original condition they are equal
+to their task. In a number of instances, when much repairing, good or
+bad has been done, the end, and often the corner blocks, have been
+replaced by modern ones. There is, of course, under these circumstances
+less of Stradivari present, but it has often been a case of painful
+necessity or question of expense as to the choice between two steps for
+restoration to health and particularly for strength. The form viewed
+vertically adopted by Stradivari was that of a parallelogram with two
+rounded corners (diag. _i_.). The upper block was left a little thicker,
+the junction or root of the neck necessitating this. The renewal of one
+or both of these has also been caused incidentally by the deep insertion
+of the modern and longer neck, thus lessening much of the grip or
+purchase of the block on both upper and lower table. The same may be
+said of the nut over which the tail string passes, this being--owing
+also to the rise of the modern tone pitch and increase of tension--much
+larger than in Stradivari's day, and he may in a sense be said to have
+had to buckle to modern requirements.
+
+[Illustration: DIAGRAM _h_.]
+
+[Illustration: DIAGRAM _i_.]
+
+While the seat as it were of our criticism is at the present moment in
+the interior portion of the admirable structures bequeathed to us by the
+great Cremonese, we may consider further the surface work of this part.
+Everyone knows that the interior of a violin is left unvarnished by
+violin makers. Stradivari was in no way anxious to become an exception
+to this rule. The reasons for its adoption were, and are, still
+obviously wise, although not necessitous. He knew that his work, in
+common with that of other craftsman, would be liable to fracture, and
+that in the process of restoration the surfaces and junction of parts
+must be laid bare, and varnish where not obviously necessary would be an
+obstruction.
+
+For the satisfaction of the anxious inquirer it may be stated that
+varnishing the interior has, to my knowledge, been tried by an excellent
+modern workman as an experiment and did not bring any adequate reward
+by perceptible improvement in tone quality. In another instance, to
+prevent the encroachment of the collector's arch-enemy, the worm, the
+innovation seemed to have proved ineffectual. Stradivari may have tried
+this and perhaps, for once at least, met with failure. The bar--there is
+but one--ofttimes erroneously called sound-bar or bass-bar--is, in
+common with all the violins of the old Italian school, quite inadequate
+for modern requirement, that of supporting the upper table on the fourth
+string side against the pressure caused by the tension of the third and
+fourth, the heaviest strings.
+
+That the length, thickness and disposition of the bar has much to do
+with the good going order of every violin there is no disputing.
+Stradivari did not live long enough to make acquaintance with the
+numberless proposals for acquiring his quality by making this part
+longer, shorter, thicker, or thinner, besides various modes of
+attachment. That some of them would have raised a smile on the features
+of the veteran Cremonese, we may be quite sure. That he was quite
+content with the size of the bar in general use during his life-time
+there can be no doubt, as there is no record or evidence of any
+experiments having been made by him, fair argument that none were
+considered necessary; the instruments finished, the ordinary bar of the
+period was inserted and there was an end. The whole of the interior
+indicates an absence of any question of improvement on what had been
+done before by his master Nicolas Amati and his predecessors, apart from
+good finish.
+
+A few words as to the thickness of the upper and lower tables. Of this
+much has been written, an extremely small portion being from actual
+observation, and most of the other parts being reiterated assertions
+started many years back by people whose supposed knowledge rested solely
+upon simple conviction, without an iota of _bona fide_ evidence in
+support. To them the fact, well known to everyone engaged in the
+manufacture of sound-boards of musical instruments, that a very thick
+sound-board produces different results to that of a very thin one, was
+sufficient, therefore the secret of Stradivari with regard to his tone,
+was "the adjustment of the thicknesses," whatever that may mean. The
+assertion seeming perhaps rather bare, and wanting some sort of support,
+was bolstered up with another no less instructive, that if you "pinged,"
+or tapped the separated upper and lower tables of a Stradivari so that
+they each gave out a note there would be found the difference of a tone
+between them! Here was something for the "babes and sucklings" of the
+craft of violin making to swallow. It was stated also which table would
+give the higher tone. Unfortunately for some would-be Stradivaris, the
+particulars of the tonal difference were copied loosely and reversed and
+so came "confusion worse confounded."
+
+  The illustrations of sound holes, or _f f_ commonly so called, will,
+  it is hoped, be interesting as showing the modification or
+  development from those of Nicolas Amati to the latter part of the
+  period of Stradivari's career, called "the grand." They are all
+  reproduced from fine specimens of the great Cremonese masters, and
+  are the exact size of the originals. The first (_a_) shows the _f_
+  of a violin of the Nicolas Amati's late period, 1663, unaffected--at
+  least in this detail--by the individuality of his hereafter eminent
+  pupil. (_b_) While still going under the name of Nicolas Amati,
+  1678, the _f_ shows the actual interference of Stradivari, it is
+  more vertical, but the peculiarities of the upper and lower wings
+  are retained. (_c_) 1684. The design is quite changed, there is some
+  return to the flow or inclination of Amati, but the whole thing is
+  more extended, is slender, and the upper and lower wings are
+  widened, this modification was retained for a permanency. (_d_)
+  1690. There is some return to the vertical design, but the width of
+  the wings is retained, while the lower part of the design is of
+  larger proportions. (_e_) 1700. The design is more equalised and is
+  more substantial. (_f_) 1715. The same proportions are kept with an
+  increase of gracefulness. It will be perceived the lower wing
+  approaches at its lowest part the opposing curve more closely, the
+  upper one likewise; in some specimens of this period it is still
+  closer. (_g_) 1725. While the upper part is very like the preceding,
+  the lower part is more contracted and curled up. There is a somewhat
+  heavier expression about the upper part in consequence.
+
+[Illustration: _a_ _b_ _c_ SEE PAGE 48.]
+
+[Illustration: _d_ _e_ _f_ _g_ SEE PAGE 48.]
+
+
+History does not relate which of those parties who may have practically
+followed up the experiments were successful in arriving at the goal of
+their ambition; they may even still be continuing the struggle for
+supremacy with their master.
+
+We have not to look far for ascertaining whether these assertions have
+borne fruit. There has been time enough for works built upon these
+so-called discoveries of fixed principles to have settled down, and the
+popular verdict now is--that those which guided Antonio Stradivari have
+yet to be discovered. The numbers of announcements of fresh
+discoveries--repeated _ad nauseam_--are in themselves some evidence that
+what has gone before was founded on deceptive evidence, and therefore to
+begin anew was the only course left.
+
+The illustrations of scrolls by Nicolas Amati and Antonio Stradivari,
+being from good specimens by the masters, will be interesting as showing
+the progression of the modification in detail under the hands of the
+latter. In fig. _a_, Nicolas Amati, c. 1670, it will be seen that the
+first or smallest turn after leaving the axis or "eye" is kept for some
+distance rather close. Every effort seems to have been made for keeping
+the turns or winding from being too circular, there being a general dip
+downward and forward. The gouging is deep from the commencement. The aim
+of the artist in the whole design appears to have been towards
+perfection of gracefulness.
+
+Fig. _b_. Antonio Stradivari, 1683, the openness and bold swing of the
+first turn at once on leaving the "eye" is very striking, it also
+commences higher up, there is almost an absence of flow or downward
+tendency. The throat underneath the volute is very massive, although all
+the edges are finished off with the utmost delicacy and sharp tooling.
+All the details of scroll carving by Stradivari at this period are
+marvels of mechanical dexterity of handling. The different depths of the
+gouging are carefully calculated for solidity of effect, each portion
+being deep in proportion to its width, the smaller turns thus having
+less depth than the larger. With the Amatis there seemed to be a
+striving after attainment of the greatest depth possible in the smaller
+gougings, those nearest the axis reaching frequently to almost the same
+depth of level as the outer or broadest one. In no part of his work does
+Stradivari show more clearly the result of careful calculation after
+closely studying the work of his master and others that had gone before.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. _a_. SEE PAGE 49.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. _b_. SEE PAGE 49.]
+
+Fig. _c_. The period 1715 shows the result of further calculation for
+general effect and a consequent modification in respect of minor
+details; there is present, as always, the sufficiently bold swing of the
+first turn from the axis. In choice specimens the point of commencement
+is as sharply and clearly defined as the mitreing of the purfling at the
+four corners of the body of the violin and which it seems impossible to
+excel. The throat, with the whole of the peg-box, is reduced slightly
+but consistently with strength and beauty of appearance. The public
+verdict has remained unshaken with regard to these scrolls being in
+respect of the combination of excellencies the best carvings of the
+great artist. They are in the most trifling degree smaller than those
+carved before the period of 1700. Among those cut about the 1710-15
+period, or even later, are a few that seem to have been intentionally
+both smaller and more upright. Although having all the essential
+excellencies of detail they can scarcely be considered as coming up to
+the standard of the others in respect of refined grandeur. This type may
+be said to be mixed up and continued with more or less persistency to
+the last, and of this Fig. _d_ gives a good representation. There is
+frequently a more emphatic or energetic gouging at the commencement of
+the turns, a more developed "ear" as it is often termed. It is gouged
+with quite as much care as the rest. Speculation has been rife as to the
+possible influence or even personal help of Joseph Guarneri at this
+point, but there is no solid foundation for surmising the presence of
+one or the other. If the gouging of this part may be said to bear any
+sort of resemblance to the emphatic or impetuous touch of Joseph, it is
+confined strictly to this portion; other essentials are wanting that
+would be absolutely necessary for crediting artists of distinctly
+opposite tendencies with--it might be almost rightly termed--tampering
+with each other's designs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. _c_. SEE PAGE 50.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. _d_. SEE PAGE 50.]
