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diff --git a/36520-8.txt b/36520-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ffe8a8f --- /dev/null +++ b/36520-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,21541 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation +to Sex, by Charles Darwin + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex + Volume II (1st Edition) + + +Author: Charles Darwin + + + +Release Date: June 25, 2011 [eBook #36520] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DESCENT OF MAN AND SELECTION +IN RELATION TO SEX*** + + +E-text prepared by Steven Gibbs, Turgut Dincer, and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg has Volume I of this book. See + http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/34967 + + + Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 36520-h.htm or 36520-h.zip: + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/36520/36520-h/36520-h.htm) + or + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/36520/36520-h.zip) + + +Transcriber's note: + + A number preceded by a carat character is a superscript + (example: A^1). + + + + + +THE DESCENT OF MAN, AND SELECTION IN RELATION TO SEX. + +by CHARLES DARWIN, M.A., F.R.S., &c. + +IN TWO VOLUMES.--VOL. II. + +With Illustrations. + + + + + + + +London: +John Murray, Albemarle Street. +1871. + +[The right of Translation is reserved.] + + +ERRATA. + +VOL. I. + + Page line _For_ _read_ + + 27 13 kaolo koala. + 31 6 prostratica prostatica. + 59, _note_[86] 2 speech species. + 74, _note_[107] -- Browne Brown. + 118, _note_[167] -- Vol. I. Vol. II. + 128, _note_[184] 4 _Before_ vol. xiv. _insert_ 'Proc. + Royal Soc. + 208 2 prostratica. prostatica. + 322 5 Actineæ Actiniæ. + 324 30 land-shells land-snails. + 330 16 figs. 4 and 5 figs. 4, 5, and 6. + 334 17 Birgos Birgus. + 339 8 attractions attentions. + 341 3 dragon-flys dragon-flies. + 378 17 Typhæus Typhoeus. + 384 31 tesselatum tessellatum. + 397 9 Hypopira Hypopyra. + 405 21 Acroeidæ Acræidæ. + + VOL. II. + + 32 30 chamelion chameleon. + 115 4 mail male. + 178 23 Chloehaga Chloephaga. + 227, _note_[281] -- Ramphaston Ramphastos. + 240, _note_[289] -- Mr. H. Brown Mr. R. Brown. + -- _note_[290] 2 elephus elaphas. + 242 14 walruses narwhals. + 339 27 Durfur Darfur. + + +CONTENTS. + + +PART II. + +SEXUAL SELECTION--_continued_. + + + CHAPTER XII. + + SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS OF FISHES, AMPHIBIANS, AND + REPTILES. + + FISHES: Courtship and battles of the males--Larger size of the + females--Males, bright colours and ornamental appendages; other + strange characters--Colours and appendages acquired by the + males during the breeding-season alone--Fishes with both sexes + brilliantly coloured--Protective colours--The less conspicuous + colours of the female cannot be accounted for on the principle + of protection--Male fishes building nests, and taking charge of + the ova and young. AMPHIBIANS: Differences in structure and + colour between the sexes--Vocal organs. REPTILES: + Chelonians--Crocodiles--Snakes, colours in some cases + protective--Lizards, battles of--Ornamental appendages--Strange + differences in structure between the sexes--Colours--Sexual + differences almost as great as with birds Page 1-37 + + + CHAPTER XIII. + + SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS OF BIRDS. + + Sexual differences--Law of battle--Special weapons--Vocal + organs--Instrumental music--Love-antics and dances-- + dances--Decorations, permanent and seasonal--Double and single + annual moults--Display of ornaments by the males 38-98 + + + CHAPTER XIV. + + BIRDS--_continued_. + + Choice exerted by the female--Length of courtship--Unpaired + birds--Mental qualities and taste for the beautiful--Preference + or antipathy shewn by the female for particular males-- + Variability of birds--Variations sometimes abrupt--Laws + of variation--Formation of ocelli--Gradations of + character--Case of Peacock, Argus pheasant, and Urosticte 99-153 + + + CHAPTER XV. + + BIRDS--_continued_. + + Discussion why the males alone of some species, and both sexes + of other species, are brightly coloured--On sexually-limited + inheritance, as applied to various structures and to + brightly-coloured plumage--Nidification in relation to + colour--Loss of nuptial plumage during the winter 154-182 + + + CHAPTER XVI. + + BIRDS--_concluded_. + + The immature plumage in relation to the character of the + plumage in both sexes when adult--Six classes of cases--Sexual + differences between the males of closely-allied or + representative species--The female assuming the characters of + the male--Plumage of the young in relation to the summer and + winter plumage of the adults--On the increase of beauty in the + Birds of the World--Protective colouring-- + Conspicuously-coloured birds--Novelty appreciated-- + Summary of the four chapters on birds 183-238 + + + CHAPTER XVII. + + SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS OF MAMMALS. + + The law of battle--Special weapons, confined to the + males--Cause of absence of weapons in the female--Weapons + common to both sexes, yet primarily acquired by the male--Other + uses of such weapons--Their high importance--Greater size of + the male--Means of defence--On the preference shewn by either + sex in the pairing of quadrupeds 239-273 + + + CHAPTER XVIII. + + SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS OF MAMMALS--_continued_. + + Voice--Remarkable sexual peculiarities in + seals--Odour--Development of the hair--Colour of the hair and + skin--Anomalous case of the female being more ornamented than + the male--Colour and ornaments due to sexual selection--Colour + acquired for the sake of protection--Colour, though common to + both sexes, often due to sexual selection--On the disappearance + of spots and stripes in adult quadrupeds--On the colours and + ornaments of the Quadrumana--Summary 274-315 + + + CHAPTER XIX. + + SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS OF MAN. + + Differences between man and woman--Causes of such differences + and of certain characters common to both sexes--Law of + battle--Differences in mental powers--and voice--On the + influence of beauty in determining the marriages of + mankind--Attention paid by savages to ornaments--Their ideas of + beauty in woman--The tendency to exaggerate each natural + peculiarity 316-354 + + + CHAPTER XX. + + SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS OF MAN--_continued_. + + On the effects of the continued selection of women according to + a different standard of beauty in each race--On the causes + which interfere with sexual selection in civilised and savage + nations--Conditions favourable to sexual selection during + primeval times--On the manner of action of sexual selection + with mankind--On the women in savage tribes having some power + to choose their husbands--Absence of hair on the body, and + development of the beard--Colour of the skin--Summary 355-384 + + + CHAPTER XXI. + + GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. + + Main conclusion that man is descended from some lower + form--Manner of development--Genealogy of man--Intellectual and + moral faculties--Sexual selection--Concluding remarks 385-405 + + + INDEX 406 + + +POSTSCRIPT. + +Vol. I. pp. 297-299.--I have fallen into a serious and unfortunate +error, in relation to the sexual differences of animals, in attempting +to explain what seemed to me a singular coincidence in the late period +of life at which the necessary variations have arisen in many cases, and +the late period at which sexual selection acts. The explanation given is +wholly erroneous, as I have discovered by working out an illustration in +figures. Moreover, the supposed coincidence of period is far from +general, and is not remarkable; for, as I have elsewhere attempted to +show, variations arising early in life have often been accumulated +through sexual selection, being then commonly transmitted to both sexes. +On the other hand, variations arising late in life cannot fail to +coincide approximately in period with that of the process of sexual +selection. Allusions to these erroneous views reappear in Vol. II. pp. +161 and 237. + + + + +SEXUAL SELECTION. + + +CHAPTER XII. + +SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS OF FISHES, AMPHIBIANS, +AND REPTILES. + + + FISHES: Courtship and battles of the males--Larger size of the + females--Males, bright colours and ornamental appendages; other + strange characters--Colours and appendages acquired by the + males during the breeding-season alone--Fishes with both sexes + brilliantly coloured--Protective colours--The less conspicuous + colours of the female cannot be accounted for on the principle + of protection--Male fishes building nests, and taking charge of + the ova and young. AMPHIBIANS: Differences in structure and + colour between the sexes--Vocal organs. REPTILES: + Chelonians--Crocodiles--Snakes, colours in some cases + protective--Lizards, battles of--Ornamental appendages--Strange + differences in structure between the sexes--Colours--Sexual + differences almost as great as with birds. + + +We have now arrived at the great sub-kingdom of the Vertebrata, and will +commence with the lowest class, namely Fishes. The males of +Plagiostomous fishes (sharks, rays) and of Chimæroid fishes are provided +with claspers which serve to retain the female, like the various +structures possessed by so many of the lower animals. Besides the +claspers, the males of many rays have clusters of strong sharp spines on +their heads, and several rows along "the upper outer surface of their +pectoral fins." These are present in the males of some species, which +have the other parts of their bodies smooth. They are only temporarily +developed during the breeding-season; and Dr. Günther suspects that they +are brought into action as prehensile organs by the doubling inwards and +downwards of the two sides of the body. It is a remarkable fact that the +females and not the males of some species, as of _Raia clavata_, have +their backs studded with large hook-formed spines.[1] + +Owing to the element which fishes inhabit, little is known about their +courtship, and not much about their battles. The male stickleback +(_Gasterosteus leiurus_) has been described as "mad with delight" when +the female comes out of her hiding-place and surveys the nest which he +has made for her. "He darts round her in every direction, then to his +accumulated materials for the nest, then back again in an instant; and +as she does not advance he endeavours to push her with his snout, and +then tries to pull her by the tail and side-spine to the nest."[2] The +males are said to be polygamists;[3] they are extraordinarily bold and +pugnacious, whilst "the females are quite pacific." Their battles are at +times desperate; "for these puny combatants fasten tight on each other +for several seconds, tumbling over and over again, until their strength +appears completely exhausted." With the rough-tailed stickleback (_G. +trachurus_) the males whilst fighting swim round and round each other, +biting and endeavouring to pierce each other with their raised lateral +spines. The same writer adds,[4] "the bite of these little furies is +very severe. They also use their lateral spines with such fatal effect, +that I have seen one during a battle absolutely rip his opponent quite +open, so that he sank to the bottom and died." When a fish is conquered, +"his gallant bearing forsakes him; his gay colours fade away; and he +hides his disgrace among his peaceable companions, but is for some time +the constant object of his conqueror's persecution." + +The male salmon is as pugnacious as the little stickleback; and so is +the male trout, as I hear from Dr. Günther. Mr. Shaw saw a violent +contest between two male salmons which lasted the whole day; and Mr. R. +Buist, Superintendent of Fisheries, informs me that he has often watched +from the bridge at Perth the males driving away their rivals whilst the +females were spawning. The males "are constantly fighting and tearing +each other on the spawning-beds, and many so injure each other as to +cause the death of numbers, many being seen swimming near the banks of +the river in a state of exhaustion, and apparently in a dying state."[5] +The keeper of the Stormontfield breeding-ponds visited, as Mr. Buist +informs me, in June, 1868, the northern Tyne, and found about 300 dead +salmon, all of which with one exception were males; and he was convinced +that they had lost their lives by fighting. + +[Illustration: Fig. 26. Head of male of common salmon (_Salmo salar_) +during the breeding-season. + +(This drawing, as well as all the others in the present chapter, have +been executed by the well-known artist, Mr. G. Ford, under the kind +superintendence of Dr. Günther, from specimens in the British Museum.)] + +The most curious point about the male salmon is that during the +breeding-season, besides a slight change in colour, "the lower jaw +elongates, and a cartilaginous projection turns upwards from the point, +which, when the jaws are closed, occupies a deep cavity between the +intermaxillary bones of the upper jaw."[6] (Figs. 26 and 27.) In our +salmon this change of structure lasts only during the breeding-season; +but in the _Salmo lycaodon_ of N.W. America the change, as Mr. J. K. +Lord[7] believes, is permanent and best marked in the older males which +have previously ascended the rivers. In these old males the jaws become +developed into immense hook-like projections, and the teeth grow into +regular fangs, often more than half an inch in length. With the European +salmon, according to Mr. Lloyd,[8] the temporary hook-like structure +serves to strengthen and protect the jaws, when one male charges another +with wonderful violence; but the greatly developed teeth of the male +American salmon may be compared with the tusks of many male mammals, and +they indicate an offensive rather than a protective purpose. + +[Illustration: Fig. 27. Head of female salmon.] + +The salmon is not the only fish in which the teeth differ in the two +sexes. This is the case with many rays. In the thornback (_Raia +clavata_) the adult male has sharp, pointed teeth, directed backwards, +whilst those of the female are broad and flat, forming a pavement; so +that these teeth differ in the two sexes of the same species more than +is usual in distinct genera of the same family. The teeth of the male +become sharp only when he is adult: whilst young they are broad and flat +like those of the female. As so frequently occurs with secondary sexual +characters, both sexes of some species of rays, for instance _R. batis_, +possess, when adult, sharp, pointed teeth; and here a character, proper +to and primarily gained by the male, appears to have been transmitted to +the offspring of both sexes. The teeth are likewise pointed in both +sexes of _R. maculata_, but only when completely adult; the males +acquiring them at an earlier age than the females. We shall hereafter +meet with analogous cases with certain birds, in which the male acquires +the plumage common to both adult sexes, at a somewhat earlier age than +the female. With other species of rays the males even when old never +possess sharp teeth, and consequently both sexes when adult are provided +with broad, flat teeth like those of the young, and of the mature +females of the above-mentioned species.[9] As the rays are bold, strong +and voracious fishes, we may suspect that the males require their sharp +teeth for fighting with their rivals; but as they possess many parts +modified and adapted for the prehension of the female, it is possible +that their teeth may be used for this purpose. + +In regard to size, M. Carbonnier[10] maintains that with almost all +fishes the female is larger than the male; and Dr. Günther does not know +of a single instance in which the male is actually larger than the +female. With some Cyprinodonts the male is not even half as large as the +female. As with many kinds of fishes the males habitually fight +together; it is surprising that they have not generally become through +the effects of sexual selection larger and stronger than the females. +The males suffer from their small size, for according to M. Carbonnier +they are liable to be devoured by the females of their own species when +carnivorous, and no doubt by other species. Increased size must be in +some manner of more importance to the females, than strength and size +are to the males for fighting with other males; and this perhaps is to +allow of the production of a vast number of ova. + +[Illustration: Fig. 28. Callionymus lyra. Upper figure, male; lower +figure, female.] + +In many species the male alone is ornamented with bright colours; or +these are much brighter in the male than the female. The male, also, is +sometimes provided with appendages which appear to be of no more use to +him for the ordinary purposes of life than are the tail-feathers to the +peacock. I am indebted for most of the following facts to the great +kindness of Dr. Günther. There is reason to suspect that many tropical +fishes differ sexually in colour and structure; and there are some +striking cases with our British fishes. The male _Callionymus lyra_ has +been called the _gemmeous dragonet_ "from its brilliant gem-like +colours." When freshly taken from the sea the body is yellow of various +shades, striped and spotted with vivid blue on the head; the dorsal fins +are pale brown with dark longitudinal bands; the ventral, caudal and +anal fins being bluish-black. The female, or sordid dragonet, was +considered by Linnæus and by many subsequent naturalists as a distinct +species; it is of a dingy reddish-brown, with the dorsal fin brown and +the other fins white. The sexes differ also in the proportional size of +the head and mouth, and in the position of the eyes;[11] but the most +striking difference is the extraordinary elongation in the male (fig. +28) of the dorsal fin. The young males resemble in structure and colour +the adult females. Throughout the genus Callionymus,[12] the male is +generally much more brightly spotted than the female, and in several +species, not only the dorsal, but the anal fin of the male is much +elongated. + +The male of the _Cottus scorpius_, or sea-scorpion, is more slender and +smaller than the female. There is also a great difference in colour +between them. It is difficult, as Mr. Lloyd[13] remarks, "for any one, +who has not seen this fish during the spawning-season, when its hues are +brightest, to conceive the admixture of brilliant colours with which it, +in other respects so ill-favoured, is at that time adorned." Both sexes +of the _Labrus mixtus_, although very different in colour, are +beautiful; the male being orange with bright-blue stripes, and the +female bright-red with some black spots on the back. + +In the very distinct family of the Cyprinodontidæ--inhabitants of the +fresh waters of foreign lands--the sexes sometimes differ much in +various characters. In the male of the _Mollienesia petenensis_,[14] the +dorsal fin is greatly developed and is marked with a row of large, +round, ocellated, bright-coloured spots; whilst the same fin in the +female is smaller, of a different shape, and marked only with +irregularly-curved brown spots. In the male the basal margin of the anal +fin is also a little produced and dark-coloured. In the male of an +allied form, the _Xiphophorus Hellerii_ (fig. 29), the inferior margin +of the anal fin is developed into a long filament, which is striped, as +I hear from Dr. Günther, with bright colours. This filament does not +contain any muscles, and apparently cannot be of any direct use to the +fish. As in the case of the Callionymus, the males whilst young resemble +in colour and structure the adult females. Sexual differences such as +these may be strictly compared with those which are so frequent with +gallinaceous birds.[15] + +[Illustration: Fig. 29. Xiphophorus Hellerii. Upper figure, male; lower +figure, female.] + +In a siluroid fish, inhabiting the fresh waters of South America, namely +the _Plecostomus barbatus_[16] (fig. 30), the male has its mouth and +interoperculum fringed with a beard of stiff hairs, of which the female +shews hardly a trace. These hairs are of the nature of scales. In +another species of the same genus, soft flexible tentacles project from +the front part of the head of the male, which are absent in the +female. These tentacles are prolongations of the true skin, and +therefore are not homologous with the stiff hairs of the former species; +but it can hardly be doubted that both serve the same purpose. What this +purpose may be it is difficult to conjecture; ornament does not here +seem probable, but we can hardly suppose that stiff hairs and flexible +filaments can be useful in any ordinary way to the males alone. The +_Monacanthus scopas_, which was shewn to me in the British Museum by Dr. +Günther, presents a nearly analogous case. The male has a cluster of +stiff, straight spines, like those of a comb, on the sides of the tail; +and these in a specimen six inches long were nearly an inch and a half +in length; the female has on the same place a cluster of bristles, which +may be compared with those of a tooth-brush. In another species, the _M. +peronii_, the male has a brush like that possessed by the female of the +last species, whilst the sides of the tail in the female are smooth. In +some other species the same part of the tail can be perceived to be a +little roughened in the male and perfectly smooth in the female; and +lastly in others, both sexes have smooth sides. In that strange monster, +the _Chimæra monstrosa_, the male has a hook-shaped bone on the top of +the head, directed forwards, with its rounded end covered with sharp +spines; in the female "this crown is altogether absent," but what its +use may be is utterly unknown.[17] + +[Illustration: Fig. 30. Plecostomus barbatus. Upper figure, head of +male; lower figure, female.] + +The structures as yet referred to are permanent in the male after he has +arrived at maturity; but with some Blennies and in another allied +genus[18] a crest is developed on the head of the male only during the +breeding-season, and their bodies at the same time become more +brightly-coloured. There can be little doubt that this crest serves as a +temporary sexual ornament, for the female does not exhibit a trace of +it. In other species of the same genus both sexes possess a crest, and +in at least one species neither sex is thus provided. In this case and +in that of the Monacanthus, we have good instances to how great an +extent the sexual characters of closely-allied forms may differ. In many +of the Chromidæ, for instance in Geophagus and especially in Cichla, the +males, as I hear from Professor Agassiz,[19] have a conspicuous +protuberance on the forehead, which is wholly wanting in the females and +in the young males. Professor Agassiz adds, "I have often observed these +fishes at the time of spawning when the protuberance is largest, and at +other seasons when it is totally wanting and the two sexes shew no +difference whatever in the outline of the profile of the head. I never +could ascertain that it subserves any special function, and the Indians +on the Amazon know nothing about its use." These protuberances in their +periodical appearance resemble the fleshy caruncles on the heads of +certain birds; but whether they serve as ornaments must remain at +present doubtful. + +The males of those fishes, which differ permanently in colour from the +females, often become more brilliant, as I hear from Professor Agassiz +and Dr. Günther, during the breeding-season. This is likewise the case +with a multitude of fishes, the sexes of which at all other seasons of +the year are identical in colour. The tench, roach, and perch may be +given as instances. The male salmon at this season is "marked on the +cheeks with orange-coloured stripes, which give it the appearance of a +Labrus, and the body partakes of a golden-orange tinge. The females are +dark in colour, and are commonly called black-fish."[20] An analogous +and even greater change takes place with the _Salmo eriox_ or +bull-trout; the males of the char (_S. umbla_) are likewise at this +season rather brighter in colour than the females.[21] The colours of +the pike (_Esox reticulatus_) of the United States, especially of the +male, become, during the breeding-season, exceedingly intense, +brilliant, and iridescent.[22] Another striking instance out of many is +afforded by the male stickleback (_Gasterosteus leiurus_), which is +described by Mr. Warington,[23] as being then "beautiful beyond +description." The back and eyes of the female are simply brown, and the +belly white. The eyes of the male, on the other hand, are "of the most +splendid green, having a metallic lustre like the green feathers of some +humming-birds. The throat and belly are of a bright crimson, the back of +an ashy-green, and the whole fish appears as though it were somewhat +translucent and glowed with an internal incandescence." After the +breeding-season these colours all change, the throat and belly become of +a paler red, the back more green, and the glowing tints subside. + +That with fishes there exists some close relation between their colours +and their sexual functions we can clearly see;--firstly, from the adult +males of certain species being differently coloured from the females, +and often much more brilliantly;--secondly, from these same males, +whilst immature, resembling the mature females;--and, lastly, from the +males, even of those species which at all other times of the year are +identical in colour with the females, often acquiring brilliant tints +during the spawning-season. We know that the males are ardent in their +courtship and sometimes fight desperately together. If we may assume +that the females have the power of exerting a choice and of selecting +the more highly-ornamented males, all the above facts become +intelligible through the principle of sexual selection. On the other +hand, if the females habitually deposited and left their ova to be +fertilised by the first male which chanced to approach, this fact would +be fatal to the efficiency of sexual selection; for there could be no +choice of a partner. But, as far as is known, the female never willingly +spawns except in the close presence of a male, and the male never +fertilises the ova except in the close presence of a female. It is +obviously difficult to obtain direct evidence with respect to female +fishes selecting their partners. An excellent observer,[24] who +carefully watched the spawning of minnows (_Cyprinus phoxinus_), remarks +that owing to the males, which were ten times as numerous as the +females, crowding closely round them, he could "speak only doubtfully on +their operations. When a female came among a number of males they +immediately pursued her; if she was not ready for shedding her spawn, +she made a precipitate retreat; but if she was ready, she came boldly in +among them, and was immediately pressed closely by a male on each side; +and when they had been in that situation a short time, were superseded +by other two, who wedged themselves in between them and the female, who +appeared to treat all her lovers with the same kindness." +Notwithstanding this last statement, I cannot, from the several previous +considerations, give up the belief that the males which are the most +attractive to the females, from their brighter colours or other +ornaments, are commonly preferred by them; and that the males have thus +been rendered more beautiful in the course of ages. + +We have next to inquire whether this view can be extended, through the +law of the equal transmission of characters to both sexes, to those +groups in which the males and females are brilliant in the same or +nearly the same degree and manner. In such a genus as Labrus, which +includes some of the most splendid fishes in the world, for instance, +the Peacock Labrus (_L. pavo_), described,[25] with pardonable +exaggeration, as formed of polished scales of gold encrusting +lapis-lazuli, rubies, sapphires, emeralds and amethysts, we may, with +much probability, accept this belief; for we have seen that the sexes in +at least one species differ greatly in colour. With some fishes, as with +many of the lowest animals, splendid colours may be the direct result of +the nature of their tissues and of the surrounding conditions, without +any aid from selection. The goldfish (_Cyprinus auratus_), judging from +the analogy of the golden variety of the common carp, is, perhaps, a +case in point, as it may owe its splendid colours to a single abrupt +variation, due to the conditions to which this fish has been subjected +under confinement. It is, however, more probable that these colours have +been intensified through artificial selection, as this species has been +carefully bred in China from a remote period.[26] Under natural +conditions it does not seem probable that beings so highly organised as +fishes, and which live under such complex relations, should become +brilliantly coloured without suffering some evil or receiving some +benefit from so great a change, and consequently without the +intervention of natural selection. + +What, then, must we conclude in regard to the many fishes, both sexes of +which are splendidly coloured? Mr. Wallace[27] believes that the species +which frequent reefs, where corals and other brightly-coloured organisms +abound, are brightly coloured in order to escape detection by their +enemies; but according to my recollection they were thus rendered highly +conspicuous. In the fresh-waters of the Tropics there are no +brilliantly-coloured corals or other organisms for the fishes to +resemble; yet many species in the Amazons are beautifully coloured, and +many of the carnivorous Cyprinidæ in India are ornamented with "bright +longitudinal lines of various tints."[28] Mr. M'Clelland, in describing +these fishes goes so far as to suppose that "the peculiar brilliancy of +their colours" serves as "a better mark for kingfishers, terns, and +other birds which are destined to keep the number of these fishes in +check;" but at the present day few naturalists will admit that any +animal has been made conspicuous as an aid to its own destruction. It is +possible that certain fishes may have been rendered conspicuous in order +to warn birds and beasts of prey (as explained when treating of +caterpillars) that they were unpalatable; but it is not, I believe, +known that any fish, at least any freshwater fish, is rejected from +being distasteful to fish-devouring animals. On the whole, the most +probable view in regard to the fishes, of which both sexes are +brilliantly coloured, is that their colours have been acquired by the +males as a sexual ornament, and have been transferred in an equal or +nearly equal degree to the other sex. + +We have now to consider whether, when the male differs in a marked +manner from the female in colour or in other ornaments, he alone has +been modified, with the variations inherited only by his male offspring; +or whether the female has been specially modified and rendered +inconspicuous for the sake of protection, such modifications being +inherited only by the females. It is impossible to doubt that colour has +been acquired by many fishes as a protection: no one can behold the +speckled upper surface of a flounder, and overlook its resemblance to +the sandy bed of the sea on which it lives. One of the most striking +instances ever recorded of an animal gaining protection by its colour +(as far as can be judged in preserved specimens) and by its form, is +that given by Dr. Günther[29] of a pipe-fish, which, with its reddish +streaming filaments, is hardly distinguishable from the sea-weed to +which it clings with its prehensile tail. But the question now under +consideration is whether the females alone have been modified for this +object. Fishes offer valuable evidence on this head. We can see that +one sex will not be modified through natural selection for the sake of +protection more than the other, supposing both to vary, unless one sex +is exposed for a longer period to danger, or has less power of escaping +from such danger than the other sex; and it does not appear that with +fishes the sexes differ in these respects. As far as there is any +difference, the males, from being generally of smaller size, and from +wandering more about, are exposed to greater danger than the females; +and yet, when the sexes differ, the males are almost always the most +conspicuously coloured. The ova are fertilised immediately after being +deposited, and when this process lasts for several days, as in the case +of the salmon,[30] the female, during the whole time, is attended by the +male. After the ova are fertilised they are, in most cases, left +unprotected by both parents, so that the males and females, as far as +oviposition is concerned, are equally exposed to danger, and both are +equally important for the production of fertile ova; consequently the +more or less brightly-coloured individuals of either sex would be +equally liable to be destroyed or preserved, and both would have an +equal influence on the colours of their offspring or the race. + +Certain fishes, belonging to several families, make nests; and some of +these fishes take care of their young when hatched. Both sexes of the +brightly-coloured _Crenilabrus massa_ and _melops_ work together in +building their nests with sea-weed, shells, &c.[31] But the males of +certain fishes do all the work, and afterwards take exclusive charge of +the young. This is the case with the dull-coloured gobies,[32] in which +the sexes are not known to differ in colour, and likewise with the +sticklebacks (Gasterosteus), in which the males become brilliantly +coloured during the spawning-season. The male of the smooth-tailed +stickleback (_G. leiurus_) performs during a long time the duties of a +nurse with exemplary care and vigilance, and is continually employed in +gently leading back the young to the nest when they stray too far. He +courageously drives away all enemies, including the females of his own +species. It would indeed be no small relief to the male if the female, +after depositing her eggs, were immediately devoured by some enemy, for +he is forced incessantly to drive her from the nest.[33] + +The males of certain other fishes inhabiting South America and Ceylon, +and belonging to two distinct orders, have the extraordinary habit of +hatching the eggs laid by the females within their mouths or branchial +cavities.[34] With the Amazonian species which follow this habit, the +males, as I am informed by the kindness of Professor Agassiz, "not only +are generally brighter than the females, but the difference is greater +at the spawning-season than at any other time." The species of Geophagus +act in the same manner; and in this genus, a conspicuous protuberance +becomes developed on the forehead of the males during the +breeding-season. With the various species of Chromids, as Professor +Agassiz likewise informs me, sexual differences in colour may be +observed, "whether they lay their eggs in the water among aquatic +plants, or deposit them in holes, leaving them to come out without +further care, or build shallow nests in the river-mud, over which they +sit, as our Promotis does. It ought also to be observed that these +sitters are among the brightest species in their respective families; +for instance, Hygrogonus is bright green, with large black ocelli, +encircled with the most brilliant red." Whether with all the species of +Chromids it is the male alone which sits on the eggs is not known. It +is, however, manifest that the fact of the eggs being protected or +unprotected, has had little or no influence on the differences in colour +between the sexes. It is further manifest, in all the cases in which the +males take exclusive charge of the nests and young, that the destruction +of the brighter-coloured males would be far more influential on the +character of the race, than the destruction of the brighter-coloured +females; for the death of the male during the period of incubation or +nursing would entail the death of the young, so that these could not +inherit his peculiarities; yet, in many of these very cases the males +are more conspicuously coloured than the females. + +In most of the Lophobranchii (Pipe-fish, Hippocampi, &c.) the males have +either marsupial sacks or hemispherical depressions on the abdomen, in +which the ova laid by the female are hatched. The males also shew great +attachment to their young.[35] The sexes do not commonly differ much in +colour; but Dr. Günther believes that the male Hippocampi are rather +brighter than the females. The genus Solenostoma, however, offers a +very curious exceptional case,[36] for the female is much more vividly +coloured and spotted than the male, and she alone has a marsupial sack +and hatches the eggs; so that the female of Solenostoma differs from all +the other Lophobranchii in this latter respect, and from almost all +other fishes, in being more brightly coloured than the male. It is +improbable that this remarkable double inversion of character in the +female should be an accidental coincidence. As the males of several +fishes which take exclusive charge of the eggs and young are more +brightly coloured than the females, and as here the female Solenostoma +takes the same charge and is brighter than the male, it might be argued +that the conspicuous colours of the sex which is the most important of +the two for the welfare of the offspring must serve, in some manner, as +a protection. But from the multitude of fishes, the males of which are +either permanently or periodically brighter than the females, but whose +life is not at all more important than that of the female for the +welfare of the species, this view can hardly be maintained. When we +treat of birds we shall meet with analogous cases in which there has +been a complete inversion of the usual attributes of the two sexes, and +we shall then give what appears to be the probable explanation, namely, +that the males have selected the more attractive females, instead of the +latter having selected, in accordance with the usual rule throughout the +animal kingdom, the more attractive males. + +On the whole we may conclude, that with most fishes, in which the sexes +differ in colour or in other ornamental characters, the males +originally varied, with their variations transmitted to the same sex, +and accumulated through sexual selection by attracting or exciting the +females. In many cases, however, such characters have been transferred, +either partially or completely, to the females. In other cases, again, +both sexes have been coloured alike for the sake of protection; but in +no instance does it appear that the female alone has had her colours or +other characters specially modified for this purpose. + +The last point which need be noticed is that in many parts of the world +fishes are known to make peculiar noises, which are described in some +cases as being musical. Very little has been ascertained with respect to +the means by which such sounds are produced, and even less about their +purpose. The drumming of the Umbrinas in the European seas is said to be +audible from a depth of twenty fathoms. The fishermen of Rochelle assert +"that the males alone make the noise during the spawning-time; and that +it is possible by imitating it, to take them without bait."[37] If this +statement is trustworthy, we have an instance in this, the lowest class +of the Vertebrata, of what we shall find prevailing throughout the other +vertebrate classes, and which prevails, as we have already seen, with +insects and spiders; namely, that vocal and instrumental sounds so +commonly serve as a love-call or as a love-charm, that the power of +producing them was probably first developed in connection with the +propagation of the species. + + +AMPHIBIANS. + +[Illustration: Fig. 31. Triton cristatus (half natural size, from Bell's +'British Reptiles'). Upper figure, male during the breeding-season; +lower figure, female.] + +_Urodela._--First for the tailed amphibians. The sexes of salamanders or +newts often differ much both in colour and structure. In some species +prehensile claws are developed on the forelegs of the males during the +breeding-season; and at this season in the male _Triton palmipes_ the +hind-feet are provided with a swimming web, which is almost completely +absorbed during the winter; so that their feet then resemble those of +the female.[38] This structure no doubt aids the male in his eager +search and pursuit of the female. With our common newts (_Triton +punctatus_ and _cristatus_) a deep, much-indented crest is developed +along the back and tail of the male during the breeding-season, being +absorbed during the winter. It is not furnished, as Mr. St. George +Mivart informs me, with muscles, and therefore cannot be used for +locomotion. As during the season of courtship it becomes edged with +bright colours, it serves, there can hardly be a doubt, as a masculine +ornament. In many species the body presents strongly contrasted, though +lurid tints; and these become more vivid during the breeding-season. The +male, for instance, of our common little newt (_Triton punctatus_) is +"brownish-grey above, passing into yellow beneath, which in the spring +becomes a rich bright orange, marked everywhere with round dark spots." +The edge of the crest also is then tipped with bright red or violet. The +female is usually of a yellowish-brown colour with scattered brown dots; +and the lower surface is often quite plain.[39] The young are obscurely +tinted. The ova are fertilised during the act of deposition and are not +subsequently tended by either parent. We may therefore conclude that the +males acquired their strongly-marked colours and ornamental appendages +through sexual selection; these being transmitted either to the male +offspring alone or to both sexes. + +_Anura_ or _Batrachia_.--With many frogs and toads the colours evidently +serve as a protection, such as the bright green tints of tree-frogs and +the obscure mottled shades of many terrestrial species. The most +conspicuously coloured toad which I ever saw, namely the _Phryniscus +nigricans_[40] had the whole upper surface of the body as black as ink, +with the soles of the feet and parts of the abdomen spotted with the +brightest vermilion. It crawled about the bare sandy or open grassy +plains of La Plata under a scorching sun, and could not fail to catch +the eye of every passing creature. These colours may be beneficial by +making this toad known to all birds of prey as a nauseous mouthful; for +it is familiar to every one that these animals emit a poisonous +secretion, which causes the mouth of a dog to froth, as if attacked by +hydrophobia. I was the more struck with the conspicuous colours of this +toad, as close by I found a lizard (_Proctotretus multimaculatus_) +which, when frightened, flattened its body, closed its eyes, and then +from its mottled tints could hardly be distinguishable from the +surrounding sand. + +With respect to sexual differences of colour, Dr. Günther knows of no +striking instance with frogs or toads; yet he can often distinguish the +male from the female, by the tints of the former being a little more +intense. Nor does Dr. Günther know of any striking difference in +external structure between the sexes, excepting the prominences which +become developed during the breeding-season on the front-legs of the +male, by which he is enabled to hold the female. The _Megalophrys +montana_[41] (fig. 32) offers the best case of a certain amount of +structural difference between the sexes; for in the male the tip of the +nose and the eyelids are produced into triangular flaps of skin, and +there is a little black tubercle on the back--characters which are +absent, or only feebly developed, in the females. It is surprising that +frogs and toads should not have acquired more strongly-marked sexual +differences; for though cold-blooded, their passions are strong. Dr. +Günther informs me that he has several times found an unfortunate female +toad dead and smothered from having been so closely embraced by three or +four males. + +[Illustration: Fig. 32. Megalophrys montana. The two left-hand figures, +the male; the two right-hand figures, the female.] + +These animals, however, offer one interesting sexual difference, namely +in the musical powers possessed by the males; but to speak of music, +when applied to the discordant and overwhelming sounds emitted by male +bull-frogs and some other species, seems, according to our taste, a +singularly inappropriate expression. Nevertheless certain frogs sing in +a decidedly pleasing manner. Near Rio de Janeiro I used often to sit in +the evening to listen to a number of little Hylæ, which, perched on +blades of grass close to the water, sent forth sweet chirping notes in +harmony. The various sounds are emitted chiefly by the males during the +breeding-season, as in the case of the croaking of our common frog.[42] +In accordance with this fact the vocal organs of the males are more +highly developed than those of the females. In some genera the males +alone are provided with sacs which open into the larynx.[43] For +instance, in the edible frog (_Rana esculenta_) "the sacs are peculiar +to the males, and become, when filled with air in the act of croaking, +large globular bladders, standing out one on each side of the head, near +the corners of the mouth." The croak of the male is thus rendered +exceedingly powerful; whilst that of the female is only a slight +groaning noise.[44] The vocal organs differ considerably in structure in +the several genera of the family; and their development in all cases may +be attributed to sexual selection. + + +REPTILES. + +_Chelonia._--Tortoises and turtles do not offer well-marked sexual +differences. In some species, the tail of the male is longer than that +of the female. In some, the plastron or lower surface of the shell of +the male is slightly concave in relation to the back of the female. The +male of the mud-turtle of the United States (_Chrysemys picta_) has +claws on its front-feet twice as long as those of the female; and these +are used when the sexes unite.[45] With the huge tortoise of the +Galapagos Islands (_Testudo nigra_) the males are said to grow to a +larger size than the females: during the pairing-season, and at no other +time, the male utters a hoarse, bellowing noise, which can be heard at +the distance of more than a hundred yards; the female, on the other +hand, never uses her voice.[46] + +_Crocodilia._--The sexes apparently do not differ in colour; nor do I +know that the males fight together, though this is probable, for some +kinds make a prodigious display before the females. Bartram[47] +describes the male alligator as striving to win the female by splashing +and roaring in the midst of a lagoon, "swollen to an extent ready to +burst, with his head and tail lifted up, he spins or twirls round on the +surface of the water, like an Indian chief rehearsing his feats of war." +During the season of love, a musky odour is emitted by the submaxillary +glands of the crocodile, and pervades their haunts.[48] + +_Ophidia._--I have little to say about Snakes. Dr. Günther informs me +that the males are always smaller than the females, and generally have +longer and slenderer tails; but he knows of no other difference in +external structure. In regard to colour, Dr. Günther can almost always +distinguish the male from the female by his more strongly-pronounced +tints; thus the black zigzag band on the back of the male English viper +is more distinctly defined than in the female. The difference is much +plainer in the Rattle-snakes of N. America, the male of which, as the +keeper in the Zoological Gardens shewed me, can instantly be +distinguished from the female by having more lurid yellow about its +whole body. In S. Africa the _Bucephalus capensis_ presents an analogous +difference, for the female "is never so fully variegated with yellow on +the sides, as the male."[49] The male of the Indian _Dipsas cynodon_, on +the other hand, is blackish-brown, with the belly partly black, whilst +the female is reddish or yellowish-olive with the belly either uniform +yellowish or marbled with black. + +In the _Tragops dispar_ of the same country, the male is bright green, +and the female bronze-coloured.[50] No doubt the colours of some snakes +serve as a protection, as the green tints of tree-snakes and the various +mottled shades of the species which live in sandy places; but it is +doubtful whether the colours of many kinds, for instance of the common +English snake or viper, serve to conceal them; and this is still more +doubtful with the many foreign species which are coloured with extreme +elegance. + +During the breeding-season their anal scent-glands are in active +function;[51] and so it is with the same glands in lizards, and as we +have seen with the submaxillary glands of crocodiles. As the males of +most animals search for the females, these odoriferous glands probably +serve to excite or charm the female, rather than to guide her to the +spot where the male may be found.[52] Male snakes, though appearing so +sluggish, are amorous; for many have been observed crowding round the +same female, and even round the dead body of a female. They are not +known to fight together from rivalry. Their intellectual powers are +higher than might have been anticipated. An excellent observer in +Ceylon, Mr. E. Layard,[53] saw a Cobra thrust its head through a narrow +hole and swallow a toad. "With this incumbrance he could not withdraw +himself; finding this, he reluctantly disgorged the precious morsel, +which began to move off; this was too much for snake philosophy to bear, +and the toad was again seized, and again was the snake, after violent +efforts to escape, compelled to part with its prey. This time, however, +a lesson had been learnt, and the toad was seized by one leg, withdrawn, +and then swallowed in triumph." + +It does not, however, follow because snakes have some reasoning power +and strong passions, that they should likewise be endowed with +sufficient taste to admire brilliant colours in their partners, so as to +lead to the adornment of the species through sexual selection. +Nevertheless it is difficult to account in any other manner for the +extreme beauty of certain species; for instance, of the coral-snakes of +S. America, which are of a rich red with black and yellow transverse +bands. I well remember how much surprise I felt at the beauty of the +first coral-snake which I saw gliding across a path in Brazil. Snakes +coloured in this peculiar manner, as Mr. Wallace states on the authority +of Dr. Günther,[54] are found nowhere else in the world except in S. +America, and here no less than four genera occur. One of these, Elaps, +is venomous; a second and widely-distinct genus is doubtfully venomous, +and the two others are quite harmless. The species belonging to these +distinct genera inhabit the same districts, and are so like each other, +that no one "but a naturalist would distinguish the harmless from the +poisonous kinds." Hence, as Mr. Wallace believes, the innocuous kinds +have probably acquired their colours as a protection, on the principle +of imitation; for they would naturally be thought dangerous by their +enemies. The cause, however, of the bright colours of the venomous Elaps +remains to be explained, and this may perhaps be sexual selection. + +_Lacertilia._--The males of some, probably of many kinds of lizards +fight together from rivalry. Thus the arboreal _Anolis cristatellus_ of +S. America is extremely pugnacious: "During the spring and early part of +the summer, two adult males rarely meet without a contest. On first +seeing one another, they nod their heads up and down three or four +times, at the same time expanding the frill or pouch beneath the throat; +their eyes glisten with rage, and after waving their tails from side to +side for a few seconds, as if to gather energy, they dart at each other +furiously, rolling over and over, and holding firmly with their teeth. +The conflict generally ends in one of the combatants losing his tail, +which is often devoured by the victor." The male of this species is +considerably larger than the female;[55] and this, as far as Dr. Günther +has been able to ascertain, is the general rule with lizards of all +kinds. + +The sexes often differ greatly in various external characters. The male +of the above-mentioned Anolis is furnished with a crest, which runs +along the back and tail, and can be erected at pleasure; but of this +crest the female does not exhibit a trace. In the Indian _Cophotis +ceylanica_, the female possesses a dorsal crest, though much less +developed than in the male; and so it is, as Dr. Günther informs me, +with the females of many Iguanas, Chameleons and other lizards. In some +species, however, the crest is equally developed in both sexes, as in +the _Iguana tuberculata_. In the genus Sitana, the males alone are +furnished with a large throat-pouch (fig. 33), which can be folded up +like a fan, and is coloured blue, black, and red; but these splendid +colours are exhibited only during the pairing-season. The female does +not possess even a rudiment of this appendage. In the _Anolis +cristatellus_, according to Mr. Austen, the throat-pouch, which is +bright red marbled with yellow, is present, though in a rudimental +condition, in the female. Again, in certain other lizards, both sexes +are equally well provided with throat-pouches. Here, as in so many +previous cases, we see with species belonging to the same group, the +same character confined to the males, or more largely developed in the +males than in the females, or equally developed in both sexes. The +little lizards of the genus Draco, which glide through the air on their +rib-supported parachutes, and which in the beauty of their colours +baffle description, are furnished with skinny appendages to the throat, +"like the wattles of gallinaceous birds." These become erected when the +animal is excited. They occur in both sexes, but are best developed in +the male when arrived at maturity, at which age the middle appendage is +sometimes twice as long as the head. Most of the species likewise have a +low crest running along the neck; and this is much more developed in the +full-grown males, than in the females or young males.[56] + +[Illustration: Fig. 33. Sitana minor. Male, with the gular pouch +expanded (from Günther's 'Reptiles of India').] + +There are other and much more remarkable differences between the sexes +of certain lizards. The male of _Ceratophora aspera_ bears on the +extremity of his snout an appendage half as long as the head. It is +cylindrical, covered with scales, flexible, and apparently capable of +erection: in the female it is quite rudimental. In a second species of +the same genus a terminal scale forms a minute horn on the summit of the +flexible appendage; and in a third species (_C. Stoddartii_, fig. 34) +the whole appendage is converted into a horn, which is usually of a +white colour, but assumes a purplish tint when the animal is excited. In +the adult male of this latter species the horn is half an inch in +length, but is of quite minute size in the female and in the young. +These appendages, as Dr. Günther has remarked to me, may be compared +with the combs of gallinaceous birds, and apparently serve as ornaments. + +[Illustration: Fig. 34. Ceratophora Stoddartii. Upper figure, male; +lower figure, female.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 35. Chamæleon bifurcus. Upper figure, male; lower +figure, female.] + +In the genus Chamæleon we come to the climax of difference between the +sexes. The upper part of the skull of the male _C. bifurcus_ (fig. 35), +an inhabitant of Madagascar, is produced into two great, solid, bony +projections, covered with scales like the rest of the head; and of this +wonderful modification of structure the female exhibits only a rudiment. +Again, in _Chamæleon Owenii_ (fig. 36), from the West Coast of Africa, +the male bears on his snout and forehead three curious horns, of which +the female has not a trace. These horns consist of an excrescence of +bone covered with a smooth sheath, forming part of the general +integuments of the body, so that they are identical in structure with +those of a bull, goat, or other sheath-horned ruminant. Although the +three horns differ so much in appearance from the two great +prolongations of the skull in _C. bifurcus_, we can hardly doubt that +they serve the same general purpose in the economy of these two animals. +The first conjecture which will occur to every one is that they are +used by the males for fighting together; but Dr. Günther, to whom I am +indebted for the foregoing details, does not believe that such peaceable +creatures would ever become pugnacious. Hence we are driven to infer +that these almost monstrous deviations of structure serve as masculine +ornaments. + +[Illustration: Fig. 36. Chamæleon Owenii. Upper figure, male; lower +figure, female.] + +With many kinds of lizards, the sexes differ slightly in colour, the +tints and stripes of the males being brighter and more distinctly +defined than in the females. This, for instance, is the case with the +previously-mentioned Cophotis and with the _Acanthodactylus capensis_ of +S. Africa. In a Cordylus of the latter country, the male is either much +redder or greener than the female. In the Indian _Calotes nigrilabris_ +there is a greater difference in colour between the sexes; the lips also +of the male are black, whilst those of the female are green. In our +common little viviparous lizard (_Zootoca vivipara_) "the under side of +the body and base of the tail in the male are bright orange, spotted +with black; in the female these parts are pale greyish-green without +spots."[57] We have seen that the males alone of Sitana possess a +throat-pouch; and this is splendidly tinted with blue, black, and red. +In the _Proctotretus tenuis_ of Chile the male alone is marked with +spots of blue, green, and coppery-red.[58] I collected in S. America +fourteen species of this genus, and though I neglected to record the +sexes, I observed that certain individuals alone were marked with +emerald-like green spots, whilst others had orange-coloured gorges; and +these in both cases no doubt were the males. + +In the foregoing species, the males are more brightly coloured than the +females, but with many lizards both sexes are coloured in the same +elegant or even magnificent manner; and there is no reason to suppose +that such conspicuous colours are protective. With some lizards, +however, the green tints no doubt serve for concealment; and an instance +has already been incidently given of one species of Proctotretus which +closely resembles the sand on which it lives. On the whole we may +conclude with tolerable safety that the beautiful colours of many +lizards, as well as various appendages and other strange modifications +of structure, have been gained by the males through sexual selection for +the sake of ornament, and have been transmitted either to their male +offspring alone or to both sexes. Sexual selection, indeed, seems to +have played almost as important a part with reptiles as with birds. But +the less conspicuous colours of the females in comparison with those of +the males cannot be accounted for, as Mr. Wallace believes to be the +case with birds, by the exposure of the females to danger during +incubation. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS OF BIRDS. + + + Sexual differences--Law of battle--Special weapons--Vocal + organs--Instrumental music--Love-antics and + dances--Decorations, permanent and seasonal--Double and single + annual moults--Display of ornaments by the males. + + +Secondary sexual characters are more diversified and conspicuous in +birds, though not perhaps entailing more important changes of structure, +than in any other class of animals. I shall, therefore, treat the +subject at considerable length. Male birds sometimes, though rarely, +possess special weapons for fighting with each other. They charm the +females by vocal or instrumental music of the most varied kinds. They +are ornamented by all sorts of combs, wattles, protuberances, horns, +air-distended sacs, top-knots, naked shafts, plumes and lengthened +feathers gracefully springing from all parts of the body. The beak and +naked skin about the head, and the feathers are often gorgeously +coloured. The males sometimes pay their court by dancing, or by +fantastic antics performed either on the ground or in the air. In one +instance, at least, the male emits a musky odour which we may suppose +serves to charm or excite the female; for that excellent observer, Mr. +Ramsay,[59] says of the Australian musk-duck (_Biziura lobata_) that +"the smell which the male emits during the summer months is confined to +that sex, and in some individuals is retained throughout the year; I +have never even in the breeding-season, shot a female which had any +smell of musk." So powerful is this odour during the pairing-season, +that it can be detected long before the bird can be seen.[60] On the +whole, birds appear to be the most æsthetic of all animals, excepting of +course man, and they have nearly the same taste for the beautiful as we +have. This is shewn by our enjoyment of the singing of birds, and by our +women, both civilised and savage, decking their heads with borrowed +plumes, and using gems which are hardly more brilliantly coloured than +the naked skin and wattles of certain birds. + +Before treating of the characters with which we are here more +particularly concerned, I may just allude to certain differences between +the sexes which apparently depend on differences in their habits of +life; for such cases, though common in the lower, are rare in the higher +classes. Two humming-birds belonging to the genus Eustephanus, which +inhabit the island of Juan Fernandez, were long thought to be +specifically distinct, but are now known, as Mr. Gould informs me, to be +the sexes of the same species, and they differ slightly in the form of +the beak. In another genus of humming-birds (_Grypus_), the beak of the +male is serrated along the margin and hooked at the extremity, thus +differing much from that of the female. In the curious Neomorpha of New +Zealand, there is a still wider difference in the form of the beak; and +Mr. Gould has been informed that the male with his "straight and stout +beak" tears off the bark of trees, in order that the female may feed on +the uncovered larvæ with her weaker and more curved beak. Something of +the same kind may be observed with our goldfinch (_Carduelis elegans_), +for I am assured by Mr. J. Jenner Weir that the bird-catchers can +distinguish the males by their slightly longer beaks. The flocks of +males, as an old and trustworthy bird-catcher asserted, are commonly +found feeding on the seeds of the teazle (Dipsacus) which they can reach +with their elongated beaks, whilst the females more commonly feed on the +seeds of the betony or Scrophularia. With a slight difference of this +nature as a foundation, we can see how the beaks of the two sexes might +be made to differ greatly through natural selection. In all these cases, +however, especially in that of the quarrelsome humming-birds, it is +possible that the differences in the beaks may have been first acquired +by the males in relation to their battles, and afterwards led to +slightly changed habits of life. + +_Law of Battle._--Almost all male birds are extremely pugnacious, using +their beaks, wings, and legs for fighting together. We see this every +spring with our robins and sparrows. The smallest of all birds, namely +the humming-bird, is one of the most quarrelsome. Mr. Gosse[61] +describes a battle, in which a pair of humming-birds seized hold of each +other's beaks, and whirled round and round, till they almost fell to the +ground; and M. Montes de Oca, in speaking of another genus, says that +two males rarely meet without a fierce aerial encounter: when kept in +cages "their fighting has mostly ended in the splitting of the tongue of +one of the two, which then surely dies from being unable to feed."[62] +With Waders, the males of the common water-hen (_Gallinula chloropus_) +"when pairing, fight violently for the females: they stand nearly +upright in the water and strike with their feet." Two were seen to be +thus engaged for half an hour, until one got hold of the head of the +other which would have been killed, had not the observer interfered; the +female all the time looking on as a quiet spectator.[63] The males of an +allied bird (_Gallicrex cristatus_), as Mr. Blyth informs me, are one +third larger than the females, and are so pugnacious during the +breeding-season, that they are kept by the natives of Eastern Bengal for +the sake of fighting. Various other birds are kept in India for the same +purpose, for instance the Bulbuls (_Pycnonotus hæmorrhous_) which "fight +with great spirit."[64] + +The polygamous Ruff (_Machetes pugnax_, fig. 37) is notorious for his +extreme pugnacity; and in the spring, the males, which are considerably +larger than the females, congregate day after day at a particular spot, +where the females propose to lay their eggs. The fowlers discover these +spots by the turf being trampled somewhat bare. Here they fight very +much like game-cocks, seizing each other with their beaks and striking +with their wings. The great ruff of feathers round the neck is then +erected, and according to Col. Montagu "sweeps the ground as a shield to +defend the more tender parts;" and this is the only instance known to me +in the case of birds, of any structure serving as a shield. The ruff of +feathers, however, from its varied and rich colours probably serves in +chief part as an ornament. Like most pugnacious birds, they seem always +ready to fight, and when closely confined often kill each other; but +Montagu observed that their pugnacity becomes greater during the spring, +when the long feathers on their necks are fully developed; and at this +period the least movement by any one bird provokes a general +battle.[65] Of the pugnacity of web-footed birds, two instances will +suffice: in Guiana "bloody fights occur during the breeding-season +between the males of the wild musk-duck (_Cairina moschata_); and where +these fights have occurred the river is covered for some distance with +feathers."[66] Birds which seem ill-adapted for fighting engage in +fierce conflicts; thus with the pelican the stronger males drive away +the weaker ones, snapping with their huge beaks and giving heavy blows +with their wings. Male snipes fight together, "tugging and pushing each +other with their bills in the most curious manner imaginable." Some few +species are believed never to fight; this is the case, according to +Audubon, with one of the woodpeckers of the United States (_Picus +auratus_), although "the hens are followed by even half a dozen of their +gay suitors."[67] + +[Illustration: Fig. 37. The Ruff or Machetes pugnax (from Brehm's +'Thierleben').] + +The males of many birds are larger than the females, and this no doubt +is an advantage to them in their battles with their rivals, and has been +gained through sexual selection. The difference in size between the two +sexes is carried to an extreme point in several Australian species; thus +the male musk-duck (Biziura) and the male _Cincloramphus cruralis_ +(allied to our pipits) are by measurement actually twice as large as +their respective females.[68] With many other birds the females are +larger than the males; and as formerly remarked, the explanation often +given, namely that the females have most of the work in feeding their +young, will not suffice. In some few cases, as we shall hereafter see, +the females apparently have acquired their greater size and strength for +the sake of conquering other females and obtaining possession of the +males. + +The males of many gallinaceous birds, especially of the polygamous +kinds, are furnished with special weapons for fighting with their +rivals, namely spurs, which can be used with fearful effect. It has been +recorded by a trustworthy writer[69] that in Derbyshire a kite struck at +a game-hen accompanied by her chickens, when the cock rushed to the +rescue and drove his spur right through the eye and skull of the +aggressor. The spur was with difficulty drawn from the skull, and as the +kite though dead retained his grasp, the two birds were firmly locked +together; but the cock when disentangled was very little injured. The +invincible courage of the game-cock is notorious: a gentleman who long +ago witnessed the following brutal scene, told me that a bird had both +its legs broken by some accident in the cock-pit, and the owner laid a +wager that if the legs could be spliced so that the bird could stand +upright, he would continue fighting. This was effected on the spot, and +the bird fought with undaunted courage until he received his +death-stroke. In Ceylon a closely-allied and wild species, the _Gallus +Stanleyi_, is known to fight desperately "in defence of his seraglio," +so that one of the combatants is frequently found dead.[70] An Indian +partridge (_Ortygornis gularis_), the male of which is furnished with +strong and sharp spurs, is so quarrelsome, "that the scars of former +fights disfigure the breast of almost every bird you kill."[71] + +The males of almost all gallinaceous birds, even those which are not +furnished with spurs, engage during the breeding-season in fierce +conflicts. The Capercailzie and Black-cock (_Tetrao urogallus_ and _T. +tetrix_), which are both polygamists, have regular appointed places, +where during many weeks they congregate in numbers to fight together and +to display their charms before the females. M. W. Kowalevsky informs me +that in Russia he has seen the snow all bloody on the arenas where the +Capercailzie have fought; and the Black-cocks "make the feathers fly in +every direction," when several "engage in a battle royal." The elder +Brehm gives a curious account of the Balz, as the love-dance and +love-song of the Black-cock is called in Germany. The bird utters almost +continuously the most strange noises: "he holds his tail up and spreads +it out like a fan, he lifts up his head and neck with all the feathers +erect, and stretches his wings from the body. Then he takes a few jumps +in different directions, sometimes in a circle, and presses the under +part of his beak so hard against the ground that the chin-feathers are +rubbed off. During these movements he beats his wings and turns round +and round. The more ardent he grows the more lively he becomes, until at +last the bird appears like a frantic creature." At such times the +black-cocks are so absorbed that they become almost blind and deaf, but +less so than the capercailzie: hence bird after bird may be shot on the +same spot, or even caught by the hand. After performing these antics the +males begin to fight: and the same black-cock, in order to prove his +strength over several antagonists, will visit in the course of one +morning several Balz-places, which remain the same during successive +years.[72] + +The peacock with his long train appears more like a dandy than a +warrior, but he sometimes engages in fierce contests: the Rev. W. Darwin +Fox informs me that two peacocks became so excited whilst fighting at +some little distance from Chester that they flew over the whole city, +still fighting, until they alighted on the top of St. John's tower. + +The spur, in those gallinaceous birds which are thus provided, is +generally single; but Polyplectron (see fig. 51, p. 90) has two or more +on each leg; and one of the Blood-pheasants (_Ithaginis cruentus_) has +been seen with five spurs. The spurs are generally confined to the male, +being represented by mere knobs or rudiments in the female; but the +females of the Java peacock (_Pavo muticus_) and, as I am informed by +Mr. Blyth, of the small fire-backed pheasant (_Euplocamus +erythropthalmus_) possess spurs. In Galloperdix it is usual for the +males to have two spurs, and for the females to have only one on each +leg.[73] Hence spurs may safely be considered as a masculine character, +though occasionally transferred in a greater or less degree to the +females. Like most other secondary sexual characters, the spurs are +highly variable both in number and development in the same species. + +[Illustration: Fig. 38. Palamedea cornuta (from Brehm), shewing the +double-wing-spurs, and the filament on the head.] + +Various birds have spurs on their wings. But the Egyptian goose +(_Chenalopex ægyptiacus_) has only "bare obtuse knobs," and these +probably shew us the first steps by which true spurs have been developed +in other allied birds. In the spur-winged goose, _Plectropterus +gambensis_, the males have much larger spurs than the females; and they +use them, as I am informed by Mr. Bartlett, in fighting together, so +that, in this case, the wing-spurs serve as sexual weapons; but +according to Livingstone, they are chiefly used in the defence of the +young. The Palamedea (fig. 38) is armed with a pair of spurs on each +wing; and these are such formidable weapons that a single blow has +driven a dog howling away. But it does not appear that the spurs in this +case, or in that of some of the spur-winged rails, are larger in the +male than in the female.[74] In certain plovers, however, the wing-spurs +must be considered as a sexual character. Thus in the male of our common +peewit (_Vanellus cristatus_) the tubercle on the shoulder of the wing +becomes more prominent during the breeding-season, and the males are +known to fight together. In some species of Lobivanellus a similar +tubercle becomes developed during the breeding-season "into a short +horny spur." In the Australian _L. lobatus_ both sexes have spurs, but +these are much larger in the males than in the females. In an allied +bird, the _Hoplopterus armatus_, the spurs do not increase in size +during the breeding-season; but these birds have been seen in Egypt to +fight together, in the same manner as our peewits, by turning suddenly +in the air and striking sideways at each other, sometimes with a fatal +result. Thus also they drive away other enemies.[75] + +The season of love is that of battle; but the males of some birds, as of +the game-fowl and ruff, and even the young males of the wild turkey and +grouse,[76] are ready to fight whenever they meet. The presence of the +female is the _teterrima belli causa_. The Bengali baboos make the +pretty little males of the amadavat (_Estrelda amandava_) fight together +by placing three small cages in a row, with a female in the middle; +after a little time the two males are turned loose, and immediately a +desperate battle ensues.[77] When many males congregate at the same +appointed spot and fight together, as in the case of grouse and various +other birds, they are generally attended by the females,[78] which +afterwards pair with the victorious combatants. But in some cases the +pairing precedes instead of succeeding the combat: thus, according to +Audubon,[79] several males of the Virginian goat-sucker (_Caprimulgus +Virginianus_) "court, in a highly entertaining manner, the female, and +no sooner has she made her choice, than her approved gives chase to all +intruders, and drives them beyond his dominions." Generally the males +try with all their power to drive away or kill their rivals before they +pair. It does not, however, appear that the females invariably prefer +the victorious males. I have indeed been assured by M. W. Kowalevsky +that the female capercailzie sometimes steals away with a young male who +has not dared to enter the arena with the older cocks; in the same +manner as occasionally happens with the does of the red-deer in +Scotland. When two males contend in presence of a single female, the +victor, no doubt, commonly gains his desire; but some of these battles +are caused by wandering males trying to distract the peace of an already +mated pair.[80] + +Even with the most pugnacious species it is probable that the pairing +does not depend exclusively on the mere strength and courage of the +male: for such males are generally decorated with various ornaments, +which often become more brilliant during the breeding-season, and which +are sedulously displayed before the females. The males also endeavour to +charm or excite their mates by love-notes, songs, and antics; and the +courtship is, in many instances, a prolonged affair. Hence it is not +probable that the females are indifferent to the charms of the opposite +sex, or that they are invariably compelled to yield to the victorious +males. It is more probable that the females are excited, either before +or after the conflict, by certain males, and thus unconsciously prefer +them. In the case of _Tetrao umbellus_, a good observer[81] goes so far +as to believe that the battles of the males "are all a sham, performed +to show themselves to the greatest advantage before the admiring females +who assemble around; for I have never been able to find a maimed hero, +and seldom more than a broken feather." I shall have to recur to this +subject, but I may here add that with the _Tetrao cupido_ of the United +States, about a score of males assemble at a particular spot, and +strutting about make the whole air resound with their extraordinary +noises. At the first answer from a female the males begin to fight +furiously, and the weaker give way; but then, according to Audubon, both +the victors and vanquished search for the female, so that the females +must either then exert a choice, or the battle must be renewed. So, +again, with one of the Field-starlings of the United States (_Sturnella +ludoviciana_) the males engage in fierce conflicts, "but at the sight of +a female they all fly after her, as if mad."[82] + + +_Vocal and instrumental Music._--With birds the voice serves to express +various emotions, such as distress, fear, anger, triumph, or mere +happiness. It is apparently sometimes used to excite terror, as with the +hissing noise made by some nestling-birds. Audubon[83] relates that a +night-heron (_Ardea nycticorax_, Linn.) which he kept tame, used to hide +itself when a cat approached, and then "suddenly start up uttering one +of the most frightful cries, apparently enjoying the cat's alarm and +flight." The common domestic cock clucks to the hen, and the hen to her +chickens, when a dainty morsel is found. The hen, when she has laid an +egg, "repeats the same note very often, and concludes with the sixth +above, which she holds for a longer time;"[84] and thus she expresses +her joy. Some social birds apparently call to each other for aid; and as +they flit from tree to tree, the flock is kept together by chirp +answering chirp. During the nocturnal migrations of geese and other +water-fowl, sonorous clangs from the van may be heard in the darkness +overhead, answered by clangs in the rear. Certain cries serve as +danger-signals, which, as the sportsman knows to his cost, are well +understood by the same species and by others. The domestic cock crows, +and the humming-bird chirps, in triumph over a defeated rival. The true +song, however, of most birds and various strange cries are chiefly +uttered during the breeding-season, and serve as a charm, or merely as a +call-note, to the other sex. + +Naturalists are much divided with respect to the object of the singing +of birds. Few more careful observers ever lived than Montagu, and he +maintained that the "males of song-birds and of many others do not in +general search for the female, but, on the contrary, their business in +the spring is to perch on some conspicuous spot breathing out their full +and amorous notes, which, by instinct, the female knows, and repairs to +the spot to choose her mate."[85] Mr. Jenner Weir informs me that this +is certainly the case with the nightingale. Bechstein, who kept birds +during his whole life, asserts, "that the female canary always chooses +the best singer, and that in a state of nature the female finch selects +that male out of a hundred whose notes please her most."[86] There can +be no doubt that birds closely attend to each other's song. Mr. Weir has +told me of the case of a bullfinch which had been taught to pipe a +German waltz, and who was so good a performer that he cost ten guineas; +when this bird was first introduced into a room where other birds were +kept and he began to sing, all the others, consisting of about twenty +linnets and canaries, ranged themselves on the nearest side of their +cages, and listened with the greatest interest to the new performer. +Many naturalists believe that the singing of birds is almost exclusively +"the effect of rivalry and emulation," and not for the sake of charming +their mates. This was the opinion of Daines Barrington and White of +Selborne, who both especially attended to this subject.[87] Barrington, +however, admits that "superiority in song gives to birds an amazing +ascendancy over others, as is well known to bird-catchers." + +It is certain that there is an intense degree of rivalry between the +males in their singing. Bird-fanciers match their birds to see which +will sing longest; and I was told by Mr. Yarrell that a first-rate bird +will sometimes sing till he drops down almost dead, or, according to +Bechstein,[88] quite dead from rupturing a vessel in the lungs. Whatever +the cause may be, male birds, as I hear from Mr. Weir, often die +suddenly during the season of song. That the habit of singing is +sometimes quite independent of love is clear, for a sterile hybrid +canary-bird has been described[89] as singing whilst viewing itself in a +mirror, and then dashing at its own image; it likewise attacked with +fury a female canary when put into the same cage. The jealousy excited +by the act of singing is constantly taken advantage of by bird-catchers; +a male, in good song, is hidden and protected, whilst a stuffed bird, +surrounded by limed twigs, is exposed to view. In this manner a man, as +Mr. Weir informs me, has caught, in the course of a single day, fifty, +and in one instance seventy, male chaffinches. The power and inclination +to sing differ so greatly with birds that although the price of an +ordinary male chaffinch is only sixpence, Mr. Weir saw one bird for +which the bird-catcher asked three pounds; the test of a really good +singer being that it will continue to sing whilst the cage is swung +round the owner's head. + +That birds should sing from emulation as well as for the sake of +charming the female, is not at all incompatible; and, indeed, might have +been expected to go together, like decoration and pugnacity. Some +authors, however, argue that the song of the male cannot serve to charm +the female, because the females of some few species, such as the canary, +robin, lark, and bullfinch, especially, as Bechstein remarks, when in a +state of widowhood, pour forth fairly melodious strains. In some of +these cases the habit of singing may be in part attributed to the +females having been highly fed and confined,[90] for this disturbs all +the usual functions connected with the reproduction of the species. Many +instances have already been given of the partial transference of +secondary masculine characters to the female, so that it is not at all +surprising that the females of some species should possess the power of +song. It has also been argued, that the song of the male cannot serve as +a charm, because the males of certain species, for instance, of the +robin, sing during the autumn.[91] But nothing is more common than for +animals to take pleasure in practising whatever instinct they follow at +other times for some real good. How often do we see birds which fly +easily, gliding and sailing through the air obviously for pleasure. The +cat plays with the captured mouse, and the cormorant with the captured +fish. The weaver-bird (Ploceus), when confined in a cage, amuses itself +by neatly weaving blades of grass between the wires of its cage. Birds +which habitually fight during the breeding-season are generally ready to +fight at all times; and the males of the capercailzie sometimes hold +their _balzens_ or _leks_ at the usual place of assemblage during the +autumn.[92] Hence it is not at all surprising that male birds should +continue singing for their own amusement after the season for courtship +is over. + +Singing is to a certain extent, as shewn in a previous chapter, an art, +and is much improved by practice. Birds can be taught various tunes, and +even the unmelodious sparrow has learnt to sing like a linnet. They +acquire the song of their foster-parents,[93] and sometimes that of +their neighbours.[94] All the common songsters belong to the Order of +Insessores, and their vocal organs are much more complex than those of +most other birds; yet it is a singular fact that some of the Insessores, +such as ravens, crows, and magpies, possess the proper apparatus,[95] +though they never sing, and do not naturally modulate their voices to +any great extent. Hunter asserts[96] that with the true songsters the +muscles of the larynx are stronger in the males than in the females; but +with this slight exception there is no difference in the vocal organs of +the two sexes, although the males of most species sing so much better +and more continuously than the females. + +It is remarkable that only small birds properly sing. The Australian +genus Menura, however, must be excepted; for the _Menura Alberti_, which +is about the size of a half-grown turkey, not only mocks other birds, +but "its own whistle is exceedingly beautiful and varied." The males +congregate and form "_corroborying_ places," where they sing, raising +and spreading their tails like peacocks and drooping their wings.[97] +It is also remarkable that the birds which sing are rarely decorated +with brilliant colours or other ornaments. Of our British birds, +excepting the bullfinch and goldfinch, the best songsters are +plain-coloured. The kingfisher, bee-eater, roller, hoopoe, woodpeckers, +&c., utter harsh cries; and the brilliant birds of the tropics are +hardly ever songsters.[98] Hence bright colours and the power of song +seem to replace each other. We can perceive that if the plumage did not +vary in brightness, or if bright colours were dangerous to the species, +other means would have to be employed to charm the females; and the +voice being rendered melodious would offer one such means. + +[Illustration: Fig. 39. Tetrao cupido; male. (From Brehm.)] + +In some birds the vocal organs differ greatly in the two sexes. In the +_Tetrao cupido_ (fig. 39) the male has two bare, orange-coloured sacks, +one on each side of the neck; and these are largely inflated when the +male, during the breeding-season, makes a curious hollow sound, audible +at a great distance. Audubon proved that the sound was intimately +connected with this apparatus, which reminds us of the air-sacks on each +side of the mouth of certain male frogs, for he found that the sound was +much diminished when one of the sacks of a tame bird was pricked, and +when both were pricked it was altogether stopped. The female has "a +somewhat similar, though smaller, naked space of skin on the neck; but +this is not capable of inflation."[99] The male of another kind of +grouse (_Tetrao urophasianus_), whilst courting the female, has his +"bare yellow oesophagus inflated to a prodigious size, fully half as +large as the body;" and he then utters various grating, deep hollow +tones. With his neck-feathers erect, his wings lowered and buzzing on +the ground, and his long pointed tail spread out like a fan, he displays +a variety of grotesque attitudes. The oesophagus of the female is not +in any way remarkable.[100] + +It seems now well made out that the great throat-pouch of the European +male bustard (_Otis tarda_), and of at least four other species, does +not serve, as was formerly supposed, to hold water, but is connected +with the utterance during the breeding-season of a peculiar sound +resembling "ock." The bird whilst uttering this sound throws himself +into the most extraordinary attitudes. It is a singular fact that with +the males of the same species the sack is not developed in all the +individuals.[101] A crow-like bird inhabiting South America +(_Cephalopterus ornatus_, fig. 40) is called the umbrella-bird, from its +immense top-knot, formed of bare white quills surmounted by dark-blue +plumes, which it can elevate into a great dome no less than five inches +in diameter, covering the whole head. This bird has on its neck a long, +thin, cylindrical, fleshy appendage, which is thickly clothed with +scale-like blue feathers. It probably serves in part as an ornament, but +likewise as a resounding apparatus, for Mr. Bates found that it is +connected "with an unusual development of the trachea and vocal organs." +It is dilated when the bird utters its singularly deep, loud, and +long-sustained fluty note. The head-crest and neck-appendage are +rudimentary in the female.[102] + +[Illustration: Fig. 40. The Umbrella-bird or Cephalopterus ornatus +(male, from Brehm).] + +The vocal organs of various web-footed and wading birds are +extraordinarily complex, and differ to a certain extent in the two +sexes. In some cases the trachea is convoluted, like a French horn, and +is deeply embedded in the sternum. In the wild swan (_Cygnus ferus_) it +is more deeply embedded in the adult male than in the female or young +male. In the male Merganser the enlarged portion of the trachea is +furnished with an additional pair of muscles.[103] But the meaning of +these differences between the sexes of many Anatidæ is not at all +understood; for the male is not always the more vociferous; thus with +the common duck, the male hisses, whilst the female utters a loud +quack.[104] In both sexes of one of the cranes (_Grus virgo_) the +trachea penetrates the sternum, but presents "certain sexual +modifications." In the male of the black stork there is also a +well-marked sexual difference in the length and curvature of the +bronchi.[105] So that highly important structures have in these cases +been modified according to sex. + +It is often difficult to conjecture whether the many strange cries and +notes, uttered by male birds during the breeding-season, serve as a +charm or merely as a call to the female. The soft cooing of the +turtle-dove and of many pigeons, it may be presumed, pleases the female. +When the female of the wild turkey utters her call in the morning, the +male answers by a different note from the gobbling noise which he makes, +when with erected feathers, rustling wings and distended wattles, he +puffs and struts before her.[106] The _spel_ of the black-cock certainly +serves as a call to the female, for it has been known to bring four or +five females from a distance to a male under confinement; but as the +black-cock continues his _spel_ for hours during successive days, and in +the case of the capercailzie "with an agony of passion," we are led to +suppose that the females which are already present are thus +charmed.[107] The voice of the common rook is known to alter during the +breeding-season, and is therefore in some way sexual.[108] But what +shall we say about the harsh screams of, for instance, some kinds of +macaws; have these birds as bad taste for musical sounds as they +apparently have for colour, judging by the inharmonious contrast of +their bright yellow and blue plumage? It is indeed possible that the +loud voices of many male birds may be the result, without any advantage +being thus gained, of the inherited effects of the continued use of +their vocal organs, when they are excited by the strong passions of +love, jealousy, and rage; but to this point we shall recur when we treat +of quadrupeds. + + +We have as yet spoken only of the voice, but the males of various birds +practise, during their courtship, what may be called instrumental music. +Peacocks and Birds of Paradise rattle their quills together, and the +vibratory movement apparently serves merely to make a noise, for it can +hardly add to the beauty of their plumage. Turkey-cocks scrape their +wings against the ground, and some kinds of grouse thus produce a +buzzing sound. Another North American grouse, the _Tetrao umbellus_, +when with his tail erect, his ruffs displayed, "he shows off his finery +to the females, who lie hid in the neighbourhood," drums rapidly with +his "lowered wings on the trunk of a fallen tree," or, according to +Audubon, against his own body; the sound thus produced is compared by +some to distant thunder, and by others to the quick roll of a drum. The +female never drums, "but flies directly to the place where the male is +thus engaged." In the Himalayas the male of the Kalij pheasant "often +makes a singular drumming noise with his wings, not unlike the sound +produced by shaking a stiff piece of cloth." On the west coast of Africa +the little black-weavers (Ploceus?) congregate in a small party on the +bushes round a small open space, and sing and glide through the air with +quivering wings, "which make a rapid whirring sound like a child's +rattle." One bird after another thus performs for hours together, but +only during the courting-season. At this same season the males of +certain nightjars (Caprimulgus) make a most strange noise with their +wings. The various species of woodpeckers strike a sonorous branch with +their beaks, with so rapid a vibratory movement that "the head appears +to be in two places at once." The sound thus produced is audible at a +considerable distance, but cannot be described; and I feel sure that its +cause would never be conjectured by any one who heard it for the first +time. As this jarring sound is made chiefly during the breeding-season, +it has been considered as a love-song; but it is perhaps more strictly a +love-call. The female, when driven from her nest, has been observed thus +to call her mate, who answered in the same manner and soon appeared. +Lastly the male Hoopoe (_Upupa epops_) combines vocal and instrumental +music; for during the breeding-season this bird, as Mr. Swinhoe saw, +first draws in air and then taps the end of its beak perpendicularly +down against a stone or the trunk of a tree, "when the breath being +forced down the tubular bill produces the correct sound." When the male +utters its cry without striking his beak the sound is quite +different.[109] + +[Illustration: Fig. 41. Outer tail-feather of Scolopax gallinago (from +Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858).] + +In the foregoing cases sounds are made by the aid of structures already +present and otherwise necessary; but in the following cases certain +feathers have been specially modified for the express purpose of +producing the sounds. The drumming, or bleating, or neighing, or +thundering noise, as expressed by different observers, which is made by +the common snipe (_Scolopax gallinago_) must have surprised every one +who has ever heard it. This bird, during the pairing-season, flies to +"perhaps a thousand feet in height," and after zig-zagging about for a +time descends in a curved line, with outspread tail and quivering +pinions, with surprising velocity to the earth. The sound is emitted +only during this rapid descent. No one was able to explain the cause, +until M. Meves observed that on each side of the tail the outer feathers +are peculiarly formed (fig. 41), having a stiff sabre-shaped shaft, with +the oblique barbs of unusual length, the outer webs being strongly +bound together. + +He found that by blowing on these feathers, or by fastening them to a +long thin stick and waving them rapidly through the air, he could +exactly reproduce the drumming noise made by the living bird. Both sexes +are furnished with these feathers, but they are generally larger in the +male than in the female, and emit a deeper note. In some species, as in +_S. frenata_ (fig. 42), four feathers, and in _S. javensis_ (fig. 43), +no less than eight on each side of the tail are greatly modified. +Different tones are emitted by the feathers of the different species +when waved through the air; and the _Scolopax Wilsonii_ of the United +States makes a switching noise whilst descending rapidly to the +earth.[110] + +[Illustration: Fig. 42. Outer tail-feather of Scolopax frenata.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 43. Outer tail-feather of Scolopax javensis.] + +In the male of the _Chamæpetes unicolor_ (a large gallinaceous bird of +America) the first primary wing-feather is arched towards the tip and is +much more attenuated than in the female. In an allied bird, the +_Penelope nigra_, Mr. Salvin observed a male, which, whilst it flew +downwards "with outstretched wings, gave forth a kind of crashing, +rushing noise," like the falling of a tree.[111] The male alone of one +of the Indian bustards _(Sypheotides auritus_) has its primary +wing-feathers greatly acuminated; and the male of an allied species is +known to make a humming noise whilst courting the female.[112] In a +widely different group of birds, namely the Humming-birds, the males +alone of certain kinds have either the shafts of their primary +wing-feathers broadly dilated, or the webs abruptly excised towards the +extremity. The male, for instance, of _Selasphorus platycercus_, when +adult, has the first primary wing-feather (fig. 44), excised in this +manner. Whilst flying from flower to flower he makes "a shrill, almost +whistling, noise;"[113] but it did not appear to Mr. Salvin that the +noise was intentionally made. + +[Illustration: Fig. 44. Primary wing-feather of a Humming-bird, the +_Selasphorus platycercus_ (from a sketch by Mr. Salvin). Upper figure, +that of male; lower figure, corresponding feather of female.] + +Lastly, in several species of a sub-genus of Pipra or Manakin, the males +have their _secondary_ wing-feathers modified, as described by Mr. +Sclater, in a still more remarkable manner. In the brilliantly-coloured +_P. deliciosa_ the first three secondaries are thick-stemmed and curved +towards the body; in the fourth and fifth (fig. 45, _a_) the change is +greater; and in the sixth and seventh (_b_, _c_) the shaft "is thickened +to an extraordinary degree, forming a solid horny lump." The barbs also +are greatly changed in shape, in comparison with the corresponding +feathers (_d_, _e_, _f_) in the female. Even the bones of the wing which +support these singular feathers in the male are said by Mr. Fraser to be +much thickened. These little birds make an extraordinary noise, the +first "sharp note being not unlike the crack of a whip."[114] + +[Illustration: Fig. 45. Secondary wing-feathers of _Pipra +deliciosa_(from Mr. Sclater, in Proc, Zool. Soc. 1860). The three upper +feathers, _a_, _b_, _c_, from the male; the three lower corresponding +feathers, _d_, _e_, _f_, from the female. + +_a._ and _d._ Fifth secondary wing-feather of male and female, upper +surface. _b_ and _e_. Sixth secondary, upper surface. _c_ and _f_. +Seventh secondary, lower surface.] + +The diversity of the sounds, both vocal and instrumental, made by the +males of many species during the breeding-season, and the diversity of +the means for producing such sounds, are highly remarkable. We thus gain +a high idea of their importance for sexual purposes, and are reminded of +the same conclusion with respect to insects. It is not difficult to +imagine the steps by which the notes of a bird, primarily used as a mere +call or for some other purpose, might have been improved into a +melodious love-song. This is somewhat more difficult in the case of the +modified feathers, by which the drumming, whistling, or roaring noises +are produced. But we have seen that some birds during their courtship +flutter, shake, or rattle their unmodified feathers together; and if the +females were led to select the best performers, the males which +possessed the strongest or thickest, or most attenuated feathers, +situated on any part of the body, would be the most successful; and thus +by slow degrees the feathers might be modified to almost any extent. The +females, of course, would not notice each slight successive alteration +in shape, but only the sounds thus produced. It is a curious fact that +in the same class of animals, sounds so different as the drumming of the +snipe's tail, the tapping of the woodpecker's beak, the harsh +trumpet-like cry of certain water-fowl, the cooing of the turtle-dove, +and the song of the nightingale, should all be pleasing to the females +of the several species. But we must not judge the tastes of distinct +species by a uniform standard; nor must we judge by the standard of +man's taste. Even with man, we should remember what discordant noises, +the beating of tom-toms and the shrill notes of reeds, please the ears +of savages. Sir S. Baker remarks,[115] that "as the stomach of the Arab +prefers the raw meat and reeking liver taken hot from the animal, so +does his ear prefer his equally coarse and discordant music to all +other." + + +_Love-Antics and Dances._--The curious love-gestures of various birds, +especially of the Gallinaceæ, have already been incidentally noticed; so +that little need here be added. In Northern America, large numbers of a +grouse, the _Tetrao phasianellus_, meet every morning during the +breeding-season on a selected level spot, and here they run round and +round in a circle of about fifteen or twenty feet in diameter, so that +the ground is worn quite bare, like a fairy-ring. In these +Partridge-dances, as they are called by the hunters, the birds assume +the strangest attitudes, and run round, some to the left and some to the +right. Audubon describes the males of a heron (_Ardea herodias_) as +walking about on their long legs with great dignity before the females, +bidding defiance to their rivals. With one of the disgusting +carrion-vultures (_Cathartes jota_) the same naturalist states that "the +gesticulations and parade of the males at the beginning of the +love-season are extremely ludicrous." Certain birds perform their +love-antics on the wing, as we have seen with the black African weaver, +instead of on the ground. During the spring our little white-throat +(_Sylvia cinerea_) often rises a few feet or yards in the air above some +bush, and "flutters with a fitful and fantastic motion, singing all the +while, and then drops to its perch." The great English bustard throws +himself into indescribably odd attitudes whilst courting the female, as +has been figured by Wolf. An allied Indian bustard (_Otis bengalensis_) +at such times "rises perpendicularly into the air with a hurried +flapping of his wings, raising his crest and puffing out the feathers of +his neck and breast, and then drops to the ground;" he repeats this +manoeuvre several times successively, at the same time humming in a +peculiar tone. Such females as happen to be near "obey this saltatory +summons," and when they approach he trails his wings and spreads his +tail like a turkey-cock.[116] + +But the most curious case is afforded by three allied genera of +Australian birds, the famous Bower-birds,--no doubt the co-descendants +of some ancient species which first acquired the strange instinct of +constructing bowers for performing their love-antics. The bowers (fig. +46), which, as we shall hereafter see, are highly decorated with +feathers, shells, bones and leaves, are built on the ground for the sole +purpose of courtship, for their nests are formed in trees. Both sexes +assist in the erection of the bowers, but the male is the principal +workman. So strong is this instinct that it is practised under +confinement, and Mr. Strange has described[117] the habits of some Satin +Bower-birds, which he kept in his aviary in New South Wales. "At times +the male will chase the female all over the aviary, then go to the +bower, pick up a gay feather or a large leaf, utter a curious kind of +note, set all his feathers erect, run round the bower and become so +excited that his eyes appear ready to start from his head; he continues +opening first one wing, and then the other, uttering a low, whistling +note, and, like the domestic cock, seems to be picking up something +from the ground, until at last the female goes gently towards him." +Captain Stokes has described the habits and "play-houses" of another +species, the Great Bower-bird, which was seen "amusing itself by flying +backwards and forwards, taking a shell alternately from each side, and +carrying it through the archway in its mouth." These curious structures, +formed solely as halls of assemblages, where both sexes amuse themselves +and pay their court, must cost the birds much labour. The bower, for +instance, of the fawn-breasted species, is nearly four feet in length, +eighteen inches in height, and is raised on a thick platform of sticks. + +[Illustration: Fig. 46. Bower-bird, Chlamydera maculata, with bower (from +Brehm).] + + +_Decoration._--I will first discuss the cases in which the males are +ornamented either exclusively or in a much higher degree than the +females; and in a succeeding chapter those in which both sexes are +equally ornamented, and finally the rare cases in which the female is +somewhat more brightly-coloured than the male. As with the artificial +ornaments used by savage and civilised men, so with the natural +ornaments of birds, the head is the chief seat of decoration.[118] The +ornaments, as mentioned at the commencement of this chapter, are +wonderfully diversified. The plumes on the front or back of the head +consist of variously-shaped feathers, sometimes capable of erection or +expansion, by which their beautiful colours are fully displayed. Elegant +ear-tufts (see fig. 39 ante) are occasionally present. The head is +sometimes covered with velvety down like that of the pheasant; or is +naked and vividly coloured; or supports fleshy appendages, filaments, +and solid protuberances. The throat, also, is sometimes ornamented with +a beard, or with wattles or caruncles. Such appendages are generally +brightly coloured, and no doubt serve as ornaments, though not always +ornamental in our eyes; for whilst the male is in the act of courting +the female, they often swell and assume more vivid tints, as in the case +of the male turkey. At such times the fleshy appendages about the head +of the male Tragopan pheasant (_Ceriornis temminckii_) swell into a +large lappet on the throat and into two horns, one on each side of the +splendid top-knot; and these are then coloured of the most intense blue +which I have ever beheld. The African hornbill (_Bucorax abyssinicus_) +inflates the scarlet bladder-like wattle on its neck, and with its wings +drooping and tail expanded "makes quite a grand appearance."