+
+But if the name of Carlo Bergonzi is brought into the field of
+speculation--granting for a moment that Stradivari was not very likely
+to step aside occasionally from his accustomed groove--then we have much
+more of a possibility or even probability in the matter. It has always
+been asserted, and I believe never contradicted, that Carlo Bergonzi was
+for a time actually working in the atelier of Stradivari--whether as
+pupil or only assistant matters not--but we have in the fact of his
+presence a distinct factor in any of the supposed anomalies of the later
+periods of the grand Cremonese master. To this, however, we may put some
+consideration further on. There is further in these later scrolls a
+modification, alteration, or supposed attempt at improvement in the
+edging of the turns, these being left a trifle stouter than at the
+commencement of Stradivari's career.
+
+This is continued along over the top and down the back of the scroll to
+the shell, which seems to be a little less elongated than the early
+specimens. It may be more apparent than real in most instances in
+consequence of the bolder edging. The hollowing of the "shell" is
+seemingly less delicate, but this may be taken as a natural result of
+the foregoing. Further on these details will come in again for review.
+
+To continue our remarks on the question of "thicknesses and their
+adjustment" with each other. This is a department of the luthier's art,
+to which perhaps much more attention has been directed by theorisers
+than by practical workers. The latter class have no doubt been
+influenced by the former to a considerable extent, oftentimes having
+their views expressly carried out under their personal supervision. By
+musical amateurs it is found to be a good theme for conversation when
+the excellencies of the works of various masters are dilated upon. That
+the richness of quality in a "Joseph" is the result of his having left
+"his wood" thick in certain parts and not so much in others, and that
+this, combined with the flat modelling, was the secret, and that it was
+written that some of the Josephs were too thick in the back, and
+therefore the freedom of the vibration was checked and the tone to some
+degree stifled and deficient in penetrative power.
+
+Among my early musical acquaintances, I remember an amateur violinist
+who would "wax eloquent" on the power of his Strad, asserting that it
+was owing in a great measure to its having been "left thick by the
+maker" all round near the border. This, no doubt, many other amateurs,
+acquainted with what used to be in print on the subject, will recognise
+as being in opposition to what had been accepted as being the rule
+generally observed by Stradivari, that the arching in its thickness
+gently decreased towards the border where it was about a third less than
+at the centre. This gentle gradation was said to be the cause of the
+beautiful "silky" and "sympathetic" quality so prominently
+characteristic of his instruments. The explanation of "the thing in
+action," as mechanicians would term it, was thus--the greatest thickness
+being at the part all round by the feet of the bridge, was able to
+sustain the vibration, or the successive shocks caused by the bow, which
+were transmitted through the wood of the upper table and were gradually
+lessened in intensity as the thickness decreased toward the border,
+where they subsided, or were lost.
+
+I do not know what explanation was given, if any, of the "system" of
+thickness adopted much by some of the Milanese school, which was that of
+hewing away the wood until it was thinnest at the part all round by the
+feet of the bridge and thickest by the lower wings of the sound holes.
+Judging by the before mentioned assertions as to the association of
+power of energetic vibration with the thickest wood under the bridge,
+these Milanese makers were acting very wrongly, but, strange to say,
+many instruments of very great power were made by them under these
+conditions.
+
+Many years ago I was conversing on the subject of thicknesses with an
+English maker of experience and who seemed to believe in certain
+"thicknesses," and having then as yet made no practical experiments
+myself in the matter, I put the following to him. There are many violins
+to be met with that through ill-usage and pressure on the bridge have
+depressions instead of the level wood at the part we should expect it to
+be, and yet the tone is considered fine, how is this? The answer was
+remarkable, and not unworthy of the class of makers to which he
+belonged--that although the wood had become thinner from pressure, "the
+original amount was all there," it was only squeezed closer together.
+The instruments were, no doubt, "rightly gauged" in the first instance.
+"Now there," he said, pointing to a 'cello hanging up almost out of
+reach and looking in rather a woe-begone condition, is a bass that
+"never would go well because it was badly gauged when first made." Age
+and usage were to be of no avail in bringing this wretched piece of
+workmanship up to the standard of the average.
+
+This last assertion might have been of considerable weight had the maker
+been a personal pupil of Stradivari, but the public verdict has been
+that there was a great gulf between the two, and that the first had not
+been initiated into the secret of the others. Foreign as well as English
+makers have announced in the most impressive manner at their command
+that their instruments were identical in all respects, including the
+system of thicknesses in the originals, buy them, use them, and be
+convinced that in time they would be just as good as the real thing.
+
+The foregoing is perhaps enough to indicate whether or not the secret of
+Stradivari, or indeed any of the other Italian masters, great or small,
+had been discovered by caliper measurement. It is strange that the
+impression has held sway so strongly that the genius of the great
+master lay in his manner of distribution of the thick and thin parts of
+the upper and lower table. The first thought in this direction would be
+that if the theory was good, its practical application with ordinary
+skill and care would be sure to bring about the desired result. But more
+than this has been done in experimenting on originals and copies from
+time to time. We have within a mile of Charing Cross no lack of workmen
+capable of gauging and copying with sufficient exactness the thicknesses
+of any Stradivari brought to them, if that were all, or the principal
+means necessary for reproducing the famous qualities of the great
+Cremonese. It seems to be forgotten that hundreds of clever workmen have
+lived since his time, in his own as well as other countries, who have
+given the most assiduous application to the making of exact copies and
+with a like result--that of total failure. For a moment let us turn our
+thoughts to the nature of the materials comprised in the sum total of
+the structure known as a violin. We have for the upper table, or front,
+a thin slab of wood known as pine, from a species of tree that grows all
+over the world. The varieties are, however, innumerable and the purposes
+to which they are put, equally so. For the lower table, or back, a more
+dense and tough wood is used. That the particular kind used in the
+construction of the famous instruments of the great masters, and mostly
+that known as curled maple or "hare wood," was chiefly on account of its
+beauty, is evident from the fact that all the best Italian makers had
+recourse at times to other and less showy wood. Beech was occasionally
+used by Carlo Bergonzi. Other tough woods grown in Italy, even poplar,
+have been used by some makers, seemingly when the supply of better
+looking material ran short. That there are extant some "Strads" with
+backs of some plain wood other than maple is more than likely. We have,
+then, for the upper table of the violin a wood of soft but elastic
+consistency, the strength of which lies mainly in the threads running
+lengthwise, and which, when the wood is cut in the manner usual with
+all violin makers since its invention, serve the purpose of small joists
+running from end to end of the upper table. The soft material lying
+between these is very susceptible to damp, especially when fresh cut.
+Thus, if a piece of pine be cut ever so smooth with a sharp gouge or
+chisel, a slightly wetted brush drawn along the surface will at once
+cause the softer parts to swell and so leave a ribbed or "corduroy"
+appearance when it is dry. This will serve to show how far this wood is
+suitable for regulating by such very minute differences as would be
+necessary when the thicknesses theory is confided in and efforts made to
+reduce it to practice. The exactness reasonably expected of such a
+master of quality as Stradivari would be upset in an instant by the
+application of a little moisture, and which either by accident or during
+the process of repairing would be fairly certain to occur some time or
+other to every violin that left the hands of its maker.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+STRADIVARI'S TONE AND SYSTEM--THOSE OF HIS PUPILS AND
+  ASSISTANTS--QUALITIES OF TONE PRODUCED IN DIFFERENT LOCALITIES.
+
+
+We may now refer to actual observation or close examination of
+Stradivari's work with reference to the question of system, whether
+there is evidence of its presence and how followed by him. That his
+violins should have been from time to time well measured by the very
+numerous army of identical imitators, fair copyists, and all sorts of
+connoisseurs and theorists during the present century will be at once
+admitted, and the results may be summed up in a few words. Stradivari
+did not leave clearly defined any evidence of a system of gauging which
+he strictly followed, at any rate in such a manner as to enable the
+least approach by such to be made by any followers in his steps with any
+measure of success. In short, he was guided by the exigencies of the
+moment as to the amount of wood left in his ordinary or choicer
+specimens.
+
+It has been stated before that his quality of tone was one, not several,
+and for these his patrons flocked to him, as his admirers have also more
+and more earnestly sought for him since the supply has ceased. But it
+was not desirable that the greatest possible power should be given to
+instruments that were in many cases to simply charm a small family
+circle of friends in an apartment of modest dimensions. He would,
+therefore, naturally enough vary the amount of wood left. This would be
+quite in accordance with what is perfectly well known to all makers and
+repairers of experience--that with a violin if very "thickly timbered,"
+the tone is less easy of emission, or actually weak. On the other hand,
+if too thin the emission is comparatively easy, but lacks intensity and
+is termed "hollow." Under these circumstances we should expect to find a
+variation in the thicknesses of different violins of Stradivari, which
+is in accordance with fact.
+
+Some connoisseurs have been in their enthusiasm too hasty in their
+reference of general principles from a few particular instances and
+their researches--as time thereafter showed--did not bear the fruit so
+anxiously looked forward to.