[119] Even +the iris of the eye is sometimes more brightly coloured in the male than +in the female; and this is frequently the case with the beak, for +instance, in our common blackbird. In _Buceros corrugatus_, the whole +beak and immense casque are coloured more conspicuously in the male than +in the female; and "the oblique grooves upon the sides of the lower +mandible are peculiar to the male sex."[120] + +The males are often ornamented with elongated feathers or plumes +springing from almost every part of the body. The feathers on the throat +and breast are sometimes developed into beautiful ruffs and collars. The +tail-feathers are frequently increased in length; as we see in the +tail-coverts of the peacock, and in the tail of the Argus pheasant. The +body of this latter bird is not larger than that of a fowl; yet the +length from the end of the beak to the extremity of the tail is no less +than five feet three inches.[121] The wing-feathers are not elongated +nearly so often as the tail-feathers; for their elongation would impede +the act of flight. Yet the beautifully ocellated secondary wing-feathers +of the male Argus pheasant are nearly three feet in length; and in a +small African nightjar (_Cosmetornis vexillarius_) one of the primary +wing-feathers, during the breeding-season, attains a length of +twenty-six inches, whilst the bird itself is only ten inches in length. +In another closely-allied genus of nightjars, the shafts of the +elongated wing-feathers are naked, except at the extremity, where there +is a disc.[122] Again, in another genus of nightjars, the tail-feathers +are even still more prodigiously developed; so that we see the same kind +of ornament gained by the males of closely-allied birds, through the +development of widely different feathers. + +It is a curious fact that the feathers of birds belonging to distinct +groups have been modified in almost exactly the same peculiar manner. +Thus the wing-feathers in one of the above-mentioned nightjars are bare +along the shaft and terminate in a disc; or are, as they are sometimes +called, spoon or racket-shaped. Feathers of this kind occur in the tail +of a motmot (_Eumomota superciliaris_), of a kingfisher, finch, +humming-bird, parrot, several Indian drongos (_Dicrurus_ and _Edolius_, +in one of which the disc stands vertically), and in the tail of certain +Birds of Paradise. In these latter birds, similar feathers, beautifully +ocellated, ornament the head, as is likewise the case with some +gallinaceous birds. In an Indian bustard (_Sypheotides auritus_) the +feathers forming the ear-tufts, which are about four inches in length, +also terminate in discs.[123] The barbs of the feathers in various +widely-distinct birds are filamentous or plumose, as with some Herons, +Ibises, Birds of Paradise and Gallinaceæ. In other cases the barbs +disappear, leaving the shafts bare; and these in the tail of the +_Paradisea apoda_ attain a length of thirty-four inches.[124] Smaller +feathers when thus denuded appear like bristles, as on the breast of the +turkey-cock. As any fleeting fashion in dress comes to be admired by +man, so with birds a change of almost any kind in the structure or +colouring of the feathers in the male appears to have been admired by +the female. The fact of the feathers in widely distinct groups, having +been modified in an analogous manner, no doubt depends primarily on all +the feathers having nearly the same structure and manner of development, +and consequently tending to vary in the same manner. We often see a +tendency to analogous variability in the plumage of our domestic breeds +belonging to distinct species. Thus top-knots have appeared in several +species. In an extinct variety of the turkey, the top-knot consisted of +bare quills surmounted with plumes of down, so that they resembled, to a +certain extent, the racket-shaped feathers above described. In certain +breeds of the pigeon and fowl the feathers are plumose, with some +tendency in the shafts to be naked. In the Sebastopol goose the scapular +feathers are greatly elongated, curled, or even spirally twisted, with +the margins plumose.[125] + +[Illustration: Fig. 47. Paradisea rubra, male (from Brehm)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 48. Lophornis ornatus, male and female (from +Brehm).] + +In regard to colour hardly anything need here be said; for every one +knows how splendid are the tints of birds, and how harmoniously they +are combined. The colours are often metallic and iridescent. Circular +spots are sometimes surrounded by one or more differently shaded zones, +and are thus converted into ocelli. Nor need much be said on the +wonderful differences between the sexes, or of the extreme beauty of the +males of many birds. The common peacock offers a striking instance. +Female Birds of Paradise are obscurely coloured and destitute of all +ornaments, whilst the males are probably the most highly decorated of +all birds, and in so many ways, that they must be seen to be +appreciated. The elongated and golden-orange plumes which spring from +beneath the wings of the _Paradisea apoda_ (see fig. 47 of _P. rubra_, a +much less beautiful species), when vertically erected and made to +vibrate, are described as forming a sort of halo, in the centre of which +the head "looks like a little emerald sun with its rays formed by the +two plumes."[126] In another most beautiful species the head is bald, +"and of a rich cobalt blue, crossed by several lines of black velvety +feathers."[127] + +[Illustration: Fig. 49. Spathura underwoodi, male and female (from +Brehm).] + +Male humming-birds (figs. 48 and 49) almost vie with Birds of Paradise +in their beauty, as every one will admit who has seen Mr. Gould's +splendid volumes or his rich collection. It is very remarkable in how +many different ways these birds are ornamented. Almost every part of the +plumage has been taken advantage of and modified; and the modifications +have been carried, as Mr. Gould shewed me, to a wonderful extreme in +some species belonging to nearly every sub-group. Such cases are +curiously like those which we see in our fancy breeds, reared by man for +the sake of ornament: certain individuals originally varied in one +character, and other individuals belonging to the same species in other +characters; and these have been seized on by man and augmented to an +extreme point--as the tail of the fantail-pigeon, the hood of the +jacobin, the beak and wattle of the carrier, and so forth. The sole +difference between these cases is that in the one the result is due to +man's selection, whilst in the other, as with Humming-birds, Birds of +Paradise, &c., it is due to sexual selection,--that is to the selection +by the females of the more beautiful males. + +I will mention only one other bird, remarkable from the extreme +contrast in colour between the sexes, namely the famous Bell-bird +(_Chasmorhynchus niveus_) of S. America, the note of which can be +distinguished at the distance of nearly three miles, and astonishes +every one who first hears it. The male is pure white, whilst the female +is dusky-green; and the former colour with terrestrial species of +moderate size and inoffensive habits is very rare. The male, also, as +described by Waterton, has a spiral tube, nearly three inches in length, +which rises from the base of the beak. It is jet-black, dotted over with +minute downy feathers. This tube can be inflated with air, through a +communication with the palate; and when not inflated hangs down on one +side. The genus consists of four species, the males of which are very +distinct, whilst the females, as described by Mr. Sclater in a most +interesting paper, closely resemble each other, thus offering an +excellent instance of the common rule that within the same group the +males differ much more from each other than do the females. In a second +species (_C. nudicollis_) the male is likewise snow-white, with the +exception of a large space of naked skin on the throat and round the +eyes, which during the breeding-season is of a fine green colour. In a +third species (_C. tricarunculatus_) the head and neck alone of the male +are white, the rest of the body being chesnut-brown, and the male of +this species is provided with three filamentous projections half as long +as the body--one rising from the base of the beak and the two others +from the corners of the mouth.[128] + +The coloured plumage and certain other ornaments of the males when +adult are either retained for life or are periodically renewed during +the summer and breeding-season. At this season the beak and naked skin +about the head frequently change colour, as with some herons, ibises, +gulls, one of the bell-birds just noticed, &c. In the white ibis, the +cheeks, the inflatable skin of the throat, and the basal portion of the +beak, then become crimson.[129] In one of the rails, _Gallicrex +cristatus_ a large red caruncle is developed during this same period on +the head of the male. So it is with a thin horny crest on the beak of +one of the pelicans, _P. erythrorhynchus_; for after the +breeding-season, these horny crests are shed, like horns from the heads +of stags, and the shore of an island in a lake in Nevada was found +covered with these curious exuviæ.[130] + +Changes of colour in the plumage according to the season depend firstly +on a double annual moult, secondly on an actual change of colour in the +feathers themselves, and thirdly on their dull-coloured margins being +periodically shed, or on these three processes more or less combined. +The shedding of the deciduary margins may be compared with the shedding +by very young birds of their down; for the down in most cases arises +from the summits of the first true feathers.[131] + +With respect to the birds which annually undergo a double moult, there +are, firstly, some kinds, for instance snipes, swallow-plovers +(Glareolæ), and curlews, in which the two sexes resemble each other and +do not change colour at any season. I do not know whether the +winter-plumage is thicker and warmer than the summer-plumage, which +seems, when there is no change of colour, the most probable cause of a +double moult. Secondly, there are birds, for instance certain species of +Totanus and other grallatores, the sexes of which resemble each other, +but have a slightly different summer and winter plumage. The difference, +however, in colour in these cases is so slight that it can hardly be an +advantage to them; and it may, perhaps, be attributed to the direct +action of the different conditions to which the birds are exposed during +the two seasons. Thirdly, there are many other birds the sexes of which +are alike, but which are widely different in their summer and winter +plumage. Fourthly, there are birds, the sexes of which differ from each +other in colour; but the females, though moulting twice, retain the same +colours throughout the year, whilst the males undergo a change, +sometimes, as with certain bustards, a great change of colour. Fifthly +and lastly, there are birds the sexes of which differ from each other in +both their summer and winter plumage, but the male undergoes a greater +amount of change at each recurrent season than the female--of which the +Ruff (_Machetes pugnax_) offers a good instance. + +With respect to the cause or purpose of the differences in colour +between the summer and winter plumage, this may in some instances, as +with the ptarmigan,[132] serve during both seasons as a protection. When +the difference between the two plumages is slight it may perhaps be +attributed, as already remarked, to the direct action of the conditions +of life. But with many birds there can hardly be a doubt that the summer +plumage is ornamental, even when both sexes are alike. We may conclude +that this is the case with many herons, egrets, &c., for they acquire +their beautiful plumes only during the breeding-season. Moreover, such +plumes, top-knots, &c., though possessed by both sexes, are occasionally +a little more highly developed in the male than in the female; and they +resemble the plumes and ornaments possessed by the males alone of other +birds. It is also known that confinement, by affecting the reproductive +system of male birds, frequently checks the development of their +secondary sexual characters, but has no immediate influence on any other +characters; and I am informed by Mr. Bartlett that eight or nine +specimens of the Knot (_Tringa canutus_) retained their unadorned winter +plumage in the Zoological Gardens throughout the year, from which fact +we may infer that the summer plumage though common to both sexes +partakes of the nature of the exclusively masculine plumage of many +other birds.[133] + +From the foregoing facts, more especially from neither sex of certain +birds changing colour during either annual moult, or changing so +slightly that the change can hardly be of any service to them, and from +the females of other species moulting twice yet retaining the same +colours throughout the year, we may conclude that the habit of moulting +twice in the year has not been acquired in order that the male should +assume during the breeding-season an ornamental character; but that the +double moult, having been originally acquired for some distinct purpose, +has subsequently been taken advantage of in certain cases for gaining a +nuptial plumage. + +It appears at first sight a surprising circumstance that with +closely-allied birds, some species should regularly undergo a double +annual moult, and others only a single one. The ptarmigan, for instance, +moults twice or even thrice in the year, and the black-cock only once: +some of the splendidly-coloured honey-suckers (Nectariniæ) of India and +some sub-genera of obscurely-coloured pipits (Anthus) have a double, +whilst others have only a single annual moult.[134] But the gradations +in the manner of moulting, which are known to occur with various birds, +shew us how species, or whole groups of species, might have originally +acquired their double annual moult, or having once gained the habit, +have again lost it. With certain bustards and plovers the vernal moult +is far from complete, some feathers being renewed, and some changed in +colour. There is also reason to believe that with certain bustards and +rail-like birds, which properly undergo a double moult, some of the +older males retain their nuptial plumage throughout the year. A few +highly modified feathers may alone be added during the spring to the +plumage, as occurs with the disc-formed tail-feathers of certain drongos +(_Bhringa_) in India, and with the elongated feathers on the back, neck, +and crest of certain herons. By such steps as these, the vernal moult +might be rendered more and more complete, until a perfect double moult +was acquired. A gradation can also be shewn to exist in the length of +time during which either annual plumage is retained; so that the one +might come to be retained for the whole year, the other being completely +lost. Thus the _Machetes pugnax_ retains his ruff in the spring for +barely two months. The male widow-bird (_Chera progne_) acquires in +Natal his fine plumage and long tail-feathers in December or January and +loses them in March; so that they are retained during only about three +months. Most species which undergo a double moult keep their ornamental +feathers for about six months. The male, however, of the wild _Gallus +bankiva_ retains his neck-hackles for nine or ten months; and when these +are cast off, the underlying black feathers on the neck are fully +exposed to view. But with the domesticated descendant of this species, +the neck-hackles of the male are immediately replaced by new ones; so +that we here see, with respect to part of the plumage, a double moult +changed under domestication into a single moult.[135] + +The common drake (_Anas boschas_) is well known after the +breeding-season to lose his male plumage for a period of three months, +during which time he assumes that of the female. The male pintail-duck +(_Anas acuta_) loses his plumage for the shorter period of six weeks or +two months; and Montagu remarks that "this double moult within so short +a time is a most extraordinary circumstance, that seems to bid defiance +to all human reasoning." But he who believes in the gradual modification +of species will be far from feeling surprise at finding gradations of +all kinds. If the male pintail were to acquire his new plumage within a +still shorter period, the new male feathers would almost necessarily be +mingled with the old, and both with some proper to the female; and this +apparently is the case with the male of a not distantly-allied bird, +namely the _Merganser serrator_, for the males are said to "undergo a +change of plumage, which assimilates them in some measure to the +female." By a little further acceleration in the process, the double +moult would be completely lost.[136] + +Some male birds, as before stated, become more brightly coloured in the +spring, not by a vernal moult, but either by an actual change of colour +in the feathers, or by their obscurely-coloured deciduary margins being +shed. Changes of colour thus caused may last for a longer or shorter +time. With the _Pelecanus onocrotalus_ a beautiful rosy tint, with +lemon-coloured marks on the breast, overspreads the whole plumage in the +spring; but these tints, as Mr. Sclater states, "do not last long, +disappearing generally in about six weeks or two months after they have +been attained." Certain finches shed the margins of their feathers in +the spring, and then become brighter-coloured, while other finches +undergo no such change. Thus the _Fringilla tristis_ of the United +States (as well as many other American species), exhibits its bright +colours only when the winter is past, whilst our goldfinch, which +exactly represents this bird in habits, and our siskin, which +represents it still more closely in structure, undergo no such annual +change. But a difference of this kind in the plumage of allied species +is not surprising, for with the common linnet, which belongs to the same +family, the crimson forehead and breast are displayed only during the +summer in England, whilst in Madeira these colours are retained +throughout the year.[137] + + +_Display by Male Birds of their Plumage._--Ornaments of all kinds, +whether permanently or temporarily gained, are sedulously displayed by +the males, and apparently serve to excite, or attract, or charm the +females. But the males will sometimes display their ornaments, when not +in the presence of the females, as occasionally occurs with grouse at +their balz-places, and as may be noticed with the peacock; this latter +bird, however, evidently wishes for a spectator of some kind, and will +shew off his finery, as I have often seen, before poultry or even +pigs.[138] All naturalists who have closely attended to the habits of +birds, whether in a state of nature or under confinement, are +unanimously of opinion that the males delight to display their beauty. +Audubon frequently speaks of the male as endeavouring in various ways to +charm the female. Mr. Gould, after describing some peculiarities in a +male humming-bird, says he has no doubt that it has the power of +displaying them to the greatest advantage before the female. Dr. +Jerdon[139] insists that the beautiful plumage of the male serves "to +fascinate and attract the female." Mr. Bartlett, at the Zoological +Gardens, expressed himself to me in the strongest terms to the same +effect. + +It must be a grand sight in the forests of India "to come suddenly on +twenty or thirty peafowl, the males displaying their gorgeous trains, +and strutting about in all the pomp of pride before the gratified +females." The wild turkey-cock erects his glittering plumage, expands +his finely-zoned tail and barred wing-feathers, and altogether, with his +gorged crimson and blue wattles, makes a superb, though, to our eyes, +grotesque appearance. Similar facts have already been given with respect +to grouse of various kinds. Turning to another Order. The male _Rupicola +crocea_ (fig. 50) is one of the most beautiful birds in the world, being +of a splendid orange, with some of the feathers curiously truncated and +plumose. The female is brownish-green, shaded with red, and has a much +smaller crest. Sir R. Schomburgk has described their courtship; he found +one of their meeting-places where ten males and two females were +present. The space was from four to five feet in diameter, and appeared +to have been cleared of every blade of grass and smoothed as if by human +hands. A male "was capering to the apparent delight of several others. +Now spreading its wings, throwing up its head, or opening its tail like +a fan; now strutting about with a hopping gait until tired, when it +gabbled some kind of note, and was relieved by another. Thus three of +them successively took the field, and then, with self-approbation, +withdrew to rest." The Indians, in order to obtain their skins, wait at +one of the meeting-places till the birds are eagerly engaged in dancing, +and then are able to kill, with their poisoned arrows, four or five +males, one after the other.[140] With Birds of Paradise a dozen or more +full-plumaged males congregate in a tree to hold a dancing-party, as it +is called by the natives; and here flying about, raising their wings, +elevating their exquisite plumes, and making them vibrate, the whole +tree seems, as Mr. Wallace remarks, to be filled with waving plumes. +When thus engaged, they become so absorbed that a skilful archer may +shoot nearly the whole party. These birds, when kept in confinement in +the Malay Archipelago, are said to take much care in keeping their +feathers clean; often spreading them out, examining them, and removing +every speck of dirt. One observer, who kept several pairs alive, did not +doubt that the display of the male was intended to please the +female.[141] + +[Illustration: Fig. 50. Rupicola crocea, male (from Brehm).] + +The gold pheasant (_Thaumalea picta_) during his courtship not only +expands and raises his splendid frill, but turns it, as I have myself +seen, obliquely towards the female on whichever side she may be +standing, obviously in order that a large surface may be displayed +before her.[142] Mr. Bartlett has observed a male Polyplectron (fig. 51) +in the act of courtship, and has shewn me a specimen stuffed in the +attitude then assumed. The tail and wing-feathers of this bird are +ornamented with beautiful ocelli, like those on the peacock's train. Now +when the peacock displays himself, he expands and erects his tail +transversely to his body, for he stands in front of the female, and has +to shew off, at the same time, his rich blue throat and breast. But the +breast of the Polyplectron is obscurely coloured, and the ocelli are not +confined to the tail-feathers. Consequently the Polyplectron does not +stand in front of the female; but he erects and expands his +tail-feathers a little obliquely, lowering the expanded wing on the +same side, and raising that on the opposite side. In this attitude the +ocelli over the whole body are exposed before the eyes of the admiring +female in one grand bespangled expanse. To whichever side she may turn, +the expanded wings and the obliquely-held tail are turned towards her. +The male Tragopan pheasant acts in nearly the same manner, for he raises +the feathers of the body, though not the wing itself, on the side which +is opposite to the female, and which would otherwise be concealed, so +that nearly all the beautifully-spotted feathers are exhibited at the +same time. + +[Illustration: Fig. 51. Polyplectron chinquis, male (from Brehm)] + +The case of the Argus pheasant is still more striking. The immensely +developed secondary wing-feathers, which are confined to the male, are +ornamented with a row of from twenty to twenty-three ocelli, each above +an inch in diameter. The feathers are also elegantly marked with oblique +dark stripes and rows of spots, like those on the skin of a tiger and +leopard combined. The ocelli are so beautifully shaded that, as the Duke +of Argyll remarks,[143] they stand out like a ball lying loosely within +a socket. But when I looked at the specimen in the British Museum, which +is mounted with the wings expanded and trailing downwards, I was greatly +disappointed, for the ocelli appeared flat or even concave. Mr. Gould, +however, soon made the case clear to me, for he had made a drawing of a +male whilst he was displaying himself. At such times the long secondary +feathers in both wings are vertically erected and expanded; and these, +together with the enormously elongated tail-feathers, make a grand +semicircular upright fan. Now as soon as the wing-feathers are held in +this position, and the light shines on them from above, the full effect +of the shading comes out, and each ocellus at once resembles the +ornament called a ball and socket. These feathers have been shewn to +several artists, and all have expressed their admiration at the perfect +shading. + +It may well be asked, could such artistically-shaded ornaments have been +formed by means of sexual selection? But it will be convenient to defer +giving an answer to this question until we treat in the next chapter of +the principle of gradation. + +The primary wing-feathers, which in most gallinaceous birds are +uniformly coloured, are in the Argus pheasant not less wonderful objects +than the secondary wing-feathers. They are of a soft brown tint with +numerous dark spots, each of which consists of two or three black dots +with a surrounding dark zone. But the chief ornament is a space parallel +to the dark-blue shaft, which in outline forms a perfect second feather +lying within the true feather. This inner part is coloured of a lighter +chesnut, and is thickly dotted with minute white points. I have shewn +this feather to several persons, and many have admired it even more than +the ball-and-socket feathers, and have declared that it was more like a +work of art than of nature. Now these feathers are quite hidden on all +ordinary occasions, but are fully displayed when the long secondary +feathers are erected, though in a widely different manner; for they are +expanded in front like two little fans or shields, one on each side of +the breast near the ground. + +The case of the male Argus pheasant is eminently interesting, because it +affords good evidence that the most refined beauty may serve as a charm +for the female, and for no other purpose. We must conclude that this is +the case, as the primary wing-feathers are never displayed, and the +ball-and-socket ornaments are not exhibited in full perfection, except +when the male assumes the attitude of courtship. The Argus pheasant does +not possess brilliant colours, so that his success in courtship appears +to have depended on the great size of his plumes, and on the +elaboration of the most elegant patterns. Many will declare that it is +utterly incredible that a female bird should be able to appreciate fine +shading and exquisite patterns. It is undoubtedly a marvellous fact that +she should possess this almost human degree of taste, though perhaps she +admires the general effect rather than each separate detail. He who +thinks that he can safely gauge the discrimination and taste of the +lower animals, may deny that the female Argus pheasant can appreciate +such refined beauty; but he will then be compelled to admit that the +extraordinary attitudes assumed by the male during the act of courtship, +by which the wonderful beauty of his plumage is fully displayed, are +purposeless; and this is a conclusion which I for one will never admit. + +Although so many pheasants and allied gallinaceous birds carefully +display their beautiful plumage before the females, it is remarkable, as +Mr. Bartlett informs me, that this is not the case with the +dull-coloured Eared and Cheer pheasants (_Crossoptilon auritum_ and +_Phasianus Wallichii_); so that these birds seem conscious that they +have little beauty to display. Mr. Bartlett has never seen the males of +either of these species fighting together, though he has not had such +good opportunities for observing the Cheer as the Eared pheasant. Mr. +Jenner Weir, also, finds that all male birds with rich or +strongly-characterised plumage are more quarrelsome than the +dull-coloured species belonging to the same groups. The goldfinch, for +instance, is far more pugnacious than the linnet, and the blackbird +than the thrush. Those birds which undergo a seasonal change of plumage +likewise become much more pugnacious at the period when they are most +gaily ornamented. No doubt the males of some obscurely-coloured birds +fight desperately together, but it appears that when sexual selection +has been highly influential, and has given bright colours to the males +of any species, it has also very often given a strong tendency to +pugnacity. We shall meet with nearly analogous cases when we treat of +mammals. On the other hand, with birds the power of song and brilliant +colours have rarely been both acquired by the males of the same species; +but in this case, the advantage gained would have been identically the +same, namely success in charming the female. Nevertheless it must be +owned that the males of several brilliantly-coloured birds have had +their feathers specially modified for the sake of producing instrumental +music, though the beauty of this cannot be compared, at least according +to our taste, with that of the vocal music of many songsters. + +We will now turn to male birds which are not ornamented in any very high +degree, but which nevertheless display, during their courtship, whatever +attractions they may possess. These cases are in some respects more +curious than the foregoing, and have been but little noticed. I owe the +following facts, selected from a large body of valuable notes, sent to +me by Mr. Jenner Weir, who has long kept birds of many kinds, including +all the British Fringillidæ and Emberizidæ. The bullfinch makes his +advances in front of the female, and then puffs out his breast, so that +many more of the crimson feathers are seen at once than otherwise would +be the case. At the same time he twists and bows his black tail from +side to side in a ludicrous manner. The male chaffinch also stands in +front of the female, thus shewing his red breast, and "blue bell," as +the fanciers call his head; the wings at the same time being slightly +expanded, with the pure white bands on the shoulders thus rendered +conspicuous. The common linnet distends his rosy breast, slightly +expands his brown wings and tail, so as to make the best of them by +exhibiting their white edgings. We must, however, be cautious in +concluding that the wings are spread out solely for display, as some +birds act thus whose wings are not beautiful. This is the case with the +domestic cock, but it is always the wing on the side opposite to the +female which is expanded, and at the same time scraped on the ground. +The male goldfinch behaves differently from all other finches: his wings +are beautiful, the shoulders being black, with the dark-tipped +wing-feathers spotted with white and edged with golden yellow. When he +courts the female, he sways his body from side to side, and quickly +turns his slightly expanded wings first to one side then to the other, +with a golden flashing effect. No other British finch, as Mr. Weir +informs me, turns during his courtship from side to side in this manner; +not even the closely-allied male siskin, for he would not thus add to +his beauty. + +Most of the British Buntings are plain-coloured birds; but in the spring +the feathers on the head of the male reed-bunting (_Emberiza +schoeniculus_) acquire a fine black colour by the abrasion of the +dusky tips; and these are erected during the act of courtship. Mr. Weir +has kept two species of Amadina from Australia: the _A. castanotis_ is a +very small and chastely-coloured finch, with a dark tail, white rump, +and jet-black upper tail-coverts, each of the latter being marked with +three large conspicuous oval spots of white.[144] This species, when +courting the female, slightly spreads out and vibrates these +parti-coloured tail-coverts in a very peculiar manner. The male _Amadina +Lathami_ behaves very differently, exhibiting before the female his +brilliantly-spotted breast and scarlet rump and scarlet upper +tail-coverts. I may here add from Dr. Jerdon, that the Indian Bulbul +(_Pycnonotus hæmorrhous_) has crimson _under_ tail-coverts, and the +beauty of these feathers, it might be thought, could never be well +exhibited; but the bird "when excited often spreads them out laterally, +so that they can be seen even from above."[145] The common pigeon has +iridescent feathers on the breast, and every one must have seen how the +male inflates his breast whilst courting the female, thus showing off +these feathers to the best advantage. One of the beautiful bronze-winged +pigeons of Australia (_Ocyphaps lophotes_) behaves, as described to me +by Mr. Weir, very differently: the male, whilst standing before the +female, lowers his head almost to the ground, spreads out and raises +perpendicularly his tail, and half expands his wings. He then +alternately and slowly raises and depresses his body, so that the +iridescent metallic feathers are all seen at once, and glitter in the +sun. + +Sufficient facts have now been given to shew with what care male birds +display their various charms, and this they do with the utmost skill. +Whilst preening their feathers, they have frequent opportunities for +admiring themselves and of studying how best to exhibit their beauty. +But as all the males of the same species display themselves in exactly +the same manner, it appears that actions, at first perhaps intentional, +have become instinctive. If so, we ought not to accuse birds of +conscious vanity; yet when we see a peacock strutting about, with +expanded and quivering tail-feathers, he seems the very emblem of pride +and vanity. + +The various ornaments possessed by the males are certainly of the +highest importance to them, for they have been acquired in some cases at +the expense of greatly impeded powers of flight or of running. The +African nightjar (_Cosmetornis_), which during the pairing-season has +one of its primary wing-feathers developed into a streamer of extreme +length, is thus much retarded in its flight, although at other times +remarkable for its swiftness. The "unwieldy size" of the secondary +wing-feathers of the male Argus pheasant are said "almost entirely to +deprive the bird of flight." The fine plumes of male Birds of Paradise +trouble them during a high wind. The extremely long tail-feathers of the +male widow-birds (Vidua) of Southern Africa render "their flight heavy;" +but as soon as these are cast off they fly as well as the females. As +birds always breed when food is abundant, the males probably do not +suffer much inconvenience in searching for food from their impeded +powers of movement; but there can hardly be a doubt that they must be +much more liable to be struck down by birds of prey. Nor can we doubt +that the long train of the peacock and the long tail and wing-feathers +of the Argus pheasant must render them a more easy prey to any prowling +tiger-cat than would otherwise be the case. Even the bright colours of +many male birds cannot fail to make them conspicuous to their enemies of +all kinds. Hence it probably is, as Mr. Gould has remarked, that such +birds are generally of a shy disposition, as if conscious that their +beauty was a source of danger, and are much more difficult to discover +or approach, than the sombre-coloured and comparatively tame females, or +than the young and as yet unadorned males.[146] + +It is a more curious fact that the males of some birds which are +provided with special weapons for battle, and which in a state of nature +are so pugnacious that they often kill each other, suffer from +possessing certain ornaments. Cock-fighters trim the hackles and cut off +the comb and gills of their cocks; and the birds are then said to be +dubbed. An undubbed bird, as Mr. Tegetmeier insists, "is at a fearful +disadvantage: the comb and gills offer an easy hold to his adversary's +beak, and as a cock always strikes where he holds, when once he has +seized his foe, he has him entirely in his power. Even supposing that +the bird is not killed, the loss of blood suffered by an undubbed cock +is much greater than that sustained by one that has been trimmed."[147] +Young turkey-cocks in fighting always seize hold of each other's +wattles; and I presume that the old birds fight in the same manner. It +may perhaps be objected that the comb and wattles are not ornamental, +and cannot be of service to the birds in this way; but even to our eyes, +the beauty of the glossy black Spanish cock is much enhanced by his +white face and crimson comb; and no one who has ever seen the splendid +blue wattles of the male Tragopan pheasant, when distended during the +act of courtship, can for a moment doubt that beauty is the object +gained. From the foregoing facts we clearly see that the plumes and +other ornaments of the male must be of the highest importance to him; +and we further see that beauty in some cases is even more important than +success in battle. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +BIRDS--_continued_. + + + Choice exerted by the female--Length of courtship--Unpaired + birds--Mental qualities and taste for the + beautiful--Preference or antipathy shewn by the female for + particular males--Variability of birds--Variations sometimes + abrupt--Laws of variation--Formation of ocelli--Gradations of + character--Case of Peacock, Argus pheasant, and Urosticte. + + +When the sexes differ in beauty, in the power of singing, or in +producing what I have called instrumental music, it is almost invariably +the male which excels the female. These qualities, as we have just seen, +are evidently of high importance to the male. When they are gained for +only a part of the year, this is always shortly before the +breeding-season. It is the male alone who elaborately displays his +varied attractions, and often performs strange antics on the ground or +in the air, in the presence of the female. Each male drives away or, if +he can, kills all his rivals. Hence we may conclude, that it is the +object of the male to induce the female to pair with him, and for this +purpose he tries to excite or charm her in various ways; and this is the +opinion of all those who have carefully studied the habits of living +birds. But there remains a question which has an all important bearing +on sexual selection, namely, does every male of the same species equally +excite and attract the female? or does she exert a choice, and prefer +certain males? This question can be answered in the affirmative by much +direct and indirect evidence. It is much more difficult to decide what +qualities determine the choice of the females; but here again we have +some direct and indirect evidence that it is to a large extent the +external attractions of the male, though no doubt his vigour, courage, +and other mental qualities come into play. We will begin with the +indirect evidence. + +_Length of Courtship._--The lengthened period during which both sexes of +certain birds meet day after day at an appointed place, probably depends +partly on the courtship being a prolonged affair, and partly on the +reiteration of the act of pairing. Thus in Germany and Scandinavia the +balzens or leks of the Black-cocks, last from the middle of March, all +through April into May. As many as forty or fifty, or even more birds +congregate at the leks; and the same place is often frequented during +successive years. The lek of the Capercailzie lasts from the end of +March to the middle or even end of May. In North America "the partridge +dances" of the _Tetrao phasianellus_ "last for a month or more." Other +kinds of grouse both in North America and Eastern Siberia[148] follow +nearly the same habits. The fowlers discover the hillocks where the +Ruffs congregate by the grass being trampled bare, and this shews that +the same spot is long frequented. The Indians of Guiana are well +acquainted with the cleared arenas, where they expect to find the +beautiful Cocks of the Rock; and the natives of New Guinea know the +trees where from ten to twenty full-plumaged male Birds of +Paradise congregate. In this latter case it is not expressly stated that +the females meet on the same trees, but the hunters, if not specially +asked, would not probably mention their presence, as their skins are +valueless. Small parties of an African weaver (_Ploceus_) congregate, +during the breeding-season, and perform for hours their graceful +evolutions. Large numbers of the Solitary snipe (_Scolopax major_) +assemble during the dusk in a morass; and the same place is frequented +for the same purpose during successive years; here they may be seen +running about "like so many large rats," puffing out their feathers, +flapping their wings, and uttering the strangest cries.[149] + +Some of the above-mentioned birds, namely, the black-cock, capercailzie, +pheasant-grouse, the ruff, the Solitary snipe, and perhaps some others, +are, as it is believed, polygamists. With such birds it might have been +thought that the stronger males would simply have driven away the +weaker, and then at once have taken possession of as many females as +possible; but if it be indispensable for the male to excite or please +the female, we can understand the length of the courtship and the +congregation of so many individuals of both sexes at the same spot. +Certain species which are strictly monogamous likewise hold nuptial +assemblages; this seems to be the case in Scandinavia with one of the +ptarmigans, and their leks last from the middle of March to the middle +of May. In Australia the lyre-bird or _Menura superba_ forms "small +round hillocks," and the _M. Alberti_ scratches for itself shallow +holes, or, as they are called by the natives, _corroborying places_, +where it is believed both sexes assemble. The meetings of the _M. +superba_ are sometimes very large; and an account has lately been +published[150] by a traveller, who heard in a valley beneath him, +thickly covered with scrub, "a din which completely astonished" him; on +crawling onwards he beheld to his amazement about one hundred and fifty +of the magnificent lyre-cocks, "ranged in order of battle, and fighting +with indescribable fury." The bowers of the Bower-birds are the resort +of both sexes during the breeding-season; and "here the males meet and +contend with each other for the favours of the female, and here the +latter assemble and coquet with the males." With two of the genera, the +same bower is resorted to during many years.[151] + +The common magpie (_Corvus pica_, Linn.), as I have been informed by the +Rev. W. Darwin Fox, used to assemble from all parts of Delamere Forest, +in order to celebrate the "great magpie marriage." Some years ago these +birds abounded in extraordinary numbers, so that a gamekeeper killed in +one morning nineteen males, and another killed by a single shot seven +birds at roost together. Whilst they were so numerous, they had the +habit very early in the spring of assembling at particular spots, where +they could be seen in flocks, chattering, sometimes fighting, bustling +and flying about the trees. The whole affair was evidently considered by +the birds as of the highest importance. Shortly after the meeting they +all separated, and were then observed by Mr. Fox and others to be +paired for the season. In any district in which a species does not exist +in large numbers, great assemblages cannot, of course, be held, and the +same species may have different habits in different countries. For +instance, I have never met with any account of regular assemblages of +black game in Scotland, yet these assemblages are so well known in +Germany and Scandinavia that they have special names. + +_Unpaired Birds._--From the facts now given, we may conclude that with +birds belonging to widely-different groups their courtship is often a +prolonged, delicate, and troublesome affair. There is even reason to +suspect, improbable as this will at first appear, that some males and +females of the same species, inhabiting the same district, do not always +please each other and in consequence do not pair. Many accounts have +been published of either the male or female of a pair having been shot, +and quickly replaced by another. This has been observed more frequently +with the magpie than with any other bird, owing perhaps to its +conspicuous appearance and nest. The illustrious Jenner states that in +Wiltshire one of a pair was daily shot no less than seven times +successively, "but all to no purpose, for the remaining magpie soon +found another mate;" and the last pair reared their young. A new partner +is generally found on the succeeding day; but Mr. Thompson gives the +case of one being replaced on the evening of the same day. Even after +the eggs are hatched, if one of the old birds is destroyed a mate will +often be found; this occurred after an interval of two days, in a case +recently observed by one of Sir J. Lubbock's keepers.[152] The first and +most obvious conjecture is that male magpies must be much more numerous +than the females; and that in the above cases, as well in many others +which could be given, the males alone had been killed. This apparently +holds good in some instances, for the gamekeepers in Delamere Forest +assured Mr. Fox that the magpies and carrion-crows which they formerly +killed in succession in large numbers near their nests were all males; +and they accounted for this fact by the males being easily killed whilst +bringing food to the sitting females. Macgillivray, however, gives, on +the authority of an excellent observer, an instance of three magpies +successively killed on the same nest which were all females; and another +case of six magpies successively killed whilst sitting on the same eggs, +which renders it probable that most of them were females, though the +male will sit on the eggs, as I hear from Mr. Fox, when the female is +killed. + +Sir J. Lubbock's gamekeeper has repeatedly shot, but how many times he +could not say, one of a pair of jays (_Garrulus glandarius_), and has +never failed shortly afterwards to find the survivor rematched. The Rev. +W. D. Fox, Mr. F. Bond, and others, have shot one of a pair of +carrion-crows (_Corvus corone_), but the nest was soon again tenanted by +a pair. These birds are rather common; but the peregrine falcon (_Falco +peregrinus_) is rare, yet Mr. Thompson states that in Ireland "if either +an old male or female be killed in the breeding-season (not an uncommon +circumstance), another mate is found within a very few days, so that the +eyries, notwithstanding such casualties, are sure to turn out their +complement of young." Mr. Jenner Weir has known the same thing to occur +with the peregrine falcons at Beachy Head. The same observer informs me +that three kestrels, all males (_Falco tinnunculus_), were killed one +after the other whilst attending the same nest; two of these were in +mature plumage, and the third in the plumage of the previous year. Even +with the rare golden eagle (_Aquila chrysaëtos_), Mr. Birkbeck was +assured by a trustworthy gamekeeper in Scotland, that if one is killed, +another is soon found. So with the white owl (_Strix flammea_), it has +been observed that "the survivor readily found a mate, and the mischief +went on." + +White of Selborne, who gives the case of the owl, adds that he knew a +man, who from believing that partridges when paired were disturbed by +the males fighting, used to shoot them; and though he had widowed the +same female several times she was always soon provided with a fresh +partner. This same naturalist ordered the sparrows, which deprived the +house-martins of their nests, to be shot: but the one which was left, +"be it cock or hen, presently procured a mate, and so for several times +following." I could add analogous cases relating to the chaffinch, +nightingale, and redstart. With respect to the latter bird +(_Phoenicura ruticilla_), the writer remarks that it was by no means +common in the neighbourhood, and he expresses much surprise how the +sitting female could so soon give effectual notice that she was a widow. +Mr. Jenner Weir has mentioned to me a nearly similar case: at Blackheath +he never sees or hears the note of the wild bullfinch, yet when one of +his caged males has died, a wild one in the course of a few days has +generally come and perched near the widowed female, whose call-note is +far from loud. I will give only one other fact, on the authority of this +same observer; one of a pair of starlings (_Sturnus vulgaris_) was shot +in the morning; by noon a new mate was found; this was again shot, but +before night the pair was complete; so that the disconsolate widow or +widower was thrice consoled during the same day. Mr. Engleheart also +informs me that he used during several years to shoot one of a pair of +starlings which built in a hole in a house at Blackheath; but the loss +was always immediately repaired. During one season he kept an account +and found that he had shot thirty-five birds from the same nest; these +consisted of both males and females, but in what proportion he could not +say: nevertheless after all this destruction, a brood was reared.[153] + +These facts are certainly remarkable. How is it that so many birds are +ready immediately to replace a lost mate? Magpies, jays, carrion-crows, +partridges, and some other birds, are never seen during the spring by +themselves, and these offer at first sight the most perplexing case. But +birds of the same sex, although of course not truly paired, sometimes +live in pairs or in small parties, as is known to be the case with +pigeons and partridges. Birds also sometimes live in triplets, as has +been observed with starlings, carrion-crows, parrots, and partridges. +With partridges two females have been known to live with one male, and +two males with one female. In all such cases it is probable that the +union would be easily broken. The males of certain birds may +occasionally be heard pouring forth their love-song long after the +proper time, shewing that they have either lost or never gained a mate. +Death from accident or disease of either one of a pair, would leave the +other bird free and single; and there is reason to believe that female +birds during the breeding-season are especially liable to premature +death. Again, birds which have had their nests destroyed, or barren +pairs, or retarded individuals, would easily be induced to desert their +mates, and would probably be glad to take what share they could of the +pleasures and duties of rearing offspring, although not their own.[154] +Such contingencies as these probably explain most of the foregoing +cases.[155] Nevertheless it is a strange fact that within the same +district, during the height of the breeding-season, there should be so +many males and females always ready to repair the loss of a mated bird. +Why do not such spare birds immediately pair together? Have we not some +reason to suspect, and the suspicion has occurred to Mr. Jenner Weir, +that inasmuch as the act of courtship appears to be with many birds a +prolonged and tedious affair, so it occasionally happens that certain +males and females do not succeed during the proper season, in exciting +each other's love, and consequently do not pair? This suspicion will +appear somewhat less improbable after we have seen what strong +antipathies and preferences female birds occasionally evince towards +particular males. + +_Mental Qualities of Birds, and their taste for the beautiful._--Before +we discuss any further the question whether the females select the more +attractive males or accept the first whom they may encounter, it will be +advisable briefly to consider the mental powers of birds. Their reason +is generally, and perhaps justly, ranked as low; yet some facts could be +given[156] leading to an opposite conclusion. Low powers of reasoning, +however, are compatible, as we see with mankind, with strong affections, +acute perception, and a taste for the beautiful; and it is with these +latter qualities that we are here concerned. It has often been said that +parrots become so deeply attached to each other that when one dies the +other for a long time pines; but Mr. Jenner Weir thinks that with most +birds the strength of their affection has been much exaggerated. +Nevertheless when one of a pair in a state of nature has been shot, the +survivor has been heard for days afterwards uttering a plaintive call; +and Mr. St. John gives[157] various facts proving the attachment of +mated birds. Starlings, however, as we have seen, may be consoled thrice +in the same day for the loss of their mates. In the Zoological Gardens +parrots have clearly recognised their former masters after an interval +of some months. Pigeons have such excellent local memories that they +have been known to return to their former homes after an interval of +nine months, yet, as I hear from Mr. Harrison Weir, if a pair which +would naturally remain mated for life be separated for a few weeks +during the winter and matched with other birds, the two, when brought +together again, rarely, if ever, recognise each other. + +Birds sometimes exhibit benevolent feelings; they will feed the deserted +young even of distinct species, but this perhaps ought to be considered +as a mistaken instinct. They will also feed, as shewn in an earlier part +of this work, adult birds of their own species which have become blind. +Mr. Buxton gives a curious account of a parrot which took care of a +frost-bitten and crippled bird of a distinct species, cleansed her +feathers and defended her from the attacks of the other parrots which +roamed freely about his garden. It is a still more curious fact that +these birds apparently evince some sympathy for the pleasures of their +fellows. When a pair of cockatoos made a nest in an acacia tree, "it was +ridiculous to see the extravagant interest taken in the matter by the +others of the same species." These parrots, also, evinced unbounded +curiosity, and clearly had "the idea of property and possession."[158] + +Birds possess acute powers of observation. Every mated bird, of course, +recognises its fellow. Audubon states that with the mocking-thrushes of +the United States (_Mimus polyglottus_) a certain number remain all the +year round in Louisiana, whilst the others migrate to the Eastern +States; these latter, on their return, are instantly recognised, and +always attacked, by their Southern brethren. Birds under confinement +distinguish different persons, as is proved by the strong and permanent +antipathy or affection which they shew, without any apparent cause, +towards certain individuals. I have heard of numerous instances with +jays, partridges, canaries, and especially bullfinches. Mr. Hussey has +described in how extraordinary a manner a tamed partridge recognised +everybody; and its likes and dislikes were very strong. This bird seemed +"fond of gay colours, and no new gown or cap could be put on without +catching his attention."[159] Mr. Hewitt has carefully described the +habits of some ducks (recently descended from wild birds), which, at the +approach of a strange dog or cat, would rush headlong into the water, +and exhaust themselves in their attempts to escape; but they knew so +well Mr. Hewitt's own dogs and cats that they would lie down and bask in +the sun close to them. They always moved away from a strange man, and so +they would from the lady who attended them, if she made any great change +in her dress. Audubon relates that he reared and tamed a wild turkey +which always ran away from any strange dog; this bird escaped into the +woods, and some days afterwards Audubon saw, as he thought, a wild +turkey, and made his dog chase it; but to his astonishment, the bird did +not run away, and the dog, when he came up, did not attack the bird, for +they mutually recognised each other as old friends.[160] + +Mr. Jenner Weir is convinced that birds pay particular attention to the +colours of other birds, sometimes out of jealousy, and sometimes as a +sign of kinship. Thus he turned a reed-bunting (_Emberiza +schoeniculus_), which had acquired its black head, into his aviary, +and the new-comer was not noticed by any bird, except by a bullfinch, +which is likewise black-headed. This bullfinch was a very quiet bird, +and had never before quarrelled with any of its comrades, including +another reed-bunting, which had not as yet become black-headed: but the +reed-bunting with a black head was so unmercifully treated, that it had +to be removed. Mr. Weir was also obliged to turn out a robin, as it +fiercely attacked all birds with any red in their plumage, but no other +kinds; it actually killed a red-breasted crossbill, and nearly killed a +goldfinch. On the other hand, he has observed that some birds, when +first introduced into his aviary, fly towards the species which resemble +them most in colour, and settle by their sides. + +As male birds display with so much care their fine plumage and other +ornaments in the presence of the females, it is obviously probable that +these appreciate the beauty of their suitors. It is, however, difficult +to obtain direct evidence of their capacity to appreciate beauty. When +birds gaze at themselves in a looking-glass (of which many instances +have been recorded) we cannot feel sure that it is not from jealousy at +a supposed rival, though this is not the conclusion of some observers. +In other cases it is difficult to distinguish between mere curiosity and +admiration. It is perhaps the former feeling which, as stated by Lord +Lilford,[161] attracts the Ruff strongly towards any bright object, so +that, in the Ionian Islands, it "will dart down to a bright-coloured +handkerchief, regardless of repeated shots." The common lark is drawn +down from the sky, and is caught in large numbers, by a small mirror +made to move and glitter in the sun. Is it admiration or curiosity which +leads the magpie, raven, and some other birds to steal and secrete +bright objects, such as silver articles or jewels? + +Mr. Gould states that certain humming-birds decorate the outside of +their nests, "with the utmost taste; they instinctively fasten thereon +beautiful pieces of flat lichen, the larger pieces in the middle, and +the smaller on the part attached to the branch. Now and then a pretty +feather is intertwined or fastened to the outer sides, the stem being +always so placed, that the feather stands out beyond the surface." The +best evidence, however, of a taste for the beautiful is afforded by the +three genera of Australian bower-birds already mentioned. Their bowers +(see fig. 46, p. 70), where the sexes congregate and play strange +antics, are differently constructed, but what most concerns us is, that +they are decorated in a different manner by the several species. The +Satin bower-bird collects gaily-coloured articles, such as the blue +tail-feathers of parrakeets, bleached bones and shells, which it sticks +between the twigs, or arranges at the entrance. Mr. Gould found in one +bower a neatly-worked stone tomahawk and a slip of blue cotton, +evidently procured from a native encampment. These objects are +continually rearranged, and carried about by the birds whilst at play. +The bower of the Spotted bower-bird "is beautifully lined with tall +grasses, so disposed that the heads nearly meet, and the decorations are +very profuse." Round stones are used to keep the grass-stems in their +proper places, and to make divergent paths leading to the bower. The +stones and shells are often brought from a great distance. The Regent +bird, as described by Mr. Ramsay, ornaments its short bower with +bleached land-shells belonging to five or six species, and with "berries +of various colours, blue, red, and black, which give it when fresh a +very pretty appearance. Besides these there were several newly-picked +leaves and young shoots of a pinkish colour, the whole shewing a decided +taste for the beautiful." Well may Mr. Gould say "these highly decorated +halls of assembly must be regarded as the most wonderful instances of +bird-architecture yet discovered;" and the taste, as we see, of the +several species certainly differs.[162] + + +_Preference for particular Males by the Females._--Having made these +preliminary remarks on the discrimination and taste of birds, I will +give all the facts known to me, which bear on the preference shewn by +the female for particular males. It is certain that distinct species of +birds occasionally pair in a state of nature and produce hybrids. Many +instances could be given: thus Macgillivray relates how a male blackbird +and female thrush "fell in love with each other," and produced +offspring.[163] Several years ago eighteen cases had been recorded of +the occurrence in Great Britain of hybrids between the black grouse and +pheasant;[164] but most of these cases may perhaps be accounted for by +solitary birds not finding one of their own species to pair with. With +other birds, as Mr. Jenner Weir has reason to believe, hybrids are +sometimes the result of the casual intercourse of birds building in +close proximity. But these remarks do not apply to the many recorded +instances of tamed or domestic birds, belonging to distinct species, +which have become absolutely fascinated with each other, although living +with their own species. Thus Waterton[165] states that out of a flock of +twenty-three Canada geese, a female paired with a solitary Bernicle +gander, although so different in appearance and size; and they produced +hybrid offspring. A male Wigeon (_Mareca penelope_), living with females +of the same species, has been known to pair with a Pintail duck, +_Querquedula acuta_. Lloyd describes the remarkable attachment between a +shield-drake (_Tadorna vulpanser_) and a common duck. Many additional +instances could be given; and the Rev. E. S. Dixon remarks that "Those +who have kept many different species of geese together, well know what +unaccountable attachments they are frequently forming, and that they are +quite as likely to pair and rear young with individuals of a race +(species) apparently the most alien to themselves, as with their own +stock." + +The Rev. W. D. Fox informs me that he possessed at the same time a pair +of Chinese geese (_Anser cygnoides_), and a common gander with three +geese. The two lots kept quite separate, until the Chinese gander +seduced one of the common geese to live with him. Moreover, of the young +birds hatched from the eggs of the common geese, only four were pure, +the other eighteen proving hybrids; so that the Chinese gander seems to +have had prepotent charms over the common gander. I will give only one +other case; Mr. Hewitt states that a wild duck, reared in captivity, +"after breeding a couple of seasons with her own mallard, at once shook +him off on my placing a male Pintail on the water. It was evidently a +case of love at first sight, for she swam about the new-comer +caressingly, though he appeared evidently alarmed and averse to her +overtures of affection. From that hour she forgot her old partner. +Winter passed by, and the next spring the Pintail seemed to have become +a convert to her blandishments, for they nested and produced seven or +eight young ones." + +What the charm may have been in these several cases, beyond mere +novelty, we cannot even conjecture. Colour, however, sometimes comes +into play; for in order to raise hybrids from the siskin (_Fringilla +spinus_) and the canary, it is much the best plan, according to +Bechstein, to place birds of the same tint together. Mr. Jenner Weir +turned a female canary into his aviary, where there were male linnets, +goldfinches, siskins, greenfinches, chaffinches, and other birds, in +order to see which she would choose; but there never was any doubt, and +the greenfinch carried the day. They paired and produced hybrid +offspring. + +With the members of the same species the fact of the female preferring +to pair with one male rather than with another is not so likely to +excite attention, as when this occurs between distinct species. Such +cases can best be observed with domesticated or confined birds; but +these are often pampered by high feeding, and sometimes have their +instincts vitiated to an extreme degree. Of this latter fact I could +give sufficient proofs with pigeons, and especially with fowls, but they +cannot be here related. Vitiated instincts may also account for some of +the hybrid unions above referred to; but in many of these cases the +birds were allowed to range freely over large ponds, and there is no +reason to suppose that they were unnaturally stimulated by high feeding. + +With respect to birds in a state of nature, the first and most obvious +supposition which will occur to everyone is that the female at the +proper season accepts the first male whom she may encounter; but she has +at least the opportunity for exerting a choice, as she is almost +invariably pursued by many males. Audubon--and we must remember that he +spent a long life in prowling about the forests of the United States and +observing the birds--does not doubt that the female deliberately chooses +her mate; thus, speaking of a woodpecker, he says the hen is followed by +half-a-dozen gay suitors, who continue performing strange antics, "until +a marked preference is shewn for one." The female of the red-winged +starling (_Agelæus phoeniceus_) is likewise pursued by several males, +"until, becoming fatigued, she alights, receives their addresses, and +soon makes a choice." He describes also how several male nightjars +repeatedly plunge through the air with astonishing rapidity, suddenly +turning, and thus making a singular noise; "but no sooner has the female +made her choice, than the other males are driven away." With one of the +vultures (_Cathartes aura_) of the United States, parties of eight or +ten or more males and females assemble on fallen logs, "exhibiting the +strongest desire to please mutually," and after many caresses, each male +leads off his partner on the wing. Audubon likewise carefully observed +the wild flocks of Canada geese (_Anser Canadensis_), and gives a +graphic description of their love-antics; he says that the birds which +had been previously mated "renewed their courtship as early as the month +of January, while the others would be contending or coquetting for +hours every day, until all seemed satisfied with the choice they had +made, after which, although they remained together, any person could +easily perceive that they were careful to keep in pairs. I have observed +also that the older the birds, the shorter were the preliminaries of +their courtship. The bachelors and old maids, whether in regret, or not +caring to be disturbed by the bustle, quietly moved aside and lay down +at some distance from the rest."[166] Many similar statements with +respect to other birds could be cited from this same observer. + +Turning now to domesticated and confined birds, I will commence by +giving what little I have learnt respecting the courtship of fowls. I +have received long letters on this subject from Messrs. Hewitt and +Tegetmeier, and almost an essay from the late Mr. Brent. It will be +admitted by every one that these gentlemen, so well known from their +published works, are careful and experienced observers. They do not +believe that the females prefer certain males on account of the beauty +of their plumage; but some allowance must be made for the artificial +state under which they have long been kept. Mr. Tegetmeier is convinced +that a game-cock, though disfigured by being dubbed with his hackles +trimmed, would be accepted as readily as a male retaining all his +natural ornaments. Mr. Brent, however, admits that the beauty of the +male probably aids in exciting the female; and her acquiescence is +necessary. Mr. Hewitt is convinced that the union is by no means left to +mere chance, for the female almost invariably prefers the most vigorous, +defiant, and mettlesome male; hence it is almost useless, as he remarks, +"to attempt true breeding if a game-cock in good health and condition +runs the locality, for almost every hen on leaving the roosting-place +will resort to the game-cock, even though that bird may not actually +drive away the male of her own variety." Under ordinary circumstances +the males and females of the fowl seem to come to a mutual understanding +by means of certain gestures, described to me by Mr. Brent. But hens +will often avoid the officious attentions of young males. Old hens, and +hens of a pugnacious disposition, as the same writer informs me, dislike +strange males, and will not yield until well beaten into compliance. +Ferguson, however, describes how a quarrelsome hen was subdued by the +gentle courtship of a Shanghai cock.[167] + +There is reason to believe that pigeons of both sexes prefer pairing +with birds of the same breed; and dovecot-pigeons dislike all the highly +improved breeds.[168] Mr. Harrison Weir has lately heard from a +trustworthy observer, who keeps blue pigeons, that these drive away all +other coloured varieties, such as white, red, and yellow; and from +another observer, that a female dun carrier could not be matched, after +repeated trials, with a black male, but immediately paired with a dun. +Generally colour alone appears to have little influence on the pairing +of pigeons. Mr. Tegetmeier, at my request, stained some of his birds +with magenta, but they were not much noticed by the others. + +Female pigeons occasionally feel a strong antipathy towards certain +males, without any assignable cause. Thus MM. Boitard and Corbié, whose +experience extended over forty-five years, state: "Quand une femelle +éprouve de l'antipathie pour un mâle avec lequel on veut l'accoupler, +malgré tous les feux de l'amour, malgré l'alpiste et le chènevis dont on +la nourrit pour augmenter son ardeur, malgré un emprisonnement de six +mois et même d'un an, elle refuse constamment ses caresses; les avances +empressées, les agaceries, les tournoiemens, les tendres roucoulemens, +rien ne peut lui plaire ni l'émouvoir; gonflée, boudeuse, blottie dans +un coin de sa prison, elle n'en sort que pour boire et manger, ou pour +repousser avec une espèce de rage des caresses devenues trop +pressantes."[169] On the other hand, Mr. Harrison Weir has himself +observed, and has heard from, several breeders, that a female pigeon +will occasionally take a strong fancy for a particular male, and will +desert her own mate for him. Some females, according to another +experienced observer, Riedel,[170] are of a profligate disposition, and +prefer almost any stranger to their own mate. Some amorous males, called +by our English fanciers "gay birds," are so successful in their +gallantries, that, as Mr. H. Weir informs me, they must be shut up, on +account of the mischief which they cause. + +Wild turkeys in the United States, according to Audubon, "sometimes pay +their addresses to the domesticated females, and are generally received +by them with great pleasure." So that these females apparently prefer +the wild to their own males.[171] + +Here is a more curious case. Sir R. Heron during many years kept an +account of the habits of the peafowl, which he bred in large numbers. He +states that "the hens have frequently great preference to a particular +peacock. They were all so fond of an old pied cock, that one year, when +he was confined though still in view, they were constantly assembled +close to the trellice-walls of his prison, and would not suffer a +japanned peacock to touch them. On his being let out in the autumn, the +oldest of the hens instantly courted him, and was successful in her +courtship. The next year he was shut up in a stable, and then the hens +all courted his rival."[172] This rival was a japanned or black-winged +peacock, which to our eyes is a more beautiful bird than the common +kind. + +Lichtenstein, who was a good observer and had excellent opportunities of +observation at the Cape of Good Hope, assured Rudolphi that the female +widow-bird (_Chera progne_) disowns the male, when robbed of the long +tail-feathers with which he is ornamented during the breeding-season. I +presume that this observation must have been made on birds under +confinement.[173] Here is another striking case; Dr. Jaeger,[174] +director of the Zoological Gardens of Vienna, states that a male +silver pheasant, who had been triumphant over the other males and was +the accepted lover of the females, had his ornamental plumage spoiled. +He was then immediately superseded by a rival, who got the upper hand +and afterwards led the flock. + +Not only does the female exert a choice, but in some few cases she +courts the male, or even fights for his possession. Sir R. Heron states +that with peafowl, the first advances are always made by the female; +something of the same kind takes place, according to Audubon, with the +older females of the wild turkey. With the capercailzie, the females +flit round the male, whilst he is parading at one of the places of +assemblage, and solicit his attention.[175] We have seen that a tame +wild-duck seduced after a long courtship an unwilling Pintail drake. Mr. +Bartlett believes that the Lophophorus, like many other gallinaceous +birds, is naturally polygamous, but two females cannot be placed in the +same cage with a male, as they fight so much together. The following +instance of rivalry is more surprising as it relates to bullfinches, +which usually pair for life. Mr. Jenner Weir introduced a dull-coloured +and ugly female into his aviary, and she immediately attacked another +mated female so unmercifully that the latter had to be separated. The +new female did all the courtship, and was at last successful, for she +paired with the male; but after a time she met with a just retribution, +for, ceasing to be pugnacious, Mr. Weir replaced the old female, and the +male then deserted his new and returned to his old love. + +In all ordinary cases the male is so eager that he will accept any +female, and does not, as far as we can judge, prefer one to the other; +but exceptions to this rule, as we shall hereafter see, apparently occur +in some few groups. With domesticated birds, I have heard of only one +case in which the males shew any preference for particular females, +namely, that of the domestic cock, who, according to the high authority +of Mr. Hewitt, prefers the younger to the older hens. On the other +hand, in effecting hybrid unions between the male pheasant and common +hens, Mr. Hewitt is convinced that the pheasant invariably prefers the +older birds. He does not appear to be in the least influenced by their +colour, but "is most capricious in his attachments."[176] From some +inexplicable cause he shews the most determined aversion to certain +hens, which no care on the part of the breeder can overcome. Some hens, +as Mr. Hewitt informs me, are quite unattractive even to the males of +their own species, so that they may be kept with several cocks during a +whole season, and not one egg out of forty or fifty will prove fertile. +On the other hand with the Long-tailed duck (_Harelda glacialis_), "it +has been remarked," says M. Ekström, "that certain females are much more +courted than the rest. Frequently, indeed, one sees an individual +surrounded by six or eight amorous males." Whether this statement is +credible, I know not; but the native sportsmen shoot these females in +order to stuff them as decoys.[177] + +With respect to female birds feeling a preference for particular males, +we must bear in mind that we can judge of choice being exerted, only by +placing ourselves in imagination in the same position. If an inhabitant +of another planet were to behold a number of young rustics at a fair, +courting and quarrelling over a pretty girl, like birds at one of their +places of assemblage, he would be able to infer that she had the power +of choice only by observing the eagerness of the wooers to please her, +and to display their finery. Now with birds, the evidence stands thus; +they have acute powers of observation, and they seem to have some taste +for the beautiful both in colour and sound. It is certain that the +females occasionally exhibit, from unknown causes, the strongest +antipathies and preferences for particular males. When the sexes differ +in colour or in other ornaments, the males with rare exceptions are the +most highly decorated, either permanently or temporarily during the +breeding-season. They sedulously display their various ornaments, exert +their voices, and perform strange antics in the presence of the females. +Even well-armed males, who, it might have been thought, would have +altogether depended for success on the law of battle, are in most cases +highly ornamented; and their ornaments have been acquired at the expense +of some loss of power. In other cases ornaments have been acquired, at +the cost of increased risk from birds and beasts of prey. With various +species many individuals of both sexes congregate at the same spot, and +their courtship is a prolonged affair. There is even reason to suspect +that the males and females within the same district do not always +succeed in pleasing each other and pairing. + +What then are we to conclude from these facts and considerations? Does +the male parade his charms with so much pomp and rivalry for no purpose? +Are we not justified in believing that the female exerts a choice, and +that she receives the addresses of the male who pleases her most? It is +not probable that she consciously deliberates; but she is most excited +or attracted by the most beautiful, or melodious, or gallant males. Nor +need it be supposed that the female studies each stripe or spot of +colour; that the peahen, for instance, admires each detail in the +gorgeous train of the peacock--she is probably struck only by the +general effect. Nevertheless after hearing how carefully the male Argus +pheasant displays his elegant primary wing-feathers, and erects his +ocellated plumes in the right position for their full effect; or again, +how the male goldfinch alternately displays his gold-bespangled wings, +we ought not to feel too sure that the female does not attend to each +detail of beauty. We can judge, as already remarked, of choice being +exerted, only from the analogy of our own minds; and the mental powers +of birds, if reason be excluded, do not fundamentally differ from ours. +From these various considerations we may conclude that the pairing of +birds is not left to chance; but that those males, which are best able +by their various charms to please or excite the female, are under +ordinary circumstances accepted. If this be admitted, there is not much +difficulty in understanding how male birds have gradually acquired their +ornamental characters. All animals present individual differences, and +as man can modify his domesticated birds by selecting the individuals +which appear to him the most beautiful, so the habitual or even +occasional preference by the female of the more attractive males would +almost certainly lead to their modification; and such modifications +might in the course of time be augmented to almost any extent, +compatible with the existence of the species. + +_Variability of Birds, and especially of their secondary Sexual +Characters._--Variability and inheritance are the foundations for the +work of selection. That domesticated birds have varied greatly, their +variations being inherited, is certain. That birds in a state of nature +present individual differences is admitted by every one; and that they +have sometimes been modified into distinct races, is generally +admitted.[178] Variations are of two kinds, which insensibly graduate +into each other, namely, slight differences between all the members of +the same species, and more strongly-marked deviations which occur only +occasionally. These latter are rare with birds in a state of nature, and +it is very doubtful whether they have often been preserved through +selection, and then transmitted to succeeding generations.[179] +Nevertheless, it may be worth while to give the few cases relating +chiefly to colour (simple albinism and melanism being excluded), which I +have been able to collect. + +Mr. Gould is well known rarely to admit the existence of varieties, for +he esteems very slight differences as specific; now he states[180] that +near Bogota certain humming-birds belonging to the genus Cynanthus are +divided into two or three races or varieties, which differ from each +other in the colouring of the tail,--"some having the whole of the +feathers blue, while others have the eight central ones tipped with +beautiful green." It does not appear that intermediate gradations have +been observed in this or the following cases. In the males alone of one +of the Australian parrakeets "the thighs in some are scarlet, in others +grass-green." In another parrakeet of the same country "some individuals +have the band across the wing-coverts bright-yellow, while in others the +same part is tinged with red."[181] In the United States some few of the +males of the Scarlet Tanager (_Tanagra rubra_) have "a beautiful +transverse band of glowing red on the smaller wing-coverts;"[182] but +this variation seems to be somewhat rare, so that its preservation +through sexual selection would follow only under unusually favourable +circumstances. In Bengal the Honey buzzard (_Pernis cristata_) has +either a small rudimental crest on its head, or none at all; so slight a +difference however would not have been worth notice, had not this same +species possessed in Southern India "a well-marked occipital crest +formed of several graduated feathers."[183] + +The following case is in some respects more interesting. A pied variety +of the raven, with the head, breast, abdomen, and parts of the wings and +tail-feathers white, is confined to the Feroe Islands. It is not very +rare there, for Graba saw during his visit from eight to ten living +specimens. Although the characters of this variety are not quite +constant, yet it has been named by several distinguished ornithologists +as a distinct species. The fact of the pied birds being pursued and +persecuted with much clamour by the other ravens of the island was the +chief cause which led Brünnich to conclude that it was specifically +distinct; but this is now known to be an error.[184] + +In various parts of the northern seas a remarkable variety of the common +Guillemot (_Uria troile_) is found; and in Feroe, one out of every five +birds, according to Graba's estimation, consists of this variety. It is +characterised[185] by a pure white ring round the eye, with a curved +narrow white line, an inch and a half in length, extending back from the +ring. This conspicuous character has caused the bird to be ranked by +several ornithologists as a distinct species under the name of _U. +lacrymans_, but it is now known to be merely a variety. It often pairs +with the common kind, yet intermediate gradations have never been seen; +nor is this surprising, for variations which appear suddenly are often, +as I have elsewhere shewn,[186] transmitted either unaltered or not at +all. We thus see that two distinct forms of the same species may +co-exist in the same district, and we cannot doubt that if the one had +possessed any great advantage over the other, it would soon have been +multiplied to the exclusion of the latter. If, for instance, the male +pied ravens, instead of being persecuted and driven away by their +comrades, had been highly attractive, like the pied peacock before +mentioned, to the common black females, their numbers would have rapidly +increased. And this would have been a case of sexual selection. + +With respect to the slight individual differences which are common, in +a greater or less degree, to all the members of the same species, we +have every reason to believe that they are by far the most important for +the work of selection. Secondary sexual characters are eminently liable +to vary, both with animals in a state of nature and under +domestication.[187] There is also reason to believe, as we have seen in +our eighth chapter, that variations are more apt to occur in the male +than in the female sex. All these contingencies are highly favourable +for sexual selection. Whether characters thus acquired are transmitted +to one sex or to both sexes, depends exclusively in most cases, as I +hope to shew in the following chapter, on the form of inheritance which +prevails in the groups in question. + +It is sometimes difficult to form any opinion whether certain slight +differences between the sexes of birds are simply the result of +variability with sexually-limited inheritance, without the aid of sexual +selection, or whether they have been augmented through this latter +process. I do not here refer to the innumerable instances in which the +male displays splendid colours or other ornaments, of which the female +partakes only to a slight degree; for these cases are almost certainly +due to characters primarily acquired by the male, having been +transferred, in a greater or less degree, to the female. But what are we +to conclude with respect to certain birds in which, for instance, the +eyes differ slightly in colour in the two sexes?[188] In some cases the +eyes differ conspicuously; thus with the storks of the genus +_Xenorhynchus_ those of the male are blackish-hazel, whilst those of the +females are gamboge-yellow; with many hornbills (Buceros), as I hear +from Mr. Blyth,[189] the males have intense crimson, and the females +white eyes. In the _Buceros bicornis_, the hind margin of the casque and +a stripe on the crest of the beak are black in the male, but not so in +the female. Are we to suppose that these black marks and the crimson +colour of the eyes have been preserved or augmented through sexual +selection in the males? This is very doubtful; for Mr. Bartlett shewed +me in the Zoological Gardens that the inside of the mouth of this +Buceros is black in the male and flesh-coloured in the female; and their +external appearance or beauty would not be thus affected. I observed in +Chili[190] that the iris in the condor, when about a year old, is +dark-brown, but changes at maturity into yellowish-brown in the male, +and into bright red in the female. The male has also a small, +longitudinal, leaden-coloured, fleshy crest or comb. With many +gallinaceous birds the comb is highly ornamental, and assumes vivid +colours during the act of courtship; but what are we to think of the +dull-coloured comb of the condor, which does not appear to us in the +least ornamental? The same question may be asked in regard to various +other characters, such as the knob on the base of the beak of the +Chinese goose (_Anser cygnoides_), which is much larger in the male than +in the female. No certain answer can be given to these questions; but we +ought to be cautious in assuming that knobs and various fleshy +appendages cannot be attractive to the female, when we remember that +with savage races of man various hideous deformities--deep scars on the +face with the flesh raised into protuberances, the septum of the nose +pierced by sticks or bones, holes in the ears and lips stretched widely +open--are all admired as ornamental. + +Whether or not unimportant differences between the sexes, such as those +just specified, have been preserved through sexual selection, these +differences, as well as all others, must primarily depend on the laws of +variation. On the principle of correlated development, the plumage often +varies on different parts of the body, or over the whole body, in the +same manner. We see this well illustrated in certain breeds of the fowl. +In all the breeds the feathers on the neck and loins of the males are +elongated, and are called hackles; now when both sexes acquire a +top-knot, which is a new character in the genus, the feathers on the +head of the male become hackle-shaped, evidently on the principle of +correlation; whilst those on the head of the female are of the ordinary +shape. The colour also of the hackles forming the top-knot of the male, +is often correlated with that of the hackles on the neck and loins, as +may be seen by comparing these feathers in the Golden and +Silver-spangled Polish, the Houdans, and Crève-coeur breeds. In some +natural species we may observe exactly the same correlation in the +colours of these same feathers, as in the males of the splendid Golden +and Amherst pheasants. + +The structure of each individual feather generally causes any change in +its colouring to be symmetrical; we see this in the various laced, +spangled, and pencilled breeds of the fowl; and on the principle of +correlation the feathers over the whole body are often modified in the +same manner. We are thus enabled without much trouble to rear breeds +with their plumage marked and coloured almost as symmetrically as in +natural species. In laced and spangled fowls the coloured margins of the +feathers are abruptly defined; but in a mongrel raised by me from a +black Spanish cock glossed with green and a white game hen, all the +feathers were greenish-black, excepting towards their extremities, which +were yellowish-white; but between the white extremities and the black +bases, there was on each feather a symmetrical, curved zone of +dark-brown. In some instances the shaft of the feather determines the +distribution of the tints; thus with the body-feathers of a mongrel from +the same black Spanish cock and a silver-spangled Polish hen, the shaft, +together with a narrow space on each side, was greenish-black, and this +was surrounded by a regular zone of dark-brown, edged with +brownish-white. In these cases we see feathers becoming symmetrically +shaded, like those which give so much elegance to the plumage of many +natural species. I have also noticed a variety of the common pigeon with +the wing-bars symmetrically zoned with three bright shades, instead of +being simply black on a slaty-blue ground, as in the parent-species. + +In many large groups of birds it may be observed that the plumage is +differently coloured in each species, yet that certain spots, marks, or +stripes, though likewise differently coloured, are retained by all the +species. Analogous cases occur with the breeds of the pigeon, which +usually retain the two wing-bars, though they may be coloured red, +yellow, white, black, or blue, the rest of the plumage being of some +wholly different tint. Here is a more curious case, in which certain +marks are retained, though coloured in almost an exactly reversed manner +to what is natural; the aboriginal pigeon has a blue tail, with the +terminal halves of the outer webs of the two outer tail-feathers white; +now there is a sub-variety having a white instead of a blue tail, +with precisely that small part black which is white in the +parent-species.[191] + +_Formation and variability of the Ocelli or eye-like Spots on the +Plumage of Birds._--As no ornaments are more beautiful than the ocelli +on the feathers of various birds, on the hairy coats of some mammals, on +the scales of reptiles and fishes, on the skin of amphibians, on the +wings of many Lepidoptera and other insects, they deserve to be +especially noticed. An ocellus consists of a spot within a ring of +another colour, like the pupil within the iris, but the central spot is +often surrounded by additional concentric zones. The ocelli on the +tail-coverts of the peacock offer a familiar example, as well as those +on the wings of the peacock-butterfly (Vanessa). Mr. Trimen has given me +a description of a S. African moth (_Gynanisa Isis_), allied to our +Emperor moth, in which a magnificent ocellus occupies nearly the whole +surface of each hinder wing; it consists of a black centre, including a +semi-transparent crescent-shaped mark, surrounded by successive +ochre-yellow, black, ochre-yellow, pink, white, pink, brown, and whitish +zones. Although we do not know the steps by which these wonderfully +beautiful and complex ornaments have been developed, the process at +least with insects has probably been a simple one; for, as Mr. Trimen +writes to me, "no characters of mere marking or coloration are so +unstable in the Lepidoptera as the ocelli, both in number and size." Mr. +Wallace, who first called my attention to this subject, shewed me a +series of specimens of our common meadow-brown butterfly (_Hipparchia +Janira_) exhibiting numerous gradations from a simple minute black spot +to an elegantly-shaded ocellus. In a S. African butterfly (_Cyllo Leda_) +belonging to the same family, the ocelli are even still more variable. +In some specimens (A, fig. 52) large spaces on the upper surface of the +wings are coloured black, and include irregular white marks; and from +this state a complete gradation can be traced into a tolerably perfect +(A^1) ocellus, and this results from the contraction of the irregular +blotches of colour. In another series of specimens a gradation can be +followed from excessively minute white dots, surrounded by a scarcely +visible black line (B), into perfectly symmetrical and large ocelli +(B^1).[192] In cases like these, the development of a perfect ocellus +does not require a long course of variation and selection. + +[Illustration: Fig. 52. Cyllo leda, Linn., from a drawing by Mr. Trimen, +shewing the extreme range of variation in the ocelli. + + A. Specimen, from Mauritius, upper B. Specimen, from Java, upper + surface of fore-wing. surface of hind-wing. + + A^1. Specimen, from Natal, ditto. B^1. Specimen, from Mauritius, + ditto.] + + +With birds and many other animals it seems, from the comparison of +allied species, to follow, that circular spots are often generated by +the breaking up and contraction of stripes. In the Tragopan pheasant +faint white lines in the female represent the beautiful white spots in +the male;[193] and something of the same kind may be observed in the two +sexes of the Argus pheasant. However this may be, appearances strongly +favour the belief that, on the one hand, a dark spot is often formed by +the colouring-matter being drawn towards a central point from a +surrounding zone, which is thus rendered lighter. And, on the other +hand, that a white spot is often formed by the colour being driven away +from a central point, so that it accumulates in a surrounding darker +zone. In either case an ocellus is the result. The colouring matter +seems to be a nearly constant quantity, but is redistributed, either +centripetally or centrifugally. The feathers of the common guinea-fowl +offer a good instance of white spots surrounded by darker zones; and +wherever the white spots are large and stand near each other, the +surrounding dark zones become confluent. In the same wing-feather of the +Argus pheasant dark spots may be seen surrounded by a pale zone, and +white spots by a dark zone. Thus the formation of an ocellus in its +simplest state appears to be a simple affair. By what further steps the +more complex ocelli, which are surrounded by many successive zones of +colour, have been generated, I will not pretend to say. But bearing +in mind the zoned feathers of the mongrel offspring from +differently-coloured fowls, and the extraordinary variability of the +ocelli in many Lepidoptera, the formation of these beautiful ornaments +can hardly be a highly complex process, and probably depends on some +slight and graduated change in the nature of the tissues. + + +_Gradation of Secondary Sexual Characters._--Cases of gradation are +important for us, as they shew that it is at least possible that highly +complex ornaments may have been acquired by small successive steps. In +order to discover the actual steps by which the male of any existing +bird has acquired his magnificent colours or other ornaments, we ought +to behold the long line of his ancient and extinct progenitors; but this +is obviously impossible. We may, however, generally gain a clue by +comparing all the species of a group, if it be a large one; for some of +them will probably retain, at least in a partial manner, traces of their +former characters. Instead of entering on tedious details respecting +various groups, in which striking instances of gradation could be given, +it seems the best plan to take some one or two strongly-characterised +cases, for instance that of the peacock, in order to discover if any +light can thus be thrown on the steps by which this bird has become so +splendidly decorated. The peacock is chiefly remarkable from the +extraordinary length of his tail-coverts; the tail itself not being much +elongated. The barbs along nearly the whole length of these feathers +stand separate or are decomposed; but this is the case with the feathers +of many species, and with some varieties of the domestic fowl and +pigeon. The barbs coalesce towards the extremity of the shaft to form +the oval disc or ocellus, which is certainly one of the most beautiful +objects in the world. This consists of an iridescent, intensely blue, +indented centre, surrounded by a rich green zone, and this by a broad +coppery-brown zone, and this by five other narrow zones of +slightly-different iridescent shades. A trifling character in the disc +perhaps deserves notice; the barbs, for a space along one of the +concentric zones are destitute, to a greater or less degree, of their +barbules, so that a part of the disc is surrounded by an almost +transparent zone, which gives to it a highly-finished aspect. But I have +elsewhere described[194] an exactly analogous variation in the hackles +of a sub-variety of the game-cock, in which the tips, having a metallic +lustre, "are separated from the lower part of the feather by a +symmetrically-shaped transparent zone, composed of the naked portions of +the barbs." The lower margin or base of the dark-blue centre of the +ocellus is deeply indented on the line of the shaft. The surrounding +zones likewise shew traces, as may be seen in the drawing (fig. 53), of +indentations, or rather breaks. These indentations are common to the +Indian and Javan peacocks (_Pavo cristatus_ and _P. muticus_); and they +seemed to me to deserve particular attention, as probably connected with +the development of the ocellus; but for a long time I could not +conjecture their meaning. + +If we admit the principle of gradual evolution, there must formerly have +existed many species which presented every successive step between the +wonderfully elongated tail-coverts of the peacock and the short tail +coverts of all ordinary birds; and again between the magnificent ocelli +of the former, and the simpler ocelli or mere coloured spots of other +birds; and so with all the other characters of the peacock. Let us look +to the allied Gallinaceæ for any still-existing gradations. The species +and sub-species of Polyplectron inhabit countries adjacent to the native +land of the peacock; and they so far resemble this bird that they are +sometimes called peacock-pheasants. I am also informed by Mr. Bartlett +that they resemble the peacock in their voice and in some of their +habits. During the spring the males, as previously described, strut +about before the comparatively plain-coloured females, expanding and +erecting their tail and wing-feathers, which are ornamented with +numerous ocelli. I request the reader to turn back to the drawing (fig. +51, p. 90) of a Polyplectron. In _P. Napoleonis_ the ocelli are confined +to the tail, and the back is of a rich metallic blue, in which respects +this species approaches the Java peacock. _P. Hardwickii_ possesses a +peculiar top-knot, somewhat like that of this same kind of peacock. The +ocelli on the wings and tail of the several species of Polyplectron are +either circular or oval, and consist of a beautiful, iridescent, +greenish-blue or greenish-purple disc, with a black border. This border +in _P. chinquis_ shades into brown which is edged with cream-colour, so +that the ocellus is here surrounded with differently, though not +brightly, shaded concentric zones. The unusual length of the +tail-coverts is another highly remarkable character in Polyplectron; for +in some of the species they are half as long, and in others two-thirds +of the length of the true tail-feathers. The tail-coverts are ocellated, +as in the peacock. Thus the several species of Polyplectron manifestly +make a graduated approach in the length of their tail-coverts, in the +zoning of the ocelli, and in some other characters, to the peacock. + +[Illustration: Fig. 53. Feather of Peacock, about two-thirds of natural +size, carefully drawn by Mr. Ford. The transparent zone is represented +by the outermost white zone, confined to the upper end of the disc.] + +Notwithstanding this approach, the first species of Polyplectron which I +happened to examine almost made me give up the search; for I found not +only that the true tail-feathers, which in the peacock are quite plain, +were ornamented with ocelli, but that the ocelli on all the feathers +differed fundamentally from those of the peacock, in there being two on +the same feather, (fig. 54), one on each side of the shaft. Hence I +concluded that the early progenitors of the peacock could not have +resembled in any degree a Polyplectron. But on continuing my search, I +observed that in some of the species the two ocelli stood very near each +other; that in the tail-feathers of _P. Hardwickii_ they touched each +other; and, finally, that in the tail-coverts of this same species as +well as of _P. malaccense_ (fig. 55) they were actually confluent. As +the central part alone is confluent, an indentation is left at both the +upper and lower ends; and the surrounding coloured zones are likewise +indented. + +[Illustration: Fig. 54. Part of a tail-covert of Polyplectron chinquis, +with two oval ocelli of nat. size.