+
+An instance comes to mind of two well known dealers, one British, the
+other foreign, meeting together one day and opening some half-a-dozen
+Strads, that appeared up to that moment to have had their interiors
+undisturbed, or perhaps it might be said untampered with. What a
+meeting! and what a parting! let us hope that each table, upper or
+lower, that had so long been working in harmony, eventually became again
+properly mated and gave no cause for lawyers to "put their fingers in
+the pie." The results of the examination is related thus:--"In no two of
+the instruments were thicknesses alike; some had thick places and thin
+places; some were thicker on one side than the other; all were thicker
+in the centre of the upper table and all had these as three to five for
+the back."
+
+Another is that of a well known continental repairer in his day,
+relating how he had repaired a very large number of real Strads and
+found the upper tables to be of the same thickness, two and a half m's.
+all over, but that the backs varied in thickness. Some discrepancies
+here seemingly. To add to this, a correspondent says the Strads he has
+measured "have certainly not been thickest in the centre of the upper
+table."
+
+My own observations as to thicknesses I am afraid will not afford much
+comfort to those who have been hopeful at any time that the calipers
+would drag forth the precious secret. I recollect many years back seeing
+a very fresh Strad, and a hasty measurement possible at the time
+revealed too much wood, that is judging according to our modern ideas of
+regulation.
+
+One instance of a Strad, once my own property, comes to my mind. It had
+something wrong with the interior that necessitated opening. The violin
+was of good reputation for its tone of fine quality, quantity and ease
+of emission. There was no help for it; much against my inclination the
+separation of the upper table from the ribs would have to take place,
+either by my own hands, or those of some other person, the rectification
+being impossible from the exterior as it sometimes may be. With all
+necessary care, guided by past experience, the opening was safely
+accomplished, and after a very interesting examination of the interior,
+which to an ordinary observer would have seemed but peering into a dirty
+old wooden box, having nothing perceptibly different from any other, was
+in what would be called a fair state of preservation. I took the
+calipers in hand, expecting to learn something, but found all the
+original thicknesses had been lost under the hands of numerous
+repairers.
+
+The supposed system or rule followed by Stradivari--that is, according
+to what critics and writers have declared was his habit--was certainly
+not demonstrated in this instance: in fact the eyesight alone was
+sufficient to perceive that whatever theory the master had believed in
+as necessary for the production of his inimitable quality, or whatever
+rule as to gauging should be followed in order to obtain enough power
+and freedom of emission were, in the present instance, we will not say
+ignored, but quite imperceptible; and why? because the fiddle at one
+time had been what we moderns--with our ideas of regulation and
+fitting--would term "too thick in the wood." The instrument had
+undergone much affliction from various physicians, but, judging from
+various little details of evidence, been at almost all times highly
+prized. Here and there were the studs or buttons of various kinds of
+pine stuck by repairers of different nationalities and degrees of skill,
+some placed with apparent good intention, others without reason at all,
+while several parts bore indications of studs having at one time rested
+there and been afterwards removed by succeeding repairers. Now all these
+men had a thought of doing their work properly, and in finishing off
+their studs with gouge or glass-paper, had whipped off around each spot
+some of the precious wood of Stradivari, with a general result of a
+series of hollows and gentle prominences not at all pleasing to the eye
+of the believer in the thickness theory, but nevertheless instructive.
+
+Other instances in which the master's work--while still good and
+serviceable, with much evidence of unskilful repair, or want of proper
+attention at the time of accident, have come under my notice, enough,
+long ago, to have, as the saying is, "knocked into a cocked hat," all
+that has been put forth regarding the mathematical precision of the
+thicknesses over the different parts of a violin by Antonio Stradivari.
+One or two further remarks may be interesting on this part of our
+subject. The fact must not be lost sight of that the pupils of the now
+well established master of his art in Cremona were working either at
+that place likewise, or in the large cities of Italy, and had become
+famous, or were soon to be so and themselves surrounded by learners of
+the art. All these had been initiated in the secrets, if any, of their
+craft and in the particulars which distinguished them from others, or we
+may say, they were of the Stradivari school, showing in a more or less
+degree the same species of tone which the master had brought to
+maturity, and which he retained with consistency and never swerved from
+to his latest day.
+
+It is quite a reasonable supposition that most, if not all, of the
+personal pupils were taught by the master, or had the way pointed out to
+them by which they might, with the right ear for discrimination of tone
+quality and enough of industry, impart to their works the identical
+qualities of those of their teacher. But what are the facts left for our
+consideration in connection with caliper measurement? the pupils
+admittedly of his teaching, among whom we may mention Lorenzo
+Guadagnini, his son Joannes Battista, Alexandri Gagliano, one or two of
+his sons and Carlo Bergonzi, as the best known, each adopted their own,
+or shall we say, left no more evidence for us of having a set rule for
+thicknesses than their master. The nearest approach to the asserted
+system of Stradivari, that of a gentle declination of substance in the
+wood down to the edge, was made by Lorenzo Guadagnini in his extra sized
+violins; but then the tone, wonderfully fine, is not Stradivari, but
+Guadagnini. Carlo Bergonzi's system, if we may for a moment call it, was
+quite unlike Stradivari, and yet connoisseurs have frequently credited
+him with having got "the same beautiful quality of tone." From these few
+references it will be sufficiently plain that the grand secret of tone
+quality must not be sought for with the aid of calipers, so we will
+dismiss this part of our subject and proceed to other considerations.
+
+Besides those who have pinned their faith to the thicknesses, there are
+those who take up with the "air mass" theory. I am afraid the arguments
+in favour of this last will not bear even so much knocking about as
+those just considered.
+
+We have in the first place to take into account the fact of the larger
+modern bar taking up more room than the old obsolete one of, not only
+Stradivari, but all the other masters of his time and before. The upper
+and lower end blocks have been enlarged in many instances to obtain a
+better hold on the upper and lower table. These alterations have been
+each of necessity, not of ignorance or mere whim, and moreover have
+proved efficacious for the end in view. The restorers, or regulators who
+have performed these operations must--according to the "air mass"
+theory--have been acting quite "in the teeth" of it and Stradivari's
+regulation, further there is not one fiddle in a hundred--perhaps not
+that--which has been in use for a generation but what shows a sinking
+one side or the other, or, when the modelling is full, a depression in
+the middle of the upper table, and very frequently a greater fulness at
+the back where the sound post touches and presses from the inside. These
+alterations, individually or collectively, alter the "air mass" of the
+interior, and the violin thus, according to the theory, contains within
+itself the elements of its own early dissolution, so far as fine quality
+is concerned. Facts, however, go to prove the contrary, and with the
+modern regulator's efforts to obtain the best amount of a good thing
+known to be present, it is quite probable that Stradivari himself never
+heard his instruments to such advantage as they may be now,
+notwithstanding the unreasonably high pitch to which violinists are
+obliged to conform their tuning.
+
+There was another theory promulgated many years back by certain people
+of some degree of eminence in their own walk in life. A grand discovery
+was announced, that the excellence of the violins of Stradivari
+consisted in the tonal difference between the upper and lower tables
+peculiar no doubt to that master. This sort of committee of scientific
+experimenter, violin dealer and author, did not--while centralising
+their efforts on the violins of one master--say whether the same
+relationship existed between the back and front of a Nicola Amati,
+Maggini or Gasparo de Salo, they made something of a slip when they
+mentioned the violins of the great Joseph Guarnerius as showing the same
+tonal difference.
+
+It would have been very interesting to have heard of results after
+further trials by the same experimenters upon upper or lower tables of
+violins by now not very much less celebrated makers, who, although of
+the same class or school, were living--for those times--far away from
+the central luminary of the Cremonese art. What would have been said of
+Montagnana of Venice? a star of the first magnitude, curiously near in
+quality and quantity to the great centre to which he was willing to pay
+obeisance and throw out a reflected light; of Gobetti, perhaps more
+"Straddy" than any other Italian, Gofrilleri, Seraphino, two or three of
+the Tononis, besides other lights of lesser magnitude, with exceedingly
+fine qualities, but perhaps open to the charge of intermittency.
+Further, several of the Milanese school,--offshoots of the Amati and
+Stradivari,--of Lorenzo Guadagnini, a master of his art in all its
+details, if ever there was one, his son Joannes Battista, steadier in
+his working, but more uncertain in his results--shifting from place to
+place, may have had some connection with this--and the occasionally fine
+artificers of the same place, Landolfi, the Grancinos and Testores and
+later on Balestrieri of Mantua and Storioni of Cremona. These men,
+always good, and when circumstances were favourable, great in their art,
+often grand in their individuality and power, were, by these modern
+scientific interrogators placed aside or quietly ignored, apparently
+either as unworthy of their recognition, or of such inferior renown as
+not to come within the scope of their investigations.
+
+A close and searching inquiry into the causes that enabled different
+masters of their art to bring about the desirable end of their labours,
+that of imparting a distinct quality and individuality of tone, might
+have enabled them to get at least a hint as to the means whereby
+Stradivari gratified the tastes of his patrons at the time and
+connoisseurs in general of the present day. As indicated before, the
+Venetian masters were--probably by the same means--able to put before
+their patrons that kind of tone most in agreement with the luxurious
+surroundings of the Venetian nobility, or offered and found acceptable
+to the musical public generally there.
+
+A prolonged, earnest examination of the peculiarities of tone attached
+to the violins of the makers of the chief seats of violin making, has
+led to the inference that the difference in kind or degree was not from
+individual choice, but chiefly owing to outside influence.
+
+What is known as the old Brescian type of tone was doubtless suitable
+to the tastes of musical circles, among whom the then new style of
+musical instrument was introduced in Brescia. When settled down, the
+Amati family, a group of thorough artists, proved themselves alive to
+the requirements of the fresh district that was henceforth to be the
+scene of their labours for generations. The Brescian quality had either
+been found by them, or was known beforehand, to be too ponderous or
+insufficiently endowed with the more feminine quality desirable in the
+minds of the Cremonese. The Amatis seem to have been in full possession
+of the means necessary for producing the kind of violin in demand and
+supplied it.
+
+As time went on, musical compositions changed in style, advancing by
+degrees towards the culminating point of nearly a century later. The
+simple, oft-times wondrously sweet, yet quaint effusions of the early
+composers for the violin, were gradually giving more and stronger
+indication of what was possible and likely to follow soon and in its
+turn, like all other things, become antiquated and old-fashioned.
+Undoubtedly, it was this progressive condition of the music of the
+period that induced Stradivari, early in his career, if not at the time
+he was with Nicolo Amati, to take up the study of tone calibre as a
+matter of essential importance, in order not only to keep pace with the
+times, but if possible, anticipate further advances in musical
+development.
+
+It was daily becoming more evident that the qualities of refinement and
+sympathy would not in themselves be sufficient in an instrument with
+such a future as the violin seemed to have. Melodic forms were being
+modified, while harmony was becoming more varied and divided.
+
+The art of appropriate phrasing was also being studied, while practical
+musicians were bowing to the necessity of leaving old stereotyped forms
+for those having more emotional qualities. In short, the violin wanted
+in Cremona was one of substantial power and suitable for more dramatic
+expression on the part of the performer. To bring forth a violin of this
+desirable type, Stradivari directed his energies. With what measure of
+success, the whole musical world up to the present day have emphatically
+declared.
+
+Now, we may ask, was the difference of tone between the violins of
+Stradivari and those of the other makers of the Brescian, Cremonese,
+Venetian, Milanese, or Neapolitan school, in consequence of the tonal
+difference between the upper and lower table, as supposed to have been
+discovered by the modern Parisian investigator? was it resulting from
+the correct air mass inside? the relative thickness of the tables, or we
+may as well include the straight and fine grain theorists, the amber
+varnish in the wood theorists, the wood of great age theorists, and the
+generations of use theorists, and lastly those who mix them altogether.
+If Stradivari practically worked upon one, some or all of these
+theories, there is still more mystery concerning the close proximity at
+which his pupils or assistants arrived, several of whom we might
+conclude were possessed of all necessary means of acquiring to the full
+their master's excellencies.
+
+Just for a moment or two we may turn aside and notice the kind of
+variation or the distinguishing difference between the tone in the
+general acceptation of the term--of Antonio Stradivari and other makers,
+or, as time has proved, masters of their art, if not on an equal
+standing with him. There is frequently among musicians a disposition to
+set down as inferior any tone that may seem to differ in degree or kind
+with that of Stradivari; that is the ideal type, it must be Stradivari
+and no other; some have even gone so far as to say, "there is only one
+quality," that of Stradivari, and when other masters did not produce it,
+they were unable to do so; this is more than a hint at condemnation of
+the head of the Cremona school as having been very lax in the proper and
+thoughtful training of his number of pupils; this latter an almost
+necessary consequence of eminent rank, taken apart from the usual
+assistance found to be obligatory from pressure of work. If we glance
+over the Italian schools taken one after another, the facts, if
+acknowledged, will be seen to point in other directions. Taking for
+instance the Milanese master, Lorenzo Guadagnini, who tells us himself
+that he learnt his art under Antonio Stradivari, we find distinct traces
+of it in his tone, the general calibre is the same and most of the fine,
+distinguishing features noticed in the tone produced by his master; the
+difference, however, is that which is peculiar to the master makers of
+Milan, that of a slightly less reedy emission of sound. Some have called
+it harder, which is not a correct description. Chords are produced with
+it as easily and roundly as with any other, the individual notes blend
+beautifully and give an impression of homogeneousness in no wise
+inferior to anything produced in Italy. There was no apparent difficulty
+in the way of Milan acquiring and cultivating the variety of Italian
+tone known as the Cremonese had they been so disposed; we are therefore
+led to infer that each place with its musical world held its own
+opinions as to the most satisfactory quality of tone for its purpose and
+considered it the best. Milan is situated in Lombardy, north-west of
+Cremona, and distant from it between forty and fifty miles; not a very
+long way at any time, but quite sufficient for each place to cultivate
+or indulge in any artistic or musical fancies or whims independently of
+the other. We find maker after maker in Milan keeping within certain
+limits as regards the quality of tone produced there; I do not know of
+one whose instruments emitted other than the Milanese quality.
+
+We may, I think, safely assume that so far from loosely and
+superficially instructing his pupils, Stradivari's tuition was of a
+deeper, far-reaching kind than has ever been suspected. If the tone of
+Lorenzo Guadagnini is compared with that of the makers who were working
+in Milan when he arrived, it will not be difficult to perceive that the
+Milanese type is still retained, although much enlarged and matured, in
+fact become freshly developed, throwing out the additional qualities for
+the obtaining of which the great master of Cremona had carefully
+trained his gifted pupil. All this is not in the least interfered with
+by the fact of Joannes Battista Guadagnini's tone differing in some
+respects--and more at times--with that of his father, but rather helped
+by it; both assert on their tickets that they were instructed by
+Stradivari, and both show the results of their training in that
+largeness and impressiveness which is so much beloved of violinists and
+which without doubt came from their great teacher. Josef, the son of
+Joannes Battista Guadagnini, appears also to have either been instructed
+by Stradivari or to have assisted under his personal supervision--which
+would amount to much the same thing. We may perceive in the tone of this
+maker also the influence of the great master in the same directions as
+are manifested in the works of his father and grandfather, they are all
+of the Stradivarian school.
+
+Let us now turn in another direction. Alexandri Gagliano of Naples tells
+us that he too was a pupil of Stradivari, and looking at his work there
+is nothing about it inconsistent with his statement; his typical design
+is formed upon that of Stradivari, and many of his details of
+workmanship are such as can only have been carried out as the result of
+either a lengthy study, or from being under the immediate supervision of
+the master.
+
+The quality of tone produced by the Neapolitans is as distinct as
+possible from that of Milan, it is clear, lively, suggestive of a sunny
+clime, and free in its emission, but leaves an impression on the ear of
+a lack of sufficient profundity, nearly the opposite in fact of the
+early Brescian school. Here the best of the Gaglianos--for it is not at
+all certain that there were not more than two of them assisting at
+different times in Stradivari's atelier--brought the same kind of
+improvement to Naples as the Guadagninis did to Milan, the scale was
+better regulated so as to give greater breadth of effect,
+notwithstanding the general quality--seemingly native to the
+place--being uninterfered with. Here then was the influence of
+Stradivari having taught his pupils the means whereby the particular
+tone quality most appreciated in the locality could be brought forward
+in its most developed, or mature condition.
+
+Carlo Bergonzi we shall have to consider more fully further on, and for
+the present only refer to him as a pupil or assistant much more in
+immediate connection with the atelier of Stradivari than any maker known
+to us. Irregular workman as he was, swayed about this way and that by
+matters unknown to us, he kept steadfast to the Stradivarian lines to
+the end. The rest of his family were either his own pupils, or they may
+have even been at times with his master, as they all--so far as I am
+acquainted with them--are of the same school. These particulars all
+point in one direction--that Stradivari was not anxious and made no
+special efforts at introducing any new kind of tone--development of that
+already in existence was his aim, and on this line he appears to have
+led his immediate or personal pupils.
+
+There is great probability that some very clever workmen whose names are
+lost to us, were with Stradivari for a time, long or short, and were
+able to imbibe the valuable precepts enjoined similarly on the other
+disciples. It is not at present known whether the sons of Stradivari had
+pupils or assistants, the rarity of their work seems to point to the
+contrary; their father having been so successful from the commercial
+point of view, apart from the higher aspect of his career, there may
+have been--we might say--the usual disposition amongst sons of
+successful fathers to take life more easily and repose among the laurels
+won for them, requiring only a little caretaking. There is some
+possibility of Thomas Balestrieri, of Mantua, having worked for a time
+under Stradivari, but not as a pupil; there is much in his work
+suggestive of this theory. His tone quality does not belong to the Amati
+school, in which tradition has it he was trained. He may have gone as
+help to Stradivari--for loose as was his general tendency, he could work
+finely when the fit was on him. Whether he went or not, there remains
+tone quality evidence of the strong influence of Stradivari, besides
+the throwing aside of the Amati traditions concerning proportions,
+curves and archings.
+
+Of the other places to which personal pupils of the master went, we may
+take a passing glance at Genoa, a city not replete with makers of
+refinement, or numerous, but nevertheless with some sterling qualities.
+Among them and the most "Straddy" is Bernardus Calcanius; his earliest
+dates, if we can rely upon them, and they may prove at any moment to
+have been earlier than hitherto known, almost preclude the possibility
+of his having worked under Stradivari except as a youth. The influence
+of the master is, however, decidedly paramount in his work and no other
+tendency being noticeable, if not an immediate pupil, he took all
+possible pains to acquire the excellencies that were to his knowledge
+peculiar to Stradivari alone.