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 55. Part of a tail-covert of Polyplectron +malaccense, with the two oval ocelli, partially confluent, of nat. +size.] + +A single ocellus is thus formed on each tail-covert, though still +plainly betraying its double origin. These confluent ocelli differ from +the single ocelli of the peacock in having an indentation at both ends, +instead of at the lower or basal end alone. The explanation, however, of +this difference is not difficult; in some species of Polyplectron the +two oval ocelli on the same feather stand parallel to each other; in +other species (as in _P. chinquis_) they converge towards one end; now +the partial confluence of two convergent ocelli would manifestly leave a +much deeper indentation at the divergent than at the convergent end. It +is also manifest that if the convergence were strongly pronounced and +the confluence complete, the indentation at the convergent end would +tend to be quite obliterated. + +The tail-feathers in both species of peacock are entirely destitute of +ocelli, and this apparently is related to their being covered up and +concealed by the long tail-coverts. In this respect they differ +remarkably from the tail-feathers of Polyplectron, which in most of the +species are ornamented with larger ocelli than those on the +tail-coverts. Hence I was led carefully to examine the tail-feathers of +the several species of Polyplectron in order to discover whether the +ocelli in any of them shewed any tendency to disappear, and, to my great +satisfaction, I was successful. The central tail-feathers of _P. +Napoleonis_ have the two ocelli on each side of the shaft perfectly +developed; but the inner ocellus becomes less and less conspicuous on +the more exterior tail-feathers, until a mere shadow or rudimentary +vestige is left on the inner side of the outermost feather. Again, in +_P. malaccense_, the ocelli on the tail-coverts are, as we have seen, +confluent; and these feathers are of unusual length, being two-thirds of +the length of the tail-feathers, so that in both these respects they +resemble the tail-coverts of the peacock. Now in this species the two +central tail-feathers alone are ornamented, each with two +brightly-coloured ocelli, the ocelli having completely disappeared from +the inner sides of all the other tail-feathers. Consequently the +tail-coverts and tail-feathers of this species of Polyplectron make a +near approach in structure and ornamentation to the corresponding +feathers of the peacock. + +As far, then, as the principle of gradation throws light on the steps by +which the magnificent train of the peacock has been acquired, hardly +anything more is needed. We may picture to ourselves a progenitor of +the peacock in an almost exactly intermediate condition between the +existing peacock, with his enormously elongated tail-coverts, ornamented +with single ocelli, and an ordinary gallinaceous bird with short +tail-coverts, merely spotted with some colour; and we shall then see in +our mind's eye, a bird possessing tail-coverts, capable of erection and +expansion, ornamented with two partially confluent ocelli, and long +enough almost to conceal the tail-feathers,--the latter having already +partially lost their ocelli; we shall see in short, a Polyplectron. The +indentation of the central disc and surrounding zones of the ocellus in +both species of peacock, seems to me to speak plainly in favour of this +view; and this structure is otherwise inexplicable. The males of +Polyplectron are no doubt very beautiful birds, but their beauty, when +viewed from a little distance, cannot be compared, as I formerly saw in +the Zoological Gardens, with that of the peacock. Many female +progenitors of the peacock must, during a long line of descent, have +appreciated this superiority; for they have unconsciously, by the +continued preference of the most beautiful males, rendered the peacock +the most splendid of living birds. + + +_Argus pheasant._--Another excellent case for investigation is offered +by the ocelli on the wing-feathers of the Argus pheasant, which are +shaded in so wonderful a manner as to resemble balls lying within +sockets, and which consequently differ from ordinary ocelli. No one, I +presume, will attribute the shading, which has excited the admiration of +many experienced artists, to chance--to the fortuitous concourse of +atoms of colouring matter. That these ornaments should have been formed +through the selection of many successive variations, not one of which +was originally intended to produce the ball-and-socket effect, seems as +incredible, as that one of Raphael's Madonnas should have been formed by +the selection of chance daubs of paint made by a long succession of +young artists, not one of whom intended at first to draw the human +figure. In order to discover how the ocelli have been developed, we +cannot look to a long line of progenitors, nor to various closely-allied +forms, for such do not now exist. But fortunately the several feathers +on the wing suffice to give us a clue to the problem, and they prove to +demonstration that a gradation is at least possible from a mere spot to +a finished ball-and-socket ocellus. + +The wing-feathers, bearing the ocelli, are covered with dark stripes or +rows of dark spots, each stripe or row running obliquely down the outer +side of the shaft to an ocellus. The spots are generally elongated in a +transverse line to the row in which they stand. They often become +confluent, either in the line of the row--and then they form a +longitudinal stripe--or transversely, that is, with the spots in the +adjoining rows, and then they form transverse stripes. A spot sometimes +breaks up into smaller spots, which still stand in their proper places. + +[Illustration: Fig. 56. Part of Secondary wing-feather of Argus +pheasant, shewing two, _a_ and _b_, perfect ocelli. A, B, C, &c., dark +stripes running obliquely down, each to an ocellus. + +(Much of the web on both sides, especially to the left of the shaft, has +been cut off.)] + +It will be convenient first to describe a perfect ball-and-socket +ocellus. This consists of an intensely black circular ring, surrounding +a space shaded so as exactly to resemble a ball. The figure here given +has been admirably drawn by Mr. Ford, and engraved, but a woodcut cannot +exhibit the exquisite shading of the original. The ring is almost always +slightly broken or interrupted (see fig. 56) at a point in the upper +half, a little to the right of and above the white shade on the enclosed +ball; it is also sometimes broken towards the base on the right hand. +These little breaks have an important meaning. The ring is always much +thickened, with the edges ill-defined towards the left-hand upper +corner the feather being held erect, in the position in which it is +here drawn. Beneath this thickened part there is on the surface of the +ball an oblique almost pure-white mark, which shades off downwards into +a pale-leaden hue, and this into yellowish and brown tints, which +insensibly become darker and darker towards the lower part of the ball. +It is this shading which gives so admirably the effect of light shining +on a convex surface. If one of the balls be examined, it will be seen +that the lower part is of a browner tint and is indistinctly separated +by a curved oblique line from the upper part, which is yellower and more +leaden; this oblique line runs at right angles to the longer axis of the +white patch of light, and indeed of all the shading; but this difference +in the tints, which cannot of course be shewn in the woodcut, does not +in the least interfere with the perfect shading of the ball.[195] It +should be particularly observed that each ocellus stands in obvious +connection with a dark stripe, or row of dark spots, for both occur +indifferently on the same feather. Thus in fig. 56 stripe A runs to +ocellus _a_; B runs to ocellus _b_; stripe C is broken in the upper +part, and runs down to the next succeeding ocellus, not represented in +the woodcut; D to the next lower one, and so with the stripes E and F. +Lastly, the several ocelli are separated from each other by a pale +surface bearing irregular black marks. + +[Illustration: Fig. 57. Basal part of the Secondary wing-feather, +nearest to the body.] + +I will next describe the other extreme of the series, namely the first +trace of an ocellus. The short secondary wing-feather (fig. 57), nearest +to the body, is marked like the other feathers, with oblique, +longitudinal, rather irregular, rows of spots. The lowest spot, or that +nearest the shaft, in the five lower rows (excluding the basal row) is a +little larger than the other spots in the same row, and a little more +elongated in a transverse direction. It differs also from the other +spots by being bordered on its upper side with some dull fulvous +shading. But this spot is not in any way more remarkable than those on +the plumage of many birds, and might easily be quite overlooked. The +next higher spot in each row does not differ at all from the upper ones +in the same row, although in the following series it becomes, as we +shall see, greatly modified. The larger spots occupy exactly the same +relative position on this feather as those occupied by the perfect +ocelli on the longer wing-feathers. + +By looking to the next two or three succeeding secondary wing-feathers, +an absolutely insensible gradation can be traced from one of the +above-described lower spots, together with the next higher one in the +same row, to a curious ornament, which cannot be called an ocellus, and +which I will name, from the want of a better term, an "elliptic +ornament." These are shewn in the accompanying figure (fig. 58). We here +see several oblique rows, A, B, C, D (see the lettered diagram), &c., of +dark spots of the usual character. Each row of spots runs down to and is +connected with one of the elliptic ornaments, in exactly the same manner +as each stripe in fig. 56 runs down to, and is connected with, one of +the ball-and-socket ocelli. Looking to any one row, for instance, B, the +lowest spot or mark (_b_) is thicker and considerably longer than the +upper spots, and has its left extremity pointed and curved upwards. This +black mark is abruptly bordered on its upper side by a rather broad +space of richly-shaded tints, beginning with a narrow brown zone, which +passes into orange, and this into a pale leaden tint, with the end +towards the shaft much paler. This mark corresponds in every respect +with the larger, shaded spot, described in the last paragraph (fig. 57), +but is more highly developed and more brightly coloured. To the right +and above this spot (_b_), with its bright shading, there is a long, +narrow, black mark (_c_), belonging to the same row, and which is arched +a little downwards so as to face (_b_). It is also narrowly edged on the +lower side with a fulvous tint. To the left of and above _c_, in the +same oblique direction, but always more or less distinct from it, there +is another black mark (_d_). This mark is generally sub-triangular and +irregular in shape, but in the one lettered in the diagram is unusually +narrow, elongated, and regular. It apparently consists of a lateral and +broken prolongation of the mark (_c_), as I infer from traces of +similar prolongations from the succeeding upper spots; but I do not feel +sure of this. These three marks, _b_, _c_, and _d_, with the intervening +bright shades, form together the so-called elliptic ornament. These +ornaments stand in a line parallel to the shaft, and manifestly +correspond in position with the ball-and-socket ocelli. Their extremely +elegant appearance cannot be appreciated in the drawing, as the orange +and leaden tints, contrasting so well with the black marks, cannot be +shewn. + +[Illustration: Fig. 58. Portion of one of the Secondary wing-feathers +near to the body; shewing the so-called elliptic ornaments. The +right-hand figure is given merely as a diagram for the sake of the +letters of reference. + + A, B, C, &c. Rows of spots running down to and forming the elliptic + ornaments. + + _b_. Lowest spot or mark in row B. + + _c_. The next succeeding spot or mark in the same row. + + _d_. Apparently a broken prolongation of the spot _c_ in the same + row B.] + +Between one of the elliptic ornaments and a perfect ball-and-socket +ocellus, the gradation is so perfect that it is scarcely possible to +decide when the latter term ought to be used. I regret that I have not +given an additional drawing, besides fig. 58, which stands about +half-way in the series between one of the simple spots and a perfect +ocellus. The passage from the elliptic ornament into an ocellus is +effected by the elongation and greater curvature in opposed directions +of the lower black mark (_b_), and more especially of the upper one +(_c_), together with the contraction of the irregular sub-triangular or +narrow mark (_d_), so that at last these three marks become confluent, +forming an irregular elliptic ring. This ring is gradually rendered more +and more circular and regular, at the same time increasing in diameter. +Traces of the junction of all three elongated spots or marks, especially +of the two upper ones, can still be observed in many of the most perfect +ocelli. The broken state of the black ring on the upper side of the +ocellus in fig. 56 was pointed out. The irregular sub-triangular or +narrow mark (_d_) manifestly forms, by its contraction and equalisation, +the thickened portion of the ring on the left upper side of the perfect +ball-and-socket ocellus. The lower part of the ring is invariably a +little thicker than the other parts (see fig. 56), and this follows +from the lower black mark of the elliptic ornament (_b_) having been +originally thicker than the upper mark (_c_). Every step can be followed +in the process of confluence and modification; and the black ring which +surrounds the ball of the ocellus is unquestionably formed by the union +and modification of the three black marks, _b_, _c_, _d_, of the +elliptic ornament. The irregular zigzag black marks between the +successive ocelli (see again fig. 56) are plainly due to the breaking up +of the somewhat more regular but similar marks between the elliptic +ornaments. + +The successive steps in the shading of the ball-and-socket ocelli can be +followed out with equal clearness. The brown, orange, and pale-leaden +narrow zones which border the lower black mark of the elliptic ornament +can be seen gradually to become more and more softened and shaded into +each other, with the upper lighter part towards the left-hand corner +rendered still lighter, so as to become almost white. But even in the +most perfect ball-and-socket ocelli a slight difference in the tints, +though not in the shading, between the upper and lower parts of the ball +can be perceived (as was before especially noticed), the line of +separation being oblique, in the same direction with the bright coloured +shades of the elliptic ornaments. Thus almost every minute detail in the +shape and colouring of the ball-and-socket ocelli can be shewn to follow +from gradual changes in the elliptic ornaments; and the development of +the latter can be traced by equally small steps from the union of two +almost simple spots, the lower one (fig. 57) having some dull fulvous +shading on the upper side. + +[Illustration: Fig. 59. Portion near summit of one of the Secondary +wing-feathers, bearing perfect ball-and-socket ocelli. + + _a._ Ornamented upper part. + + _b._ Uppermost, imperfect ball-and-socket ocellus. (The + shading above the white mark on the summit of the ocellus is + here a little too dark.) + + _c._ Perfect ocellus.] + +The extremities of the longer secondary feathers which bear the perfect +ball-and-socket ocelli are peculiarly ornamented. (Fig. 59.) The oblique +longitudinal stripes suddenly cease upwards and become confused, and +above this limit the whole upper end of the feather (_a_) is covered +with white dots, surrounded by little black rings, standing on a dark +ground. Even the oblique stripe belonging to the uppermost ocellus (_b_) +is represented only by a very short irregular black mark with the usual, +curved, transverse base. As this stripe is thus abruptly cut off above, +we can understand, from what has gone before, how it is that the upper +thickened part of the ring is absent in the uppermost ocellus; for, as +before stated, this thickened part is apparently formed by a broken +prolongation of the next higher spot in the same row. From the absence +of the upper and thickened part of the ring, the uppermost ocellus, +though perfect in all other respects, appears as if its top had been +obliquely sliced off. It would, I think, perplex any one, who believes +that the plumage of the Argus pheasant was created as we now see it, to +account for the imperfect condition of the uppermost ocelli. I should +add that in the secondary wing-feather farthest from the body all the +ocelli are smaller and less perfect than on the other feathers, with +the upper parts of the external black rings deficient, as in the case +just mentioned. The imperfection here seems to be connected with the +fact that the spots on this feather shew less tendency than usual to +become confluent into stripes; on the contrary, they are often broken up +into smaller spots, so that two or three rows run down to each ocellus. + +We have now seen that a perfect series can be followed, from two almost +simple spots, at first quite distinct from each other, to one of the +wonderful ball-and-socket ornaments. Mr. Gould, who kindly gave me some +of these feathers, fully agrees with me in the completeness of the +gradation. It is obvious that the stages in development exhibited by the +feathers on the same bird do not at all necessarily shew us the steps +which have been passed through by the extinct progenitors of the +species; but they probably give us the clue to the actual steps, and +they at least prove to demonstration that a gradation is possible. +Bearing in mind how carefully the male Argus pheasant displays his +plumes before the female, as well as the many facts rendering it +probable that female birds prefer the more attractive males, no one who +admits the agency of sexual selection, will deny that a simple dark spot +with some fulvous shading might be converted, through the approximation +and modification of the adjoining spots, together with some slight +increase of colour, into one of the so-called elliptic ornaments. These +latter ornaments have been shewn to many persons, and all have admitted +that they are extremely pretty, some thinking them even more beautiful +than the ball-and-socket ocelli. As the secondary plumes became +lengthened through sexual selection, and as the elliptic ornaments +increased in diameter, their colours apparently became less bright; and +then the ornamentation of the plumes had to be gained by improvements in +the pattern and shading; and this process has been carried on until the +wonderful ball-and-socket ocelli have been finally developed. Thus we +can understand--and in no other way as it seems to me--the present +condition and origin of the ornaments on the wing-feathers of the Argus +pheasant. + + +From the light reflected by the principle of gradation; from what we +know of the laws of variation; from the changes which have taken place +in many of our domesticated birds; and, lastly, from the character (as +we shall hereafter more clearly see) of the immature plumage of young +birds--we can sometimes indicate with a certain amount of confidence, +the probable steps by which the males have acquired their brilliant +plumage and various ornaments; yet in many cases we are involved in +darkness. Mr. Gould several years ago pointed out to me a humming-bird, +the _Urosticte benjamini_, remarkable from the curious differences +presented by the two sexes. The male, besides a splendid gorget, has +greenish-black tail-feathers, with the four _central_ ones tipped with +white; in the female, as with most of the allied species, the three +_outer_ tail-feathers on each side are tipped with white, so that the +male has the four central, whilst the female has the six exterior +feathers ornamented with white tips. What makes the case curious is +that, although the colouring of the tail differs remarkably in both +sexes of many kinds of humming-birds, Mr. Gould does not know a single +species, besides the Urosticte, in which the male has the four central +feathers tipped with white. + +The Duke of Argyll, in commenting on this case,[196] passes over sexual +selection, and asks, "What explanation does the law of natural selection +give of such specific varieties as these?" He answers "none whatever;" +and I quite agree with him. But can this be so confidently said of +sexual selection? Seeing in how many ways the tail-feathers of +humming-birds differ, why should not the four central feathers have +varied in this one species alone, so as to have acquired white tips? The +variations may have been gradual, or somewhat abrupt as in the case +recently given of the humming-birds near Bogota, in which certain +individuals alone have the "central tail-feathers tipped with beautiful +green." In the female of the Urosticte I noticed extremely minute or +rudimental white tips to the two outer of the four central black +tail-feathers; so that here we have an indication of change of some kind +in the plumage of this species. If we grant the possibility of the +central tail-feathers of the male varying in whiteness, there is nothing +strange in such variations having been sexually selected. The white +tips, together with the small white ear-tufts, certainly add, as the +Duke of Argyll admits, to the beauty of the male; and whiteness is +apparently appreciated by other birds, as may be inferred from such +cases as the snow-white male of the Bell-bird. The statement made by Sir +E. Heron should not be forgotten, namely that his peahens, when debarred +from access to the pied peacock, would not unite with any other male, +and during that season produced no offspring. Nor is it strange that +variations in the tail-feathers of the Urosticte should have been +specially selected for the sake of ornament, for the next succeeding +genus in the family takes its name of Metallura from the splendour of +these feathers. Mr. Gould, after describing the peculiar plumage of the +Urosticte, adds, "that ornament and variety is the sole object, I have +myself but little doubt."[197] If this be admitted, we can perceive that +the males which were decked in the most elegant and novel manner would +have gained an advantage, not in the ordinary struggle for life, but in +rivalry with other males, and would consequently have left a larger +number of offspring to inherit their newly-acquired beauty. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +BIRDS--_continued_. + + + Discussion why the males alone of some species, and both sexes + of other species, are brightly coloured--On sexually-limited + inheritance, as applied to various structures and to + brightly-coloured plumage--Nidification in relation to + colour--Loss of nuptial plumage during the winter. + + +We have in this chapter to consider, why with many kinds of birds the +female has not received the same ornaments as the male; and why with +many others, both sexes are equally, or almost equally, ornamented? In +the following chapter we shall consider why in some few rare cases the +female is more conspicuously coloured than the male. + +In my 'Origin of Species'[198] I briefly suggested that the long tail of +the peacock would be inconvenient, and the conspicuous black colour of +the male capercailzie dangerous, to the female during the period of +incubation; and consequently that the transmission of these characters +from the male to the female offspring had been checked through natural +selection. I still think that this may have occurred in some few +instances: but after mature reflection on all the facts which I have +been able to collect, I am now inclined to believe that when the sexes +differ, the successive variations have generally been from the first +limited in their transmission to the same sex in which they first +appeared. Since my remarks appeared, the subject of sexual coloration +has been discussed in some very interesting papers by Mr. Wallace,[199] +who believes that in almost all cases the successive variations tended +at first to be transmitted equally to both sexes; but that the female +was saved, through natural selection, from acquiring the conspicuous +colours of the male, owing to the danger which she would thus have +incurred during incubation. + +This view necessitates a tedious discussion on a difficult point, namely +whether the transmission of a character, which is at first inherited by +both sexes, can be subsequently limited in its transmission, by means of +selection, to one sex alone. We must bear in mind, as shewn in the +preliminary chapter on sexual selection, that characters which are +limited in their development to one sex are always latent in the other. +An imaginary illustration will best aid us in seeing the difficulty of +the case: we may suppose that a fancier wished to make a breed of +pigeons, in which the males alone should be coloured of a pale blue, +whilst the females retained their former slaty tint. As with pigeons +characters of all kinds are usually transmitted to both sexes equally, +the fancier would have to try to convert this latter form of inheritance +into sexually-limited transmission. All that he could do would be to +persevere in selecting every male pigeon which was in the least degree +of a paler blue; and the natural result of this process, if steadily +carried on for a long time, and if the pale variations were strongly +inherited or often recurred, would be to make his whole stock of a +lighter blue. But our fancier would be compelled to match, generation +after generation, his pale blue males with slaty females, for he wishes +to keep the latter of this colour. The result would generally be the +production either of a mongrel piebald lot, or more probably the speedy +and complete loss of the pale-blue colour, for the primordial slaty tint +would be transmitted with prepotent force. Supposing, however, that some +pale-blue males and slaty females were produced during each successive +generation, and were always crossed together; then the slaty females +would have, if I may use the expression, much blue blood in their veins, +for their fathers, grandfathers, etc., will all have been blue birds. +Under these circumstances it is conceivable (though I know of no +distinct facts rendering it probable) that the slaty females might +acquire so strong a latent tendency to pale-blueness, that they would +not destroy this colour in their male offspring, their female offspring +still inheriting the slaty tint. If so, the desired end of making a +breed with the two sexes permanently different in colour might be +gained. + +The extreme importance, or rather necessity, of the desired character in +the above case, namely, pale-blueness, being present though in a latent +state in the female, so that the male offspring should not be +deteriorated, will be best appreciated as follows: the male of +Soemmerring's pheasant has a tail thirty-seven inches in length, +whilst that of the female is only eight inches; the tail of the male +common pheasant is about twenty inches, and that of the female twelve +inches long. Now if the female Soemmerring pheasant with her _short_ +tail were crossed with the male common pheasant, there can be no doubt +that the male hybrid offspring would have a much _longer_ tail than that +of the pure offspring of the common pheasant. On the other hand, if the +female common pheasant, with her tail nearly _twice as long_ as that of +the female Soemmerring pheasant, were crossed with the male of the +latter, the male hybrid offspring would have a much _shorter_ tail than +that of the pure offspring of Soemmerring's pheasant.[200] + +Our fancier, in order to make his new breed with the males of a decided +pale-blue tint, and the females unchanged, would have to continue +selecting the males during many generations; and each stage of paleness +would have to be fixed in the males, and rendered latent in the females. +The task would be an extremely difficult one, and has never been tried, +but might possibly succeed. The chief obstacle would be the early and +complete loss of the pale-blue tint, from the necessity of reiterated +crosses with the slaty female, the latter not having at first any +_latent_ tendency to produce pale-blue offspring. + +On the other hand, if one or two males were to vary ever so slightly in +paleness, and the variations were from the first limited in their +transmission to the male sex, the task of making a new breed of the +desired kind would be easy, for such males would simply have to be +selected and matched with ordinary females. An analogous case has +actually occurred, for there are breeds of the pigeon in Belgium[201] in +which the males alone are marked with black striæ. In the case of the +fowl, variations of colour limited in their transmission to the male sex +habitually occur. Even when this form of inheritance prevails, it might +well happen that some of the successive steps in the process of +variation might be transferred to the female, who would then come to +resemble in a slight degree the male, as occurs in some breeds of the +fowl. Or again, the greater number, but not all, of the successive +steps might be transferred to both sexes, and the female would then +closely resemble the male. There can hardly be a doubt that this is the +cause of the male pouter pigeon having a somewhat larger crop, and of +the male carrier pigeon having somewhat larger wattles, than their +respective females; for fanciers have not selected one sex more than the +other, and have had no wish that these characters should be more +strongly displayed in the male than in the female, yet this is the case +with both breeds. + +The same process would have to be followed, and the same difficulties +would be encountered, if it were desired to make a breed with the +females alone of some new colour. + +Lastly, our fancier might wish to make a breed with the two sexes +differing from each other, and both from the parent-species. Here the +difficulty would be extreme, unless the successive variations were from +the first sexually limited on both sides, and then there would be no +difficulty. We see this with the fowl; thus the two sexes of the +pencilled Hamburghs differ greatly from each other, and from the two +sexes of the aboriginal _Gallus bankiva_; and both are now kept constant +to their standard of excellence by continued selection, which would be +impossible unless the distinctive characters of both were limited in +their transmission. The Spanish fowl offers a more curious case; the +male has an immense comb, but some of the successive variations, by the +accumulation of which it was acquired, appear to have been transferred +to the female; for she has a comb many times larger than that of the +females of the parent-species. But the comb of the female differs in one +respect from that of the male, for it is apt to lop over; and within a +recent period it has been ordered by the fancy that this should always +be the case, and success has quickly followed the order. Now the +lopping of the comb must be sexually limited in its transmission, +otherwise it would prevent the comb of the male from being perfectly +upright, which would be abhorrent to every fancier. On the other hand +the uprightness of the comb in the male must likewise be a +sexually-limited character, otherwise it would prevent the comb of the +female from lopping over. + +From the foregoing illustrations, we see that even with almost unlimited +time at command, it would be an extremely difficult and complex process, +though perhaps not impossible, to change through selection one form of +transmission into the other. Therefore, without distinct evidence in +each case, I am unwilling to admit that this has often been effected +with natural species. On the other hand by means of successive +variations, which were from the first sexually limited in their +transmission, there would not be the least difficulty in rendering a +male bird widely different in colour or in any other character from the +female; the latter being left unaltered, or slightly altered, or +specially modified for the sake of protection. + +As bright colours are of service to the males in their rivalry with +other males, such colours would be selected, whether or not they were +transmitted exclusively to the same sex. Consequently the females might +be expected often to partake of the brightness of the males to a greater +or less degree; and this occurs with a host of species. If all the +successive variations were transmitted equally to both sexes, the +females would be undistinguishable from the males; and this likewise +occurs with many birds. If, however, dull colours were of high +importance for the safety of the female during incubation, as with many +ground birds, the females which varied in brightness, or which received +through inheritance from the males any marked accession of brightness, +would sooner or later be destroyed. But the tendency in the males to +continue for an indefinite period transmitting to their female offspring +their own brightness, would have to be eliminated by a change in the +form of inheritance; and this, as shewn by our previous illustration, +would be extremely difficult. The more probable result of the +long-continued destruction of the more brightly-coloured females, +supposing the equal form of transmission to prevail, would be the +lessening or annihilation of the bright colours of the males, owing to +their continually crossing with the duller females. It would be tedious +to follow out all the other possible results; but I may remind the +reader, as shewn in the eighth chapter, that if sexually-limited +variations in brightness occurred in the females, even if they were not +in the least injurious to them and consequently were not eliminated, yet +they would not be favoured or selected, for the male usually accepts any +female, and does not select the more attractive individuals; +consequently these variations would be liable to be lost, and would have +little influence on the character of the race; and this will aid in +accounting for the females being commonly less brightly-coloured than +the males. + +In the chapter just referred to, instances were given, and any number +might have been added, of variations occurring at different ages, and +inherited at the same age. It was also shewn that variations which occur +late in life are commonly transmitted to the same sex in which they +first appeared; whilst variations occurring early in life are apt to be +transmitted to both sexes; not that all the cases of sexually-limited +transmission can thus be accounted for. It was further shewn that if a +male bird varied by becoming brighter whilst young, such variations +would be of no service until the age for reproduction had arrived, and +there was competition between rival males. If we suppose that +three-fourths of the young males of any species are on an average +destroyed by various enemies; then the chances would be as three to one +against any one individual more brightly-coloured than usual surviving +to propagate its kind. But in the case of birds which live on the ground +and which commonly need the protection of dull colours, bright tints +would be far more dangerous to the young and inexperienced than to the +adult males. Consequently the males which varied in brightness whilst +young would suffer much destruction and be eliminated through natural +selection; on the other hand the males which varied in this manner when +nearly mature, notwithstanding that they were exposed to some additional +danger, might survive, and from being favoured through sexual selection, +would procreate their kind. The brightly-coloured young males being +destroyed and the mature ones being successful in their courtship, may +account, on the principle of a relation existing between the period of +variation and the form of transmission, for the males alone of many +birds, having acquired and transmitted brilliant colours to their male +offspring alone. But I by no means wish to maintain that the influence +of age on the form of transmission is indirectly the sole cause of the +great difference in brilliancy between the sexes of many birds. + +As with all birds in which the sexes differ in colour, it is an +interesting question whether the males alone have been modified through +sexual selection, the females being left, as far as this agency is +concerned, unchanged or only partially changed; or whether the females +have been specially modified through natural selection for the sake of +protection, I will discuss this question at considerable length, even +at greater length than its intrinsic importance deserves; for various +curious collateral points may thus be conveniently considered. + +Before we enter on the subject of colour, more especially in reference +to Mr. Wallace's conclusions, it may be useful to discuss under a +similar point of view some other differences between the sexes. A breed +of fowls formerly existed in Germany[202] in which the hens were +furnished with spurs; they were good layers, but they so greatly +disturbed their nests with their spurs that they could not be allowed to +sit on their own eggs. Hence at one time it appeared to me probable that +with the females of the wild Gallinaceæ the development of spurs had +been checked through natural selection, from the injury thus caused to +their nests. This seemed all the more probable as the wing-spurs, which +could not be injurious during nidification, are often as well developed +in the female as in the male; though in not a few cases they are rather +larger in the male. When the male is furnished with leg-spurs the female +almost always exhibits rudiments of them,--the rudiment sometimes +consisting of a mere scale, as with the species of Gallus. Hence it +might be argued that the females had aboriginally been furnished with +well-developed spurs, but that these had subsequently been lost either +through disuse or natural selection. But if this view be admitted, it +would have to be extended to innumerable other cases; and it implies +that the female progenitors of the existing spur-bearing species were +once encumbered with an injurious appendage. + +In some few genera and species, as in Galloperdix, Acomus, and the Javan +peacock (_Pavo muticus_), the females, as well as the males, possess +well-developed spurs. Are we to infer from this fact that they construct +a different sort of nest, not liable to be injured by their spurs, from +that made by their nearest allies, so that there has been no need for +the removal of their spurs? Or are we to suppose that these females +especially require spurs for their defence? It is a more probable +conclusion that both the presence and absence of spurs in the females +result from different laws of inheritance having prevailed, +independently of natural selection. With the many females in which spurs +appear as rudiments, we may conclude that some few of the successive +variations, through which they were developed in the males, occurred +very early in life, and were as a consequence transferred to the +females. In the other and much rarer cases, in which the females possess +fully developed spurs, we may conclude that all the successive +variations were transferred to them; and that they gradually acquired +the inherited habit of not disturbing their nests. + +The vocal organs and the variously-modified feathers for producing +sound, as well as the proper instincts for using them, often differ in +the two sexes, but are sometimes the same in both. Can such differences +be accounted for by the males having acquired these organs and +instincts, whilst the females have been saved from inheriting them, on +account of the danger to which they would have been exposed by +attracting the attention of birds or beasts of prey? This does not seem +to me probable, when we think of the multitude of birds which with +impunity gladden the country with their voices during the spring.[203] +It is a safer conclusion that as vocal and instrumental organs are of +special service only to the males during their courtship, these organs +were developed through sexual selection and continued use in this sex +alone--the successive variations and the effects of use having been from +the first limited in their transmission in a greater or less degree to +the male offspring.'' + +Many analogous cases could be advanced; for instance the plumes on the +head, which are generally longer in the male than in the female, +sometimes of equal length in both sexes, and occasionally absent in the +female,--these several cases sometimes occurring in the same group of +birds. It would be difficult to account for a difference of this kind +between the sexes on the principle of the female having been benefited +by possessing a slightly shorter crest than the male, and its consequent +diminution or complete suppression through natural selection. But I will +take a more favourable case, namely, the length of the tail. The long +train of the peacock would have been not only inconvenient but dangerous +to the peahen during the period of incubation and whilst accompanying +her young. Hence there is not the least _à priori_ improbability in the +development of her tail having been checked through natural selection. +But the females of various pheasants, which apparently are exposed on +their open nests to as much danger as the peahen, have tails of +considerable length. The females as well as the males of the _Menura +superba_ have long tails, and they build a domed nest, which is a great +anomaly in so large a bird. Naturalists have wondered how the female +Menura could manage her tail during incubation; but it is now +known[204] that she "enters the nest head first, and then turns round +with her tail sometimes over her back, but more often bent round by her +side. Thus in time the tail becomes quite askew, and is a tolerable +guide to the length of time the bird has been sitting." Both sexes of an +Australian kingfisher (_Tanysiptera sylvia_) have the middle +tail-feathers greatly lengthened; and as the female makes her nest in a +hole, these feathers become, as I am informed by Mr. R. B. Sharpe, much +crumpled during nidification. + +In these two cases the great length of the tail-feathers must be in some +degree inconvenient to the female; and as in both species the +tail-feathers of the female are somewhat shorter than those of the male, +it might be argued that their full development had been prevented +through natural selection. Judging from these cases, if with the peahen, +the development of the tail had been checked only when it became +inconveniently or dangerously long, she would have acquired a much +longer tail than she actually possesses; for her tail is not nearly so +long, relatively to the size of her body, as that of many female +pheasants, nor longer than that of the female turkey. It must also be +borne in mind, that in accordance with this view as soon as the tail of +the peahen became dangerously long, and its development was consequently +checked, she would have continually reacted on her male progeny, and +thus have prevented the peacock from acquiring his present magnificent +train. We may therefore infer that the length of the tail in the peacock +and its shortness in the peahen are the result of the requisite +variations in the male having been from the first transmitted to the +male offspring alone. + +We are led to a nearly similar conclusion with respect to the length of +the tail in the various species of pheasants. In the Eared pheasant +(_Crossoptilon auritum_) the tail is of equal length in both sexes, +namely, sixteen or seventeen inches; in the common pheasant it is about +twenty inches long in the male, and twelve in the female; in +Soemmerring's pheasant, thirty-seven inches in the male, and only +eight in the female; and lastly in Reeve's pheasant it is sometimes +actually seventy-two inches long in the male and sixteen in the female. +Thus in the several species, the tail of the female differs much in +length, irrespectively of that of the male; and this can be accounted +for as it seems to me, with much more probability, by the laws of +inheritance,--that is by the successive variations having been from the +first more or less closely limited in their transmission to the male +sex,--than by the agency of natural selection, owing to the length of +tail having been injurious in a greater or less degree to the females of +the several species. + + +We may now consider Mr. Wallace's arguments, in regard to the sexual +coloration of birds. He believes that the bright tints originally +acquired through sexual selection by the males, would in all or almost +all cases have been transmitted to the females, unless the transference +had been checked through natural selection. I may here remind the reader +that various facts bearing on this view have already been given under +reptiles, amphibians, fishes, and lepidoptera. Mr. Wallace rests his +belief chiefly, but not exclusively, as we shall see in the next +chapter, on the following statement,[205] that when both sexes are +coloured in a strikingly-conspicuous manner the nest is of such a +nature as to conceal the sitting bird; but when there is a marked +contrast of colour between the sexes, the male being gay and the female +dull-coloured, the nest is open and exposes the sitting bird to view. +This coincidence, as far as it goes, certainly supports the belief that +the females which sit on open nests have been specially modified for the +sake of protection. Mr. Wallace admits that there are, as might have +been expected, some exceptions to his two rules, but it is a question +whether the exceptions are not so numerous as seriously to invalidate +them. + +There is in the first place much truth in the Duke of Argyll's +remark[206] that a large domed nest is more conspicuous to an enemy, +especially to all tree-haunting carnivorous animals, than a smaller open +nest. Nor must we forget that with many birds which build open nests the +males sit on the eggs and aid in feeding the young as well as the +females: this is the case, for instance, with _Pyranga æstiva_,[207] one +of the most splendid birds in the United States, the male being +vermilion, and the female light brownish-green. Now if brilliant colours +had been extremely dangerous to birds whilst sitting on their open +nests, the males in these cases would have suffered greatly. It might, +however, be of such paramount importance to the male to be brilliantly +coloured, in order to beat his rivals, that this would more than +compensate for some additional danger. + +Mr. Wallace admits that with the King-crows (Dicrurus), Orioles, and +Pittidæ, the females are conspicuously coloured, yet they build open +nests; but he urges that the birds of the first group are highly +pugnacious and could defend themselves; that those of the second group +take extreme care in concealing their open nests, but this does not +invariably hold good;[208] and that with the birds of the third group +the females are brightly coloured chiefly on the under surface. Besides +these cases the whole great family of pigeons, which are sometimes +brightly, and almost always conspicuously coloured, and which are +notoriously liable to the attacks of birds of prey, offers a serious +exception to the rule, for pigeons almost always build open and exposed +nests. In another large family, that of the Humming-birds, all the +species build open nests, yet with some of the most gorgeous species the +sexes are alike; and in the majority, the females, though less brilliant +than the males, are very brightly coloured. Nor can it be maintained +that all female humming-birds, which are brightly coloured, escape +detection by their tints being green, for some display on their upper +surfaces red, blue, and other colours.[209] + +In regard to birds which build in holes or construct domed nests, other +advantages, as Mr. Wallace remarks, besides concealment are gained, such +as shelter from the rain, greater warmth, and in hot countries +protection from the rays of the sun;[210] so that it is no valid +objection to his view that many birds having both sexes obscurely +coloured build concealed nests.[211] The female Hornbills (_Buceros_), +for instance, of India and Africa are protected, during nidification, +with extraordinary care, for the male plaisters up the hole in which the +female sits on her eggs, and leaves only a small orifice through which +he feeds her; she is thus kept a close prisoner during the whole period +of incubation;[212] yet female hornbills are not more conspicuously +coloured than many other birds of equal size which build open nests. It +is a more serious objection to Mr. Wallace's view, as is admitted by +him, that in some few groups the males are brilliantly coloured and the +females obscure, and yet the latter hatch their eggs in domed nests. +This is the case with the Grallinæ of Australia, the Superb Warblers +(Maluridæ) of the same country, the Sun-birds (Nectariniæ), and with +several of the Australian Honey-suckers or Meliphagidæ.[213] + +If we look to the birds of England we shall see that there is no close +and general relation between the colours of the female and the nature of +the nest constructed by her. About forty of our British birds (excluding +those of large size which could defend themselves) build in holes in +banks, rocks, or trees, or construct domed nests. If we take the colours +of the female goldfinch, bullfinch, or blackbird, as a standard of the +degree of conspicuousness, which is not highly dangerous to the sitting +female, then out of the above forty birds, the females of only twelve +can be considered as conspicuous to a dangerous degree, the remaining +twenty-eight being inconspicuous.[214] Nor is there any close relation +between a well-pronounced difference in colour between the two sexes, +and the nature of the nest constructed. Thus the male house-sparrow +(_Passer domesticus_) differs much from the female, the male +tree-sparrow (_P. montanus_) differs hardly at all, and yet both build +well-concealed nests. The two sexes of the common fly-catcher +(_Muscicapa grisola_) can hardly be distinguished, whilst the sexes of +the pied fly-catcher (_M. luctuosa_) differ considerably, and both build +in holes. The female blackbird (_Turdus merula_) differs much, the +female ring-ouzel (_T. torquatus_) differs less, and the female common +thrush (_T. musicus_) hardly at all from their respective males; yet all +build open nests. On the other hand, the not very distantly-allied +water-ouzel (_Cinclus aquaticus_) builds a domed nest, and the sexes +differ about as much as in the case of the ring-ouzel. The black and red +grouse (_Tetrao tetrix_ and _T. Scoticus_) build open nests, in equally +well-concealed spots, but in the one species the sexes differ greatly, +and in the other very little. + +Notwithstanding the foregoing objections, I cannot doubt, after reading +Mr. Wallace's excellent essay, that looking to the birds of the world, +a large majority of the species in which the females are conspicuously +coloured (and in this case the males with rare exceptions are equally +conspicuous), build concealed nests for the sake of protection. Mr. +Wallace enumerates[215] a long series of groups in which this rule holds +good; but it will suffice here to give, as instances, the more familiar +groups of kingfishers, toucans, trogons, puff-birds (Capitonidæ), +plaintain-eaters (Musophagæ), woodpeckers, and parrots. Mr. Wallace +believes that in these groups, as the males gradually acquired through +sexual selection their brilliant colours, these were transferred to the +females and were not eliminated by natural selection, owing to the +protection which they already enjoyed from their manner of nidification. +According to this view, their present manner of nesting was acquired +before their present colours. But it seems to me much more probable that +in most cases as the females were gradually rendered more and more +brilliant from partaking of the colours of the male, they were gradually +led to change their instincts (supposing that they originally built open +nests), and to seek protection by building domed or concealed nests. No +one who studies, for instance, Audubon's account of the differences in +the nests of the same species in the Northern and Southern United +States,[216] will feel any great difficulty in admitting that birds, +either by a change (in the strict sense of the word) of their habits, or +through the natural selection of so-called spontaneous variations of +instinct, might readily be led to modify their manner of nesting. + +This way of viewing the relation, as far as it holds good, between the +bright colours of female birds and their manner of nesting, receives +some support from certain analogous cases occurring in the Sahara +Desert. Here, as in most other deserts, various birds, and many other +animals, have had their colours adapted in a wonderful manner to the +tints of the surrounding surface. Nevertheless there are, as I am +informed by the Rev. Mr. Tristram, some curious exceptions to the rule; +thus the male of the _Monticola cyanea_ is conspicuous from his bright +blue colour, and the female almost equally conspicuous from her mottled +brown and white plumage; both sexes of two species of Dromolæa are of a +lustrous black; so that these three birds are far from receiving +protection from their colours, yet they are able to survive, for they +have acquired the habit, when in danger, of taking refuge in holes or +crevices in the rocks. + +With respect to the above-specified groups of birds, in which the +females are conspicuously coloured and build concealed nests, it is not +necessary to suppose that each separate species had its nidifying +instinct specially modified; but only that the early progenitors of each +group were gradually led to build domed or concealed nests; and +afterwards transmitted this instinct, together with their bright +colours, to their modified descendants. This conclusion, as far as it +can be trusted, is interesting, namely, that sexual selection, together +with equal or nearly equal inheritance by both sexes, have indirectly +determined the manner of nidification of whole groups of birds. + +Even in the groups in which, according to Mr. Wallace, the females from +being protected during nidification, have not had their bright colours +eliminated through natural selection, the males often differ in a +slight, and occasionally in a considerable degree, from the females. +This is a significant fact, for such differences in colour must be +accounted for on the principle of some of the variations in the males +having been from the first limited in their transmission to the same +sex; as it can hardly be maintained that these differences, especially +when very slight, serve as a protection to the female. Thus all the +species in the splendid group of the Trogons build in holes; and Mr. +Gould gives figures[217] of both sexes of twenty-five species, in all of +which, with one partial exception, the sexes differ sometimes slightly, +sometimes conspicuously, in colour,--the males being always more +beautiful than the females, though the latter are likewise beautiful. +All the species of kingfisher build in holes, and with most of the +species the sexes are equally brilliant, and thus far Mr. Wallace's rule +holds good; but in some of the Australian species the colours of the +females are rather less vivid than those of the male; and in one +splendidly-coloured species, the sexes differ so much that they were at +first thought to be specifically distinct.[218] Mr. R. B. Sharpe, who +has especially studied this group, has shewn me some American species +(Ceryle) in which the breast of the male is belted with black. Again, in +Carcineutes, the difference between the sexes is conspicuous: in the +male the upper surface is dull-blue banded with black, the lower surface +being partly fawn-coloured, and there is much red about the head; in the +female the upper surface is reddish-brown banded with black, and the +lower surface white with black markings. It is an interesting fact, as +shewing how the same peculiar style of sexual colouring often +characterises allied forms, that in three species of Dacelo the male +differs from the female only in the tail being dull-blue banded with +black, whilst that of the female is brown with blackish bars; so that +here the tail differs in colour in the two sexes in exactly the same +manner as the whole upper surface in the sexes of Carcineutes. + +With parrots, which likewise build in holes, we find analogous cases: in +most of the species both sexes are brilliantly coloured and +undistinguishable, but in not a few species the males are coloured +rather more vividly than the females, or even very differently from +them. Thus, besides other strongly-marked differences, the whole under +surface of the male King Lory (_Aprosmictus scapulatus_) is scarlet, +whilst the throat and chest of the female is green tinged with red: in +the _Euphema splendida_ there is a similar difference, the face and +wing-coverts moreover of the female being of a paler blue than in the +male.[219] In the family of the tits (_Parinæ_), which build concealed +nests, the female of our common blue tomtit (_Parus cæruleus_) is "much +less brightly coloured" than the male; and in the magnificent Sultan +yellow tit of India the difference is greater.[220] + +Again in the great group of the woodpeckers,[221] the sexes are +generally nearly alike, but in the _Megapicus validus_ all those parts +of the head, neck, and breast, which are crimson in the male are pale +brown in the female. As in several woodpeckers the head of the male is +bright crimson, whilst that of the female is plain, it occurred to me +that this colour might possibly make the female dangerously conspicuous, +whenever she put her head out of the hole containing her nest, and +consequently that this colour, in accordance with Mr. Wallace's belief, +had been eliminated. This view is strengthened by what Malherbe states +with respect to _Indopicus carlotta_; namely, that the young females, +like the young males, have some crimson about their heads, but that this +colour disappears in the adult female, whilst it is intensified in the +adult male. Nevertheless the following considerations render this view +extremely doubtful: the male takes a fair share in incubation,[222] and +would be thus far almost equally exposed to danger; both sexes of many +species have their heads of an equally bright crimson; in other species +the difference between the sexes in the amount of scarlet is so slight +that it can hardly make any appreciable difference in the danger +incurred; and lastly, the colouring of the head in the two sexes often +differs slightly in other ways. + +The cases, as yet given, of slight and graduated differences in colour +between the males and females in the groups, in which as a general rule +the sexes resemble each other, all relate to species which build domed +or concealed nests. But similar gradations may likewise be observed in +groups in which the sexes as a general rule resemble each other, but +which build open nests. As I have before instanced the Australian +parrots, so I may here instance, without giving any details, the +Australian pigeons.[223] It deserves especial notice that in all these +cases the slight differences in plumage between the sexes are of the +same general nature as the occasionally greater differences. A good +illustration of this fact has already been afforded by those kingfishers +in which either the tail alone or the whole upper surface of the plumage +differs in the same manner in the two sexes. Similar cases may be +observed with parrots and pigeons. The differences in colour between the +sexes of the same species are, also, of the same general nature as the +differences in colour between the distinct species of the same group. +For when in a group in which the sexes are usually alike, the male +differs considerably from the female, he is not coloured in a quite new +style. Hence we may infer that within the same group the special colours +of both sexes when they are alike, and the colours of the male, when he +differs slightly or even considerably from the female, have in most +cases been determined by the same general cause; this being sexual +selection. + +It is not probable, as has already been remarked, that differences in +colour between the sexes, when very slight, can be of service to the +female as a protection. Assuming, however, that they are of service, +they might be thought to be cases of transition; but we have no reason +to believe that many species at any one time are undergoing change. +Therefore we can hardly admit that the numerous females which differ +very slightly in colour from their males are now all commencing to +become obscure for the sake of protection. Even if we consider somewhat +more marked sexual differences, is it probable, for instance, that the +head of the female chaffinch, the crimson on the breast of the female +bullfinch,--the green of the female greenfinch,--the crest of the female +golden-crested wren, have all been rendered less bright by the slow +process of selection for the sake of protection? I cannot think so; and +still less with the slight differences between the sexes of those birds +which build concealed nests. On the other hand, the differences in +colour between the sexes, whether great or small, may to a large extent +be explained on the principle of the successive variations, acquired by +the males through sexual selection, having been from the first more or +less limited in their transmission to the females. That the degree of +limitation should differ in different species of the same group will not +surprise any one who has studied the laws of inheritance, for they are +so complex that they appear to us in our ignorance to be capricious in +their action.[224] + +As far as I can discover there are very few groups of birds containing a +considerable number of species, in which all have both sexes brilliantly +coloured and alike; but this appears to be the case, as I hear from Mr. +Sclater, with the Musophagæ or plaintain-eaters. Nor do I believe that +any large group exists in which the sexes of all the species are widely +dissimilar in colour: Mr. Wallace informs me that the chatterers of S. +America (_Cotingidæ_) offer one of the best instances; but with some of +the species, in which the male has a splendid red breast, the female +exhibits some red on her breast; and the females of other species shew +traces of the green and other colours of the males. Nevertheless we have +a near approach to close sexual similarity or dissimilarity throughout +several groups: and this, from what has just been said of the +fluctuating nature of inheritance, is a somewhat surprising +circumstance. But that the same laws should largely prevail with allied +animals is not surprising. The domestic fowl has produced a great +number of breeds and sub-breeds, and in these the sexes generally differ +in plumage; so that it has been noticed as a remarkable circumstance +when in certain sub-breeds they resemble each other. On the other hand, +the domestic pigeon has likewise produced a vast number of distinct +breeds and sub-breeds, and in these, with rare exceptions, the two sexes +are identically alike. Therefore if other species of Gallus and Columba +were domesticated and varied, it would not be rash to predict that the +same general rules of sexual similarity and dissimilarity, depending on +the form of transmission, would, in both cases, hold good. In a similar +manner the same form of transmission has generally prevailed throughout +the same natural groups, although marked exceptions to this rule occur. +Within the same family or even genus, the sexes may be identically alike +or very different in colour. Instances have already been given relating +to the same genus, as with sparrows, fly-catchers, thrushes and grouse. +In the family of pheasants the males and females of almost all the +species are wonderfully dissimilar, but are quite similar in the eared +pheasant or _Crossoptilon auritum_. In two species of Chloephaga, a genus +of geese, the males cannot be distinguished from the females, except by +size; whilst in two others, the sexes are so unlike that they might +easily be mistaken for distinct species.[225] + +The laws of inheritance can alone account for the following cases, in +which the female by acquiring at a late period of life certain +characters proper to the male, ultimately comes to resemble him in a +more or less complete manner. Here protection can hardly have come into +play. Mr. Blyth informs me that the females of _Oriolus melanocephalus_ +and of some allied species, when sufficiently mature to breed, differ +considerably in plumage from the adult males; but after the second or +third moults they differ only in their beaks having a slight greenish +tinge. In the dwarf bitterns (Ardetta), according to the same authority, +"the male acquires his final livery at the first moult, the female not +before the third or fourth moult; in the meanwhile she presents an +intermediate garb, which is ultimately exchanged for the same livery as +that of the male." So again the female _Falco peregrinus_ acquires her +blue plumage more slowly than the male. Mr. Swinhoe states that with one +of the Drongo shrikes (_Dicrurus macrocercus_) the male whilst almost a +nestling, moults his soft brown plumage and becomes of a uniform glossy +greenish-black; but the female retains for a long time the white striæ +and spots on the axillary feathers; and does not completely assume the +uniform black colour of the male for the first three years. The same +excellent observer remarks that in the spring of the second year the +female spoonbill (Platalea) of China resembles the male of the first +year, and that apparently it is not until the third spring that she +acquires the same adult plumage as that possessed by the male at a much +earlier age. The female _Bombycilla carolinensis_ differs very little +from the male, but the appendages, which like beads of red sealing-wax +ornament the wing-feathers, are not developed in her so early in life as +in the male. The upper mandible in the male of an Indian parrakeet +(_Palæornis Javanicus_) is coral-red from his earliest youth, but in the +female, as Mr. Blyth has observed with caged and wild birds, it is at +first black and does not become red until the bird is at least a year +old, at which age the sexes resemble each other in all respects. Both +sexes of the wild turkey are ultimately furnished with a tuft of +bristles on the breast, but in two-year-old birds the tuft is about four +inches long in the male and hardly apparent in the female; when, +however, the latter has reached her fourth year, it is from four to five +inches in length.[226] + +In these cases, the females follow a normal course of development in +ultimately becoming like the males; and such cases must not be +confounded with those in which diseased or old females assume masculine +characters, or with those in which perfectly fertile females, whilst +young, acquire through variation or some unknown cause the characters of +the male.[227] But all these cases have so much in common that they +depend, according to the hypothesis of pangenesis, on gemmules derived +from each part of the male being present, though latent, in the female; +their development following on some slight change in the elective +affinities of her constituent tissues. + + +A few words must be added on changes of plumage in relation to the +season of the year. From reasons formerly assigned there can be little +doubt that the elegant plumes, long pendant feathers, crests, &c., of +egrets, herons, and many other birds, which are developed and retained +only during the summer, serve exclusively for ornamental or nuptial +purposes, though common to both sexes. The female is thus rendered more +conspicuous during the period of incubation than during the winter; but +such birds as herons and egrets would be able to defend themselves. As, +however, plumes would probably be inconvenient and certainly of no use +during the winter, it is possible that the habit of moulting twice in +the year may have been gradually acquired through natural selection for +the sake of casting off inconvenient ornaments during the winter. But +this view cannot be extended to the many waders, in which the summer and +winter plumages differ very little in colour. With defenceless species, +in which either both sexes or the males alone become extremely +conspicuous during the breeding-season,--or when the males acquire at +this season such long wing or tail-feathers as to impede their flight, +as with Cosmetornis and Vidua,--it certainly at first appears highly +probable that the second moult has been gained for the special purpose +of throwing off these ornaments. We must, however, remember that many +birds, such as Birds of Paradise, the Argus pheasant and peacock, do not +cast their plumes during the winter; and it can hardly be maintained +that there is something in the constitution of these birds, at least of +the Gallinaceæ, rendering a double moult impossible, for the ptarmigan +moults thrice in the year.[228] Hence it must be considered as doubtful +whether the many species which moult their ornamental plumes or lose +their bright colours during the winter, have acquired this habit on +account of the inconvenience or danger which they would otherwise have +suffered. + +I conclude, therefore, that the habit of moulting twice in the year was +in most or all cases first acquired for some distinct purpose, perhaps +for gaining a warmer winter covering; and that variations in the plumage +occurring during the summer were accumulated through sexual selection, +and transmitted to the offspring at the same season of the year. Such +variations being inherited either by both sexes or by the males alone, +according to the form of inheritance which prevailed. This appears more +probable than that these species in all cases originally tended to +retain their ornamental plumage during the winter, but were saved from +this through natural selection, owing to the inconvenience or danger +thus caused. + + +I have endeavoured in this chapter to shew that the arguments are not +trustworthy in favour of the view that weapons, bright colours, and +various ornaments, are now confined to the males owing to the +conversion, by means of natural selection, of a tendency to the equal +transmission of characters to both sexes into transmission to the male +sex alone. It is also doubtful whether the colours of many female birds +are due to the preservation, for the sake of protection, of variations +which were from the first limited in their transmission to the female +sex. But it will be convenient to defer any further discussion on this +subject until I treat, in the following chapter, on the differences in +plumage between the young and old. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +Birds--_concluded_. + + + The immature plumage in relation to the character of the + plumage in both sexes when adult--Six classes of cases--Sexual + differences between the males of closely-allied or + representative species--The female assuming the characters of + the male--Plumage of the young in relation to the summer and + winter plumage of the adults--On the increase of beauty in the + Birds of the World--Protective + colouring--Conspicuously-coloured birds--Novelty + appreciated--Summary of the four chapters on Birds. + + +We must now consider the transmission of characters as limited by age in +reference to sexual selection. The truth and importance of the principle +of inheritance at corresponding ages need not here be discussed, as +enough has already been said on the subject. Before giving the several +rather complex rules or classes of cases, under which all the +differences in plumage between the young and the old, as far as known to +me, may be included, it will be well to make a few preliminary remarks. + +With animals of all kinds when the young differ in colour from the +adults, and the colours of the former are not, as far as we can see, of +any special service, they may generally be attributed, like various +embryological structures, to the retention by the young of the character +of an early progenitor. But this view can be maintained with confidence, +only when the young of several species closely resemble each other, and +likewise resemble other adult species belonging to the same group; for +the latter are the living proofs that such a state of things was +formerly possible. Young lions and pumas are marked with feeble stripes +or rows of spots, and as many allied species both young and old are +similarly marked, no naturalist, who believes in the gradual evolution +of species, will doubt that the progenitor of the lion and puma was a +striped animal, the young having retained vestiges of the stripes, like +the kittens of black cats, which when grown up are not in the least +striped. Many species of deer, which when mature are not spotted, are +whilst young covered with white spots, as are likewise some few species +in their adult state. So again the young in the whole family of pigs +(Suidæ), and in certain rather distantly-allied animals, such as the +tapir, are marked with dark longitudinal stripes; but here we have a +character apparently derived from an extinct progenitor, and now +preserved by the young alone. In all such cases the old have had their +colours changed in the course of time, whilst the young have remained +but little altered, and this has been effected through the principle of +inheritance at corresponding ages. + +This same principle applies to many birds belonging to various groups, +in which the young closely resemble each other, and differ much from +their respective adult parents. The young of almost all the Gallinaceæ, +and of some distantly-allied birds such as ostriches, are whilst covered +with down longitudinally striped; but this character points back to a +state of things so remote that it hardly concerns us. Young crossbills +(Loxia) have at first straight beaks like those of other finches, and in +their immature striated plumage they resemble the mature redpole and +female siskin, as well as the young of the goldfinch, greenfinch, and +some other allied species. The young of many kinds of buntings +(Emberiza) resemble each other, and likewise the adult state of the +common bunting, _E. miliaria_. In almost the whole large group of +thrushes the young have their breasts spotted--a character which is +retained by many species throughout life, but is quite lost by others, +as by the _Turdus migratorius_. So again with many thrushes, the +feathers on the back are mottled before they are moulted for the first +time, and this character is retained for life by certain eastern +species. The young of many species of shrikes (Lanius), of some +woodpeckers, and of an Indian pigeon (_Chalcophaps Indicus_), are +transversely striped on the under surface; and certain allied species or +genera when adult are similarly marked. In some closely-allied and +resplendent Indian cuckoos (Chrysococcyx), the species when mature +differ considerably from each other in colour, but the young cannot be +distinguished. The young of an Indian goose (_Sarkidiornis melanonotus_) +closely resemble in plumage an allied genus, Dendrocygna, when +mature.[229] Similar facts will hereafter be given in regard to certain +herons. Young black grouse (_Tetrao tetrix_) resemble the young as well +as the old of certain other species, for instance the red grouse or _T. +scoticus_. Finally, as Mr. Blyth, who has attended closely to this +subject, has well remarked, the natural affinities of many species are +best exhibited in their immature plumage; and as the true affinities of +all organic beings depend on their descent from a common progenitor, +this remark strongly confirms the belief that the immature plumage +approximately shews us the former or ancestral condition of the species. + +Although many young birds belonging to various orders thus give us a +glimpse of the plumage of their remote progenitors, yet there are many +other birds, both dull-coloured and bright-coloured, in which the young +closely resemble their parents. With such species the young of the +different species cannot resemble each other more closely than do the +parents; nor can they present striking resemblances to allied forms in +their adult state. They give us but little insight into the plumage of +their progenitors, excepting in so far that when the young and the old +are coloured in the same general manner throughout a whole group of +species, it is probable that their progenitors were similarly coloured. + +We may now consider the classes of cases or rules under which the +differences and resemblances, between the plumage of the young and the +old, of both sexes or of one sex alone, may be grouped. Rules of this +kind were first enounced by Cuvier; but with the progress of knowledge +they require some modification and amplification. This I have attempted +to do, as far as the extreme complexity of the subject permits, from +information derived from various sources; but a full essay on this +subject by some competent ornithologist is much needed. In order to +ascertain to what extent each rule prevails, I have tabulated the facts +given in four great works, namely, by Macgillivray on the birds of +Britain, Audubon on those of North America, Jerdon on those of India, +and Gould on those of Australia. I may here premise, firstly, that the +several cases or rules graduate into each other; and secondly, that when +the young are said to resemble their parents, it is not meant that they +are identically alike, for their colours are almost always rather less +vivid, and the feathers are softer and often of a different shape. + + +RULES OR CLASSES OF CASES. + +I. When the adult male is more beautiful or conspicuous than the adult +female, the young of both sexes in their first plumage closely resemble +the adult female, as with the common fowl and peacock; or, as +occasionally occurs, they resemble her much more closely than they do +the adult male. + +II. When the adult female is more conspicuous than the adult male, as +sometimes though rarely occurs, the young of both sexes in their first +plumage resemble the adult male. + +III. When the adult male resembles the adult female, the young of both +sexes have a peculiar first plumage of their own, as with the robin. + +IV. When the adult male resembles the adult female, the young of both +sexes in their first plumage resemble the adults, as with the +kingfisher, many parrots, crows, hedge-warblers. + +V. When the adults of both sexes have a distinct winter and summer +plumage, whether or not the male differs from the female, the young +resemble the adults of both sexes in their winter dress, or much more +rarely in their summer dress, or they resemble the females alone; or the +young may have an intermediate character; or again they may differ +greatly from the adults in both their seasonal plumages. + +VI. In some few cases the young in their first plumage differ from each +other according to sex; the young males resembling more or less closely +the adult males, and the young females more or less closely the adult +females. + +CLASS I.--In this class, the young of both sexes resemble, more or less +closely, the adult female, whilst the adult male differs, often in the +most conspicuous manner, from the adult female. Innumerable instances +in all Orders could be given; it will suffice to call to mind the common +pheasant, duck, and house-sparrow. The cases under this class graduate +into others. Thus the two sexes when adult may differ so slightly, and +the young so slightly from the adults, that it is doubtful whether such +cases ought to come under the present, or under the third or fourth +classes. So again the young of both sexes, instead of being quite alike, +may differ in a slight degree from each other, as in our sixth class. +These transitional cases, however, are few in number, or at least are +not strongly pronounced, in comparison with those which come strictly +under the present class. + +The force of the present law is well shewn in those groups, in which, as +a general rule, the two sexes and the young are all alike; for when the +male in these groups does differ from the female, as with certain +parrots, kingfishers, pigeons, &c., the young of both sexes resemble the +adult female.[230] We see the same fact exhibited still more clearly in +certain anomalous cases; thus the male of _Heliothrix auriculata_ (one +of the humming-birds) differs conspicuously from the female in having a +splendid gorget and fine ear-tufts, but the female is remarkable from +having a much longer tail than that of the male; now the young of both +sexes resemble (with the exception of the breast being spotted with +bronze) the adult female in all respects including the length of her +tail, so that the tail of the male actually becomes shorter as he +reaches maturity, which is a most unusual circumstance.[231] Again, the +plumage of the male goosander (_Mergus merganser_) is more conspicuously +coloured, with the scapular and secondary wing-feathers much longer than +in the female, but differently from what occurs, as far as I know, in +any other bird, the crest of the adult male, though broader than that of +the female, is considerably shorter, being only a little above an inch +in length; the crest of the female being two and a half inches long. Now +the young of both sexes resemble in all respects the adult female, so +that their crests are actually of greater length though narrower than in +the adult male.[232] + +When the young and the females closely resemble each other and both +differ from the male, the most obvious conclusion is that the male alone +has been modified. Even in the anomalous cases of the Heliothrix and +Mergus, it is probable that originally both adult sexes were furnished, +the one species with a much elongated tail, and the other with a much +elongated crest, these characters having since been partially lost by +the adult males from some unexplained cause, and transmitted in their +diminished state to their male offspring alone, when arrived at the +corresponding age of maturity. The belief that in the present class the +male alone has been modified, as far as the differences between the male +and the female together with her young are concerned, is strongly +supported by some remarkable facts recorded by Mr. Blyth,[233] with +respect to closely-allied species which represent each other in distinct +countries. For with several of these representative species the adult +males have undergone a certain amount of change and can be +distinguished; the females and the young being undistinguishable, and +therefore absolutely unchanged. This is the case with certain Indian +chats (Thamnobia), with certain honey-suckers (Nectarinia), shrikes +(Tephrodornis), certain kingfishers (Tanysiptera), Kallij pheasants +(Gallophasis), and tree-partridges (Arboricola). + +In some analogous cases, namely with birds having a distinct summer and +winter plumage, but with the two sexes nearly alike, certain +closely-allied species can easily be distinguished in their summer or +nuptial plumage, yet are undistinguishable in their winter as well as in +their immature plumage. This is the case with some of the closely-allied +Indian wagtails or Motacillæ. Mr. Swinhoe[234] informs me that three +species of Ardeola, a genus of herons, which represent each other on +separate continents, are "most strikingly different" when ornamented +with their summer plumes, but are hardly, if at all, distinguishable +during the winter. The young also of these three species in their +immature plumage closely resemble the adults in their winter dress. This +case is all the more interesting because with two other species of +Ardeola both sexes retain, during the winter and summer, nearly the same +plumage as that possessed by the three first species during the winter +and in their immature state; and this plumage, which is common to +several distinct species at different ages and seasons, probably shews +us how the progenitor of the genus was coloured. In all these cases, the +nuptial plumage which we may assume was originally acquired by the adult +males during the breeding-season, and transmitted to the adults of both +sexes at the corresponding season, has been modified, whilst the winter +and immature plumages have been left unchanged. + +The question naturally arises, how is it that in these latter cases the +winter plumage of both sexes, and in the former cases the plumage of the +adult females, as well as the immature plumage of the young, have not +been at all affected? The species which represent each other in distinct +countries will almost always have been exposed to somewhat different +conditions, but we can hardly attribute the modification of the plumage +in the males alone to this action, seeing that the females and the +young, though similarly exposed, have not been affected. Hardly any fact +in nature shews us more clearly how subordinate in importance is the +direct action of the conditions of life, in comparison with the +accumulation through selection of indefinite variations, than the +surprising difference between the sexes of many birds; for both sexes +must have consumed the same food and have been exposed to the same +climate. Nevertheless we are not precluded from believing that in the +course of time new conditions may produce some direct effect; we see +only that this is subordinate in importance to the accumulated results +of selection. When, however, a species migrates into a new country, and +this must precede the formation of representative species, the changed +conditions to which they will almost always have been exposed will +cause them to undergo, judging from a widely-spread analogy, a certain +amount of fluctuating variability. In this case sexual selection, which +depends on an element eminently liable to change--namely the taste or +admiration of the female--will have had new shades of colour or other +differences to act on and accumulate; and as sexual selection is always +at work, it would (judging from what we know of the results on domestic +animals of man's unintentional selection), be a surprising fact if +animals inhabiting separate districts, which can never cross and thus +blend their newly-acquired characters, were not, after a sufficient +lapse of time, differently modified. These remarks likewise apply to the +nuptial or summer plumage, whether confined to the males or common to +both sexes. + +Although the females of the above closely-allied species, together with +their young, differ hardly at all from each other, so that the males +alone can be distinguished, yet in most cases the females of the species +within the same genus obviously differ from each other. The differences, +however, are rarely as great as between the males. We see this clearly +in the whole family of the Gallinaceæ: the females, for instance, of the +common and Japan pheasant, and especially of the gold and Amherst +pheasant--of the silver pheasant and the wild fowl--resemble each other +very closely in colour, whilst the males differ to an extraordinary +degree. So it is with the females of most of the Cotingidæ, Fringillidæ, +and many other families. There can indeed be no doubt that, as a general +rule, the females have been modified to a less extent than the males. +Some few birds, however, offer a singular and inexplicable exception; +thus the females of _Paradisea apoda_ and _P. papuana_ differ from each +other more than do their respective males;[235] the female of the +latter species having the under surface pure white, whilst the female +_P. apoda_ is deep brown beneath. So, again, as I hear from Professor +Newton, the males of two species of Oxynotus (shrikes), which represent +each other in the islands of Mauritius and Bourbon,[236] differ but +little in colour, whilst the females differ much. In the Bourbon species +the female appears to have partially retained an immature condition of +plumage, for at first sight she "might be taken for the young of the +Mauritian species." These differences may be compared with those which +occur, independently of selection by man, and which we cannot explain, +in certain sub-breeds of the game-fowl, in which the females are very +different, whilst the males can hardly be distinguished.[237] + +As I account so largely by sexual selection for the differences between +the males of allied species, how can the differences between the females +be accounted for in all ordinary cases? We need not here consider the +species which belong to distinct genera; for with these, adaptation to +different habits of life, and other agencies, will have come into play. +In regard to the differences between the females within the same genus, +it appears to me almost certain, after looking through various large +groups, that the chief agent has been the transference, in a greater or +less degree, to the female of the characters acquired by the males +through sexual selection. In the several British finches, the two sexes +differ either very slightly or considerably; and if we compare the +females of the greenfinch, chaffinch, goldfinch, bullfinch, crossbill, +sparrow, &c., we shall see that they differ from each other chiefly in +the points in which they partially resemble their respective males; and +the colours of the males may safely be attributed to sexual selection. +With many gallinaceous species the sexes differ to an extreme degree, as +with the peacock, pheasant, and fowl, whilst with other species there +has been a partial or even complete transference of character from the +male to the female. The females of the several species of Polyplectron +exhibit in a dim condition, and chiefly on the tail, the splendid ocelli +of their males. The female partridge differs from the male only in the +red mark on her breast being smaller; and the female wild turkey only in +her colours being much duller. In the guinea-fowl the two sexes are +undistinguishable. There is no improbability in the plain, though +peculiar spotted plumage of this latter bird having been acquired +through sexual selection by the males, and then transmitted to both +sexes; for it is not essentially different from the much more +beautifully-spotted plumage, characteristic of the males alone of the +Tragopan pheasants. + +It should be observed that, in some instances, the transference of +characters from the male to the female has been effected apparently at a +remote period, the male having subsequently undergone great changes, +without transferring to the female any of his later-gained characters. +For instance, the female and the young of the black-grouse (_Tetrao +tetrix_) resemble pretty closely both sexes and the young of the +red-grouse _T. Scoticus_; and we may consequently infer that the +black-grouse is descended from some ancient species, of which both sexes +were coloured in nearly the same manner as the red-grouse. As both sexes +of this latter species are more plainly barred during the +breeding-season than at any other time, and as the male differs +slightly from the female in his more strongly-pronounced red and brown +tints,[238] we may conclude that his plumage has been, at least to a +certain extent, influenced by sexual selection. If so, we may further +infer that the nearly similar plumage of the female black-grouse was +similarly produced at some former period. But since this period the male +black-grouse has acquired his fine black plumage, with his forked and +outwardly-curled tail-feathers; but of these characters there has hardly +been any transference to the female, excepting that she shews in her +tail a trace of the curved fork. + +We may therefore conclude that the females of distinct though allied +species have often had their plumage rendered more or less different by +the transference in various degrees, of characters acquired, both during +former and recent times, by the males through sexual selection. But it +deserves especial attention that brilliant colours have been transferred +much more rarely than other tints. For instance, the male of the +red-throated bluebreast (_Cyanecula suecica_) has a rich blue breast, +including a sub-triangular red mark; now marks of approximately the same +shape have been transferred to the female, but the central space is +fulvous instead of red, and is surrounded by mottled instead of blue +feathers. The Gallinaceæ offer many analogous cases; for none of the +species, such as partridges, quails, guinea-fowls, &c., in which the +colours of the plumage have been largely transferred from the male to +the female, are brilliantly coloured. This is well exemplified with the +pheasants, in which the male is generally so much more brilliant than +the female; but with the Eared and Cheer pheasants (_Crossoptilon_ +_auritum_ and _Phasianus Wallichii_) the two sexes closely resemble each +other and their colours are dull. We may go so far as to believe that if +any part of the plumage in the males of these two pheasants had been +brilliantly coloured, this would not have been transferred to the +females. These facts strongly support Mr. Wallace's view that with birds +which are exposed to much danger during nidification, the transference +of bright colours from the male to the female has been checked through +natural selection. We must not, however, forget that another +explanation, before given, is possible; namely, that the males which +varied and became bright, whilst they were young and inexperienced, +would have been exposed to much danger, and would generally have been +destroyed; the older and more cautious males, on the other hand, if they +varied in a like manner, would not only have been able to survive, but +would have been favoured in their rivalry with other males. Now +variations occurring late in life tend to be transmitted exclusively to +the same sex, so that in this case extremely bright tints would not have +been transmitted to the females. On the other hand, ornaments of a less +conspicuous kind, such as those possessed by the Eared and Cheer +pheasants, would not have been dangerous, and if they appeared during +early youth, would generally have been transmitted to both sexes. + +In addition to the effects of the partial transference of characters +from the males to the females, some of the differences between the +females of closely-allied species may be attributed to the direct or +definite action of the conditions of life.[239] With the males any such +action would generally have been masked by the brilliant colours gained +through sexual selection; but not so with the females. Each of the +endless diversities in plumage, which we see in our domesticated birds +is, of course, the result of some definite cause; and under natural and +more uniform conditions, some one tint, assuming that it was in no way +injurious, would almost certainly sooner or later prevail. The free +intercrossing of the many individuals belonging to the same species +would ultimately tend to make any change of colour, thus induced, +uniform in character. + +No one doubts that both sexes of many birds have had their colours +adapted for the sake of protection; and it is possible that the females +alone of some species may have been thus modified. Although it would be +a difficult, perhaps an impossible process, as shewn in the last +chapter, to convert through selection one form of transmission into +another, there would not be the least difficulty in adapting the colours +of the female, independently of those of the male, to surrounding +objects, through the accumulation of variations which were from the +first limited in their transmission to the female sex. If the variations +were not thus limited, the bright tints of the male would be +deteriorated or destroyed. Whether the females alone of many species +have been thus specially modified, is at present very doubtful. I wish I +could follow Mr. Wallace to the full extent; for the admission would +remove some difficulties. Any variations which were of no service to the +female as a protection would be at once obliterated, instead of being +lost simply by not being selected, or from free intercrossing, or from +being eliminated when transferred to the male and in any way injurious +to him. Thus the plumage of the female would be kept constant in +character. It would also be a relief if we could admit that the obscure +tints of both sexes of many birds had been acquired and preserved for +the sake of protection,--for example, of the hedge-warbler or kitty-wren +(_Accentor modularis_ and _Troglodytes vulgaris_), with respect to which +we have no sufficient evidence of the action of sexual selection. We +ought, however, to be cautious in concluding that colours which appear +to us dull, are not attractive to the females of certain species; we +should bear in mind such cases as that of the common house-sparrow, in +which the male differs much from the female, but does not exhibit any +bright tints. No one probably will dispute that many gallinaceous birds +which live on the open ground have acquired their present colours, at +least in part, for the sake of protection. We know how well they are +thus concealed; we know that ptarmigans, whilst changing from their +winter to their summer plumage, both of which are protective, suffer +greatly from birds of prey. But can we believe that the very slight +differences in tints and markings between, for instance, the female +black and red-grouse serve as a protection? Are partridges, as they are +now coloured, better protected than if they had resembled quails? Do the +slight differences between the females of the common pheasant, the Japan +and golden pheasants, serve as a protection, or might not their plumages +have been interchanged with impunity? From what Mr. Wallace has observed +of the habits of certain gallinaceous birds in the East he thinks that +such slight differences are beneficial. For myself, I will only say that +I am not convinced. + +Formerly when I was inclined to lay much stress on the principle of +protection, as accounting for the less bright colours of female birds, +it occurred to me that possibly both sexes and the young might +aboriginally have been brightly coloured in an equal degree; but that +subsequently, the females from the danger incurred during incubation, +and the young from being inexperienced, had been rendered dull as a +protection. But this view is not supported by any evidence, and is not +probable; for we thus in imagination expose during past times the +females and the young to danger, from which it has subsequently been +necessary to shield their modified descendants. We have, also, to +reduce, through a gradual process of selection, the females and the +young to almost exactly the same tints and markings, and to transmit +them to the corresponding sex and period of life. It is also a somewhat +strange fact, on the supposition that the females and the young have +partaken during each stage of the process of modification of a tendency +to be as brightly coloured as the males, that the females have never +been rendered dull-coloured without the young participating in the same +change; for there are no instances, as far as I can discover, of species +with the females dull-coloured and the young bright-coloured. A partial +exception, however, is offered by the young of certain woodpeckers, for +they have "the whole upper part of the head tinged with red," which +afterwards either decreases into a mere circular red line in the adults +of both sexes, or quite disappears in the adult females.[240] + +Finally, with respect to our present class of cases, the most probable +view appears to be that successive variations in brightness or in other +ornamental characters, occurring in the males at a rather late period of +life have alone been preserved; and that most or all of these variations +owing to the late period of life at which they appeared, have been from +the first transmitted only to the adult male offspring. Any variations +in brightness which occurred in the females or in the young would have +been of no service to them, and would not have been selected; moreover, +if dangerous, would have been eliminated. Thus the females and the young +will either have been left unmodified, or, and this has much more +commonly occurred, will have been partially modified by receiving +through transference from the males some of the successive variations. +Both sexes have perhaps been directly acted on by the conditions of life +to which they have long been exposed; but the females from not being +otherwise much modified will best exhibit any such effects. These +changes and all others will have been kept uniform by the free +intercrossing of many individuals. In some cases, especially with ground +birds, the females and the young may possibly have been modified, +independently of the males, for the sake of protection, so as to have +acquired the same dull-coloured plumage. + +CLASS II. _When the adult female is more conspicuous than the adult +male, the young of both sexes in their first plumage resemble the adult +male._--This class is exactly the reverse of the last, for the females +are here more brightly coloured or more conspicuous than the males; and +the young, as far as they are known, resemble the adult males instead of +the adult females. But the difference between the sexes is never nearly +so great as occurs with many birds in the first class, and the cases are +comparatively rare. Mr. Wallace who first called attention to the +singular relation which exists between the less bright colours of the +males and their performing the duties of incubation, lays great stress +on this point,[241] as a crucial test that obscure colours have been +acquired for the sake of protection during the period of nesting. A +different view seems to me more probable. As the cases are curious and +not numerous, I will briefly give all that I have been able to find. + +In one section of the genus Turnix, quail-like birds, the female is +invariably larger than the male (being nearly twice as large in one of +the Australian species) and this is an unusual circumstance with the +Gallinaceæ. In most of the species the female is more distinctly +coloured and brighter than the male,[242] but in some few species the +sexes are alike. In _Turnix taigoor_ of India the male "wants the black +on the throat and neck, and the whole tone of the plumage is lighter and +less pronounced than that of the female." The female appears to be more +vociferous, and is certainly much more pugnacious than the male; so that +the females and not the males are often kept by the natives for +fighting, like game-cocks. As male birds are exposed by the English +bird-catchers for a decoy near a trap, in order to catch other males by +exciting their rivalry, so the females of this Turnix are employed in +India. When thus exposed the females soon begin their "loud purring +call, which can be heard a long way off, and any females within ear-shot +run rapidly to the spot, and commence fighting with the caged bird." In +this way from twelve to twenty birds, all breeding-females, may be +caught in the course of a single day. The natives assert that the +females after laying their eggs associate in flocks, and leave the males +to sit on them. There is no reason to doubt the truth of this assertion, +which is supported by some observations made in China by Mr. +Swinhoe.[243] Mr. Blyth believes, that the young of both sexes resemble +the adult male. + +[Illustration: Fig. 60. Rhynchæa capensis (from Brehm).] + +The females of the three species of Painted Snipes (Rhynchæa) "are not +only larger, but much more richly coloured than the males."[244] With +all other birds, in which the trachea differs in structure in the two +sexes it is more developed and complex in the male than in the female; +but in the _Rhynchæa Australis_ it is simple in the male, whilst in the +female it makes four distinct convolutions before entering the +lungs.[245] The female therefore of this species has acquired an +eminently masculine character. Mr. Blyth ascertained, by examining many +specimens, that the trachea is not convoluted in either sex of _R. +Bengalensis_, which species so closely resembles _R. Australis_ that it +can hardly be distinguished except by its shorter toes. This fact is +another striking instance of the law that secondary sexual characters +are often widely different in closely-allied forms; though it is a very +rare circumstance when such differences relate to the female sex. The +young of both sexes of _R. Bengalensis_ in their first plumage are said +to resemble the mature male.[246] There is also reason to believe that +the male undertakes the duty of incubation, for Mr. Swinhoe[247] found +the females before the close of the summer associated in flocks, as +occurs with the females of the Turnix. + +The females of _Phalaropus fulicarius_ and _P. hyperboreus_ are larger, +and in their summer plumage "more gaily attired than the males." But the +difference in colour between the sexes is far from conspicuous. The male +alone of _P. fulicarius_ undertakes, according to Professor Steenstrup, +the duty of incubation, as is likewise shewn by the state of his +breast-feathers during the breeding-season. The female of the dotterel +plover (_Eudromias morinellus_) is larger than the male, and has the red +and black tints on the lower surface, the white crescent on the breast, +and the stripes over the eyes, more strongly pronounced. The male also +takes at least a share in hatching the eggs; but the female likewise +attends to the young.[248] I have not been able to discover whether with +these species the young resemble the adult males more closely than the +adult females; for the comparison is somewhat difficult to make on +account of the double moult. + +Turning now to the Ostrich order: the male of the common cassowary +(_Casuarius galeatus_) would be thought by any one to be the female, +from his smaller size and from the appendages and naked skin about his +head being much less brightly coloured; and I am informed by Mr. +Bartlett that in the Zoological Gardens it is certainly the male alone +who sits on the eggs and takes care of the young.[249] The female is +said by Mr. T. W. Wood[250] to exhibit during the breeding-season a most +pugnacious disposition; and her wattles then become enlarged and more +brilliantly coloured. So again the female of one of the emus +(_Dromoeus irroratus_) is considerably larger than the male, and she +possesses a slight top-knot, but is otherwise undistinguishable in +plumage. She appears, however, "to have greater power, when angry or +otherwise excited, of erecting, like a turkey-cock, the feathers of her +neck and breast. She is usually the more courageous and pugilistic. She +makes a deep hollow guttural boom, especially at night, sounding like a +small gong. The male has a slenderer frame and is more docile, with no +voice beyond a suppressed hiss when angry, or a croak." He not only +performs the whole duty of incubation, but has to defend the young from +their mother; "for as soon as she catches sight of her progeny she +becomes violently agitated, and notwithstanding the resistance of the +father appears to use her utmost endeavours to destroy them. For months +afterwards it is unsafe to put the parents together, violent quarrels +being the inevitable result, in which the female generally comes off +conqueror."[251] So that with this emu we have a complete reversal not +only of the parental and incubating instincts, but of the usual moral +qualities of the two sexes; the females being savage, quarrelsome and +noisy, the males gentle and good. The case is very different with the +African ostrich, for the male is somewhat larger than the female and has +finer plumes with more strongly contrasted colours; nevertheless he +undertakes the whole duty of incubation.[252] + +I will specify the few other cases known to me, in which the female is +more conspicuously coloured than the male, although nothing is known +about their manner of incubation. With the carrion-hawk of the Falkland +Islands (_Milvago leucurus_) I was much surprised to find by dissection +that the individuals, which had all their tints strongly pronounced, +with the cere and legs orange-coloured, were the adult females; whilst +those with duller plumage and grey legs were the males or the young. In +an Australian tree-creeper (_Climacteris erythrops_) the female differs +from the male in "being adorned with beautiful, radiated, rufous +markings on the throat, the male having this part quite plain." Lastly +in an Australian nightjar "the female always exceeds the male in size +and in the brilliance of her tints; the males, on the other hand, have +two white spots on the primaries more conspicuous than in the +female."[253] + +We thus see that the cases in which female birds are more conspicuously +coloured than the males, with the young in their immature plumage +resembling the adult males instead of the adult females, as in the +previous class, are not numerous, though they are distributed in various +Orders. The amount of difference, also, between the sexes is +incomparably less than that which frequently occurs in the last class; +so that the cause of the difference, whatever it may have been, has +acted on the females in the present class either less energetically or +less persistently than on the males in the last class. Mr. Wallace +believes that the males have had their colours rendered less +conspicuous for the sake of protection during the period of incubation; +but the difference between the sexes in hardly any of the foregoing +cases appears sufficiently great for this view to be safely accepted. In +some of the cases the brighter tints of the female are almost confined +to the lower surface, and the males, if thus coloured, would not have +been exposed to danger whilst sitting on the eggs. It should also be +borne in mind that the males are not only in a slight degree less +conspicuously coloured than the females, but are of less size, and have +less strength. They have, moreover, not only acquired the maternal +instinct of incubation, but are less pugnacious and vociferous than the +females, and in one instance have simpler vocal organs. Thus an almost +complete transposition of the instincts, habits, disposition, colour, +size, and of some points of structure, has been effected between the two +sexes. + +Now if we might assume that the males in the present class have lost +some of that ardour which is usual to their sex, so that they no longer +search eagerly for the females; or, if we might assume that the females +have become much more numerous than the males--and in the case of one +Indian Turnix the females are said to be "much more commonly met with +than the males"[254]--then it is not improbable that the females would +have been led to court the males, instead of being courted by them. This +indeed is the case to a certain extent, with some birds, as we have seen +with the peahen, wild turkey, and certain kinds of grouse. Taking as our +guide the habits of most male birds, the greater size and strength and +the extraordinary pugnacity of the females of the Turnix and Emu, must +mean that they endeavour to drive away rival females, in order to gain +possession of the male; and on this view, all the facts become clear; +for the males would probably be most charmed or excited by the females +which were the most attractive to them by their brighter colours, other +ornaments, or vocal powers. Sexual selection would then soon do its +work, steadily adding to the attractions of the females; the males and +the young being left not at all, or but little modified. + +CLASS III. _When the adult male resembles the adult female, the young of +both sexes have a peculiar first plumage of their own._--In this class +both sexes when adult resemble each other, and differ from the young. +This occurs with many birds of many kinds. The male robin can hardly be +distinguished from the female, but the young are widely different with +their mottled dusky-olive and brown plumage. The male and female of the +splendid scarlet Ibis are alike, whilst the young are brown; and the +scarlet-colour, though common to both sexes, is apparently a sexual +character, for it is not well developed with birds under confinement, in +the same manner as often occurs in the case of brilliantly coloured male +birds. With many species of herons the young differ greatly from the +adults, and their summer plumage, though common to both sexes, clearly +has a nuptial character. Young swans are slate-coloured, whilst the +mature birds are pure white; but it would be superfluous to give +additional instances. These differences between the young and the old +apparently depend, as in the two last classes, on the young having +retained a former or ancient state of plumage, which has been exchanged +for a new plumage by the old of both sexes. When the adults are brightly +coloured, we may conclude from the remarks just made in relation to the +scarlet ibis and to many herons, and from the analogy of the species in +the first class, that such colours have been acquired through sexual +selection by the nearly mature males; but that, differently from what +occurs in the two first classes, the transmission, though limited to the +same age, has not been limited to the same sex. Consequently both sexes +when mature resemble each other and differ from the young. + +CLASS IV. _When the adult male resembles the adult female, the young of +both sexes in their first plumage resemble the adults._--In this class +the young and the adults of both sexes, whether brilliantly or obscurely +coloured, resemble each other. Such cases are, I think, more common than +those in the last class. We have in England instances in the kingfisher, +some woodpeckers, the jay, magpie, crow, and many small dull-coloured +birds, such as the hedge-warbler or kitty-wren. But the similarity in +plumage between the young and the old is never absolutely complete, and +graduates away into dissimilarity. Thus the young of some members of the +kingfisher family are not only less vividly coloured than the adults, +but many of the feathers on the lower surface are edged with +brown,[255]--a vestige probably of a former state of the plumage. +Frequently in the same group of birds, even within the same genus, for +instance in an Australian genus of parrakeets (Platycercus), the young +of some species closely resemble, whilst the young of other species +differ considerably from their parents of both sexes, which are +alike.[256] Both sexes and the young of the common jay are closely +similar; but in the Canada jay (_Perisoreus canadensis_) the young +differ so much from their parents that they were formerly described as +distinct species.[257] + +Before proceeding, I may remark that under the present and two next +classes of cases the facts are so complex, and the conclusions so +doubtful, that any one who feels no especial interest in the subject had +better pass them over. + +The brilliant or conspicuous colours which characterise many birds in +the present class, can rarely or never be of service to them as a +protection; so that they have probably been gained by the males through +sexual selection, and then transferred to the females and the young. It +is, however, possible that the males may have selected the more +attractive females; and if these transmitted their characters to their +offspring of both sexes, the same results would follow as from the +selection of the more attractive males by the females. But there is some +evidence that this contingency has rarely, if ever, occurred in any of +those groups of birds, in which the sexes are generally alike; for if +even a few of the successive variations had failed to be transmitted to +both sexes, the females would have exceeded to a slight degree the males +in beauty. Exactly the reverse occurs under nature; for in almost every +large group, in which the sexes generally resemble each other, the males +of some few species are in a slight degree more brightly coloured than +the females. It is again possible that the females may have selected the +more beautiful males, these males having reciprocally selected the more +beautiful females; but it is doubtful whether this double process of +selection would be likely to occur, owing to the greater eagerness of +one sex than the other, and whether it would be more efficient than +selection on one side alone. It is, therefore, the most probable view +that sexual selection has acted, in the present class, as far as +ornamental characters are concerned, in accordance with the general +rule throughout the animal kingdom, that is, on the males; and that +these have transmitted their gradually-acquired colours, either equally +or almost equally, to their offspring of both sexes. + +Another point is more doubtful, namely, whether the successive +variations first appeared in the males after they had become nearly +mature, or whilst quite young. In either case sexual selection must have +acted on the male when he had to compete with rivals for the possession +of the female; and in both cases the characters thus acquired have been +transmitted to both sexes and all ages. But these characters, if +acquired by the males when adult, may have been transmitted at first to +the adults alone, and at some subsequent period transferred to the +young. For it is known that when the law of inheritance at corresponding +ages fails, the offspring often inherit characters at an earlier age +than that at which they first appeared in their parents.[258] Cases +apparently of this kind have been observed with birds in a state of +nature. For instance Mr. Blyth has seen specimens of _Lanius rufus_ and +of _Colymbus glacialis_ which had assumed whilst young, in a quite +anomalous manner, the adult plumage of their parents.[259] Again, the +young of the common swan (_Cygnus olor_) do not cast off their dark +feathers and become white until eighteen months or two years old; but +Dr. F. Forel has described the case of three vigorous young birds, out +of a brood of four, which were born pure white. These young birds were +not albinoes, as shewn by the colour of their beaks and legs, which +nearly resembled the same parts in the adults.[260] + +It may be worth while to illustrate the above three modes by which, in +the present class, the two sexes and the young may have come to resemble +each other, by the curious case of the genus Passer.[261] In the +house-sparrow (_P. domesticus_) the male differs much from the female +and from the young. These resemble each other, and likewise to a large +extent both sexes and the young of the sparrow of Palestine (_P. +brachydactylus_), as well as of some allied species. We may therefore +assume that the female and young of the house-sparrow approximately shew +us the plumage of the progenitor of the genus. Now with the tree-sparrow +(_P. montanus_) both sexes and the young closely resemble the male of +the house-sparrow; so that they have all been modified in the same +manner, and all depart from the typical colouring of their early +progenitor. This may have been effected by a male ancestor of the +tree-sparrow having varied, firstly, when nearly mature, or, secondly, +whilst quite young, having in either case transmitted his modified +plumage to the females and the young; or, thirdly, he may have varied +when adult and transmitted his plumage to both adult sexes, and, owing +to the failure of the law of inheritance at corresponding ages, at some +subsequent period to his young. + +It is impossible to decide which of these three modes has generally +prevailed throughout the present class of cases. The belief that the +males varied whilst young, and transmitted their variations to their +offspring of both sexes is perhaps the most probable. I may here add +that I have endeavoured, with little success, by consulting various +works, to decide how far with birds the period of variation has +generally determined the transmission of characters to one sex or to +both. The two rules, often referred to (namely, that variations +occurring late in life are transmitted to one and the same sex, whilst +those which occur early in life are transmitted to both sexes), +apparently hold good in the first,[262] second, and fourth classes of +cases; but they fail in an equal number, namely, in the third, often in +the fifth,[263] and in the sixth small class. They hold good, however, +as far as I can judge, with a considerable majority of the species of +birds. Whether or not this be so, we may conclude from the facts given +in the eighth chapter that the period of variation has been one +important element in determining the form of transmission. + +With birds it is difficult to decide by what standard we ought to judge +of the earliness or lateness of the period of variation, whether by the +age in reference to the duration of life, or to the power of +reproduction, or to the number of moults through which the species +passes. The moulting of birds, even within the same family, sometimes +differs much without any assignable cause. Some birds moult so early, +that nearly all the body-feathers are cast off before the first +wing-feathers are fully grown; and we cannot believe that this was the +primordial state of things. When the period of moulting has been +accelerated, the age at which the colours of the adult plumage were +first developed would falsely appear to us to have been earlier than it +really was. This may be illustrated by the practice followed by some +bird-fanciers, who pull out a few feathers from the breast of nestling +bullfinches, and from the head or neck of young gold-pheasants, in order +to ascertain their sex; for in the males these feathers are immediately +replaced by coloured ones.[264] The actual duration of life is known in +but few birds, so that we can hardly judge by this standard. And with +reference to the period at which the powers of reproduction are gained, +it is a remarkable fact that various birds occasionally breed whilst +retaining their immature plumage.[265] + +The fact of birds breeding in their immature plumage seems opposed to +the belief that sexual selection has played as important a part, as I +believe it has, in giving ornamental colours, plumes, &c., to the males, +and, by means of equal transmission, to the females of many species. The +objection would be a valid one, if the younger and less ornamented males +were as successful in winning females and propagating their kind, as the +older and more beautiful males. But we have no reason to suppose that +this is the case. Audubon speaks of the breeding of the immature males +of _Ibis tantalus_ as a rare event, as does Mr. Swinhoe, in regard to +the immature males of Oriolus.[266] If the young of any species in their +immature plumage were more successful in winning partners than the +adults, the adult plumage would probably soon be lost, as the males +which retained their immature dress for the longest period would +prevail, and thus the character of the species would ultimately be +modified.[267] If, on the other hand, the young never succeeded in +obtaining a female, the habit of early reproduction would perhaps be +sooner or later quite eliminated, from being superfluous and entailing +waste of power. + +The plumage of certain birds goes on increasing in beauty during many +years after they are fully mature; this is the case with the train of +the peacock, and with the crest and plumes of certain herons; for +instance, the _Ardea Ludovicana_;[268] but it is very doubtful whether +the continued development of such feathers is the result of the +selection of successive beneficial variations, or merely of continuous +growth. Most fishes continue increasing in size, as long as they are in +good health and have plenty of food; and a somewhat similar law may +prevail with the plumes of birds. + +CLASS V. _When the adults of both sexes have a distinct winter and +summer plumage, whether or not the male differs from the female, the +young resemble the adults of both sexes in their winter dress, or much +more rarely in their summer dress, or they resemble the females alone; +or the young may have an intermediate character; or again, they may +differ greatly from the adults in both their seasonal plumages._--The +cases in this class are singularly complex; nor is this surprising, as +they depend on inheritance, limited in a greater or less degree in three +different ways, namely by sex, age, and the season of the year. In some +cases the individuals of the same species pass through at least five +distinct states of plumage. With the species, in which the male differs +from the female during the summer season alone, or, which is rarer, +during both seasons,[269] the young generally resemble the females,--as +with the so-called goldfinch of North America, and apparently with the +splendid Maluri of Australia.[270] With the species, the sexes of which +are alike during both the summer and winter, the young may resemble the +adults, firstly, in their winter dress; secondly, which occurs much more +rarely, in their summer dress; thirdly, they may be intermediate between +these two states; and, fourthly, they may differ greatly from the adults +at all seasons. We have an instance of the first of these four cases in +one of the egrets of India (_Buphus coromandus_), in which the young and +the adults of both sexes are white during the winter, the adults +becoming golden-buff during the summer. With the Gaper (_Anastomus +oscitans_) of India we have a similar case, but the colours are +reversed; for the young and the adults of both sexes are grey and black +during the winter, the adults becoming white during the summer.[271] As +an instance of the second case, the young of the razor-bill (_Alca +torda_, Linn.), in an early state of plumage, are coloured like the +adults during the summer; and the young of the white-crowned sparrow of +North America (_Fringilla leucophrys_), as soon as fledged, have elegant +white stripes on their heads, which are lost by the young and the old +during the winter.[272] With respect to the third case, namely, that of +the young having an intermediate character between the summer and winter +adult plumages, Yarrell[273] insists that this occurs with many waders. +Lastly, in regard to the young differing greatly from both sexes in +their adult summer and winter plumages, this occurs with some herons and +egrets of North America and India,--the young alone being white. + +I will make only a few remarks on these complicated cases. When the +young resemble the female in her summer dress, or the adults of both +sexes in their winter dress, the cases differ from those given under +Classes I. and III. only in the characters originally acquired by the +males during the breeding-season, having been limited in their +transmission to the corresponding season. When the adults have a +distinct summer and winter plumage, and the young differ from both, the +case is more difficult to understand. We may admit as probable that the +young have retained an ancient state of plumage; we can account through +sexual selection for the summer or nuptial plumage of the adults, but +how are we to account for their distinct winter plumage? If we could +admit that this plumage serves in all cases as a protection, its +acquirement would be a simple affair; but there seems no good reason for +this admission. It may be suggested that the widely different conditions +of life during the winter and summer have acted in a direct manner on +the plumage; this may have had some effect, but I have not much +confidence in so great a difference, as we sometimes see, between the +two plumages having been thus caused. A more probable explanation is, +that an ancient style of plumage, partially modified through the +transference of some characters from the summer plumage, has been +retained by the adults during the winter. Finally, all the cases in our +present class apparently depend on characters acquired by the adult +males, having been variously limited in their transmission according to +age, season, and sex; but it would not be worth while to attempt to +follow out these complex relations. + +CLASS VI. _The young in their first plumage differ from each other +according to sex; the young males resembling more or less closely the +adult males, and the young females more or less closely the adult +females._--The cases in the present class, though occurring in various +groups, are not numerous; yet, if experience had not taught us to the +contrary, it seems the most natural thing that the young should at first +always resemble to a certain extent, and gradually become more and more +like, the adults of the same sex. The adult male blackcap (_Sylvia +atricapilla_) has a black head, that of the female being reddish-brown; +and I am informed by Mr. Blyth, that the young of both sexes can be +distinguished by this character even as nestlings. In the family of +thrushes an unusual number of similar cases have been noticed; the male +blackbird (_Turdus merula_) can be distinguished in the nest from the +female, as the main wing-feathers, which are not moulted so soon as the +body-feathers, retain a brownish tint until the second general +moult.[274] The two sexes of the mocking bird (_Turdus polyglottus_, +Linn.) differ very little from each other, yet the males can easily be +distinguished at a very early age from the females by shewing more pure +white.[275] The males of a forest-thrush and of a rock-thrush (viz. +_Orocetes erythrogastra_ and _Petrocincla cyanea_) have much of their +plumage of a fine blue, whilst the females are brown; and the nestling +males of both species have their main wing and tail-feathers edged with +blue, whilst those of the female are edged with brown.[276] So that the +very same feathers which in the young blackbird assume their mature +character and become black after the others, in these two species assume +this character and become blue before the others. The most probable view +with reference to these cases is that the males, differently from what +occurs in Class I., have transmitted their colours to their male +offspring at an earlier age than that at which they themselves first +acquired them; for if they had varied whilst quite young, they would +probably have transmitted all their characters to their offspring of +both sexes.[277] + +In _Aïthurus polytmus_ (one of the humming-birds) the male is splendidly +coloured black and green, and two of the tail-feathers are immensely +lengthened; the female has an ordinary tail and inconspicuous colours; +now the young males, instead of resembling the adult female, in +accordance with the common rule, begin from the first to assume the +colours proper to their sex, and their tail-feathers soon become +elongated. I owe this information to Mr. Gould, who has given me the +following more striking and as yet unpublished case. Two humming-birds +belonging to the genus Eustephanus, both beautifully coloured, inhabit +the small island of Juan Fernandez, and have always been ranked as +specifically distinct. But it has lately been ascertained that the one, +which is of a rich chesnut-brown colour with a golden-red head, is the +male, whilst the other, which is elegantly variegated with green and +white with a metallic-green head, is the female. Now the young from the +first resemble to a certain extent the adults of the corresponding sex, +the resemblance gradually becoming more and more complete. + +In considering this last case, if as before we take the plumage of the +young as our guide, it would appear that both sexes have been +independently rendered beautiful; and not that the one sex has partially +transferred its beauty to the other. The male apparently has acquired +his bright colours through sexual selection in the same manner as, for +instance, the peacock or pheasant in our first class of cases; and the +female in the same manner as the female Rhynchæa or Turnix in our second +class of cases. But there is much difficulty in understanding how this +could have been effected at the same time with the two sexes of the same +species. Mr. Salvin states, as we have seen in the eighth chapter, that +with certain humming-birds the males greatly exceed in number the +females, whilst with other species inhabiting the same country the +females greatly exceed the males. If, then, we might assume that during +some former lengthened period the males of the Juan Fernandez species +had greatly exceeded the females in number, but that during another +lengthened period the females had greatly exceeded the males, we could +understand how the males at one time, and the females at another time, +might have been rendered beautiful by the selection of the +brighter-coloured individuals of either sex; both sexes transmitting +their characters to their young at a rather earlier age than usual. +Whether this is the true explanation I will not pretend to say; but the +case is too remarkable to be passed over without notice. + + +We have now seen in numerous instances under all six classes, that an +intimate relation exists between the plumage of the young and that of +the adults, either of one sex or both sexes. These relations are fairly +well explained on the principle that one sex--this being in the great +majority of cases the male--first acquired through variation and sexual +selection bright colours or other ornaments, and transmitted them in +various ways, in accordance with the recognised laws of inheritance. Why +variations have occurred at different periods of life, even sometimes +with the species of the same group, we do not know; but with respect to +the form of transmission, one important determining cause seems to have +been the age at which the variations first appeared. + +From the principle of inheritance at corresponding ages, and from any +variations in colour which occurred in the males at an early age not +being then selected, on the contrary being often eliminated as +dangerous, whilst similar variations occurring at or near the period of +reproduction have been preserved, it follows that the plumage of the +young will often have been left unmodified, or but little modified. We +thus get some insight into the colouring of the progenitors of our +existing species. In a vast number of species in five out of our six +classes of cases, the adults of one sex or both are brightly coloured, +at least during the breeding-season, whilst the young are invariably +less brightly coloured than the adults, or are quite dull-coloured; for +no instance is known, as far as I can discover, of the young of +dull-coloured species displaying bright colours, or of the young of +brightly-coloured species being more brilliantly coloured than their +parents. In the fourth class, however, in which the young and the old +resemble each other, there are many species (though by no means all) +brightly-coloured, and as these form whole groups, we may infer that +their early progenitors were likewise brightly-coloured. With this +exception, if we look to the birds of the world, it appears that their +beauty has been greatly increased since that period, of which we have a +partial record in their immature plumage. + + +_On the Colour of the Plumage in relation to Protection._--It will have +been seen that I cannot follow Mr. Wallace in the belief that dull +colours when confined to the females have been in most cases specially +gained for the sake of protection. There can, however, be no doubt, as +formerly remarked, that both sexes of many birds have had their colours +modified for this purpose, so as to escape the notice of their enemies; +or, in some instances, so as to approach their prey unobserved, in the +same manner as owls have had their plumage rendered soft, that their +flight may not be overheard. Mr. Wallace remarks[278] that "it is only +in the tropics, among forests which never lose their foliage, that we +find whole groups of birds, whose chief colour is green." It will be +admitted by every one, who has ever tried, how difficult it is to +distinguish parrots in a leaf-covered tree. Nevertheless, we must +remember that many parrots are ornamented with crimson, blue, and orange +tints, which can hardly be protective. Woodpeckers are eminently +arboreal, but, besides green species, there are many black, and +black-and-white kinds--all the species being apparently exposed +to nearly the same dangers. It is therefore probable that +strongly-pronounced colours have been acquired by tree-haunting birds +through sexual selection, but that green tints have had an advantage +through natural selection over other colours for the sake of protection. + +In regard to birds which live on the ground, everyone admits that they +are coloured so as to imitate the surrounding surface. How difficult it +is to see a partridge, snipe, woodcock, certain plovers, larks, and +nightjars when crouched on the ground. Animals inhabiting deserts offer +the most striking instances, for the bare surface affords no +concealment, and all the smaller quadrupeds, reptiles, and birds depend +for safety on their colours. As Mr. Tristram has remarked,[279] in +regard to the inhabitants of the Sahara, all are protected by their +"isabelline or sand-colour." Calling to my recollection the desert-birds +which I had seen in South America, as well as most of the ground-birds +in Great Britain, it appeared to me that both sexes in such cases are +generally coloured nearly alike. Accordingly I applied to Mr. Tristram, +with respect to the birds of the Sahara, and he has kindly given me the +following information. There are twenty-six species, belonging to +fifteen genera, which manifestly have had their plumage coloured in a +protective manner; and this colouring is all the more striking, as with +most of these birds it is different from that of their congeners. Both +sexes of thirteen out of the twenty-six species are coloured in the same +manner; but these belong to genera in which this rule commonly prevails, +so that they tell us nothing about the protective colours being the same +in both sexes of desert-birds. Of the other thirteen species, three +belong to genera in which the sexes usually differ from each other, yet +they have the sexes alike. In the remaining ten species, the male +differs from the female; but the difference is confined chiefly to the +under surface of the plumage, which is concealed when the bird crouches +on the ground; the head and back being of the same sand-coloured hue in +both sexes. So that in these ten species the upper surfaces of both +sexes have been acted on and rendered alike, through natural selection, +for the sake of protection; whilst the lower surfaces of the males alone +have been diversified through sexual selection, for the sake of +ornament. Here, as both sexes are equally well protected, we clearly see +that the females have not been prevented through natural selection from +inheriting the colours of their male parents: we must look to the law of +sexually limited transmission, as before explained. + +In all parts of the world both sexes of many soft-billed birds, +especially those which frequent reeds or sedges, are obscurely coloured. +No doubt if their colours had been brilliant, they would have been much +more conspicuous to their enemies; but whether their dull tints have +been specially gained for the sake of protection seems, as far as I can +judge, rather doubtful. It is still more doubtful whether such dull +tints can have been gained for the sake of ornament. We must, however, +bear in mind that male birds, though dull-coloured, often differ much +from their females, as with the common sparrow, and this leads to the +belief that such colours have been gained through sexual selection, from +being attractive. Many of the soft-billed birds are songsters; and a +discussion in a former chapter should not be forgotten, in which it was +shewn that the best songsters are rarely ornamented with bright tints. +It would appear that female birds, as a general rule, have selected +their mates either for their sweet voices or gay colours, but not for +both charms combined. Some species which are manifestly coloured for the +sake of protection, such as the jack-snipe, woodcock, and nightjar, are +likewise marked and shaded, according to our standard of taste, with +extreme elegance. In such cases we may conclude that both natural and +sexual selection have acted conjointly for protection and ornament. +Whether any bird exists which does not possess some special attraction, +by which to charm the opposite sex, may be doubted. When both sexes are +so obscurely coloured, that it would be rash to assume the agency of +sexual selection, and when no direct evidence can be advanced shewing +that such colours serve as a protection, it is best to own complete +ignorance of the cause, or, which comes to nearly the same thing, to +attribute the result to the direct action of the conditions of life. + +There are many birds both sexes of which are conspicuously, though not +brilliantly coloured, such as the numerous black, white, or piebald +species; and these colours, are probably the result of sexual selection. +With the common blackbird, capercailzie, black-cock, black Scoter-duck +(Oidemia), and even with one of the Birds of Paradise (_Lophorina +atra_), the males alone are black, whilst the females are brown or +mottled; and there can hardly be a doubt that blackness in these cases +has been a sexually selected character. Therefore it is in some degree +probable that the complete or partial blackness of both sexes in such +birds as crows, certain cockatoos, storks, and swans, and many marine +birds, is likewise the result of sexual selection, accompanied by equal +transmission to both sexes; for blackness can hardly serve in any case +as a protection. With several birds, in which the male alone is black, +and in others in which both sexes are black, the beak or skin about the +head is brightly coloured, and the contrast thus afforded adds greatly +to their beauty; we see this in the bright yellow beak of the male +blackbird, in the crimson skin over the eyes of the black-cock and +capercailzie, in the variously and brightly-coloured beak of the +Scoter-drake (Oidemia), in the red beak of the chough (_Corvus +graculus_, Linn.), of the black swan, and black stork. This leads me to +remark that it is not at all incredible that toucans may owe the +enormous size of their beaks to sexual selection, for the sake of +displaying the diversified and vivid stripes of colour, with which these +organs are ornamented.[280] The naked skin at the base of the beak and +round the eyes is likewise often brilliantly coloured; and Mr. Gould, in +speaking of one species,[281] says that the colours of the beak "are +doubtless in the finest and most brilliant state during the time of +pairing." There is no greater improbability in toucans being encumbered +with immense beaks, though rendered as light as possible by their +cancellated structure, for an object falsely appearing to us +unimportant, namely, the display of fine colours, than that the male +Argus pheasant and some other birds should be encumbered with plumes so +long as to impede their flight. + +In the same manner, as the males alone of various species are black, the +females being dull-coloured; so in a few cases the males alone are +either wholly or partially white, as with the several Bell-birds of +South America (Chasmorhynchus), the Antarctic goose (_Bernicla +antarctica_), the silver pheasant, &c., whilst the females are brown or +obscurely mottled. Therefore, on the same principle as before, it is +probable that both sexes of many birds, such as white cockatoos, several +egrets with their beautiful plumes, certain ibises, gulls, terns, &c., +have acquired their more or less completely white plumage through sexual +selection. The species which inhabit snowy regions of course come under +a different head. The white plumage of some of the above-named birds +appears in both sexes only when they are mature. This is likewise the +case with certain gannets, tropic-birds, &c., and with the snow-goose +(_Anser hyperboreus_). As the latter breeds on the "barren grounds," +when not covered with snow, and as it migrates southward during the +winter, there is no reason to suppose that its snow-white adult plumage +serves as a protection. In the case of the _Anastomus oscitans_ +previously alluded to, we have still better evidence that the white +plumage is a nuptial character, for it is developed only during the +summer; the young in their immature state, and the adults in their +winter dress, being grey and black. With many kinds of gulls (Larus), +the head and neck become pure white during the summer, being grey or +mottled during the winter and in the young state. On the other hand, +with the smaller gulls, or sea-mews (Gavia), and with some terns +(Sterna), exactly the reverse occurs; for the heads of the young birds +during the first year, and of the adults during the winter, are either +pure white, or much paler-coloured than during the breeding-season. +These latter cases offer another instance of the capricious manner in +which sexual selection appears often to have acted.[282] + +The cause of aquatic birds having acquired a white plumage so much more +frequently than terrestrial birds, probably depends on their large size +and strong powers of flight, so that they can easily defend themselves +or escape from birds of prey, to which moreover they are not much +exposed. Consequently sexual selection has not here been interfered with +or guided for the sake of protection. No doubt, with birds which roam +over the open ocean, the males and females could find each other much +more easily when made conspicuous either by being perfectly white, or +intensely black; so that these colours may possibly serve the same end +as the call-notes of many land-birds. A white or black bird, when it +discovers and flies down to a carcase floating on the sea or cast up on +the beach, will be seen from a great distance, and will guide other +birds of the same and of distinct species, to the prey; but as this +would be a disadvantage to the first finders, the individuals which were +the whitest or blackest would not thus have procured more food than the +less strongly coloured individuals. Hence conspicuous colours cannot +have been gradually acquired for this purpose through natural +selection.[283] + +As sexual selection depends on so fluctuating an element as taste, we +can understand how it is that within the same group of birds, with +habits of life nearly the same, there should exist white or nearly +white, as well as black, or nearly black species,--for instance, white +and black cockatoos, storks, ibises, swans, terns, and petrels. Piebald +birds likewise sometimes occur in the same groups, for instance, the +black-necked swan, certain terns, and the common magpie. That a strong +contrast in colour is agreeable to birds, we may conclude, by looking +through any large collection of specimens or series of coloured plates, +for the sexes frequently differ from each other in the male having the +pale parts of a purer white, and the variously coloured dark parts of +still darker tints than in the female. + +It would even appear that mere novelty, or change for the sake of +change, has sometimes acted like a charm on female birds, in the same +manner as changes of fashion with us. The Duke of Argyll says,[284]--and +I am glad to have the unusual satisfaction of following for even a short +distance in his footsteps--"I am more and more convinced that variety, +mere variety, must be admitted to be an object and an aim in Nature." I +wish the Duke had explained what he here means by Nature. Is it meant +that the Creator of the universe ordained diversified results for His +own satisfaction, or for that of man? The former notion seems to me as +much wanting in due reverence as the latter in probability. +Capriciousness of taste in the birds themselves appears a more fitting +explanation. For example; the males of some parrots can hardly be said +to be more beautiful, at least according to our taste, than the females, +but they differ from them in such points, as the male having a +rose-coloured collar instead of, as in the female, "a bright emeraldine +narrow green collar;" or in the male having a black collar instead of "a +yellow demi-collar in front," with a pale roseate instead of a plum-blue +head.[285] As so many male birds have for their chief ornament elongated +tail-feathers or elongated crests, the shortened tail, formerly +described in the male of a humming-bird, and the shortened crest of the +male goosander almost seem like one of the many opposite changes of +fashion which we admire in our own dresses. + +Some members of the heron family offer a still more curious case of +novelty in colouring having apparently been appreciated for the sake of +novelty. The young of the _Ardea asha_ are white, the adults being dark +slate-coloured; and not only the young, but the adults of the allied +_Buphus coromandus_ in their winter plumage are white, this colour +changing into a rich golden-buff during the breeding-season. It is +incredible that the young of these two species, as well as of some other +members of the same family,[286] should have been specially rendered +pure white and thus made conspicuous to their enemies; or that the +adults of one of these two species should have been specially rendered +white during the winter in a country which is never covered with snow. +On the other hand we have reason to believe that whiteness has been +gained by many birds as a sexual ornament. We may therefore conclude +that an early progenitor of the _Ardea asha_ and the _Buphus_ acquired a +white plumage for nuptial purposes, and transmitted this colour to their +young; so that the young and the old became white like certain existing +egrets; the whiteness having afterwards been retained by the young +whilst exchanged by the adults for more strongly pronounced tints. But +if we could look still further backwards in time to the still earlier +progenitors of these two species, we should probably see the adults +dark-coloured. I infer that this would be the case, from the analogy of +many other birds, which are dark whilst young, and when adult are white; +and more especially from the case of the _Ardea gularis_, the colours of +which are the reverse of those of _A. asha_, for the young are +dark-coloured and the adults white, the young having retained a former +state of plumage. It appears therefore that the progenitors in their +adult condition of the _Ardea asha_, the _Buphus_, and of some allies, +have undergone, during a long line of descent, the following changes of +colour: firstly a dark shade, secondly pure white, and thirdly, owing to +another change of fashion (if I may so express myself), their present +slaty, reddish, or golden-buff tints. These successive changes are +intelligible only on the principle of novelty having been admired by +birds for the sake of novelty. + + +_Summary of the Four Chapters on Birds._--Most male birds are highly +pugnacious during the breeding-season, and some possess weapons +especially adapted for fighting with their rivals. But the most +pugnacious and the best-armed males rarely or never depend for success +solely on their power to drive away or kill their rivals, but have +special means for charming the female. With some it is the power of +song, or of emitting strange cries, or of producing instrumental music, +and the males in consequence differ from the females in their vocal +organs, or in the structure of certain feathers. From the curiously +diversified means for producing various sounds we gain a high idea of +the importance of this means of courtship. Many birds endeavour to charm +the females by love-dances or antics, performed on the ground or in the +air, and sometimes at prepared places. But ornaments of many kinds, the +most brilliant tints, combs and wattles, beautiful plumes, elongated +feathers, top-knots, and so forth, are by far the commonest means. In +some cases mere novelty appears to have acted as a charm. The ornaments +of the males must be highly important to them, for they have been +acquired in not a few cases at the cost of increased danger from +enemies, and even at some loss of power in fighting with their rivals. +The males of very many species do not assume their ornamental dress +until they arrive at maturity, or they assume it only during the +breeding-season, or the tints then become more vivid. Certain ornamental +appendages become enlarged, turgid, and brightly-coloured during the +very act of courtship. The males display their charms with elaborate +care and to the best effect; and this is done in the presence of the +females. The courtship is sometimes a prolonged affair, and many males +and females congregate at an appointed place. To suppose that the +females do not appreciate the beauty of the males is to admit that their +splendid decorations, all their pomp and display, are useless; and this +is incredible. Birds have fine powers of discrimination, and in some few +instances it can be shewn that they have a taste for the beautiful. The +females, moreover, are known occasionally to exhibit a marked +preference or antipathy for certain individual males. + +If it be admitted that the females prefer, or are unconsciously excited +by the more beautiful males, then the males would slowly but surely be +rendered more and more attractive through sexual selection. That it is +this sex which has been chiefly modified we may infer from the fact that +in almost every genus in which the sexes differ, the males differ much +more from each other than do the females; this is well shewn in certain +closely-allied representative species in which the females can hardly be +distinguished, whilst the males are quite distinct. Birds in a state of +nature offer individual differences which would amply suffice for the +work of sexual selection; but we have seen that they occasionally +present more strongly-marked variations which recur so frequently that +they would immediately be fixed, if they served to allure the female. +The laws of variation will have determined the nature of the initial +changes, and largely influenced the final result. The gradations, which +may be observed between the males of allied species, indicate the nature +of the steps which have been passed through, and explain in the most +interesting manner certain characters, such as the indented ocelli of +the tail-feathers of the peacock, and the wonderfully-shaded ocelli of +the wing-feathers of the Argus pheasant. It is evident that the +brilliant colours, top-knots, fine plumes, &c., of many male birds +cannot have been acquired as a protection; indeed they sometimes lead to +danger. That they are not due to the direct and definite action of the +conditions of life, we may feel assured, because the females have been +exposed to the same conditions, and yet often differ from the males to +an extreme degree. Although it is probable that changed conditions +acting during a lengthened period have produced some definite effect on +both sexes, the more important result will have been an increased +tendency to fluctuating variability or to augmented individual +differences; and such differences will have afforded an excellent +groundwork for the action of sexual selection. + +The laws of inheritance, irrespectively of selection, appear to have +determined whether the characters acquired by the males for the sake of +ornament, for producing various sounds, and for fighting together, have +been transmitted to the males alone or to both sexes, either permanently +or periodically during certain seasons of the year. Why various +characters should sometimes have been transmitted in one way and +sometimes in another is, in most cases, not known; but the period of +variability seems often to have been the determining cause. When the two +sexes have inherited all characters in common they necessarily resemble +each other; but as the successive variations may be differently +transmitted, every possible gradation may be found, even within the same +genus, from the closest similarity to the widest dissimilarity between +the sexes. With many closely-allied species, following nearly the same +habits of life, the males have come to differ from each other chiefly +through the action of sexual selection; whilst the females have come to +differ chiefly from partaking in a greater or lesser degree of the +characters thus acquired by the males. The effects, moreover, of the +definite action of the conditions of life, will not have been masked in +the females, as in the case of the males, by the accumulation through +sexual selection of strongly-pronounced colours and other ornaments. The +individuals of both sexes, however affected, will have been kept at each +successive period nearly uniform by the free intercrossing of many +individuals. + +With the species, in which the sexes differ in colour, it is possible +that at first there existed a tendency to transmit the successive +variations equally to both sexes; and that the females were prevented +from acquiring the bright colours of the males, on account of the danger +to which they would have been exposed during incubation. But it would +be, as far as I can see, an extremely difficult process to convert, by +means of natural selection, one form of transmission into another. On +the other hand there would not be the least difficulty in rendering a +female dull-coloured, the male being still kept bright-coloured, by the +selection of successive variations, which were from the first limited in +their transmission to the same sex. Whether the females of many species +have actually been thus modified, must at present remain doubtful. When, +through the law of the equal transmission of characters to both sexes, +the females have been rendered as conspicuously coloured as the males, +their instincts have often been modified, and they have been led to +build domed or concealed nests. + +In one small and curious class of cases the characters and habits of the +two sexes have been completely transposed, for the females are larger, +stronger, more vociferous and brightly-coloured than their males. They +have, also, become so quarrelsome that they often fight together like +the males of the most pugnacious species. If, as seems probable, they +habitually drive away rival females, and by the display of their bright +colours or other charms endeavour to attract the males, we can +understand how it is that they have gradually been rendered, by means of +sexual selection and sexually-limited transmission, more beautiful than +the males--the latter being left unmodified or only slightly modified. + +Whenever the law of inheritance at corresponding ages prevails, but not +that of sexually-limited transmission, then if the parents vary late in +life--and we know that this constantly occurs with our poultry, and +occasionally with other birds--the young will be left unaffected, whilst +the adults of both sexes will be modified. If both these laws of +inheritance prevail and either sex varies late in life, that sex alone +will be modified, the other sex and the young being left unaffected. +When variations in brightness or in other conspicuous characters occur +early in life, as no doubt often happens, they will not be acted on +through sexual selection until the period of reproduction arrives; +consequently they will be liable to be lost by the accidental deaths of +the young, and if dangerous will be eliminated through natural +selection. Thus we can understand how it is that variations arising late +in life have chiefly been preserved for the ornamentation and arming of +the males, the females and the young being left almost unaffected, and +therefore like each other. With species having a distinct summer and +winter plumage, the males of which either resemble or differ from the +females during both seasons or during the summer alone, the degrees and +kinds of resemblance between the young and the old are exceedingly +complex; and this complexity apparently depends on characters, first +acquired by the males, being transmitted in various ways and degrees, as +limited by age, sex, and season. + +As the young of so many species have been but little modified in colour +and in other ornaments, we are enabled to form some judgment with +respect to the plumage of their early progenitors; and we may infer that +the beauty of our existing species, if we look to the whole class, has +been largely increased since that period of which the immature plumage +gives us an indirect record. Many birds, especially those which live +much on the ground, have undoubtedly been obscurely coloured for the +sake of protection. In some instances the upper exposed surface of the +plumage has been thus coloured in both sexes, whilst the lower surface +in the males alone has been variously ornamented through sexual +selection. Finally, from the facts given in these four chapters, we may +conclude that weapons for battle, organs for producing sound, ornaments +of many kinds, bright and conspicuous colours, have generally been +acquired by the males through variation and sexual selection, and have +been transmitted in various ways according to the several laws of +inheritance--the females and the young being left comparatively but +little modified.[287] + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS OF MAMMALS. + + + The law of battle--Special weapons, confined to the + males--Cause of absence of weapons in the female--Weapons + common to both sexes, yet primarily acquired by the + male--Other uses of such weapons--Their high + importance--Greater size of the male--Means of defence--On the + preference shewn by either sex in the pairing of quadrupeds. + + +With mammals the male appears to win the female much more through the +law of battle than through the display of his charms. The most timid +animals, not provided with any special weapons for fighting, engage in +desperate conflicts during the season of love. Two male hares have been +seen to fight together until one was killed; male moles often fight, and +sometimes with fatal results; male squirrels "engage in frequent +contests, and often wound each other severely;" as do male beavers, so +that "hardly a skin is without scars."[288] I observed the same fact +with the hides of the guanacoes in Patagonia; and on one occasion +several were so absorbed in fighting that they fearlessly rushed close +by me. Livingstone speaks of the males of the many animals in Southern +Africa as almost invariably shewing the scars received in former +contests. + +The law of battle prevails with aquatic as with terrestrial mammals. It +is notorious how desperately male seals fight, both with their teeth and +claws, during the breeding-season; and their hides are likewise often +covered with scars. Male sperm-whales are very jealous at this season; +and in their battles "they often lock their jaws together, and turn on +their sides and twist about;" so that it is believed by some naturalists +that the frequently deformed state of their lower jaws is caused by +these struggles.[289] + +All male animals which are furnished with special weapons for fighting, +are well known to engage in fierce battles. The courage and the +desperate conflicts of stags have often been described; their skeletons +have been found in various parts of the world, with the horns +inextricably locked together, shewing how miserably the victor and +vanquished had perished.[290] No animal in the world is so dangerous as +an elephant in must. Lord Tankerville has given me a graphic description +of the battles between the wild bulls in Chillingham Park, the +descendants, degenerated in size but not in courage, of the gigantic +_Bos primigenius_. In 1861 several contended for mastery; and it was +observed that two of the younger bulls attacked in concert the old +leader of the herd, overthrew and disabled him, so that he was believed +by the keepers to be lying mortally wounded in a neighbouring wood. But +a few days afterwards one of the young bulls singly approached the wood; +and then the "monarch of the chase," who had been lashing himself up +for vengeance, came out and, in a short time killed his antagonist. He +then quietly joined the herd, and long held undisputed sway. Admiral Sir +B. J. Sulivan informs me that when he resided in the Falkland Islands he +imported a young English stallion, which, with eight mares, frequented +the hills near Port William. On these hills there were two wild +stallions, each with a small troop of mares; "and it is certain that +these stallions would never have approached each other without fighting. +Both had tried singly to fight the English horse and drive away his +mares, but had failed. One day they came in _together_ and attacked him. +This was seen by the capitan who had charge of the horses, and who, on +riding to the spot, found one of the two stallions engaged with the +English horse, whilst the other was driving away the mares, and had +already separated four from the rest. The capitan settled the matter by +driving the whole party into the corral, for the wild stallions would +not leave the mares." + +Male animals already provided with efficient cutting or tearing teeth +for the ordinary purposes of life, as in the carnivora, insectivora, and +rodents, are seldom furnished with weapons especially adapted for +fighting with their rivals. The case is very different with the males of +many other animals. We see this in the horns of stags and of certain +kinds of antelopes in which the females are hornless. With many animals +the canine teeth in the upper or lower jaw, or in both, are much larger +in the males than in the females; or are absent in the latter, with the +exception sometimes of a hidden rudiment. Certain antelopes, the +musk-deer, camel, horse, boar, various apes, seals, and the walrus, +offer instances of these several cases. In the females of the walrus +the tusks are sometimes quite absent.[291] In the male elephant of India +and in the male dugong[292] the upper incisors form offensive weapons. +In the male narwhal one alone of the upper teeth is developed into the +well-known, spirally-twisted, so called horn, which is sometimes from +nine to ten feet in length. It is believed that the males use these +horns for fighting together; for "an unbroken one can rarely be got, and +occasionally one may be found with the point of another jammed into the +broken place."[293] The tooth on the opposite side of the head in the +male consists of a rudiment about ten inches in length, which is +embedded in the jaw. It is not, however, very uncommon to find +double-horned male narwhals in which both teeth are well developed. In +the females both teeth are rudimentary. The male cachalot has a larger +head than that of the female, and it no doubt aids these animals in +their aquatic battles. Lastly, the adult male ornithorhynchus is +provided with a remarkable apparatus, namely a spur on the fore-leg, +closely resembling the poison-fang of a venomous snake; its use is not +known, but we may suspect that it serves as a weapon of offence.[294] It +is represented by a mere rudiment in the female. + +When the males are provided with weapons which the females do not +possess, there can hardly be a doubt that they are used for fighting +with other males, and that they have been acquired through sexual +selection. + +It is not probable, at least in most cases, that the females have +actually been saved from acquiring such weapons, owing to their being +useless and superfluous, or in some way injurious. On the contrary, as +they are often used by the males of many animals for various purposes, +more especially as a defence against their enemies, it is a surprising +fact that they are so poorly developed or quite absent in the females. +No doubt with female deer the development during each recurrent season +of great branching horns, and with female elephants the development of +immense tusks, would have been a great waste of vital power, on the +admission that they were of no use to the females. Consequently +variations in the size of these organs, leading to their suppression, +would have come under the control of natural selection, and if limited +in their transmission to the female offspring would not have interfered +with their development through sexual selection in the males. But how on +this view can we explain the presence of horns in the females of certain +antelopes, and of tusks in the females of many animals, which are only +of slightly less size than in the males? The explanation in almost all +cases must, I believe, be sought in the laws of transmission. + +As the reindeer is the single species in the whole family of Deer in +which the female is furnished with horns, though somewhat smaller, +thinner, and less branched than in the male, it might naturally be +thought that they must be of some special use to her. There is, however, +some evidence opposed to this view. The female retains her horns from +the time when they are fully developed, namely in September, throughout +the winter, until May, when she brings forth her young; whilst the male +casts his horns much earlier, towards the end of November. As both sexes +have the same requirements and follow the same habits of life, and as +the male sheds his horns during the winter, it is very improbable that +they can be of any special service to the female at this season, which +includes the larger proportion of the time during which she bears horns. +Nor is it probable that she can have inherited horns from some ancient +progenitor of the whole family of deer, for, from the fact of the males +alone of so many species in all quarters of the globe possessing horns, +we may conclude that this was the primordial character of the group. +Hence it appears that horns must have been transferred from the male to +the female at a period subsequent to the divergence of the various +species from a common stock; but that this was not effected for the sake +of giving her any special advantage.[295] + +We know that the horns are developed at a most unusually early age in +the reindeer; but what the cause of this may have been is not known. The +effect, however, has apparently been the transference of the horns to +both sexes. It is intelligible on the hypothesis of pangenesis, that a +very slight change in the constitution of the male, either in the +tissues of the forehead or in the gemmules of the horns, might lead to +their early development; and as the young of both sexes have nearly the +same constitution before the period of reproduction, the horns, if +developed at an early age in the male, would tend to be developed +equally in both sexes. In support of this view, we should bear in mind +that the horns are always transmitted through the female, and that she +has a latent capacity for their development, as we see in old or +diseased females.[296] Moreover the females of some other species of +deer either normally or occasionally exhibit rudiments of horns; thus +the female of _Cervulus moschatus_ has "bristly tufts, ending in a knob, +instead of a horn;" and "in most specimens of the female Wapiti (_Cervus +Canadensis_) there is a sharp bony protuberance in the place of the +horn."[297] From these several considerations we may conclude that the +possession of fairly well-developed horns by the female reindeer, is due +to the males having first acquired them as weapons for fighting with +other males; and secondarily to their development from some unknown +cause at an unusually early age in the males, and their consequent +transmission to both sexes. + +Turning to the sheath-horned ruminants: with antelopes a graduated +series can be formed, beginning with the species, the females of which +are completely destitute of horns--passing to those which have horns so +small as to be almost rudimentary, as in _Antilocapra Americana_--to +those which have fairly well-developed horns, but manifestly smaller and +thinner than in the male, and sometimes of a different shape,[298] and +ending with those in which both sexes have horns of equal size. As with +the reindeer, so with antelopes there exists a relation between the +period of the development of the horns and their transmission to one or +both sexes; it is therefore probable that their presence or absence in +the females of some species, and their more or less perfect condition in +the females of other species, depend, not on their being of some special +use, but simply on the form of inheritance which has prevailed. It +accords with this view that even in the same restricted genus both sexes +of some species, and the males alone of other species, are thus +provided. It is a remarkable fact that, although the females of +_Antilope bezoartica_ are normally destitute of horns, Mr. Blyth has +seen no less than three females thus furnished; and there was no reason +to suppose that they were old or diseased. The males of this species +have long straight spirated horns, nearly parallel to each other, and +directed backwards. Those of the female, when present, are very +different in shape, for they are not spirated, and spreading widely bend +round, so that their points are directed forwards. It is a still more +remarkable fact that in the castrated male, as Mr. Blyth informs me, the +horns are of the same peculiar shape as in the female, but longer and +thicker. In all cases the differences between the horns of the males and +females, and of castrated and entire males, probably depend on various +causes,--on the more or less complete transference of male characters to +the females,--on the former state of the progenitors of the +species,--and partly perhaps on the horns being differently nourished, +in nearly the same manner as the spurs of the domestic cock, when +inserted into the comb or other parts of the body, assume various +abnormal forms from being differently nourished. + +In all the wild species of goats and sheep the horns are larger in the +male than in the female, and are sometimes quite absent in the +latter.[299] In several domestic breeds of the sheep and goat, the +males alone are furnished with horns; and it is a significant fact, that +in one such breed of sheep on the Guinea coast, the horns are not +developed, as Mr. Winwood Reade informs me, in the castrated male; so +that they are affected in this respect like the horns of stags. In some +breeds, as in that of N. Wales, in which both sexes are properly horned, +the ewes are very liable to be hornless. In these same sheep, as I have +been informed by a trustworthy witness who purposely inspected a flock +during the lambing-season, the horns at birth are generally more fully +developed in the male than in the female. With the adult musk-ox +(_Ovibos moschatus_) the horns of the male are larger than those of the +female, and in the latter the bases do not touch.[300] In regard to +ordinary cattle Mr. Blyth remarks: "In most of the wild bovine animals +the horns are both longer and thicker in the bull than in the cow, and +in the cow-banteng (_Bos sondaicus_) the horns are remarkably small, and +inclined much backwards. In the domestic races of cattle, both of the +humped and humpless types, the horns are short and thick in the bull, +longer and more slender in the cow and ox; and in the Indian buffalo, +they are shorter and thicker in the bull, longer and more slender in the +cow. In the wild gaour (_B. gaurus_) the horns are mostly both longer +and thicker in the bull than in the cow."[301] Hence with most +sheath-horned ruminants the horns of the male are either longer or +stronger than those of the female. With the _Rhinoceros simus_, as I may +here add, the horns of the female are generally longer but less powerful +than in the male; and in some other species of rhinoceros they are said +to be shorter in the female.[302] From these various facts we may +conclude that horns of all kinds, even when they are equally developed +in both sexes, were primarily acquired by the males in order to conquer +other males, and have been transferred more or less completely to the +female, in relation to the force of the equal form of inheritance. + +The tusks of the elephant, in the different species or races, differ +according to sex, in nearly the same manner as the horns of ruminants. +In India and Malacca the males alone are provided with well-developed +tusks. The elephant of Ceylon is considered by most naturalists as a +distinct race, but by some as a distinct species, and here "not one in a +hundred is found with tusks, the few that possess them being exclusively +males."[303] The African elephant is undoubtedly distinct, and the +female has large, well-developed tusks, though not so large as those of +the male. These differences in the tusks of the several races and +species of elephants--the great variability of the horns of deer, as +notably in the wild reindeer--the occasional presence of horns in the +female _Antilope bezoartica_--the presence of two tusks in some few male +narwhals--the complete absence of tusks in some female walruses;--are +all instances of the extreme variability of secondary sexual characters, +and of their extreme liability to differ in closely-allied forms. + +Although tusks and horns appear in all cases to have been primarily +developed as sexual weapons, they often serve for other purposes. The +elephant uses his tusks in attacking the tiger; according to Bruce, he +scores the trunks of trees until they can be easily thrown down, and he +likewise thus extracts the farinaceous cores of palms; in Africa he +often uses one tusk, this being always the same, to probe the ground and +thus to ascertain whether it will bear his weight. The common bull +defends the herd with his horns; and the elk in Sweden has been known, +according to Lloyd, to strike a wolf dead with a single blow of his +great horns. Many similar facts could be given. One of the most curious +secondary uses to which the horns of any animal are occasionally put, is +that observed by Captain Hutton[304] with the wild goat (_Capra +ægagrus_) of the Himalayas, and as it is said with the ibex, namely, +that when the male accidentally falls from a height he bends inwards his +head, and, by alighting on his massive horns, breaks the shock. The +female cannot thus use her horns, which are smaller, but from her more +quiet disposition she does not so much need this strange kind of shield. + +Each male animal uses his weapons in his own peculiar fashion. The +common ram makes a charge and butts with such force with the bases of +his horns, that I have seen a powerful man knocked over as easily as a +child. Goats and certain species of sheep, for instance the _Ovis +cycloceros_ of Afghanistan,[305] rear on their hind legs, and then not +only butt, but "make a cut down and a jerk up, with the ribbed front of +their scimitar-shaped horn, as with a sabre. When the _O. cycloceros_ +attacked a large domestic ram, who was a noted bruiser, he conquered him +by the sheer novelty of his mode of fighting, always closing at once +with his adversary, and catching him across the face and nose with a +sharp drawing jerk of his head, and then bounding out of the way before +the blow could be returned." In Pembrokeshire a male goat, the master of +a flock which during several generations had run wild, was known to have +killed several other males in single combat; this goat possessed +enormous horns, measuring 39 inches in a straight line from tip to tip. +The common bull, as every one knows, gores and tosses his opponent; but +the Italian buffalo is said never to use his horns, he gives a +tremendous blow with his convex forehead, and then tramples on his +fallen enemy with his knees--an instinct which the common bull does not +possess.[306] Hence a dog who pins a buffalo by the nose is immediately +crushed. We must, however, remember that the Italian buffalo has long +been domesticated, and it is by no means certain that the wild +parent-form had similarly shaped horns. Mr. Bartlett informs me that +when a female Cape buffalo (_Bubalus caffer_) was turned into an +enclosure with a bull of the same species, she attacked him, and he in +return pushed her about with great violence. But it was manifest to Mr. +Bartlett that had not the bull shewn dignified forbearance, he could +easily have killed her by a single lateral thrust with his immense +horns. The giraffe uses his short hair-covered horns, which are rather +longer in the male than in the female, in a curious manner; for with his +long neck he swings his head to either side, almost upside down, with +such force, that I have seen a hard plank deeply indented by a single +blow. + +[Illustration: Fig. 61. Oryx leucoryx, male (from the Knowsley +Menagerie).] + +With antelopes it is sometimes difficult to imagine how they can +possibly use their curiously-shaped horns; thus the spring-boc (_Ant. +euchore_) has rather short upright horns, with the sharp points bent +inwards almost at a right angle, so as to face each other; Mr. Bartlett +does not know how they are used, but suggests that they would inflict a +fearful wound down each side of the face of an antagonist. The +slightly-curved horns of the _Oryx leucoryx_ (fig. 61) are directed +backwards, and are of such length that their points reach beyond the +middle of the back, over which they stand in an almost parallel line. +Thus they seem singularly ill-fitted for fighting; but Mr. Bartlett +informs me that when two of these animals prepare for battle, they kneel +down, with their heads between their front legs, and in this attitude +the horns stand nearly parallel and close to the ground, with the points +directed forwards and a little upwards. The combatants then gradually +approach each other and endeavour to get the upturned points under each +other's bodies; if one succeeds in doing this, he suddenly springs up, +throwing up his head at the same time, and can thus wound or perhaps +even transfix his antagonist. Both animals always kneel down so as to +guard as far as possible against this manoeuvre. It has been recorded +that one of these antelopes has used his horns with effect even against +a lion; yet from being forced to place his head between the forelegs in +order to bring the points of the horns forward, he would generally be +under a great disadvantage when attacked by any other animal. It is, +therefore, not probable that the horns have been modified into their +present great length and peculiar position, as a protection against +beasts of prey. We can, however, see that as soon as some ancient male +progenitor of the Oryx acquired moderately long horns, directed a little +backwards, he would be compelled in his battles with rival males to bend +his head somewhat inwards or downwards, as is now done by certain stags; +and it is not improbable that he might have acquired the habit of at +first occasionally and afterwards of regularly kneeling down. In this +case it is almost certain that the males which possessed the longest +horns would have had a great advantage over others with shorter horns; +and then the horns would gradually have been rendered longer and longer, +through sexual selection, until they acquired their present +extraordinary length and position. + +With stags of many kinds the branching of the horns offers a curious +case of difficulty; for certainly a single straight point would inflict +a much more serious wound than several diverging points. In Sir Philip +Egerton's museum there is a horn of the red-deer (_Cervus elaphus_) +thirty inches in length, with "not fewer than fifteen snags or +branches;" and at Moritzburg there is still preserved a pair of antlers +of a red-deer, shot in 1699 by Frederick I., each of which bears the +astonishing number of thirty-three branches. Richardson figures a pair +of antlers of the wild reindeer with twenty-nine points.[307] From the +manner in which the horns are branched, and more especially from deer +being known occasionally to fight together by kicking with their +fore-feet,[308] M. Bailly actually came to the conclusion that their +horns were more injurious than useful to them! But this author overlooks +the pitched battles between rival males. As I felt much perplexed about +the use or advantage of the branches, I applied to Mr. McNeill of +Colinsay, who has long and carefully observed the habits of red-deer, +and he informs me that he has never seen some of the branches brought +into action, but that the brow-antlers, from inclining downwards, are a +great protection to the forehead, and their points are likewise used in +attack. Sir Philip Egerton also informs me in regard both to red-deer +and fallow-deer, that when they fight they suddenly dash together, and +getting their horns fixed against each other's bodies a desperate +struggle ensues. When one is at last forced to yield and turn round, the +victor endeavours to plunge his brow-antlers into his defeated foe. It +thus appears that the upper branches are used chiefly or exclusively for +pushing and fencing. Nevertheless with some species the upper branches +are used as weapons of offence; when a man was attacked by a Wapiti +deer (_Cervus Canadensis_) in Judge Caton's park in Ottawa, and several +men tried to rescue him, the stag "never raised his head from the +ground; in fact he kept his face almost flat on the ground, with his +nose nearly between his fore-feet, except when he rolled his head to one +side to take a new observation preparatory to a plunge." In this +position the terminal points of the horns were directed against his +adversaries. "In rolling his head he necessarily raised it somewhat, +because his antlers were so long that he could not roll his head without +raising them on one side, while on the other side they touched the +ground." The stag by this procedure gradually drove the party of +rescuers backwards, to a distance of 150 or 200 feet; and the attacked +man was killed.[309] + +Although the horns of stags are efficient weapons, there can, I think, +be no doubt that a single point would have been much more dangerous than +a branched antler; and Judge Caton, who has had large experience with +deer, fully concurs in this conclusion. Nor do the branching horns, +though highly important as a means of defence against rival stags, +appear perfectly well adapted for this purpose, as they are liable to +become interlocked. The suspicion has therefore crossed my mind that +they may serve partly as ornaments. That the branched antlers of stags, +as well as the elegant lyrated horns of certain antelopes, with their +graceful double curvature, (fig. 62), are ornamental in our eyes, no one +will dispute. If, then, the horns, like the splendid accoutrements of +the knights of old, add to the noble appearance of stags and antelopes, +they may have been partly modified for this purpose, though mainly for +actual service in battle; but I have no evidence in favour of this +belief. + +[Illustration: Fig. 62. Strepsiceros Kudu (from Andrew Smith's 'Zoology +of South Africa').] + +An interesting case has lately been published, from which it appears +that the horns of a deer in one district in the United States are now +being modified through sexual and natural selection. A writer in an +excellent American Journal[310] says, that he has hunted for the last +twenty-one years in the Adirondacks, where the _Cervus Virginianus_ +abounds. About fourteen years ago he first heard of _spike-horn bucks_. +These became from year to year more common; about five years ago he shot +one, and subsequently another, and now they are frequently killed. "The +spike-horn differs greatly from the common antler of the _C. +Virginianus_. It consists of a single spike, more slender than the +antler, and scarcely half so long, projecting forward from the brow, and +terminating in a very sharp point. It gives a considerable advantage to +its possessor over the common buck. Besides enabling him to run more +swiftly through the thick woods and underbrush (every hunter knows that +does and yearling bucks run much more rapidly than the large bucks when +armed with their cumbrous antlers), the spike-horn is a more effective +weapon than the common antler. With this advantage the spike-horn bucks +are gaining upon the common bucks, and may, in time, entirely supersede +them in the Adirondacks. Undoubtedly the first spike-horn buck was +merely an accidental freak of nature. But his spike-horns gave him an +advantage, and enabled him to propagate his peculiarity. His +descendants, having a like advantage, have propagated the peculiarity in +a constantly increasing ratio, till they are slowly crowding the +antlered deer from the region they inhabit." + +Male quadrupeds which are furnished with tusks use them in various ways, +as in the case of horns. The boar strikes laterally and upwards; the +musk-deer with serious effect downwards.[311] The walrus, though having +so short a neck and so unwieldy a body, "can strike either upwards, or +downwards, or sideways, with equal dexterity."[312] The Indian elephant +fights, as I was informed by the late Dr. Falconer, in a different +manner according to the position and curvature of his tusks. When they +are directed forwards and upwards he is able to fling a tiger to a great +distance--it is said to even thirty feet; when they are short and turned +downwards he endeavours suddenly to pin the tiger to the ground, and in +consequence is dangerous to the rider, who is liable to be jerked off +the hoodah.[313] + +Very few male quadrupeds possess weapons of two distinct kinds specially +adapted for fighting with rival males. The male muntjac-deer +(_Cervulus_), however, offers an exception, as he is provided with horns +and exserted canine teeth. But one form of weapon, has often been +replaced in the course of ages by another form, as we may infer from +what follows. With ruminants the development of horns generally stands +in an inverse relation with that of even moderately well-developed +canine teeth. Thus camels, guanacoes, chevrotains and musk-deer, are +hornless, and they have efficient canines; these teeth being "always of +smaller size in the females than in the males." The Camelidæ have in +their upper jaws, in addition to their true canines, a pair of +canine-shaped incisors.[314] Male deer and antelopes, on the other hand, +possess horns, and they rarely have canine teeth; and these when present +are always of small size, so that it is doubtful whether they are of +any service in their battles. With _Antilope montana_ they exist only as +rudiments in the young male, disappearing as he grows old; and they are +absent in the female at all ages; but the females of certain other +antelopes and deer have been known occasionally to exhibit rudiments of +these teeth.[315] Stallions have small canine teeth, which are either +quite absent or rudimentary in the mare; but they do not appear to be +used in fighting, for stallions bite with their incisors, and do not +open their mouths widely like camels and guanacoes. Whenever the adult +male possesses canines now in an inefficient state, whilst the female +has either none or mere rudiments, we may conclude that the early male +progenitor of the species was provided with efficient canines, which had +been partially transferred to the females. The reduction of these teeth +in the males seems to have followed from some change in their manner of +fighting, often caused (but not in the case of the horse) by the +development of new weapons. + +Tusks and horns are manifestly of high importance to their possessors, +for their development consumes much organised matter. A single tusk of +the Asiatic elephant,--one of the extinct woolly species,--and of the +African elephant, have been known to weigh respectively 150, 160, and +180 pounds; and even greater weights have been assigned by some +authors.[316] With deer, in which the horns are periodically renewed, +the drain on the constitution must be greater; the horns, for instance, +of the moose weigh from fifty to sixty pounds, and those of the extinct +Irish elk from sixty to seventy pounds,--the skull of the latter +weighing on an average only five and a quarter pounds. With sheep, +although the horns are not periodically renewed, yet their development, +in the opinion of many agriculturists, entails a sensible loss to the +breeder. Stags, moreover, in escaping from beasts of prey are loaded +with an additional weight for the race, and are greatly retarded in +passing through a woody country. The moose, for instance, with horns +extending five and a half feet from tip to tip, although so skilful in +their use that he will not touch or break a dead twig when walking +quietly, cannot act so dexterously whilst rushing away from a pack of +wolves. "During his progress he holds his nose up, so as to lay the +horns horizontally back; and in this attitude cannot see the ground +distinctly."[317] The tips of the horns of the great Irish elk were +actually eight feet apart! Whilst the horns are covered with velvet, +which lasts with the red-deer for about twelve weeks, they are extremely +sensitive to a blow; so that in Germany the stags at this time change +their habits to a certain extent, and avoid dense forests, frequenting +young woods and low thickets.[318] These facts remind us, that male +birds have acquired ornamental plumes at the cost of retarded flight, +and other ornaments at the cost of some loss of power in their battles +with rival males. + +With quadrupeds, when, as is often the case, the sexes differ in size, +the males are, I believe, always larger and stronger. This holds good in +a marked manner, as I am informed by Mr. Gould, with the marsupials of +Australia, the males of which appear to continue growing until an +unusually late age. But the most extraordinary case is that of one of +the seals (_Callorhinus ursinus_), a full-grown female weighing less +than one-sixth of a full-grown male.[319] The greater strength of the +male is invariably displayed, as Hunter long ago remarked,[320] in those +parts of the body which are brought into action in fighting with rival +males,--for instance, in the massive neck of the bull. Male quadrupeds +are also more courageous and pugnacious than the females. There can be +little doubt that these characters have been gained, partly through +sexual selection, owing to a long series of victories by the stronger +and more courageous males over the weaker, and partly through the +inherited effects of use. It is probable that the successive variations +in strength, size, and courage, whether due to so-called spontaneous +variability or to the effects of use, by the accumulation of which male +quadrupeds have acquired these characteristic qualities, occurred rather +late in life, and were consequently to a large extent limited in their +transmission to the same sex. + +Under this point of view I was anxious to obtain information in regard +to the Scotch deerhound, the sexes of which differ more in size than +those of any other breed (though blood-hounds differ considerably), or +than in any wild canine species known to me. + +Accordingly, I applied to Mr. Cupples, a well-known breeder of these +dogs, who has weighed and measured many of his own dogs, and who, with +great kindness, has collected for me the following facts from various +sources. Superior male dogs, measured at the shoulder, range from +twenty-eight inches, which is low, to thirty-three, or even thirty-four +inches in height; and in weight from eighty pounds, which is low, to +120, or even more pounds. The females range in height from twenty-three +to twenty-seven, or even to twenty-eight inches; and in weight from +fifty to seventy, or even eighty pounds.[321] Mr. Cupples concludes that +from ninety-five to one hundred pounds for the male, and seventy for the +female, would be a safe average; but there is reason to believe that +formerly both sexes attained a greater weight. Mr. Cupples has weighed +puppies when a fortnight old; in one litter the average weight of four +males exceeded that of two females by six and a half ounces; in another +litter the average weight of four males exceeded that of one female by +less than one ounce; the same males, when three weeks old, exceeded the +female by seven and a half ounces, and at the age of six weeks by nearly +fourteen ounces. Mr. Wright of Yeldersley House, in a letter to Mr. +Cupples, says: "I have taken notes on the sizes and weights of puppies +of many litters, and as far as my experience goes, dog-puppies as a rule +differ very little from bitches till they arrive at about five or six +months old; and then the dogs begin to increase, gaining upon the +bitches both in weight and size. At birth, and for several weeks +afterwards, a bitch-puppy will occasionally be larger than any of the +dogs, but they are invariably beaten by them later." Mr. McNeill, of +Colinsay, concludes that "the males do not attain their full growth till +over two years old, though the females attain it sooner." According to +Mr. Cupples' experience, male dogs go on growing in stature till they +are from twelve to eighteen months old, and in weight till from eighteen +to twenty-four months old; whilst the females cease increasing in +stature at the age of from nine to fourteen or fifteen months, and in +weight at the age of from twelve to fifteen months. From these various +statements it is clear that the full difference in size between the male +and female Scotch deerhound is not acquired until rather late in life. +The males are almost exclusively used for coursing, for, as Mr. McNeill +informs me, the females have not sufficient strength and weight to pull +down a full-grown deer. From the names used in old legends, it appears, +as I hear from Mr. Cupples, that at a very ancient period the males were +the most celebrated, the females being mentioned only as the mothers of +famous dogs. Hence during many generations, it is the male which has +been chiefly tested for strength, size, speed, and courage, and the best +will have been bred from. As, however, the males do not attain their +full dimensions until a rather late period in life, they will have +tended, in accordance with the law often indicated, to transmit their +characters to their male offspring alone; and thus the great inequality +in size between the sexes of the Scotch deerhound may probably be +accounted for. + +[Illustration: Fig. 63. Head of common wild boar, in prime of life (from +Brehm).] + +The males of some few quadrupeds possess organs or parts developed +solely as a means of defence against the attacks of other males. Some +kinds of deer use, as we have seen, the upper branches of their horns +chiefly or exclusively for defending themselves; and the Oryx antelope, +as I am informed by Mr. Bartlett, fences most skilfully with his long, +gently curved horns; but these are likewise used as organs of offence. +Rhinoceroses, as the same observer remarks, in fighting parry each +other's sidelong blows with their horns, which loudly clatter together, +as do the tusks of boars. Although wild boars fight desperately +together, they seldom, according to Brehm, receive fatal blows, as these +fall on each other's tusks, or on the layer of gristly skin covering the +shoulder, which the German hunters call the shield; and here we have a +part specially modified for defence. With boars in the prime of life +(see fig. 63) the tusks in the lower jaw are used for fighting but they +become in old age, as Brehm states, so much curved inwards and upwards, +over the snout, that they can no longer be thus used. They may, however, +still continue to serve, and even in a still more effective manner, as a +means of defence. In compensation for the loss of the lower tusks as +weapons of offence, those in the upper jaw, which always project a +little laterally, increase so much in length during old age, and curve +so much upwards, that they can be used as a means of attack. +Nevertheless an old boar is not so dangerous to man as one at the age +of six or seven years.[322] + +[Illustration: Fig 64. Skull of the Babirusa Pig (from Wallace's 'Malay +Archipelago')] + +In the full-grown male Babirusa pig of Celebes (fig. 64), the lower +tusks are formidable weapons, like those of the European boar in the +prime of life, whilst the upper tusks are so long and have their points +so much curled inwards, sometimes even touching the forehead, that they +are utterly useless as weapons of attack. They more nearly resemble +horns than teeth, and are so manifestly useless as teeth that the animal +was formerly supposed to rest his head by hooking them on to a branch. +Their convex surfaces would, however, if the head were held a little +laterally, serve as an excellent guard; and hence, perhaps it is that in +old animals they "are generally broken off, as if by fighting."[323] +Here, then, we have the curious case of the upper tusks of the Babirusa +regularly assuming during the prime of life, a structure which +apparently renders them fitted only for defence; whilst in the European +boar the lower and opposite tusks assume in a less degree and only +during old age nearly the same form, and then serve in like manner +solely for defence. + +[Illustration: Fig. 65. Head of Æthiopian Wart-hog, from 'Proc. Zool. +Soc.' 1869. (I now find that this drawing represents the head of a +female, but it serves to shew, on a reduced scale, the characters of the +male.)] + +In the wart-hog (_Phacochoerus æthiopicus_, fig. 65) the tusks in the +upper jaw of the male curve upwards during the prime of life, and from +being pointed, serve as formidable weapons. The tusks in the lower jaw +are sharper than those in the upper, but from their shortness it seems +hardly possible that they can be used as weapons of attack. They must, +however, greatly strengthen those in the upper jaw, from being ground +so as to fit closely against their bases. Neither the upper nor the +lower tusks appear to have been specially modified to act as guards, +though, no doubt, they are thus used to a certain extent. But the +wart-hog is not destitute of other special means of protection, for +there exists, on each side of the face, beneath the eyes, a rather +stiff, yet flexible, cartilaginous, oblong pad (fig. 65), which projects +two or three inches outwards; and it appeared to Mr. Bartlett and +myself, when viewing the living animal, that these pads, when struck +from beneath by the tusks of an opponent, would be turned upwards, and +would thus protect in an admirable manner the somewhat prominent eyes. +These boars, as I may add on the authority of Mr. Bartlett, when +fighting together, stand directly face to face. + +Lastly, the African river-hog (_Potamochoerus penicillatus_) has a hard +cartilaginous knob on each side of the face beneath the eyes, which +answers to the flexible pad of the wart-hog; it has also two bony +prominences on the upper jaw above the nostrils. A boar of this species +in the Zoological Gardens recently broke into the cage of the wart-hog. +They fought all night-long, and were found in the morning much +exhausted, but not seriously wounded. It is a significant fact, as +shewing the purpose of the above-described projections and excrescences, +that these were covered with blood, and were scored and abraded in an +extraordinary manner. + +The mane of the lion forms a good defence against the one danger to +which he is liable, namely the attacks of rival lions: for the males, as +Sir. A. Smith informs me, engage in terrible battles, and a young lion +dares not approach an old one. In 1857 a tiger at Bromwich broke into +the cage of a lion, and a fearful scene ensued; "the lion's mane saved +his neck and head from being much injured, but the tiger at last +succeeded in ripping up his belly, and in a few minutes he was +dead."[324] The broad ruff round the throat and chin of the Canadian +lynx (_Felis Canadensis_) is much longer in the male than in the female; +but whether it serves as a defence I do not know. Male seals are well +known to fight desperately together, and the males of certain kinds +(_Otaria jubata_)[325] have great manes, whilst the females have small +ones or none. The male baboon of the Cape of Good Hope (_Cynocephalus +porcarius_) has a much longer mane and larger canine teeth than the +female; and the mane probably serves as a protection, for on asking the +keepers in the Zoological Gardens, without giving them any clue to my +object, whether any of the monkeys especially attacked each other by the +nape of the neck, I was answered that this was not the case, excepting +with the above baboon. In the Hamadryas baboon, Ehrenberg compares the +mane of the adult male to that of a young lion, whilst in the young of +both sexes and in the female the mane is almost absent. + +It appeared to me probable that the immense woolly mane of the male +American bison, which reaches almost to the ground, and is much more +developed in the males than in the females, served as a protection to +them in their terrible battles; but an experienced hunter told Judge +Caton that he had never observed anything which favoured this belief. +The stallion has a thicker and fuller mane than the mare; and I have +made particular inquiries of two great trainers and breeders who have +had charge of many entire horses, and am assured that they "invariably +endeavour to seize one another by the neck." It does not, however, +follow from the foregoing statements, that when the hair on the neck +serves as a defence, that it was originally developed for this purpose, +though this is probable in some cases, as in that of the lion. I am +informed by Mr. McNeill that the long hairs on the throat of the stag +(_Cervus elephas_) serve as a great protection to him when hunted, for +the dogs generally endeavour to seize him by the throat; but it is not +probable that these hairs were specially developed for this purpose; +otherwise the young and the females would, as we may feel assured, have +been equally protected. + + +_On Preference or Choice in Pairing, as shewn by either sex of +Quadrupeds._--Before describing, in the next chapter, the differences +between the sexes in voice, odour emitted, and ornamentation, it will be +convenient here to consider whether the sexes exert any choice in their +unions. Does the female prefer any particular male, either before or +after the males may have fought together for supremacy; or does the +male, when not a polygamist, select any particular female? The general +impression amongst breeders seems to be that the male accepts any +female; and this, owing to his eagerness, is, in most cases, probably +the truth. Whether the female as a general rule indifferently accepts +any male is much more doubtful. In the fourteenth chapter, on Birds, a +considerable body of direct and indirect evidence was advanced, shewing +that the female selects her partner; and it would be a strange anomaly +if female quadrupeds, which stand higher in the scale of organisation +and have higher mental powers, did not generally, or at least often, +exert some choice. The female could in most cases escape, if wooed by a +male that did not please or excite her; and when pursued, as so +incessantly occurs, by several males, she would often have the +opportunity, whilst they were fighting together, of escaping with, or at +least of temporarily pairing with, some one male. This latter +contingency has often been observed in Scotland with female red-deer, as +I have been informed by Sir Philip Egerton.[326] + +It is scarcely possible that much should be known about female +quadrupeds exerting in a state of nature any choice in their marriage +unions. The following very curious details on the courtship of one of +the eared seals, _Callorhinus ursinus_, are given[327] on the authority +of Capt. Bryant, who had ample opportunities for observation. He says, +"Many of the females on their arrival at the island where they breed +appear desirous of returning to some particular male, and frequently +climb the outlying rocks to overlook the rookeries, calling out and +listening as if for a familiar voice. Then changing to another place +they do the same again.... As soon as a female reaches the shore, the +nearest male goes down to meet her, making meanwhile a noise like the +clucking of a hen to her chickens. He bows to her and coaxes her until +he gets between her and the water so that she cannot escape him. Then +his manner changes, and with a harsh growl he drives her to a place in +his harem. This continues until the lower row of harems is nearly full. +Then the males higher up select the time when their more fortunate +neighbours are off their guard to steal their wives. This they do by +taking them in their mouths and lifting them over the heads of the other +females, and carefully placing them in their own harem, carrying them as +cats do their kittens. Those still higher up pursue the same method +until the whole space is occupied. Frequently a struggle ensues between +two males for the possession of the same female, and both seizing her at +once pull her in two or terribly lacerate her with their teeth. When the +space is all filled, the old male walks around complacently reviewing +his family, scolding those who crowd or disturb the others, and fiercely +driving off all intruders. This surveillance always keeps him actively +occupied." + +As so little is known about the courtship of animals in a state of +nature, I have endeavoured to discover how far our domesticated +quadrupeds evince any choice in their unions. Dogs offer the best +opportunity for observation, as they are carefully attended to and well +understood. Many breeders have expressed a strong opinion on this head. +Thus Mr. Mayhew remarks, "The females are able to bestow their +affections; and tender recollections are as potent over them as they are +known to be in other cases, where higher animals are concerned. Bitches +are not always prudent in their loves, but are apt to fling themselves +away on curs of low degree. If reared with a companion of vulgar +appearance, there often springs up between the pair a devotion which no +time can afterwards subdue. The passion, for such it really is, becomes +of a more than romantic endurance." Mr. Mayhew, who attended chiefly to +the smaller breeds, is convinced that the females are strongly attracted +by males of large size.[328] The well-known veterinary Blaine +states[329] that his own female pug became so attached to a spaniel, and +a female setter to a cur, that in neither case would they pair with a +dog of their own breed until several weeks had elapsed. Two similar and +trustworthy accounts have been given me in regard to a female retriever +and a spaniel, both of which became enamoured with terrier-dogs. + +Mr. Cupples informs me that he can personally vouch for the accuracy of +the following more remarkable case, in which a valuable and +wonderfully-intelligent female terrier loved a retriever, belonging to a +neighbour, to such a degree that she had often to be dragged away from +him. After their permanent separation, although repeatedly shewing milk +in her teats, she would never acknowledge the courtship of any other +dog, and to the regret of her owner, never bore puppies. Mr. Cupples +also states that a female deerhound now (1868) in his kennel has thrice +produced puppies, and on each occasion shewed a marked preference for +one of the largest and handsomest, but not the most eager, of four +deerhounds living with her, all in the prime of life. Mr. Cupples has +observed that the female generally favours a dog whom she has associated +with and knows; her shyness and timidity at first incline her against a +strange dog. The male, on the contrary, seems rather inclined towards +strange females. It appears to be rare when the male refuses any +particular female, but Mr. Wright, of Yeldersley House, a great breeder +of dogs, informs me that he has known some instances; he cites the case +of one of his own deerhounds, who would not take any notice of a +particular female mastiff, so that another deerhound had to be +employed. It would be superfluous to give other cases, and I will only +add that Mr. Barr, who has carefully bred many blood-hounds, states that +in almost every instance particular individuals of the opposite sex shew +a decided preference for each other. Finally Mr. Cupples, after +attending to this subject for another year, has recently written to me, +"I have had full confirmation of my former statement, that dogs in +breeding form decided preferences for each other, being often influenced +by size, bright colour, and individual character, as well as by the +degree of their previous familiarity." + +In regard to horses, Mr. Blenkiron, the greatest breeder of race-horses +in the world, informs me that stallions are so frequently capricious in +their choice, rejecting one mare and without any apparent cause taking +to another, that various artifices have to be habitually used. The +famous Monarque, for instance, would never consciously look at the dam +of Gladiateur, and a trick had to be practised. We can partly see the +reason why valuable race-horse stallions, which are in such demand, +should be so particular in their choice. Mr. Blenkiron has never known a +mare to reject a horse; but this has occurred in Mr. Wright's stable, so +that the mare had to be cheated. Prosper Lucas[330] quotes various +statements from French authorities, and remarks, "On voit des étalons +qui s'éprennent d'une jument, et négligent toutes les autres." He gives, +on the authority of Baëlen, similar facts in regard to bulls. Hoffberg, +in describing the domesticated reindeer of Lapland, says, "Foemina +majores et fortiores mares præ cæteris admittunt, ad eos confugiunt, a +junioribus agitatæ, qui hos in fugam conjiciunt."[331] A clergyman, who +has bred many pigs, assures me that sows often reject one boar and +immediately accept another. + +From these facts there can be no doubt that with most of our +domesticated quadrupeds strong individual antipathies and preferences +are frequently exhibited, and much more commonly by the female than by +the male. This being the case, it is improbable that the unions of +quadrupeds in a state of nature should be left to mere chance. It is +much more probable that the females are allured or excited by particular +males, who possess certain characters in a higher degree than other +males; but what these characters are, we can seldom or never discover +with certainty. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + +SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS OF MAMMALS--_continued_. + + + Voice--Remarkable sexual peculiarities in + seals--Odour--Development of the hair--Colour of the hair and + skin--Anomalous case of the female being more ornamented than + the male--Colour and ornaments due to sexual selection--Colour + acquired for the sake of protection--Colour, though common to + both sexes, often due to sexual selection--On the + disappearance of spots and stripes in adult quadrupeds--On the + colours and ornaments of the Quadrumana--Summary. + + +Quadrupeds use their voices for various purposes, as a signal of danger, +as a call from one member of a troop to another, or from the mother to +her lost offspring, or from the latter for protection to their mother; +but such uses need not here be considered. We are concerned only with +the difference between the voices of the two sexes, for instance between +that of the lion and lioness, or of the bull and cow. Almost all male +animals use their voices much more during the rutting-season than at any +other time; and some, as the giraffe and porcupine,[332] are said to be +completely mute excepting at this season. As the throats (i.e. the +larynx and thyroid bodies[333]) of stags become periodically enlarged at +the commencement of the breeding-season, it might be thought that their +powerful voices must be then in some way of high importance to them; but +this is very doubtful. From information given to me by two experienced +observers, Mr. McNeill and Sir P. Egerton, it seems that young stags +under three years old do not roar or bellow; and that the old ones begin +bellowing at the commencement of the breeding-season, at first only +occasionally and moderately, whilst they restlessly wander about in +search of the females. Their battles are prefaced by loud and prolonged +bellowing, but during the actual conflict they are silent. Animals of +all kinds which habitually use their voices, utter various noises under +any strong emotion, as when enraged and preparing to fight; but this may +merely be the result of their nervous excitement, which leads to the +spasmodic contraction of almost all the muscles of the body, as when a +man grinds his teeth and clenches his hands in rage or agony. No doubt +stags challenge each other to mortal combat by bellowing; but it is not +likely that this habit could have led through sexual selection, that is +by the loudest-voiced males having been the most successful in their +conflicts, to the periodical enlargement of the vocal organs; for the +stags with the most powerful voices, unless at the same time the +strongest, best-armed, and most courageous, would not have gained any +advantage over their rivals with weaker voices. The stags, moreover, +which had weaker voices, though not so well able to challenge other +stags, would have been drawn to the place of combat as certainly as +those with stronger voices. + +It is possible that the roaring of the lion may be of some actual +service to him in striking terror into his adversary; for when enraged +he likewise erects his mane and thus instinctively tries to make himself +appear as terrible as possible. But it can hardly be supposed that the +bellowing of the stag, even if it be of any service to him in this way, +can have been important enough to have led to the periodical enlargement +of the throat. Some writers suggest that the bellowing serves as a call +to the female; but the experienced observers above quoted inform me that +female deer do not search for the male, though the males search eagerly +for the females, as indeed might be expected from what we know of the +habits of other male quadrupeds. The voice of the female, on the other +hand, quickly brings to her one or more stags,[334] as is well known to +the hunters who in wild countries imitate her cry. If we could believe +that the male had the power to excite or allure the female by his voice, +the periodical enlargement of his vocal organs would be intelligible on +the principle of sexual selection, together with inheritance limited to +the same sex and season of the year; but we have no evidence in favour +of this view. As the case stands, the loud voice of the stag during the +breeding season does not seem to be of any special service to him, +either during his courtship or battles, or in any other way. But may we +not believe that the frequent use of the voice, under the strong +excitement of love, jealousy, and rage, continued during many +generations, may at last have produced an inherited effect on the vocal +organs of the stag, as well as of other male animals? This appears to +me, with our present state of knowledge, the most probable view. + +The male gorilla has a tremendous voice, and when adult is furnished +with a laryngeal sack, as is likewise the adult male orang.[335] The +gibbons rank amongst the noisiest of monkeys, and the Sumatra species +(_Hylobates syndactylus_) is also furnished with a laryngeal sack; but +Mr. Blyth, who has had opportunities for observation, does not believe +that the male is more noisy than the female. Hence, these latter monkeys +probably use their voices as a mutual call; and this is certainly the +case with some quadrupeds, for instance with the beaver.[336] Another +gibbon, the _H. agilis_, is highly remarkable, from having the power of +emitting a complete and correct octave of musical notes,[337] which we +may reasonably suspect serves as a sexual charm; but I shall have to +recur to this subject in the next chapter. The vocal organs of the +American _Mycetes caraya_ are one-third larger in the male than in the +female, and are wonderfully powerful. These monkeys, when the weather is +warm, make the forests resound during the morning and evening with their +overwhelming voices. The males begin the dreadful concert, in which the +females, with their less powerful voices, sometimes join, and which is +often continued during many hours. An excellent observer, Rengger,[338] +could not perceive that they were excited to begin their concert by any +special cause; he thinks that like many birds, they delight in their own +music, and try to excel each other. Whether most of the foregoing +monkeys have acquired their powerful voices in order to beat their +rivals and to charm the females--or whether the vocal organs have been +strengthened and enlarged through the inherited effects of +long-continued use without any particular good being gained--I will not +pretend to say; but the former view, at least in the case of the +_Hylobates agilis_, seems the most probable. + +I may here mention two very curious sexual peculiarities occurring in +seals, because they have been supposed by some writers to affect the +voice. The nose of the male sea-elephant (_Macrorhinus proboscideus_), +when about three years old, is greatly elongated during the +breeding-season, and can then be erected. In this state it is sometimes +a foot in length. The female at no period of life is thus provided, and +her voice is different. That of the male consists of a wild, hoarse, +gurgling noise, which is audible at a great distance, and is believed to +be strengthened by the proboscis. Lesson compares the erection of the +proboscis, to the swelling of the wattles of male gallinaceous birds, +whilst they court the females. In another allied kind of seal, namely, +the bladder-nose (_Cystophora cristata_), the head is covered by a great +hood or bladder. This is internally supported by the septum of the nose, +which is produced far backwards and rises into a crest seven inches in +height. The hood is clothed with short hair, and is muscular; it can be +inflated until it more than equals the whole head in size! The males +when rutting fight furiously on the ice, and their roaring "is said to +be sometimes so loud as to be heard four miles off." When attacked by +man they likewise roar or bellow; and whenever irritated the bladder is +inflated. Some naturalists believe that the voice is thus strengthened, +but various other uses have been assigned to this extraordinary +structure. Mr. R. Brown thinks that it serves as a protection against +accidents of all kinds. This latter view is not probable, if what the +sealers have long maintained is correct, namely, that the hood or +bladder is very poorly developed in the females and in the males whilst +young.[339] + + +_Odour._--With some animals, as with the notorious skunk of America, the +overwhelming odour which they emit appears to serve exclusively as a +means of defence. With shrew-mice (Sorex) both sexes possess abdominal +scent-glands, and there can be little doubt, from the manner in which +their bodies are rejected by birds and beasts of prey, that their odour +is protective; nevertheless the glands become enlarged in the males +during the breeding-season. In many quadrupeds the glands are of the +same size in both sexes;[340] but their use is not known. In other +species the glands are confined to the males, or are more developed in +them than in the females; and they almost always become more active +during the rutting-season. At this period the glands on the sides of the +face of the male elephant enlarge and emit a secretion having a strong +musky odour. + +The rank effluvium of the male goat is well known, and that of certain +male deer is wonderfully strong and persistent. On the banks of the +Plata I have perceived the whole air tainted with the odour of the male +_Cervus campestris_, at the distance of half a mile to leeward of a +herd; and a silk handkerchief, in which I carried home a skin, though +repeatedly used and washed, retained, when first unfolded, traces of the +odour for one year and seven months. This animal does not emit its +strong odour until more than a year old, and if castrated whilst young +never emits it.[341] Besides the general odour, with which the whole +body of certain ruminants seems to be permeated during the +breeding-season, many deer, antelopes, sheep, and goats, possess +odoriferous glands in various situations, more especially on their +faces. The so-called tear-sacks or suborbital pits come under this head. +These glands secrete a semi-fluid fetid matter, which is sometimes so +copious as to stain the whole face, as I have seen in the case of an +antelope. They are "usually larger in the male than in the female, and +their development is checked by castration."[342] According to Desmarest +they are altogether absent in the female of _Antilope subgutturosa_. +Hence, there can be no doubt that they stand in some close relation with +the reproductive functions. They are also sometimes present, and +sometimes absent, in nearly-allied forms. In the adult male musk-deer +(_Moschus moschiferus_), a naked space round the tail is bedewed with an +odoriferous fluid, whilst in the adult female, and in the male, until +two years old, this space is covered with hair and is not odoriferous. +The proper musk-sack, from its position, is necessarily confined to the +male, and forms an additional scent-organ. It is a singular fact that +the matter secreted by this latter gland does not, according to Pallas, +change in consistence, or increase in quantity, during the +rutting-season; nevertheless this naturalist admits that its presence is +in some way connected with the act of reproduction. He gives, however, +only a conjectural and unsatisfactory explanation of its use.[343] + +In most cases, when during the breeding-season the male alone emits a +strong odour, this probably serves to excite or allure the female. We +must not judge on this head by our own taste, for it is well known that +rats are enticed by certain essential oils, and cats by valerian, +substances which are far from agreeable to us; and that dogs, though +they will not eat carrion, sniff and roll in it. From the reasons given +when discussing the voice of the stag, we may reject the idea that the +odour serves to bring the females from a distance to the males. Active +and long-continued use cannot here have come into play, as in the case +of the vocal organs. The odour emitted must be of considerable +importance to the male, inasmuch as large and complex glands, furnished +with muscles for everting the sack, and for closing or opening the +orifice, have in some cases been developed. The development of these +organs is intelligible through sexual selection, if the more odoriferous +males are the most successful in winning the females, and in leaving +offspring to inherit their gradually-perfected glands and odours. + + +_Development of the Hair._--We have seen that male quadrupeds often have +the hair on their necks and shoulders much more developed than in the +females; and many additional instances could be given. This sometimes +serves as a defence to the male during his battles; but whether the hair +in most cases has been specially developed for this purpose is very +doubtful. We may feel almost certain that this is not the case, when a +thin and narrow crest runs along the whole length of the back; for a +crest of this kind would afford scarcely any protection, and the ridge +of the back is not a likely place to be injured; nevertheless such +crests are sometimes confined to the males, or are much more developed +in them than in the females. Two antelopes, the _Tragelaphus +scriptus_[344] (see fig. 68, p. 300) and _Portax picta_, may be given as +instances. The crests of certain stags and of the male wild goat stand +erect, when these animals are enraged or terrified;[345] but it can +hardly be supposed that they have been acquired for the sake of exciting +fear in their enemies. One of the above-named antelopes, the _Portax +picta_, has a large well-defined brush of black hair on the throat, and +this is much larger in the male than in the female. In the _Ammotragus +tragelaphus_ of North Africa, a member of the sheep-family, the +front-legs are almost concealed by an extraordinary growth of hair, +which depends from the neck and upper halves of the legs; but Mr. +Bartlett does not believe that this mantle is of the least use to the +male, in whom it is much more developed than in the female. + +Male quadrupeds of many kinds differ from the females in having more +hair, or hair of a different character, on certain parts of their faces. +The bull alone has curled hair on the forehead.[346] In three +closely-allied sub-genera of the goat family, the males alone possess +beards, sometimes of large size; in two other sub-genera both sexes have +a beard, but this disappears in some of the domestic breeds of the +common goat; and neither sex of the Hemitragus has a beard. In the ibex +the beard is not developed during the summer, and is so small at other +seasons that it may be called rudimentary.[347] With some monkeys the +beard is confined to the male, as in the Orang, or is much larger in the +male than in the female, as in the _Mycetes caraya_ and _Pithecia +satanas_ (fig. 66). So it is with the whiskers of some species of +Macacus,[348] and, as we have seen, with the manes of some species of +baboons. But with most kinds of monkeys the various tufts of hair about +the face and head are alike in both sexes. + +[Illustration: Fig. 66. Pithecia Satanas, male (from Brehm).] + +The males of various members of the Ox family (Bovidæ), and of certain +antelopes, are furnished with a dewlap, or great fold of skin on the +neck, which is much less developed in the female. + +Now, what must we conclude with respect to such sexual differences as +these? No one will pretend that the beards of certain male-goats, or the +dewlap of the bull, or the crests of hair along the backs of certain +male antelopes, are of any direct or ordinary use to them. It is +possible that the immense beard of the male Pithecia, and the large +beard of the male Orang, may protect their throats when fighting; for +the keepers in the Zoological Gardens inform me that many monkeys attack +each other by the throat: but it is not probable that the beard has been +developed for a distinct purpose from that which the whiskers, +moustache, and other tufts of hair on the face serve; and no one will +suppose that these are useful as a protection. Must we attribute to mere +purposeless variability in the male all these appendages of hair or +skin? It cannot be denied that this is possible; for with many +domesticated quadrupeds, certain characters, apparently not derived +through reversion from any wild parent-form, have appeared in, and are +confined to, the males, or are more largely developed in them than in +the females,--for instance the hump in the male zebu-cattle of India, +the tail in fat-tailed rams, the arched outline of the forehead in the +males of several breeds of sheep, the mane in the ram of an African +breed, and, lastly, the mane, long hairs on the hinder legs, and the +dewlap in the male alone of the Berbura goat.[349] The mane which occurs +in the rams alone of the above-mentioned African breed of sheep, is a +true secondary sexual character, for it is not developed, as I hear from +Mr. Winwood Reade, if the animal be castrated. Although we ought to be +extremely cautious, as shewn in my work on 'Variation under +Domestication,' in concluding that any character, even with animals kept +by semi-civilised people, has not been subjected to selection by man, +and thus augmented; yet in the cases just specified this is improbable, +more especially as the characters are confined to the males, or are more +strongly developed in them than in the females. If it were positively +known that the African ram with a mane was descended from the same +primitive stock with the other breeds of sheep, or the Berbura male-goat +with his mane, dewlap, &c., from the same stock with other goats; and if +selection has not been applied to these characters, then they must be +due to simple variability, together with sexually-limited inheritance. + +In this case it would appear reasonable to extend the same view to the +many analogous characters occurring in animals under a state of nature. +Nevertheless I cannot persuade myself that this view is applicable in +many cases, as in that of the extraordinary development of hair on the +throat and forelegs of the male Ammotragus, or of the immense beard of +the male Pithecia. With those antelopes in which the male when adult is +more strongly-coloured than the female, and with those monkeys in which +this is likewise the case, and in which the hair on the face is of a +different colour from that on the rest of the head, being arranged in +the most diversified and elegant manner, it seems probable that the +crests and tufts of hair have been acquired as ornaments; and this I +know is the opinion of some naturalists. If this view be correct, there +can be little doubt that they have been acquired, or at least modified, +through sexual selection. + + +_Colour of the Hair and of the Naked Skin._--I will first give briefly +all the cases known to me, of male quadrupeds differing in colour from +the females. With Marsupials, as I am informed by Mr. Gould, the sexes +rarely differ in this respect; but the great red kangaroo offers a +striking exception, "delicate blue being the prevailing tint in those +parts of the female, which in the male are red."[350] In the _Didelphis +opossum_ of Cayenne the female is said to be a little more red than the +male. With Rodents Dr. Gray remarks: "African squirrels, especially +those found in the tropical regions, have the fur much brighter and more +vivid at some seasons of the year than at others, and the fur of the +male is generally brighter than that of the female."[351] Dr. Gray +informs me that he specified the African squirrels, because, from their +unusually bright colours, they best exhibit this difference. The female +of the _Mus minutus_ of Russia is of a paler and dirtier tint than the +male. In some few bats the fur of the male is lighter and brighter than +in the female.[352] + +The terrestrial Carnivora and Insectivora rarely exhibit sexual +differences of any kind, and their colours are almost always exactly the +same in both sexes. The ocelot (_Felis pardalis_), however, offers an +exception, for the colours of the female, compared with those of the +male, are "moins apparentes, le fauve étant plus terne, le blanc moins +pur, les raies ayant moins de largeur et les taches moins de +diamètre."[353] The sexes of the allied _Felis mitis_ also differ, but +even in a less degree, the general hues of the female being rather paler +than in the male, with the spots less black. The marine Carnivora or +Seals, on the other hand, sometimes differ considerably in colour, and +they present, as we have already seen, other remarkable sexual +differences. Thus the male of the _Otaria nigrescens_ of the southern +hemisphere is of a rich brown shade above; whilst the female, who +acquires her adult tints earlier in life than the male, is dark-grey +above, the young of both sexes being of a very deep chocolate colour. +The male of the northern _Phoca groenlandica_ is tawny grey, with a +curious saddle-shaped dark mark on the back; the female is much smaller, +and has a very different appearance, being "dull white or yellowish +straw-colour, with a tawny hue on the back;" the young at first are pure +white, and can "hardly be distinguished among the icy hummocks and snow, +their colour thus acting as a protection."[354] + +With Ruminants sexual differences of colour occur more commonly than in +any other order. A difference of this kind is general with the +Strepsicerene antelopes; thus the male nilghau (_Portax picta_) is +bluish-grey and much darker than the female, with the square white patch +on the throat, the white marks on the fetlocks, and the black spots on +the ears, all much more distinct. We have seen that in this species the +crests and tufts of hair are likewise more developed in the male than in +the hornless female. The male, as I am informed by Mr. Blyth, without +shedding his hair, periodically becomes darker during the +breeding-season. Young males cannot be distinguished from young females +until above twelve months old; and if the male is emasculated before +this period, he never, according to the same authority, changes colour. +The importance of this latter fact, as distinctive of sexual colouring, +becomes obvious, when we hear[355] that neither the red summer-coat nor +the blue winter-coat of the Virginian deer is at all affected by +emasculation. With most or all of the highly-ornamented species of +Tragelaphus the males are darker than the hornless females, and their +crests of hair are more fully developed. In the male of that magnificent +antelope, the _Derbyan Eland_, the body is redder, the whole neck much +blacker, and the white band which separates these colours, broader, than +in the female. In the Cape Eland also, the male is slightly darker than +the female.[356] + +In the Indian Black-buck (_A. bezoartica_), which belongs to another +tribe of antelopes, the male is very dark, almost black; whilst the +hornless female is fawn-coloured. We have in this species, as Mr. Blyth +informs me, an exactly parallel series of facts, as with the _Portax +picta_, namely in the male periodically changing colour during the +breeding season, in the effects of emasculation on this change, and in +the young of both sexes being undistinguishable from each other. In the +_Antilope niger_ the male is black, the female as well as the young +being brown; in _A. sing-sing_ the male is much brighter coloured than +the hornless female, and his chest and belly are blacker; in the male +_A. caama_, the marks and lines which occur on various parts of the body +are black instead of as in the female brown; in the brindled gnu (_A. +gorgon_) "the colours of the male are nearly the same as those of the +female, only deeper and of a brighter hue."[357] Other analogous cases +could be added. + +The Banteng bull (_Bos sondaicus_) of the Malayan archipelago is almost +black, with white legs and buttocks; the cow is of a bright dun, as are +the young males until about the age of three years, when they rapidly +change colour. The emasculated bull reverts to the colour of the female. +The female Kemas goat is paler, and the female _Capra ægagrus_ is said +to be more uniformly tinted than their respective males. Deer rarely +present any sexual differences in colour. Judge Caton, however, informs +me that with the males of the Wapiti deer (_Cervus Canadensis_) the +neck, belly, and legs are much darker than the same parts in the female; +but during the winter the darker tints gradually fade away and +disappear. I may here mention that Judge Caton has in his park three +races of the Virginian deer, which differ slightly in colour, but the +differences are almost exclusively confined to the blue winter or +breeding coat; so that this case may be compared with those given in a +previous chapter of closely-allied or representative species of birds +which differ from each other only in their nuptial plumage.[358] The +females of _Cervus paludosus_ of S. America, as well as the young of +both sexes, do not possess the black stripes on the nose, and the +blackish-brown line on the breast which characterise the adult +males.[359] Lastly, the mature male of the beautifully coloured and +spotted Axis deer is considerably darker, as I am informed by Mr. Blyth, +than the female; and this hue the castrated male never acquires. + +The last Order which we have to consider--for I am not aware that sexual +differences in colour occur in the other mammalian groups--is that of +the Primates. The male of the _Lemur macaco_ is coal-black, whilst the +female is reddish-yellow, but highly variable in colour.[360] Of the +Quadrumana of the New World, the females and young of _Mycetes caraya_ +are greyish-yellow and alike; in the second year the young male becomes +reddish-brown, in the third year black, excepting the stomach, which, +however, becomes quite black in the fourth or fifth year. There is also +a strongly-marked difference in colour between the sexes in _Mycetes +seniculus_ and _Cebus capucinus_; the young of the former and I believe +of the latter species resembling the females. With _Pithecia +leucocephala_ the young likewise resemble the females, which are +brownish-black above and light rusty-red beneath, the adult males being +black. The ruff of hair round the face of _Ateles marginatus_ is tinted +yellow in the male and white in the female. Turning to the Old World, +the males of _Hylobates hoolock_ are always black, with the exception of +a white band over the brows; the females vary from whity-brown to a dark +tint mixed with black, but are never wholly black.[361] In the beautiful +_Cercopithecus diana_ the head of the adult male is of an intense black, +whilst that of the female is dark grey; in the former the fur between +the thighs is of an elegant fawn-colour, in the latter it is paler. In +the equally beautiful and curious moustache monkey (_Cercopithecus +cephus_) the only difference between the sexes is that the tail of the +male is chesnut and that of the female grey; but Mr. Bartlett informs me +that all the hues become more strongly pronounced in the male when +adult, whilst in the female they remain as they were during youth. +According to the coloured figures given by Solomon Müller, the male of +_Semnopithecus chrysomelas_ is nearly black, the female being pale +brown. In the _Cercopithecus cynosurus_ and _griseo-viridis_ one part of +the body which is confined to the male sex is of the most brilliant blue +or green, and contrasts strikingly with the naked skin on the hinder +part of the body, which is vivid red. + +[Illustration: Fig. 67. Head of male Mandrill (from Gervais, 'Hist. Nat +des Mammifères').] + +Lastly, in the Baboon family, the adult male of _Cynocephalus hamadryas_ +differs from the female not only by his immense mane, but slightly in +the colour of the hair and of the naked callosities. In the drill +(_Cynocephalus leucophus_) the females and young are much +paler-coloured, with less green, than the adult males. No other member +of the whole class of mammals is coloured in so extraordinary a manner +as the adult male mandrill (_Cynocephalus mormon_). The face at this age +becomes of a fine blue, with the ridge and tip of the nose of the most +brilliant red. According to some authors the face is also marked with +whitish stripes, and is shaded in parts with black, but the colours +appear to be variable. On the forehead there is a crest of hair, and on +the chin a yellow beard. "Toutes les parties supérieures de leurs +cuisses et le grand espace nu de leurs fesses sont également colorés du +rouge le plus vif, avec un mélange de bleu qui ne manque réellement pas +d'élégance."[362] When the animal is excited all the naked parts become +much more vividly tinted. Several authors have used the strongest +expressions in describing these resplendent colours, which they compare +with those of the most brilliant birds. Another most remarkable +peculiarity is that when the great canine teeth are fully developed, +immense protuberances of bone are formed on each cheek, which are deeply +furrowed longitudinally, and the naked skin over them is +brilliantly-coloured, as just described. (Fig. 67.) In the adult females +and in the young of both sexes these protuberances are scarcely +perceptible; and the naked parts are much less brightly coloured, the +face being almost black, tinged with blue. In the adult female, however, +the nose at certain regular intervals of time becomes tinted with red. + + +In all the cases hitherto given the male is more strongly or brightly +coloured than the female, and differs in a greater degree from the young +of both sexes. But as a reversed style of colouring is characteristic of +the two sexes with some few birds, so with the Rhesus monkey (_Macacus +rhesus_) the female has a large surface of naked skin round the tail, of +a brilliant carmine red, which periodically becomes, as I was assured by +the keepers in the Zoological Gardens, even more vivid, and her face is +also pale red. On the other hand with the adult male and with the young +of both sexes, as I saw in the Gardens, neither the naked skin at the +posterior end of the body, nor the face, shew a trace of red. It +appears, however, from some published accounts, that the male does +occasionally, or during certain seasons, exhibit some traces of the red. +Although he is thus less ornamented than the female, yet in the larger +size of his body, larger canine teeth, more developed whiskers, more +prominent superciliary ridges, he follows the common rule of the male +excelling the female. + + +I have now given all the cases known to me of a difference in colour +between the sexes of mammals. The colours of the female either do not +differ in a sufficient degree from those of the male, or are not of a +suitable nature, to afford her protection, and therefore cannot be +explained on this principle. In some, perhaps in many cases, the +differences may be the result of variations confined to one sex and +transmitted to the same sex, without any good having been thus gained, +and therefore without the aid of selection. We have instances of this +kind with our domesticated animals, as in the males of certain cats +being rusty-red, whilst the females are tortoise-shell coloured. +Analogous cases occur under nature; Mr. Bartlett has seen many black +varieties of the jaguar, leopard, vulpine phalanger and wombat; and he +is certain that all, or nearly all, were males. On the other hand, both +sexes of wolves, foxes, and apparently of American squirrels, are +occasionally born black. Hence it is quite possible that with some +mammals the blackness of the males, especially when this colour is +congenital, may simply be the result, without the aid of selection, of +one or more variations having occurred, which from the first were +sexually limited in their transmission. Nevertheless it can hardly be +admitted that the diversified, vivid, and contrasted colours of certain +quadrupeds, for instance of the above-mentioned monkeys and antelopes, +can thus be accounted for. We should bear in mind that these colours do +not appear in the male at birth, as in the case of most ordinary +variations, but only at or near maturity; and that unlike ordinary +variations, if the male be emasculated, they never appear or +subsequently disappear. It is on the whole a much more probable +conclusion that the strongly-marked colours and other ornamental +characters of male quadrupeds are beneficial to them in their rivalry +with other males, and have consequently been acquired through sexual +selection. The probability of this view is strengthened by the +differences in colour between the sexes occurring almost exclusively, as +may be observed by going through the previous details, in those groups +and subgroups of mammals, which present other and distinct secondary +sexual characters; these being likewise due to the action of sexual +selection. + +Quadrupeds manifestly take notice of colour. Sir S. Baker repeatedly +observed that the African elephant and rhinoceros attacked with special +fury white or grey horses. I have elsewhere shewn[363] that half-wild +horses apparently prefer pairing with those of the same colour, and that +herds of fallow-deer of a different colour, though living together, have +long kept distinct. It is a more significant fact that a female zebra +would not admit the addresses of a male ass until he was painted so as +to resemble a zebra, and then, as John Hunter remarks, "she received him +very readily. In this curious fact, we have instinct excited by mere +colour, which had so strong an effect as to get the better of everything +else. But the male did not require this, the female being an animal +somewhat similar to himself, was sufficient to rouse him."[364] + +In an early chapter we have seen that the mental powers of the higher +animals do not differ in kind, though so greatly in degree, from the +corresponding powers of man, especially of the lower and barbarous +races; and it would appear that even their taste for the beautiful is +not widely different from that of the Quadrumana. As the negro of Africa +raises the flesh on his face into parallel ridges "or cicatrices, high +above the natural surface, which unsightly deformities, are considered +great personal attractions;"[365]--as negroes, as well as savages in +many parts of the world, paint their faces with red, blue, white, or +black bars,--so the male mandrill of Africa appears to have acquired his +deeply-furrowed and gaudily-coloured face from having been thus rendered +attractive to the female. No doubt it is to us a most grotesque notion +that the posterior end of the body should have been coloured for the +sake of ornament even more brilliantly than the face; but this is really +not more strange than that the tails of many birds should have been +especially decorated. + +With mammals we do not at present possess any evidence that the males +take pains to display their charms before the female; and the elaborate +manner in which this is performed by male birds, is the strongest +argument in favour of the belief that the females admire, or are +excited by, the ornaments and colours displayed before them. There is, +however, a striking parallelism between mammals and birds in all their +secondary sexual characters, namely in their weapons for fighting with +rival males, in their ornamental appendages, and in their colours. In +both classes, when the male differs from the female, the young of both +sexes almost always resemble each other, and in a large majority of +cases resemble the adult female. In both classes the male assumes the +characters proper to his sex shortly before the age for reproduction; if +emasculated he either never acquires such characters or subsequently +loses them. In both classes the change of colour is sometimes seasonal, +and the tints of the naked parts sometimes become more vivid during the +act of courtship. In both classes the male is almost always more vividly +or strongly coloured than the female, and is ornamented with larger +crests either of hair or feathers, or other appendages. In a few +exceptional cases the female in both classes is more highly ornamented +than the male. With many mammals, and at least in the case of one bird, +the male is more odoriferous than the female. In both classes the voice +of the male is more powerful than that of the female. Considering this +parallelism there can be little doubt that the same cause, whatever it +may be, has acted on mammals and birds; and the result, as far as +ornamental characters are concerned, may safely be attributed, as it +appears to me, to the long-continued preference of the individuals of +one sex for certain individuals of the opposite sex, combined with their +success in leaving a larger number of offspring to inherit their +superior attractions. + + +_Equal transmission of ornamental characters to both sexes._--With many +birds, ornaments, which analogy leads us to believe were primarily +acquired by the males, have been transmitted equally, or almost equally, +to both sexes; and we may now enquire how far this view may be extended +to mammals. With a considerable number of species, especially the +smaller kinds, both sexes have been coloured, independently of sexual +selection, for the sake of protection; but not, as far as I can judge, +in so many cases, nor in nearly so striking a manner as in most of the +lower classes. Audubon remarks that he often mistook the musk-rat,[366] +whilst sitting on the banks of a muddy stream, for a clod of earth, so +complete was the resemblance. The hare on her form is a familiar +instance of concealment through colour; yet this principle partly fails +in a closely-allied species, namely the rabbit, for as this animal runs +to its burrow, it is made conspicuous to the sportsman and no doubt to +all beasts of prey, by its upturned pure-white tail. No one has ever +doubted that the quadrupeds which inhabit snow-clad regions, have been +rendered white to protect them from their enemies, or to favour their +stealing on their prey. In regions where snow never lies long on the +ground a white coat would be injurious; consequently species thus +coloured are extremely rare in the hotter parts of the world. It +deserves notice that many quadrupeds, inhabiting moderately cold +regions, although they do not assume a white winter dress, become paler +during this season; and this apparently is the direct result of the +conditions to which they have long been exposed. Pallas[367] states that +in Siberia a change of this nature occurs with the wolf, two species of +Mustela, the domestic horse, the _Equus hemionus_, the domestic cow, +two species of antelopes, the musk-deer, the roe, the elk, and reindeer. +The roe, for instance, has a red summer and a greyish-white winter coat; +and the latter may perhaps serve as a protection to the animal whilst +wandering through the leafless thickets, sprinkled with snow and +hoar-frost. If the above named animals were gradually to extend their +range into regions perpetually covered with snow, their pale +winter-coats would probably be rendered, through natural selection, +whiter and whiter by degrees, until they became as white as snow. + +[Illustration: Fig. 68. Tragelaphus scriptus, male (from the Knowsley +Menagerie).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 69. Damalis pygarga, male (from the Knowsley +Menagerie).] + +Although we must admit that many quadrupeds have received their present +tints as a protection, yet with a host of species, the colours are far +too conspicuous and too singularly arranged to allow us to suppose that +they serve for this purpose. We may take as an illustration certain +antelopes: when we see that the square white patch on the throat, the +white marks on the fetlocks, and the round black spots on the ears, are +all more distinct in the male of the _Portax picta_, than in the +female;--when we see that the colours are more vivid, that the narrow +white lines on the flank and the broad white bar on the shoulder are +more distinct in the male _Oreas derbyanus_ than in the female;--when we +see a similar difference between the sexes of the curiously-ornamented +_Tragelaphus scriptus_ (fig. 68),--we may conclude that these colours +and various marks have been at least intensified through sexual +selection. It is inconceivable that such colours and marks can be of any +direct or ordinary service to these animals; and as they have almost +certainly been intensified through sexual selection, it is probable that +they were originally gained through this same process, and then +partially transferred to the females. If this view be admitted, there +can be little doubt that the equally singular colours and marks of many +other antelopes, though common to both sexes, have been gained and +transmitted in a like manner. Both sexes, for instance, of the Koodoo +(_Strepsiceros Kudu_, fig. 62) have narrow white vertical lines on their +hinder flanks, and an elegant angular white mark on their foreheads. +Both sexes in the genus Damalis are very oddly coloured; in _D. pygarga_ +the back and neck are purplish-red, shading on the flanks into black, +and abruptly separated from the white belly and a large white space on +the buttocks; the head is still more oddly coloured, a large oblong +white mask, narrowly-edged with black, covers the face up to the eyes +(fig. 69); there are three white stripes on the forehead, and the ears +are marked with white. The fawns of this species are of a uniform pale +yellowish-brown. In _Damalis albifrons_ the colouring of the head +differs from that in the last species in a single white stripe replacing +the three stripes, and in the ears being almost wholly white.[368] After +having studied to the best of my ability the sexual differences of +animals belonging to all classes, I cannot avoid the conclusion that the +curiously-arranged colours of many antelopes, though common to both +sexes, are the result of sexual selection primarily applied to the male. + +The same conclusion may perhaps be extended to the tiger, one of the +most beautiful animals in the world, the sexes of which cannot be +distinguished by colour, even by the dealers in wild beasts. Mr. Wallace +believes[369] that the striped coat of the tiger "so assimilates with +the vertical stems of the bamboo, as to assist greatly in concealing him +from his approaching prey." But this view does not appear to me +satisfactory. We have some slight evidence that his beauty may be due to +sexual selection, for in two species of Felis analogous marks and +colours are rather brighter in the male than in the female. The zebra is +conspicuously striped, and stripes on the open plains of South Africa +cannot afford any protection. Burchell[370] in describing a herd says, +"their sleek ribs glistened in the sun, and the brightness and +regularity of their striped coats presented a picture of extraordinary +beauty, in which probably they are not surpassed by any other +quadruped." Here we have no evidence of sexual selection, as throughout +the whole group of the Equidæ the sexes are identical in colour. +Nevertheless he who attributes the white and dark vertical stripes on +the flanks of various antelopes to sexual selection, will probably +extend the same view to the Royal Tiger and beautiful Zebra. + +We have seen in a former chapter that when young animals belonging to +any class follow nearly the same habits of life with their parents, and +yet are coloured in a different manner, it may be inferred that they +have retained the colouring of some ancient and extinct progenitor. In +the family of pigs, and in the genus Tapir, the young are marked with +longitudinal stripes, and thus differ from every existing adult species +in these two groups. With many kinds of deer the young are marked with +elegant white spots, of which their parents exhibit not a trace. A +graduated series can be followed from the Axis deer, both sexes of which +at all ages and during all seasons are beautifully spotted (the male +being rather more strongly coloured than the female)--to species in +which neither the old nor the young are spotted. I will specify some of +the steps in this series. The Mantchurian deer (_Cervus Mantchuricus_) +is spotted during the whole year, but the spots are much plainer, as I +have seen in the Zoological Gardens, during the summer, when the general +colour of the coat is lighter, than during the winter, when the general +colour is darker and the horns are fully developed. In the hog-deer +(_Hyelaphus porcinus_) the spots are extremely conspicuous during the +summer when the coat is reddish-brown, but quite disappear during the +winter when the coat is brown.[371] In both these species the young are +spotted. In the Virginian deer the young are likewise spotted, and about +five per cent. of the adult animals living in Judge Caton's park, as I +am informed by him, temporarily exhibit at the period when the red +summer coat is being replaced by the bluish winter coat, a row of spots +on each flank, which are always the same in number, though very +variable in distinctness. From this condition there is but a very small +step to the complete absence of spots at all seasons in the adults; and +lastly, to their absence at all ages, as occurs with certain species. +From the existence of this perfect series, and more especially from the +fawns of so many species being spotted, we may conclude that the now +living members of the deer family are the descendants of some ancient +species which, like the Axis deer, was spotted at all ages and seasons. +A still more ancient progenitor probably resembled to a certain extent +the _Hyomoschus aquaticus_--for this animal is spotted, and the hornless +males have large exserted canine teeth, of which some few true deer +still retain rudiments. It offers, also, one of those interesting cases +of a form linking together two groups, as it is intermediate in certain +osteological characters between the pachyderms and ruminants, which were +formerly thought to be quite distinct.[372] + +A curious difficulty here arises. If we admit that coloured spots and +stripes have been acquired as ornaments, how comes it that so many +existing deer, the descendants of an aboriginally spotted animal, and +all the species of pigs and tapirs, the descendants of an aboriginally +striped animal, have lost in their adult state their former ornaments? I +cannot satisfactorily answer this question. We may feel nearly sure that +the spots and stripes disappeared in the progenitors of our existing +species at or near maturity, so that they were retained by the young +and, owing to the law of inheritance at corresponding ages, by the young +of all succeeding generations. It may have been a great advantage to +the lion and puma from the open nature of the localities which they +commonly haunt, to have lost their stripes, and to have been thus +rendered less conspicuous to their prey; and if the successive +variations, by which this end was gained, occurred rather late in life, +the young would have retained their stripes, as we know to be the case. +In regard to deer, pigs, and tapirs, Fritz Müller has suggested to me +that these animals by the removal through natural selection of their +spots or stripes would have been less easily seen by their enemies; and +they would have especially required this protection, as soon as the +carnivora increased in size and number during the Tertiary periods. This +may be the true explanation, but it is rather strange that the young +should not have been equally well protected, and still more strange that +with some species the adults should have retained their spots, either +partially or completely, during part of the year. We know, though we +cannot explain the cause, that when the domestic ass varies and becomes +reddish-brown, grey or black, the stripes on the shoulders and even on +the spine frequently disappear. Very few horses, except dun-coloured +kinds, exhibit stripes on any part of their bodies, yet we have good +reason to believe that the aboriginal horse was striped on the legs and +spine, and probably on the shoulders.[373] Hence the disappearance of +the spots and stripes in our adult existing deer, pigs, and tapirs, may +be due to a change in the general colour of their coats; but whether +this change was effected through sexual or natural selection, or was due +to the direct action of the conditions of life, or some other unknown +cause, it is impossible to decide. An observation made by Mr. Sclater +well illustrates our ignorance of the laws which regulate the +appearance and disappearance of stripes; the species of Asinus which +inhabit the Asiatic continent are destitute of stripes, not having even +the cross shoulder-stripe, whilst those which inhabit Africa are +conspicuously striped, with the partial exception of _A. tæniopus_, +which has only the cross shoulder-stripe and generally some faint bars +on the legs; and this species inhabits the almost intermediate region of +Upper Egypt and Abyssinia.[374] + +[Illustration: Fig. 70. Head of Semnopithecus rubicundus. This and the +following figures (from Prof. Gervais) are given to shew the odd +arrangement and development of the hair on the head.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 71. Head of Semnopithecus comatus.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 72. Head of Cebus capucinus.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 73. Head of Ateles marginatus.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 74. Head of Cebus vellerosus.] + + +_Quadrumana._--Before we conclude, it will be advisable to add a few +remarks to those already given on the ornamental characters of monkeys. +In most of the species the sexes resemble each other in colour, but in +some, as we have seen, the males differ from the females, especially in +the colour of the naked parts of the skin, in the development of the +beard, whiskers, and mane. Many species are coloured either in so +extraordinary or beautiful a manner, and are furnished with such curious +and elegant crests of hair, that we can hardly avoid looking at these +characters as having been gained for the sake of ornament. The +accompanying figures (figs. 70 to 74) serve to shew the arrangement of +the hair on the face and head in several species. It is scarcely +conceivable that these crests of hair and the strongly-contrasted +colours of the fur and skin can be the result of mere variability +without the aid of selection; and it is inconceivable that they can be +of any ordinary use to these animals. If so, they have probably been +gained through sexual selection, though transmitted equally, or almost +equally, to both sexes. With many of the Quadrumana, we have additional +evidence of the action of sexual selection in the greater size and +strength of the males, and in the greater development of their canine +teeth, in comparison with the females. + +With respect to the strange manner in which both sexes of some species +are coloured, and of the beauty of others, a few instances will suffice. +The face of the _Cercopithecus petaurista_ (fig. 75) is black, the +whiskers and beard being white, with a defined, round, white spot on the +nose, covered with short white hair, which gives to the animal an almost +ludicrous aspect. The _Semnopithecus frontatus_ likewise, has a blackish +face with a long black beard, and a large naked spot on the forehead of +a bluish-white colour. The face of _Macacus lasiotus_ is dirty +flesh-coloured, with a defined red spot on each cheek. The appearance of +_Cercocebus æthiops_ is grotesque, with its black face, white whiskers +and collar, chesnut head, and a large naked white spot over each eyelid. +In very many species, the beard, whiskers, and crests of hair round the +face are of a different colour from the rest of the head, and when +different, are always of a lighter tint,[375] being often pure white, +sometimes bright yellow, or reddish. The whole face of the South +American _Brachyurus calvus_ is of a "glowing scarlet hue;" but this +colour does not appear until the animal is nearly mature.[376] The +naked skin of the face differs wonderfully in colour in the various +species. It is often brown or flesh-colour, with parts perfectly white, +and often as black as that of the most sooty negro. In the Brachyurus +the scarlet tint is brighter than that of the most blushing Caucasian +damsel. It is sometimes more distinctly orange than in any Mongolian, +and in several species it is blue, passing into violet or grey. In all +the species known to Mr. Bartlett, in which the adults of both sexes +have strongly-coloured faces, the colours are dull or absent during +early youth. This likewise holds good with the Mandrill and Rhesus, in +which the face and the posterior parts of the body are brilliantly +coloured in one sex alone. In these latter cases we have every reason to +believe that the colours were acquired through sexual selection; and we +are naturally led to extend the same view to the foregoing species, +though both sexes when adult have their faces coloured in the same +manner. + +[Illustration: Fig 75. Cercopithecus petaurista (from Brehm).] + +Although, according to our taste, many kinds of monkeys are far from +beautiful, other species are universally admired for their elegant +appearance and bright colours. The _Semnopithecus nemæus_, though +peculiarly coloured, is described as extremely pretty; the orange-tinted +face is surrounded by long whiskers of glossy whiteness, with a line of +chesnut-red over the eyebrows; the fur on the back is of a delicate +grey, with a square patch on the loins, the tail and the fore-arms all +of a pure white; a gorget of chesnut surmounts the chest; the hind +thighs are black, with the legs chesnut-red. I will mention only two +other monkeys on account of their beauty; and I have selected these as +they present slight sexual differences in colour, which renders it in +some degree probable that both sexes owe their elegant appearance to +sexual selection. In the moustache-monkey (_Cercopithecus cephus_) the +general colour of the fur is mottled-greenish, with the throat white; in +the male the end of the tail is chesnut; but the face is the most +ornamented part, the skin being chiefly bluish-grey, shading into a +blackish tint beneath the eyes, with the upper lip of a delicate blue, +clothed on the lower edge with a thin black moustache; the whiskers are +orange-coloured, with the upper part black, forming a band which extends +backwards to the ears, the latter being clothed with whitish hairs. In +the Zoological Society's Gardens I have often overheard visitors +admiring the beauty of another monkey, deservedly called _Cercopithecus +Diana_ (fig. 76); the general colour of the fur is grey; the chest and +inner surface of the forelegs are white; a large triangular defined +space on the hinder part of the back is rich chesnut; in the male the +inner sides of the thighs and the abdomen are delicate fawn-coloured, +and the top of the head is black; the face and ears are intensely black, +finely contrasted with a white transverse crest over the eyebrows and +with a long white peaked beard, of which the basal portion is +black.[377] + +[Illustration: Fig. 76. Cercopithecus Diana (from Brehm).] + +In these and many other monkeys, the beauty and singular arrangement of +their colours, and still more the diversified and elegant arrangement of +the crests and tufts of hair on their heads, force the conviction on my +mind that these characters have been acquired through sexual selection +exclusively as ornaments. + + +_Summary._--The law of battle for the possession of the female appears +to prevail throughout the whole great class of mammals. Most naturalists +will admit that the greater size, strength, courage, and pugnacity of +the male, his special weapons of offence, as well as his special means +of defence, have all been acquired or modified through that form of +selection which I have called sexual selection. This does not depend on +any superiority in the general struggle for life, but on certain +individuals of one sex, generally the male sex, having been successful +in conquering other males, and on their having left a larger number of +offspring to inherit their superiority, than the less successful males. + +There is another and more peaceful kind of contest, in which the males +endeavour to excite or allure the females by various charms. This may be +effected by the powerful odours emitted by the males during the +breeding-season; the odoriferous glands having been acquired through +sexual selection. Whether the same view can be extended to the voice is +doubtful, for the vocal organs of the males may have been strengthened +by use during maturity, under the powerful excitements of love, +jealousy, or rage, and transmitted to the same sex. Various crests, +tufts, and mantles of hair, which are either confined to the male, or +are more developed in this sex than in the females, seem in most cases +to be merely ornamental, though they sometimes serve as a defence +against rival males. There is even reason to suspect that the branching +horns of stags, and the elegant horns of certain antelopes, though +properly serving as weapons of offence or of defence, have been partly +modified for the sake of ornament. + +When the male differs in colour from the female he generally exhibits +darker and more strongly-contrasted tints. We do not in this class meet +with the splendid red, blue, yellow, and green colours, so common with +male birds and many other animals. The naked parts, however, of certain +Quadrumana must be excepted; for such parts, often oddly situated, are +coloured in some species in the most brilliant manner. The colours of +the male in other cases may be due to simple variation, without the aid +of selection. But when the colours are diversified and strongly +pronounced, when they are not developed until near maturity, and when +they are lost after emasculation, we can hardly avoid the conclusion +that they have been acquired through sexual selection for the sake of +ornament, and have been transmitted exclusively, or almost exclusively, +to the same sex. When both sexes are coloured in the same manner, and +the colours are conspicuous or curiously arranged, without being of the +least apparent use as a protection, and especially when they are +associated with various other ornamental appendages, we are led by +analogy to the same conclusion, namely, that they have been acquired +through sexual selection, although transmitted to both sexes. That +conspicuous and diversified colours, whether confined to the males or +common to both sexes, are as a general rule associated in the same +groups and subgroups with other secondary sexual characters, serving +for war or for ornament, will be found to hold good if we look back to +the various cases given in this and the last chapter. + +The law of the equal transmission of characters to both sexes, as far as +colour and other ornaments are concerned, has prevailed far more +extensively with mammals than with birds; but in regard to weapons, such +as horns and tusks, these have often been transmitted either +exclusively, or in a much higher degree to the males than to the +females. This is a surprising circumstance, for as the males generally +use their weapons as a defence against enemies of all kinds, these +weapons would have been of service to the female. Their absence in this +sex can be accounted for, as far as we can see, only by the form of +inheritance which has prevailed. Finally with quadrupeds the contest +between the individuals of the same sex, whether peaceful or bloody, has +with the rarest exceptions been confined to the males; so that these +have been modified through sexual selection, either for fighting with +each other or for alluring the opposite sex, far more commonly than the +females. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + +SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS OF MAN. + + + Differences between man and woman--Causes of such differences + and of certain characters common to both sexes--Law of + battle--Differences in mental powers--and voice--On the + influence of beauty in determining the marriages of + mankind--Attention paid by savages to ornaments--Their ideas + of beauty in woman--The tendency to exaggerate each natural + peculiarity. + + +With mankind the differences between the sexes are greater than in most +species of Quadrumana, but not so great as in some, for instance, the +mandrill. Man on an average is considerably taller, heavier, and +stronger than woman, with squarer shoulders and more plainly-pronounced +muscles. Owing to the relation which exists between muscular development +and the projection of the brows,[378] the superciliary ridge is +generally more strongly marked in man than in woman. His body, and +especially his face, is more hairy, and his voice has a different and +more powerful tone. In certain tribes the women are said, whether truly +I know not, to differ slightly in tint from the men; and with Europeans, +the women are perhaps the more brightly coloured of the two, as may be +seen when both sexes have been equally exposed to the weather. + +Man is more courageous, pugnacious, and energetic than woman, and has a +more inventive genius. His brain is absolutely larger, but whether +relatively to the larger size of his body, in comparison with that of +woman, has not, I believe been fully ascertained. In woman the face is +rounder; the jaws and the base of the skull smaller; the outlines of her +body rounder, in parts more prominent; and her pelvis is broader than in +man;[379] but this latter character may perhaps be considered rather as +a primary than a secondary sexual character. She comes to maturity at an +earlier age than man. + +As with animals of all classes, so with man, the distinctive characters +of the male sex are not fully developed until he is nearly mature; and +if emasculated they never appear. The beard, for instance, is a +secondary sexual character, and male children are beardless, though at +an early age they have abundant hair on their heads. It is probably due +to the rather late appearance in life of the successive variations, by +which man acquired his masculine characters, that they are transmitted +to the male sex alone. Male and female children resemble each other +closely, like the young of so many other animals in which the adult +sexes differ; they likewise resemble the mature female much more +closely, than the mature male. The female, however, ultimately assumes +certain distinctive characters, and in the formation of her skull, is +said to be intermediate between the child and the man.[380] Again, as +the young of closely allied though distinct species do not differ nearly +so much from each other as do the adults, so it is with the children of +the different races of man. Some have even maintained that +race-differences cannot be detected in the infantile skull.[381] In +regard to colour, the newborn negro child is reddish nut-brown, which +soon becomes slaty-grey; the black colour being fully developed within a +year in the Sudan, but not until three years in Egypt. The eyes of the +negro are at first blue, and the hair chesnut-brown rather than black, +being curled only at the ends. The children of the Australians +immediately after birth are yellowish-brown, and become dark at a later +age. Those of the Guaranys of Paraguay are whitish-yellow, but they +acquire in the course of a few weeks the yellowish-brown tint of their +parents. Similar observations have been made in other parts of +America.[382] + +I have specified the foregoing familiar differences between the male and +female sex in mankind, because they are curiously the same as in the +Quadrumana. With these animals the female is mature at an earlier age +than the male; at least this is certainly the case with the _Cebus +azaræ_.[383] With most of the species the males are larger and much +stronger than the females, of which fact the gorilla offers a well-known +instance. Even in so trifling a character as the greater prominence of +the superciliary ridge, the males of certain monkeys differ from the +females,[384] and agree in this respect with mankind. In the gorilla and +certain other monkeys, the cranium of the adult male presents a +strongly-marked sagittal crest, which is absent in the female; and Ecker +found a trace of a similar difference between the two sexes in the +Australians.[385] With monkeys when there is any difference in the +voice, that of the male is the more powerful. We have seen that certain +male monkeys, have a well-developed beard, which is quite deficient, or +much less developed in the female. No instance is known of the beard, +whiskers, or moustache being larger in a female than in the male monkey. +Even in the colour of the beard there is a curious parallelism between +man and the Quadrumana, for when in man the beard differs in colour from +the hair of the head, as is often the case, it is, I believe, invariably +of a lighter tint, being often reddish. I have observed this fact in +England, and Dr. Hooker, who attended to this little point for me in +Russia, found no exception to the rule. In Calcutta, Mr. J. Scott, of +the Botanic Gardens, was so kind as to observe with care the many races +of men to be seen there, as well as in some other parts of India, +namely, two races in Sikhim, the Bhoteas, Hindoos, Burmese, and Chinese. +Although most of these races have very little hair on the face, yet he +always found that when there was any difference in colour between the +hair of the head and the beard, the latter was invariably of a lighter +tint. Now with monkeys, as has already been stated, the beard frequently +differs in a striking manner in colour from the hair of the head, and in +such cases it is invariably of a lighter hue, being often pure white, +sometimes yellow or reddish.[386] + +In regard to the general hairyness of the body, the women in all races +are less hairy than the men, and in some few Quadrumana the under side +of the body of the female is less hairy than that of the male.[387] +Lastly, male monkeys, like men, are bolder and fiercer than the females. +They lead the troop, and when there is danger, come to the front. We +thus see how close is the parallelism between the sexual differences of +man and the Quadrumana. With some few species, however, as with certain +baboons, the gorilla and orang, there is a considerably greater +difference between the sexes, in the size of the canine teeth, in the +development and colour of the hair, and especially in the colour of the +naked parts of the skin, than in the case of mankind. + +The secondary sexual characters of man are all highly variable, even +within the limits of the same race or sub-species; and they differ much +in the several races. These two rules generally hold good throughout the +animal kingdom. In the excellent observations made on board the +_Novara_,[388] the male Australians were found to exceed the females by +only 65 millim. in height, whilst with the Javanese the average excess +was 218 millim., so that in this latter race the difference in height +between the sexes is more than thrice as great as with the Australians. +The numerous measurements of various other races, with respect to +stature, the circumference of the neck and chest, and the length of the +back-bone and arms, which were carefully made, nearly all shewed that +the males differed much more from each other than did the females. This +fact indicates that, as far as these characters are concerned, it is the +male which has been chiefly modified, since the races diverged from +their common and primeval source. + +The development of the beard and the hairiness of the body differ +remarkably in the men belonging to distinct races, and even to different +families in the same race. We Europeans see this amongst ourselves. In +the island of St. Kilda, according to Martin,[389] the men do not +acquire beards, which are very thin, until the age of thirty or upwards. +On the Europæo-Asiatic continent, beards prevail until we pass beyond +India, though with the natives of Ceylon they are frequently absent, as +was noticed in ancient times by Diodorus.[390] Beyond India beards +disappear, as with the Siamese, Malays, Kalmucks, Chinese, and Japanese; +nevertheless the Ainos,[391] who inhabit the northernmost islands of the +Japan archipelago, are the most hairy men in the world. With negroes the +beard is scanty or absent, and they have no whiskers; in both sexes the +body is almost destitute of fine down.[392] On the other hand, the +Papuans of the Malay archipelago, who are nearly as black as negroes, +possess well-developed beards.[393] In the Pacific Ocean the inhabitants +of the Fiji archipelago have large bushy beards, whilst those of the +not-distant archipelagoes of Tonga and Samoa are beardless; but these +men belong to distinct races. In the Ellice group all the inhabitants +belong to the same race; yet on one island alone, namely Nunemaya, "the +men have splendid beards;" whilst on the other islands "they have, as a +rule, a dozen straggling hairs for a beard."[394] + +Throughout the great American continent the men may be said to be +beardless; but in almost all the tribes a few short hairs are apt to +appear on the face, especially during old age. With the tribes of North +America, Catlin estimates that eighteen out of twenty men are completely +destitute by nature of a beard; but occasionally there may be seen a +man, who has neglected to pluck out the hairs at puberty, with a soft +beard an inch or two in length. The Guaranys of Paraguay differ from all +the surrounding tribes in having a small beard, and even some hair on +the body, but no whiskers.[395] I am informed by Mr. D. Forbes, who +particularly attended to this subject, that the Aymaras and Quechuas of +the Cordillera are remarkably hairless, yet in old age a few straggling +hairs occasionally appear on the chin. The men of these two tribes have +very little hair on the various parts of the body where hair grows +abundantly in Europeans, and the women have none on the corresponding +parts. The hair on the head, however, attains an extraordinary length in +both sexes, often reaching almost to the ground; and this is likewise +the case with some of the N. American tribes. In the amount of hair, and +in the general shape of the body, the sexes of the American aborigines +do not differ from each other so much as with most other races of +mankind.[396] This fact is analogous with what occurs with some allied +monkeys; thus the sexes of the chimpanzee are not as different as those +of the gorilla or orang.[397] + +In the previous chapters we have seen that with mammals, birds, fishes, +insects, &c., many characters, which there is every reason to believe +were primarily gained through sexual selection by one sex alone, have +been transferred to both sexes. As this same form of transmission has +apparently prevailed to a large extent with mankind, it will save much +useless repetition if we consider the characters peculiar to the male +sex together with certain other characters common to both sexes. + + +_Law of Battle._--With barbarous nations, for instance with the +Australians, the women are the constant cause of war both between the +individuals of the same tribe and between distinct tribes. So no doubt +it was in ancient times; "nam fuit ante Helenam mulier teterrima belli +causa." With the North American Indians, the contest is reduced to a +system. That excellent observer, Hearne,[398] says:--"It has ever been +the custom among these people for the men to wrestle for any woman to +whom they are attached; and, of course, the strongest party always +carries off the prize. A weak man, unless he be a good hunter, and +well-beloved, is seldom permitted to keep a wife that a stronger man +thinks worth his notice. This custom prevails throughout all the tribes, +and causes a great spirit of emulation among their youth, who are upon +all occasions, from their childhood, trying their strength and skill in +wrestling." With the Guanas of South America, Azara states that the men +rarely marry till twenty or more years old, as before that age they +cannot conquer their rivals. + +Other similar facts could be given; but even if we had no evidence on +this head, we might feel almost sure, from the analogy of the higher +Quadrumana,[399] that the law of battle had prevailed with man during +the early stages of his development. The occasional appearance at the +present day of canine teeth which project above the others, with traces +of a diastema or open space for the reception of the opposite canines, +is in all probability a case of reversion to a former state, when the +progenitors of man were provided with these weapons, like so many +existing male Quadrumana. It was remarked in a former chapter that as +man gradually became erect, and continually used his hands and arms for +fighting with sticks and stones, as well as for the other purposes of +life, he would have used his jaws and teeth less and less. The jaws, +together with their muscles, would then have become reduced through +disuse, as would the teeth through the not well understood principles of +correlation and the economy of growth; for we everywhere see that parts +which are no longer of service are reduced in size. By such steps the +original inequality between the jaws and teeth in the two sexes of +mankind would ultimately have been quite obliterated. The case is almost +parallel with that of many male Ruminants, in which the canine teeth +have been reduced to mere rudiments, or have disappeared, apparently in +consequence of the development of horns. As the prodigious difference +between the skulls of the two sexes in the Gorilla and Orang, stands in +close relation with the development of the immense canine teeth in the +males, we may infer that the reduction of the jaws and teeth in the +early male progenitors of man led to a most striking and favourable +change in his appearance. + +There can be little doubt that the greater size and strength of man, in +comparison with woman, together with his broader shoulders, more +developed muscles, rugged outline of body, his greater courage and +pugnacity, are all due in chief part to inheritance from some early male +progenitor, who, like the existing anthropoid apes, was thus +characterised. These characters will, however, have been preserved or +even augmented during the long ages whilst man was still in a barbarous +condition, by the strongest and boldest men having succeeded best in the +general struggle for life, as well as in securing wives, and thus having +left a large number of offspring. It is not probable that the greater +strength of man was primarily acquired through the inherited effects of +his having worked harder than woman for his own subsistence and that of +his family; for the women in all barbarous nations are compelled to +work at least as hard as the men. With civilised people the arbitrament +of battle for the possession of the women has long ceased; on the other +hand, the men, as a general rule, have to work harder than the women for +their mutual subsistence; and thus their greater strength will have been +kept up. + + +_Difference in the Mental Powers of the two Sexes._--With respect to +differences of this nature between man and woman, it is probable that +sexual selection has played a very important part. I am aware that some +writers doubt whether there is any inherent difference; but this is at +least probable from the analogy of the lower animals which present other +secondary sexual characters. No one will dispute that the bull differs +in disposition from the cow, the wild-boar from the sow, the stallion +from the mare, and, as is well known to the keepers of menageries, the +males of the larger apes from the females. Woman seems to differ from +man in mental disposition, chiefly in her greater tenderness and less +selfishness; and this holds good even with savages, as shewn by a +well-known passage in Mungo Park's Travels, and by statements made +by many other travellers. Woman, owing to her maternal instincts, +displays these qualities towards her infants in an eminent degree; +therefore it is likely that she should often extend them towards her +fellow-creatures. Man is the rival of other men; he delights in +competition, and this leads to ambition which passes too easily into +selfishness. These latter qualities seem to be his natural and +unfortunate birthright. It is generally admitted that with woman the +powers of intuition, of rapid perception, and perhaps of imitation, are +more strongly marked than in man; but some, at least, of these +faculties are characteristic of the lower races, and therefore of a past +and lower state of civilisation. + +The chief distinction in the intellectual powers of the two sexes is +shewn by man attaining to a higher eminence, in whatever he takes up, +than woman can attain--whether requiring deep thought, reason, or +imagination, or merely the use of the senses and hands. If two lists +were made of the most eminent men and women in poetry, painting, +sculpture, music,--comprising composition and performance, history, +science, and philosophy, with half-a-dozen names under each subject, the +two lists would not bear comparison. We may also infer, from the law of +the deviation of averages, so well illustrated by Mr. Galton, in his +work on 'Hereditary Genius,' that if men are capable of decided eminence +over women in many subjects, the average standard of mental power in man +must be above that of woman. + +The half-human male progenitors of man, and men in a savage state, have +struggled together during many generations for the possession of the +females. But mere bodily strength and size would do little for victory, +unless associated with courage, perseverance, and determined energy. +With social animals, the young males have to pass through many a contest +before they win a female, and the older males have to retain their +females by renewed battles. They have, also, in the case of man, to +defend their females, as well as their young, from enemies of all kinds, +and to hunt for their joint subsistence. But to avoid enemies, or to +attack them with success, to capture wild animals, and to invent and +fashion weapons, requires the aid of the higher mental faculties, +namely, observation, reason, invention, or imagination. These various +faculties will thus have been continually put to the test, and selected +during manhood; they will, moreover, have been strengthened by use +during this same period of life. Consequently, in accordance with the +principle often alluded to, we might expect that they would at least +tend to be transmitted chiefly to the male offspring at the +corresponding period of manhood. + +Now, when two men are put into competition, or a man with a woman, who +possess every mental quality in the same perfection, with the exception +that the one has higher energy, perseverance, and courage, this one will +generally become more eminent, whatever the object may be, and will gain +the victory.[400] He may be said to possess genius--for genius has been +declared by a great authority to be patience; and patience, in this +sense, means unflinching, undaunted perseverance. But this view of +genius is perhaps deficient; for without the higher powers of the +imagination and reason, no eminent success in many subjects can be +gained. But these latter as well as the former faculties will have been +developed in man, partly through sexual selection,--that is, through the +contest of rival males, and partly through natural selection,--that is, +from success in the general struggle for life; and as in both cases the +struggle will have been during maturity, the characters thus gained will +have been transmitted more fully to the male than to the female +offspring. Thus man has ultimately become superior to woman. It is, +indeed, fortunate that the law of the equal transmission of characters +to both sexes has commonly prevailed throughout the whole class of +mammals; otherwise it is probable that man would have become as +superior in mental endowment to woman, as the peacock is in ornamental +plumage to the peahen. + +It must be borne in mind that the tendency in characters acquired at a +late period of life by either sex, to be transmitted to the same sex at +the same age, and of characters acquired at an early age to be +transmitted to both sexes, are rules which, though general, do not +always hold good. If they always held good, we might conclude (but I am +here wandering beyond my proper bounds) that the inherited effects of +the early education of boys and girls would be transmitted equally to +both sexes; so that the present inequality between the sexes in mental +power could not be effaced by a similar course of early training; nor +can it have been caused by their dissimilar early training. In order +that woman should reach the same standard as man, she ought, when nearly +adult, to be trained to energy and perseverance, and to have her reason +and imagination exercised to the highest point; and then she would +probably transmit these qualities chiefly to her adult daughters. The +whole body of women, however, could not be thus raised, unless during +many generations the women who excelled in the above robust virtues were +married, and produced offspring in larger numbers than other women. As +before remarked with respect to bodily strength, although men do not now +fight for the sake of obtaining wives, and this form of selection has +passed away, yet they generally have to undergo, during manhood, a +severe struggle in order to maintain themselves and their families; and +this will tend to keep up or even increase their mental powers, and, as +a consequence, the present inequality between the sexes.[401] + + +_Voice and Musical Powers._--In some species of Quadrumana there is a +great difference between the adult sexes, in the power of the voice and +in the development of the vocal organs; and man appears to have +inherited this difference from his early progenitors. His vocal cords +are about one-third longer than in woman, or than in boys; and +emasculation produces the same effect on him as on the lower animals, +for it "arrests that prominent growth of the thyroid, &c., which +accompanies the elongation of the cords."[402] With respect to the cause +of this difference between the sexes, I have nothing to add to the +remarks made in the last chapter on the probable effects of the +long-continued use of the vocal organs by the male under the excitement +of love, rage, and jealousy. According to Sir Duncan Gibb,[403] the +voice differs in the different races of mankind; and with the natives of +Tartary, China, &c., the voice of the male is said not to differ so much +from that of the female, as in most other races. + +The capacity and love for singing or music, though not a sexual +character in man, must not here be passed over. Although the sounds +emitted by animals of all kinds serve many purposes, a strong case can +be made out, that the vocal organs were primarily used and perfected in +relation to the propagation of the species. Insects and some few spiders +are the lowest animals which voluntarily produce any sound; and this is +generally effected by the aid of beautifully constructed stridulating +organs, which are often confined to the males alone. The sounds thus +produced consist, I believe in all cases, of the same note, repeated +rhythmically;[404] and this is sometimes pleasing even to the ears of +man. Their chief, and in some cases exclusive use appears to be either +to call or to charm the opposite sex. + +The sounds produced by fishes are said in some cases to be made only by +the males during the breeding season. All the air-breathing Vertebrata +necessarily possess an apparatus for inhaling and expelling air, with a +pipe capable of being closed at one end. Hence when the primeval members +of this class were strongly excited and their muscles violently +contracted, purposeless sounds would almost certainly have been +produced; and these, if they proved in any way serviceable, might +readily have been modified or intensified by the preservation of +properly adapted variations. The Amphibians are the lowest Vertebrates +which breathe air; and many of these animals, namely, frogs and toads, +possess vocal organs, which are incessantly used during the +breeding-season, and which are often more highly developed in the male +than in the female. The male alone of the tortoise utters a noise, and +this only during the season of love. Male alligators roar or bellow +during the same season. Every one knows how largely birds use their +vocal organs as a means of courtship; and some species likewise perform +what may be called instrumental music. + +In the class of Mammals, with which we are here more particularly +concerned, the males of almost all the species use their voices during +the breeding-season much more than at any other time; and some are +absolutely mute excepting at this season. Both sexes of other species, +or the females alone, use their voices as a love-call. Considering these +facts, and that the vocal organs of some quadrupeds are much more +largely developed in the male than in the female, either permanently or +temporarily during the breeding season; and considering that in most of +the lower classes the sounds produced by the males, serve not only to +call but to excite or allure the female, it is a surprising fact that we +have not as yet any good evidence that these organs are used by male +mammals to charm the females. The American _Mycetes caraya_ perhaps +forms an exception, as does more probably one of those apes which come +nearer to man, namely, the _Hylobates agilis_. This gibbon has an +extremely loud but musical voice. Mr. Waterhouse states,[405] "It +appeared to me that in ascending and descending the scale, the intervals +were always exactly half-tones; and I am sure that the highest note was +the exact octave to the lowest. The quality of the notes is very +musical; and I do not doubt that a good violinist would be able to give +a correct idea of the gibbon's composition, excepting as regards its +loudness." Mr. Waterhouse then gives the notes. Professor Owen, who is +likewise a musician, confirms the foregoing statement, and remarks that +this gibbon "alone of brute mammals may be said to sing." It appears to +be much excited after its performance. Unfortunately its habits have +never been closely observed in a state of nature; but from the analogy +of almost all other animals, it is highly probable that it utters its +musical notes especially during the season of courtship. + +The perception, if not the enjoyment, of musical cadences and of rhythm +is probably common to all animals, and no doubt depends on the common +physiological nature of their nervous systems. Even Crustaceans, which +are not capable of producing any voluntary sound, possess certain +auditory hairs, which have been seen to vibrate when the proper musical +notes are struck.[406] It is well known that some dogs howl when hearing +particular tones. Seals apparently appreciate music, and their fondness +for it "was well known to the ancients, and is often taken advantage of +by the hunters at the present day."[407] With all those animals, namely +insects, amphibians, and birds, the males of which during the season of +courtship incessantly produce musical notes or mere rhythmical sounds, +we must believe that the females are able to appreciate them, and are +thus excited or charmed; otherwise the incessant efforts of the males +and the complex structures often possessed exclusively by them would be +useless. + +With man song is generally admitted to be the basis or origin of +instrumental music. As neither the enjoyment nor the capacity of +producing musical notes are faculties of the least direct use to man in +reference to his ordinary habits of life, they must be ranked amongst +the most mysterious with which he is endowed. They are present, though +in a very rude and as it appears almost latent condition, in men of all +races, even the most savage; but so different is the taste of the +different races, that our music gives not the least pleasure to savages, +and their music is to us hideous and unmeaning. Dr. Seemann, in some +interesting remarks on this subject,[408] "doubts whether even amongst +the nations of Western Europe, intimately connected as they are by close +and frequent intercourse, the music of the one is interpreted in the +same sense by the others. By travelling eastwards we find that there is +certainly a different language of music. Songs of joy and +dance-accompaniments are no longer, as with us, in the major keys, but +always in the minor." Whether or not the half-human progenitors of man +possessed, like the before-mentioned gibbon, the capacity of producing, +and no doubt of appreciating, musical notes, we have every reason to +believe that man possessed these faculties at a very remote period, for +singing and music are extremely ancient arts. Poetry, which may be +considered as the offspring of song, is likewise so ancient that many +persons have felt astonishment that it should have arisen during the +earliest ages of which we have any record. + +The musical faculties, which are not wholly deficient in any race, are +capable of prompt and high development, as we see with Hottentots and +Negroes, who have readily become excellent musicians, although they do +not practise in their native countries anything that we should esteem as +music. But there is nothing anomalous in this circumstance: some species +of birds which never naturally sing, can without much difficulty be +taught to perform; thus the house-sparrow has learnt the song of a +linnet. As these two species are closely allied, and belong to the order +of Insessores, which includes nearly all the singing-birds in the world, +it is quite possible or probable that a progenitor of the sparrow may +have been a songster. It is a much more remarkable fact that parrots, +which belong to a group distinct from the Insessores, and have +differently-constructed vocal organs, can be taught not only to speak, +but to pipe or whistle tunes invented by man, so that they must have +some musical capacity. Nevertheless it would be extremely rash to assume +that parrots are descended from some ancient progenitor which was a +songster. Many analogous cases could be advanced of organs and instincts +originally adapted for one purpose, having been utilised for some quite +distinct purpose.[409] Hence the capacity for high musical development, +which the savage races of man possess, may be due either to our +semi-human progenitors having practised some rude form of music, or +simply to their having acquired for some distinct purposes the proper +vocal organs. But in this latter case we must assume that they already +possessed, as in the above instance of the parrots, and as seems to +occur with many animals, some sense of melody. + +Music affects every emotion, but does not by itself excite in us the +more terrible emotions of horror, rage, &c. It awakens the gentler +feelings of tenderness and love, which readily pass into devotion. It +likewise stirs up in us the sensation of triumph and the glorious ardour +for war. These powerful and mingled feelings may well give rise to the +sense of sublimity. We can concentrate, as Dr. Seemann observes, greater +intensity of feeling in a single musical note than in pages of writing. +Nearly the same emotions, but much weaker and less complex, are probably +felt by birds when the male pours forth his full volume of song, in +rivalry with other males, for the sake of captivating the female. Love +is still the commonest theme of our own songs. As Herbert Spencer +remarks, music "arouses dormant sentiments of which we had not conceived +the possibility, and do not know the meaning; or, as Richter says, tells +us of things we have not seen and shall not see."[410] Conversely, when +vivid emotions are felt and expressed by the orator or even in common +speech, musical cadences and rhythm are instinctively used. Monkeys also +express strong feelings in different tones--anger and impatience by +low,--fear and pain by high notes.[411] The sensations and ideas excited +in us by music, or by the cadences of impassioned oratory, appear from +their vagueness, yet depth, like mental reversions to the emotions and +thoughts of a long-past age. + +All these facts with respect to music become to a certain extent +intelligible if we may assume that musical tones and rhythm were used by +the half-human progenitors of man, during the season of courtship, when +animals of all kinds are excited by the strongest passions. In this +case, from the deeply-laid principle of inherited associations, musical +tones would be likely to excite in us, in a vague and indefinite manner, +the strong emotions of a long-past age. Bearing in mind that the males +of some quadrumanous animals have their vocal organs much more developed +than in the females, and that one anthropomorphous species pours forth a +whole octave of musical notes and may be said to sing, the suspicion +does not appear improbable that the progenitors of man, either the males +or females, or both sexes, before they had acquired the power of +expressing their mutual love in articulate language, endeavoured to +charm each other with musical notes and rhythm. So little is known about +the use of the voice by the Quadrumana during the season of love, that +we have hardly any means of judging whether the habit of singing was +first acquired by the male or female progenitors of mankind. Women are +generally thought to possess sweeter voices than men, and as far as this +serves as any guide we may infer that they first acquired musical powers +in order to attract the other sex.[412] But if so, this must have +occurred long ago, before the progenitors of man had become sufficiently +human to treat and value their women merely as useful slaves. The +impassioned orator, bard, or musician, when with his varied tones and +cadences he excites the strongest emotions in his hearers, little +suspects that he uses the same means by which, at an extremely remote +period, his half-human ancestors aroused each other's ardent passions, +during their mutual courtship and rivalry. + + +_On the influence of beauty in determining the marriages of +mankind._--In civilised life man is largely, but by no means +exclusively, influenced in the choice of his wife by external +appearance; but we are chiefly concerned with primeval times, and our +only means of forming a judgment on this subject is to study the habits +of existing semi-civilised and savage nations. If it can be shewn that +the men of different races prefer women having certain characteristics, +or conversely that the women prefer certain men, we have then to enquire +whether such choice, continued during many generations, would produce +any sensible effect on the race, either on one sex or both sexes; this +latter circumstance depending on the form of inheritance which prevails. + +It will be well first to shew in some detail that savages pay the +greatest attention to their personal appearance.[413] That they have a +passion for ornament is notorious; and an English philosopher goes so +far as to maintain that clothes were first made for ornament and not for +warmth. As Professor Waitz remarks, "however poor and miserable man is, +he finds a pleasure in adorning himself." The extravagance of the naked +Indians of South America in decorating themselves is shewn "by a man of +large stature gaining with difficulty enough by the labour of a +fortnight to procure in exchange the _chica_ necessary to paint himself +red."[414] The ancient barbarians of Europe during the Reindeer period +brought to their caves any brilliant or singular objects which they +happened to find. Savages at the present day everywhere deck themselves +with plumes, necklaces, armlets, earrings, &c. They paint themselves in +the most diversified manner. "If painted nations," as Humboldt observes, +"had been examined with the same attention as clothed nations, it would +have been perceived that the most fertile imagination and the most +mutable caprice have created the fashions of painting, as well as those +of garments." + +In one part of Africa the eyelids are coloured black; in another the +nails are coloured yellow or purple. In many places the hair is dyed of +various tints. In different countries the teeth are stained black, red, +blue, &c., and in the Malay Archipelago it is thought shameful to have +white teeth like those of a dog. Not one great country can be named, +from the Polar regions in the north to New Zealand in the south, in +which the aborigines do not tattoo themselves. This practice was +followed by the Jews of old and by the ancient Britons. In Africa some +of the natives tattoo themselves, but it is much more common to raise +protuberances by rubbing salt into incisions made in various parts of +the body; and these are considered by the inhabitants of Kordofan and +Darfur "to be great personal attractions." In the Arab countries no +beauty can be perfect until the cheeks "or temples have been +gashed."[415] In South America, as Humboldt remarks, "a mother would be +accused of culpable indifference towards her children, if she did not +employ artificial means to shape the calf of the leg after the fashion +of the country." In the Old and New World the shape of the skull was +formerly modified during infancy in the most extraordinary manner, as is +still the case in many places, and such deformities are considered +ornamental. For instance, the savages of Colombia[416] deem a much +flattened head "an essential point of beauty." + +The hair is treated with especial care in various countries; it is +allowed to grow to full length, so as to reach to the ground, or is +combed into "a compact frizzled mop, which is the Papuan's pride and +glory."[417] In Northern Africa "a man requires a period of from eight +to ten years to perfect his coiffure." With other nations the head is +shaved, and in parts of South America and Africa even the eyebrows are +eradicated. The natives of the Upper Nile knock out the four front +teeth, saying that they do not wish to resemble brutes. Further south, +the Batokas knock out the two upper incisors, which, as Livingstone[418] +remarks, gives the face a hideous appearance, owing to the growth of the +lower jaw; but these people think the presence of the incisors most +unsightly, and on beholding some Europeans, cried out, "Look at the +great teeth!" The great chief Sebituani tried in vain to alter this +fashion. In various parts of Africa and in the Malay Archipelago the +natives file the incisor teeth into points like those of a saw, or +pierce them with holes, into which they insert studs. + +As the face with us is chiefly admired for its beauty, so with savages +it is the chief seat of mutilation. In all quarters of the world the +septum, and more rarely the wings of the nose are pierced, with rings, +sticks, feathers, and other ornaments inserted into the holes. The ears +are everywhere pierced and similarly ornamented, and with the Botocudos +and Lenguas of South America the hole is gradually so much enlarged that +the lower edge touches the shoulder. In North and South America and in +Africa either the upper or lower lip is pierced; and with the Botocudos +the hole in the lower lip is so large that a disc of wood four inches in +diameter is placed in it. Mantegazza gives a curious account of the +shame felt by a South American native, and of the ridicule which he +excited, when he sold his _tembeta_,--the large coloured piece of wood +which is passed through the hole. In central Africa the women perforate +the lower lip and wear a crystal, which, from the movement of the +tongue, has "a wriggling motion indescribably ludicrous during +conversation." The wife of the chief of Latooka told Sir S. Baker[419] +that his "wife would be much improved if she would extract her four +front teeth from the lower jaw, and wear the long pointed polished +crystal in her under lip." Further south with the Makalolo, the upper +lip is perforated, and a large metal and bamboo ring, called a _pelelé_, +is worn in the hole. "This caused the lip in one case to project two +inches beyond the tip of the nose; and when the lady smiled the +contraction of the muscles elevated it over the eyes. 'Why do the women +wear these things?' the venerable chief, Chinsurdi, was asked. Evidently +surprised at such a stupid question, he replied, 'For beauty! They are +the only beautiful things women have; men have beards, women have none. +What kind of a person would she be without the pelelé? She would not be +a woman at all with a mouth like a man, but no beard.'" [420] + +Hardly any part of the body, which can be unnaturally modified, has +escaped. The amount of suffering thus caused must have been wonderfully +great, for many of the operations require several years for their +completion, so that the idea of their necessity must be imperative. The +motives are various; the men paint their bodies to make themselves +appear terrible in battle; certain mutilations are connected with +religious rites; or they mark the age of puberty, or the rank of the +man, or they serve to distinguish the tribes. As with savages the same +fashions prevail for long periods,[421] mutilations, from whatever cause +first made, soon come to be valued as distinctive marks. But +self-adornment, vanity, and the admiration of others, seem to be the +commonest motives. In regard to tattooing, I was told by the +missionaries in New Zealand, that when they tried to persuade some girls +to give up the practice, they answered, "We must just have a few lines +on our lips; else when we grow old we shall be so very ugly." With the +men of New Zealand, a most capable judge[422] says, "to have fine +tattooed faces was the great ambition of the young, both to render +themselves attractive to the ladies, and conspicuous in war." A star +tattooed on the forehead and a spot on the chin are thought by the +women in one part of Africa to be irresistible attractions.[423] In +most, but not all parts of the world, the men are more highly ornamented +than the women, and often in a different manner; sometimes, though +rarely, the women are hardly at all ornamented. As the women are made by +savages to perform the greatest share of the work, and as they are not +allowed to eat the best kinds of food, so it accords with the +characteristic selfishness of man that they should not be allowed to +obtain, or to use, the finest ornaments. Lastly it is a remarkable fact, +as proved by the foregoing quotations, that the same fashions in +modifying the shape of the head, in ornamenting the hair, in painting, +tattooing, perforating the nose, lips, or ears, in removing or filing +the teeth, &c., now prevail and have long prevailed in the most distant +quarters of the world. It is extremely improbable that these practices +which are followed by so many distinct nations are due to tradition from +any common source. They rather indicate the close similarity of the mind +of man, to whatever race he may belong, in the same manner as the almost +universal habits of dancing, masquerading, and making rude pictures. + + +Having made these preliminary remarks on the admiration felt by savages +for various ornaments, and for deformities most unsightly in our eyes, +let us see how far the men are attracted by the appearance of their +women, and what are their ideas of beauty. As I have heard it maintained +that savages are quite indifferent about the beauty of their women, +valuing them solely as slaves, it may be well to observe that this +conclusion does not at all agree with the care which the women take in +ornamenting themselves, or with their vanity. Burchell[424] gives an +amusing account of a Bushwoman, who used so much grease, red ochre, and +shining powder, "as would have ruined any but a very rich husband." She +displayed also "much vanity and too evident a consciousness of her +superiority." Mr. Winwood Reade informs me that the negroes of the West +Coast often discuss the beauty of their women. Some competent observers +have attributed the fearfully common practice of infanticide partly to +the desire felt by the women to retain their good looks.[425] In several +regions the women wear charms and love-philters to gain the affections +of the men; and Mr. Brown enumerates four plants used for this purpose +by the women of North-Western America.[426] + +Hearne,[427] who lived many years with the American Indians, and who was +an excellent observer, says, in speaking of the women, "Ask a Northern +Indian what is beauty, and he will answer, a broad flat face, small +eyes, high cheek-bones, three or four broad black lines across each +cheek, a low forehead, a large broad chin, a clumsy hook nose, a tawny +hide, and breasts hanging down to the belt." Pallas, who visited the +northern parts of the Chinese empire, says "those women are preferred +who have the Mandschú form; that is to say, a broad face, high +cheek-bones, very broad noses, and enormous ears;"[428] and Vogt remarks +that the obliquity of the eye, which is proper to the Chinese and +Japanese, is exaggerated in their pictures for the purpose, as "it +seems, of exhibiting its beauty, as contrasted with the eye of the +red-haired barbarians." It is well known, as Huc repeatedly remarks, +that the Chinese of the interior think Europeans hideous with their +white skins and prominent noses. The nose is far from being too +prominent, according to our ideas, in the natives of Ceylon; yet "the +Chinese in the seventh century, accustomed to the flat features of the +Mogul races, were surprised at the prominent noses of the Cingalese; and +Thsang described them as having 'the beak of a bird, with the body of a +man.'" + +Finlayson, after minutely describing the people of Cochin China, says +that their rounded heads and faces are their chief characteristics; and, +he adds, "the roundness of the whole countenance is more striking in the +women, who are reckoned beautiful in proportion as they display this +form of face." The Siamese have small noses with divergent nostrils, a +wide mouth, rather thick lips, a remarkably large face, with very high +and broad cheek-bones. It is, therefore, not wonderful that "beauty, +according to our notion is a stranger to them. Yet they consider their +own females to be much more beautiful than those of Europe."[429] + +It is well known that with many Hottentot women the posterior part of +the body projects in a wonderful manner; they are steatopygous; and Sir +Andrew Smith is certain that this peculiarity is greatly admired by the +men.[430] He once saw a woman who was considered a beauty, and she was +so immensely developed behind, that when seated on level ground she +could not rise, and had to push herself along until she came to a slope. +Some of the women in various negro tribes are similarly characterised; +and, according to Burton, the Somal men "are said to choose their wives +by ranging them in a line, and by picking her out who projects farthest +_a tergo_. Nothing can be more hateful to a negro than the opposite +form."