+
+Among the Venetian makers there does not seem to be one that can--from
+his style and workmanship--be picked out as showing all necessary
+evidence of his having qualified under the great Cremonese as a personal
+pupil. Nevertheless there is much indication, and such as cannot be
+passed over, of the influence of Stradivari among the aristocracy of the
+business there. This was not, as in the instances of the other schools
+of violin making outside Cremona, in the first ten years of the century,
+but after the different individuals of the group of eminent Venetians
+must have been well known and of established reputation. In this there
+is some apparent indication of one if not more of the party having taken
+a trip to Cremona and brought back a few hints of no inconsiderable
+value, perhaps received personally from the master. On the other hand,
+if this was not the case, his works must have been brought into Venice
+and their merits artistically as well as acoustically well thought over.
+The outcome was a change, the Amati genius hitherto presiding
+uninterfered with, seemingly immutable, had to give way to that which
+was pronounced an improvement or a step higher in the progress of the
+liutaro's art. As in Cremona, the Amati characteristics were too deeply
+rooted in the affections of the Venetians to be eradicated, and we
+consequently find in the designs of a few of the prominent makers the
+strong influence of Stradivari in conflict with that of Nicolas Amati,
+and the two swaying in balance with the settled convictions of the
+followers of Jacobus Stainer.
+
+Having now taken a glance round at the chief centres of violin making
+that had during Stradivari's lifetime been strongly influenced by him,
+directly by means of his pupils or indirectly by the arrival there of
+his works, we may note that his qualities artistically or acoustically
+considered, while giving him a commanding position, did not reach so far
+as to annihilate, during competition, those of the Amatis, especially
+where the latter had been of long standing and followed earnestly in
+detail, they kept side by side as in Cremona. The influence of
+Stradivari beyond the borders of Italy had yet to receive its due
+acknowledgment from the crowds of imitators which have now become known
+or have pushed themselves in front of the public gaze.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE REPUTED GOLDEN PERIOD OF STRADIVARI LATE IN LIFE--HIS LATER
+  MODIFICATIONS OF DESIGN--SIGNS OF OLD AGE APPEARING--THE HELP HE
+  RECEIVED.
+
+
+We can now return back to Cremona, where we left the master in what
+might almost be termed the heydey of success, as he seems to have had
+full obeisance as the reigning chief among liutaros. The amount of work
+put forward--estimating carefully by what remains to us after the lapse
+of some hundred and eighty years or more--must have been possibly larger
+than is suspected and now might appear incredible if it were catalogued
+in detail, were it not for the extreme probability that minor or mere
+mechanical parts of the many instruments other than violins, violas, or
+violoncellos were effectively carried out under the supervision of
+Antonio Stradivari, his sons and assistants, of these probably what
+under the circumstances might even be termed a numerous staff.
+
+The period 1700 to 1725 has been referred to by some writers as "the
+golden period" of Stradivari, not inaptly if we are to understand it in
+a pecuniary sense, as his income at the time was no doubt of a very
+satisfactory nature, but if taken from the standpoint of artistic
+elegance and finish in detail the master himself seems to have had some
+slight misgivings, as there are well-known indications in his latter
+days of having used some of his early patterns, as if a desire had
+arisen in his mind to return to his old love.
+
+That some signs of advancing age should not be apparent in Stradivari's
+work during the period of 1715 to 1725 would scarcely be expected. It is
+just at this time, however, that he gives the strongest evidence of
+being the extraordinary man that he was. In 1715 and thereabouts, a time
+of all others, some critics might put it, when his most magnificent gems
+of art were sent out into the world, he was a veteran seventy-one years,
+a time of life that few people would look forward to as being
+appropriate for executing unrivalled masterpieces, but rather as having
+for some time retired for final rest after a full complement of working
+days; here, however, was a peerless artist actually in his prime! and as
+busy, possibly so, as at any early times.
+
+At 1720 to 1725 a close student of his work of hand may discern some
+signs of what was to follow, it might be said naturally. In the first
+place the purfling gradually assumes a heavier aspect, it is a trifle
+bolder or thicker in substance, although sent round the borders of the
+instrument with apparently the same masterly handling and iron
+nervousness of the preceding years. The edging is also a degree stouter.
+Occasionally the corners are made to a more obtuse angle, adding to the
+whole design a more stolid look, as if mere elegance was about to be
+thrown aside and more simplicity and grandeur were being sought for.
+This was not continued, the master seemed afraid of going too far
+towards heaviness, he therefore cautiously withdrew to his own old
+lines. Sometimes--possibly taking up and constructing upon some of his
+old and early moulds--the corners are brought out more prominently, but
+with more substance than in his early days; the result is delightful for
+the connoisseur's eye. Accompanying these minute modifications there
+will be noticed an increase slight and gradual in the expression of
+heaviness in the sound holes. If possible there is more freedom from
+mere symmetrical proportion, they are placed less accurately level, one
+being a trifle higher than the other, this by the bye was common with
+him at all times, although usually with a subtlety that left them
+unnoticed by an ordinary observer. This slight irregularity has been
+sometimes misinterpreted as one of the little secrets of the master
+whereby he obtained his excellent sonority; "discovered" was the
+exclamation, and a new rule laid down on Stradivari's lines--never place
+your sound holes on the same level, always one a trifle higher and you
+will get what the master was so famous for. The result, so far, has been
+a disappointment which laid bare some evidence that these over zealous
+enthusiasts were not sufficiently acquainted with the canons of Italian
+art. There was another peculiarity creeping on with regard to these
+sound holes--that of an enlargement of the curve opposing the lower
+wing, at first it gave a more staid aspect to the part, there was less
+sprightliness and youth about it, nevertheless it was fine at times,
+even magnificent, there being still the same determination of purpose,
+that of combining maturity of elegance with strength. Afterwards, the
+change--and if all the works of these later years could be seen, saved
+from the destructive ravages of time and wear, it would be pronounced
+scarcely perceptible in its progressive degrees--came creeping on, old
+age gradually insinuating itself in the mechanical part of the design.
+
+From 1725 to 1737 was a time forming a proportion of Stradivari's career
+during which, if he arouses less enthusiasm among his admirers for the
+"work of hand," he outbalances it by far in exciting our astonishment at
+the man himself. In the year 1725, he was then eighty-one years of age,
+and his work, regarded from the standpoint of "periods" as given, or
+arbitrarily laid down by critics of the first half of the present
+century, was what is now known as just past the "golden" or "grand"
+period; that is, some signs of decadence in the finish of the
+instruments which he sent forth were for the first time becoming
+apparent. It is generally believed that Stradivari was still
+industriously engaged in constructing instruments of different kinds
+and sizes as before, and that his time was occupied to the full in
+producing works in rapid succession, as in an uninterrupted stream. That
+the first part of this was probably quite true we can readily agree to,
+also that the out-put was continuous. Both, however, will need a little
+qualification when the surrounding circumstances are carefully weighed.
+Allowing the master possession of unusual mental and physical powers,
+with zeal unabated at the period included within the dates 1725 and
+1735, it would be too much for us to believe him capable of working with
+the certainty and celerity of former years; with all his extraordinary
+abilities he would now be a less prolific worker.
+
+This is in agreement with the number of works that have come down to us,
+and as the time advanced it became less and less until a veritable
+specimen of his latest period is extremely rare.
+
+It has before been referred to that the sons of Stradivari worked with
+him for many years. They must have, from continual practice, been able
+to fit their own workmanship on to the designs of their father to a
+nicety that could not be surpassed. Their own individual designs are
+very seldom seen, consequent, no doubt, on so much of their time being
+devoted to helping their father, and until his death they must have
+rarely made on their own account.
+
+There were other assistants who lent a helping hand in different
+branches of the work, among whom we will not omit mention of Carlo
+Bergonzi, a great master himself, but little inferior to Stradivari, and
+a good deal better than either of the sons.
+
+The circumstances under which Carlo Bergonzi worked in the Stradivari
+establishment are not known; it is by no means certain that he received
+his early tuition in the place, but that he became an influence of
+considerable weight admits of no question. Whether he worked on the
+premises, or--his own being at one time or other next door--was an
+outside help no data is to hand that we can rely on, certain it is that
+his talent must have been fully recognised by the younger Stradivaris as
+their work declares.
+
+Many years back there was some discussion about concerning the extent to
+which Carlo Bergonzi helped, or what part he undertook, if it were
+admitted that some of the Stradivari violins of the latest period were
+not entirely the work of the master. There was much said for and against
+the possibility or probability of there being any of Carlo Bergonzi's
+handiwork to be seen on any of the late Strads. No one seems to have
+questioned the presence of the influence of Bergonzi's style in the work
+of Franciscus Stradivari, the eldest of the sons, who, after labouring
+for many years on his father's moulds and patterns, might have
+reasonably been tempted to take a "leaf from the book" of such a master
+in designing as his friend and fellow-assistant, Carlo Bergonzi.
+
+To take any sort of hint from that wonderful, although fitful genius,
+Giuseppe Guarneri, working within earshot, was not to be entertained for
+a moment, as the style of workmanship, the calibre and quality of tone
+belonging to his manner, was quite opposed to Stradivarian teaching, and
+besides which there are no records or traditions indicating even usual
+social intercourse. We are therefore thrown upon our own resources in
+estimating any connection of Carlo Bergonzi with the late work of
+Antonio Stradivari. The instruments themselves will be the only guide
+and, without doubt, in the face of other evidence, had it been present,
+the best. Stradivari's work during the last ten or more years of his
+life was showing exactly what we should expect of the man when working
+at a patriarchal age. The stamp of the veteran handicraftsman may be
+traced not unfrequently on the works of other eminent makers of Cremona,
+including Andreas, Hieronymus, Nicolas, and his son Hieronymus and
+others down to the latest period of Cremonese art, when Laurentius
+Storioni was proving that if in its last struggles it was not quite
+dead.
+
+The distinguishing characteristics of old age work may be briefly
+summed up in a few words--heaviness in design and uncertainty of
+execution. Good, even brilliant, conceptions may be started on new work,
+but the execution of them shows weakness, or even inability to carry
+them out well. We will apply this as a kind of test when overlooking the
+specimens handed down to us as being the production of the great
+Cremonese master at the age of between eighty and ninety-three years of
+age. If doing this simply from the connoisseur's point of view, without
+admitting any such influences as present or past monetary value, former
+ownership, in short, thrusting aside all considerations of pedigree, we
+shall soon have to divide them into two sections, one of which will be
+acknowledged by all connoisseurs to be really representative of the true
+Stradivarian manner adhered to strictly through a long working career,
+but with the only fault of not quite so well being said of it. Thus the
+sound holes, as before referred to in the tracings, were becoming
+heavier at the lower part and with a tendency in other details towards
+ruggedness. The varnish has a thicker and less dainty aspect, although
+of excellent quality still, but there is an impression of heaviness. In
+the carving of the scroll the same character prevails, the edges of the
+turns are stouter and at the back the grooves down to the shell are less
+refined in their execution. All these little specialities of touch, but
+no modifications, are the natural manifestation of the peculiar physical
+condition of the master at a very advanced age.
+
+Let us now turn to the other section, that over some of which there is
+excellent reason for disputation, over others none.
+
+It will be readily acceded that Stradivari at no time during his career
+ever favoured any exaggeration of curve in the design of his sound
+holes, there was always present the indication of a desire for a fine
+balance of parts, in fact, his ideal seems always to have been that of
+increasing, if possible, the elegance of the Amati sound holes while
+adding to its substantial aspect.
+
+In some of what we have called the second section we find a lively, fine
+and rich transparent varnish such as Carlo Bergonzi was particularly an
+adept at; on the same instrument will be sound holes, that a moment's
+consideration will remove any hesitation as to the design being other
+than Carlo Bergonzi. As this remarkable artist had several types of
+sound holes, and no one knows how many subtypes, at his finger ends, a
+little knowledge of his two most opposite ones will bring at once to
+mind that he must have had a hand in no inconsiderable portion of what
+is called Stradivari's late work, as here is found the inclining inwards
+of his sound holes with the smaller upper part and heavier lower end.
+This will be found accompanied by the square looking upper part of the
+waist curve, the two things being alone almost sufficient to stamp the
+whole as being by Carlo Bergonzi, but here pedigree has stepped in and
+it was always called a Stradivari.
+
+This is the one type of sound holes which has to be placed aside for a
+moment; the other type is of an opposite kind and very often to be seen
+accompanying the longer looking pattern of Carlo Bergonzi: it is free in
+design, having the upper and lower wings fully developed, that is, the
+straight cut of the wing is of full length, this individuality coming
+from Stradivari.
+
+It is this portion of the details of the design that has led so many
+Students of the works of the Cremonese masters astray, they see the
+Stradivarian design, or we may call it peculiarity, and too hastily
+conclude as to its being the actual work of hand of the master. A little
+further consideration of the adjoining portions of the sound holes would
+bring to mind how little Stradivari was disposed towards any thinness of
+the opening out of the part leading from the wing to the nicks: if he
+had a tendency one way or the other, it would be towards more fulness,
+but his ideal being a beautiful equilibrium of all parts, this is
+clearly a point telling against the work as coming from his hand
+entirely. There is another part, too, that Stradivari seems to have most
+earnestly avoided, that of making the top portion of the sound hole
+design reach over towards the centre, somewhat after the tendency of
+Andrea Guarneri, this causes the lower part to seem turned up more
+suddenly, it is, however, only by contrast between the two parts that
+this is so. Carlo Bergonzi's sound holes are more sprightly and
+vertical, and with their more mature style should not be confused with
+those of the preceding maker. Here, then, are two distinct types of
+sound holes independently of those referred to of earlier periods, to be
+seen attached to violins that have perhaps through several generations
+of owners been attributed to Antonio Stradivari, and in consequence been
+sold again and again for large sums. Here is evidence of there being
+something in a name. Had these instruments been carefully and properly
+analysed, with a strict regard to the habit of the master in respect of
+intention in design and execution at early and later periods, the
+mistake would not have occurred. The conclusions rushed at seem to have
+been that there was the proper age of the instrument, the varnish was of
+fine Cremonese type, the pattern and sound holes thought to be
+"Straddy," therefore it must be a Stradivari.
+
+On the other hand, there is no obtainable evidence that these violins
+did not issue in new condition from Stradivari's atelier; we have in
+previous pages considered the amount of help at his elbow, and that this
+would be more and more called into requisition is but a reasonable
+conjecture: that it was actually the case is helped by the fact of
+violins being extant in which the age of the master is stated on the
+ticket--presumably written by himself. Possibly he felt some degree of
+pride in having accomplished, at the patriarchal age of about ninety
+years, work generally associated with the time and vigour of middle age.
+The existence of these violins, there may have been several more made
+than are known, has much significance, for the fact of his age being
+inserted may be fairly taken as indirect evidence not to be lightly put
+aside, that they were by himself looked upon as an accomplished work
+quite out of his usual way. Had he been constantly putting forth
+instruments made by his own hands, there would not have been anything
+unusual about them, but these, with date and age marked, seem to be a
+declaration of the master--see--I have made a violin at the age here
+stated! In these there is present exactly what would be expected in such
+work--indication of insufficiency of the physical powers for carrying
+into execution the dictates of the mental. The intellect of this wonder
+of humanity appears to have remained unclouded to the last.
+
+The other violins of about the same epoch, and going under the master's
+name, have a manner of work that ought to have been perceived as being
+also distinct. Mere hastiness or slovenliness of work is not identical
+with the effect of inability to achieve mechanical neatness. It is this
+slovenliness of handiwork which Carlo Bergonzi gave way to so
+frequently; he could, when in the humour, work beautifully; this, with
+his fine perception of elegance of line, was possibly the secret of his
+being admitted into the atelier of Stradivari and of his influence over
+the sons. There may have been other special particulars regarding him
+that helped in the matter of which there does not appear to be any
+record.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+EVIDENCES IN STRADIVARI'S WORK OF OLD AGE--HIS DEATH AND
+  BURIAL--WORK LEFT BY HIM--THE ADVANCE IN VALUE OF HIS WORK SINCE HIS
+  DECEASE.
+
+
+Returning to the analysis of the individuality of the mechanical work on
+the violins of the latest epoch of Stradivari, one or two further
+details are worth consideration. The size, style and tool work of the
+scroll have always been admitted to take up a large share in the
+estimation of evidence present for identification of authorship. In some
+of the late specimens of Stradivari we can see at once that the hand has
+become less firm, the bold turns seem to have lost much of their former
+vigorous expression, and although thick enough in edge are closer, and
+impress the connoisseur of the inability of the artificer to spend more
+time and attention than was absolutely necessary. The groove down the
+back to the shell is less refined than previously, besides being more
+heavily gouged at the termination. Almost in contrast with these parts
+there are seen on other "very late Strads" a neatly cut shell widening
+out a trifle and minus the thick edging; an examination of the turns of
+the scroll will reveal the fact of its having been gouged in quite a
+different manner, the declevity being more concave, the result of
+running the gouge along the course instead of towards the centre which
+was the manner of the Amatis. This hollowing out of the turns was so
+frequently done by Carlo Bergonzi that it might be called his most
+natural mode of treatment; we can here see what evidence there is of
+this maker's probable help in the work of his master. If we admit the
+possibility of these being entirely Antonio Stradivari's handiwork, then
+there were more phenomenal aspects of the master's working powers left
+for our consideration than he had hitherto given the slightest hint of
+during his extraordinarily long career.
+
+[Illustration: THE CHURCH OF ST. DOMENICO.]
+
+Taking therefore all the facts at our command in connection with the
+circumstances of the time, and the artist himself with his extended
+life, sifting these carefully we find the residue left is,--that his
+working powers gradually lessened in a perfectly natural way and that
+such entire work as left his hands during the last few, say six or seven
+years was, taken at the best, small in quantity; they came forth as from
+the last flickering embers of a decaying power whose influence,
+bequeathed to the world at large, was destined to increase indefinitely
+and whose secrets were left unrevealed, to be sought for earnestly, but
+in vain, by generation after generation.
+
+Time, he with his hour glass, passing by the home of Antonio Stradivari
+in Cremona, found him full of years and honour among his own little
+world of friends and acquaintances, for beyond the borders of his
+country his name could have been known to few, and those only
+recognising him as a clever and successful practitioner in perhaps their
+own craft; his world wide fame had as yet received but a slight impetus
+when it became known that no more of the unapproachable gems of art were
+to issue from the unassuming house in the square of S. Domenico,
+Cremona.