[431] + +With respect to colour, the negroes rallied Mungo Park on the whiteness +of his skin and the prominence of his nose, both of which they +considered as "unsightly and unnatural conformations." He in return +praised the glossy jet of their skins and the lovely depression of their +noses; this they said was "honey-mouth," nevertheless they gave him +food. The African Moors, also, "knitted their brows and seemed to +shudder" at the whiteness of his skin. On the eastern coast, the negro +boys when they saw Burton, cried out "Look at the white man; does he not +look like a white ape?" On the western coast, as Mr. Winwood Reade +informs me, the negroes admire a very black skin more than one of a +lighter tint. But their horror of whiteness may be partly attributed, +according to this same traveller, to the belief held by most negroes +that demons and spirits are white. + +The Banyai of the more southern part of the continent are negroes, but +"a great many of them are of a light coffee-and-milk colour, and, +indeed, this colour is considered handsome throughout the whole +country;" so that here we have a different standard of taste. With the +Kafirs, who differ much from negroes, "the skin, except among the +tribes near Delagoa Bay, is not usually black, the prevailing colour +being a mixture of black and red, the most common shade being chocolate. +Dark complexions, as being most common are naturally held in the highest +esteem. To be told that he is light-coloured, or like a white man, would +be deemed a very poor compliment by a Kafir. I have heard of one +unfortunate man who was so very fair that no girl would marry him." One +of the titles of the Zulu king is "You who are black."[432] Mr. Galton, +in speaking to me about the natives of S. Africa, remarked that their +ideas of beauty seem very different from ours; for in one tribe two +slim, slight, and pretty girls were not admired by the natives. + +Turning to other quarters of the world; in Java, a yellow, not a white +girl, is considered, according to Madame Pfeiffer, a beauty. A man of +Cochin-China "spoke with contempt of the wife of the English Ambassador, +that she had white teeth like a dog, and a rosy colour like that of +potato-flowers." We have seen that the Chinese dislike our white skin, +and that the N. Americans admire "a tawny hide." In S. America, the +Yura-caras, who inhabit the wooded, damp slopes of the eastern +Cordillera, are remarkably pale-coloured, as their name in their own +language expresses; nevertheless they consider European women as very +inferior to their own.[433] + +In several of the tribes of North America the hair on the head grows to +a wonderful length; and Catlin gives a curious proof how much this is +esteemed, for the chief of the Crows was elected to this office from +having the longest hair of any man in the tribe, namely ten feet and +seven inches. The Aymaras and Quechuas of S. America, likewise have very +long hair; and this, as Mr. D. Forbes informs me, is so much valued for +the sake of beauty, that cutting it off was the severest punishment +which he could inflict on them. In both halves of the continent the +natives sometimes increase the apparent length of their hair by weaving +into it fibrous substances. Although the hair on the head is thus +cherished, that on the face is considered by the North American Indians +"as very vulgar," and every hair is carefully eradicated. This practice +prevails throughout the American continent from Vancouver's Island in +the north to Tierra del Fuego in the south. When York Minster, a Fuegian +on board the "Beagle" was taken back to his country, the natives told +him he ought to pull out the few short hairs on his face. They also +threatened a young missionary, who was left for a time with them, to +strip him naked, and pluck the hairs from his face and body, yet he was +far from a hairy man. This fashion is carried to such an extreme that +the Indians of Paraguay eradicate their eyebrows and eyelashes, saying +that they do not wish to be like horses.[434] + +It is remarkable that throughout the world the races which are almost +completely destitute of a beard dislike hairs on the face and body, and +take pains to eradicate them. The Kalmucks are beardless, and they are +well known, like the Americans, to pluck out all straggling hairs; and +so it is with the Polynesians, some of the Malays, and the Siamese. Mr. +Veitch states that the Japanese ladies "all objected to our whiskers, +considering them very ugly, and told us to cut them off, and be like +Japanese men." The New Zealanders are beardless; they carefully pluck +out the hairs on the face, and have a saying that "There is no woman for +a hairy man."[435] + +On the other hand, bearded races admire and greatly value their beards; +among the Anglo-Saxons every part of the body, according to their laws, +had a recognised value; "the loss of the beard being estimated at twenty +shillings, while the breaking of a thigh was fixed at only twelve."[436] +In the East men swear solemnly by their beards. We have seen that +Chinsurdi, the chief of the Makalolo in Africa, evidently thought that +beards were a great ornament. With the Fijians in the Pacific the beard +is "profuse and bushy, and is his greatest pride;" whilst the +inhabitants of the adjacent archipelagoes of Tonga and Samoa are +"beardless, and abhor a rough chin." In one island alone of the Ellice +group "the men are heavily bearded, and not a little proud +thereof."[437] + +We thus see how widely the different races of man differ in their taste +for the beautiful. In every nation sufficiently advanced to have made +effigies of their gods or of their deified rulers, the sculptors no +doubt have endeavoured to express their highest ideal of beauty and +grandeur.[438] Under this point of view it is well to compare in our +mind the Jupiter or Apollo of the Greeks with the Egyptian or Assyrian +statues; and these with the hideous bas-reliefs on the ruined buildings +of Central America. + +I have met with very few statements opposed to the above conclusion. Mr. +Winwood Reade, however, who has had ample opportunities for observation, +not only with the negroes of the West Coast of Africa, but with those of +the interior who have never associated with Europeans, is convinced that +their ideas of beauty are _on the whole_ the same as ours. He has +repeatedly found that he agreed with negroes in their estimation of the +beauty of the native girls; and that their appreciation of the beauty of +European women corresponded with ours. They admire long hair, and use +artificial means to make it appear abundant; they admire also a beard, +though themselves very scantily provided. Mr. Reade feels doubtful what +kind of nose is most appreciated: a girl has been heard to say, "I do +not want to marry him, he has got no nose;" and this shews that a very +flat nose is not an object of admiration. We should, however, bear in +mind that the depressed and very broad noses and projecting jaws of the +negroes of the West Coast are exceptional types with the inhabitants of +Africa. Notwithstanding the foregoing statements, Mr. Reade does not +think it probable that negroes would ever prefer the "most beautiful +European woman, on the mere grounds of physical admiration, to a +good-looking negress."[439] + +The truth of the principle, long ago insisted on by Humboldt,[440] that +man admires and often tries to exaggerate whatever characters nature may +have given him, is shewn in many ways. The practice of beardless races +extirpating every trace of a beard, and generally all the hairs on the +body, offers one illustration. The skull has been greatly modified +during ancient and modern times by many nations; and there can be little +doubt that this has been practised, especially in N. and S. America, in +order to exaggerate some natural and admired peculiarity. Many American +Indians are known to admire a head flattened to such an extreme degree +as to appear to us like that of an idiot. The natives on the +north-western coast compress the head into a pointed cone; and it is +their constant practice to gather the hair into a knot on the top of the +head, for the sake, as Dr. Wilson remarks, "of increasing the apparent +elevation of the favourite conoid form." The inhabitants of Arakhan +"admire a broad, smooth forehead, and in order to produce it, they +fasten a plate of lead on the heads of the newborn children." On the +other hand, "a broad, well-rounded occiput is considered a great +beauty" by the natives of the Fiji islands.[441] + +As with the skull, so with the nose; the ancient Huns during the age of +Attila were accustomed to flatten the noses of their infants with +bandages, "for the sake of exaggerating a natural conformation." With +the Tahitians, to be called, _long-nose_ is considered as an insult, and +they compress the noses and foreheads of their children for the sake of +beauty. So it is with the Malays of Sumatra, the Hottentots, certain +Negroes, and the natives of Brazil.[442] The Chinese have by nature +unusually small feet;[443] and it is well known that the women of the +upper classes distort their feet to make them still smaller. Lastly, +Humboldt thinks that the American Indians prefer colouring their bodies +with red paint in order to exaggerate their natural tint; and until +recently European women added to their naturally bright colours by rouge +and white cosmetics; but I doubt whether many barbarous nations have had +any such intention in painting themselves. + +In the fashions of our own dress we see exactly the same principle and +the same desire to carry every point to an extreme; we exhibit, also, +the same spirit of emulation. But the fashions of savages are far more +permanent than ours; and whenever their bodies are artificially +modified this is necessarily the case. The Arab women of the Upper Nile +occupy about three days in dressing their hair; they never imitate other +tribes, "but simply vie with each other in the superlativeness of their +own style." Dr. Wilson, in speaking of the compressed skulls of various +American races, adds, "such usages are among the least eradicable, and +long survive the shock of revolutions that change dynasties and efface +more important national peculiarities."[444] The same principle comes +largely into play in the art of selection; and we can thus understand, +as I have elsewhere explained,[445] the wonderful development of all the +races of animals and plants which are kept merely for ornament. Fanciers +always wish each character to be somewhat increased; they do not admire +a medium standard; they certainly do not desire any great and abrupt +change in the character of their breeds; they admire solely what they +are accustomed to behold, but they ardently desire to see each +characteristic feature a little more developed. + +No doubt the perceptive powers of man and the lower animals are so +constituted that brilliant colours and certain forms, as well as +harmonious and rhythmical sounds, give pleasure and are called +beautiful; but why this should be so, we know no more than why certain +bodily sensations are agreeable and others disagreeable. It is certainly +not true that there is in the mind of man any universal standard of +beauty with respect to the human body. It is, however, possible that +certain tastes may in the course of time become inherited, though I know +of no evidence in favour of this belief; and if so, each race would +possess its own innate ideal standard of beauty. It has been argued[446] +that ugliness consists in an approach to the structure of the lower +animals, and this no doubt is true with the more civilised nations, in +which intellect is highly appreciated; but a nose twice as prominent, or +eyes twice as large as usual, would not be an approach in structure to +any of the lower animals, and yet would be utterly hideous. The men of +each race prefer what they are accustomed to behold; they cannot endure +any great change; but they like variety, and admire each characteristic +point carried to a moderate extreme.[447] Men accustomed to a nearly +oval face, to straight and regular features, and to bright colours, +admire, as we Europeans know, these points when strongly developed. On +the other hand, men accustomed to a broad face, with high cheek-bones, a +depressed nose, and a black skin, admire these points strongly +developed. No doubt characters of all kinds may easily be too much +developed for beauty. Hence a perfect beauty, which implies many +characters modified in a particular manner, will in every race be a +prodigy. As the great anatomist Bichat long ago said, if every one were +cast in the same mould, there would be no such thing as beauty. If all +our women were to become as beautiful as the Venus de Medici, we should +for a time be charmed; but we should soon wish for variety; and as soon +as we had obtained variety, we should wish to see certain characters in +our women a little exaggerated beyond the then existing common standard. + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + +SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS OF MAN--_continued_. + + + On the effects of the continued selection of women according + to a different standard of beauty in each race--On the causes + which interfere with sexual selection in civilised and savage + nations--Conditions favourable to sexual selection during + primeval times--On the manner of action of sexual selection + with mankind--On the women in savage tribes having some power + to choose their husbands--Absence of hair on the body, and + development of the beard--Colour of the skin--Summary. + + +We have seen in the last chapter that with all barbarous races +ornaments, dress, and external appearance are highly valued; and that +the men judge of the beauty of their women by widely different +standards. We must next inquire whether this preference and the +consequent selection during many generations of those women, which, +appear to the men of each race the most attractive, has altered the +character either of the females alone or of both sexes. With mammals the +general rule appears to be that characters of all kinds are inherited +equally by the males and females; we might therefore expect that with +mankind any characters gained through sexual selection by the females +would commonly be transferred to the offspring of both sexes. If any +change has thus been effected it is almost certain that the different +races will have been differently modified, as each has its own standard +of beauty. + +With mankind, especially with savages, many causes interfere with the +action of sexual selection as far as the bodily frame is concerned. +Civilised men are largely attracted by the mental charms of women, by +their wealth, and especially by their social position; for men rarely +marry into a much lower rank of life. The men who succeed in obtaining +the more beautiful women, will not have a better chance of leaving a +long line of descendants than other men with plainer wives, with the +exception of the few who bequeath their fortunes according to +primogeniture. With respect to the opposite form of selection, namely of +the more attractive men by the women, although in civilised nations +women have free or almost free choice, which is not the case with +barbarous races, yet their choice is largely influenced by the social +position and wealth of the men; and the success of the latter in life +largely depends on their intellectual powers and energy, or on the +fruits of these same powers in their forefathers. + +There is, however, reason to believe that sexual selection has effected +something in certain civilised and semi-civilised nations. Many persons +are convinced, as it appears to me with justice, that the members of our +aristocracy, including under this term all wealthy families in which +primogeniture has long prevailed, from having chosen during many +generations from all classes the more beautiful women as their wives, +have become handsomer, according to the European standard of beauty, +than the middle classes; yet the middle classes are placed under equally +favourable conditions of life for the perfect development of the body. +Cook remarks that the superiority in personal appearance "which is +observable in the erees or nobles in all the other islands (of the +Pacific) is found in the Sandwich islands;" but this may be chiefly due +to their better food and manner of life. + +The old traveller Chardin, in describing the Persians, says their "blood +is now highly refined by frequent intermixtures with the Georgians and +Circassians, two nations which surpass all the world in personal beauty. +There is hardly a man of rank in Persia who is not born of a Georgian or +Circassian mother." He adds that they inherit their beauty, "not from +their ancestors, for without the above mixture, the men of rank in +Persia, who are descendants of the Tartars, would be extremely +ugly."[448] Here is a more curious case: the priestesses who attended +the temple of Venus Erycina at San-Giuliano in Sicily, were selected for +their beauty out of the whole of Greece; they were not vestal virgins, +and Quatrefages,[449] who makes this statement, says that the women of +San-Giuliano are famous at the present day as the most beautiful in the +island, and are sought by artists as models. But it is obvious that the +evidence in the above cases is doubtful. + +The following case, though relating to savages, is well worth giving +from its curiosity. Mr. Winwood Reade informs me that the Jollofs, a +tribe of negroes on the west coast of Africa, "are remarkable for their +uniformly fine appearance." A friend of his asked one of these men, "How +is it that every one whom I meet is so fine-looking, not only your men, +but your women?" The Jollof answered, "It is very easily explained: it +has always been our custom to pick out our worse-looking slaves and to +sell them." It need hardly be added that with all savages female slaves +serve as concubines. That this negro should have attributed, whether +rightly or wrongly, the fine appearance of his tribe, to the +long-continued elimination of the ugly women, is not so surprising as +it may at first appear; for I have elsewhere shewn[450] that negroes +fully appreciate the importance of selection in the breeding of their +domestic animals, and I could give from Mr. Reade additional evidence on +this head. + +_On the Causes which prevent or check the Action of Sexual Selection +with Savages._--The chief causes are, firstly, so-called communal +marriages or promiscuous intercourse; secondly, infanticide, especially +of female infants; thirdly, early betrothals; and lastly, the low +estimation in which women are held, as mere slaves. These four points +must be considered in some detail. + +It is obvious that as long as the pairing of man, or of any other +animal, is left to chance, with no choice exerted by either sex, there +can be no sexual selection; and no effect will be produced on the +offspring by certain individuals having had an advantage over others in +their courtship. Now it is asserted that there exist at the present day +tribes which practise what Sir J. Lubbock by courtesy calls communal +marriages; that is, all the men and women in the tribe are husbands and +wives to each other. The licentiousness of many savages is no doubt +astonishingly great, but it seems to me that more evidence is requisite +before we fully admit that their existing intercourse is absolutely +promiscuous. Nevertheless all those who have most closely studied the +subject,[451] and whose judgment is worth much more than mine, believe +that communal marriage was the original and universal form throughout +the world, including the intermarriage of brothers and sisters. The +indirect evidence in favour of this belief is extremely strong, and +rests chiefly on the terms of relationship which are employed between +the members of the same tribe, implying a connection with the tribe +alone, and not with either parent. But the subject is too large and +complex for even an abstract to be here given, and I will confine myself +to a few remarks. It is evident in the case of communal marriages, or +where the marriage-tie is very loose, that the relationship of the child +to its father cannot be known. But it seems almost incredible that the +relationship of the child to its mother should ever have been completely +ignored, especially as the women in most savage tribes nurse their +infants for a long time. Accordingly in many cases the lines of descent +are traced through the mother alone, to the exclusion of the father. But +in many other cases the terms employed express a connection with the +tribe alone, to the exclusion even of the mother. It seems possible that +the connection between the related members of the same barbarous tribe, +exposed to all sorts of danger, might be so much more important, owing +to the need of mutual protection and aid, than that between the mother +and her child, as to lead to the sole use of terms expressive of the +former relationships; but Mr. Morgan is convinced that this view of the +case is by no means sufficient. + +The terms of relationship used in different parts of the world may be +divided, according to the author just quoted, into two great classes, +the classificatory and descriptive,--the latter being employed by us. It +is the classificatory system which so strongly leads to the belief that +communal and other extremely loose forms of marriage were originally +universal. But as far as I can see, there is no necessity on this ground +for believing in absolutely promiscuous intercourse. Men and women, like +many of the lower animals, might formerly have entered into strict +though temporary unions for each birth, and in this case nearly as much +confusion would have arisen in the terms of relationship as in the case +of promiscuous intercourse. As far as sexual selection is concerned, all +that is required is that choice should be exerted before the parents +unite, and it signifies little whether the unions last for life or only +for a season. + +Besides the evidence derived from the terms of relationship, other lines +of reasoning indicate the former wide prevalence of communal marriage. +Sir J. Lubbock ingeniously accounts[452] for the strange and +widely-extended habit of exogamy,--that is, the men of one tribe always +taking wives from a distinct tribe,--by communism having been the +original form of marriage; so that a man never obtained a wife for +himself unless he captured her from a neighbouring and hostile tribe, +and then she would naturally have become his sole and valuable property. +Thus the practice of capturing wives might have arisen; and from the +honour so gained might ultimately have become the universal habit. We +can also, according to Sir J. Lubbock,[452] thus understand "the +necessity of expiation for marriage as an infringement of tribal rites, +since, according to old ideas, a man had no right to appropriate to +himself that which belonged to the whole tribe." Sir J. Lubbock further +gives a most curious body of facts shewing that in old times high honour +was bestowed on women who were utterly licentious; and this, as he +explains, is intelligible, if we admit that promiscuous intercourse was +the aboriginal and therefore long revered custom of the tribe.[453] + +Although the manner of development of the marriage-tie is an obscure +subject, as we may infer from the divergent opinions on several points +between the three authors who have studied it most closely, namely, Mr. +Morgan, Mr. M'Lennan, and Sir J. Lubbock, yet from the foregoing and +several other lines of evidence it seems certain that the habit of +marriage has been gradually developed, and that almost promiscuous +intercourse was once extremely common throughout the world. Nevertheless +from the analogy of the lower animals, more particularly of those which +come nearest to man in the series, I cannot believe that this habit +prevailed at an extremely remote period, when man had hardly attained to +his present rank in the zoological scale. Man, as I have attempted to +shew, is certainly descended from some ape-like creature. With the +existing Quadrumana, as far as their habits are known, the males of some +species are monogamous, but live during only a part of the year with the +females, as seems to be the case with the Orang. Several kinds, as some +of the Indian and American monkeys, are strictly monogamous, and +associate all the year round with their wives. Others are polygamous, as +the Gorilla and several American species, and each family lives +separate. Even when this occurs, the families inhabiting the same +district are probably to a certain extent social: the Chimpanzee, for +instance, is occasionally met with in large bands. Again, other species +are polygamous, but several males, each with their own females, live +associated in a body, as with several species of Baboons.[454] We may +indeed conclude from what we know of the jealousy of all male +quadrupeds, armed, as many of them are, with special weapons for +battling with their rivals, that promiscuous intercourse in a state of +nature is extremely improbable. The pairing may not last for life, but +only for each birth; yet if the males which are the strongest and best +able to defend or otherwise assist their females and young offspring, +were to select the more attractive females, this would suffice for the +work of sexual selection. + +Therefore, if we look far enough back in the stream of time, it is +extremely improbable that primeval men and women lived promiscuously +together. Judging from the social habits of man as he now exists, and +from most savages being polygamists, the most probable view is that +primeval man aboriginally lived in small communities, each with as many +wives as he could support and obtain, whom he would have jealously +guarded against all other men. Or he may have lived with several wives +by himself, like the Gorilla; for all the natives "agree that but one +adult male is seen in a band; when the young male grows up, a contest +takes place for mastery, and the strongest, by killing and driving out +the others, establishes himself as the head of the community."[455] The +younger males, being thus expelled and wandering about, would, when at +last successful in finding a partner, prevent too close interbreeding +within the limits of the same family. + +Although savages are now extremely licentious, and although communal +marriages may formerly have largely prevailed, yet many tribes practise +some form of marriage, but of a far more lax nature than with civilised +nations. Polygamy, as just stated, is almost universally followed by the +leading men in every tribe. Nevertheless there are tribes, standing +almost at the bottom of the scale, which are strictly monogamous. This +is the case with the Veddahs of Ceylon: they have a saying, according to +Sir J. Lubbock,[456] "that death alone can separate husband and wife." +An intelligent Kandyan chief, of course a polygamist, "was perfectly +scandalized at the utter barbarism of living with only one wife, and +never parting until separated by death." It was, he said, "just like the +Wanderoo monkeys." Whether savages who now enter into some form of +marriage, either polygamous or monogamous, have retained this habit from +primeval times, or whether they have returned to some form of marriage, +after passing through a stage of promiscuous intercourse, I will not +pretend to conjecture. + +_Infanticide._--This practice is now very common throughout the world, +and there is reason to believe that it prevailed much more extensively +during former times.[457] Barbarians find it difficult to support +themselves and their children, and it is a simple plan to kill their +infants. In South America some tribes, as Azara states, formerly +destroyed so many infants of both sexes, that they were on the point of +extinction. In the Polynesian Islands women have been known to kill from +four or five to even ten of their children; and Ellis could not find a +single woman who had not killed at least one. Wherever infanticide +prevails the struggle for existence will be in so far less severe, and +all the members of the tribe will have an almost equally good chance of +rearing their few surviving children. In most cases a larger number of +female than of male infants are destroyed, for it is obvious that the +latter are of most value to the tribe, as they will when grown up aid in +defending it, and can support themselves. But the trouble experienced by +the women in rearing children, their consequent loss of beauty, the +higher estimation set on them and their happier fate, when few in +number, are assigned by the women themselves, and by various observers, +as additional motives for infanticide. In Australia, where female +infanticide is still common, Sir G. Grey estimated the proportion of +native women to men as one to three; but others say as two to three. In +a village on the eastern frontier of India, Colonel Macculloch found not +a single female child.[458] + +When, owing to female infanticide, the women of a tribe are few in +number, the habit of capturing wives from neighbouring tribes would +naturally arise. Sir J. Lubbock, however, as we have seen, attributes +the practice in chief part, to the former existence of communal +marriage, and to the men having consequently captured women from other +tribes to hold as their sole property. Additional causes might be +assigned, such as the communities being very small, in which case, +marriageable women would often be deficient. That the habit of capture +was most extensively practised during former times, even by the +ancestors of civilised nations, is clearly shewn by the preservation of +many curious customs and ceremonies, of which Mr. M'Lennan has given a +most interesting account. In our own marriages the "best man" seems +originally to have been the chief abettor of the bridegroom in the act +of capture. Now as long as men habitually procured their wives through +violence and craft, it is not probable that they would have selected the +more attractive women; they would have been too glad to have seized on +any woman. But as soon as the practice of procuring wives from a +distinct tribe was effected through barter, as now occurs in many +places, the more attractive women would generally have been purchased. +The incessant crossing, however, between tribe and tribe, which +necessarily follows from any form of this habit would have tended to +keep all the people inhabiting the same country nearly uniform in +character; and this would have greatly interfered with the power of +sexual selection in differentiating the tribes. + +The scarcity of women, consequent on female infanticide, leads, also, to +another practice, namely polyandry, which is still common in several +parts of the world, and which formerly, as Mr. M'Lennan believes, +prevailed almost universally; but this latter conclusion is doubted by +Mr. Morgan and Sir J. Lubbock.[459] Whenever two or more men are +compelled to marry one woman, it is certain that all the women of the +tribe will get married, and there will be no selection by the men of the +more attractive women. But under these circumstances the women no doubt +will have the power of choice, and will prefer the more attractive men. +Azara, for instance, describes how carefully a Guana woman bargains for +all sorts of privileges, before accepting some one or more husbands; and +the men in consequence take unusual care of their personal +appearance.[460] The very ugly men would perhaps altogether fail in +getting a wife, or get one later in life, but the handsomer men, +although the most successful in obtaining wives, would not, as far as we +can see, leave more offspring to inherit their beauty than the less +handsome husbands of the same women. + +_Early Betrothals and Slavery of Women._--With many savages it is the +custom to betroth the females whilst mere infants; and this would +effectually prevent preference being exerted on either side according to +personal appearance. But it would not prevent the more attractive women +from being afterwards stolen or taken by force from their husbands by +the more powerful men; and this often happens in Australia, America, and +other parts of the world. The same consequences with reference to sexual +selection would to a certain extent follow when women are valued almost +exclusively as slaves or beasts of burden, as is the case with most +savages. The men, however, at all times would prefer the handsomest +slaves according to their standard of beauty. + + +We thus see that several customs prevail with savages which would +greatly interfere with, or completely stop, the action of sexual +selection. On the other hand, the conditions of life to which savages +are exposed, and some of their habits, are favourable to natural +selection; and this always comes into play together with sexual +selection. Savages are known to suffer severely from recurrent famines; +they do not increase their food by artificial means; they rarely refrain +from marriage,[461] and generally marry young. Consequently they must be +subjected to occasional hard struggles for existence, and the favoured +individuals will alone survive. + +Turning to primeval times when men had only doubtfully attained the rank +of manhood, they would probably have lived, as already stated, either as +polygamists or temporarily as monogamists. Their intercourse, judging +from analogy, would not then have been promiscuous. They would, no +doubt, have defended their females to the best of their power from +enemies of all kinds, and would probably have hunted for their +subsistence, as well as for that of their offspring. The most powerful +and able males would have succeeded best in the struggle for life and in +obtaining attractive females. At this early period the progenitors of +man, from having only feeble powers of reason, would not have looked +forward to distant contingencies. They would have been governed more by +their instincts and even less by their reason than are savages at the +present day. They would not at that period have partially lost one of +the strongest of all instincts, common to all the lower animals, namely +the love of their young offspring; and consequently they would not have +practised infanticide. There would have been no artificial scarcity of +women, and polyandry would not have been followed; there would have been +no early betrothals; women would not have been valued as mere slaves; +both sexes, if the females as well as the males were permitted to exert +any choice, would have chosen their partners, not for mental charms, or +property, or social position, but almost solely from external +appearance. All the adults would have married or paired, and all the +offspring, as far as that was possible, would have been reared; so that +the struggle for existence would have been periodically severe to an +extreme degree. Thus during these primordial times all the conditions +for sexual selection would have been much more favourable than at a +later period, when man had advanced in his intellectual powers, but had +retrograded in his instincts. Therefore, whatever influence sexual +selection may have had in producing the differences between the races of +man, and between man and the higher Quadrumana, this influence would +have been much more powerful at a very remote period than at the present +day. + + +_On the Manner of Action of Sexual Selection with mankind._--With +primeval men under the favourable conditions just stated, and with those +savages who at the present time enter into any marriage tie (but subject +to greater or less interference according as the habits of female +infanticide, early betrothals, &c., are more or less practised), sexual +selection will probably have acted in the following manner. The +strongest and most vigorous men,--those who could best defend and hunt +for their families, and during later times the chiefs or +head-men,--those who were provided with the best weapons and who +possessed the most property, such as a larger number of dogs or other +animals, would have succeeded in rearing a greater average number of +offspring, than would the weaker, poorer and lower members of the same +tribes. There can, also, be no doubt that such men would generally have +been able to select the more attractive women. At present the chiefs of +nearly every tribe throughout the world succeed in obtaining more than +one wife. Until recently, as I hear from Mr. Mantell, almost every girl +in New Zealand, who was pretty, or promised to be pretty, was _tapu_ to +some chief. With the Kafirs, as Mr. C. Hamilton states,[462] "the chiefs +generally have the pick of the women for many miles round, and are most +persevering in establishing or confirming their privilege." We have seen +that each race has its own style of beauty, and we know that it is +natural to man to admire each characteristic point in his domestic +animals, dress, ornaments, and personal appearance, when carried a +little beyond the common standard. If then the several foregoing +propositions be admitted, and I cannot see that they are doubtful, it +would be an inexplicable circumstance, if the selection of the more +attractive women by the more powerful men of each tribe, who would rear +on an average a greater number of children, did not after the lapse of +many generations modify to a certain extent the character of the tribe. + +With our domestic animals, when a foreign breed is introduced into a new +country, or when a native breed is long and carefully attended to, +either for use or ornament, it is found after several generations to +have undergone, whenever the means of comparison exist, a greater or +less amount of change. This follows from unconscious selection during a +long series of generations--that is, the preservation of the most +approved individuals--without any wish or expectation of such a result +on the part of the breeder. So again, if two careful breeders rear +during many years animals of the same family, and do not compare them +together or with a common standard, the animals are found after a time +to have become to the surprise of their owners slightly different.[463] +Each breeder has impressed, as Von Nathusius well expresses it, the +character of his own mind--his own taste and judgment--on his animals. +What reason, then, can be assigned why similar results should not follow +from the long-continued selection of the most admired women by those men +of each tribe, who were able to rear to maturity the greater number of +children? This would be unconscious selection, for an effect would be +produced, independently of any wish or expectation on the part of the +men who preferred certain women to others. + +Let us suppose the members of a tribe, in which some form of marriage +was practised, to spread over an unoccupied continent; they would soon +split up into distinct hordes, which would be separated from each other +by various barriers, and still more effectually by the incessant wars +between all barbarous nations. The hordes would thus be exposed to +slightly different conditions and habits of life, and would sooner or +later come to differ in some small degree. As soon as this occurred, +each isolated tribe would form for itself a slightly different standard +of beauty;[464] and then unconscious selection would come into action +through the more powerful and leading savages preferring certain women +to others. Thus the differences between the tribes, at first very +slight, would gradually and inevitably be increased to a greater and +greater degree. + + +With animals in a state of nature, many characters proper to the males, +such as size, strength, special weapons, courage and pugnacity, have +been acquired through the law of battle. The semi-human progenitors of +man, like their allies the Quadrumana, will almost certainly have been +thus modified; and, as savages still fight for the possession of their +women, a similar process of selection has probably gone on in a greater +or less degree to the present day. Other characters proper to the males +of the lower animals, such as bright colours and various ornaments, have +been acquired by the more attractive males having been preferred by the +females. There are, however, exceptional cases in which the males, +instead of having been the selected, have been the selectors. We +recognise such cases by the females having been rendered more highly +ornamented than the males,--their ornamental characters having been +transmitted exclusively or chiefly to their female offspring. One such +case has been described in the order to which man belongs, namely, with +the Rhesus monkey. + +Man is more powerful in body and mind than woman, and in the savage +state he keeps her in a far more abject state of bondage than does the +male of any other animal; therefore it is not surprising that he should +have gained the power of selection. Women are everywhere conscious of +the value of their beauty; and when they have the means, they take more +delight in decorating themselves with all sorts of ornaments than do +men. They borrow the plumes of male birds, with which nature decked this +sex in order to charm the females. As women have long been selected for +beauty, it is not surprising that some of the successive variations +should have been transmitted in a limited manner; and consequently that +women should have transmitted their beauty in a somewhat higher degree +to their female than to their male offspring. Hence women have become +more beautiful, as most persons will admit, than men. Women, however, +certainly transmit most of their characters, including beauty, to their +offspring of both sexes; so that the continued preference by the men of +each race of the more attractive women, according to their standard of +taste, would tend to modify in the same manner all the individuals of +both sexes belonging to the race. + +With respect to the other form of sexual selection (which with the lower +animals is much the most common), namely, when the females are the +selectors, and accept only those males which excite or charm them most, +we have reason to believe that it formerly acted on the progenitors of +man. Man in all probability owes his beard, and perhaps some other +characters, to inheritance from an ancient progenitor who gained in this +manner his ornaments. But this form of selection may have occasionally +acted during later times; for in utterly barbarous tribes the women have +more power in choosing, rejecting, and tempting their lovers, or of +afterwards changing their husbands, than might have been expected. As +this is a point of some importance, I will give in detail such evidence +as I have been able to collect. + +Hearne describes how a woman in one of the tribes of Arctic America +repeatedly ran away from her husband and joined a beloved man; and with +the Charruas of S. America, as Azara states, the power of divorce is +perfectly free. With the Abipones, when a man chooses a wife he bargains +with the parents about the price. But "it frequently happens that the +girl rescinds what has been agreed upon between the parents and the +bridegroom, obstinately rejecting the very mention of marriage." She +often runs away, hides herself, and thus eludes the bridegroom. In the +Fiji Islands the man seizes on the woman whom he wishes for his wife by +actual or pretended force; but "on reaching the home of her abductor, +should she not approve of the match, she runs to some one who can +protect her; if, however, she is satisfied, the matter is settled +forthwith." In Tierra del Fuego a young man first obtains the consent of +the parents by doing them some service, and then he attempts to carry +off the girl; "but if she is unwilling, she hides herself in the woods +until her admirer is heartily tired of looking for her, and gives up the +pursuit; but this seldom happens." With the Kalmucks there is a regular +race between the bride and bridegroom, the former having a fair start; +and Clarke "was assured that no instance occurs of a girl being caught, +unless she has a partiality to the pursuer." So with the wild tribes of +the Malay archipelago there is a similar racing match; and it appears +from M. Bourien's account, as Sir J. Lubbock remarks, that "the race 'is +not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong,' but to the young man +who has the good fortune to please his intended bride." + +Turning to Africa: the Kafirs buy their wives, and girls are severely +beaten by their fathers if they will not accept a chosen husband; yet it +is manifest from many facts given by the Rev. Mr. Shooter, that they +have considerable power of choice. Thus very ugly, though rich men, have +been known to fail in getting wives. The girls, before consenting to be +betrothed, compel the men to shew themselves off, first in front and +then behind, and "exhibit their paces." They have been known to propose +to a man, and they not rarely run away with a favoured lover. With the +degraded bushwomen of S. Africa, "when a girl has grown up to womanhood +without having been betrothed, which, however, does not often happen, +her lover must gain her approbation, as well as that of the +parents."[465] Mr. Winwood Reade made inquiries for me with respect to +the negroes of Western Africa, and he informs me that "the women, at +least among the more intelligent Pagan tribes, have no difficulty in +getting the husbands whom they may desire, although it is considered +unwomanly to ask a man to marry them. They are quite capable of falling +in love, and of forming tender, passionate, and faithful attachments." + +We thus see that with savages the women are not in quite so abject a +state in relation to marriage as has often been supposed. They can tempt +the men whom they prefer, and can sometimes reject those whom they +dislike, either before or after marriage. Preference on the part of the +women, steadily acting in any one direction, would ultimately affect the +character of the tribe; for the women would generally choose not merely +the handsomer men, according to their standard of taste, but those who +were at the same time best able to defend and support them. Such +well-endowed pairs would commonly rear a larger number of offspring than +the less well endowed. The same result would obviously follow in a still +more marked manner if there was selection on both sides; that is if the +more attractive, and at the same time more powerful men were to prefer, +and were preferred by, the more attractive women. And these two forms of +selection seem actually to have occurred, whether or not simultaneously, +with mankind, especially during the earlier periods of our long history. + +We will now consider in a little more detail, relatively to sexual +selection, some of the characters which distinguish the several races of +man from each other and from the lower animals, namely, the more or less +complete absence of hair from the body and the colour of the skin. We +need say nothing about the great diversity in the shape of the features +and of the skull between the different races, as we have seen in the +last chapter how different is the standard of beauty in these respects. +These characters will therefore probably have been acted on through +sexual selection; but we have no means of judging, as far as I can see, +whether they have been acted on chiefly through the male or female side. +The musical faculties of man have likewise been already discussed. + + +_Absence of Hair on the Body, and its Development on the Face and +Head._--From the presence of the woolly hair or lanugo on the human +foetus, and of rudimentary hairs scattered over the body during +maturity, we may infer that man is descended from some animal which was +born hairy and remained so during life. The loss of hair is an +inconvenience and probably an injury to man even under a hot climate, +for he is thus exposed to sudden chills, especially during wet weather. +As Mr. Wallace remarks, the natives in all countries are glad to protect +their naked backs and shoulders with some slight covering. No one +supposes that the nakedness of the skin is any direct advantage to man, +so that his body cannot have been divested of hair through natural +selection.[466] Nor have we any grounds for believing, as shewn in a +former chapter, that this can be due to the direct action of the +conditions to which man has long been exposed, or that it is the result +of correlated development. + +The absence of hair on the body is to a certain extent a secondary +sexual character; for in all parts of the world women are less hairy +than men. Therefore we may reasonably suspect that this is a character +which has been gained through sexual selection. We know that the faces +of several species of monkeys, and large surfaces at the posterior end +of the body in other species, have been denuded of hair; and this we may +safely attribute to sexual selection, for these surfaces are not only +vividly coloured, but sometimes, as with the male mandrill and female +rhesus, much more vividly in the one sex than in the other. As these +animals gradually reach maturity the naked surfaces, as I am informed by +Mr. Bartlett, grow larger, relatively to the size of their bodies. The +hair, however, appears to have been removed in these cases, not for the +sake of nudity, but that the colour of the skin should be more fully +displayed. So again with many birds the head and neck have been divested +of feathers through sexual selection, for the sake of exhibiting the +brightly-coloured skin. + +As woman has a less hairy body than man, and as this character is common +to all races, we may conclude that our female semi-human progenitors +were probably first partially divested of hair; and that this occurred +at an extremely remote period before the several races had diverged from +a common stock. As our female progenitors gradually acquired this new +character of nudity, they must have transmitted it in an almost equal +degree to their young offspring of both sexes; so that its transmission, +as in the case of many ornaments with mammals and birds, has not been +limited either by age or sex. There is nothing surprising in a partial +loss of hair having been esteemed as ornamental by the ape-like +progenitors of man, for we have seen that with animals of all kinds +innumerable strange characters have been thus esteemed, and have +consequently been modified through sexual selection. Nor is it +surprising that a character in a slight degree injurious should have +been thus acquired; for we know that this is the case with the plumes of +some birds, and with the horns of some stags. + +The females of certain anthropoid apes, as stated in a former chapter, +are somewhat less hairy on the under surface than are the males; and +here we have what might have afforded a commencement for the process of +denudation. With respect to the completion of the process through sexual +selection, it is well to bear in mind the New Zealand proverb, "there is +no woman for a hairy man." All who have seen photographs of the Siamese +hairy family will admit how ludicrously hideous is the opposite extreme +of excessive hairiness. Hence the king of Siam had to bribe a man to +marry the first hairy woman in the family, who transmitted this +character to her young offspring of both sexes.[467] + +Some races are much more hairy than others, especially on the male side; +but it must not be assumed that the more hairy races, for instance +Europeans, have retained a primordial condition more completely than +have the naked races, such as the Kalmucks or Americans. It is a more +probable view that the hairiness of the former is due to partial +reversion, for characters which have long been inherited are always apt +to return. It does not appear that a cold climate has been influential +in leading to this kind of reversion; excepting perhaps with the +negroes, who have been reared during several generations, in the United +States,[468] and possibly with the Ainos, who inhabit the northern +islands of the Japan archipelago. But the laws of inheritance are so +complex than we can seldom understand their action. If the greater +hairiness of certain races be the result of reversion, unchecked by any +form of selection, the extreme variability of this character, even +within the limits of the same race, ceases to be remarkable. + +With respect to the beard, if we turn to our best guide, namely the +Quadrumana, we find beards equally well developed in both sexes of many +species, but in others, either confined to the males, or more developed +in them than in the females. From this fact, and from the curious +arrangement, as well as the bright colours, of the hair about the heads +of many monkeys, it is highly probable, as before explained, that the +males first acquired their beards as an ornament through sexual +selection, transmitting them in most cases, in an equal or nearly equal +degree, to their offspring of both sexes. We know from Eschricht[469] +that with mankind, the female as well as the male foetus is furnished +with much hair on the face, especially round the mouth; and this +indicates that we are descended from a progenitor, of which both sexes +were bearded. It appears therefore at first sight probable that man has +retained his beard from a very early period, whilst woman lost her beard +at the same time when her body became almost completely divested of +hair. Even the colour of the beard with mankind seems to have been +inherited from an ape-like progenitor; for when there is any difference +in tint between the hair of the head and the beard, the latter is +lighter coloured in all monkeys and in man. There is less improbability +in the men of the bearded races having retained their beards from +primordial times, than in the case of the hair on the body; for with +those Quadrumana, in which the male has a larger beard than that of the +female, it is fully developed only at maturity, and the later stages of +development may have been exclusively transmitted to mankind. We should +then see what is actually the case, namely, our male children, before +they arrive at maturity, as destitute of beards as are our female +children. On the other hand the great variability of the beard within +the limits of the same race and in different races indicates that +reversion has come into action. However this may be, we must not +overlook the part which sexual selection may have played even during +later times; for we know that with savages, the men of the beardless +races take infinite pains in eradicating every hair from their faces, as +something odious, whilst the men of the bearded races feel the greatest +pride in their beards. The women, no doubt, participate in these +feelings, and if so sexual selection can hardly have failed to have +effected something in the course of later times.[470] + +It is rather difficult to form a judgment how the long hair on our +heads became developed. Eschricht[471] states that in the human foetus +the hair on the face during the fifth month is longer than that on the +head; and this indicates that our semi-human progenitors were not +furnished with long tresses, which consequently must have been a late +acquisition. This is likewise indicated by the extraordinary difference +in the length of the hair in the different races; in the negro the hair +forms a mere curly mat; with us it is of great length, and with the +American natives it not rarely reaches to the ground. Some species of +Semnopithecus have their heads covered with moderately long hair, and +this probably serves as an ornament and was acquired through sexual +selection. The same view may be extended to mankind, for we know that +long tresses are now and were formerly much admired, as may be observed +in the works of almost every poet; St. Paul says, "if a woman have long +hair, it is a glory to her;" and we have seen that in North America a +chief was elected solely from the length of his hair. + + +_Colour of the Skin._--The best kind of evidence that the colour of the +skin has been modified through sexual selection is wanting in the case +of mankind; for the sexes do not differ in this respect, or only +slightly and doubtfully. On the other hand we know from many facts +already given that the colour of the skin is regarded by the men of all +races as a highly important element in their beauty; so that it is a +character which would be likely to be modified through selection, as has +occurred in innumerable instances with the lower animals. It seems at +first sight a monstrous supposition that the jet blackness of the negro +has been gained through sexual selection; but this view is supported by +various analogies, and we know that negroes admire their own blackness. +With mammals, when the sexes differ in colour, the male is often black +or much darker than the female; and it depends merely on the form of +inheritance whether this or any other tint shall be transmitted to both +sexes or to one alone. The resemblance of _Pithecia satanas_ with his +jet black skin, white rolling eyeballs, and hair parted on the top of +the head, to a negro in miniature, is almost ludicrous. + +The colour of the face differs much more widely in the various kinds of +monkeys than it does in the races of man; and we have good reason to +believe that the red, blue, orange, almost white and black tints of +their skin, even when common to both sexes, and the bright colours of +their fur, as well as the ornamental tufts of hair about the head, have +all been acquired through sexual selection. As the newly-born infants of +the most distinct races do not differ nearly as much in colour as do the +adults, although their bodies are completely destitute of hair, we have +some slight indication that the tints of the different races were +acquired subsequently to the removal of the hair, which, as before +stated, must have occurred at a very early period. + + +_Summary._--We may conclude that the greater size, strength, courage, +pugnacity, and even energy of man, in comparison with the same qualities +in woman, were acquired during primeval times, and have subsequently +been augmented, chiefly through the contests of rival males for the +possession of the females. The greater intellectual vigour and power of +invention in man is probably due to natural selection combined with the +inherited effects of habit, for the most able men will have succeeded +best in defending and providing for themselves, their wives and +offspring. As far as the extreme intricacy of the subject permits us to +judge, it appears that our male ape-like progenitors acquired their +beards as an ornament to charm or excite the opposite sex, and +transmitted them to man as he now exists. The females apparently were +first denuded of hair in like manner as a sexual ornament; but they +transmitted this character almost equally to both sexes. It is not +improbable that the females were modified in other respects for the same +purpose and through the same means; so that women have acquired sweeter +voices and become more beautiful than men. + +It deserves particular attention that with mankind all the conditions +for sexual selection were much more favourable, during a very early +period, when man had only just attained to the rank of manhood, than +during later times. For he would then, as we may safely conclude, have +been guided more by his instinctive passions, and less by foresight or +reason. He would not then have been so utterly licentious as many +savages now are; and each male would have jealously guarded his wife or +wives. He would not then have practised infanticide; nor valued his +wives merely as useful slaves; nor have been betrothed to them during +infancy. Hence we may infer that the races of men were differentiated, +as far as sexual selection is concerned, in chief part during a very +remote epoch; and this conclusion throws light on the remarkable fact +that at the most ancient period, of which we have as yet obtained any +record, the races of man had already come to differ nearly or quite as +much as they do at the present day. + +The views here advanced, on the part which sexual selection has played +in the history of man, want scientific precision. He who does not admit +this agency in the case of the lower animals, will properly disregard +all that I have written in the later chapters on man. We cannot +positively say that this character, but not that, has been thus +modified; it has, however, been shewn that the races of man differ from +each other and from their nearest allies amongst the lower animals, in +certain characters which are of no service to them in their ordinary +habits of life, and which it is extremely probable would have been +modified through sexual selection. We have seen that with the lowest +savages the people of each tribe admire their own characteristic +qualities,--the shape of the head and face, the squareness of the +cheek-bones, the prominence or depression of the nose, the colour of the +skin, the length of the hair on the head, the absence of hair on the +face and body, or the presence of a great beard, and so forth. Hence +these and other such points could hardly fail to have been slowly and +gradually exaggerated from the more powerful and able men in each tribe, +who would succeed in rearing the largest number of offspring, having +selected during many generations as their wives the most strongly +characterised and therefore most attractive women. For my own part I +conclude that of all the causes which have led to the differences in +external appearance between the races of man, and to a certain extent +between man and the lower animals, sexual selection has been by far the +most efficient. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. + +GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. + + + Main conclusion that man is descended from some lower + form--Manner of development--Genealogy of man--Intellectual + and moral faculties--Sexual selection--Concluding remarks. + + +A brief summary will here be sufficient to recall to the reader's mind +the more salient points in this work. Many of the views which have been +advanced are highly speculative, and some no doubt will prove erroneous; +but I have in every case given the reasons which have led me to one view +rather than to another. It seemed worth while to try how far the +principle of evolution would throw light on some of the more complex +problems in the natural history of man. False facts are highly injurious +to the progress of science, for they often long endure; but false views, +if supported by some evidence, do little harm, as every one takes a +salutary pleasure in proving their falseness; and when this is done, one +path towards error is closed and the road to truth is often at the same +time opened. + +The main conclusion arrived at in this work, and now held by many +naturalists who are well competent to form a sound judgment, is that man +is descended from some less highly organised form. The grounds upon +which this conclusion rests will never be shaken, for the close +similarity between man and the lower animals in embryonic development, +as well as in innumerable points of structure and constitution, both of +high and of the most trifling importance,--the rudiments which he +retains, and the abnormal reversions to which he is occasionally +liable,--are facts which cannot be disputed. They have long been known, +but until recently they told us nothing with respect to the origin of +man. Now when viewed by the light of our knowledge of the whole organic +world, their meaning is unmistakeable. The great principle of evolution +stands up clear and firm, when these groups of facts are considered in +connection with others, such as the mutual affinities of the members of +the same group, their geographical distribution in past and present +times, and their geological succession. It is incredible that all these +facts should speak falsely. He who is not content to look, like a +savage, at the phenomena of nature as disconnected, cannot any longer +believe that man is the work of a separate act of creation. He will be +forced to admit that the close resemblance of the embryo of man to that, +for instance, of a dog--the construction of his skull, limbs, and whole +frame, independently of the uses to which the parts may be put, on the +same plan with that of other mammals--the occasional reappearance of +various structures, for instance of several distinct muscles, which man +does not normally possess, but which are common to the Quadrumana--and a +crowd of analogous facts--all point in the plainest manner to the +conclusion that man is the co-descendant with other mammals of a common +progenitor. + +We have seen that man incessantly presents individual differences in all +parts of his body and in his mental faculties. These differences or +variations seem to be induced by the same general causes, and to obey +the same laws as with the lower animals. In both cases similar laws of +inheritance prevail. Man tends to increase at a greater rate than his +means of subsistence; consequently he is occasionally subjected to a +severe struggle for existence, and natural selection will have effected +whatever lies within its scope. A succession of strongly-marked +variations of a similar nature are by no means requisite; slight +fluctuating differences in the individual suffice for the work of +natural selection. We may feel assured that the inherited effects of the +long-continued use or disuse of parts will have done much in the same +direction with natural selection. Modifications formerly of importance, +though no longer of any special use, will be long inherited. When one +part is modified, other parts will change through the principle of +correlation, of which we have instances in many curious cases of +correlated monstrosities. Something may be attributed to the direct and +definite action of the surrounding conditions of life, such as abundant +food, heat, or moisture; and lastly, many characters of slight +physiological importance, some indeed of considerable importance, have +been gained through sexual selection. + +No doubt man, as well as every other animal, presents structures, which +as far as we can judge with our little knowledge, are not now of any +service to him, nor have been so during any former period of his +existence, either in relation to his general conditions of life, or of +one sex to the other. Such structures cannot be accounted for by any +form of selection, or by the inherited effects of the use and disuse of +parts. We know, however, that many strange and strongly-marked +peculiarities of structure occasionally appear in our domesticated +productions, and if the unknown causes which produce them were to act +more uniformly, they would probably become common to all the individuals +of the species. We may hope hereafter to understand something about the +causes of such occasional modifications, especially through the study +of monstrosities: hence the labours of experimentalists, such as those +of M. Camille Dareste, are full of promise for the future. In the +greater number of cases we can only say that the cause of each slight +variation and of each monstrosity lies much more in the nature or +constitution of the organism, than in the nature of the surrounding +conditions; though new and changed conditions certainly play an +important part in exciting organic changes of all kinds. + +Through the means just specified, aided perhaps by others as yet +undiscovered, man has been raised to his present state. But since he +attained to the rank of manhood, he has diverged into distinct races, or +as they may be more appropriately called sub-species. Some of these, for +instance the Negro and European, are so distinct that, if specimens had +been brought to a naturalist without any further information, they would +undoubtedly have been considered by him as good and true species. +Nevertheless all the races agree in so many unimportant details of +structure and in so many mental peculiarities, that these can be +accounted for only through inheritance from a common progenitor; and a +progenitor thus characterised would probably have deserved to rank as +man. + +It must not be supposed that the divergence of each race from the other +races, and of all the races from a common stock, can be traced back to +any one pair of progenitors. On the contrary, at every stage in the +process of modification, all the individuals which were in any way best +fitted for their conditions of life, though in different degrees, would +have survived in greater numbers than the less well fitted. The process +would have been like that followed by man, when he does not +intentionally select particular individuals, but breeds from all the +superior and neglects all the inferior individuals. He thus slowly but +surely modifies his stock, and unconsciously forms a new strain. So with +respect to modifications, acquired independently of selection, and due +to variations arising from the nature of the organism and the action of +the surrounding conditions, or from changed habits of life, no single +pair will have been modified in a much greater degree than the other +pairs which inhabit the same country, for all will have been continually +blended through free intercrossing. + +By considering the embryological structure of man,--the homologies which +he presents with the lower animals,--the rudiments which he +retains,--and the reversions to which he is liable, we can partly recall +in imagination the former condition of our early progenitors; and can +approximately place them in their proper position in the zoological +series. We thus learn that man is descended from a hairy quadruped, +furnished with a tail and pointed ears, probably arboreal in its habits, +and an inhabitant of the Old World. This creature, if its whole +structure had been examined by a naturalist, would have been classed +amongst the Quadrumana, as surely as would the common and still more +ancient progenitor of the Old and New World monkeys. The Quadrumana and +all the higher mammals are probably derived from an ancient marsupial +animal, and this through a long line of diversified forms, either from +some reptile-like or some amphibian-like creature, and this again from +some fish-like animal. In the dim obscurity of the past we can see that +the early progenitor of all the Vertebrata must have been an aquatic +animal, provided with branchiæ, with the two sexes united in the same +individual, and with the most important organs of the body (such as the +brain and heart) imperfectly developed. This animal seems to have been +more like the larvæ of our existing marine Ascidians than any other +known form. + + +The greatest difficulty which presents itself, when we are driven to the +above conclusion on the origin of man, is the high standard of +intellectual power and of moral disposition which he has attained. But +every one who admits the general principle of evolution, must see that +the mental powers of the higher animals, which are the same in kind with +those of mankind, though so different in degree, are capable of +advancement. Thus the interval between the mental powers of one of the +higher apes and of a fish, or between those of an ant and scale-insect, +is immense. The development of these powers in animals does not offer +any special difficulty; for with our domesticated animals, the mental +faculties are certainly variable, and the variations are inherited. No +one doubts that these faculties are of the utmost importance to animals +in a state of nature. Therefore the conditions are favourable for their +development through natural selection. The same conclusion may be +extended to man; the intellect must have been all-important to him, even +at a very remote period, enabling him to use language, to invent and +make weapons, tools, traps, &c.; by which means, in combination with his +social habits, he long ago became the most dominant of all living +creatures. + +A great stride in the development of the intellect will have followed, +as soon as, through a previous considerable advance, the half-art and +half-instinct of language came into use; for the continued use of +language will have reacted on the brain, and produced an inherited +effect; and this again will have reacted on the improvement of +language. The large size of the brain in man, in comparison with that of +the lower animals, relatively to the size of their bodies, may be +attributed in chief part, as Mr. Chauncey Wright has well remarked,[472] +to the early use of some simple form of language,--that wonderful engine +which affixes signs to all sorts of objects and qualities, and excites +trains of thought which would never arise from the mere impression of +the senses, and if they did arise could not be followed out. The higher +intellectual powers of man, such as those of ratiocination, abstraction, +self-consciousness, &c., will have followed from the continued +improvement of other mental faculties; but without considerable culture +of the mind, both in the race and in the individual, it is doubtful +whether these high powers would be exercised, and thus fully attained. + +The development of the moral qualities is a more interesting and +difficult problem. Their foundation lies in the social instincts, +including in this term the family ties. These instincts are of a highly +complex nature, and in the case of the lower animals give special +tendencies towards certain definite actions; but the more important +elements for us are love, and the distinct emotion of sympathy. Animals +endowed with the social instincts take pleasure in each other's company, +warn each other of danger, defend and aid each other in many ways. These +instincts are not extended to all the individuals of the species, but +only to those of the same community. As they are highly beneficial to +the species, they have in all probability been acquired through natural +selection. + +A moral being is one who is capable of comparing his past and future +actions and motives,--of approving of some and disapproving of others; +and the fact that man is the one being who with certainty can be thus +designated makes the greatest of all distinctions between him and the +lower animals. But in our third chapter I have endeavoured to shew that +the moral sense follows, firstly, from the enduring and always present +nature of the social instincts, in which respect man agrees with the +lower animals; and secondly, from his mental faculties being highly +active and his impressions of past events extremely vivid, in which +respects he differs from the lower animals. Owing to this condition of +mind, man cannot avoid looking backwards and comparing the impressions +of past events and actions. He also continually looks forward. Hence +after some temporary desire or passion has mastered his social +instincts, he will reflect and compare the now weakened impression of +such past impulses, with the ever present social instinct; and he will +then feel that sense of dissatisfaction which all unsatisfied instincts +leave behind them. Consequently he resolves to act differently for the +future--and this is conscience. Any instinct which is permanently +stronger or more enduring than another, gives rise to a feeling which we +express by saying that it ought to be obeyed. A pointer dog, if able to +reflect on his past conduct, would say to himself, I ought (as indeed we +say of him) to have pointed at that hare and not have yielded to the +passing temptation of hunting it. + +Social animals are partly impelled by a wish to aid the members of the +same community in a general manner, but more commonly to perform certain +definite actions. Man is impelled by the same general wish to aid his +fellows, but has few or no special instincts. He differs also from the +lower animals in being able to express his desires by words, which thus +become the guide to the aid required and bestowed. The motive to give +aid is likewise somewhat modified in man: it no longer consists solely +of a blind instinctive impulse, but is largely influenced by the praise +or blame of his fellow men. Both the appreciation and the bestowal of +praise and blame rest on sympathy; and this emotion, as we have seen, is +one of the most important elements of the social instincts. Sympathy, +though gained as an instinct, is also much strengthened by exercise or +habit. As all men desire their own happiness, praise or blame is +bestowed on actions and motives, according as they lead to this end; and +as happiness is an essential part of the general good, the +greatest-happiness principle indirectly serves as a nearly safe standard +of right and wrong. As the reasoning powers advance and experience is +gained, the more remote effects of certain lines of conduct on the +character of the individual, and on the general good, are perceived; and +then the self-regarding virtues, from coming within the scope of public +opinion, receive praise, and their opposites receive blame. But with the +less civilised nations reason often errs, and many bad customs and base +superstitions come within the same scope, and consequently are esteemed +as high virtues, and their breach as heavy crimes. + +The moral faculties are generally esteemed, and with justice, as of +higher value than the intellectual powers. But we should always bear in +mind that the activity of the mind in vividly recalling past impressions +is one of the fundamental though secondary bases of conscience. This +fact affords the strongest argument for educating and stimulating in all +possible ways the intellectual faculties of every human being. No doubt +a man with a torpid mind, if his social affections and sympathies are +well developed, will be led to good actions, and may have a fairly +sensitive conscience. But whatever renders the imagination of men more +vivid and strengthens the habit of recalling and comparing past +impressions, will make the conscience more sensitive, and may even +compensate to a certain extent for weak social affections and +sympathies. + +The moral nature of man has reached the highest standard as yet +attained, partly through the advancement of the reasoning powers and +consequently of a just public opinion, but especially through the +sympathies being rendered more tender and widely diffused through the +effects of habit, example, instruction, and reflection. It is not +improbable that virtuous tendencies may through long practice be +inherited. With the more civilised races, the conviction of the +existence of an all-seeing Deity has had a potent influence on the +advancement of morality. Ultimately man no longer accepts the praise or +blame of his fellows as his chief guide, though few escape this +influence, but his habitual convictions controlled by reason afford him +the safest rule. His conscience then becomes his supreme judge and +monitor. Nevertheless the first foundation or origin of the moral sense +lies in the social instincts, including sympathy; and these instincts no +doubt were primarily gained, as in the case of the lower animals, +through natural selection. + + +The belief in God has often been advanced as not only the greatest, but +the most complete of all the distinctions between man and the lower +animals. It is however impossible, as we have seen, to maintain that +this belief is innate or instinctive in man. On the other hand a belief +in all-pervading spiritual agencies seems to be universal; and +apparently follows from a considerable advance in the reasoning powers +of man, and from a still greater advance in his faculties of +imagination, curiosity and wonder. I am aware that the assumed +instinctive belief in God has been used by many persons as an argument +for His existence. But this is a rash argument, as we should thus be +compelled to believe in the existence of many cruel and malignant +spirits, possessing only a little more power than man; for the belief in +them is far more general than of a beneficent Deity. The idea of a +universal and beneficent Creator of the universe does not seem to arise +in the mind of man, until he has been elevated by long-continued +culture. + +He who believes in the advancement of man from some lowly-organised +form, will naturally ask how does this bear on the belief in the +immortality of the soul. The barbarous races of man, as Sir J. Lubbock +has shewn, possess no clear belief of this kind; but arguments derived +from the primeval beliefs of savages are, as we have just seen, of +little or no avail. Few persons feel any anxiety from the impossibility +of determining at what precise period in the development of the +individual, from the first trace of the minute germinal vesicle to the +child either before or after birth, man becomes an immortal being; and +there is no greater cause for anxiety because the period in the +gradually ascending organic scale cannot possibly be determined.[473] + +I am aware that the conclusions arrived at in this work will be +denounced by some as highly irreligious; but he who thus denounces them +is bound to shew why it is more irreligious to explain the origin of man +as a distinct species by descent from some lower form, through the laws +of variation and natural selection, than to explain the birth of the +individual through the laws of ordinary reproduction. The birth both of +the species and of the individual are equally parts of that grand +sequence of events, which our minds refuse to accept as the result of +blind chance. The understanding revolts at such a conclusion, whether or +not we are able to believe that every slight variation of +structure,--the union of each pair in marriage,--the dissemination of +each seed,--and other such events, have all been ordained for some +special purpose. + + +Sexual selection has been treated at great length in these volumes; for, +as I have attempted to shew, it has played an important part in the +history of the organic world. As summaries have been given to each +chapter, it would be superfluous here to add a detailed summary. I am +aware that much remains doubtful, but I have endeavoured to give a fair +view of the whole case. In the lower divisions of the animal kingdom, +sexual selection seems to have done nothing: such animals are often +affixed for life to the same spot, or have the two sexes combined in the +same individual, or what is still more important, their perceptive and +intellectual faculties are not sufficiently advanced to allow of the +feelings of love and jealousy, or of the exertion of choice. When, +however, we come to the Arthropoda and Vertebrata, even to the lowest +classes in these two great Sub-Kingdoms, sexual selection has effected +much; and it deserves notice that we here find the intellectual +faculties developed, but in two very distinct lines, to the highest +standard, namely in the Hymenoptera (ants, bees, &c.) amongst the +Arthropoda, and in the Mammalia, including man, amongst the Vertebrata. + +In the most distinct classes of the animal kingdom, with mammals, +birds, reptiles, fishes, insects, and even crustaceans, the differences +between the sexes follow almost exactly the same rules. The males are +almost always the wooers; and they alone are armed with special weapons +for fighting with their rivals. They are generally stronger and larger +than the females, and are endowed with the requisite qualities of +courage and pugnacity. They are provided, either exclusively or in a +much higher degree than the females, with organs for producing vocal or +instrumental music, and with odoriferous glands. They are ornamented +with infinitely diversified appendages, and with the most brilliant or +conspicuous colours, often arranged in elegant patterns, whilst the +females are left unadorned. When the sexes differ in more important +structures, it is the male which is provided with special sense-organs +for discovering the female, with locomotive organs for reaching her, and +often with prehensile organs for holding her. These various structures +for securing or charming the female are often developed in the male +during only part of the year, namely the breeding season. They have in +many cases been transferred in a greater or less degree to the females; +and in the latter case they appear in her as mere rudiments. They are +lost by the males after emasculation. Generally they are not developed +in the male during early youth, but appear a short time before the age +for reproduction. Hence in most cases the young of both sexes resemble +each other; and the female resembles her young offspring throughout +life. In almost every great class a few anomalous cases occur in which +there has been an almost complete transposition of the characters proper +to the two sexes; the females assuming characters which properly belong +to the males. This surprising uniformity in the laws regulating the +differences between the sexes in so many and such widely separated +classes, is intelligible if we admit the action throughout all the +higher divisions of the animal kingdom of one common cause, namely +sexual selection. + +Sexual selection depends on the success of certain individuals over +others of the same sex in relation to the propagation of the species; +whilst natural selection depends on the success of both sexes, at all +ages, in relation to the general conditions of life. The sexual struggle +is of two kinds; in the one it is between the individuals of the same +sex, generally the male sex, in order to drive away or kill their +rivals, the females remaining passive; whilst in the other, the struggle +is likewise between the individuals of the same sex, in order to excite +or charm those of the opposite sex, generally the females, which no +longer remain passive, but select the more agreeable partners. This +latter kind of selection is closely analogous to that which man +unintentionally, yet effectually, brings to bear on his domesticated +productions, when he continues for a long time choosing the most +pleasing or useful individuals, without any wish to modify the breed. + +The laws of inheritance determine whether characters gained through +sexual selection by either sex shall be transmitted to the same sex, or +to both sexes; as well as the age at which they shall be developed. It +appears that variations which arise late in life are commonly +transmitted to one and the same sex. Variability is the necessary basis +for the action of selection, and is wholly independent of it. It follows +from this, that variations of the same general nature have often been +taken advantage of and accumulated through sexual selection in relation +to the propagation of the species, and through natural selection in +relation to the general purposes of life. Hence secondary sexual +characters, when equally transmitted to both sexes can be distinguished +from ordinary specific characters only by the light of analogy. The +modifications acquired through sexual selection are often so strongly +pronounced that the two sexes have frequently been ranked as distinct +species, or even as distinct genera. Such strongly-marked differences +must be in some manner highly important; and we know that they have been +acquired in some instances at the cost not only of inconvenience, but of +exposure to actual danger. + +The belief in the power of sexual selection rests chiefly on the +following considerations. The characters which we have the best reason +for supposing to have been thus acquired are confined to one sex; and +this alone renders it probable that they are in some way connected with +the act of reproduction. These characters in innumerable instances are +fully developed only at maturity; and often during only a part of the +year, which is always the breeding-season. The males (passing over a few +exceptional cases) are the most active in courtship; they are the best +armed, and are rendered the most attractive in various ways. It is to be +especially observed that the males display their attractions with +elaborate care in the presence of the females; and that they rarely or +never display them excepting during the season of love. It is incredible +that all this display should be purposeless. Lastly we have distinct +evidence with some quadrupeds and birds that the individuals of the one +sex are capable of feeling a strong antipathy or preference for certain +individuals of the opposite sex. + +Bearing these facts in mind, and not forgetting the marked results of +man's unconscious selection, it seems to me almost certain that if the +individuals of one sex were during a long series of generations to +prefer pairing with certain individuals of the other sex, characterised +in some peculiar manner, the offspring would slowly but surely become +modified in this same manner. I have not attempted to conceal that, +excepting when the males are more numerous than the females, or when +polygamy prevails, it is doubtful how the more attractive males succeed +in leaving a larger number of offspring to inherit their superiority in +ornaments or other charms than the less attractive males; but I have +shewn that this would probably follow from the females,--especially the +more vigorous females which would be the first to breed, preferring not +only the more attractive but at the same time the more vigorous and +victorious males. + +Although we have some positive evidence that birds appreciate bright and +beautiful objects, as with the Bower-birds of Australia, and although +they certainly appreciate the power of song, yet I fully admit that it +is an astonishing fact that the females of many birds and some mammals +should be endowed with sufficient taste for what has apparently been +effected through sexual selection; and this is even more astonishing in +the case of reptiles, fish, and insects. But we really know very little +about the minds of the lower animals. It cannot be supposed that male +Birds of Paradise or Peacocks, for instance, should take so much pains +in erecting, spreading, and vibrating their beautiful plumes before the +females for no purpose. We should remember the fact given on excellent +authority in a former chapter, namely that several peahens, when +debarred from an admired male, remained widows during a whole season +rather than pair with another bird. + +Nevertheless I know of no fact in natural history more wonderful than +that the female Argus pheasant should be able to appreciate the +exquisite shading of the ball-and-socket ornaments and the elegant +patterns on the wing-feathers of the male. He who thinks that the male +was created as he now exists must admit that the great plumes, which +prevent the wings from being used for flight, and which, as well as the +primary feathers, are displayed in a manner quite peculiar to this one +species during the act of courtship, and at no other time, were given to +him as an ornament. If so, he must likewise admit that the female was +created and endowed with the capacity of appreciating such ornaments. I +differ only in the conviction that the male Argus pheasant acquired his +beauty gradually, through the females having preferred during many +generations the more highly ornamented males; the æsthetic capacity of +the females having been advanced through exercise or habit in the same +manner as our own taste is gradually improved. In the male, through the +fortunate chance of a few feathers not having been modified, we can +distinctly see how simple spots with a little fulvous shading on one +side might have been developed by small and graduated steps into the +wonderful ball-and-socket ornaments; and it is probable that they were +actually thus developed. + +Everyone who admits the principle of evolution, and yet feels great +difficulty in admitting that female mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish, +could have acquired the high standard of taste which is implied by the +beauty of the males, and which generally coincides with our own +standard, should reflect that in each member of the vertebrate series +the nerve-cells of the brain are the direct offshoots of those possessed +by the common progenitor of the whole group. It thus becomes +intelligible that the brain and mental faculties should be capable under +similar conditions of nearly the same course of development, and +consequently of performing nearly the same functions. + +The reader who has taken the trouble to go through the several chapters +devoted to sexual selection, will be able to judge how far the +conclusions at which I have arrived are supported by sufficient +evidence. If he accepts these conclusions, he may, I think, safely +extend them to mankind; but it would be superfluous here to repeat what +I have so lately said on the manner in which sexual selection has +apparently acted on both the male and female side, causing the two sexes +of man to differ in body and mind, and the several races to differ from +each other in various characters, as well as from their ancient and +lowly-organised progenitors. + +He who admits the principle of sexual selection will be led to the +remarkable conclusion that the cerebral system not only regulates most +of the existing functions of the body, but has indirectly influenced the +progressive development of various bodily structures and of certain +mental qualities. Courage, pugnacity, perseverance, strength and size of +body, weapons of all kinds, musical organs, both vocal and instrumental, +bright colours, stripes and marks, and ornamental appendages, have all +been indirectly gained by the one sex or the other, through the +influence of love and jealousy, through the appreciation of the +beautiful in sound, colour or form, and through the exertion of a +choice; and these powers of the mind manifestly depend on the +development of the cerebral system. + + +Man scans with scrupulous care the character and pedigree of his horses, +cattle, and dogs before he matches them; but when he comes to his own +marriage he rarely, or never, takes any such care. He is impelled by +nearly the same motives as are the lower animals when left to their own +free choice, though he is in so far superior to them that he highly +values mental charms and virtues. On the other hand he is strongly +attracted by mere wealth or rank. Yet he might by selection do something +not only for the bodily constitution and frame of his offspring, but for +their intellectual and moral qualities. Both sexes ought to refrain from +marriage if in any marked degree inferior in body or mind; but such +hopes are Utopian and will never be even partially realised until the +laws of inheritance are thoroughly known. All do good service who aid +towards this end. When the principles of breeding and of inheritance are +better understood, we shall not hear ignorant members of our legislature +rejecting with scorn a plan for ascertaining by an easy method whether +or not consanguineous marriages are injurious to man. + +The advancement of the welfare of mankind is a most intricate problem: +all ought to refrain from marriage who cannot avoid abject poverty for +their children; for poverty is not only a great evil, but tends to its +own increase by leading to recklessness in marriage. On the other hand, +as Mr. Galton has remarked, if the prudent avoid marriage, whilst the +reckless marry, the inferior members will tend to supplant the better +members of society. Man, like every other animal, has no doubt advanced +to his present high condition through a struggle for existence +consequent on his rapid multiplication; and if he is to advance still +higher he must remain subject to a severe struggle. Otherwise he would +soon sink into indolence, and the more highly-gifted men would not be +more successful in the battle of life than the less gifted. Hence our +natural rate of increase, though leading to many and obvious evils, must +not be greatly diminished by any means. There should be open competition +for all men; and the most able should not be prevented by laws or +customs from succeeding best and rearing the largest number of +offspring. Important as the struggle for existence has been and even +still is, yet as far as the highest part of man's nature is concerned +there are other agencies more important. For the moral qualities are +advanced, either directly or indirectly, much more through the effects +of habit, the reasoning powers, instruction, religion, &c., than through +natural selection; though to this latter agency the social instincts, +which afforded the basis for the development of the moral sense, may be +safely attributed. + + +The main conclusion arrived at in this work, namely that man is +descended from some lowly-organised form, will, I regret to think, be +highly distasteful to many persons. But there can hardly be a doubt that +we are descended from barbarians. The astonishment which I felt on first +seeing a party of Fuegians on a wild and broken shore will never be +forgotten by me, for the reflection at once rushed into my mind--such +were our ancestors. These men were absolutely naked and bedaubed with +paint, their long hair was tangled, their mouths frothed with +excitement, and their expression was wild, startled, and distrustful. +They possessed hardly any arts, and like wild animals lived on what they +could catch; they had no government, and were merciless to every one not +of their own small tribe. He who has seen a savage in his native land +will not feel much shame, if forced to acknowledge that the blood of +some more humble creature flows in his veins. For my own part I would as +soon be descended from that heroic little monkey, who braved his dreaded +enemy in order to save the life of his keeper; or from that old baboon, +who, descending from the mountains, carried away in triumph his young +comrade from a crowd of astonished dogs--as from a savage who delights +to torture his enemies, offers up bloody sacrifices, practises +infanticide without remorse, treats his wives like slaves, knows no +decency, and is haunted by the grossest superstitions. + +Man may be excused for feeling some pride at having risen, though not +through his own exertions, to the very summit of the organic scale; and +the fact of his having thus risen, instead of having been aboriginally +placed there, may give him hopes for a still higher destiny in the +distant future. But we are not here concerned with hopes or fears, only +with the truth as far as our reason allows us to discover it. I have +given the evidence to the best of my ability; and we must acknowledge, +as it seems to me, that man with all his noble qualities, with sympathy +which feels for the most debased, with benevolence which extends not +only to other men but to the humblest living creature, with his god-like +intellect which has penetrated into the movements and constitution of +the solar system--with all these exalted powers--Man still bears in his +bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin. + + + [1] Yarrell's 'Hist. of British Fishes,' vol. ii. 1836, p. 417, + 425, 436. Dr. Günther informs me that the spines in _R. + clavata_ are peculiar to the female. + + [2] See Mr. R. Warington's interesting articles in 'Annals and + Mag. of Nat. Hist.' Oct. 1852 and Nov. 1855. + + [3] Noel Humphreys, 'River Gardens,' 1857. + + [4] Loudon's 'Mag. of Natural History,' vol. iii. 1830, p. 331. + + [5] 'The Field,' June 29th, 1867. For Mr. Shaw's statement, see + 'Edinburgh Review,' 1843. Another experienced observer + (Scrope's 'Days of Salmon Fishing,' p. 60) remarks that the + male would, if he could, keep, like the stag, all other males + away. + + [6] Yarrell, 'History of British Fishes,' vol. ii. 1836, p. 10. + + [7] 'The Naturalist in Vancouver's Island,' vol. i. 1866, p. + 54. + + [8] 'Scandinavian Adventures,' vol. i. 1854, p. 100, 104. + + [9] See Yarrell's account of the Rays in his 'Hist. of British + Fishes,' vol. ii. 1836, p. 416, with an excellent figure, and + p. 422, 432. + + [10] As quoted in 'The Farmer,' 1868, p. 369. + + [11] I have drawn up this description from Yarrell's 'British + Fishes,' vol. i. 1836, p. 261 and 266. + + [12] 'Catalogue of Acanth. Fishes in the British Museum,' by + Dr. Günther, 1861, p. 138-151. + + [13] 'Game Birds of Sweden,' &c., 1867, p. 466. + + [14] With respect to this and the following species I am + indebted to Dr. Günther for information: see also his paper on + the Fishes of Central America, in 'Transact. Zoolog. Soc.' vol. + vi. 1868, p. 485. + + [15] Dr. Günther makes this remark; 'Catalogue of Fishes in the + British Museum,' vol. iii. 1861, p. 141. + + [16] See Dr. Günther on this genus, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' + 1868, p. 232. + + [17] F. Buckland, in 'Land and Water,' July, 1868, p. 377, with + a figure. + + [18] Dr. Günther, 'Catalogue of Fishes,' vol. iii. p. 221 and + 240. + + [19] See also 'A Journey in Brazil,' by Prof. and Mrs. Agassiz, + 1868, p. 220. + + [20] Yarrell, 'British Fishes,' vol. ii. 1836, p. 10, 12, 35. + + [21] W. Thompson, in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. History,' vol. + vi. 1841, p. 440. + + [22] 'The American Agriculturist,' 1868, p. 100. + + [23] 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' Oct. 1852. + + [24] Loudon's 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. v. 1832, p. 681. + + [25] Bory de Saint Vincent, in 'Dict. Class. d'Hist. Nat.' tom. + ix. 1826, p. 151. + + [26] Owing to some remarks on this subject, made in my work 'On + the Variation of Animals under Domestication,' Mr. W. F. Mayers + ('Chinese Notes and Queries,' Aug. 1868, p. 123) has searched + the ancient Chinese encyclopedias. He finds that goldfish were + first reared in confinement during the Sung Dynasty, which + commenced A.D. 960. In the year 1129 these fishes abounded. In + another place it is said that since the year 1548 there has + been "produced at Hang-chow a variety called the fire-fish, + from its intensely red colour. It is universally admired, and + there is not a household where it is not cultivated, _in + rivalry as to its colour_, and as a source of profit." + + [27] 'Westminster Review,' July, 1867, p. 7. + + [28] "Indian Cyprinidæ," by Mr. J. M'Clelland, 'Asiatic + Researches,' vol. xix. part ii. 1839, p. 230. + + [29] 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1865, p. 327, pl. xiv. and xv. + + [30] Yarrell, 'British Fishes,' vol. ii. p. 11. + + [31] According to the observations of M. Gerbe; see Günther's + 'Record of Zoolog. Literature,' 1865, p. 194. + + [32] Cuvier, 'Règne Animal,' vol. ii. 1829, p. 242. + + [33] See Mr. Warington's most interesting description of the + habits of the _Gasterosteus leiurus_, in 'Annals and Mag. of + Nat. Hist.' November, 1855. + + [34] Prof. Wyman, in 'Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.' Sept. + 15, 1857. Also W. Turner, in 'Journal of Anatomy and Phys.' + Nov. 1, 1866, p. 78. Dr. Günther has likewise described other + cases. + + [35] Yarrell, 'Hist. of British Fishes,' vol. ii. 1836, p. 329, + 338. + + [36] Dr. Günther, since publishing an account of this species + in 'The Fishes of Zanzibar,' by Col. Playfair, 1866, p. 137, + has re-examined the specimens, and has given me the above + information. + + [37] The Rev. C. Kingsley, in 'Nature,' May, 1870, p. 40. + + [38] Bell, 'History of British Reptiles,' 2nd edit. 1849, p. + 156-159. + + [39] Bell, ibid. p. 146, 151. + + [40] 'Zoology of the Voyage of the "Beagle,"' 1843. "Reptiles," + by Mr. Bell, p. 49. + + [41] 'The Reptiles of India,' by Dr. A. Günther, Ray Soc. 1864, + p. 413. + + [42] Bell, 'History of British Reptiles,' 1849, p. 93. + + [43] J. Bishop, in 'Todd's Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys.' vol. iv. + p. 1503. + + [44] Bell, ibid. p. 112-114. + + [45] Mr. C. J. Maynard, 'The American Naturalist,' Dec. 1869, + p. 555. + + [46] See my 'Journal of Researches during the Voyage of the + "Beagle,"' 1845, p. 384. + + [47] 'Travels through Carolina,' &c., 1791, p. 128. + + [48] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. i. 1866, p. 615. + + [49] Sir Andrew Smith, 'Zoolog. of S. Africa: Reptilia,' 1849, + pl. x. + + [50] Dr. A. Günther, 'Reptiles of British India,' Ray Soc. + 1864, p. 304, 308. + + [51] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. i. 1866, p. 615. + + [52] The celebrated botanist Schleiden incidently remarks + ('Ueber den Darwinismus: Unsere Zeit,' 1869, s. 269), that + Rattle-snakes use their rattles as a sexual call, by which the + two sexes find each other. I do not know whether this + suggestion rests on any direct observations. These snakes pair + in the Zoological Gardens, but the keepers have never observed + that they use their rattles at this season more than at any + other. + + [53] "Rambles in Ceylon," 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' 2nd + series, vol. ix. 1852, p. 333. + + [54] 'Westminster Review,' July 1st, 1867, p. 32. + + [55] Mr. N. L. Austen kept these animals alive for a + considerable time, see 'Land and Water,' July, 1867, p. 9. + + [56] All these statements and quotations, in regard to + Cophotis, Sitana and Draco, as well as the following facts in + regard to Ceratophora, are Footnote: taken from Dr. Günther's + magnificent work on the 'Reptiles of British India,' Ray Soc. + 1864, p. 122, 130, 135. + + [57] Bell, 'History of British Reptiles,' 2nd edit. 1849, p. + 40. + + [58] For Proctotretus see 'Zoology of the Voyage of the + "Beagle:" Reptiles,' by Mr. Bell, p. 8. For the Lizards of S. + Africa, see 'Zoology of S. Africa: Reptiles,' by Sir Andrew + Smith, pl. 25 and 39. For the Indian Calotes, see 'Reptiles of + British India,' by Dr. Günther, p. 143. + + [59] 'Ibis,' vol. iii. (new series) 1867, p. 414. + + [60] Gould, 'Handbook to the Birds of Australia,' 1865, vol. + ii. p. 383. + + [61] Quoted by Mr. Gould, 'Introduction to the Trochilidæ,' + 1861, p. 29. + + [62] Gould, ibid. p. 52. + + [63] W. Thompson, 'Nat. Hist. of Ireland: Birds,' vol. ii. + 1850, p. 327. + + [64] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' 1863, vol. ii. p. 96. + + [65] Macgillivray, 'Hist. Brit. Birds,' vol. iv. 1852, p. + 177-181. + + [66] Sir R. Schomburgk, in 'Journal of R. Geograph. Soc.' vol. + xiii. 1843, p. 31. + + [67] 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. i. p. 191. For pelicans + and snipes, see vol. iii. p. 381, 477. + + [68] Gould, 'Handbook of Birds of Australia,' vol. i. p. 395; + vol. ii. p. 383. + + [69] Mr. Hewitt in the 'Poultry Book by Tegetmeier,' 1866, p. + 137. + + [70] Layard, 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. xiv. 1854, p. + 63. + + [71] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 574. + + [72] Brehm, 'Illust. Thierleben,' 1867, B. iv. s. 351. Some of + the foregoing statements are taken from L. Lloyd, 'The Game + Birds of Sweden,' &c., 1867, p. 79. + + [73] Jerdon, 'Birds of India:' on Ithaginis, vol. iii. p. 523; + on Galloperdix, p. 541. + + [74] For the Egyptian goose, see Macgillivray, 'British Birds,' + vol. iv. p. 639. For Plectropterus, 'Livingstone's Travels,' p. + 254. For Palamedea, Brehm's 'Thierleben,' B. iv. s. 740. See + also on this bird Azara, 'Voyages dans l'Amérique mérid.' tom. + iv. 1809, p. 179, 253. + + [75] See, on our peewit, Mr. R. Carr in 'Land and Water,' Aug. + 8th, 1868, p. 46. In regard to Lobivanellus, see Jerdon's + 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 647, and Gould's 'Handbook of + Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. p. 220. For the Hoplopterus, see + Mr. Allen in the 'Ibis,' vol. v. 1863, p. 156. + + [76] Audubon, 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. ii. p. 492; vol. i. p. + 4-13. + + [77] Mr. Blyth, 'Land and Water,' 1867, p. 212. + + [78] Richardson, on Tetrao umbellus, 'Fauna Bor. Amer.: Birds,' + 1831, p. 343. L. Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,' 1867, p. 22, + 79, on the capercailzie and black-cock. Brehm, however, asserts + ('Thierleben,' &c., B. iv. s. 352) that in Germany the + grey-hens do not generally attend the Balzen of the + black-cocks, but this is an exception to the common rule; + possibly the hens may lie hidden in the surrounding bushes, as + is known to be the case with the grey-hens in Scandinavia, and + with other species in N. America. + + [79] 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. ii. p. 275. + + [80] Brehm, 'Thierleben,' &c., B. iv. 1867, p. 990. Audubon, + 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. ii. p. 492. + + [81] 'Land and Water,' July 25th, 1868, p. 14. + + [82] Audubon's 'Ornitholog. Biography;' on Tetrao cupido, vol. + ii. p. 492; on the Sturnus, vol. ii. p. 219. + + [83] 'Ornithological Biograph.' vol. v. p. 601. + + [84] The Hon. Daines Barrington, 'Philosoph. Transact.' 1773, + p. 252. + + [85] 'Ornithological Dictionary,' 1833, p. 475. + + [86] 'Naturgeschichte der Stubenvögel,' 1840, s. 4. Mr. + Harrison Weir likewise writes to me:--"I am informed that the + best singing males generally get a mate first when they are + bred in the same room." + + [87] 'Philosophical Transactions,' 1773, p. 263. White's + 'Natural History of Selborne,' vol. i. 1825, p. 246. + + [88] 'Naturges. der Stubenvögel,' 1840, s. 252. + + [89] Mr. Bold, 'Zoologist,' 1843-44, p. 659. + + [90] D. Barrington, 'Phil. Transact.' 1773, p. 262. Bechstein, + 'Stubenvögel,' 1840, s. 4. + + [91] This is likewise the case with the water-ouzel, see Mr. + Hepburn in the 'Zoologist,' 1845-1846, p. 1068. + + [92] L. Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,' 1867, p. 25. + + [93] Barrington, ibid. p. 264. Bechstein, ibid. s. 5. + + [94] Dureau de la Malle gives a curious instance ('Annales des + Sc. Nat.' 3rd series, Zoolog. tom. x. p. 118) of some wild + blackbirds in his garden in Paris which naturally learnt from a + caged bird a republican air. + + [95] Bishop, in 'Todd's Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys.' vol. iv. p. + 1496. + + [96] As stated by Barrington in 'Philosoph. Transact.' 1773, p. + 262. + + [97] Gould, 'Handbook to the Birds of Australia,' vol. i. 1865, + p. 308-310. See also Mr. T. W. Wood in the 'Student,' April, + 1870, p. 125. + + [98] See remarks to this effect in Gould's 'Introduction to the + Trochilidæ,' 1861, p. 22. + + [99] 'The Sportsman and Naturalist in Canada,' by Major W. Ross + King, 1866, p. 144-146. Mr. T. W. Wood gives in the 'Student' + (April, 1870, p. 116) an excellent account of the attitude and + habits of this bird during its courtship. He states that the + ear-tufts or neck-plumes are erected, so that they meet over + the crown of the head. + + [100] Richardson, 'Fauna Bor. Americana: Birds,' 1831, p. 359. + Audubon, ibid. vol. iv. p. 507. + + [101] The following papers have been lately written on this + subject:--Prof. A. Newton, in the 'Ibis,' 1862, p. 107; Dr. + Cullen, ibid. 1865, p. 145; Mr. Flower, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' + 1865, p. 747; and Dr. Murie, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1868, p. + 471. In this latter paper an excellent figure is given of the + male Australian Bustard in full display with the sack + distended. + + [102] Bates, 'The Naturalist on the Amazons,' 1863, vol. ii. p. + 284; Wallace, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1850, p. 206. A new + species, with a still larger neck-appendage (_C. penduliger_), + has lately been discovered, see 'Ibis,' vol. i. p. 457. + + [103] Bishop, in Todd's 'Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys.' vol. iv. + p. 1499. + + [104] The spoonbill (Platalea) has its trachea convoluted into + a figure of eight, and yet this bird (Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' + vol. iii. p. 763) is mute; but Mr. Blyth informs me that the + convolutions are not constantly present, so that perhaps they + are now tending towards abortion. + + [105] 'Elements of Comp. Anat.' by R. Wagner, Eng. translat. + 1845, p. 111. With respect to the swan, as given above, + Yarrell's 'Hist. of British Birds,' 2nd edit. 1845, vol. iii. + p. 193. + + [106] C. L. Bonaparte, quoted in the 'Naturalist Library: + Birds,' vol. xiv. p. 126. + + [107] L. Lloyd, 'The Game Birds of Sweden,' &c., 1867, p. 22, + 81. + + [108] Jenner, 'Philosoph. Transactions,' 1824, p. 20. + + [109] For the foregoing several facts see, on Birds of + Paradise, Brehm, 'Thierleben,' Band iii. s. 325. On Grouse, + Richardson, 'Fauna Bor. Americ.: Birds,' p. 343 and 359; Major + W. Ross King, 'The Sportsman in Canada,' 1866, p. 156; Audubon, + 'American Ornitholog. Biograph.' vol. i. p. 216. On the + Kalij pheasant, Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 533. On + the Weavers, 'Livingstone's Expedition to the Zambesi,' 1865, + p. 425. On Woodpeckers, Macgillivray, 'Hist. of British Birds,' + vol. iii. 1840, p. 84, 88, 89, and 95. On the Hoopoe, Mr. + Swinhoe, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' June 23, 1863. On the + Night-Jar, Audubon, ibid. vol. ii. p. 255. The English + Night-Jar likewise makes in the spring a curious noise during + its rapid flight. + + [110] See M. Meves' interesting paper in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' + 1858, p. 199. For the habits of the snipe, Macgillivray, 'Hist. + British Birds,' vol. iv. p. 371. For the American snipe, Capt. + Blakiston, 'Ibis,' vol. v. 1863, p. 131. + + [111] Mr. Salvin, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1867, p. 160. I am much + indebted to this distinguished ornithologist for sketches of + the feathers of the Chamæpetes, and for other information. + + [112] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 618, 621. + + [113] Gould, 'Introduction to the Trochilidæ,' 1861, p. 49. + Salvin, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1867, p. 160. + + [114] Sclater, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1860, p. 90, and in + 'Ibis,' vol. iv. 1862, p. 175. Also Salvin, in 'Ibis,' 1860, p. + 37. + + [115] 'The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia,' 1867, p. 203. + + [116] For Tetrao phasianellus, see Richardson, 'Fauna Bor. + America,' p. 361, and for further particulars Capt. Blakiston, + 'Ibis,' 1863, p. 125. For the Cathartes and Ardea, Audubon, + 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. ii. p. 51, and vol. iii. p. 89. On + the White-throat, Macgillivray, 'Hist. British Birds,' vol. ii. + p. 354. On the Indian Bustard, Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. + iii. p. 618. + + [117] Gould, 'Handbook to the Birds of Australia,' vol. i. p. + 444, 449, 455. The bower of the Satin Bower-bird may always be + seen in the Zoological Society's Gardens, Regent's Park. + + [118] See remarks to this effect, on the "Feeling of Beauty + among Animals," by Mr. J. Shaw, in the 'Athenæum,' Nov. 24th, + 1866, p. 681. + + [119] Mr. Monteiro, 'Ibis,' vol. iv. 1862, p. 339. + + [120] 'Land and Water,' 1868, p. 217. + + [121] Jardine's 'Naturalist Library: Birds,' vol. xiv. p. 166. + + [122] Sclater, in the 'Ibis,' vol. vi. 1864, p. 114. + Livingstone, 'Expedition to the Zambesi,' 1865, p. 66. + + [123] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 620. + + [124] Wallace, in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. xx. + 1857, p. 416; and in his 'Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. + 390. + + [125] See my work on 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under + Domestication,' vol. i. p. 289, 293. + + [126] Quoted from M. de Lafresnaye, in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. + Hist.' vol. xiii. 1854, p. 157: see also Mr. Wallace's much + fuller account in vol. xx. 1857, p. 412, and in his Malay + Archipelago. + + [127] Wallace, 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. 405. + + [128] Mr. Sclater, 'Intellectual Observer,' Jan. 1867. + 'Waterton's Wanderings,' p. 118. See also Mr. Salvin's + interesting paper, with a plate, in the 'Ibis,' 1865, p. 90. + + [129] 'Land and Water,' 1867, p. 394. + + [130] Mr. D. G. Elliot, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1869, p. 589. + + [131] 'Nitzsch's Pterylography,' edited by P. L. Sclater. Ray + Soc. 1867, p. 14. + + [132] The brown mottled summer plumage of the ptarmigan is of + as much importance to it, as a protection, as the white winter + plumage; for in Scandinavia, during the spring, when the snow + has disappeared, this bird is known to suffer greatly from + birds of prey, before it has acquired its summer dress: see + Wilhelm von Wright, in Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,' 1867, p. + 125. + + [133] In regard to the previous statements on moulting, see, on + snipes, &c., Macgillivray, 'Hist. Brit. Birds,' vol. iv. p. + 371; on Glareolæ, curlews, and bustards, Jerdon, 'Birds of + India,' vol. iii. p. 615, 630, 683; on Totanus, ibid, p. 700; + on the plumes of herons, ibid, p. 738, and Macgillivray, vol. + iv. p. 435 and 444, and Mr. Stafford Allen, in the 'Ibis,' vol. + v. 1863, p. 33. + + [134] On the moulting of the ptarmigan, see Gould's 'Birds of + Great Britain.' On the honey-suckers, Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' + vol. i. p. 359, 365, 369. On the moulting of Anthus, see Blyth, + in 'Ibis,' 1867, p. 32. + + [135] For the foregoing statements in regard to partial moults, + and on old males retaining their nuptial plumage, see Jerdon, + on bustards and plovers, in 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 617, + 637, 709, 711. Also Blyth in 'Land and Water,' 1867, p. 84. On + the Vidua, 'Ibis,' vol. iii. 1861, p. 133. On the Drongo + shrikes, Jerdon, ibid. vol. i. p. 435. On the vernal moult of + the _Herodias bubulcus_, Mr. S. S. Allen, in 'Ibis,' 1863, p. + 33. On _Gallus bankiva_, Blyth, in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. + Hist.' vol. i. 1848, p. 455; see, also, on this subject, my + 'Variation of Animals under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 236. + + [136] See Macgillivray, 'Hist. British Birds' (vol. v. p. 34, + 70, and 223), on the moulting of the Anatidæ, with quotations + from Waterton and Montagu. Also Yarrell, 'Hist. of British + Birds,' vol. iii. p. 243. + + [137] On the pelican, see Sclater, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1868, + p. 265. On the American finches, see Audubon, 'Ornith. + Biography,' vol. i. p. 174, 221, and Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' + vol. ii. p. 383. On the _Fringilla cannabina_ of Madeira, Mr. + E. Vernon Harcourt, 'Ibis,' vol. v., 1863, p. 230. + + [138] See also 'Ornamental Poultry,' by Rev. E. S. Dixon, 1848, + p. 8. + + [139] 'Birds of India,' introduct. vol. i. p. xxiv.; on the + peacock, vol. iii. p. 507. See Gould's 'Introduction to the + Trochilidæ,' 1861, p. 15 and 111. + + [140] 'Journal of R. Geograph. Soc.' vol. x. 1840, p. 236. + + [141] 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. xiii. 1854, p. 157; + also Wallace, ibid. vol. xx. 1857, p. 412, and 'The Malay + Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. 252. Also Dr. Bennett, as + quoted by Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. iii. s. 326. + + [142] Mr. T. W. Wood has given ('The Student,' April, 1870, p. + 115) a full account of this manner of display, which he calls + the lateral or one-sided, by the gold pheasant and by the + Japanese pheasant, _Ph. versicolor_. + + [143] The Reign of Law,' 1867, p. 263. + + [144] For the description of these birds, see Gould's 'Handbook + to the Birds of Australia,' vol. i. 1865, p. 417. + + [145] 'Birds of India,' vol. ii. p. 96. + + [146] On the Cosmetornis, see Livingstone's 'Expedition to the + Zambesi,' 1865, p. 66. On the Argus pheasant, Jardine's 'Nat. + Hist. Lib.: Birds,' vol. xiv. p. 167. On Birds of Paradise, + Lesson, quoted by Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. iii. s. 325. On the + widow-bird, Barrow's 'Travels in Africa,' vol. i. p. 243, and + 'Ibis,' vol. iii. 1861, p. 133. Mr. Gould, on the shyness of + male birds, 'Handbook to Birds of Australia,' vol. i. 1865, p. + 210, 457. + + [147] Tegetmeier, 'The Poultry Book,' 1866, p. 139. + + [148] Nordmann describes ('Bull. Soc. Imp. des Nat. Moscow,' + 1861, tom. xxxiv. p. 264) the balzen of _Tetrao urogalloides_ + in Amur Land. He estimated the number of assembled males at + above a hundred, the females, which lie hid in the surrounding + bushes, not being counted. The noises uttered differ from those + of the _T. urogallus_ or the capercailzie. + + [149] With respect to the assemblages of the above named grouse + see Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. iv. s. 350; also L. Lloyd, 'Game + Birds of Sweden,' 1867, p. 19, 78. Richardson, 'Fauna Bor. + Americana,' Birds, p. 362. References in regard to the + assemblages of other birds have previously been given. On + Paradisea see Wallace, in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. + xx. 1857, p. 412. On the snipe, Lloyd, ibid. p. 221. + + [150] Quoted by Mr. T. W. Wood in the 'Student,' April, 1870, + p. 125. + + [151] Gould, 'Handbook of Birds of Australia,' vol. i. p. 300, + 308, 448, 451. On the ptarmigan, above alluded to, see Lloyd, + ibid. p. 129. + + [152] On magpies, Jenner, in 'Phil. Transact.' 1824, p. 21. + Macgillivray, 'Hist. British Birds,' vol. i. p. 570. Thompson, + in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. viii. 1842, p. 494. + + [153] On the peregrine falcon see Thompson, 'Nat. Hist. of + Ireland: Birds,' vol. i. 1849, p. 39. On owls, sparrows, and + partridges, see White, 'Nat. Hist. of Selborne,' edit. of 1825, + vol. i. p. 139. On the Phoenicura, see Loudon's 'Mag. of Nat. + Hist.' vol. vii. 1834, p. 245. Brehm, ('Thierleben,' B. iv. s. + 991) also alludes to cases of birds thrice mated during same + day. + + [154] See White ('Nat. Hist. of Selborne,' 1825, vol. i. p. + 140) on the existence, early in the season, of small coveys of + male partridges, of which fact I have heard other instances. + See Jenner, on the retarded state of the generative organs in + certain birds, in 'Phil. Transact.' 1824. In regard to birds + living in triplets, I owe to Mr. Jenner Weir the cases of the + starling and parrots, and to Mr. Fox, of partridges; on + carrion-crows, see the 'Field,' 1868, p. 415. On various male + birds singing after the proper period, see Rev. L. Jenyns, + 'Observations in Natural History,' 1846, p. 87. + + [155] The following case has been given ('The Times,' Aug. 6th, + 1868) by the Rev. F. O. Morris, on the authority of the Hon. + and Rev. O. W. Forester. "The gamekeeper here found a hawk's + nest this year, with five young ones in it. He took four and + killed them, but left one with its wings clipped as a decoy to + destroy the old ones by. They were both shot next day, in the + act of feeding the young one, and the keeper thought it was + done with. The next day he came again and found two other + charitable hawks, who had come with an adopted feeling to + succour the orphan. These two he killed, and then left the + nest. On returning afterwards he found two more charitable + individuals on the same errand of mercy. One of these he + killed; the other he also shot, but could not find. No more + came on the like fruitless errand." + + [156] For instance, Mr. Yarrell states ('Hist. British Birds,' + vol. iii. 1845, p. 585) that a gull was not able to swallow a + small bird which had been given to it. The gull "paused for a + moment, and then, as if suddenly recollecting himself, ran off + at full speed to a pan of water, shook the bird about in it + until well soaked, and immediately gulped it down. Since that + time he invariably has had recourse to the same expedient in + similar cases." + + [157] 'A Tour in Sutherlandshire,' vol. i. 1849, p. 185. + + [158] 'Acclimatization of Parrots,' by C. Buxton, M.P. 'Annals + and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' Nov. 1868, p. 381. + + [159] 'The Zoologist,' 1847-1848, p. 1602. + + [160] Hewitt on wild ducks, 'Journal of Horticulture,' Jan. 13, + 1863, p. 39. Audubon on the wild turkey, 'Ornith. Biography,' + vol. i. p. 14. On the mocking thrush, ibid. vol. i. p. 110. + + [161] The 'Ibis,' vol. ii. 1860, p. 344. + + [162] On the ornamented nests of humming-birds, Gould, + 'Introduction to the Trochilidæ,' 1861, p. 19. On the + bower-birds, Gould, 'Handbook to the Birds of Australia,' 1865, + vol. i. p. 444-461. Mr. Ramsay in the 'Ibis,' 1867, p. 456. + + [163] 'Hist. of British Birds,' vol. ii. p. 92. + + [164] 'Zoologist,' 1853-1854, p. 3946. + + [165] Waterton, 'Essays on Nat. Hist.' 2nd series, p. 42, 117. + For the following statements, see on the wigeon, Loudon's 'Mag. + of Nat. Hist.' vol. ix. p. 616; L. Lloyd, 'Scandinavian + Adventures,' vol. i. 1854, p. 452; Dixon, 'Ornamental and + Domestic Poultry,' p. 137; Hewitt, in 'Journal of + Horticulture,' Jan. 13, 1863, p. 40; Bechstein. 'Stubenvögel,' + 1840, s. 230. + + [166] Audubon, 'Ornitholog. Biography,' vol. i. p. 191, 349; + vol. ii. p. 42, 275; vol. iii. p. 2. + + [167] 'Rare and Prize Poultry,' 1854, p. 27. + + [168] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under + Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 103. + + [169] Boitard and Corbié, 'Les Pigeons,' 1824, p. 12. Prosper + Lucas ('Traité de l'Héréd. Nat.' tom. ii. 1850, p. 296) has + himself observed nearly similar facts with pigeons. + + [170] 'Die Taubenzucht,' 1824, s. 86. + + [171] 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. i. p. 13. + + [172] 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1835, p. 54. The japanned peacock is + considered by Mr. Sclater as a distinct species, and has been + named _Pavo nigripennis_. + + [173] Rudolphi, 'Beyträge zur Anthropologie,' 1812, s. 184. + + [174] 'Die Darwin'sche Theorie, und ihre Stellung zu Moral und + Religion,' 1869, s. 59. + + [175] In regard to peafowl, see Sir R. Heron, 'Proc. Zoolog. + Soc.' 1835, p. 54, and the Rev. E. S. Dixon, 'Ornamental + Poultry,' 1848, p. 8. For the turkey, Audubon, ibid. p. 4. For + the capercailzie, Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,' 1867, p. 23. + + [176] Mr. Hewitt, quoted in 'Tegetmeier's Poultry Book,' 1866, + p. 165. + + [177] Quoted in Lloyd's 'Game Birds of Sweden,' p. 345. + + [178] According to Dr. Blasius ('Ibis,' vol. ii. 1860, p. 297), + there are 425 indubitable species of birds which breed in + Europe, besides 60 forms, which are frequently regarded as + distinct species. Of the latter, Blasius thinks that only ten + are really doubtful, and that the other fifty ought to be + united with their nearest allies; but this shews that there + must be a considerable amount of variation with some of our + European birds. It is also an unsettled point with naturalists, + whether several North American birds ought to be ranked as + specifically distinct from the corresponding European species. + + [179] 'Origin of Species,' fifth edit. 1869, p. 104. I had + always perceived, that rare and strongly-marked deviations of + structure, deserving to be called monstrosities, could seldom + be preserved through natural selection, and that the + preservation of even highly-beneficial variations would depend + to a certain extent on chance. I had also fully appreciated the + importance of mere individual differences, and this led me to + insist so strongly on the importance of that unconscious form + of selection by man, which follows from the preservation of the + most valued individuals of each breed, without any intention on + his part to modify the characters of the breed. But until I + read an able article in the 'North British Review' (March, + 1867, p. 289, _et seq._), which has been of more use to me than + any other Review, I did not see how great the chances were + against the preservation of variations, whether slight or + strongly pronounced, occurring only in single individuals. + + [180] 'Introduct. to the Trochilidæ,' p. 102. + + [181] Gould, 'Handbook of Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. p. 32 + and 68. + + [182] Audubon, 'Ornitholog. Biography,' 1838, vol. iv. p. 389. + + [183] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. p. 108; and Mr. Blyth, + in 'Land and Water,' 1868, p. 381. + + [184] Graba, 'Tagebuch, Reise nach Färo,' 1830, s. 51-54. + Macgillivray, 'Hist. British Birds,' vol. iii. p. 745. 'Ibis,' + vol. v. 1863, p. 469. + + [185] Graba, ibid. s. 54. Macgillivray, ibid. vol. v. p. 327. + + [186] 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication.' + vol. ii. p. 92. + + [187] On these points see also 'Variation of Animals and Plants + under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 253; vol. ii. p. 73, 75. + + [188] See, for instance, on the irides of a Podica and + Gallicrex in 'Ibis,' vol. ii. 1860, p. 206; and vol. v. 1863, + p. 426. + + [189] See also Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. p. 243-245. + + [190] 'Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle,' 1841, p. 6. + + [191] Bechstein, 'Naturgeschichte Deutschlands,' B. iv. 1795, + s. 31, on a sub-variety of the Monck pigeon. + + [192] This woodcut has been engraved from a beautiful drawing, + most kindly made for me by Mr. Trimen; see also his description + of the wonderful amount of variation in the coloration and + shape of the wings of this butterfly, in his, 'Rhopalocera + Africæ Australis,' p. 186. See also an interesting paper by the + Rev. H. H. Higgins, on the origin of the ocelli in the + Lepidoptera in the 'Quarterly Journal of Science,' July, 1868, + p. 325. + + [193] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 517. + + [194] 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' + vol. i. p. 254. + + [195] When the Argus pheasant displays his wing-feathers like a + great fan, those nearest to the body stand more upright than + the outer ones, so that the shading of the ball-and-socket + ocelli ought to be slightly different on the different + feathers, in order to bring out their full effect, relatively + to the incidence of the light. Mr. T. W. Wood, who has the + experienced eye of an artist, asserts ('Field,' Newspaper, May + 28, 1870, p. 457) that this is the case; but after carefully + examining two mounted specimens (the proper feathers from one + having been given to me by Mr. Gould for more accurate + comparison) I cannot perceive that this acme of perfection in + the shading has been attained; nor can others to whom I have + shewn these feathers recognise the fact. + + [196] 'The Reign of Law,' 1867, p. 247. + + [197] 'Introduction to the Trochilidæ,' 1861, p. 110. + + [198] Fourth edition, 1866, p. 241. + + [199] 'Westminster Review,' July, 1867. 'Journal of Travel,' + vol. i. 1868, p. 73. + + [200] Temminck says that the tail of the female _Phasianus + Soemmerringii_ is only six inches long, 'Planches + coloriées,' vol. v. 1838, p. 487 and 488: the measurements + above given were made for me by Mr. Sclater. For the common + pheasant, see Macgillivray, 'Hist. Brit. Birds,' vol. i. p. + 118-121. + + [201] Dr. Chapuis, 'Le Pigeon Voyageur Belge,' 1865, p. 87. + + [202] Bechstein, 'Naturgesch. Deutschlands,' 1793, B. iii. s. + 339. + + [203] Daines Barrington, however, thought it probable ('Phil. + Transact.' 1773, p. 164) that few female birds sing, because + the talent would have been dangerous to them during incubation. + He adds, that a similar view may possibly account for the + inferiority of the female to the male in plumage. + + [204] Mr. Ramsay, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1868, p. 50. + + [205] 'Journal of Travel,' edited by A. Murray, vol. i. 1868, + p. 78. + + [206] 'Journal of Travel,' edited by A. Murray, vol. i. 1868, + p. 281. + + [207] Audubon, 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. i. p. 233. + + [208] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. ii. p. 108. Gould's + 'Handbook of the Birds of Australia,' vol. i. p. 463. + + [209] For instance, the female _Eupetomena macroura_ has the + head and tail dark blue with reddish loins; the female + _Lampornis porphyrurus_ is blackish-green on the upper surface, + with the lores and sides of the throat crimson; the female + _Eulampis jugularis_ has the top of the head and back green, + but the loins and the tail are crimson. Many other instances of + highly conspicuous females could be given. See Mr. Gould's + magnificent work on this family. + + [210] Mr. Salvin noticed in Guatemala ('Ibis,' 1864, p. 375) + that humming-birds were much more unwilling to leave their + nests during very hot weather, when the sun was shining + brightly, than during cool, cloudy, or rainy weather. + + [211] I may specify, as instances of obscurely-coloured birds + building concealed nests, the species belonging to eight + Australian genera, described in Gould's 'Handbook of the Birds + of Australia,' vol. i. p. 340, 362, 365, 383, 387, 389, 391, + 414. + + [212] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. p. 244. + + [213] On the nidification and colours of these latter species, + see Gould's 'Handbook,' &c., vol. i. p. 504, 527. + + [214] I have consulted, on this subject, Macgillivray's + 'British Birds,' and though doubts may be entertained in some + cases in regard to the degree of concealment of the nest, and + of the degree of conspicuousness of the female, yet the + following birds, which all lay their eggs in holes or in domed + nests, can hardly be considered, according to the above + standard, as conspicuous: Passer, 2 species; Sturnus, of which + the female is considerably less brilliant than the male; + Cinclus; Motacilla boarula (?); Erithacus (?); Fruticola, 2 + sp.; Saxicola; Ruticilla, 2 sp.; Sylvia, 3 sp.; Parus, 3 sp.; + Mecistura; Anorthura; Certhia; Sitta; Yunx; Muscicapa, 2 sp.; + Hirundo, 3 sp.; and Cypselus. The females of the following 12 + birds may be considered as conspicuous according to the same + standard, viz., Pastor, Motacilla alba, Parus major and P. + cæruleus, Upupa, Picus, 4 sp., Coracias, Alcedo, and Merops. + + [215] 'Journal of Travel,' edited by A. Murray, vol. i. p. 78. + + [216] See many statements in the 'Ornithological Biography.' + See, also, some curious observations on the nests of Italian + birds by Eugenio Bettoni, in the 'Atti della Società Italiana,' + vol. xi. 1869, p. 487. + + [217] See his 'Monograph of the Trogonidæ,' first edition. + + [218] Namely Cyanalcyon. Gould's 'Handbook of the Birds of + Australia,' vol. i. p. 133; see, also, p. 130, 136. + + [219] Every gradation of difference between the sexes may be + followed in the parrots of Australia. See Gould's 'Handbook,' + &c., vol. ii. p. 14-102. + + [220] Macgillivray's 'British Birds,' vol. ii. p. 433. Jerdon, + 'Birds of India,' vol. ii. p. 282. + + [221] All the following facts are taken from M. Malherbe's + magnificent 'Monographie des Picidées,' 1861. + + [222] Audubon's 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. ii. p. 75; see + also the 'Ibis,' vol. i. p. 268. + + [223] Gould's 'Handbook of the Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. p. + 109-149. + + [224] See remarks to this effect in my work on 'Variation under + Domestication,' vol. ii. chap, xii. + + [225] The 'Ibis,' vol. vi. 1864, p. 122. + + [226] On Ardetta, Translation of Cuvier's 'Règne Animal,' by + Mr. Blyth, footnote, p. 159. On the Peregrine Falcon, Mr. + Blyth, in Charlesworth's 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. i. 1837, p. + 304. On Dicrurus, 'Ibis,' 1863, p. 44. On the Platalea, 'Ibis,' + vol. vi. 1864, p. 366. On the Bombycilla, Audubon's + 'Ornitholog. Biography,' vol. i. p. 229. On the Palæornis, see, + also, Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. p. 263. On the wild + turkey, Audubon, ibid. vol. i. p. 15: I hear from Judge Caton + that in Illinois the female very rarely acquires a tuft. + + [227] Mr. Blyth has recorded (Translation of Cuvier's 'Règne + Animal,' p. 158) various instances with Lanius, Ruticilla, + Linaria, and Anas. Audubon has also recorded a similar case + ('Ornith. Biog.' vol. v. p. 519) with _Tyranga æstiva_. + + [228] See Gould's 'Birds of Great Britain.' + + [229] In regard to thrushes, shrikes, and woodpeckers, see Mr. + Blyth, in Charlesworth's 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. i. 1837, p. + 304; also footnote to his translation of Cuvier's 'Règne + Animal,' p. 159. I give the case of Loxia from Mr. Blyth's + information. On thrushes, see also Audubon, 'Ornith. + Biography,' vol. ii. p. 195. On Chrysococcyx and Chalcophaps, + Blyth, as quoted in Jerdon's 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. + 485. On Sarkidiornis, Blyth, in 'Ibis,' 1867, p. 175. + + [230] See, for instance, Mr. Gould's account ('Handbook of the + Birds of Australia,' vol. i. p. 133) of Cyanalcyon (one of the + Kingfishers) in which, however, the young male, though + resembling the adult female, is less brilliantly coloured. In + some species of Dacelo the males have blue tails, and the + females brown ones; and Mr. R. B. Sharpe informs me that the + tail of the young male of _D. Gaudichaudi_ is at first brown. + Mr. Gould has described (ibid. vol. ii. p. 14, 20, 37) the + sexes and the young of certain Black Cockatoos and of the King + Lory, with which the same rule prevails. Also Jerdon ('Birds of + India,' vol. i. p. 260) on the _Palæornis rosa_, in which the + young are more like the female than the male. See Audubon + ('Ornith. Biograph.' vol. ii. p. 475) on the two sexes and the + young of _Columba passerina_. + + [231] I owe this information to Mr. Gould who shewed me the + specimens; see also his 'Introduction to the Trochilidæ,' 1861, + p. 120. + + [232] Macgillivray, 'Hist. Brit. Birds,' vol. v. p. 207-214. + + [233] See his admirable paper in the 'Journal of the Asiatic + Soc. of Bengal,' vol. xix. 1850, p. 223; see also Jerdon, + 'Birds of India,' vol. i. introduction, p. xxix. In regard to + Tanysiptera, Prof. Schlegel told Mr. Blyth that he could + distinguish several distinct races, solely by comparing the + adult males. + + [234] See also Mr. Swinhoe, in 'Ibis,' July, 1863, p. 131; and + a previous paper, with an extract from a note by Mr. Blyth, in + 'Ibis,' Jan. 1861, p. 52. + + [235] Wallace, 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. 394. + + [236] These species are described, with coloured figures, by M. + F. Pollen, in 'Ibis,' 1866, p. 275. + + [237] 'Variation of Animals, &c., under Domestication,' vol. i. + p. 251. + + [238] Macgillivray, 'Hist. British Birds,' vol. i. p. 172-174. + + [239] See, on this subject, chap. xxiii. in the 'Variation of + Animals and Plants under Domestication.' + + [240] Audubon, 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. i. p. 193. + Macgillivray, 'Hist. Brit. Birds,' vol. iii. p. 85. See also + the case before given of _Indopicus carlotta_. + + [241] 'Westminster Review,' July, 1867, and A. Murray, 'Journal + of Travel,' 1868, p. 83. + + [242] For the Australian species, see Gould's 'Handbook,' &c., + vol. ii. p. 178, 180, 186, and 188. In the British Museum + specimens of the Australian Plain-wanderer (_Pedionomus + torquatus_) may be seen, shewing similar sexual differences. + + [243] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 596. Mr. Swinhoe, + in 'Ibis,' 1865, p. 542; 1866, p. 131, 405. + + [244] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 677. + + [245] Gould's 'Handbook of the Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. p. + 275. + + [246] 'The Indian Field,' Sept. 1858, p. 3. + + [247] 'Ibis,' 1866, p. 298. + + [248] For these several statements, see Mr. Gould's 'Birds of + Great Britain.' Prof. Newton informs me that he has long been + convinced, from his own observations and from those of others, + that the males of the above-named species take either the whole + or a large share of the duties of incubation, and that they + "shew much greater devotion towards their young, when in + danger, than do the females." So it is, as he informs me, with + _Limosa lapponica_ and some few other Waders, in which the + females are larger and have more strongly contrasted colours + than the males. + + [249] The natives of Ceram (Wallace, 'Malay Archipelago,' vol. + ii. p. 150) assert that the male and female sit alternately on + the eggs; but this assertion, as Mr. Bartlett thinks, may be + accounted for by the female visiting the nest to lay her eggs. + + [250] 'The Student,' April, 1870, p. 124. + + [251] See the excellent account of the habits of this bird + under confinement, by Mr. A. W. Bennett, in 'Land and Water,' + May, 1868, p. 233. + + [252] Mr. Sclater, on the incubation of the Struthiones, 'Proc. + Zoo. Soc.,' June 9, 1863. + + [253] For the Milvago, see 'Zoology of the Voyage of the + "Beagle,"' Birds, 1841, p. 16. For the Climacteris and + nightjar (Eurostopodus), see Gould's 'Handbook of the Birds of + Australia,' vol. i. p. 602 and 97. The New Zealand shieldrake + (_Tadorna variegata_) offers a quite anomalous case: the head + of the female is pure white, and her back is redder than that + of the male; the head of the male is of a rich dark bronzed + colour, and his back is clothed with finely pencilled + slate-coloured feathers, so that he may altogether be + considered as the more beautiful of the two. He is larger and + more pugnacious than the female, and does not sit on the eggs. + So that in all these respects this species comes under our + first class of cases; but Mr. Sclater ('Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1866, + p. 150) was much surprised to observe that the young of both + sexes, when about three months old, resembled in their dark + heads and necks the adult males, instead of the adult females; + so that it would appear in this case that the females have been + modified, whilst the males and the young have retained a former + state of plumage. + + [254] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 598. + + [255] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. p. 222, 228. Gould's + 'Handbook of the Birds of Australia,' vol. i. 124, 130. + + [256] Gould, Ibid. vol. ii. p. 37, 46, 56. + + [257] Audubon, 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. ii. p. 55. + + [258] 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' + vol. ii. p. 79. + + [259] Charlesworth, 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. i. 1837, p. 305, + 306. + + [260] 'Bulletin de la Soc. Vaudoise des Sc. Nat.' vol. x. 1869, + p. 132. The young of the Polish swan, _Cygnus immutabilis_ of + Yarrell, are always white; but this species, as Mr. Sclater + informs me, is believed to be nothing more than a variety of + the Domestic Swan (_Cygnus olor_). + + [261] I am indebted to Mr. Blyth for information in regard to + this genus. The sparrow of Palestine belongs to the sub-genus + Petronia. + + [262] For instance, the males of _Tanagra æstiva_ and + _Fringilla cyanea_ require three years, the male of _Fringilla + ciris_ four years, to complete their beautiful plumage. (See + Audubon, 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. i. p. 233, 280, 378.) The + Harlequin duck takes three years (ibid. vol. iii. p. 614). The + male of the Gold pheasant, as I hear from Mr. J. Jenner Weir, + can be distinguished from the female when about three months + old, but he does not acquire his full splendour until the end + of the September in the following year. + + [263] Thus the _Ibis tantalus_ and _Grus Americanus_ take four + years, the Flamingo several years, and the _Ardea Ludovicana_ + two years, before they acquire their perfect plumage. See + Audubon, ibid. vol. i. p. 221; vol. iii. p. 133, 139, 211. + + [264] Mr. Blyth, in Charlesworth's 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. i. + 1837, p. 300. Mr. Bartlett has informed me in regard to + gold-pheasants. + + [265] I have noticed the following cases in Audubon's 'Ornith. + Biography. The Redstart of America' (_Muscicapa ruticilla_, + vol. i. p. 203). The _Ibis tantalus_ takes four years to come + to full maturity, but sometimes breeds in the second year (vol. + iii. p. 133). The _Grus Americanus_ takes the same time, but + breeds before acquiring its full plumage (vol. iii. p. 211). + The adults of _Ardea cærulea_ are blue and the young white; and + white, mottled, and mature blue birds may all be seen breeding + together (vol. iv. p. 58): but Mr. Blyth informs me that + certain herons apparently are dimorphic, for white and coloured + individuals of the same age may be observed. The Harlequin duck + (_Anas histrionica_, Linn.) takes three years to acquire its + full plumage, though many birds breed in the second year (vol. + iii. p. 614). The White-headed Eagle (_Falco leucocephalus_, + vol. iii. p. 210) is likewise known to breed in its immature + state. Some species of Oriolus (according to Mr. Blyth and Mr. + Swinhoe, in 'Ibis,' July, 1863, p. 68) likewise breed before + they attain their full plumage. + + [266] See the last footnote. + + [267] Other animals, belonging to quite distinct classes, are + either habitually or occasionally capable of breeding before + they have fully acquired their adult characters. This is the + case with the young males of the salmon. Several amphibians + have been known to breed whilst retaining their larval + structure. Fritz Müller has shewn ('Facts and Arguments for + Darwin,' Eng. trans. 1869, p. 79) that the males of several + amphipod crustaceans become sexually mature whilst young; and I + infer that this is a case of premature breeding, because they + have not as yet acquired their fully-developed claspers. All + such facts are highly interesting, as bearing on one means by + which species may undergo great modifications of character, in + accordance with Mr. Cope's views, expressed under the terms of + the "retardation and acceleration of generic characters;" but I + cannot follow the views of this eminent naturalist to their + full extent. See Mr. Cope, "On the Origin of Genera," from the + 'Proc. of Acad. Nat. Sc. of Philadelphia,' Oct. 1868. + + [268] Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 507, on the + peacock. Audubon, ibid. vol. iii. p. 139, on the Ardea. + + [269] For illustrative cases see vol. iv. of Macgillivray's + 'Hist. Brit. Birds;' on Tringa, &c., p. 229, 271; on the + Machetes, p. 172; on the _Charadrius hiaticula_, p. 118; on the + _Charadrius pluvialis_, p. 94. + + [270] For the goldfinch of N. America, _Fringilla tristis_, + Linn., see Audubon, 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. i. p. 172. For + the Maluri, Gould's 'Handbook of the Birds of Australia,' vol. + i. p. 318. + + [271] I am indebted to Mr. Blyth for information in regard to + the Buphus; see also Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. + 749. On the Anastomus, see Blyth, in 'Ibis,' 1867, p. 173. + + [272] On the Alca, see Macgillivray, 'Hist. Brit. Birds,' vol. + v. p. 347. On the _Fringilla leucophrys_, Audubon, ibid. vol. + ii. p. 89. I shall have hereafter to refer to the young of + certain herons and egrets being white. + + [273] 'History of British Birds,' vol. i. 1839, p. 159. + + [274] Blyth, in Charlesworth's 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. i. + 1837, p. 362; and from information given to me by him. + + [275] Audubon, 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. i. p. 113. + + [276] Mr. C. A. Wright, in 'Ibis,' vol. vi. 1864, p. 65. + Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. p. 515. + + [277] The following additional cases may be mentioned: the + young males of _Tanagra rubra_ can be distinguished from the + young females (Audubon, 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. iv. p. 392), + and so it is with the nestlings of a blue nuthatch, + _Dendrophila frontalis_ of India (Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' + vol. i. p. 389). Mr. Blyth also informs me that the sexes of + the stonechat, _Saxicola rubicola_, are distinguishable at a + very early age. + + [278] 'Westminster Review,' July, 1867, p. 5. + + [279] 'Ibis,' 1859, vol. i. p. 429, _et seq._ + + [280] No satisfactory explanation has ever been offered of the + immense size, and still less of the bright colours, of the + toucan's beak. Mr. Bates ('The Naturalist on the Amazons,' vol. + ii. 1863, p. 341) states that they use their beak for reaching + fruit at the extreme tips of the branches; and likewise, as + stated by other authors, for extracting eggs and young birds + from the nests of other birds. But as Mr. Bates admits, the + beak "can scarcely be considered a very perfectly-formed + instrument for the end to which it is applied." The great bulk + of the beak, as shewn by its breadth, depth, as well as length, + is not intelligible on the view, that it serves merely as an + organ of prehension. + + [281] Ramphastos carinatus, Gould's 'Monograph of Ramphastidæ.' + + [282] On Larus, Gavia, and Sterna, see Macgillivray, 'Hist. + Brit. Birds,' vol. v. p. 515, 584, 626. On the Anser + hyperboreus, Audubon, 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. iv. p. 562. On + the Anastomus, Mr. Blyth, in 'Ibis,' 1867, p. 173. + + [283] It may be noticed that with vultures, which roam far and + wide through the higher regions of the atmosphere, like marine + birds over the ocean, three or four species are almost wholly + or largely white, and many other species are black. This fact + supports the conjecture that these conspicuous colours may aid + the sexes in finding each other during the breeding-season. + + [284] 'The Journal of Travel,' edited by A. Murray, vol. i. + 1868, p. 286. + + [285] See Jerdon on the genus Palæornis, 'Birds of India,' vol. + i. p. 258-260. + + [286] The young of _Ardea rufescens_ and _A. cærulea_ of the + U. States are likewise white, the adults being coloured in + accordance with their specific names. Audubon ('Ornith. + Biography,' vol. iii. p. 416; vol. iv. p. 58) seems rather + pleased at the thought that this remarkable change of plumage + will greatly "disconcert the systematists." + + [287] I am greatly indebted to the kindness of Mr. Sclater for + having looked over these four chapters on birds, and the two + following ones on mammals. By this means I have been saved from + making mistakes about the names of the species, and from giving + any facts which are actually known to this distinguished + naturalist to be erroneous. But of course he is not at all + answerable for the accuracy of the statements quoted by me from + various authorities. + + [288] See Waterton's account of two hares fighting, + 'Zoologist,' vol. i. 1843, p. 211. On moles, Bell, 'Hist. of + British Quadrupeds,' 1st edit. p. 100. On squirrels, Audubon + and Bachman, 'Viviparous Quadrupeds of N. America,' 1846, p. + 269. On beavers, Mr. A. H. Green, in 'Journal of Lin. Soc. + Zoolog.' vol. x. 1869, p. 362. + + [289] On the battles of seals, see Capt. C. Abbott in 'Proc. + Zool. Soc.' 1868, p. 191; also Mr. R. Brown, ibid. 1869, p. + 436; also L. Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,' 1867, p. 412; also + Pennant. On the sperm-whale, see Mr. J. H. Thompson, in 'Proc. + Zool. Soc.' 1867, p. 246. + + [290] See Scrope ('Art of Deer-stalking,' p. 17) on the locking + of the horns with the Cervus elephas. Richardson, in 'Fauna + Bor. Americana,' 1829, p. 252, says that the wapiti, moose, and + reindeer have been found thus locked together. Sir A. Smith + found at the Cape of Good Hope the skeletons of two gnus in the + same condition. + + [291] Mr. Lamont ('Seasons with the Sea-Horses,' 1861, p. 143) + says that a good tusk of the male walrus weighs 4 pounds, and + is longer than that of the female, which weighs about 3 pounds. + The males are described as fighting ferociously. On the + occasional absence of the tusks in the female, see Mr. R. + Brown, 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1868, p. 429. + + [292] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 283. + + [293] Mr. R. Brown, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1869, p. 553. + + [294] Owen on the Cachalot and Ornithorhynchus, ibid. vol. iii. + p. 638, 641. + + [295] On the structure and shedding of the horns of the + reindeer, Hoffberg, 'Amoenitates Acad.' vol. iv. 1788, p. + 149. See Richardson, 'Fauna Bor. Americana,' p. 241, in regard + to the American variety or species; also Major W. Ross King, + 'The Sportsman in Canada,' 1866, p. 80. + + [296] Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire, 'Essais de Zoolog. + Générale,' 1841 p. 513. Other masculine characters, besides the + horns, are sometimes similarly transferred to the female; thus + Mr. Boner, in speaking of an old female chamois ('Chamois + Hunting in the Mountains of Bavaria,' 1860, 2nd edit. p. 363), + says, "not only was the head very male-looking, but along the + back there was a ridge of long hair, usually to be found only + in bucks." + + [297] On the Cervulus, Dr. Gray, 'Catalogue of the Mammalia in + British Museum,' part iii. p. 220. On the _Cervus Canadensis_ + or Wapiti see Hon. J. D. Caton, 'Ottawa Acad. of Nat. + Sciences,' May, 1868, p. 9. + + [298] For instance the horns of the female _Ant. Euchore_ + resemble those of a distinct species, viz. the _Ant. Dorcas_ + var. _Corine_, see Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' p. 455. + + [299] Gray, 'Catalogue Mamm. Brit. Mus.' part iii. 1852, p. + 160. + + [300] Richardson, 'Fauna Bor. Americana,' p. 278. + + [301] 'Land and Water,' 1867, p. 346. + + [302] Sir Andrew Smith, 'Zoology of S. Africa,' pl. xix. Owen, + 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 624. + + [303] Sir J. Emerson Tennent, 'Ceylon,' 1859, vol. ii. p. 274. + For Malacca, 'Journal of Indian Archipelago,' vol. iv. p. 357. + + [304] 'Calcutta Journal of Nat. Hist.' vol. ii. 1843, p. 526. + + [305] Mr. Blyth, in 'Land and Water,' March, 1867, p. 134, on + the authority of Capt. Hutton and others. For the wild + Pembrokeshire goats see the 'Field,' 1869, p. 150. + + [306] M. E. M. Bailly, "sur l'usage des Cornes," &c., 'Annal. + des Sc. Nat.' tom. ii. 1824, p. 369. + + [307] Owen, on the Horns of Red-deer, 'British Fossil Mammals,' + 1846, p. 478; 'Forest Creatures,' by Charles Boner, 1861, p. + 76, 62. Richardson on the Horns of the Reindeer, 'Fauna Bor. + Americana,' 1829, p. 210. + + [308] Hon. J. D. Caton ('Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Science,' May, + 1868, p. 9), says that the American deer fight with their + fore-feet, after "the question of superiority has been once + settled and acknowledged in the herd." Bailly, "Sur l'usage des + Cornes," 'Annales des Sc. Nat.' tom. ii. 1824, p. 371. + + [309] See a most interesting account in the Appendix to Hon. J. + D. Caton's paper, as above quoted. + + [310] 'The American Naturalist,' Dec. 1869, p. 552. + + [311] Pallas, 'Spicilegia Zoologica,' fasc. xiii. 1779, p. 18. + + [312] Lamont, 'Seasons with the Sea-Horses,' 1861, p. 141. + + [313] See also Corse ('Philosoph. Transact.' 1799, p. 212) on + the manner in which the short-tusked Mooknah variety of the + elephant attacks other elephants. + + [314] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 349. + + [315] See Rüppell (in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' Jan. 12, 1836, p. 3) + on the canines in deer and antelopes, with a note by Mr. Martin + on a female American deer. See also Falconer ('Palæont. Memoirs + and Notes,' vol. i. 1868, p. 576) on canines in an adult female + deer. In old males of the musk-deer the canines (Pallas, 'Spic. + Zoolog.' fasc. xiii. 1779, p. 18) sometimes grow to the length + of three inches, whilst in old females a rudiment projects + scarcely half an inch above the gums. + + [316] Emerson Tennent, 'Ceylon,' 1859, vol. ii. p. 275; Owen, + 'British Fossil Mammals,' 1846, p. 245. + + [317] Richardson, 'Fauna Bor. Americana,' on the moose, _Alces + palmata_, p. 236, 237; also on the expanse of the horns 'Land + and Water,' 1869, p. 143. See also Owen, 'British Fossil + Mammals,' on the Irish elk, p. 447, 455. + + [318] 'Forest Creatures,' by C. Boner, 1861, p. 60. + + [319] See the very interesting paper by Mr. J. A. Allen in + 'Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoolog. of Cambridge; United States,' vol. + ii. No. 1, p. 82. The weights were ascertained by a careful + observer, Capt. Bryant. + + [320] 'Animal Economy,' p. 45. + + [321] See also Richardson's 'Manual on the Dog,' p. 59. Much + valuable information on the Scottish deerhound is given by Mr. + McNeill, who first called attention to the inequality in size + between the sexes, in Scrope's 'Art of Deer Stalking.' I hope + that Mr. Cupples will keep to his intention of publishing a + full account and history of this famous breed. + + [322] Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. ii. s. 729-732. + + [323] See Mr. Wallace's interesting account of this animal, + 'The Malay Archipelago,' 1869, vol. i. p. 435. + + [324] 'The Times,' Nov. 10th, 1857. In regard to the Canada + lynx, see Audubon and Bachman, 'Quadrupeds of N. America,' + 1846, p. 139. + + [325] Dr. Murie, on Otaria, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1869, p. 109. + Mr. J. A. Allen, in the paper above quoted (p. 75), doubts + whether the hair, which is longer on the neck in the male than + in the female, deserves to be called a mane. + + [326] Mr. Boner in his excellent description of the habits of + the red-deer in Germany ('Forest Creatures,' 1861, p. 81) says, + "while the stag is defending his rights against one intruder, + another invades the sanctuary of his harem, and carries off + trophy after trophy." Exactly the same thing occurs with seals, + see Mr. J. A. Allen, ibid. p. 100. + + [327] Mr. J. A. Allen in 'Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoolog. of + Cambridge, United States,' vol. ii. No. 1, p. 99. + + [328] 'Dogs: their Management,' by E. Mayhew, M.R.C.V.S., 2nd + edit. 1864, p. 187-192. + + [329] Quoted by Alex. Walker 'On Intermarriage,' 1838, p. 276; + see also p. 244. + + [330] 'Traité de l'Héréd. Nat.' tom. ii. 1850, p. 296. + + [331] 'Amoenitates Acad.' vol. iv. 1788, p. 160. + + [332] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 585. + + [333] Ibid. p. 595. + + [334] See, for instance, Major W. Ross King ('The Sportsman in + Canada,' 1866, p. 53, 131) on the habits of the moose and wild + reindeer. + + [335] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 600. + + [336] Mr. Green, in 'Journal of Linn. Soc.' vol. x. Zoology, + 1869, p. 362. + + [337] C. L. Martin, 'General Introduction to the Nat. Hist. of + Mamm. Animals,' 1841, p. 431. + + [338] 'Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. + 15, 21. + + [339] On the sea-elephant, see an article by Lesson, in 'Dict. + Class. Hist. Nat.' tom. xiii. p. 418. For the Cystophora or + Stemmatopus, see Dr. Dekay, 'Annals of Lyceum of Nat. Hist. New + York,' vol. i. 1824, p. 94. Pennant has also collected + information from the sealers on this animal. The fullest + account is given by Mr. Brown, who doubts about the rudimentary + condition of the bladder in the female, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' + 1868, p. 435. + + [340] As with the castoreum of the beaver, see Mr. L. H. + Morgan's most interesting work, 'The American Beaver,' 1868, p. + 300. Pallas ('Spic. Zoolog.' fasc. viii. 1779, p. 23) has well + discussed the odoriferous glands of mammals. Owen ('Anat. of + Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 634) also gives an account of these + glands, including those of the elephant, and (p. 763) those of + shrew-mice. + + [341] Rengger, 'Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von Paraguay,' + 1830, s. 355. This observer also gives some curious particulars + in regard to the odour emitted. + + [342] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 632. See, + also, Dr. Murie's observations on their glands in 'Proc. + Zoolog. Soc.' 1870, p. 340. Desmarest, On the _Antilope + subgutturosa_, 'Mammalogie,' 1820, p. 455. + + [343] Pallas, 'Spicilegia Zoolog.' fasc. xiii. 1799, p. 24; + Desmoulins, 'Dict. Class. d'Hist. Nat.' tom. iii. p. 586. + + [344] Dr. Gray, 'Gleanings from the Menagerie at Knowsley,' pl. + 28. + + [345] Judge Caton on the wapiti, 'Transact. Ottawa Acad. Nat. + Sciences,' 1868, p. 36, 40; Blyth, 'Land and Water,' on _Capra + ægagrus_, 1867, p. 37. + + [346] 'Hunter's Essays and Observations,' edited by Owen, 1861, + vol. i. p. 236. + + [347] See Dr. Gray's 'Cat. of Mammalia in British Museum,' part + iii. 1852, p. 144. + + [348] Rengger, 'Säugethiere,' &c., s. 14; Desmarest, + 'Mammalogie,' p. 66. + + [349] See the chapters on these several animals in vol. i. of + my 'Variation of Animals under Domestication;' also vol. ii. p. + 73; also chap. xx. on the practice of selection by + semi-civilised people. For the Berbura goat, see Dr. Gray, + 'Catalogue,' ibid. p. 157. + + [350] _Osphranter rufus_, Gould, 'Mammals of Australia,' vol. + ii. 1863. On the Didelphis, Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' p. 256. + + [351] 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' Nov. 1867, p. 325. On the + _Mus minutus_, Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' p. 304. + + [352] J. A. Allen, in 'Bulletin of Mus. Comp. Zoolog. of + Cambridge, United States,' 1869, p. 207. + + [353] Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' 1820, p. 223. On _Felis mitis_, + Rengger, ibid. s. 194. + + [354] Dr. Murie on the Otaria, 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1869, p. 108. + Mr. R. Brown, on the _P. groenlandica_, ibid. 1868, p. 417. See + also on the colours of seals, Desmarest, ibid. p. 243, 249. + + [355] Judge Caton, in 'Trans. Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Sciences,' + 1868, p. 4. + + [356] Dr. Gray, 'Cat. of Mamm. in Brit. Mus.' part iii. 1852, + p. 134-142; also Dr. Gray, 'Gleanings from the Menagerie of + Knowsley,' in which there is a splendid drawing of the Oreas + derbyanus: see the text on Tragelaphus. For the Cape Eland + (_Oreas canna_), see Andrew Smith, 'Zoology of S. Africa,' pl. + 41 and 42. There are also many of these antelopes in the + Zoological Society's Gardens. + + [357] On the _Ant. niger_, see 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1850, p. 133. + With respect to an allied species, in which there is an equal + sexual difference in colour, see Sir S. Baker, 'The Albert + Nyanza,' 1866, vol. ii. p. 327. For the _A. sing-sing_, Gray, + 'Cat. B. Mus.' p. 100. Desmarest, Mammalogie,' p. 468, on the + _A. caama_. Andrew Smith, 'Zoology of S. Africa,' on the Gnu. + + [358] 'Ottawa Academy of Sciences,' May 21, 1868, p. 3, 5. + + [359] S. Müller, on the Banteng, 'Zoog. Indischen Archipel.' + 1839-1844, tab. 35; see also Raffles, as quoted by Mr. Blyth, + in 'Land and Water,' 1867, p. 476. On goats, Dr. Gray, 'Cat. + Brit. Mus.' p. 146; Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' p. 482. On the + _Cervus paludosus_, Rengger, ibid. s. 345. + + [360] Sclater, 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1866, p. 1. The same fact has + also been fully ascertained by MM. Pollen and van Dam. + + [361] On Mycetes, Rengger, ibid. s. 14; and Brehm, + 'Illustrirtes Thierleben,' B. i. s. 96, 107. On Ateles, + Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' p. 75. On Hylobates, Blyth, 'Land and + Water,' 1867, p. 135. On the Semnopithecus, S. Müller, 'Zoog. + Indischen Archipel.' tab. x. + + [362] Gervais, 'Hist. Nat. des Mammifères,' 1854, p, 103. + Figures are given of the skull of the male. Desmarest, + 'Mammalogie,' p. 70. Geoffroy St.-Hilaire and F. Cuvier, 'Hist. + Nat. des Mamm.' 1824, tom. i. + + [363] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under + Domestication,' 1868, vol. ii. p. 102, 103. + + [364] 'Essays and Observations by J. Hunter,' edited by Owen, + 1861, vol. i. p. 194. + + [365] Sir S. Baker, 'The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia,' 1867. + + [366] _Fiber zibethicus_, Audubon and Bachman, 'The Quadrupeds + of N. America,' 1846, p. 109. + + [367] 'Novæ species Quadrupedum e Glirium ordine,' 1778, p. 7. + What I have called the roe is the _Capreolus Sibiricus + subecaudatus_ of Pallas. + + [368] See the fine plates in A. Smith's 'Zoology of S. Africa,' + and Dr. Gray's 'Gleanings from the Menagerie of Knowsley.' + + [369] 'Westminster Review,' July 1, 1867, p. 5. + + [370] 'Travels in South Africa,' 1824, vol. ii. p. 315. + + [371] Dr. Gray, 'Gleanings from the Menagerie of Knowsley,' p. + 64. Mr. Blyth, in speaking ('Land and Water,' 1869, p. 42) of + the hog-deer of Ceylon, says it is more brightly spotted with + white than the common hog-deer, at the season when it renews + its horns. + + [372] Falconer and Cautley, 'Proc. Geolog. Soc.' 1843; and + Falconer's 'Pal. Memoirs,' vol. i. p. 196. + + [373] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under + Domestication,' 1868, vol. i. p. 61-64. + + [374] 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1862, p. 164. See, also, Dr. Hartmann, + 'Ann. d. Landw.' Bd. xliii. s. 222. + + [375] I observed this fact in the Zoological Gardens; and + numerous cases may be seen in the coloured plates in Geoffroy + St.-Hilaire and F. Cuvier, 'Hist. Nat. des Mammifères,' tom. i. + 1824. + + [376] Bates, 'The Naturalist on the Amazons,' 1863, vol. ii. p. + 310. + + [377] I have seen most of the above-named monkeys in the + Zoological Society's Gardens. The description of the + _Semnopithecus nemæus_ is taken from Mr. W. C. Martin's 'Nat. + Hist. of Mammalia,' 1841, p. 460; see also p. 475, 523. + + [378] Schaaffhausen, translation in 'Anthropological Review,' + Oct. 1868, p. 419, 420, 427. + + [379] Ecker, translation in 'Anthropological Review,' Oct. + 1868, p. 351-356. The comparison of the form of the skull in + men and women has been followed out with much care by Welcker. + + [380] Ecker and Welcker, ibid. p. 352, 355; Vogt, 'Lectures on + Man,' Eng. translat. p. 81. + + [381] Schaaffhausen, 'Anthropolog. Review,' ibid. p. 429. + + [382] Pruner-Bey, on negro infants, as quoted by Vogt, + 'Lectures on Man,' Eng. translat. 1864, p. 189: for further + facts on negro infants, as quoted from Winterbottom and Camper, + see Lawrence, 'Lectures on Physiology,' &c. 1822, p. 451. For + the infants of the Guaranys, see Rengger, 'Säugethiere,' &c. s. + 3. See also Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' tom. ii. 1859, p. 253. For + the Australians, Waitz, 'Introduct. to Anthropology,' Eng. + translat. 1863, p. 99. + + [383] Rengger, 'Säugethiere,' &c. 1830, s. 49. + + [384] As in _Macacus cynomolgus_ (Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' p. + 65) and in _Hylobates agilis_ (Geoffroy St.-Hilaire and F. + Cuvier, 'Hist. Nat. des Mamm.' 1824, tom. i. p. 2). + + [385] 'Anthropological Review,' Oct. 1868, p. 353. + + [386] Mr. Blyth informs me that he has never seen more than one + instance of the beard, whiskers, &c., in a monkey becoming + white with old age, as is so commonly the case with us. This, + however, occurred in an aged and confined _Macacus cynomolgus_, + whose moustaches were "remarkably long and human-like." + Altogether this old monkey presented a ludicrous resemblance to + one of the reigning monarchs of Europe, after whom he was + universally nick-named. In certain races of man the hair on the + head hardly ever becomes grey; thus Mr. D. Forbes has never + seen, as he informs me, an instance with the Aymaras and + Quechuas of S. America. + + [387] This is the case with the females of several species of + Hylobates, see Geoffroy St.-Hilaire and F. Cuvier, 'Hist. Nat. + des Mamm.' tom. i. See, also, on _H. lar_. 'Penny + Encyclopedia,' vol. ii. p. 149, 150. + + [388] The results were deduced by Dr. Weisbach from the + measurements made by Drs. K. Scherzer and Schwarz, see 'Reise + der _Novara_: Anthropolog. Theil,' 1867, s. 216, 231, 234, 236, + 239, 269. + + [389] 'Voyage to St. Kilda' (3rd edit. 1753) p. 37. + + [390] Sir J. E. Tennent, 'Ceylon,' vol. ii. 1859, p. 107. + + [391] Quatrefages, 'Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' Aug. 29, + 1868, p. 630; Vogt, 'Lectures on Man,' Eng. translat. p. 127. + + [392] On the beards of negroes, Vogt, 'Lectures,' &c. ibid. p. + 127; Waitz, 'Introduct. to Anthropology,' Engl. translat. 1863, + vol. i. p. 96. It is remarkable that in the United States + ('Investigations in Military and Anthropological Statistics of + American Soldiers,' 1869, p. 569) the pure negroes and their + crossed offspring seem to have bodies almost as hairy as those + of Europeans. + + [393] Wallace, 'The Malay Arch.' vol. ii. 1869, p. 178. + + [394] Dr. J. Barnard Davis on Oceanic Races, in 'Anthropolog. + Review,' April, 1870, p. 185, 191. + + [395] Catlin, 'North American Indians,' 3rd edit. 1842, vol. + ii. p. 227. On the Guaranys, see Azara, 'Voyages dans + l'Amérique Mérid.' tom. ii. 1809, p. 58; also Rengger, + 'Säugethiere von Paraguay,' s. 3. + + [396] Prof. and Mrs. Agassiz ('Journey in Brazil,' p. 530) + remark that the sexes of the American Indians differ less than + those of the negroes and of the higher races. See also Rengger, + ibid. p. 3, on the Guaranys. + + [397] Rütimeyer, 'Die Grenzen der Thierwelt; eine Betrachtung + zu Darwin's Lehre,' 1868, s. 54. + + [398] 'A Journey from Prince of Wales Fort,' 8vo. edit. Dublin, + 1796, p. 104. Sir J. Lubbock ('Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, + p. 69) gives other and similar cases in North America. For the + Guanas of S. America see Azara, 'Voyages,' &c. tom. ii. p. 94. + + [399] On the fighting of the male gorillas, see Dr. Savage, in + 'Boston Journal of Nat. Hist.' vol. v. 1847, p. 423. On + _Presbytis entellus_, see the 'Indian Field,' 1859, p. 146. + + [400] J. Stuart Mill remarks ('The Subjection of Women,' 1869, + p. 122), "the things in which man most excels woman are those + which require most plodding, and long hammering at single + thoughts." What is this but energy and perseverance? + + [401] An observation by Vogt bears on this subject: he says, it + is a "remarkable circumstance, that the difference between the + sexes, as regards the cranial cavity, increases with the + development of the race, so that the male European excels much + more the female, than the negro the negress. Welcker confirms + this statement of Huschke from his measurements of negro and + German skulls." But Vogt admits ('Lectures on Man,' Eng. + translat. 1864, p. 81) that more observations are requisite on + this point. + + [402] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 603. + + [403] 'Journal of the Anthropolog. Soc.' April, 1869, p. lvii. + and lxvi. + + [404] Dr. Scudder, "Notes on Stridulation," in 'Proc. Boston + Soc. of Nat. Hist.' vol. xi. April, 1868. + + [405] Given in W. C. L. Martin's 'General Introduct. to Nat. + Hist. of Mamm. Animals,' 1841, p. 432; Owen, 'Anatomy of + Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 600. + + [406] Helmholtz, 'Théorie Phys. de la Musique,' 1868, p. 187. + + [407] Mr. R. Brown, in 'Proc. Zoo. Soc.' 1868, p. 410. + + [408] 'Journal of Anthropolog. Soc.' Oct. 1870, p. clv. See + also the several later chapters in Sir John Lubbock's + 'Prehistoric Times,' second edition, 1869, which contain an + admirable account of the habits of savages. + + [409] Since this chapter has been printed I have seen a + valuable article by Mr. Chauncey Wright ('North Amer. Review,' + Oct. 1870, page 293), who, in discussing the above subject, + remarks, "There are many consequences of the ultimate laws or + uniformities of nature through which the acquisition of one + useful power will bring with it many resulting advantages as + well as limiting disadvantages, actual or possible, which the + principle of utility may not have comprehended in its action." + This principle has an important bearing, as I have attempted to + shew in the second chapter of this work, on the acquisition by + man of some of his mental characteristics. + + [410] See the very interesting discussion on the Origin and + Function of Music, by Mr. Herbert Spencer, in his collected + 'Essays,' 1858, p. 359. Mr. Spencer comes to an exactly + opposite conclusion to that at which I have arrived. He + concludes that the cadences used in emotional speech afford the + foundation from which music has been developed; whilst I + conclude that musical notes and rhythm were first acquired by + the male or female progenitors of mankind for the sake of + charming the opposite sex. Thus musical tones became firmly + associated with some of the strongest passions an animal is + capable of feeling, and are consequently used instinctively, or + through association, when strong emotions are expressed in + speech. Mr. Spencer does not offer any satisfactory + explanation, nor can I, why high or deep notes should be + expressive, both with man and the lower animals, of certain + emotions. Mr. Spencer gives also an interesting discussion on + the relations between poetry, recitative, and song. + + [411] Rengger, 'Säugethiere von Paraguay,' s. 49. + + [412] See an interesting discussion on this subject by Häckel, + 'Generelle Morph.' B. ii. 1866, s. 246. + + [413] A full and excellent account of the manner in which + savages in all parts of the world ornament themselves is given + by the Italian traveller, Prof. Mantegazza, 'Rio de la Plata, + Viaggi e Studi,' 1867, p. 525-545; all the following + statements, when other references are not given, are taken from + this work. See, also, Waitz, 'Introduct. to Anthropolog.' Eng. + transl. vol. i. 1863, p. 275, _et passim_. Lawrence also gives + very full details in his 'Lectures on Physiology,' 1822. Since + this chapter was written Sir J. Lubbock has published his + 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, in which there is an + interesting chapter on the present subject, and from which (p. + 42, 48) I have taken some facts about savages dyeing their + teeth and hair, and piercing their teeth. + + [414] Humboldt, 'Personal Narrative,' Eng. translat. vol. iv. + p. 515; on the imagination shewn in painting the body, p. 522; + on modifying the form of the calf of the leg, p. 466. + + [415] 'The Nile Tributaries,' 1867; 'The Albert N'yanza,' 1866, + vol. i. p. 218. + + [416] Quoted by Prichard, 'Phys. Hist. of Mankind,' 4th. edit. + vol. i. 1851, p. 321. + + [417] On the Papuans, Wallace, 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. + ii. p. 445. On the coiffure of the Africans, Sir S. Baker, 'The + Albert N'yanza,' vol. i. p. 210. + + [418] 'Travels', p. 533. + + [419] 'The Albert N'yanza,' 1866, vol. i. p. 217. + + [420] Livingstone, 'British Association,' 1860; report given in + the 'Athenæum,' July 7, 1860, p. 29. + + [421] Sir S. Baker (ibid. vol. i. p. 210) speaking of the + natives of Central Africa says, "every tribe has a distinct and + unchanging fashion for dressing the hair." See Agassiz + ('Journey in Brazil,' 1868, p. 318) on the invariability of the + tattooing of the Amazonian Indians. + + [422] Rev. R. Taylor, 'New Zealand and its Inhabitants,' 1855, + p. 152. + + [423] Mantegazza, 'Viaggi e Studi,' p. 542. + + [424] 'Travels in S. Africa,' 1824; vol. i. p. 414. + + [425] See, for references, 'Gerland über das Aussterben der + Naturvölker,' 1868, s. 51, 53, 55; also Azara, 'Voyages,' &c. + tom. ii. p. 116. + + [426] On the vegetable productions used by the North-Western + American Indians, 'Pharmaceutical Journal,' vol. x. + + [427] 'A Journey from Prince of Wales Fort,' 8vo. edit. 1796, + p. 89. + + [428] Quoted by Prichard, 'Phys. Hist. of Mankind,' 3rd edit. + vol. iv. 1844, p. 519; Vogt, 'Lectures on Man,' Eng. translat. + p. 129. On the opinion of the Chinese on the Cingalese, E. + Tennent, 'Ceylon,' vol. ii. 1859, p. 107. + + [429] Prichard, as taken from Crawfurd and Finlayson, 'Phys. + Hist. of Mankind,' vol. iv. p. 534, 535. + + [430] "Idem illustrissimus viator dixit mihi præcinctorium vel + tabula fæminæ, quod nobis teterrimum est, quondam permagno + æstimari ab hominibus in hac gente. Nunc res mutata est, et + censet talem conformationem minime optandam est." + + [431] 'The Anthropological Review,' November, 1864, p. 237. For + additional references, see Waitz, 'Introduct. to Anthropology,' + Eng. translat. 1863, vol. i. p. 105. + + [432] 'Mungo Park's Travels in Africa,' 4to. 1816, p. 53, 131. + Burton's statement is quoted by Schaaffhausen, 'Archiv für + Anthropolog.' 1866, s. 163. On the Banyai, Livingstone, + 'Travels,' p. 64. On the Kafirs, the Rev. J. Shooter, 'The + Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country,' 1857 p. 1. + + [433] For the Javanese and Cochin-Chinese, see Waitz, + 'Introduct. to Anthropology,' Eng. translat. vol. i. p. 305. On + the Yura-caras, A. d'Orligny, as quoted in Prichard, 'Phys. + Hist. of Mankind,' vol. v. 3rd edit. p. 476. + + [434] 'North American Indians,' by G. Catlin, 3rd edit. 1842, + vol. i. p. 49; vol. ii. p. 227. On the natives of Vancouver + Island, see Sproat, 'Scenes and Studies of Savage Life,' 1868, + p. 25. On the Indians of Paraguay, Azara, 'Voyages,' tom. ii. + p. 105. + + [435] On the Siamese, Prichard, ibid. vol. iv. p. 533. On the + Japanese, Veitch in 'Gardeners' Chronicle,' 1860, p. 1104. On + the New Zealanders Mantegazza, 'Viaggi e Studi,' 1867, p. 526. + For the other nations mentioned, see references in Lawrence, + 'Lectures on Physiology,' &c. 1822, p. 272. + + [436] Lubbock, 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, p. 321. + + [437] Dr. Barnard Davis quotes Mr. Pritchard and others for + these facts in regard to the Polynesians, in 'Anthropological + Review,' April, 1870, p. 185, 191. + + [438] Ch. Comte has remarks to this effect in his 'Traité de + Législation,' 3rd edit. 1837, p. 136. + + [439] The Fuegians, as I have been informed by a missionary who + long resided with them, consider European women as extremely + beautiful; but from what we have seen of the judgment of the + other aborigines of America, I cannot but think that this must + be a mistake, unless indeed the statement refers to the few + Fuegians who have lived for some time with Europeans, and who + must consider us as superior beings. I should add that a most + experienced observer, Capt. Burton, believes that a woman whom + we consider beautiful is admired throughout the world, + 'Anthropological Review,' March, 1864, p. 245. + + [440] 'Personal Narrative,' Eng. translat. vol. iv. p. 518, and + elsewhere. Mantegazza, in his 'Viaggi e Studi,' 1867, strongly + insists on this same principle. + + [441] On the skulls of the American tribes, see Nott and + Gliddon, 'Types of Mankind,' 1854, p. 440; Prichard, 'Phys. + Hist. of Mankind,' vol. i. 3rd edit. p. 321; on the natives of + Arakhan, ibid. vol. iv. p. 537. Wilson, 'Physical Ethnology,' + Smithsonian Institution, 1863, p. 288; on the Fijians, p. 290. + Sir J. Lubbock ('Prehistoric Times,' 2nd edit. 1869, p. 506) + gives an excellent résumé on this subject. + + [442] On the Huns, Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' tom. ii. 1859, p. + 300. On the Tahitians, Waitz, 'Anthropolog.' Eng. translat. + vol. i. p. 305. Marsden, quoted by Prichard, 'Phys. Hist. of + Mankind,' 3rd edit. vol. v. p. 67. Lawrence, 'Lectures on + Physiology,' p. 337. + + [443] This fact was ascertained in the 'Reise der _Novara_: + Anthropolog. Theil,' Dr. Weisbach, 1867, s. 265. + + [444] 'Smithsonian Institution, 1863, p. 289. On the fashions + of Arab women, Sir S. Baker, 'The Nile Tributaries,' 1867, p. + 121. + + [445] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under + Domestication,' vol. i. p. 214; vol. ii. p. 240. + + [446] Schaaffhausen, 'Archiv für Anthropologie,' 1866, s. 164. + + [447] Mr. Bain has collected ('Mental and Moral Science,' 1868, + p. 304-314) about a dozen more or less different theories of + the idea of beauty; but none are quite the same with that here + given. + + [448] These quotations are taken from Lawrence ('Lectures on + Physiology,' &c. 1822, p. 393), who attributes the beauty of + the upper classes in England to the men having long selected + the more beautiful women. + + [449] "Anthropologie," 'Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' Oct. + 1868, p. 721. + + [450] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under + Domestication,' vol. i. p. 207. + + [451] Sir J. Lubbock, 'The Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, chap. + iii. especially p. 60-67. Mr. M'Lennan, in his extremely + valuable work on 'Primitive Marriage,' 1865, p. 163, speaks of + the union of the sexes "in the earliest times as loose, + transitory, and in some degree promiscuous." Mr. M'Lennan and + Sir J. Lubbock have collected much evidence on the extreme + licentiousness of savages at the present time. Mr. L. H. + Morgan, in his interesting memoir on the classificatory system + of relationship ('Proc. American Acad. of Sciences,' vol. vii. + Feb. 1868, p. 475) concludes that polygamy and all forms of + marriage during primeval times were essentially unknown. It + appears, also, from Sir J. Lubbock's work, that Bachofen + likewise believes that communal intercourse originally + prevailed. + + [452] Address to British Association 'On the Social and + Religious Condition of the Lower Races of Man,' 1870, p. 20. + + [453] 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, p. 86. In the several + works above quoted there will be found copious evidence on + relationship through the females alone, or with the tribe + alone. + + [454] Brehm ('Illust. Thierleben,' B. i. p. 77) says + _Cynocephalus hamadryas_ lives in great troops containing twice + as many adult females as adult males. See Rengger on American + polygamous species, and Owen ('Anat. of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. + p. 746) on American monogamous species. Other references might + be added. + + [455] Dr. Savage, in 'Boston Journal of Nat. Hist.' vol. v. + 1845-47, p. 423. + + [456] 'Prehistoric Times,' 1869, p. 424. + + [457] Mr. M'Lennan, 'Primitive Marriage,' 1865. See especially + on exogamy and infanticide, p. 130, 138, 165. + + [458] Dr. Gerland ('Ueber das Aussterben der Naturvölker,' + 1868) has collected much information on infanticide, see + especially s. 27, 51, 54. Azara ('Voyages,' &c. tom. ii. p. 94, + 116) enters in detail on the motives. See also M'Lennan (ibid. + p. 139) for cases in India. + + [459] 'Primitive Marriage,' p. 208; Sir J. Lubbock, 'Origin of + Civilisation,' p. 100. See also Mr. Morgan, loc. cit., on + former prevalence of polyandry. + + [460] 'Voyages,' &c. tom. ii. p. 92-95. + + [461] Burchell says ('Travels in S. Africa, vol. ii. 1824, p. + 58), that among the wild nations of Southern Africa, neither + men nor women ever pass their lives in a state of celibacy. + Azara ('Voyages dans l'Amérique Mérid.' tom. ii. 1809, p. 21) + makes precisely the same remark in regard to the wild Indians + of South America. + + [462] 'Anthropological Review,' Jan. 1870, p. xvi. + + [463] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under + Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 210-217. + + [464] An ingenious writer argues, from a comparison of the + pictures of Raphael, Rubens, and modern French artists, that + the idea of beauty is not absolutely the same even throughout + Europe: see the 'Lives of Haydn and Mozart,' by M. Bombet, + English translat. p. 278. + + [465] Azara, 'Voyages,' &c. tom. ii. p. 23. Dobrizhoffer, 'An + Account of the Abipones,' vol. ii. 1822, p. 207. Williams on + the Fiji Islanders, as quoted by Lubbock, 'Origin of + Civilisation,' 1870, p. 79. On the Fuegians, King and Fitzroy, + 'Voyages of the _Adventure_ and _Beagle_,' vol. ii. 1839, p. + 182. On the Kalmucks, quoted by M'Lennan, 'Primitive Marriage,' + 1865, p. 32. On the Malays, Lubbock, ibid. p. 76. The Rev. J. + Shooter, 'On the Kafirs of Natal,' 1857, p. 52-60. On the + Bushwomen, Burchell, 'Travels in S. Africa,' vol. ii. 1824, p. + 59. + + [466] 'Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection,' 1870, + p. 346. Mr. Wallace believes (p. 350) "that some intelligent + power has guided or determined the development of man;" and he + considers the hairless condition of the skin as coming under + this head. The Rev. T. R. Stebbing, in commenting on this view + ('Transactions of Devonshire Assoc. for Science,' 1870) + remarks, that had Mr. Wallace "employed his usual ingenuity on + the question of man's hairless skin, he might have seen the + possibility of its selection through its superior beauty or the + health attaching to superior cleanliness. At any rate it is + surprising that he should picture to himself a superior + intelligence plucking the hair from the backs of savage men (to + whom, according to his own account it would have been useful + and beneficial), in order that the descendants of the poor + shorn wretches might after many deaths from cold and damp in + the course of many generations," have been forced to raise + themselves in the scale of civilisation through the practice of + various arts, in the manner indicated by Mr. Wallace. + + [467] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under + Domestication,' vol. ii. 1868, p. 327. + + [468] 'Investigations into Military and Anthropological + Statistics of American Soldiers,' by B. A. Gould, 1869; p. + 568:--Observations were carefully made on the pilosity of 2129 + black and coloured soldiers, whilst they were bathing; and by + looking to the published table, "it is manifest at a glance + that there is but little, if any, difference between the white + and the black races in this respect." It is, however, certain + that negroes in their native and much hotter land of Africa, + have remarkably smooth bodies. It should be particularly + observed, that pure blacks and mulattoes were included in the + above enumeration; and this is an unfortunate circumstance, as + in accordance with the principle, the truth of which I have + elsewhere proved, crossed races would be eminently liable to + revert to the primordial hairy character of their early + ape-like progenitors. + + [469] "Ueber die Richtung der Haare am Menschlichen Körper," in + Müller's 'Archiv für Anat. und Phys.' 1837, s. 40. + + [470] Mr. Sproat ('Scenes and Studies of Savage Life,' 1868, p. + 25) suggests, with reference to the beardless natives of + Vancouver's Island, that the custom of plucking out the hairs + on the face, "continued from one generation to another, would + perhaps at last produce a race distinguishable by a thin and + straggling growth of beard." But the custom would not have + arisen until the beard had already become, from some + independent cause, greatly reduced. Nor have we any direct + evidence that the continued eradication of the hair would lead + to any inherited effect. Owing to this cause of doubt, I have + not hitherto alluded to the belief held by some distinguished + ethnologists, for instance M. Gosse of Geneva, that artificial + modifications of the skull tend to be inherited. I have no wish + to dispute this conclusion; and we now know from Dr. + Brown-Séquard's remarkable observations, especially those + recently communicated (1870) to the British Association, that + with guinea-pigs the effects of operations are inherited. + + [471] 'Ueber die Richtung,' ibid. s. 40. + + [472] On the "Limits of Natural Selection," in the 'North + American Review,' Oct. 1870, p. 295. + + [473] The Rev. J. A. Picton gives a discussion to this effect + in his 'New Theories and the Old Faith,' 1870. + + + + + INDEX. + + + A. + + ABBOTT, C., on the battles of seals, ii. 240. + + ABDUCTOR of the fifth metatarsal, presence of, in man, i. 128. + + ABERCROMBIE, Dr., on disease of the brain affecting speech, i. 58. + + ABIPONES, marriage-customs of the, ii. 373. + + ABOU-SIMBEL, caves of, i. 217. + + ABORTION, prevalence of the practice of, i. 134. + + ABSTRACTION, i. 62. + + _Acalles_, stridulation of, i. 384. + + _Acanthodactylus capensis_, sexual differences of colour in, ii. 36. + + _Accentor modularis_, ii. 198. + + ACCLIMATISATION, difference of, in different races of men, i. 216. + + _Achetidæ_, stridulation of the, i. 352, 353, 355; + rudimentary stridulating organs in female, i. 359. + + _Acilius sulcatus_, elytra of the female, i. 343. + + _Acomus_, development of spurs in the female of, ii. 162. + + _Acridiidæ_, stridulation of the, i. 352, 356; + rudimentary stridulating organs in female, i. 359. + + ACTING, i. 232. + + _Actiniæ_, bright colours of, i. 322. + + ADMIRAL butterfly, i. 392. + + ADOPTION of the young of other animals by female monkeys, i. 41. + + ADVANCEMENT in the organic scale, Von Baer's definition of, i. 211. + + AEBY, on the difference between the skulls of man and the quadrumana, + i. 190. + + ÆSTHETIC faculty, not highly developed in savages, i. 64. + + AFFECTION, maternal, i. 40; + manifestation of, by animals, i. 40; + parental and filial, partly the result of natural selection, i. 81; + shown by birds in confinement, for certain persons, ii. 110; + mutual, of birds, ii. 108. + + AFRICA, probably the birthplace of man, i. 199; + South, crossed population of, i. 225; + South, retention of colour by the Dutch in, i. 242; + South, proportion of the sexes in the butterflies of, i. 310; + tattooing practised in, ii. 339; + Northern, coiffure of natives of, ii. 340. + + AGASSIZ, L., on conscience in dogs, i. 78; + on the coincidence of the races of man with zoological provinces, + i. 218; + on the number of species of man, i. 226; + on the courtship of the land-snails, i. 324; + on the brightness of the colours of male fishes during the breeding + season, ii. 13; + on the frontal protuberance of the males of _Geophagus_ and + _Cichla_, ii. 13, 20; + on the slight sexual differences of the South Americans, ii. 323; + on the tattooing of the Amazonian Indians, ii. 342. + + AGE, in relation to the transmission of characters in birds, ii. 183; + variation in accordance with, in birds, ii. 213. + + _Agelæus phoeniceus_, ii. 116. + + _Ageronia feronia_, noise produced by, i. 387. + + _Agrion_, dimorphism in, i. 363. + + _Agrion Ramburii_, sexes of, i. 362. + + AGRIONIDÆ, difference in the sexes of, i. 362. + + _Agrotis exclamationis_, i. 369. + + AGUE, tertian, dog suffering from, i. 13. + + _Aïthurus polytmus_, young of, ii. 220. + + AINOS, hairiness of the, ii. 321. + + _Alca torda_, young of, ii. 217. + + _Alces palmata_, ii. 259. + + ALDER and Hancock, MM., on the nudibranch mollusca, i. 326. + + ALGEN, Mr., on the stridulation of _Scolytus_, i. 379. + + ALLEN, J. A., on the relative size of the sexes of _Callorhinus + ursinus_, ii. 260; + on the mane of _Otaria jubata_, ii. 267; + on the pairing of seals, ii. 279; + on sexual differences in the colour of bats, ii. 286. + + ALLEN, S., on the habits of _Hoplopterus_, ii. 48; + on the plumes of herons, ii. 82; + on the vernal moult of _Herodias bubulcus_, ii. 84. + + ALLIGATOR, courtship of the male, i. 272, ii. 29; + roaring of the male, i. 331. + + AMADAVAT, pugnacity of male, ii. 49. + + _Amadina Lathami_, display of plumage by the male, ii. 95. + + _Amadina castanotis_, display of plumage by the male, ii. 95. + + AMAZONS, butterflies of the, i. 309; + fishes of the, ii. 17. + + AMERICA, variation in the skulls of aborigines of, i. 108; + wide range of aborigines of, i. 218; + lice of the natives of, i. 220; + general beardlessness of the natives of, ii. 322. + + AMERICA, North, butterflies of, i. 309; + Indians of, women a cause of strife among the, ii. 324; + Indians of, their notions of female beauty, ii. 344, 347. + + AMERICA, South, character of the natives of, i. 216; + population of parts of, i. 225; + piles of stones in, i. 233; + extinction of the fossil horse of, i. 239; + desert-birds of, ii. 224; + slight sexual difference of the aborigines of, ii. 323; + prevalence of infanticide in, ii. 361. + + AMERICAN languages, often highly artificial, i. 112. + + AMERICANS, wide geographical range of, i. 112; + and negroes, difference of, i. 247; + aversion of, to hair on the face, ii. 348; + native, variability of, i. 226. + + _Ammophila_, on the jaws of, i. 342. + + _Ammotragus tragelaphus_, hairy forelegs of, ii. 282, 285. + + AMPHIBIA, affinity of, to the ganoid fishes, i. 204; + vocal organs of the, ii. 331. + + AMPHIBIANS, i. 213, ii. 24; + breeding whilst immature, ii. 215. + + _Amphioxus_, i. 204. + + AMPHIPODA, males sexually mature while young, ii. 215. + + AMUNOPH III., negro character of features of, i. 217. + + ANAL appendages of insects, i. 342. + + ANALOGOUS variation in the plumage of birds, ii. 74. + + _Anas_, ii. 180. + + _Anas acuta_, male plumage of, ii. 84. + + _Anas boschas_, male plumage of, ii. 84. + + _Anas histrionica_, ii. 214. + + _Anastomus oscitans_, sexes and young of, ii. 217; + white nuptial plumage of, ii. 228. + + ANATIDÆ, voices of, ii. 60. + + _Anax junius_, difference in the sexes of, i. 362. + + ANGLO-SAXONS, estimation of the beard among the, ii. 349. + + ANIMALS, cruelty of savages to, i. 94; + domesticated, more fertile than wild, i. 132; + characters common to man and, i. 185; + domestic, change of breeds of, ii. 369. + + ANNELIDA, i. 327. + + ANNULOSA, i. 327. + + _Anolis cristatellus_, male, crest of, ii. 32; + pugnacity of the male, ii. 32; + throat-pouch of, ii. 33. + + _Anobium tessellatum_, sounds produced by, i. 384. + + _Anser canadensis_, ii. 116. + + _Anser cygnoides_, ii. 114; + knob at the base of the beak of, ii. 129. + + _Anser hyperboreus_, whiteness of, ii. 228. + + ANTELOPE, prong-horned, horns of, i. 289. + + ANTELOPES, generally polygamous, i. 267; + horns of, i. 289, ii. 245; + canine teeth of some male, ii. 241; + use of horns of, ii. 251; + dorsal crests in, ii. 282; + dewlaps of, ii. 284; + winter change of two species of, ii. 299; + peculiar markings of, ii. 299. + + ANTENNÆ, furnished with cushions in the male of _Penthe_, i. 343. + + _Anthidium manicatum_, large male of, i. 347. + + _Anthocharis cardamines_, i. 388, 393, 394; + sexual difference of colour in, i. 409. + + _Anthocharis genutia_, i. 393. + + _Anthocharis sara_, i. 393. + + _Anthophora acervorum_, large male of, i. 347. + + _Anthophora retusa_, difference of the sexes in, i. 366. + + _Anthus_, moulting of, ii. 83. + + ANTHROPIDÆ, i. 195. + + ANTIGUA, Dr. Nicholson's observations on yellow fever in, i. 245. + + ANTICS of birds, ii. 68. + + _Antilocapra americana_, horns of, i. 289, ii. 245. + + _Antilope bezoartica_, horned females of, ii. 246, 248; + sexual difference in the colour of, ii. 288. + + _Antilope Dorcas_ and _euchore_, ii. 245. + + _Antilope euchore_, horns of, ii. 251. + + _Antilope montana_, rudimentary canines in the young male of, ii. 258. + + _Antilope niger, sing-sing, caama_, and _gorgon_, sexual differences + in the colours of, ii. 289. + + _Antilope oreas_, horns of, i. 289. + + _Antilope saiga_, polygamous habits of, i. 267. + + _Antilope strepsiceros_, horns of, i. 289. + + _Antilope subgutturosa_, absence of suborbital pits in, ii. 280. + + ANTIPATHY, shown by birds in confinement, to certain persons, ii. 110. + + ANTS, i. 186; + playing together, i. 39; + memory in, i. 45; + intercommunication of, by means of the antennæ, i. 58; + large size of the cerebral ganglia in, i. 145; + soldier-, large jaws of, i. 155; + difference of the sexes in, i. 365; + recognition of each other by, after separation, i. 365. + + ANTS, White, habits of, i. 364. + + ANURA, ii. 25. + + _Apatania muliebris_, male unknown, i. 314. + + _Apathus_, difference of the sexes in, i. 366. + + _Apatura Iris_, i. 386, 388. + + APES, anthropomorphous, i. 196; + difference of the young, from the adult, i. 13; + building platforms, i. 53; + probable speedy extermination of the, i. 201; + Gratiolet on the evolution of, i. 230; + semi-erect attitude of some, i. 142; + mastoid processes of, i. 143; + influence of the jaw-muscles on the physiognomy of, i. 144; + female, destitute of large canines, i. 156; + imitative faculties of, i. 161; + canine teeth of male, ii. 241; + females of some, less hairy beneath than the males, ii. 377. + + APES, long-armed, their mode of progression, i. 143. + + _Apis mellifica_, large male of, i. 347. + + APOLLO, Greek statues of, ii. 350. + + APOPLEXY in _Cebus Azaræ_, i. 12. + + APPROBATION, influence of the love of, i. 86, 92, 164, 165. + + APPENDAGES, anal, of insects, i. 342. + + _Aprosmictus scapulatus_, ii. 174. + + AQUATIC birds, frequency of white plumage in, ii. 229. + + _Aquila chrysaëtos_, ii. 105. + + ARAB women, elaborate and peculiar coiffure of, ii. 353. + + ARABS, gashing of cheeks and temples among the, ii. 339. + + ARACHNIDA, i. 337. + + ARAKHAN, artificial widening of the forehead by the natives of, + ii. 351. + + _Arboricola_, young of, ii. 190. + + _Archeopteryx_, i. 204. + + ARCTIIDÆ, coloration of the, i. 396. + + _Ardea asha_, _rufescens_, and _cærulea_, change of colour in, + ii. 231, 232. + + _Ardea cærulea_, breeding in immature plumage, ii. 214. + + _Ardea gularis_, change of plumage in, ii. 232. + + _Ardea herodias_, love-gestures of the male, ii. 68. + + _Ardea ludoviciana_, age of mature plumage in, ii. 213; + continued growth of crest and plumes in the male of, ii. 216. + + _Ardea nycticorax_, cries of, ii. 51. + + _Ardeola_, young of, ii. 190. + + _Ardetta_, changes of plumage in, ii. 179. + + ARGENTEUIL, i. 29. + + ARGUS pheasant, ii. 72, 97, 181; + display of plumage by the male, ii. 91; + ocellated spots of the, ii. 134, 141; + gradation of characters in the, ii. 141. + + ARGYLL, Duke of, the fashioning of implements peculiar to man, + i. 52; + on the contest in man between right and wrong, i. 104; + on the physical weakness of man, i. 156; + on the primitive civilisation of man, i. 181; + on the plumage of the male Argus pheasant, ii. 91; + on _Urosticte Benjamini_, ii. 151; + on the nests of birds, ii. 167; + on variety as an object in nature, ii. 230. + + _Argynnis aglaia_, colouring of the lower surface of, i. 396. + + _Aricoris epitus_, sexual differences in the wings of, i. 345. + + ARISTOCRACY, increased beauty of the, ii. 356. + + ARMS, proportions of, in soldiers and sailors, i. 116; + direction of the hair on the, i. 192. + + ARMS and hands, free use of, indirectly correlated with diminution + of canines, i. 144. + + ARREST of development, i. 121, 122. + + ARROW-HEADS, stone, general resemblance of, i. 233. + + ARROWS, use of, i. 232. + + ARTERIES, variations in the course of the, i. 108. + + ARTERY, effect of tying, upon the lateral channels, i. 116. + + ARTHROPODA, i. 328. + + ARTS practised by savages, i. 234. + + ASCENSION, coloured incrustation on the rocks of, i. 326. + + ASCIDIA, affinity of the lancelet to, i. 205; + tadpole-like larvæ of, i. 205. + + ASCIDIANS, i. 324; + bright colours of some, i. 322. + + _Asinus_, Asiatic and African species of, ii. 306. + + _Asinus tæniopus_, ii. 306. + + ASS, colour-variations of the, ii. 305. + + _Ateles_, effects of brandy on an, i. 12; + absence of the thumb in, i. 140. + + _Ateles beelzebuth_, ears of, i. 23. + + _Ateles marginatus_, colour of the ruff of, ii. 291; + hair on the head of, ii. 109; + on the recognition of a dog by a turkey, ii. 110; + on the selection of a mate by female birds, ii. 307. + + _Ateuchus_, stridulation of, i. 384. + + _Ateuchus cicatricosus_, habits of, i. 376. + + _Athalia_, proportions of the sexes in, i. 314. + + ATTENTION, manifestations of, in animals, i. 44. + + AUDOUIN, V., on a hymenopterous parasite with a sedentary male, + i. 273. + + AUDUBON, J. J., on the pugnacity of male birds, ii. 43, 48; + on _Tetrao cupido_, ii. 50; + on _Ardea nycticorax_, ii. 51; + on _Sturnella ludoviciana_, ii. 51; + on the vocal organs of _Tetrao cupido_, ii. 56; + on the drumming of the male _Tetrao umbellus_, ii. 61; + on sounds produced by the nightjar, ii. 63; + on _Ardea herodias_ and _Cathartes jota_, ii. 68; + on the spring change of colour in some finches, ii. 86; + on _Mimus polyglottus_, ii. 116; + on the turkey, ii. 119, 121; + on variation in the male scarlet tanager, ii. 126; + on the habits of _Pyranga æstiva_, ii. 167; + on local differences in the nests of the same species of birds, + ii. 171; + on the habits of woodpeckers, ii. 175; + on _Bombycilla carolinensis_, ii. 180; + on young females of _Tanagra æstiva_ acquiring male characters, + ii. 180; + on the immature plumage of thrushes, ii. 185; + on the immature plumage of birds, ii. 186 _et seq._; + on birds breeding in immature plumage, ii. 214; + on the growth of the crest and plumes in the male _Ardea + ludoviciana_, ii. 216; + on the change of colour in some species of _Ardea_, ii. 231; + on the speculum of _Mergus cucullatus_, ii. 291; + on the musk-rat, ii. 298. + + AUDUBON and Bachman, MM., on squirrels fighting, ii. 239; + on the Canadian lynx, ii. 267. + + AUSTEN, N. L., on _Anolis cristatellus_, ii. 32, 33. + + AUSTRALIA, half-castes killed by the natives of, i. 220; + lice of the natives of, i. 220; + not the birthplace of man, i. 199; + prevalence of female infanticide in, ii. 364. + + AUSTRALIA, South, variation in the skulls of aborigines of, i. 108. + + AUSTRALIANS, colour of newborn children of, ii. 318; + relative height of the sexes of, ii. 320; + women a cause of war among the, ii. 323. + + AXIS deer, sexual difference in the colour of the, ii. 290. + + AYMARAS, measurements of the, i. 119; + no grey hair among the, ii. 320; + hairlessness of the face in the, ii. 322; + long hair of the, ii. 348. + + AZARA, on the proportion of men and women among the Guaranys, + i. 302; + on _Palamedea cornuta_, ii. 48; + on the beards of the Guaranys, ii. 322; + on strife for women among the Guanas, ii. 324; + on infanticide, ii. 344, 364; + on the eradication of the eyebrows and eyelashes by the Indians + of Paraguay, ii. 348; + on polyandry among the Guanas, ii. 366; + celibacy unknown among the savages of South America, ii. 367; + on the freedom of divorce among the Charruas, ii. 372. + + + B. + + BABBAGE, C., on the greater proportion of illegitimate female births, + i. 302. + + BABIRUSA, tusks of the, ii. 264. + + BABOON, employing a mat for shelter against the sun, i. 53; + manifestation of memory by a, i. 45; + protected from punishment by its companions, i. 78; + rage excited in, by reading, i. 42. + + BABOON, Cape, mane of the male, ii. 267; + Hamadryas, mane of the male, ii. 267. + + BABOONS, effects of intoxicating liquors on, i. 12; + ears of, i. 23; + manifestation of maternal affection by, i. 41; + using stones and sticks as weapons, i. 51; + co-operation of, i. 75; + silence of, on plundering expeditions, i. 79; + diversity of the mental faculties in, i. 110; + hands of, i. 139; + habits of, i. 141; + variability of the tail in, i. 150; + apparent polygamy of, i. 266; + polygamous and social habits of, ii. 362. + + BACHMAN, Dr., on the fertility of mulattoes, i. 221. + + BAER, K. E. von, on embryonic development, i. 14. + + BAGEHOT, W., on the social virtues among primitive men, i. 93; + on the value of obedience, i. 162; + on human progress, i. 166; + on the persistence of savage tribes in classical times, i. 239. + + BAILLY, E. M., on the fighting of stags, ii. 252; + on the mode of fighting of the Italian buffalo, ii. 250. + + BAIN, A., on the sense of duty, i. 71; + aid springing from sympathy, i. 77; + on the basis of sympathy, i. 82; + on love of approbation, &c., i. 86; + on the idea of beauty, ii. 354. + + BAIRD, W., on a difference in colour between the males and females + of some Entozoa, i. 321. + + BAKER, Mr., observation on the proportion of the sexes + in pheasant-chicks, i. 306. + + BAKER, Sir S., on the fondness of the Arabs for discordant music, + ii. 67; + on sexual difference in the colours of an antelope, ii. 289; + on the elephant and rhinoceros attacking white or grey horses, + ii. 295; + on the disfigurements practised by the negroes, ii. 296; + on the gashing of the cheeks and temples practised in Arab + countries, ii. 339; + on the coiffure of the North Africans, ii. 340; + on the perforation of the lower lip by the women of Latooka, + ii. 341; + on the distinctive characters of the coiffure of central African + tribes, ii. 342; + on the coiffure of Arab women, ii. 353. + + "BALZ" of the Black-cock, ii. 45, 100. + + BANTAM, Sebright, i. 259, 294. + + BANTENG, horns of, ii. 247; + sexual differences in the colours of the, ii. 289. + + BANYAI, colour of the, ii. 346. + + BARBARISM, primitive, of civilised nations, i. 181. + + BARBS, filamentous, of the feathers, in certain birds, ii. 74. + + BARR, Mr., on sexual preference in dogs, ii. 272. + + BARRINGTON, Daines, on the language of birds, i. 55; + on the clucking of the hen, ii. 51; + on the object of the song of birds, ii. 52; + on the singing of female birds, ii. 54; + on birds acquiring the songs of other birds, ii. 55; + on the muscles of the larynx in song-birds, ii. 55; + on the want of the power of song by female birds, ii. 163. + + BARROW, on the widow-bird, ii. 98. + + BARTLETT, A. D., on the tragopan, i. 270; + on the development of the spurs in _Crossoptilon auritum_, i. 290; + on the fighting of the males of _Plectropterus gambensis_, ii. 46; + on the knot, ii. 82; + on display in male birds, ii. 87; + on the display of plumage by the male _Polyplectron_, ii. 89; + on _Crossoptilon auritum_ and _Phasianus Wallichii_, ii. 93; + on the habits of _Lophophorus_, ii. 121; + on the colour of the mouth in _Buceros bicornis_, ii. 129; + on the incubation of the cassowary, ii. 204; + on the Cape Buffalo, ii. 250; + on the use of the horns of antelopes, ii. 251; + on the fighting of male wart-hogs, ii. 266; + on _Ammotragus tragelaphus_, ii. 282; + on the colours of _Cercopithecus cephus_, ii. 291; + on the colours of the faces of monkeys, ii. 310; + on the naked surfaces of monkeys, ii. 377. + + BARTRAM, on the courtship of the male alligator, ii. 29. + + BASQUE language, highly artificial, i. 61. + + BATE, C. S., on the superior activity of male crustacea, i. 272; + on the proportions of the sexes in crabs, i. 315; + on the chelæ of crustacea, i. 330; + on the relative size of the sexes in crustacea, i. 332; + on the colours of crustacea, i. 335. + + BATES, H. W., on variation in the form of the head of Amazonian + Indians, i. 111; + on the proportion of the sexes among Amazonian butterflies, i. 309; + on sexual differences in the wings of butterflies, i. 345; + on the field-cricket, i. 353; + on _Pyrodes pulcherrimus_, i. 367; + on the horns of Lamellicorn beetles, i. 370, 371; + on the colours of _Epicaliæ_, &c., i. 388; + on the coloration of tropical butterflies, i. 391; + on the variability of _Papilio Sesostris_ and _Childrenæ_, i. 402; + on male and female butterflies inhabiting different stations, + i. 403; + on mimickry, i. 411; + on the caterpillar of a _Sphinx_, i. 416; + on the vocal organs of the umbrella-bird, ii. 58; + on the toucans, ii. 227; + on _Brachyurus calvus_, ii. 309. + + BATOKAS, knocking out two upper incisors, ii. 340. + + BATRACHIA, ii. 25; + eagerness of male, i. 272. + + BATS, sexual differences in the colour of, ii. 286. + + BATTLE, law of, i. 182; + among beetles, i. 375; + among birds, ii. 40; + among mammals, ii. 239 _et seq._; + in man, ii. 323. + + BEAK, sexual difference in the forms of the, ii. 39; + in the colour of the, ii. 72. + + BEAKS, of birds, bright colours of, ii. 227. + + BEARD, development of, in man, ii. 317; + analogy of the, in man and the quadrumana, ii. 319; + variation of the development of the, in different races of men, + ii. 321; + estimation of, among bearded nations, ii. 349; + probable origin of the, ii. 379. + + BEARDS, in monkeys, i. 192; + of mammals, ii. 282. + + BEAUTIFUL, taste for the, in birds, ii. 108; + in the quadrumana, ii. 296. + + BEAUTY, sense of, in animals, i. 63; + appreciation of, by birds, ii. 111; + influence of, ii. 338, 343; + variability of the standard of, ii. 370. + + BEAVAN, Lieut., on the development of the horns in _Cervus Eldi_, + i. 288. + + BEAVER, instinct and intelligence of the, i. 37, 38; + voice of the, ii. 277; + castoreum of the, ii. 279. + + BEAVERS, battles of male, ii. 239. + + BECHSTEIN, on female birds choosing the best singers among the males, + ii. 52; + on rivalry in song-birds, ii. 53; + on the singing of female birds, ii. 54; + on birds acquiring the songs of other birds, ii. 55; + on pairing the canary and siskin, ii. 115; + on a sub-variety of the monk pigeon, ii. 132; + on spurred hens, ii. 162. + + BEDDOE, Dr., on causes of difference in stature, i. 115. + + BEE-EATER, ii. 56. + + BEES, i. 73; + destruction of drones and queens by, i. 82; + pollen-baskets and stings of, i. 155; + female, secondary sexual characters of, i. 254; + difference of the sexes in, i. 365. + + BEETLE, luminous larva of a, i. 345. + + BEETLES, i. 366; + size of the cerebral ganglia in, i. 145; + dilatation of the fore tarsi in male, i. 343; + blind, i. 367; + stridulation of, i. 378. + + BELGIUM, ancient inhabitants of, i. 237. + + BELL, Sir C, on emotional muscles in man, i. 5; + "snarling muscles," i. 127; + on the hand, i. 141. + + BELL, T., on the numerical proportion of the sexes in moles, i. 305; + on the newts, ii. 24; + on the croaking of the frog, ii. 27; + on the difference in the coloration of the sexes in _Zootoca + vivipara_, ii. 36; + on moles fighting, ii. 239. + + BELL-BIRD, sexual difference in the colour of the, ii. 79. + + BELL-BIRDS, colours of, ii. 228. + + BENEVOLENCE, manifested by birds, ii. 109. + + BENNETT, A. W., on the habits of _Dromoeus irroratus_, ii. 205. + + BENNETT, Dr., on birds of paradise, ii. 89. + + _Bernicla antarctica_, colours of, ii. 228. + + BERNICLE gander pairing with a Canada goose, ii. 114. + + BETTONI, E., on local differences in the nests of Italian birds, + ii, 171. + + BHOTEAS, colour of the beard in, ii. 319. + + _Bhringa_, disciform tail-feathers of, ii. 83. + + _Bibio_, sexual differences in the genus, i. 349. + + BICHAT, on beauty, ii. 354. + + BILE, coloured, in many animals, i. 323. + + BIMANA, i. 190. + + BIRDS, imitations of the songs of other birds by, i. 44; + dreaming, i. 46; + language of, i. 55; + sense of beauty in, i. 63; + pleasure of, in incubation, i. 79; + male, incubation by, i. 210; + and reptiles, alliance of, i. 213; + sexual differences in the beak of some, i. 255; + migratory, arrival of the male before the female, i. 259; + apparent relation between polygamy and marked sexual differences in, + i. 270; + monogamous, becoming polygamous under domestication, i. 270; + eagerness of male in pursuit of the female, i. 272; + wild, numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. 