+
+Antonio Stradivari died in his 94th year at Cremona on the 18th of
+December, 1737, and was buried in the chapel of the Rosary in the Church
+of San Domenico. This church was situated exactly opposite his house,
+where, standing at his door--as he must have done many a time--the tomb
+which was to be his final resting-place came directly on the line of
+vision in front of him, but within the third recess or chapel past
+the intervening wall. So far as our scanty knowledge goes, there were no
+circumstances connected with his death that called for any special
+notice at the time. Possibly little more was remarked by the neighbours
+than that the aged musical instrument maker of the Piazza di San
+Domenico had died, and his two sons were to carry on the business.
+Perhaps none of them gave a thought to the immensely enhanced value of
+each of his works of art--or as they may have described them--the goods
+that he sold--that might be remaining two centuries forward.
+
+He had lived to an almost patriarchal age, over ninety-three years. It
+is rare to find in the world's history a leading light among professors
+of science or art completing such a career of almost incessant labour
+both mental and physical. It is still more so to find the work of such a
+genius, large as was the quantity, increasing in value by "leaps and
+bounds" as time progressed after his decease. Most probably at the
+present day--supposing there to be extant as much as one-eighth of what
+he put forth--and that may be very much over the mark, the market value
+of what is recognised as his handiwork would still be a very long way
+above that of the whole of the work put forth throughout his life. It is
+on record that when he died there were ninety violins remaining unsold.
+There may be several good reasons for this; among them the fact that
+Carlo Bergonzi and Joseph Guarneri were working in rivalry at the time,
+and bidding for public favour less on account of fine workmanship than
+force and magnificence of style and general aspect, and that public
+attention was to some extent diverted in their direction; further, and
+perhaps more cogent, the recognition of the great brilliancy and
+largeness of Joseph Guarneri's tone, that must have seemed to the
+musical cognoscenti of Cremona remarkably fresh and vigorous.
+
+But when the master had departed it was not long before the loss was
+seen to be irreparable. His work was sought for, there being none other
+of the kind to supply its place; further and further as time advanced
+it was becoming more and more evident that his like was not to be hoped
+for, notwithstanding the favour with which the public viewed the two
+rivals who were destined to work for a comparatively short period. When
+these two at last disappeared, it was a signal for another rise in the
+monetary value of Stradivari's work, and which was to continue
+progressing indefinitely until such time when there may be signs of an
+approaching renaissance.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[A] Our illustration of this house is from a photo. It will be noticed
+that it has not an imposing exterior and not much indication of the more
+spacious premises in the rear where the great master worked.
+
+
+
+
+ADVERTISEMENTS.
+
+
+
+
+  _ELEVENTH YEAR OF ISSUE._
+
+  _The Largest Circulation in the World of any paper amongst
+    Violinists._
+
+  THE STRAD
+
+  _A Monthly Journal for Professionals and Amateurs of all Stringed
+    Instruments played with the Bow._
+
+  Published on the First of every Month. Price 2d.,
+  Annual Subscription, Post Free, 2s. 6d.
+
+
+  =THE STRAD= is the only recognised organ of the string family and
+  has subscribers in every country of the civilised world. Our
+  circulation has increased to so great an extent that we are enabled
+  to engage as contributors
+
+  =THE LEADING WRITERS in the VIOLIN WORLD=.
+
+  _The following eminent Authors, Critics and Players are writing for
+  the paper_: BASIL ALTHAUS, ESQ., ARTHUR BROADLEY, ESQ., LANCASTRIAN,
+  ANDRE LA TARCHE, ESQ., ROBIN H. LEGGE, ESQ., J. MATTHEWS, ESQ.,
+  WALTER H. MAYSON, ESQ., REV. MEREDITH MORRIS, HORACE PETHERICK,
+  ESQ., DR. T. L. PHIPSON, E. VAN DER STRAETEN, ESQ., &c., &c.
+
+  =THE STRAD= contains technical articles by the leading artists.
+
+  =THE STRAD=, in the Answers to Correspondents column, gives minute
+  information on every detail connected with the Violin by Experts.
+
+  =THE STRAD= gives all the important doings of Violinists at home and
+  abroad all the year round.
+
+  =THE STRAD= gives early critical notices of all important New Music
+  for Stringed Instruments, with numbers to show the grade of
+  difficulty of every piece.
+
+  =THE STRAD= gives every month a beautifully executed portrait on
+  fine art paper, of some leading celebrity in the violin world,
+  together with a biographical sketch.
+
+  Now appearing,
+
+  =VIOLIN MAKING.= BY WALTER H. MAYSON.
+
+  _Copiously Illustrated._
+
+  This important work goes minutely into every detail of the Luthier's
+  Art, and is the only work on Violin Making that has ever been
+  actually written by a Violin Maker.
+
+  This series of articles commenced in the January issue, 1900.
+
+  All Subscriptions, Advertisements, etc., to be addressed to the
+  Manager, HARRY LAVENDER, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, London,
+  E.C.
+
+  LONDON:
+  "STRAD" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+  _"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. I._
+
+  _Crown 8vo., Cloth, 2/6, Post Free, 2/9._
+
+  _"THE STRAD" LIBRARY EDITION is the only Authorised Edition of_
+
+  Technics of Violin Playing
+  ON
+  JOACHIM'S METHOD
+
+  BY
+  CARL COURVOISIER.
+
+  With Folding Plates, Containing Fifteen Illustrations.
+
+
+  LETTER FROM DR. JOACHIM
+  [COPY].
+
+  MY DEAR MR. COURVOISIER: I have read the book on Violin Playing you
+  have sent me, and have to congratulate you sincerely on the manner
+  in which you have performed a most difficult task, _i.e._, to
+  describe the best way of arriving at a correct manner of playing the
+  violin.
+
+  It cannot but be welcome to thoughtful teachers, who reflect on the
+  method of our art, and I hope that your work will prove useful to
+  many students.
+
+  Believe me, my dear Mr. Courvoisier, to be most faithfully yours,
+
+                                                         JOSEPH JOACHIM.
+
+  Berlin, November 3rd, 1894.
+
+
+  The New and Revised Edition of "Technics of Violin Playing" issued
+  by THE STRAD is the only authorised edition of my work. The
+  several English editions which have all appeared without my knowledge
+  are _incomplete_ and _faulty_.
+
+  CARL COURVOISIER.
+
+
+  LONDON:
+  "STRAD" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+  _"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. II._
+
+  _Crown 8vo., Cloth, 2/6, Post Free, 2/9._
+
+  HOW TO STUDY THE VIOLIN
+
+  By J. T. CARRODUS
+
+
+  CONTENTS.
+
+  Strings and Tuning. The Bow and Bowing. Faults and their Correction.
+  Scales and their Importance. Course of Study. Advice on Elementary
+  Matters. Concerning Harmonics, Octaves, etc. Orchestral Playing.
+  Some Experiences as a Soloist. With full page portraits of Carrodus,
+  Molique, Paganini, Spohr, Sivori, De Beriot, Blagrove and Sainton,
+  and a photo-reproduction of Dr. Spohr's testimonial to Carrodus.
+
+  "An interesting series of articles 'How to Study the Violin,' which
+  Carrodus contributed to THE STRAD, and completed only a week or two
+  before his death, have now been collected in cheap book form. The
+  technical hints to violin students, which are practical, plainly
+  worded, and from such a pen most valuable."--_Daily News._
+
+  "But a few weeks before his sudden death the most distinguished of
+  native violinists completed in THE STRAD a series of chats to
+  students of the instrument associated with his name. These chats are
+  now re-issued, with a sympathetic preface and instructive
+  annotations. All who care to listen to what were virtually the last
+  words of such a conscientious teacher will recognise the pains taken
+  by Carrodus to render every detail as clear to the novice as to the
+  advanced pupil. Pleasant gossip concerning provincial festivals at
+  which Carrodus was for many years 'leader,' of the orchestra, ends a
+  little volume worthy a place in musical libraries both for its
+  practical value and as a memento of the life-work of an artist
+  universally esteemed."--_Daily Chronicle._
+
+  "It is surely, hardly necessary to direct the attention of students
+  to the unique value of the hints and advice given by so experienced
+  and accomplished a virtuoso as the late Mr. Carrodus, so that it
+  only remains to state that the 'Recollections' make delightful
+  reading, and that the book, as a whole, is as entertaining as it is
+  instructive. The value of the _brochure_ is enhanced by an excellent
+  portrait of Mr. Carrodus, as well as of a number of other violin
+  worthies, and the printing, paper, and get up generally are good as
+  could possibly be."--_Musical Answers._
+
+
+  LONDON:
+  "STRAD" OFFICE, 3, GREEN TERRACE, ROSEBERY AVENUE, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+  _"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. III._
+
+  _Crown 8vo., Cloth 2/6, Post Free 2/9._
+
+  THE BOW
+
+  Its History, Manufacture and Use
+
+  BY
+  HENRY SAINT-GEORGE.
+
+  With Full Page Illustrations (exact size) by Photo Process.
+
+
+  MONS. EMILE SAURET writes--"I have read it with great interest, and
+  think that it supplies a real want in giving musicians such an
+  excellent description of all matters referring to this important
+  instrument."
+
+  SIGNOR GUIDO PAPINI writes--"Thanks so much for your splendid and
+  interesting book. You are quite successful and all the artists and
+  amateurs are indebted to you for a so exact and correct '_Texte_' on
+  the subject."
+
+  ADOLF BRODSKY writes--"I am delighted with the book and find it very
+  instructive, even for those who think to know everything about the
+  bow. It is very original and at times very amusing. No violinist
+  should miss the opportunity to buy it."
+
+  THE TIMES.--"A useful treatise on the Bow, in which the history,
+  manufacture and use of the bow are discussed with considerable
+  technical knowledge."
+
+  DAILY TELEGRAPH.--"To the student there is much of interest in the
+  work, which has the advantage of being copiously illustrated."
+
+  DAILY NEWS.--"This book seems practically to exhaust its subject."
+
+
+  LONDON:
+  "STRAD" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+  _"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. IV._
+
+  _Crown 8vo., Cloth 5/-, Post Free 5/4._
+
+  CELEBRATED VIOLINISTS,
+  PAST AND PRESENT
+
+  _Translated from the German of_
+  A. EHRLICH.
+
+  _And Edited with Notes and Additions by_
+  ROBIN H. LEGGE.
+
+  _WITH EIGHTY-NINE PORTRAITS._
+
+
+  PRESS NOTICES.
+
+  "Those who love their fiddles better than their fellows, and who
+  treasure up every detail that can be found and recorded about their
+  favourite and cherished players will not fail to provide themselves
+  with a copy of this book."--_Musical Opinion._
+
+  "This book of 280 pages is a most interesting and valuable addition
+  to the violinist's library. It contains 89 biographical sketches of
+  well-known artists, ancient and modern, of all nations. This is not
+  intended to be a perfect dictionary of violinists; the aim of the
+  Editor of the present volume being merely to give a few more
+  up-to-date details concerning some of the greatest of stringed
+  instrument players, and we must concede that no name of the first
+  importance has been omitted. Germany is represented by 21 names,
+  Italy by 13, France by 10, England by 4, Bohemia by 8, Belgium by 7,
+  and the fair sex by seven well-known ladies, such as Teresina Tua,
+  Therese and Marie Milanollo, Lady Halle, Marie Soldat, Gabrielle
+  Wietrowetz, and Arma Senkrah. Altogether this is most agreeable
+  reading to the numerous army of violinists, both professionals and
+  amateurs, and after careful examination we can find nothing but
+  praise for this translation into English of a book well-known on the
+  Continent."--_The Piano, Organ and Music Trades Journal._
+
+
+  LONDON:
+  "STRAD" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+  _"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. V._
+
+  _Crown 8vo., Cloth 2/6, Post Free 2/9._
+
+  TECHNICS OF
+  VIOLONCELLO PLAYING
+
+  BY
+  E. VAN DER STRAETEN.
+
+  COPIOUSLY ILLUSTRATED.
+
+
+  _Copy of Letter received by the Author from the great 'cellist,
+  SIGNOR ALFRED PIATTI._
+
+                              Cadenabbia, Lake of Como, March 9th, 1898.
+
+  DEAR SIR,--I received the book you kindly sent me on "The Technics
+  of Violoncello Playing," which I found excellent, particularly for
+  beginners, which naturally was your scope. With many thanks for
+  kindly remembering an old ex-violoncello player.
+
+                                       Believe me, yours sincerely,
+                                                          ALFRED PIATTI.
+
+
+  _Copy of Letter received by the Author from the eminent 'cellist,
+  HERR DAVID POPPER._
+
+                                          Budapest, February 22nd, 1898.
+
+  DEAR SIR,--In sending me your book on "The Technics of Violoncello
+  Playing" you have given me a real and true pleasure. I know of no
+  work, tutors and studies not excepted, which presents so much
+  valuable material, so much that is absolutely to the point,
+  avoiding--I might say, on principle--all that is superfluous and
+  dispensable. Every earnest thinking violoncello student will in
+  future make your book his own and thereby receive hints which will
+  further and complete the instructions of his master.
+
+  I congratulate you and ourselves most heartily on the new violoncello
+  book. With kind regards,
+
+                                             Yours most sincerely,
+                                                           DAVID POPPER.
+
+
+  LONDON:
+  "STRAD" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+  _"THE STRAD LIBRARY," No. VI._
+
+  _Crown 8vo., Cloth, 2/6, Post Free 2/9._
+
+  VIOLIN PLAYING
+
+  BY
+  JOHN DUNN
+
+
+  CONTENTS
+
+  INTRODUCTORY--Qualities indispensable to the ideal Violinist--Hints
+  on the Choice of a Teacher--Some Tricks of pretending professors
+  exposed.
+
+  ON THE CHOICE OF A VIOLIN AND BOW--Advice regarding general
+  adjustment and repairs.
+
+  ON THE CHOICE OF STRINGS--Stringing the Instrument and keeping the
+  Pegs in Order.
+
+  ON THE GENERAL POSTURE--The manner of holding the Violin and Bow as
+  accepted by the leading artists of the day.
+
+  ON FINGERING GENERALLY--The various positions--Scales
+  recommended--The Modern Orchestral "Principal" or (so-called)
+  Leader.
+
+  ON GLIDING--Special Characteristics of some of the most Eminent
+  Players.
+
+  DOUBLE STOPPING--The main difficulty in Double Stopping--How to gain
+  independence of Finger.
+
+  BOWINGS--Smooth Bowings--Solid Staccato--Spiccato--Spring Bow--Mixed
+  Bowings.
+
+  TONE PRODUCTION--Character of Tone--Rules and Conditions necessary
+  to produce a good tone--Style and Expression.
+
+
+  LONDON:
+  "STRAD" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+  _"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. VII._
+
+  _Crown 8vo, Cloth, 2/6, Post Free 2/9._
+
+  CHATS TO 'CELLO STUDENTS
+
+  BY
+  ARTHUR BROADLEY.
+
+
+  CONTENTS.
+
+  Preliminary remarks--'Cello Difficult to Master--Choice of a
+  Teacher--Choice of an Instrument and Bow. How to Hold the
+  Instrument--Attitude of the Player--Use of a Sliding Pin
+  Recommended--Correct Way of Holding the Bow--Some Incorrect Sketches
+  of Same. General Knowledge--Eccentricity not Necessarily a Mark of
+  Genius--Musical Notation--Common Errors with Respect to the Actual
+  Position of the Various Clefs--Tenor Clef Indispensable to the
+  'Cellist. Early Attempts at 'Cello Playing--Firmness in
+  Fingering--The Left Hand--Correct Method of Placing the Left Hand
+  Fingers. General Remarks on Bowing--Useful Method of Combining
+  Scale Practice with Study of Various Bowings--Smooth
+  Bowings--Crescendo--Diminuendo--The Slur. Bowing
+  Continued--Martele--Detached Stroke--Mixed Bowings--The Various
+  Divisions of the Bow. On "Staccato" Bowing-Spiccato--Slurred
+  Springing-Bow--Varieties of Phrasing Occasioned by the Portion of
+  Bow Used--Sautille--Dotted Notes. On the Positions--The Individual
+  Requirements of the Orchestral Player and Soloist--The Necessity of
+  "Stretching" for the Intervals--Locality of the Neck Positions--The
+  Enharmonic Difference of Sharp and Flat Keys--Absolute Pitch--How to
+  Leap any Awkward Interval--The Positions not Determined by
+  Mathematical Rules, but by the "Ear"--Shifting--"Economy of Motion"
+  _v._ "Effect"--Choice of Positions. Portamento--The Various Uses of
+  Gilding--Some Exaggerations Exposed--How to Leap Great Intervals
+  without "Howling"--Combination of Glissando and Sforzando.
+  Double-Stopping--Useful in Developing the Hand--How to Determine the
+  Fingering of Various Intervals--Gliding in Double Stops--Chords--A
+  Correct Manner of Playing Chords. Arpeggios--Their Evolution from
+  Various Chords--The Bowing of Arpeggios. Graces and
+  Embellishments--The Use of the Thumb--Extensions--Octaves.
+  Scientific Basis of Harmonics--Some Peculiar Laws which Govern a
+  Vibrating String--"Natural" and "Artificial" Harmonics--Manner of
+  Bowing Harmonics--Special Effects--"Trick Staccato"--Various Methods
+  of Producing Chromatic Scale Passages--"Sul Ponticello" Bowing and
+  "Bowed" Harmonics--Flautando--Pizzicato Glide and Grace Notes!
+  Delivery--Style--"Form" _v._ "Feeling"--Conception--Essentials of a
+  "Fine" Delivery--Orchestral Playing.
+
+
+  LONDON:
+  "STRAD" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
+
+
+  Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_.
+
+  Passages in bold are indicated by =bold=.
+
+  Inconsistencies in spelling and hypenation have been retained from the
+    original.
+
+  Obvious typographical errors have been corrected as follows:
+    Page  3: "occured" changed to "occurred"
+    Page 22: "be" changed to "he"
+    Page 31: "connoissiers" changed to "connoisseurs"
+    Page 39: "ignominous" changed to "ignominious"
+    Page 60: "Guadaguini" changed to "Guadagnini"
+
+  Page numbers in the "List of Plates" for the ILLUSTRATIONS OF SCROLLS
+    have been retained, but illustrations have been moved to be next to
+    the paragraph in which they are referred.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Antonio Stradivari, by Horace William Petherick
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