306; + secondary sexual characters of, ii. 38; + difference of size in the sexes of, ii. 43; + fights of male, witnessed by females, ii. 49; + display of male, to captivate the females, ii. 50; + close attention of, to the songs of others, ii. 52; + acquiring the song of their foster-parents, ii. 55; + brilliant, rarely good songsters, ii. 56; + love-antics and dances of, ii. 68; + coloration of, ii. 74 _et seqq._; + moulting of, ii. 80 _et seqq._; + unpaired, ii. 103; + male, singing out of season, ii. 106; + mutual affection of, ii. 108; + in confinement, distinguish persons, ii. 110; + hybrid, production of, ii. 113; + European, number of species of, ii. 124; + variability of, ii. 124; + gradation of secondary sexual characters in, ii. 135; + obscurely coloured, building concealed nests, ii. 169; + young female, acquiring male characters, ii. 180; + breeding in immature plumage, ii. 214; + moulting of, ii. 214; + aquatic, frequency of white plumage in, ii. 229; + vocal courtship of, ii. 331; + naked skin of the head and neck in, ii. 377. + + _Birgus latro_, habits of, i. 334. + + BIRKBECK, Mr. on the finding of new mates by Golden Eagles, ii. 105. + + BIRTHPLACE of man, i. 199. + + BIRTHS, numerical proportions of the sexes in, in animals and man, + i. 263, 265; + male and female, numerical proportion of, in England, i. 300. + + BISCHOFF, Prof., on the agreement between the brains of man and + of the Orang, i. 11; + figure of the embryo of the dog, i. 15; + on the convolutions of the brain in the human foetus, i. 16; + on the difference between the skulls of man and the quadrumana, + i. 190. + + BISHOP, J., on the vocal organs of frogs, ii. 28; + on the vocal organs of corvine birds, ii. 55; + on the trachea of the _Merganser_, ii. 60. + + BISON, American, mane of the male, ii. 267. + + BITTERNS, dwarf, coloration of the sexes of, ii. 179. + + _Biziura lobata_, musky odour of the male, ii. 38; + large size of male, ii. 43. + + BLACKBIRD, sexual differences in the, i. 268; + proportion of the sexes in the, i. 307; + acquisition of a song by a, ii. 55; + colour of the beak in the sexes of the, ii. 72, 227; + pairing with a thrush, ii. 113; + colours and nidification of the, ii. 170; + young of the, ii. 219; + sexual difference in coloration of the, ii. 226. + + BLACK-BUCK, Indian, sexual difference in the colour of the, ii. 288. + + BLACKCAP, arrival of the male, before the female, i. 259; + young of the, ii. 219. + + BLACK-COCK, polygamous, i. 269; + proportion of the sexes in the, i. 306; + pugnacity and love-dance of the, ii. 45; + call of the, ii. 60; + moulting of the, ii. 83; + duration of the courtship of the, ii. 100; + sexual difference in coloration of the, ii. 226; + crimson eye-cere of the, ii. 227; + and pheasant, hybrids of, ii. 113. + + BLACK-GROUSE, characters of young, ii. 185, 194. + + BLACKWALL, J., on the speaking of the magpie, i. 59; + on the desertion of their young by swallows, i. 84; + on the superior activity of male spiders, i. 272; + on the proportion of the sexes in spiders, i. 314; + on sexual variation of colour in spiders, i. 337; + on male spiders, i. 338. + + BLADDER-NOSE Seal, hood of the, ii. 278. + + BLAINE, on the affections of dogs, ii. 270. + + BLAIR, Dr., on the relative liability of Europeans to yellow fever, + i. 243. + + BLAKE, C. C., on the jaw from La Naulette, i. 126. + + BLAKISTON, Capt., on the American snipe, ii. 64; + on the dances of _Tetrao phasianellus_, ii. 69. + + BLASIUS, Dr., on the species of European birds, ii. 124. + + _Bledius taurus_, hornlike processes of male, i. 374. + + BLEEDING, tendency to profuse, i. 292. + + BLENKIRON, Mr., on sexual preference in horses, ii. 272. + + BLENNIES, crest developed on the head of male, during the breeding + season, ii. 12. + + _Blethisa multipunctata_, stridulation of, i. 379. + + BLOCH, on the proportions of the sexes in Fishes, i. 308. + + BLOOD, arterial, red colour of, i. 323. + + BLOOD-PHEASANT, number of spurs in, ii. 46. + + BLUEBREAST, red-throated, sexual differences of the, ii. 195. + + BLUMENBACH, on Man, i. 111; + on the large size of the nasal cavities in American aborigines, + i. 119; + on the position of man, i. 190; + on the number of species of man, i. 226. + + BLYTH, E., observations on Indian crows, i. 77; + on the structure of the hand in species of _Hylobates_, i. 140; + on the ascertainment of the sex of nestling bullfinches by pulling + out breast-feathers, ii. 24; + on the pugnacity of the males of _Gallinula cristata_, ii. 41; + on the presence of spurs in the female _Euplocamus erythropthalmus_, + ii. 46; + on the pugnacity of the amadavat, ii. 49; + on the spoonbill, ii. 60; + on the moulting of _Anthus_, ii. 83; + on the moulting of bustards, plovers, and _Gallus bankiva_, ii. 84; + on the Indian honey-buzzard, ii. 126; + on sexual differences in the colour or the eyes of hornbills, + ii. 129; + on _Oriolus melanocephalus_, ii. 178; + on _Palæornis javanicus_, ii. 179; + on the genus _Ardetta_, ii. 179; + on the peregrine falcon, ii. 180; + on young female birds acquiring male characters, ii. 180; + on the immature plumage of birds, ii. 185; + on representative species of birds, ii. 190; + on the young of _Turnix_, ii. 202; + on anomalous young of _Lanius rufus_ and _Colymbus glacialis_, + ii. 211; + on the sexes and young of the sparrows, ii. 212; + on dimorphism in some herons, ii. 214; + on orioles breeding in immature plumage, ii. 214; + on the sexes and young of _Buphus_ and _Anastomus_, ii. 217; + on the young of the blackcap and blackbird, ii. 219; + on the young of the stonechat, ii. 220; + on the white plumage of _Anastomus_, ii. 229; + on the horns of _Antilope bezoartica_, ii. 246; + on the horns of Bovine animals, ii. 247; + on the mode of fighting of _Ovis cycloceros_, ii. 249; + on the voice of the Gibbons, ii. 276; + on the crest of the male wild goat, ii. 282; + on the colours of _Portax picta_, ii. 287; + on the colours of _Antilope bezoartica_, ii. 288; + on the development of the horns in the Koodoo and Eland antelopes, + i. 289; + on the colour of the Axis deer, ii. 290; + on sexual difference of colour in _Hylobates hoolock_, ii. 291; + on the hog-deer, ii. 303; + on the beard and whiskers in a monkey becoming white with age, + ii. 319. + + BOAR, wild, polygamous in India, i. 267; + use of the tusks by the, ii. 256; + fighting of, ii. 263. + + BOITARD and Corbié, MM., on the transmission of sexual peculiarities + in pigeons, i. 283; + on the antipathy shown by some female pigeons to certain males, + ii. 118. + + BOLD, Mr., on the singing of a sterile hybrid canary, ii. 53. + + BOMBET, on the variability of the standard of beauty in Europe, + ii. 370. + + _Bombus_, difference of the sexes in, i. 366. + + BOMBYCIDÆ, coloration of, i. 394; + pairing of the, i. 401. + + _Bombycilla carolinensis_, red appendages of, ii. 179. + + _Bombyx cynthia_, i. 346; + proportion of the sexes in, i. 309, 313; + pairing of, i. 401. + + _Bombyx mori_, difference of size of the male and female cocoons of, + i. 346; + pairing of, i. 401. + + _Bombyx Pernyi_, proportion of sexes of, i. 313. + + _Bombyx Yamamai_, i. 346; + M. Personnat on, i. 310; + proportion of sexes of, i. 313. + + BONAPARTE, C. L., on the call-notes of the wild turkey, ii. 60. + + BOND, F., on the finding of new mates by crows, ii. 104. + + BONE, implements of, skill displayed in making, i. 138. + + BONER, C., on the transfer of male characters to an old female chamois, + ii. 245; + on the antlers of the red deer, ii. 252; + on the habits of stags, ii. 259; + on the pairing of red deer, ii. 269. + + BONES, increase of, in length and thickness, when carrying a greater + weight, i. 116. + + BONNET monkey, i. 192. + + BOOMERANG, i. 183. + + _Boreus hyemalis_, scarcity of the male, i. 314. + + BORY St. Vincent, on the number of species of man, i. 226; + on the colours of _Labrus pavo_, ii. 16. + + _Bos gaurus_, horns of, ii. 247. + + _Bos primigenius_, ii. 240. + + _Bos sondaicus_, horns of, ii. 247; + colours of, ii. 289. + + BOTOCUDOS, i. 181; + mode of life of, i. 247; + disfigurement of the ears and lower lip of the, ii. 341. + + BOUCHER de Perthes, J. C. de, on the antiquity of man, i. 3. + + BOURBON, proportion of the sexes in a species of _Papilio_ from, + i. 310. + + BOURIEN, on the marriage-customs of the savages of the Malay + Archipelago, ii. 373. + + BOVIDÆ, dewlaps of, ii. 284. + + BOWER-BIRDS, ii. 102; + habits of the, ii. 69; + ornamented playing-places of, i. 63, ii. 112. + + BOWS, use of, i. 232. + + BRACHIOPODA, i. 329. + + BRACHYCEPHALIC structure, possible explanation of, i. 148. + + _Brachyscelus_, second pair of antennæ in the male, i. 337. + + BRACHYURA, i. 332. + + _Brachyurus calvus_, scarlet face of, ii. 309. + + BRAIN, of man, agreement of the, with that of lower animals, i. 10; + convolutions of, in the human foetus, i. 16; + larger in some existing mammals than in their tertiary prototypes, + i. 51; + relation of the development of the, to the progress of language, + i. 57; + disease of the, affecting speech, i. 58; + influence of development of mental faculties upon the size of the, + i. 145; + influence of the development of, on the spinal column and skull, + i. 146; + difference in the convolutions of, in different races of men, + i. 216. + + BRAKENRIDGE, Dr., on the influence of climate, i. 115. + + BRAUBACH, Prof., on the quasi-religious feeling of a dog towards + his master, i. 68; + on the self-restraint of dogs, i. 78. + + BRAUER, F., on dimorphism in _Neurothemis_, i. 363. + + BRAZIL, skulls found in caves of, i. 218; + population of, i. 225; + compression of the nose by the natives of, ii. 352. + + BREAK between man and the apes, i. 200. + + BREAM, proportion of the sexes in the, i. 308. + + BREEDING, age of, in birds, ii. 214. + + BREEDING season, sexual characters making their appearance in the, + in birds, ii. 80. + + BREHM, on the effects of intoxicating liquors on monkeys, i. 12; + on the recognition of women by male _Cynocephali_, i. 13; + on revenge taken by monkeys, i. 40; + on manifestations of maternal affection by monkeys and baboons, + i. 41; + on the instinctive dread of monkeys for serpents, i. 42; + on a baboon using a mat for shelter from the sun, i. 53; + on the use of stones as missiles by baboons, i. 51; + on the signal-cries of monkeys, i. 57; + on sentinels posted by monkeys, i. 74; + on co-operation of animals, i. 75; + on an eagle attacking a young _Cercopithecus_, i. 76; + on baboons in confinement protecting one of their number from + punishment, i. 78; + on the habits of baboons when plundering, i. 79; + on the diversity of the mental faculties of monkeys, i. 110; + on the habits of baboons, i. 141; + on polygamy in _Cynocephalus_ and _Cebus_, i. 266; + on the numerical proportion of the sexes in birds, i. 306; + on the love-dance of the Black-cock, ii. 45; + on _Palamedea cornuta_, ii. 48; + on the habits of the Black-grouse, ii. 49; + on sound produced by Birds of Paradise, ii. 63; + on assemblages of grouse, ii. 101; + on the finding of new mates by birds, ii. 106; + on the fighting of wild boars, ii. 263; + on the habits of _Cynocephalus hamadryas_, ii. 362. + + BRENT, Mr., on the courtship of fowls, ii. 117. + + BRESLAU, numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. 301. + + BRIDGMAN, Laura, i. 57. + + BRIMSTONE butterfly, i. 393; + sexual difference of colour in the, i. 409. + + BRITISH, ancient, tattooing practised by, ii. 339. + + BROCA, Prof., on the occurrence of the supra-condyloid foramen in + the human humerus, i. 28; + on the capacity of Parisian skulls at different periods, i. 146; + on the influence of natural selection, i. 152; + on hybridity in man, i. 220; + on human remains from Les Eyzies, i. 237; + on the cause of the difference between Europeans and Hindoos, + i. 240. + + BRODIE, Sir B., on the origin of the moral sense in man, i. 71. + + BRONN, H. G., on the copulation of insects of distinct species, + i. 342. + + BRONZE period, men of, in Europe, i. 160. + + BROWN, R., sentinels of seals generally females, i. 74; + on the battles of seals, ii. 240; + on the narwhal, ii. 242; + on the occasional absence of the tusks in the female walrus, + ii. 242; + on the bladder-nose seal, ii. 278; + on the colours of the sexes in _Phoca groenlandica_, ii. 287; + on the appreciation of music by seals, ii. 333; + on plants used as love-philters, by North American women, ii. 344. + + BROWN-SÉQUARD, Dr., on the inheritance of the effects of operations + by guinea pigs, ii. 380. + + BRUCE, on the use of the elephant's tusks, ii. 249. + + BRULERIE, P. de la, on the habits of _Ateuchus cicatricosus_, i. 376; + on the stridulation of _Ateuchus_, i. 384. + + BRÜNNICH, on the pied ravens of the Feroe islands, ii. 126. + + BRYANT, Capt., on the courtship of _Callorhinus ursinus_, ii. 269. + + _Bubas bison_, thoracic projection of, i. 372. + + _Bucephalus capensis_, difference of the sexes of, in colour, ii. 29. + + _Buceros_, nidification and incubation of, ii. 169. + + _Buceros bicornis_, sexual differences in the colouring of the casque, + beak, and mouth in, ii. 129. + + _Buceros corrugatus_, sexual difference in the beak of, ii. 72. + + BÜCHNER, L., on the origin of man, i. 4; + on the want of self-consciousness, &c., in low savages, i. 62; + on the use of the human foot as a prehensile organ, i. 142; + on the mode of progression of the apes, i. 142. + + BUCKLAND, F., on the numerical proportion of the sexes in rats, + i. 305; + on the proportion of the sexes in the trout, i. 308; + on _Chimæra monstrosa_, ii. 12. + + BUCKLAND, W., on the complexity of crinoids, i. 61. + + BUCKLER, W., proportion of sexes of Lepidoptera reared by, i. 313. + + BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, numerical proportion of male and female births in, + i. 300. + + _Bucorax abyssinicus_, inflation of the neck-wattle of the male, + during courtship, ii. 72. + + _Budytes Raii_, i. 260. + + BUFFALO, Cape, ii. 250. + + BUFFALO, Indian, horns of the, ii. 247. + + BUFFALO, Italian, mode of fighting of the, ii. 250. + + BUFFON, on the number of species of man, i. 226. + + BUGS, i. 349. + + BUIST, R., on the proportion of the sexes in salmon, i. 308; + on the pugnacity of the male salmon, ii. 3. + + BULBUL, pugnacity of the male, ii. 41; + display of under tail-coverts by the male, ii. 96. + + BULL, mode of fighting of the, ii. 250; + curled frontal hair of the, ii. 282. + + BULLFINCH, sexual differences in the, i. 269; + piping, ii. 52; + female, singing of the, ii. 54; + courtship of the, ii. 94; + widowed, finding a new mate, ii. 105; + attacking a reed-bunting, ii. 111; + nestling, sex ascertained by pulling out breast-feathers, ii. 214. + + BULLFINCHES distinguishing persons, ii. 110; + rivalry of female, ii. 121. + + BULLS, two young, attacking an old one, i. 75; + wild, battles of, ii. 240. + + BULL-TROUT, male, colouring of, during the breeding season, ii. 14. + + BUNTING, reed, head feathers of the male, ii. 95; + attacked by a bullfinch, ii. 111. + + BUNTINGS, characters of young, ii. 184. + + _Buphus coromandus_, sexes and young of, ii. 217; + change of colour in, ii. 231, 232. + + BURCHELL, Dr., on the zebra, ii. 302; + on the extravagance of a Bushwoman in adorning herself, ii. 344; + celibacy unknown among the savages of South Africa, ii. 367; + on the marriage-customs of the Bushwomen, ii. 374. + + BURKE, on the number of species of man, i. 226. + + BURMESE, colour of the beard in, ii. 319. + + BURTON, Capt., on negro ideas of female beauty, ii. 346; + on a universal ideal of beauty, ii. 351. + + BUSHMEN, i. 157. + + BUSHWOMAN, extravagant ornamentation of a, ii. 344. + + BUSHWOMEN, hair of, i. 216; + marriage-customs of, ii. 374. + + BUSK, Prof. G., on the occurrence of the supra-condyloid foramen + in the human humerus, i. 28. + + BUSTARD, throat-pouch of the male, ii. 58; + humming noise produced by a male, ii. 65; + Indian, ear-tufts of a, ii. 73. + + BUSTARDS, occurrence of sexual differences and of polygamy among the, + i. 269; + love-gestures of the male, ii. 68; + double moult in, ii. 81, 83. + + BUTLER, A. G., on sexual differences in the wings of _Aricoris epitus_, + i. 345; + on the colouring of the sexes in species of _Thecla_, i. 389; + on the resemblance of _Iphias glaucippe_ to a leaf, i. 394; + on the rejection of certain moths and caterpillars by lizards and + frogs, i. 417. + + BUTTERFLY, noise produced by a, i. 387; + Emperor, i. 386, 388; + meadow brown, instability of the ocellated spots of, ii. 132. + + BUTTERFLIES, proportion of the sexes in, i. 309; + forelegs atrophied in some male, i. 344; + sexual difference in the neuration of the wings of, i. 345; + pugnacity of male, i. 386; + protective resemblances of the lower surface of, i. 392; + display of the wings by, i. 396; + white, alighting upon bits of paper, i. 400; + attracted by a dead specimen of the same species, i. 400; + courtship of, i. 400; + male and female, inhabiting different stations, i. 403. + + BUXTON, C., observations on macaws, i. 76; + on an instance of benevolence in a parrot, ii. 109. + + BUZZARD, Indian honey-, variation in the crest of, ii. 126. + + + C. + + CABBAGE butterflies, i. 393. + + CACHALOT, large head of the male, ii. 242. + + CADENCES, musical, perception of, by animals, ii. 333. + + CÆCUM, i. 27; + large, in the early progenitors of man, i. 206. + + _Cairina moschata_, pugnacity of the male, ii. 43. + + _Callianassa_, chelæ of, figured, i. 330. + + _Callionymus lyra_, characters of the male, ii. 7. + + _Callorhinus ursinus_, relative size of the sexes of, ii. 260; + courtship of, ii. 269. + + _Calotes nigrilabris_, sexual difference in the colour of, ii. 36. + + CAMBRIDGE, O. Pickard, on the sexes of spiders, i. 315. + + CAMEL, canine teeth of male, ii. 241, 257. + + CAMPBELL, J., on the Indian elephant, i. 267, 268; + on the proportion of male and female births in the harems of Siam, + i. 303. + + _Campylopterus hemileucurus_, i. 307. + + CANARIES distinguishing persons, ii. 110. + + CANARY, polygamy of the, i. 270; + change of plumage in, after moulting, i. 294; + female, selecting the best singing male, ii. 52; + sterile hybrid, singing of a, ii. 53; + female, singing of the, ii. 54; + selecting a greenfinch, ii. 115; + and siskin, pairing of, ii. 115. + + CANESTRINI, G., on rudimentary characters and the origin of man, i. 4; + on rudimentary characters, i. 17; + on the movement of the ear in man, i. 20; + on the variability of the vermiform appendage in man, i. 27; + on the abnormal division of the malar bone in man, i. 124; + on abnormal conditions of the human uterus, i. 124; + on the persistence of the frontal suture in man, i. 125; + on the proportion of the sexes in silk-moths, i. 309, 311. + + CANINE teeth in man, i. 126; + diminution of, in man, i. 144; + diminution of, in horses, i. 144; + disappearance of, in male ruminants, i. 144; + large, in the early progenitors of man, i. 206. + + CANINES, and horns, inverse development of, ii. 257. + + CANOES, use of, i. 137, 234. + + _Cantharis_, difference of colour in the sexes of a species of, + i. 367. + + CAPERCAILZIE, proportion of the sexes in the, i. 306; + pugnacity of the male, ii. 45; + pairing of the, ii. 49; + autumn meetings of the, ii. 54; + call of the, ii. 61; + duration of the courtship of, ii. 100; + behaviour of the female, ii. 121; + inconvenience of black colour to the female, ii. 154; + sexual difference in coloration of the, ii. 226; + crimson eye-cere of the male, ii. 227; + polygamous, i. 269. + + CAPITAL, i. 169. + + CAPITONIDÆ, colours and nidification of the, ii. 171. + + _Capra ægagrus_, ii. 249; + crest of the male, ii. 282; + sexual difference in the colour of, ii. 289. + + _Capreolus Sibiricus subecaudatus_, ii. 298. + + CAPRICE, common to man and animals, i. 65. + + _Caprimulgus_, noise made by the males of some species of, with their + wings, ii. 62. + + _Caprimulgus virginianus_, pairing of, ii. 49. + + CARABIDÆ, bright colours of, i. 367. + + CARBONNIER, on the natural history of the pike, i. 308; + on the relative size of the sexes in fishes, ii. 7. + + _Carcineutes_, sexual difference of colour in, ii. 173. + + _Carcinus mænas_, i. 331, 333. + + _Carduelis elegans_, sexual differences of the beak in, ii. 39. + + CARNIVORA, marine, polygamous habits of, i. 268; + sexual differences in the colours of, ii. 286. + + CARP, numerical proportion of the sexes in the, i. 308. + + CARR, R., on the peewit, ii. 48. + + CARRIER pigeon, late development of the wattle in the, i. 293. + + CARRION beetles, stridulation of, i. 378. + + CARUS, Prof. V., on the development of the horns in merino sheep, + i. 289. + + CASSOWARY, sexes and incubation of the, ii. 204. + + CASTOREUM, ii. 279. + + _Casuarius galeatus_, ii. 204. + + CAT, convoluted body in the extremity of the tail of a, i. 30; + sick, sympathy of a dog with a, i. 77. + + CATARACT in _Cebus Azaræ_, i. 12. + + CATARRH, liability of _Cebus Azaræ_ to, i. 11. + + CATARRHINE monkeys, i. 196. + + CATERPILLARS, bright colours of, i. 415. + + _Cathartes aura_, ii. 116. + + _Cathartes jota_, love-gestures of the male, ii. 68. + + CATLIN, G., on the development of the beard among North American + Indians, ii. 322; + on the great length of the hair in some North American tribes, + ii. 348. + + CATON, J. D., on the development of the horns in _Cervus virginianus_ + and _strongyloceros_, i. 288; + on the presence of traces of horns in the female wapiti, ii. 245; + on the fighting of deer, ii. 252; + on the crest of the male wapiti, ii. 282; + on the colours of the Virginian deer, ii. 288; + on sexual differences of colour in the wapiti, ii. 289; + on the spots of the Virginian deer, ii. 303. + + CATS, dreaming, i. 46; + tortoise-shell, i. 283, 285, 293; + enticed by valerian, ii. 281; + colours of, ii. 299. + + CATTLE, domestic, sexual differences of, late developed, i. 293; + rapid increase of, in South America, i. 135; + domestic, lighter in winter in Siberia, i. 282; + horns of, i. 289, ii. 247; + numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. 305. + + CAUDAL vertebræ, number of, in macaques and baboons, i. 150; + basal, of monkeys, imbedded in the body, i. 151. + + _Cebus_, maternal affection in a, i. 40; + gradation of species of, i. 227. + + _Cebus Azaræ_, liability of, to the same diseases as man, i. 11; + distinct sounds produced by, i. 53; + early maturity of the female, ii. 318. + + _Cebus capucinus_, polygamous, i. 266; + sexual differences of colour in, ii. 290; + hair on the head of, ii. 307. + + _Cebus vellerosus_, hair on the head of, ii. 307. + + CECIDOMYIDÆ, proportions of the sexes in, i. 314. + + CELIBACY, unknown among the savages of South Africa and South America, + ii. 367. + + CENTIPEDES, i. 339. + + CEPHALOPODA, absence of secondary sexual characters in, i. 325. + + _Cephalopterus ornatus_, ii. 58, 59. + + _Cephalopterus penduliger_, ii. 59. + + _Cerambyx heros_, stridulant organ of, i. 380. + + _Ceratophora aspera_, nasal appendages of, ii. 34. + + _Ceratophora Stoddartii_, nasal horn of, ii. 34. + + _Cerceris_, habits of, i. 364. + + _Cercocebus æthiops_, whiskers, &c., of, ii. 308. + + _Cercopithecus_, young, seized by an eagle and rescued by the troop, + i. 76; + definition of species of, i. 227. + + _Cercopithecus cephus_, sexual difference of colour in, ii. 291, 311. + + _Cercopithecus cynosurus_ and _griseo-viridis_, colour of the scrotum + in, ii. 291. + + _Cercopithecus Diana_, sexual differences of colour in, ii. 291, 311, + 312. + + _Cercopithecus griseo-viridis_, i. 75. + + _Cercopithecus petaurista_, whiskers, &c., of, ii. 308. + + CERES, of birds, bright colours of, ii. 227. + + _Ceriornis Temminckii_, swelling of the wattles of the male during + courtship, ii. 72. + + _Cervulus_, weapons of, ii. 257. + + _Cervulus moschatus_, rudimentary horns of the female, ii. 245. + + _Cervus alces_, i. 288. + + _Cervus campestris_, odour of, ii. 279. + + _Cervus canadensis_, traces of horns in the female, ii. 245; + attacking a man, ii. 253; + sexual difference in the colour of, ii. 289. + + _Cervus elaphus_, battles of male, ii. 240; + horns of, with numerous points, ii. 252. + + _Cervus Eldi_, i. 288. + + _Cervus mantchuricus_, ii. 303. + + _Cervus paludosus_, colours of, ii. 290. + + _Cervus strongyloceros_, i. 288. + + _Cervus virginianus_, i. 288; + horns of, in course of modification, ii. 255. + + _Ceryle_, male black-belted in some species of, ii. 173. + + CETACEA, nakedness of, i. 148. + + CEYLON, frequent absence of beard in the natives of, ii. 321. + + CHAFFINCH, proportion of the sexes in the, i. 306, 307; + courtship of the, ii. 94. + + CHAFFINCHES, ii. 53; + new mates found by, ii. 105. + + _Chalcophaps indicus_, characters of young, ii. 185. + + _Chalcosoma atlas_, sexual differences of, i. 368. + + _Chamæleon_, sexual differences in the genus, ii. 34. + + _Chamæleon bifurcus_, ii. 34, 35. + + _Chamæleon Owenii_, ii. 34, 36. + + CHAMELEONS, ii. 32. + + CHAMOIS, danger-signals of, i. 74; + transfer of male characters to an old female, ii. 245. + + _Chamæpetes unicolor_, modified wing-feather in the male, ii. 64. + + CHAPUIS, Dr., on the transmission of sexual peculiarities in pigeons, + i. 283; + on streaked Belgian pigeons, i. 294, ii. 157. + + CHAR, male, colouring of, during the breeding season, ii. 14. + + CHARACTERS, male, developed in females, i. 280; + natural, artificial exaggeration of, by man, ii. 351; + secondary sexual, transmitted through both sexes, i. 279. + + _Charadrius hiaticula_ and _pluvialis_, sexes and young of, ii. 216. + + CHARDIN on the Persians, ii. 356. + + CHARMS, worn by women, ii. 344. + + CHARRUAS, freedom of divorce among the, ii. 372. + + _Chasmorhynchus_, difference of colour in the sexes of, ii. 79; + colours of, ii. 228. + + CHASTITY, early estimation of, i. 96. + + CHATTERERS, sexual differences in, i. 269. + + CHEIROPTERA, absence of secondary sexual characters in, i. 268. + + CHELÆ of crustacea, i. 330, 336. + + CHELONIA, sexual differences in, ii. 28. + + _Chenalopex ægyptiacus_, wing-knobs of, ii. 46. + + _Chera progne_, ii. 84, 120. + + CHEST, proportions of, in soldiers and sailors, i. 117; + large, of the Quechua and Aymara Indians, i. 119. + + CHEVROTAINS, canine teeth of, ii. 257. + + _Chiasognathus_, stridulation of, i. 384. + + _Chiasognathus Grantii_, mandibles of, i. 377. + + CHILDREN, legitimate and illegitimate, proportion of the sexes in, + i. 302. + + CHILOE, lice of the natives of, i. 220; + population of, i. 225. + + _Chimæra monstrosa_, bony process on the head of the male, ii. 12. + + CHIMÆROID fishes, prehensile organs of male, ii. 1. + + CHIMPANZEE, ii. 323; + ears of the, i. 21; + representatives of the eyebrows in the, i. 25; + platforms built by the, i. 36; + cracking nuts with a stone, i. 51; + hands of the, i. 139; + absence of mastoid processes in the, i. 143; + direction of the hair on the arms of the, i. 192; + supposed evolution of the, i. 230; + polygamous and social habits of the, ii. 362. + + CHINA, North, idea of female beauty in, ii. 344. + + CHINA, Southern, inhabitants of, i. 246. + + CHINESE, use of flint tools by the, i. 183; + difficulty of distinguishing the races of the, i. 215; + colour of the beard in, ii. 319; + general beardlessness of the, ii. 321; + opinions of the, on the appearance of Europeans and Cingalese, + ii. 345, 347; + compression of the feet of, ii. 352. + + CHINSURDI, his opinion of beards, ii. 341, 349. + + _Chlamydera maculata_, ii. 70. + + _Chloëon_, pedunculated eyes of the male of, i. 341. + + _Chloephaga_, coloration of the sexes in, ii. 178. + + _Chlorocoelus Tanana_ (figured), i. 355. + + CHORDA DORSALIS, i. 207. + + CHOUGH, red beak of the, ii. 227. + + CHROMIDÆ, frontal protuberance in male, ii. 13; + sexual differences in colour of, ii. 20. + + _Chrysemys picta_, long claws of the male, ii. 28. + + _Chrysococcyx_, characters of young of, ii. 185. + + _Chrysomela cerealis_, bright colours of, i. 367. + + CHRYSOMELIDÆ, stridulation of, i. 379. + + _Cicada pruinosa_, i. 351. + + _Cicada septendecim_, i. 351. + + CICADÆ, songs of the, i. 350; + rudimentary sound-organs in females of, i. 359. + + CICATRIX of a burn, causing modification of the facial bones, i. 147. + + _Cichla_, frontal protuberance of male, ii. 13. + + CIMETIÈRE du Sud, Paris, i. 28. + + _Cincloramphus cruralis_, large size of male, ii. 43. + + _Cinclus aquaticus_, ii. 170. + + CINGALESE, Chinese opinion of the appearance of the, ii. 345. + + CIRRIPEDES, complemental males of, i. 255. + + CIVILISATION, effects of, upon natural selection, i. 170; + influence of, in the competition of nations, i. 239. + + CLANGING of Geese, &c., ii. 51. + + CLAPARÈDE, E., on natural selection applied to man, i. 137. + + CLARKE, on the marriage-customs of the Kalmucks, ii. 373. + + CLASSIFICATION, i. 188. + + CLAUS, C., on the sexes of _Saphirina_, i. 336. + + CLEFT-PALATE, inherited, i. 121. + + _Climacteris erythrops_, sexes of, ii. 206. + + CLIMATE, i. 115; + cool, favourable to human progress, i. 167; + power of supporting extremes of, by man, i. 237; + want of connexion of, with colour, i. 241. + + CLOACA, existence of a, in the early progenitors of man, i. 207. + + CLOACAL passage existing in the human embryo, i. 16. + + CLUB, origin of the, i. 234. + + CLUCKING of fowls, ii. 51. + + _Clythra 4-punctata_, stridulation of, i. 379. + + COBRA, ingenuity of a, ii. 31. + + _Coccus_, i. 186. + + COCCYX, i. 29, 30; + in the human embryo, i. 16; + convoluted body at the extremity of the, i. 30; + imbedded in the body, i. 151. + + COCHIN-CHINA, notions of beauty of the inhabitants of, ii. 345, 347. + + COCK, game, killing a kite, ii. 44; + blind, fed by its companions, i. 77; + comb and wattles of the, ii. 98; + preference shown by the, for young hens, ii. 121; + game, transparent zone in the hackles of a, ii. 136. + + COCK of the rock, ii. 100. + + COCKATOOS, ii. 226, 228, 230; + nestling, ii. 109; + black, immature plumage of, ii. 188. + + COELENTERATA, absence of secondary sexual characters in, i. 321. + + COFFEE, fondness of monkeys for, i. 12. + + COLD, supposed effects of, i. 116; + power of supporting, by man, i. 237. + + COLEOPTERA, i. 366; + stridulant organs of, discussed, i. 381. + + COLLINGWOOD, C., on the pugnacity of the butterflies of Borneo, + i. 386; + on butterflies being attracted by a dead specimen of the same + species, i. 400. + + COLOMBIA, flattened heads of savages of, ii. 340. + + COLONISTS, success of the English as, i. 179. + + COLORATION, protective, in birds, ii. 223. + + COLOUR, supposed to be dependent on light and heat, i. 115; + correlation of, with immunity from certain poisons and parasites, + i. 242; + purpose of, in lepidoptera, i. 399; + relation of, to sexual functions, in fishes, ii. 14; + difference of, in the sexes of snakes, ii. 29; + sexual differences of, in lizards, ii. 36; + influence of, in the pairing of birds of different species, ii. 115; + relation of, to nidification, ii. 167, 172; + sexual differences of, in mammals, ii. 286, 294; + recognition of, by quadrupeds, ii. 295; + of children, in different races of man, ii. 318; + of the skin in man, ii. 381. + + COLOURS, admired alike by man and animals, i. 64; + bright, due to sexual selection, i. 322; + bright, among the lower animals, i. 322, 323; + bright, protective to butterflies and moths, i. 395; + bright, in male fishes, ii. 7, 13; + transmission of, in birds, ii. 159. + + COLQUHOUN, example of reasoning in a retriever, i. 48. + + _Columba passerina_, young of, ii. 188. + + _Colymbus glacialis_, anomalous young of, ii. 211. + + COMB, development of, in fowls, i. 295. + + COMBS and wattles in male birds, ii. 98. + + COMMUNITY, preservation of variations useful to the, by natural + selection, i. 155. + + COMPOSITÆ, gradation of species among the, i. 227. + + COMTE, C., on the expression of the ideal of beauty by sculpture, + ii. 380. + + CONDITIONS of life, action of changed, upon man, i. 113; + influence of, on plumage of birds, ii. 196. + + CONDOR, eyes and comb of the, ii. 129. + + CONJUGATIONS, origin of, i. 61. + + CONSCIENCE, i. 91, 104; + absence of, in some criminals, i. 92. + + CONSTITUTION, difference of, in different races of men, i. 216. + + CONSUMPTION, liability of _Cebus Azaræ_ to, i. 12; + connexion between complexion and, i. 244. + + CONVERGENCE, i. 230. + + COOING of pigeons and doves, ii. 60. + + COOK, Capt., on the nobles of the Sandwich Islands, ii. 356. + + COPE, E. D., on the dinosauria, i. 204; + on the origin of genera, ii. 215. + + _Cophotis ceylanica_, sexual differences of, ii. 32, 36. + + _Copris_, i. 370. + + _Copris Isidis_, sexual differences of, i. 369. + + _Copris lunaris_, stridulation of, i. 380. + + CORALS, bright colours of, i. 322. + + CORAL-SNAKES, ii. 31. + + _Cordylus_, sexual difference of colour in a species of, ii. 36. + + CORFU, habits of the chaffinch in, i. 307. + + CORNELIUS, on the proportions of the sexes in _Lucanus Cervus_, + i. 313. + + CORPORA WOLFFIANA, i. 207; + agreement of, with the kidneys of fishes, i. 16. + + CORRELATED variation, i. 130. + + CORRELATION, influence of, in the production of races, i. 247. + + CORSE, on the mode of fighting of the elephant, ii. 257. + + _Corvus corone_, ii. 104. + + _Corvus graculus_, red beak of, ii. 227. + + _Corvus pica_, nuptial assembly of, ii. 102. + + _Corydalis cornutus_, large jaws of the male, i. 342. + + _Cosmetornis_, ii. 181. + + _Cosmetornis vexillarius_, elongation of wing-feathers in, ii. 73, 97. + + COTINGIDÆ, sexual differences in, i. 269; + coloration of the sexes of, ii. 177; + resemblance of the females of distinct species of, ii. 192. + + _Cottus scorpius_, sexual differences in, ii. 9. + + COUNTING, origin of, i. 181; + limited power of, in primeval man, i. 234. + + COURAGE, variability of, in the same species, i. 40; + universal high appreciation of, i. 95; + importance of, i. 162; + a characteristic of men, ii. 328. + + COURTSHIP, greater eagerness of males in, i. 272; + of fishes, ii. 2; + of birds, ii. 50, 100. + + COW, winter change of the, ii. 299. + + CRAB, devil, i. 332. + + CRAB, shore, habits of, i. 331. + + _Crabro cribrarius_, dilated tibiæ of the male, i. 343. + + CRABS, proportions of the sexes in, i. 315. + + CRANZ, on the inheritance of dexterity in seal-catching, i. 117. + + CRAWFURD, on the number of species of man, i. 226. + + _Crenilabrus massa_ and _C. melops_, nests built by, ii. 19. + + CREST, origin of, in Polish fowls, i. 284. + + CRESTS, of birds, difference of, in the sexes, ii. 189; + dorsal hairy, of mammals, ii. 282. + + CRICKET, field-, stridulation of the, i. 353; + pugnacity of male, i. 360. + + CRICKET, house-, stridulation of the, i. 352, 354. + + CRICKETS, sexual differences in, i. 361. + + CRIOCERIDÆ, stridulation of the, i. 379. + + CRINOIDS, complexity of, i. 61. + + CROAKING of frogs, ii. 27. + + CROCODILES, musky odour of, during the breeding season, ii. 29. + + CROCODILIA, ii. 28. + + CROSSBILLS, characters of young, ii. 184. + + CROSSES in man, i. 225. + + CROSSING of races, effects of the, i. 241. + + _Crossoptilon auritum_, ii. 93, 166, 196; + adornment of both sexes of, i. 290; + sexes alike in, ii. 178. + + CROTCH, G. R., on the stridulation of beetles, i. 379, 382; + on the stridulation of _Heliopathes_, i. 383; + on the stridulation of _Acalles_, i. 384. + + CROW Indians, long hair of the, ii. 348. + + CROW, young of the, ii. 209. + + CROWS, ii. 226; + vocal organs of the, ii. 55; + living in triplets, ii. 106. + + CROWS, carrion, new mates found by, ii. 104. + + CROWS, Indian, feeding their blind companions, i. 77. + + CRUELTY of savages to animals, i. 94. + + CRUSTACEA, amphipod, males sexually mature while young, ii. 215; + parasitic, loss of limbs by female, i. 255; + prehensile feet and antennæ of, i. 256; + male, more active than female, i. 272; + parthenogenesis in, i. 315; + secondary sexual characters of, i. 328; + auditory hairs of, ii. 333. + + CRYSTAL worn in the lower lip by some Central African women, ii. 341. + + CUCKOO fowls, i. 294. + + CULICIDÆ, i. 254, 349. + + CULLEN, Dr., on the throat-pouch of the male bustard, ii. 58. + + CULTIVATION of plants, probable origin of, i. 167. + + CUPPLES, Mr., on the numerical proportion of the sexes in dogs, sheep, + and cattle, i. 304, 305; + on the Scotch deerhound, ii. 261; + on sexual preference in dogs, ii. 271, 272. + + CURCULIONIDÆ, sexual difference in length of snout in some, i. 255; + hornlike processes in male, i. 374; + musical, i. 378, 379. + + CURIOSITY, manifestations of, by animals, i. 42. + + CURLEWS, double moult in, ii. 80. + + CURSORES, comparative absence of sexual differences among the, i. 269. + + CURTIS, J., on the proportion of the sexes in _Athalia_, i. 314. + + CUVIER, F., on the recognition of women by male quadrumana, i. 13. + + CUVIER, G., views of, as to the position of man, i. 190; + on instinct and intelligence, i. 37; + on the number of caudal vertebræ in the mandrill, i. 150; + on the position of the seals, i. 190; + on _Hectocotyle_, i. 325. + + _Cyanecula suecica_, sexual differences of, ii. 195. + + _Cyanalcyon_, sexual difference in colours of, ii. 173; + immature plumage of, ii. 188. + + _Cychrus_, sounds produced by, i. 382. + + _Cycnia mendica_, sexual difference of colour in, i. 398. + + _Cygnus ferus_, trachea of, ii. 59. + + _Cygnus olor_, white young of, ii. 211. + + _Cyllo Leda_, instability of the ocellated spots of, ii. 133. + + _Cynanthus_, variation in the genus, ii. 125. + + CYNIPIDÆ, proportions of the sexes in, i. 314. + + _Cynocephalus_, difference of the young, from the adult, i. 13; + male, recognition of women by, i. 13; + polygamous habits of species of, i. 266. + + _Cynocephalus chacma_, i. 41. + + _Cynocephalus gelada_, i. 51. + + _Cynocephalus hamadryas_, i. 51; + sexual difference of colour in, ii. 291. + + _Cynocephalus leucophoeus_, colours of the sexes of, ii. 292. + + _Cynocephalus mormon_, colours of the male, ii. 292, 296, 310. + + _Cynocephalus porcarius_, mane of the male, ii. 267. + + _Cypridina_, proportions of the sexes in, i. 315. + + CYPRINIDÆ, proportion of the sexes in the, i. 308. + + CYPRINIDÆ, Indian, ii. 17. + + CYPRINODONTIDÆ, sexual differences in the, ii. 7, 9. + + _Cyprinus auratus_, ii. 16. + + _Cyprinus phoxinus_, spawning of, ii. 15. + + _Cypris_, relations of the sexes in, i. 315. + + _Cystophora cristata_, hood of, ii. 278. + + + D. + + _Dacelo_, sexual difference of colour in, ii. 174. + + _Dacelo Gaudichaudi_, young male of, ii. 188. + + DAL-RIPA, a kind of ptarmigan, i. 306. + + _Damalis albifrons_, peculiar markings of, ii. 301. + + _Damalis pygarga_, peculiar markings of, ii. 300. + + DAMPNESS of climate, supposed influence of, on the colour of the skin, + i. 116, 242. + + _Danaidæ_, i. 387. + + DANCES of birds, ii. 68. + + DANCING, i. 232. + + DANIELL, Dr., his experience of residence in West Africa, i. 245. + + DARFUR, protuberances artificially produced in, ii. 339. + + DARWIN, F., on the stridulation of _Dermestes murinus_, i. 379. + + _Dasychira pudibunda_, sexual difference of colour in, i. 398. + + DAVIS, A. H., on the pugnacity of the male stag-beetle, i. 375. + + DAVIS, J. B., on the capacity of the skull in various races of men, + i. 146; + on the beards of the Polynesians, ii. 322. + + DEATH-RATE higher in towns than in rural districts, i. 175. + + DEATH-TICK, i. 384. + + DE CANDOLLE, Alph., on a case of inherited power of moving the scalp, + i. 20. + + DECLENSIONS, origin of, i. 61. + + DECORATION in birds, ii. 71. + + _Decticus_, i. 355. + + DEER, spots of young, ii. 184, 303; + horns of, ii. 243, 248; + use of horns of, ii. 252, 263; + size of the horns of, ii. 259; + female, pairing with one male, whilst others are fighting for her, + ii. 269; + male, attracted by the voice of the female, ii. 276; + male, odour emitted by, ii. 279; + development of the horns in, i. 288; + horns of a, in course of modification, ii. 255. + + DEER, Axis, sexual, difference in the colour of the, ii. 290. + + DEER, fallow, different coloured herds of, ii. 295. + + DEER, Mantchurian, ii. 303. + + DEER, Virginian, ii. 303; + colour of the, not affected by castration, ii. 288; + colours of, ii. 289. + + DEERHOUND, Scotch, greater size of the male, i. 293, ii. 260. + + DEFENSIVE organs of mammals, ii. 263. + + DE GEER, C., on a female spider destroying a male, i. 339. + + DEKAY, Dr., on the bladder-nose seal, ii. 278. + + DEMERARA, yellow fever in, i. 243. + + _Dendrocygna_, ii. 185. + + _Dendrophila frontalis_, young of, ii. 220. + + DENNY, H., on the lice of domestic animals, i. 219. + + _Dermestes murinus_, stridulation of, i. 379. + + DESCENT traced through the mother alone, ii. 359. + + DESERTS, protective colouring of animals inhabiting, ii. 224. + + DESMAREST, on the absence of suborbital pits in + _Antilope subgutturosa_, ii. 280; + on the whiskers of _Macacus_, ii. 283; + on the colour of the opossum, ii. 286; + on the colours of the sexes of _Mus minutus_, ii. 286; + on the colouring of the ocelot, ii. 287; + on the colours of seals, ii. 287; + on _Antilope caama_, ii. 289; + on the colours of goats, ii. 290; + on sexual difference of colour in _Ateles marginatus_, ii. 291; + on the mandrill, ii. 293; + on _Macacus cynomolgus_, ii. 318. + + DESMOULINS, on the number of species of man, i. 226; + on the musk-deer, ii. 281. + + DESOR, on the imitation of man by monkeys, i. 44. + + DESPINE, P., on criminals destitute of conscience, i. 92. + + DEVELOPMENT, embryonic, of man, i. 14, 16; + correlated, ii. 130. + + DEVIL, not believed in by the Fuegians, i. 67. + + DEVIL-CRAB, i. 332. + + DEVONIAN, fossil insect from the, i. 360. + + DEWLAPS, of cattle and antelopes, ii. 284. + + _Diadema_, sexual differences of colouring in the species of, i. 388. + + _Diadema anomala_, mimickry by the female of, i. 413. + + _Diadema bolina_, i. 413. + + DIAMOND-BEETLES, bright colours of, i. 367. + + DIASTEMA, occurrence of, in man, i. 126. + + DIASTYLIDÆ, proportion of the sexes in, i. 315. + + DIODORUS, on the absence of beard in the natives of Ceylon, ii. 321. + + _Dicrurus_, racket-shaped feathers in, ii. 73; + nidification of, ii. 167. + + _Dicrurus macrocercus_, change of plumage in, ii. 179. + + _Didelphis opossum_, sexual difference in the colour of, ii. 286. + + DIFFERENCES, comparative, between different species of birds of + the same sex, ii. 192. + + DIGITS, supernumerary, more frequent in men than in women, i. 276; + supernumerary, inheritance of, i. 285; + supernumerary, early development of, i. 292. + + DIMORPHISM in females of water-beetles, i. 343; + in _Neurothemis_ and _Agrion_, i. 363. + + _Dipelicus Cantori_, sexual differences of, i. 369. + + DIPLOPODA, prehensile limbs of the male, i. 340. + + _Dipsas cynodon_, sexual difference in the colour of, ii. 29. + + DIPTERA, i. 348. + + DISEASE, generated by the contact of distinct peoples, i. 239. + + DISEASES common to man and the lower animals, i. 11; + difference of liability to, in different races of men, i. 216; + new, effects of, upon savages, i. 238; + sexually limited, i. 292. + + DISPLAY, coloration of Lepidoptera for, i. 395; + of plumage by male birds, ii. 86, 96. + + DISTRIBUTION, wide, of man, i. 137; + geographical, as evidence of specific distinctness in man, i. 218. + + DISUSE, effects of, in producing rudimentary organs, i. 18; + and use of parts, effects of, i. 116; + of parts, influence of, on the races of men, i. 247. + + DIVORCE, freedom of, among the Charruas, ii. 372. + + DIXON, E. S., on the habits of the guinea-fowl, i. 270; + on the pairing of different species of geese, ii. 114; + on the courtship of peafowl, ii. 121. + + DOBRIZHOFFER, on the marriage-customs of the Abipones, ii. 374. + + DOGS, suffering from Tertian ague, i. 13; + memory of, i. 45; + domestic, progress of, in moral qualities, i. 50; + distinct tones uttered by, i. 54; + parallelism between his affection for his master and religious + feeling, i. 68; + sociability of the, i. 74; + sympathy of, with a sick cat, i. 77; + sympathy of, with his master, i. 77; + possible use of the hair on the forelegs of the, i. 193; + races of the, i. 229; + diverging when drawing sledges over thin ice, i. 40; + dreaming, i. 46, 158; + exercise of reasoning faculties by, i. 48; + their possession of conscience, i. 78; + numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. 304; + sexual affection between individuals of, ii. 270; + howling at certain notes, ii. 333; + rolling in carrion, ii. 281. + + DOLICHOCEPHALIC structure, possible cause of, i. 148. + + DOLPHINS, nakedness of, i. 148. + + DOMESTIC animals, races of, i. 229; + change of breeds of, ii. 369. + + DOMESTICATION, influence of, in removing the sterility of hybrids, + i. 222. + + D'ORBIGNY, A., on the influence of dampness and dryness on the colour + of the skin, i. 242; + on the Yura-caras ii. 347. + + DOTTEREL, ii. 203. + + DOUBLEDAY, E., on sexual differences in the wings of butterflies, + i. 345. + + DOUBLEDAY, H., on the proportion of the sexes in the smaller moths, + i. 311; + on the attraction of the males of _Lasiocampa quercus_ + and _Saturnia carpini_ by the female, i. 312; + on the proportion of the sexes in the Lepidoptera, i. 312; + on the ticking of _Anobium tessellatum_, i. 385; + on the structure of _Ageronia feronia_, i. 387; + on white butterflies alighting upon paper, i. 400. + + DOUGLAS, J. W., on the sexual differences of the _Hemiptera_, i. 349; + on the colours of British _Homoptera_, i. 352. + + DOWN, of birds, ii. 80. + + _Draco_, gular appendages of, ii. 33. + + DRAGONET, Gemmeous, ii. 7. + + DRAGON-FLIES, caudal appendages of male, i. 344; + relative size of the sexes of, i. 347; + difference in the sexes of, i. 361; + want of pugnacity by the male, i. 364. + + DRAKE, breeding plumage of the, ii. 84. + + DREAMS, i. 46; + a possible source of the belief in spiritual agencies, i. 66. + + DRILL, sexual difference of colour in the, ii. 291. + + _Dromoeus irroratus_, ii. 204. + + _Dromolæa_, Saharan species of, ii. 172. + + DRONGO shrike, ii. 179. + + DRONGOS, racket-shaped feathers in the tails of, ii. 73, 83. + + DRYNESS, of climate, supposed influence of, on the colour of the skin, + i. 242. + + _Dryopithecus_, i. 199. + + DUCK, harlequin, age of mature plumage in the, ii. 213; + breeding in immature plumage, ii. 214. + + DUCK, long-tailed, preference of male, for certain females, ii. 122. + + DUCK, pintail, pairing with a wigeon, ii. 114. + + DUCK, voice of the, ii. 60; + pairing with a shield-drake, ii. 114; + immature plumage of the, ii. 188. + + DUCK, wild, sexual differences in the, i. 268; + speculum and male characters of, i. 291; + pairing with a pintail drake, ii. 115. + + DUCKS, dogs and cats recognised by, ii. 110; + wild, becoming polygamous under partial domestication, i. 270. + + DUGONG, tusks of, ii. 242; + nakedness of, i. 148. + + DUJARDIN, on the relative size of the cerebral ganglia in insects, + i. 145. + + DUNCAN, Dr., on the fertility of early marriages, i. 174. + + DUPONT, M., on the occurrence of the supra-condyloid foramen in + the humerus of man, i. 29. + + DURAND, J. P., on causes of variation, i. 113. + + DUREAU de la Malle, on the songs of birds, i. 55; + on the acquisition of an air by blackbirds, ii. 55. + + DUTCH, retention of their colour by the, in South Africa, i. 242. + + DUTY, sense of, i. 70. + + DUVAUCEL, female _Hylobates_ washing her young, i. 40. + + DYAKS, pride of, in mere homicide, i. 94. + + _Dynastes_, large size of males of, i. 347. + + DYNASTINI, stridulation of, i. 381. + + _Dytiscus_, dimorphism of females of, i. 343; + grooved elytra of the female, i. 343. + + + E. + + EAGLE, young _Cercopithecus_ rescued from, by the troop, i. 75. + + EAGLE, white-headed, breeding in immature plumage, ii. 214. + + EAGLES, golden, new mates found by, ii. 105. + + EAR, motion of the, i. 20; + external shell of the, useless in man, i. 21; + rudimentary point of the, in man, i. 22. + + EARS, piercing and ornamentation of the, ii. 341. + + _Echidna_, i. 201. + + _Echini_, bright colours of some, i. 322. + + ECHINODERMATA, absence of secondary sexual characters in, i. 321. + + ECKER, figure of the human embryo, i. 15; + on sexual differences in the pelvis in man, ii. 317; + on the presence of a sagittal crest in Australians, ii. 319. + + EDENTATA, former wide range of, in America, i. 219; + absence of secondary sexual characters in, i. 268. + + _Edolius_, racket-shaped feathers in, ii. 73. + + EDWARDS, Mr., on the proportion of the sexes in North American species + of _Papilio_, i. 309. + + EGERTON, Sir P., on the use of the antlers of deer, ii. 252; + on the pairing of red deer, ii. 269; + on the bellowing of stags, ii. 275. + + EGGS, hatched by male fishes, ii. 20. + + EGRET, Indian, sexes and young of, ii. 217. + + EGRETS, breeding plumage of, ii. 82; + white, ii. 228. + + EHRENBERG, on the mane of the male Hamadryas baboon, ii. 267. + + EKSTRÖM, M., on _Harelda glacialis_, ii. 122. + + _Elachista rufocinerea_, habits of male, i. 311. + + ELAND, development of the horns of the, i. 289. + + ELANDS, sexual differences of colour in, ii. 288. + + _Elaphomyia_, sexual differences in, i. 349. + + _Elaphrus uliginosus_, stridulation of, i. 379. + + _Elaps_, ii. 31. + + ELATERIDÆ, proportions of the sexes in, i. 313. + + ELATERS, luminous, i. 345. + + ELEPHANT, i. 200; + nakedness of the, i. 148; + rate of increase of the, i. 135; + Indian, polygamous habits of the, i. 267; + pugnacity of the male, ii. 240; + tusks of, ii. 242, 243, 248, 249, 258; + Indian, mode of fighting, of the, ii. 257; + male, odour emitted by the, ii. 279; + attacking white or grey horses, ii. 295. + + ELEVATION of abode, modifying influence of, i. 120. + + ELIMINATION of inferior individuals, i. 172. + + ELK, ii, 249; + winter change of the, ii. 299. + + ELK, Irish, horns of the, ii. 259. + + ELLICE Islands, beards of the natives, ii. 322, 349. + + ELLIOT, R., on the numerical proportion of the sexes in young rats, + i. 305; + on the proportion of the sexes in sheep, i. 305. + + ELLIOTT, D. G., on _Pelecanus erythrorhynchus_, ii. 80. + + ELLIOTT, Sir W., on the polygamous habits of the Indian wild boar, + i. 267. + + ELLIS, on the prevalence of infanticide in Polynesia, ii. 364. + + ELPHINSTONE, Mr., on local differences of stature among the Hindoos, + i. 115; + on the difficulty of distinguishing the native races of India, + i. 215. + + ELYTRA, of the females of _Dytiscus_, _Acilius_, _Hydroporus_, i. 343. + + _Emberiza_, characters of young, ii. 184. + + _Emberiza miliaria_, ii. 185. + + _Emberiza schoeniculus_, ii. 111; + head-feathers of the male, ii. 95. + + EMBRYO of man, i. 14, 15; + of the dog, i. 15. + + EMBRYOS of mammals, resemblance of the, i. 32. + + EMIGRATION, i. 172. + + EMOTIONS experienced by the lower animals in common with man, i. 39; + manifested by animals, i. 42. + + EMPEROR moth, i. 398. + + EMULATION of singing-birds, ii. 53. + + EMU, sexes and incubation of, ii. 204. + + ENDURANCE, estimation of, i. 95. + + ENERGY, a characteristic of men, ii. 328. + + ENGLAND, numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. 300. + + ENGLEHEART, Mr., on the finding of new mates by starlings, ii. 106. + + ENGLISH, success of, as colonists, i. 179. + + ENGRAVERS, short-sighted, i. 118. + + ENTOMOSTRACA, i. 332. + + ENTOZOA, difference of colour between the males and females of some, + i. 321. + + EOCENE, possible divergence of man during the, i. 200. + + EOLIDÆ, colours of, produced by the biliary glands, i. 323. + + _Epeira_, i. 337. + + _Epeira nigra_, small size of the male of, i. 338. + + EPHEMERÆ, i. 341. + + EPHEMERIDÆ, i. 361. + + EPHEMERINA, proportions of the sexes in, i. 314. + + _Ephippiger vitium_, stridulating organs of, i. 354, 358. + + _Epicalia_, sexual differences of colouring in the species of, i. 388. + + _Equus hemionus_, winter change of, ii. 298. + + _Erateina_, coloration of, i. 397. + + ERECT attitude of man, i. 141, 142. + + ESCHRICHT, on the development of hair in man, i. 24; + on a lanuginous moustache in a female foetus, i. 25; + on the want of definition between the scalp and the forehead + in some children, i. 192; + on the arrangement of the hair in the human foetus, i. 193; + on the hairiness of the face in the human foetus of both sexes, + ii. 379, 380. + + _Esmeralda_, difference of colour in the sexes of, i. 368. + + _Esox lucius_, i. 308. + + _Esox reticulatus_, ii. 14. + + ESQUIMAUX, i. 157, 167; + their belief in the inheritance of dexterity in seal-catching, + i. 117; + mode of life of, i. 246. + + _Estrelda amandava_, pugnacity of the male, ii. 49. + + _Eubagis_, sexual differences of colouring in the species of, i. 389. + + _Euchirus longimanus_, sound produced by, i. 381. + + _Eudromias morinellus_, ii. 203. + + _Eulampis jugularis_, colours of the female, ii. 168. + + EULER, on the rate of increase in the United States, i. 131. + + _Eumomota superciliaris_, racket-shaped feathers in the tail of, + ii. 73. + + _Eupetomena macroura_, colours of the female, ii. 168. + + _Euphema splendida_, ii. 174. + + _Euplocamus erythropthalmus_, possession of spurs by the female, + ii. 46. + + _Euploea midamas_, mimickry of, by the female of _Diadema anomala_, + i. 413. + + EUROPE, ancient inhabitants of, i. 237. + + EUROPEANS, difference of, from Hindoos, i. 240; + hairiness of, probably due to reversion, ii. 378. + + _Eurostopodus_, sexes of, ii. 206. + + _Eurygnathus_, different proportions of the head in the sexes of, + i. 344. + + _Eustephanus_, sexual differences of species of, ii. 39; + young of, ii. 220. + + EXAGGERATION of natural characters by man, ii. 351. + + EXOGAMY, ii. 360, 364. + + EXPRESSION, resemblances in, between man and the apes, i. 191. + + EXTINCTION of races, causes of, i. 238. + + EYE, destruction of the, i. 116; + change of position in, i. 147; + obliquity of, regarded as a beauty by the Chinese and Japanese, + ii. 345. + + EYEBROWS, elevation of, i. 19; + development of long hairs in, i. 25; + in monkeys, i. 192; + eradicated in parts of South America and Africa, ii. 340; + eradication of, by the Indians of Paraguay, ii. 348. + + EYELIDS, coloured black, in part of Africa, ii. 339. + + EYELASHES, eradication of, by the Indians of Paraguay, ii. 348. + + EYES, difference in the colour of, in the sexes of birds, ii. 128; + pillared, of the male of _Chloëon_, i. 341. + + EYTON, T. C., observations on the development of the horns + in the fallow-deer, i. 288. + + EYZIES, Les, human remains from, i. 237. + + + F. + + FABRE, M., on the habits of _Cerceris_, i. 364. + + FACIAL bones, causes of modification of the, i. 147. + + FACULTIES, mental, variation of, in the same species, i. 36; + diversity of, in the same race of men, i. 109; + inheritance of, i. 110; + diversity of, in animals of the same species, i. 110; + of birds, ii. 108. + + FAKIRS, Indian, tortures undergone by, i. 96. + + _Falco leucocephalus_, ii. 214. + + _Falco peregrinus_, ii. 104, 179. + + _Falco tinnunculus_, ii. 109. + + FALCON, peregrine, new mate found by, ii. 104. + + FALCONER, H., on the mode of fighting of the Indian elephant, ii. 257; + on canines in a female deer, ii. 258; + on _Hyomoschus aquaticus_, ii. 304. + + FALKLAND islands, horses of, i. 236. + + FALLOW-DEER, different coloured herds of, ii. 295. + + FAMINES, frequency of, among savages, i. 333. + + FARR, Dr., on the structure of the uterus, i. 123; + on the effects of profligacy, i. 173; + on the influence of marriage on mortality, i. 175. + + FARRAR, F. W., on the origin of language, i. 56; + on the crossing or blending of languages, i. 60; + on the absence of the idea of God in certain races of men, i. 65; + on early marriages of the poor, i. 173; + on the middle ages, i. 178. + + FASHIONS, long prevalence of, among savages, ii. 343, 352. + + FAYE, Prof., on the numerical proportion of male and female births + in Norway and Russia, i. 301; + on the greater mortality of male children at and before birth, + i. 302. + + FEATHERS, modified, producing sounds, ii. 63 _et seqq._, 163; + elongated, in male birds, ii. 72, 97; + racket-shaped, ii. 73; + barbless and with filamentous barbs in certain birds, ii. 74; + shedding of margins of, ii. 85. + + FEEDING, high, probable influence of, in the pairing of birds + of different species, ii. 115. + + FEET, modification of, in man, i. 141; + thickening of the skin on the soles of the, i. 118. + + _Felis canadensis_, throat-ruff of, ii. 267. + + _Felis pardalis_ and _F. mitis_, sexual differences in the colouring + of, ii. 287. + + FEMALE, behaviour of the, during courtship, i. 273. + + FEMALE birds, differences of, ii. 193. + + FEMALES, presence of rudimentary male organs in, i. 208; + preference of, for certain males, i. 262; + pursuit of, by males, i. 272; + occurrence of secondary sexual characters in, i. 276; + development of male characters by, i. 280. + + FEMALES and males, comparative mortality of, while young, i. 264, 276; + comparative numbers of, i. 261, 263. + + FEMUR and tibia, proportions of, in the Aymara Indians, i. 119. + + FERGUSON, Mr., on the courtship of fowls, ii. 118. + + FERTILIZATION, phenomena of, in plants, i. 273; + in the lower animals, i. 274. + + FEVERS, immunity of Negroes and Mulattoes from, i. 243. + + _Fiber zibethicus_, protective colouring of, ii. 298. + + FIDELITY of savages to one another, i. 95; + importance of, i. 162. + + FIELD-SLAVES, difference of, from house-slaves, i. 246. + + FIJIANS, burying their old and sick parents alive, i. 77; + estimation of the beard among the, ii. 349; + admiration of, for a broad occiput, ii. 352. + + FIJI Islands, beards of the natives, ii. 322, 349; + marriage-customs of the, ii. 373. + + FILIAL affection, partly the result of natural selection, i. 81. + + FILUM terminale, i. 30. + + FINCH, racket-shaped feathers in the tail of a, ii. 73. + + FINCHES, spring change of colour in, ii. 85; + British, females of the, ii. 193. + + FINGERS, partially coherent, in species of _Hylobates_, i. 140. + + FINLAYSON, on the Cochin Chinese, ii. 345. + + FIRE, use of, i. 137, 183, 234. + + FISCHER, on the pugnacity of the male of _Lethrus cephalotes_, i. 376. + + FISH, proportion of the sexes in, i. 307; + eagerness of male, i. 272. + + FISHES, kidneys of, represented by Corpora Wolffiana in the human + embryo, i. 16; + male, hatching ova in their mouths, i. 210; + receptacles for ova possessed by, i. 254; + relative size of the sexes in, ii. 7; + freshwater, of the tropics, ii. 17; + protective resemblances in, ii. 18; + nest-building, ii. 19; + spawning of, ii. 19; + sounds produced by, ii. 23, 331; + continued growth of, ii. 216. + + _Flexor pollicis longus_, similar variation of, in man, i. 129. + + FLINT tools, i. 183. + + FLINTS, difficulty of chipping into form, i. 138. + + FLORIDA, _Quiscalus major_ in, i. 307. + + FLOUNDER, coloration of the, ii. 18. + + FLOWER, W. H., on the abductor of the fifth metatarsal in apes, + i. 128; + on the position of the Seals, i. 190; + on the throat-pouch of the male Bustard, ii. 58. + + FLY-CATCHERS, colours and nidification of, ii. 170. + + FOETUS, human, woolly covering of the, i. 25; + arrangement of the hair on, i. 193. + + FOOD, influence of, upon stature, i. 115. + + FOOT, prehensile, in the early progenitors of man, i. 206; + prehensile power of the, retained in some savages, i. 142. + + FORAMEN, supra-condyloid, exceptional occurrence of in the humerus + of man, i. 28, 130; + in the early progenitors of man, i. 206. + + FORBES, D., on the Aymara Indians, i. 119; + on local variation of colour in the Quechuas, i. 246; + on the hairlessness of the Aymaras and Quechuas, ii. 322; + on the long hair of the Aymaras and Quechuas, ii. 320, 348. + + FOREL, F., on white young swans, ii. 211. + + _Formica rufo_, size of the cerebral ganglia in, i. 145. + + FOSSILS, absence of, connecting man with the apes, i. 201. + + FOWL, occurrence of spurs in the female, i. 280; + game, early pugnacity of, i. 295; + Polish, early development of cranial peculiarities of, i. 295; + variations in plumage of, ii. 74; + examples of correlated development in the, ii. 130; + domestic, breeds and sub-breeds of, ii. 178. + + FOWLS, spangled Hamburgh, i. 281, 294; + sexual peculiarities in, transmitted only to the same sex, i. 283; + loss of secondary sexual characters by male, i. 284; + inheritance of changes of plumage by, i. 281; + Polish, origin of the crest in, i. 284; + period of inheritance of characters by, i. 294; + cuckoo-, i. 294; + development of the comb in, i. 295; + numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. 306; + courtship of, ii. 117; + mongrel, between a black Spanish cock and different hens, ii. 131; + pencilled Hamburgh, difference of the sexes in, ii. 158; + Spanish, sexual differences of the comb in, ii. 158; + spurred, in both sexes, ii. 162. + + FOX, W. D., on some half-tamed wild ducks becoming polygamous, + and on polygamy in the guinea-fowl and canary-bird, i. 270; + on the proportion of the sexes in cattle, i. 305; + on the pugnacity of the peacock, ii. 46; + on a nuptial assembly of magpies, ii. 102; + on the finding of new mates by crows, ii. 104; + on partridges living in triplets, ii. 107; + on the pairing of a goose with a Chinese gander, ii. 114. + + FOXES, wariness of young, in hunting districts, i. 50; + black, ii. 294. + + FRANCE, numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. 301. + + FRANCESCO, B., on the Simian resemblances of man, i. 4. + + FRASER, C., on the different colours of the sexes in a species + of _Squilla_, i. 335. + + _Fringilla cannabina_, ii. 86. + + _Fringilla ciris_, age of mature plumage in, ii. 213. + + _Fringilla cyanea_, age of mature plumage in, ii. 213. + + _Fringilla leucophrys_, young of, ii. 217. + + _Fringilla spinus_, ii. 115. + + _Fringilla tristis_, change of colour in, in spring, ii. 85; + young of, ii. 216. + + FRINGILLIDÆ, resemblance of the females of distinct species of, + ii. 192. + + FROGS, ii. 25; + male, temporary receptacles for ova possessed by, i. 254; + ready to breed before the females, i. 260; + vocal organs of, ii. 28. + + FRONTAL bone, persistence of the suture in, i. 124. + + FRUITS, poisonous, avoided by animals, i. 36. + + FUEGIANS, i. 167, 181; + mental capacity of the, i. 34; + quasi-religious sentiments of the, i. 67; + power of sight in the, i. 118; + skill of, in stone-throwing, i. 138; + resistance of the, to their severe climate, i. 156, 237; + difference of stature among the, i. 115; + mode of life of the, i. 246; + resemblance of, in mental characters, to Europeans, i. 232; + aversion of, to hair on the face, ii. 348; + said to admire European women, ii. 351. + + FULGORIDÆ, songs of the, i. 351. + + FUR, whiteness of, in arctic animals, in winter, i. 282. + + FUR-BEARING animals, acquired sagacity of, i. 50. + + + G. + + _Gallicrex_, sexual difference in the colour of the irides in, + ii. 128. + + _Gallicrex cristatus_, red caruncle occurring in the male during + the breeding-season, ii. 80. + + GALLINACEÆ, frequency of polygamous habits and of sexual differences + in the, i. 269; + love-gestures of, ii. 68; + decomposed feathers in, ii. 74; + stripes of young, ii. 184; + comparative sexual differences between the species of, ii. 192, 194; + plumage of, ii. 195. + + GALLINACEOUS birds, weapons of the male, ii. 44; + racket-shaped feathers on the heads of, ii. 73. + + _Gallinula chloropus_, pugnacity of male, ii. 40. + + _Gallinula cristata_, pugnacity of the male, ii. 41. + + _Galloperdix_, spurs of, ii. 46; + development of spurs in the female, ii. 162. + + _Gallophasis_, young of, ii. 190. + + _Gallus bankiva_, ii. 158; + neck-hackles of, ii. 84. + + _Gallus Stanleyi_, pugnacity of the male, ii. 44. + + GALLS, i. 152. + + GALTON, Mr., on the struggle between the social and personal impulses, + i. 104; + on hereditary genius, i. 111; + on the effects of natural selection on civilised nations, i. 168; + on the sterility of sole daughters, i. 170; + on the degree of fertility of people of genius, i. 171; + on the early marriages of the poor, i. 173; + on the ancient Greeks, i. 177; + on the Middle Ages, i. 178; + on the progress of the United States, i. 179; + on South African notions of beauty, ii. 347. + + _Gammarus_, use of the chelæ of, i. 331. + + _Gammarus marinus_, i. 334. + + GANNETS, white only when mature, ii. 228. + + GANOIDEI, i. 204. + + GANOID fishes, i. 212. + + GAOUR, horns of the, ii. 247. + + GAP between man and the apes, i. 200. + + GAPER, sexes and young of, ii. 217. + + GARDNER, on an example of rationality in a _Gelasimus_, i. 334. + + _Garrulus glandarius_, ii. 104. + + GÄRTNER, on sterility of hybrid plants, i. 223. + + GASTEROPODA, i. 324; + pulmoniferous, courtship of, i. 324. + + _Gasterosteus_, i. 271; + nidification of, ii. 20. + + _Gasterosteus leiurus_, ii. 2, 14, 20. + + _Gasterosteus trachurus_, ii. 2. + + _Gastrophora_, wings of, brightly coloured beneath, i. 397. + + GAUCHOS, want of humanity among the, i. 101. + + GAUDRY, M., on a fossil monkey, i. 197. + + _Gavia_, seasonal change of plumage in, ii. 228. + + GEESE, clanging noise made by, ii. 51; + pairing of different species of, ii. 114; + Canada, selection of mates by, ii. 116. + + GEGENBAUR, C., on the number of digits in the Ichthyopterygia, + i. 125; + on the hermaphroditism of the remote progenitors of the vertebrata, + i. 207. + + _Gelasimus_, use of the enlarged chela of the male, i. 331; + pugnacity of males of, i. 333; + proportions of the sexes in a species of, i. 315; + rational actions of a, i. 334; + difference of colour in the sexes of a species of, i. 336. + + GEMMULES, sexual selection of, i. 285. + + GENESIS, i. 318. + + GENIUS, ii. 328; + hereditary, i. 111. + + GENIUS, fertility of men and women of, i. 171. + + GEOFFROY-SAINT-HILAIRE, Isid., on the recognition of women by male + quadrumana, i. 13; + on the occurrence of a rudimentary tail in man, i. 29; + on monstrosities, i. 113; + on animal-like anomalies in the human structure, i. 125; + on the correlation of monstrosities, i. 130; + on the distribution of hair in man and monkeys, i. 149; + on the caudal vertebræ of monkeys, i. 150; + on correlated variability, i. 151; + on the classification of man, i. 186; + on the long hair on the heads of species of _Semnopithecus_, i. 192; + on the hair in monkeys, i. 194; + on the development of horns in female deer, ii. 244; + and F. Cuvier, on the mandrill, ii. 293; + on Hylobates, ii. 318, 320. + + GEOGRAPHICAL distribution, as evidence of specific distinctions + in man, i. 218. + + GEOMETRÆ, brightly coloured beneath, i. 397. + + _Geophagus_, frontal protuberance of male, ii. 13, 20; + eggs hatched by the male, in the mouth or branchial cavity, ii. 200. + + GEORGIA, change of colour in Germans settled in, i. 246. + + _Geotrupes_, stridulation of, i. 380, 382. + + GERBE, M., on the nest-building of _Crenilabrus massa_ + and _C. melops_, ii. 19. + + GERLAND, Dr., on the prevalence of infanticide, i. 94; ii. 344, 364; + on the extinction of races, i. 237, 238. + + GERVAIS, P., on the hairiness of the gorilla, i. 149; + on the mandrill, ii. 293. + + GESTURE-LANGUAGE, i. 232. + + GHOST-MOTH, sexual difference of colour in the, i. 399, 402. + + GIBB, Sir D., on differences of the voice in different races of men, + ii. 330. + + GIBBON, Hoolock, nose of, i. 192. + + GIBBONS, voice of, ii. 276. + + GIRAFFE, mute, except in the rutting season, ii. 274; + its mode of using the horns, ii. 250. + + GIRAUD-TEULON, on the cause of short sight, i. 118. + + GLANDERS, communicable between man and the lower animals, i. 11. + + GLANDS, odoriferous, in mammals, ii. 279, 281. + + _Glareola_, double moult in, ii. 80. + + _Glomeris limbata_, difference of colour in the sexes of, i. 340. + + GLOWWORM, female, apterous, i. 255; + luminosity of the, i. 345. + + GNATS, dances of, i. 349. + + GNU, sexual differences in the colour of the, ii. 289. + + GOAT, male, wild, falling on his horns, ii. 249; + male, odour emitted by, ii. 279; + male, wild, crest of the, ii. 282; + Berbura, mane, dewlap, &c., of the male, ii. 284; + Kemas, sexual difference in the colour of the, ii. 289. + + GOATS, sexual differences in the horns of, i. 283; + horns of, i. 289, ii. 246; + domestic, sexual differences of, late developed, i. 293; + beards of, ii. 282; + mode of fighting of, ii. 249, 250. + + GOAT-SUCKER, Virginian, pairing of the, ii. 49. + + GOBIES, nidification of, ii. 20. + + GOD, want of the idea of, in some races of men, i. 65. + + GODRON, M., on variability, i. 112; + on difference of stature, i. 115; + on the want of connexion between climate and the colour of the skin, + i. 241; + on the odour of the skin, i. 248; + on the colour of infants, ii. 318. + + GOLDFINCH, ii. 56, 85; + proportion of the sexes in the, i. 307; + sexual differences of the beak in the, ii. 39; + courtship of the, ii. 95. + + GOLDFINCH, North American, young of, ii. 216. + + GOLDFISH, ii. 16. + + _Gomphus_, proportions of the sexes in, i. 314; + difference in the sexes of, i. 362. + + _Gonepteryx Rhamni_, i. 393; + sexual difference of colour in, i. 409. + + GOODSIR, Prof., on the affinity of the lancelet to the ascidians, + i. 205. + + GOOSANDER, young of, ii. 189. + + GOOSE, Antarctic, colours of the, ii. 228. + + GOOSE, Canada, pairing with a Bernicle gander, ii. 114. + + GOOSE, Chinese, knob on the beak of the, ii. 129. + + GOOSE, Egyptian, ii. 46. + + GOOSE, Sebastopol, plumage of, ii. 74. + + GOOSE, Snow-, whiteness of the, ii. 228. + + GOOSE, Spur-winged, ii. 46. + + GORILLA, ii. 323; + semi-erect attitude of the, i. 142; + mastoid processes of the, i. 143; + direction of the hair on the arms of the, i. 192; + supposed evolution of the, i. 230; + polygamy of the, i. 266, ii. 361, 362; + voice of the, ii. 276; + cranium of, ii. 318; + fighting of male, ii. 324. + + GOSSE, P. H., on the pugnacity of the male Humming-birds, ii. 40. + + GOSSE, M., on the inheritance of artificial modifications of + the skull, ii. 380. + + GOULD, B. A., on variation in the length of the legs in man, i. 108; + measurements of American soldiers, i. 114, 116; + on the proportions of the body and capacity of the lungs + in different races of men, i. 216; + on the inferior vitality of mulattoes, i. 221. + + GOULD, J., on the arrival of male snipes before the females, i. 260; + on the numerical proportion of the sexes in birds, i. 306; + on _Neomorpha_, ii. 39; + on the species of _Eustephanus_, ii. 39; + on the Australian Musk-duck, ii. 39; + on the relative size of the sexes in _Biziura lobata_ + and _Cincloramphus cruralis_, ii. 43; + on _Lobivanellus lobatus_, ii. 48; + on the habits of _Menura Alberti_, ii. 56; + on the rarity of song in brilliant birds, ii. 58; + on _Selasphorus platycercus_, ii. 65; + on the Bower-birds, ii. 69, 102; + on the ornamental plumage of the Humming-birds, ii. 78; + on the moulting of the ptarmigan, ii. 83; + on the display of plumage by the male Humming-birds, ii. 86; + on the shyness of adorned male birds, ii. 97; + on the decoration of the bowers of Bower-birds, ii. 112; + on the decoration of their nests by Humming-birds, ii. 112; + on variation in the genus _Cynanthus_, ii. 125; + on the colour of the thighs in a male parrakeet, ii. 126; + on _Urosticte Benjamini_, ii. 151, 152; + on the nidification of the Orioles, ii. 168; + on obscurely-coloured birds building concealed nests, ii. 169; + on Trogons and Kingfishers, ii. 173; + on Australian parrots, ii. 174; + on Australian pigeons, ii. 175; + on the moulting of the ptarmigan, ii. 181; + on the immature plumage of birds, ii. 186 _et seq._; + on the Australian species of _Turnix_, ii. 201; + on the young of _Aïthurus polytmus_, ii. 220; + on the colours of the bills of Toucans, ii. 227; + on the relative size of the sexes in the Marsupials of Australia, + ii. 260; + on the colours of the Marsupials, ii. 286. + + GOUREAU, on the stridulation of _Mutilla europæa_, i. 366. + + GOUT, sexually transmitted, i. 292. + + GRABA, on the Pied Ravens of the Feroe Islands, ii. 126; + on the Bridled Guillemot, ii. 127. + + GRADATION of secondary sexual characters in birds, ii. 135. + + GRALLATORES, absence of secondary sexual characters in, i. 270; + double moult in some, ii. 81. + + _Grallina_, nidification of, ii. 169. + + GRASSHOPPERS, stridulation of the, i. 356. + + GRATIOLET, Prof., on the anthropomorphous apes, i. 196; + on the evolution of the anthropomorphous apes, i. 230. + + GRAY, Asa, on the gradation of species among the Compositæ, i. 227. + + GRAY, J. E., on the caudal vertebræ of monkeys, i. 150; + on the presence of rudiments of horns in the female + of _Cervulus moschatus_, ii. 245; + on the horns of goats and sheep, ii. 246; + on the beard of the Ibex, ii. 283; + on the Berbura goat, ii. 285; + on sexual differences in the coloration of Rodents, ii. 286; + on the colours of the Elands, ii. 288; + on the Sing-sing antelope, ii. 289; + on the colours of goats, ii. 290; + on the Hog-deer, ii. 303. + + "GREATEST happiness principle," i. 97, 98. + + GREEKS, ancient, i. 177. + + GREEN, A. H., on beavers fighting, ii. 239; + on the voice of the beaver, ii. 277. + + GREENFINCH, selected by a female canary, ii. 115. + + GREG, W. R., on the early marriages of the poor, i. 173; + on the Ancient Greeks, i. 178; + on the effects of natural selection on civilised nations, i. 167. + + GRENADIERS, Prussian, i. 112. + + GREY, Sir G., on female infanticide in Australia, ii. 364. + + GREYHOUNDS, numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. 263, 265; + numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. 304. + + GROUSE, red, monogamous, i. 269; + pugnacity of young male, ii. 48; + producing a sound by scraping their wings upon the ground, ii. 61; + duration of courtship of, ii. 100; + colours and nidification of, ii. 170. + + GRUBE, Dr., on the occurrence of the supra-condyloid foramen + in the humerus of man, i. 28. + + _Grus americanus_, age of mature plumage in, ii. 213; + breeding in immature plumage, ii. 214. + + _Grus virgo_, trachea of, ii. 60. + + _Gryllus campestris_, i. 353; + pugnacity of male, i. 360. + + _Gryllus domesticus_, i. 354. + + _Grypus_, sexual differences in the beak in, ii. 39. + + GUANACOES, battles of, ii. 239; + canine teeth of, ii. 257. + + GUANAS, strife for women among the, ii. 324; + polyandry among the, ii. 366. + + GUANCHE skeletons, occurrence of the supra-condyloid foramen + in the humerus of, i. 29. + + GUARANYS, proportion of men and women among, i. 302; + colour of newborn children of the, ii. 318; + beards of the, ii. 322. + + GUENÉE, A., on the sexes of _Hyperythra_, i. 310. + + GUILDING, L., on the stridulation of the _Locustidæ_, i. 352. + + GUILLEMOT, variety of the, ii. 127. + + GUINEA, sheep of, with males only horned, i. 289. + + GUINEA-FOWL, monogamous, i. 269; + occasional polygamy of the, i. 270; + markings of the, ii. 134. + + GUINEA-PIGS, inheritance of the effects of operations by, ii. 380. + + GULL, instance of reasoning in a, ii. 108. + + GULLS, seasonal change of plumage in, ii. 228; + white, ii. 228. + + GÜNTHER, Dr., on hermaphroditism in _Serranus_, i. 208; + on male fishes hatching ova in their mouths, i. 210, ii. 20; + on mistaking infertile female fishes for males, i. 308; + on the prehensile organs of male Plagiostomous fishes, ii. 2; + on the pugnacity of the male salmon and trout, ii. 3; + on the relative size of the sexes in fishes, ii. 7; + on sexual differences in fishes, ii. 8 _et seqq._; + on the genus _Callionymus_, ii. 9; + on a protective resemblance in a Pipe-fish, ii. 18; + on the genus _Solenostoma_, ii. 22; + on _Megalophrys montana_, ii. 26; + on the coloration of frogs and toads, ii. 26; + on sexual differences in the Ophidia, ii. 29; + on differences of the sexes of lizards, ii. 32 _et seqq._ + + _Gynanisa Isis_, ocellated spots of, ii. 132. + + GYPSIES, uniformity of, in various parts of the world, i. 242. + + + H. + + HABITS, bad, facilitated by familiarity, i. 101; + variability of the force of, i. 183. + + HÄCKEL, E., on the origin of man, i. 4; + on rudimentary characters, i. 17; + on the canine teeth in man, i. 126; + on death caused by inflammation of the vermiform appendage, i. 28; + on the steps by which man became a biped, i. 142; + on man as a member of the Catarrhine group, i. 199; + on the position of the Lemuridæ, i. 202; + on the genealogy of the Mammalia, i. 203; + on the lancelet, i. 204; + on the transparency of pelagic animals, i. 323; + on the musical powers of women, ii. 337. + + HAGEN, H., and Walsh, B. D., on American neuroptera, i. 314. + + HAIR, development of, in man, i. 24; + character of, supposed to be determined by light and heat, i. 116; + distribution of, in man, i. 149, ii. 375; + possibly removed for ornamental purposes, i. 149; + arrangement and direction of, i. 192; + of the early progenitors of man, i. 206; + different texture of, in distinct races, i. 216; + and skin, correlation of colour of, i. 248; + development of, in mammals, ii. 281; + management of, among different peoples, ii. 340; + great length of, in some North American tribes, ii. 348; + elongation of the, on the human head, ii. 380. + + HAIRINESS, difference of, in the sexes, in man, ii. 320; + variation of, in races of men, ii. 321. + + HAIRS and excretory pores, numerical relation of, in sheep, i. 248. + + HAIRY family, Siamese, ii. 378. + + HAMADRYAS baboon, turning over stones, i. 75; + mane of the male, ii. 267. + + HAMILTON, C., on the cruelty of the Kafirs to animals, i. 94; + on the engrossment of the women by the Kafir chiefs, ii. 369. + + HAMMERING, difficulty of, i. 138. + + HANCOCK, A., on the colours of the nudibranch mollusca, i. 326. + + HANDS, larger at birth, in the children of labourers, i. 117; + structure of, in the quadrumana, i. 139; + and arms, freedom of, indirectly correlated with diminution + of canines, i. 144. + + HANDWRITING, inherited, i. 58. + + HARCOURT, E. Vernon, on _Fringilla cannabina_, ii. 86. + + _Harelda glacialis_, ii. 122. + + HARE, protective colouring of the, ii. 298. + + HARES, battles of male, ii. 239. + + HARLAN, Dr., on the difference between field- and house-slaves, i. 246. + + HARRIS, J. M., on the relation of complexion to climate, i. 245. + + HARRIS, T. W., on the Katy-did locust, i. 353; + on the stridulation of the grasshoppers, i. 357; + on _Oecanthus nivalis_, i. 361; + on the colouring of Lepidoptera, i. 396; + on the colouring of _Saturnia Io_, i. 398. + + HARRY-LONG-LEGS, pugnacity of male, i. 349. + + HARTMAN, Dr., on the singing of _Cicada septendecim_, i. 351. + + HAUGHTON, S., on a variation of the _flexor pollicis longus_ in man, + i. 129. + + HAWKS, feeding orphan nestling, ii. 107. + + HAYES, Dr., on the diverging of sledge-dogs on thin ice, i. 46. + + HEAD, altered position of, to suit the erect attitude of man, i. 143; + hairiness of, in man, i. 149; + processes of, in male beetles, i. 370; + artificial alterations of the form of the, ii. 351. + + HEARNE, on strife for women among the North American Indians, ii. 324; + on the North American Indians' notion of female beauty, ii. 344; + repeated elopements of a North American woman, ii. 372. + + HEART, in the human embryo, i. 16. + + HEAT, supposed effects of, i. 116. + + _Hectocotyle_, i. 325. + + HEDGE-WARBLER, ii. 198; + young of the, ii. 209. + + HEEL, small projection of, in the Aymara Indians, i. 120. + + HEGT, M., on the development of the spurs in peacocks, i. 290. + + HELICONIDÆ, i. 387; + mimickry of, by other butterflies, i. 411. + + _Heliopathes_, stridulation peculiar to the male, i. 383. + + _Heliothrix auriculata_, young of, ii. 188, 189. + + _Helix pomatia_, example of individual attachment in, i. 325. + + HELLINS, J., proportions of sexes of Lepidoptera reared by, i. 313. + + HELMHOLTZ, on the vibration of the auditory hairs of crustacea, + ii. 333. + + HEMIPTERA, i. 349. + + _Hemitragus_, beardless in both sexes, ii. 283. + + HEPBURN, Mr., on the autumn song of the water-ouzel, ii. 54. + + _Hepialus humuli_, sexual difference of colour in the, i. 399, 402. + + HERBS, poisonous, avoided by animals, i. 36. + + HERMAPHRODITISM of embryos, i. 207. + + _Herodias bubulcus_, vernal moult of, ii. 84. + + HERON, love-gestures of a, ii. 68. + + HERON, Sir R., on the habits of peafowl, ii. 119, 120, 152. + + HERONS, decomposed feathers in, ii. 74; + breeding plumage of, ii. 82, 83; + young of the, ii. 208; + sometimes dimorphic, ii. 214; + continued growth of crest and plumes in the males of some, ii. 216; + change of colour in some, ii. 231. + + _Hetærina_, difference in the sexes of, i. 362; + proportion of the sexes in, i. 314. + + _Heterocerus_, stridulation of, i. 379. + + HEWITT, Mr. on a game-cock killing a kite, ii. 44; + on the recognition of dogs and cats by ducks, ii. 110; + on the pairing of a wild duck with a pintail drake, ii. 115; + on the courtship of fowls, ii. 117; + on the coupling of pheasants with common hens, ii. 122. + + HINDOO, his horror of breaking his caste, i. 99, 103. + + HINDOOS, local difference of stature among, i. 115; + difference of, from Europeans, i. 240; + colour of the beard in, ii. 319. + + _Hipparchia Janira_, instability of the ocellated spots of, ii. 132. + + _Hipparchiæ_, i. 387. + + _Hippocampus_, development of, i. 210; + marsupial receptacles of the male, ii. 21. + + HIPPOPOTAMUS, nakedness of, i. 148. + + HIPS, proportions of, in soldiers and sailors, i. 117. + + HODGSON, S., on the sense of duty, i. 71. + + HOFFBERG, on the horns of the reindeer, ii. 244; + on sexual preferences shown by reindeer, ii. 273. + + HOG, wart-, ii. 265; + river-, ii. 266. + + HOG-DEER, ii. 303. + + HOLLAND, Sir H., on the effects of new diseases, i. 238. + + HOMOLOGOUS structures, correlated variation of, i. 130. + + HOMOPTERA, i. 350; + stridulation of the, and orthoptera, discussed, i. 360. + + HONDURAS, _Quiscalus major_ in, i. 307. + + HONEY-BUZZARD of India, variation in the crest of, ii. 126. + + HONEY-SUCKERS, moulting of the, ii. 83; + Australian, nidification of, ii. 169. + + HONOUR, law of, i. 99. + + HOOKER, Jos., on the colour of the beard in man, ii. 319. + + HOOLOCK GIBBON, nose of, i. 192. + + HOOPOE, ii. 56; + sounds produced by the male, ii. 62. + + _Hoplopterus armatus_, wing-spurs of, ii. 48. + + HORNBILL, African, inflation of the neck-wattle of the male during + courtship, ii. 72. + + HORNBILLS, sexual difference in the colour of the eyes in, ii. 129; + nidification and incubation of, ii. 169. + + HORNE, C., on the rejection of a brightly-coloured locust by lizards + and birds, i. 361. + + HORNS, of deer, ii. 243, 248, 259; + and canine teeth, inverse development of, ii. 257; + sexual differences of, in sheep and goats, i. 283; + loss of, in female merino sheep, i. 284; + development of, in deer, i. 288; + development of, in antelopes, i. 289; + from the head and thorax, in male beetles, i. 370. + + HORSE, polygamous, i. 267; + canine teeth of male, ii. 241; + winter change of the, ii. 298; + fossil, extinction of the, in South America, i. 239. + + HORSES, dreaming, i. 46; + rapid increase of, in South America, i. 135; + diminution of canine teeth in, i. 144; + of the Falkland Islands and Pampas, i. 236; + numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. 263, 265; + lighter in winter in Siberia, i. 282; + sexual preferences in, ii. 272; + pairing preferentially with those of the same colour, ii. 295; + numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. 303; + formerly striped, ii. 305. + + HOTTENTOT women, peculiarities of, i. 225. + + HOTTENTOTS, lice of, i. 220; + readily become musicians, ii. 334; + notions of female beauty of the, ii. 345; + compression of nose by, ii. 352. + + HOUSE-SLAVES, difference of, from field-slaves, i. 246. + + HUBER, P., on ants playing together, i. 39; + on memory in ants, i. 45; + on the intercommunication of ants, i. 58; + on the recognition of each other by ants after separation, i. 365. + + HUC, on Chinese opinions of the appearance of Europeans, ii. 345. + + HUMAN kingdom, i. 186. + + HUMAN sacrifices, i. 68. + + HUMANITY, unknown among some savages, i. 94; + deficiency of, among savages, i. 101. + + HUMBOLDT, A. von, on the rationality of mules, i. 48; + on a parrot preserving the language of a lost tribe, i. 236; + on the cosmetic arts of savages, ii. 339, 340; + on the exaggeration of natural characters by man, ii. 351; + on the red painting of American Indians, ii. 352. + + HUME, D., on sympathetic feelings, i. 85. + + HUMMING-BIRD, racket-shaped feathers in the tail of a, ii. 73; + display of plumage by the male, ii. 86. + + HUMMING-BIRDS, ornament their nests, i. 63, ii. 112; + polygamous, i. 269; + proportion of the sexes in, i. 307, ii. 221; + sexual differences in, ii. 39, 40, 151; + pugnacity of male, ii. 40; + modified primaries of male, ii. 65; + coloration of the sexes of, ii. 78; + young of, ii. 220; + nidification of the, ii. 168; + colours of female, ii. 168. + + HUMPHREYS, H. N., on the habits of the Stickleback, i. 271, ii. 2. + + HUNGER, instinct of, i. 89. + + HUNS, ancient, flattening of the nose by the, ii. 352. + + HUNTER, J., on the number of species of man, i. 226; + on secondary sexual characters, i. 253; + on the general behaviour of female animals during courtship, i. 273; + on the muscles of the larynx in song-birds, ii. 55; + on the curled frontal hair of the Bull, ii. 282; + on the rejection of an ass by a female zebra, ii. 295. + + HUNTER, W. W., on the recent rapid increase of the Santali, i. 133; + on the Santali, i. 241. + + HUSSEY, Mr., on a partridge distinguishing persons, ii. 110. + + HUTCHINSON, Col., example of reasoning in a retriever, i. 48. + + HUTTON, Capt., on the male wild goat falling on his horns, ii. 249. + + HUXLEY, T. H., on the structural agreement of man with the apes, i. 3; + on the agreement of the brain in man with that of lower animals, + i. 10; + on the adult age of the Orang, i. 13; + on the embryonic development of man, i. 14; + on the origin of man, i. 4, 17; + on variation in the skulls of the natives of Australia, i. 108; + on the abductor of the fifth metatarsal in apes, i. 128; + on the position of man, i. 191; + on the sub-orders of primates, i. 195; + on the Lemuridæ, i. 202; + on the Dinosauria, i. 204; + on the amphibian affinities of the Ichthyosaurians, i. 204; + on variability of the skull in certain races of man, i. 226; + on the races of man, i. 229. + + HYBRID birds, production of, ii. 113. + + HYDROPHOBIA communicable between man and the lower animals, i. 11. + + _Hydroporus_, dimorphism of females of, i. 343. + + _Hyelaphus porcinus_, ii. 303. + + _Hygrogonus_, ii. 21. + + _Hyla_, singing species of, ii. 27. + + _Hylobates_, maternal affection in a, i. 40; + absence of the thumb in, i. 140; + upright progression of some species of, i. 143; + direction of the hair on the arms of species of, i. 192; + females of, less hairy below than males, ii. 320. + + _Hylobates agilis_, i. 140; + hair on the arms of, i. 193; + musical voice of the, ii. 277; + superciliary ridge of, ii. 318; + voice of, ii. 332. + + _Hylobates hoolock_, sexual difference of colour in, ii. 291. + + _Hylobates lar_, i. 140; + hair on the arms of, i. 193. + + _Hylobates leuciscus_, i. 140. + + _Hylobates syndactylus_, i. 140; + laryngeal sac of, ii. 276. + + HYMENOPTERA, i. 364; + large size of the cerebral ganglia in, i. 145; + classification of, i. 188; + sexual differences in the wings of, i. 345; + aculeate, relative size of the sexes of, i. 347. + + HYMENOPTERON, parasitic, with a sedentary male, i. 272. + + _Hyomoschus aquaticus_, ii. 304. + + _Hyperythra_, proportion of the sexes in, i. 310. + + _Hypogymna dispar_, sexual difference of colour in, i. 398. + + _Hypopyra_, coloration of, i. 397. + + + I. + + IBEX, male, falling on his horns, ii. 249; + beard of the, ii. 283. + + IBIS, scarlet, young of the, ii. 208; + white, change of colour of naked skin in, during the breeding + season, ii. 80. + + _Ibis tantalus_, age of mature plumage in, ii. 213; + breeding in immature plumage, ii. 214, 215. + + IBISES, decomposed feathers in, ii. 74; + white, ii. 228, and black, ii. 230. + + ICHNEUMONIDÆ, difference of the sexes in, i. 365. + + ICHTHYOPTERYGIA, i. 125. + + ICHTHYOSAURIANS, i. 204. + + IDEAS, general, i. 62. + + IDIOTS, microcephalous, imitative faculties of, i. 57; + microcephalous, their characters and habits, i. 121. + + _Iguana tuberculata_, ii. 32. + + IGUANAS, ii. 32. + + ILLEGITIMATE and legitimate children, proportion of the sexes in, + i. 302. + + IMAGINATION, existence of, in animals, i. 45. + + IMITATION, i. 39; + of man by monkeys, i. 44; + tendency to, in monkeys, microcephalous idiots and savages, i. 56; + influence of, i. 161. + + IMMATURE plumage of birds, ii. 183, 187. + + IMPLACENTATA, i. 202. + + IMPLEMENTS, employed by monkeys, i. 51; + fashioning of, peculiar to man, i. 52. + + IMPREGNATION, period of, influence of, upon sex, i. 303. + + IMPROVEMENT, progressive, man alone supposed to be capable of, i. 49. + + INCISOR teeth, knocked out or filed by some savages, ii. 340. + + INCREASE, rate of, i. 131; + necessity of checks in, i. 135. + + INDECENCY, hatred of, a modern virtue, i. 96. + + INDIA, difficulty of distinguishing the native races of, i. 215; + Cyprinidæ of, ii. 17; + colour of the beard in races of men of, ii. 319. + + INDIAN, North American, honoured for scalping a man of another tribe, + i. 93. + + INDIVIDUALITY, i. 62. + + INDIVIDUATION, i. 318. + + _Indopicus carlotta_, colours of the sexes of, ii. 175. + + INFANTICIDE, prevalence of, i. 94, 134; + supposed cause of, ii. 344; + prevalence and causes of, ii. 363 _et seq._ + + INFERIORITY, supposed physical, of man, i. 156. + + INFLAMMATION of the bowels, occurrence of, in _Cebus Azaræ_, i. 12. + + INHERITANCE, i. 110; + of effects of use of vocal and mental organs, i. 58; + of moral tendencies, i. 102, 104; + of long and short sight, i. 118; + laws of, i. 279; + sexual, i. 285; + sexually limited, ii. 154. + + INQUISITION, influence of the, i. 179. + + INSANITY, hereditary, i. 111. + + INSECT, fossil, from the Devonian, i. 360. + + INSECTIVORA, ii. 286; + absence of secondary sexual characters in, i. 268. + + INSECTS, relative size of the cerebral ganglia in, i. 145; + male, appearance of, before the females, i. 260; + pursuit of female, by the males, i. 272; + period of development of sexual characters in, i. 291; + secondary sexual characters of, i. 341; + stridulation of, ii. 331. + + INSESSORES, vocal organs of, ii. 55. + + INSTEP, depth of, in soldiers and sailors, i. 117. + + INSTINCT and intelligence, i. 37. + + INSTINCT, migratory, vanquishing the maternal, i. 83, 90. + + INSTINCTIVE actions, the result of inheritance, i. 80. + + INSTINCTIVE impulses, difference of the force of, i. 87, 89; + and moral impulses, alliance of, i. 88. + + INSTINCTS, i. 36; + complex origin of, through natural selection, i. 38; + possible origin of some, i. 38; + acquired, of domestic animals, i. 79; + variability of the force of, i. 83; + difference of force between the social and other, i. 89, 104; + utilised for new purposes, ii. 335. + + INSTRUMENTAL music of birds, ii. 61, 66. + + INTELLECT, influence of, in natural selection in civilised society, + i. 171. + + INTELLECTUAL faculties, their influence on natural selection in man, + i. 158; + probably perfected through natural selection, i. 160. + + INTELLIGENCE, Mr. H. Spencer on the dawn of, i. 37. + + INTEMPERANCE, no reproach among savages, i. 96; + its destructiveness, i. 172. + + INTOXICATION in monkeys, i. 12. + + _Iphias glaucippe_, i. 394. + + IRIS, sexual difference in the colour of the, in birds, ii. 72, 128. + + ISCHIO-PUBIC muscle, i. 127. + + _Ithaginis cruentus_, number of spurs in, ii. 46. + + _Iulus_, tarsal suckers of the males of, i. 340. + + + J. + + JACKALS learning to bark from dogs, i. 44. + + JACK-SNIPE, coloration of the, ii. 226. + + JACQUINOT, on the number of species of man, i. 226. + + JAEGER, Dr., on the difficulty of approaching herds of wild animals, + i. 74; + on the increase of length in bones, i. 116; + on the deposition of a male Silver pheasant on account of spoiled + plumage, ii. 120. + + JAGUARS, black, ii. 294. + + JANSON, E. W., on the proportions of the sexes in _Tomicus villosus_, + i. 314; + on stridulant beetles, i. 379. + + JAPAN, encouragement of licentiousness in, i. 134. + + JAPANESE, general beardlessness of the, ii. 321; + aversion of the, to whiskers, ii. 349. + + JARDINE, Sir W., on the Argus pheasant, ii. 72, 97. + + JARROLD, Dr., on modifications of the skull induced by unnatural + position, i. 147. + + JAVANESE, relative height of the sexes of, ii. 320; + notions of female beauty, ii. 347. + + JAW, influence of the muscles of the, upon the physiognomy + of the apes, i. 144. + + JAWS, smaller in the same ratio with the extremities, i. 117; + influence of food upon the size of, i. 118; + diminution of, in man, i. 144; + in man, reduced by correlation, ii. 325. + + JAY, young of the, ii. 209; + Canada, young of the, ii. 209. + + JAYS, new mates found by, ii. 104; + distinguishing persons, ii. 110. + + JEFFREYS, J. Gwyn, on the form of the shell in the sexes + of the Gasteropoda, i. 324; + on the influence of light upon the colours of shells, i. 326. + + JELLY-FISH, bright colours of some, i. 322. + + JENNER, Dr., on the voice of the rook, ii. 61; + on the finding of new mates by magpies, ii. 103; + on retardation of the generative organs in birds, ii. 107. + + JENYNS, L., on the desertion of their young by swallows, i. 84; + on male birds singing after the proper season, ii. 107. + + JERDON, Dr., on birds dreaming, 46; + on the pugnacity of the male bulbul, ii. 41; + on the pugnacity of the male _Ortygornis gularis_, ii. 44; + on the spurs of _Galloperdix_, ii. 46; + on the habits of _Lobivanellus_, ii. 48; + on the spoonbill, ii. 60; + on the drumming of the Kalij pheasant, ii. 63; + on Indian bustards, ii. 65; + on _Otis bengalensis_, ii. 69; + on the ear-tufts of _Sypheotides auritus_, ii. 73; + on the double moults of certain birds, ii. 82; + on the moulting of the honey-suckers, ii. 83; + on the moulting of bustards, plovers, and drongos, ii. 84; + on display in male birds, ii. 86; + on the spring change of colour in some finches, ii. 86; + on the display of the under tail-coverts by the male bulbul, ii. 96; + on the Indian honey-buzzard, ii. 126; + on sexual differences in the colour of the eyes of hornbills, + ii. 129; + on the markings of the Tragopan pheasant, ii. 134; + on the nidification of the Orioles, ii. 168; + on the nidification of the hornbills, ii. 169; + on the Sultan yellow-tit, ii. 174; + on _Palæornis javanicus_, ii. 180; + on the immature plumage of birds, ii. 186 _et seq._; + on representative species of birds, ii. 190; + on the habits of _Turnix_, ii. 202; + on the continued increase of beauty of the peacock, ii. 216; + on coloration in the genus _Palæornis_, ii. 231. + + JEVONS, W. S., on the migrations of man, i. 135. + + JEWS, ancient, use of flint tools by the, i. 183; + uniformity of, in various parts of the world, i. 242; + numerical proportion of male and female births among the, i. 301; + ancient, tattooing practised by, ii. 339. + + JOHNSTONE, Lieut., on the Indian elephant, i. 268. + + JOLLOFS, fine appearance of the, ii. 357. + + JONES, Albert, proportion of sexes of Lepidoptera, reared by, i. 313. + + JUAN FERNANDEZ, humming-birds of, ii. 221. + + _Junonia_, sexual differences of colouring in species of, i. 389. + + JUPITER, Greek statues of, ii. 350. + + + K. + + KAFIR skull, occurrence of the diastema in a, i. 126. + + KAFIRS, their cruelty to animals, i. 94; + lice of the, i. 220; + colour of the, ii. 347; + engrossment of the handsomest women by the chiefs of the, ii. 369; + marriage-customs of the, ii. 373. + + KALIJ-PHEASANT, drumming of the male, ii. 62; + young of, ii. 190. + + _Kallima_, resemblance of, to a withered leaf, i. 392. + + KALMUCKS, aversion of, to hairs on the face, ii. 349; + marriage-customs of the, ii. 373. + + KANGAROO, great red, sexual difference in the colour of, ii. 286. + + KANT, Imm., on duty, i. 70; + on self-restraint, i. 86; + on the number of species of man, i. 226. + + KATY-DID, stridulation of the, i. 352. + + KELLER, Dr., on the difficulty of fashioning stone implements, i. 138. + + KESTRELS, new mates found by, ii. 104. + + KIDNEY, i. 116. + + KING, W. R., on the vocal organs of _Tetrao cupido_, ii. 56; + on the drumming of grouse, ii. 63; + on the reindeer, ii. 244; + on the attraction of male deer by the voice of the female, ii. 276. + + KING and Fitzroy, on the marriage-customs of the Fuegians, ii. 374. + + KING-CROWS, nidification of, ii. 167. + + KINGFISHER, ii. 56; + racket-shaped feathers in the tail of a, ii. 73. + + KINGFISHERS, colours and nidification of the, ii. 171, 173, 176; + immature plumage of the, ii. 188, 190; + young of the, ii. 209. + + KING LORY, ii. 174; + immature plumage of the, ii. 188. + + KINGSLEY, C., on the sounds produced by _Umbrina_, ii. 23. + + KIRBY and Spence, on the courtship of insects, i. 272; + on sexual differences in the length of the snout in curculionidæ, + i. 255; + on the elytra of _Dytiscus_, i. 343; + on peculiarities in the legs of male insects, i. 344; + on the relative size of the sexes in insects, i. 345; + on the luminosity of insects, i. 345; + on the Fulgoridæ, i. 351; + on the habits of _Termites_, i. 364; + on difference of colour in the sexes of beetles, i. 367; + on the horns of the male lamellicorn beetles, i. 371; + on hornlike processes in male curculionidæ, i. 374; + on the pugnacity of the male stag-beetle, i. 375. + + KITE, killed by a game-cock, ii. 44. + + KNOT, retention of winter plumage by the, ii. 82. + + KNOX, R., on the semilunar fold, i. 23; + on the occurrence of the supra-condyloid foramen in the humerus + of man, i. 28; + on the features of the young Memnon, i. 217. + + KOALA, length of the cæcum in, i. 27. + + KÖLREUTER, on the sterility of hybrid plants, i. 223. + + _Kobus ellipsiprymnus_, proportion of the sexes in, i. 305. + + KOODOO, development of the horns of the, i. 289; + markings of the, ii. 300. + + KÖPPEN, F. T., on the migratory locust, i. 352. + + KORDOFAN, protuberances artificially produced in, ii. 339. + + KOWALEVSKY, A., on the affinity of the Ascidia to the Vertebrata, + i. 205. + + KOWALEVSKY, W., on the pugnacity of the male Capercailzie, ii. 45; + on the pairing of the Capercailzie, ii. 49. + + KRAUSE, on a convoluted body at the extremity of the tail in + a _Macacus_ and a cat, i. 30. + + KUPPFER, Prof., on the affinity of the Ascidia to the Vertebrata, + i. 205. + + + L. + + _Labidocera Darwinii_, prehensile organs of the male, i. 329. + + _Labrus_, splendid colours of the species of, ii. 16. + + _Labrus mixtus_, sexual differences in, ii. 9. + + _Labrus pavo_, ii. 16. + + LACERTILIA, sexual differences of, ii. 32. + + LAFRESNAYE, M. de, on Birds of Paradise, ii. 78. + + LAMARCK, on the origin of man, i. 4. + + LAMELLIBRANCHIATA, i. 324. + + LAMELLICORN beetles, hornlike processes from the head and thorax of, + i. 370, 373; + analogy of, to Ruminants, i. 373; + influence of sexual selection on, i. 377. + + LAMELLICORNIA, stridulation of, i. 380. + + LAMONT, Mr., on the tusks of the Walrus, ii. 242; + on the use of its tusks by the Walrus, ii. 257. + + _Lampornis porphyrurus_, colours of the female, ii. 168. + + LANCELET, i. 204, 212. + + LANDOIS, H., on the production of sound by the Cicadæ, i. 351; + on the stridulating organ of the Crickets, i. 354; + on _Decticus_, i. 355; + on the stridulating organs of the Acridiidæ, i. 356; + on the presence of rudimentary stridulating organs in some female + Orthoptera, i. 359; + on the stridulation of _Necrophorus_, i. 378; + on the stridulant organ of _Cerambyx heros_, i. 380; + on the stridulating organs in the Coleoptera, i. 382; + on the ticking of _Anobium_, i. 385; + on the stridulant organ of _Geotrupes_, i. 380. + + LANGUAGE an art, i. 55; + articulate, origin of, i. 56; + relation of the progress of, to the development of the brain, i. 57; + effects of inheritance in production of, i. 58; + complex structure of, among barbarous nations, i. 61; + natural selection in, i. 61; + gesture, i. 232; + primeval, i. 235; + of a lost tribe preserved by a parrot, i. 236. + + LANGUAGES, presence of rudiments in, i. 60; + classification of, i. 60; + variability of, i. 60; + crossing or blending of, i. 60; + complexity of, no test of perfection or proof of special creation, + i. 62; + resemblance of, evidence of community of origin, i. 189. + + LANGUAGES and species, identity of evidence of their gradual + development, i. 59. + + _Lanius_, ii. 180; + characters of young, ii. 185. + + _Lanius rufus_, anomalous young of, ii. 211. + + LANKESTER, E. R., on comparative longevity, i. 168, 171; + on the destructive effects of intemperance, i. 173. + + LANUGO, of the human foetus, i. 25; ii. 375. + + LAPPONIAN language, highly artificial, i. 61. + + LARK, proportion of the sexes in the, i. 307; + female, singing of the, ii. 54. + + LARKS, attracted by a mirror, ii. 112. + + LARTET, E., on the size of the brain in mammals, i. 51; + comparison of cranial capacities of skulls of recent and tertiary + mammals, i. 146; + on _Dryopithecus_, i. 199. + + _Larus_, seasonal change of plumage in, ii. 228. + + LARVA, luminous, of a Brazilian beetle, i. 345. + + LARYNX, muscles of the, in song-birds, ii. 55. + + _Lasiocampa quercus_, attraction of males by the female, i. 311; + sexual difference of colour in, i. 398. + + LATHAM, R. G., on the migrations of man, i. 136. + + LATOOKA, perforation of the lower lip by the women of, ii. 341. + + LAURILLARD, on the abnormal division of the malar bone in man, i. 124. + + LAWRENCE, W., on the superiority of savages to Europeans in power + of sight, i. 118; + on the colour of negro infants, ii. 318; + on the fondness of savages for ornaments, ii. 338; + on beardless races, ii. 349; + on the beauty of the English aristocracy, ii. 357. + + LAYARD, E. L., on an instance of rationality in a Cobra, ii. 30; + on the pugnacity of _Gallus Stanleyi_, ii. 44. + + LAYCOCK, Dr., on vital periodicity, i. 12. + + LEAVES, decaying, tints of, i. 323. + + LECKY, Mr., on the sense of duty, i. 71; + on suicide, i. 94; + on the practice of celibacy, i. 96; + his view of the crimes of savages, i. 97; + on the gradual rise of morality, i. 103. + + LECONTE, J. L., on the stridulant organ in the Coprini and Dynastini, + i. 381. + + LEE, H., on the numerical proportion of the sexes in the trout, + i. 308. + + LEG, calf of the, artificially modified, ii. 340. + + LEGITIMATE and illegitimate children, proportion of the sexes in, + i. 302. + + LEGS, variation of the length of the, in man, i. 108; + proportions of, in soldiers and sailors, i. 116; + fore, atrophied in some male butterflies, i. 344; + peculiarities of, in male insects, i. 344. + + "LEK" of the black-cock and capercailzie, ii. 100. + + LEMOINE, Albert, on the origin of language, i. 56. + + _Lemur macaco_, sexual difference of colour in, ii. 290. + + LEMURIDÆ, i. 195; + their origin, i. 213; + position and derivation of the, i. 202; + ears of the, i. 23; + variability of the muscles in the, i. 128. + + LEMURS, uterus in the, i. 123; + tailless species of, i. 194. + + LEOPARDS, black, ii. 294. + + LEPIDOPTERA, i. 386; + numerical proportions of the sexes in the, i. 309; + colouring of, i. 387; + ocellated spots of, ii. 132. + + _Lepidosiren_, i. 204, 212. + + LENGUAS, disfigurement of the ears of the, ii. 341. + + _Leptorhynchus angustatus_, pugnacity of male, i. 375. + + _Leptura testacea_, difference of colour in the sexes of, i. 367. + + LEQUAY, on the occurrence of the supra-condyloid foramen in + the humerus of man, i. 29. + + LEROY, on the wariness of young foxes in hunting-districts, i. 50; + on the desertion of their young by swallows, i. 84. + + LESSE, valley of the, i. 29. + + LESSON, on the Birds of Paradise, i. 269, ii. 98; + on the sea-elephant, ii. 278. + + _Lestis bombylans_, difference of the sexes in, i. 366. + + _Lethrus cephalotes_, pugnacity of the males of, i. 371, 376. + + LEUCKART, R., on the _vesicula prostatica_, i. 31; + on the influence of the age of parents on the sex of offspring, + i. 302. + + _Levator claviculæ_ muscle, i. 128. + + _Libellula depressa_, colour of the male, i. 363. + + LIBELLULIDÆ, relative size of the sexes of, i. 347; + difference in the sexes of, i. 361. + + LICE of domestic animals and man, i. 219. + + LICENTIOUSNESS, prevalence of, among savages, i. 96; + a check upon population, i. 134. + + LICHTENSTEIN, on _Chera progne_, ii. 120. + + LIFE, inheritance at corresponding periods of, i. 280, 285. + + LIGHT, supposed effects of, i. 116; + influence of, upon the colours of shells, i. 326. + + LILFORD, Lord, the ruff attracted by bright objects, ii. 111. + + _Limosa lapponica_, ii. 204. + + _Linaria_, ii. 180. + + _Linaria montana_, i. 307. + + LINNÆUS, views of, as to the position of man, i. 190. + + LINNET, numerical proportion of the sexes in the, i. 307; + crimson forehead and breast of the, ii. 86; + courtship of the, ii. 94. + + _Linyphia_, i. 337. + + LION, polygamous, i. 268; + mane of the, defensive, ii. 266; + roaring of the, ii. 275. + + LIONS, stripes of young, ii. 183. + + LIPS, piercing of the, by savages, ii. 341. + + _Lithobius_, prehensile appendages of the female, i. 340. + + _Lithosia_, coloration in, i. 396. + + _Littorina littorea_, i. 324. + + LIVINGSTONE, Dr., on the influence of dampness and dryness + on the colour of the skin, i. 242; + on the liability of negroes to tropical fevers after residence + in a cold climate, i. 243; + on the spur-winged goose, ii. 47; + on weaver-birds, ii. 63; + on an African nightjar, ii. 73, 97; + on the battle-scars of South African male mammals, ii. 239; + on the removal of the upper incisors by the Batokas, ii. 340; + on the perforation of the upper lip by the Makalolo, ii. 342; + on the Banyai, ii. 347. + + LIVONIA, numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. 301. + + LIZARDS, relative size of the sexes of, ii. 32; + gular pouches of, ii. 33. + + LLOYD, L., on the polygamy of the capercailzie and bustard, i. 269; + on the numerical proportion of the sexes in the capercailzie + and black-cock, i. 306; + on the salmon, ii. 5; + on the colours of the sea-scorpion, ii. 9; + on the pugnacity of male grouse, ii. 45; + on the capercailzie and black-cock, ii. 49, 54; + on the call of the capercailzie, ii. 61; + on assemblages of grouse and snipes, ii. 101; + on the pairing of a shield-drake with a common duck, ii. 114; + on the battles of seals, ii. 240; + on the elk, ii. 249. + + _Lobivanellus_, wing-spurs in, ii. 48. + + Local influences, effect of, upon stature, i. 114. + + LOCKWOOD, Mr., on the development of _Hippocampus_, i. 210. + + LOCUST, bright-coloured, rejected by lizards and birds, i. 361. + + LOCUST, migratory, i. 352. + + LOCUSTIDÆ, stridulation of the, i. 352, 354; + descent of the, i. 356. + + LONGICORN beetles, difference of the sexes of, in colour, i. 367; + stridulation of, i. 380. + + LONSDALE, Mr., on an example of personal attachment in + _Helix pomatia_, i. 325. + + LOPHOBRANCHII, marsupial receptacles of the male, ii. 21. + + _Lophophorus_, habits of, ii. 121. + + _Lophorina atra_, sexual difference in coloration of, ii. 226. + + _Lophornis ornatus_, ii. 76. + + LORD, J. K., on _Salmo lycaodon_, ii. 5. + + LORY, King, ii. 174; + immature plumage of the, ii. 188. + + LOVE-ANTICS and dances of birds, ii. 68. + + LOWNE, B. T., on _Musca vomitoria_, i. 145, 349. + + _Loxia_, characters of young of, ii. 184. + + LUBBOCK, Sir J., on the antiquity of man, i. 3; + on the origin of man, i. 4; + on the mental capacity of savages, i. 34; + on the origin of implements, i. 52; + on the simplification of languages, i. 62; + on the absence of the idea of God among certain races of men, i. 65; + on the origin of the belief in spiritual agencies, i. 66; + on superstitions, i. 69; + on the sense of duty, i. 71; + on the practice of burying the old and sick among the Fijians, + i. 77; + non-prevalence of suicide among the lowest barbarians, i. 94; + on the immorality of savages, i. 97; + on Mr. Wallace's claim to the origination of the idea of natural + selection, i. 137; + on the absence of remorse among savages, i. 164; + on the former barbarism of civilised nations, i. 181; + on improvements in the arts among savages, i. 182; + on resemblances of the mental characters in different races + of men, i. 232; + on the power of counting in primeval man, i. 234; + on the arts practised by savages, i. 234; + on the prehensile organs of the male _Labidocera Darwinii_, i. 329; + on _Chloëon_, i. 341; + on _Smynthurus luteus_, i. 348; + on strife for women among the North American Indians, ii. 324; + on music, ii. 334; + on the ornamental practices of savages, ii. 338; + on the estimation of the beard among the Anglo-Saxons, ii. 349; + on artificial deformation of the skull, ii. 352; + on "communal marriages," ii. 358, 360; + on exogamy, ii. 360, 364; + on the Veddahs, ii. 363; + on polyandry, ii. 365. + + LUCANIDÆ, variability of the mandibles in the male, i. 376. + + _Lucanus_, large size of males of, i. 347. + + _Lucanus cervus_, numerical proportion of sexes of, i. 313; + weapons of the male, i. 375. + + _Lucanus elaphus_, use of mandibles of, i. 377; + large jaws of male, i. 342. + + LUCAS, Prosper, on sexual preference in horses and bulls, ii. 272. + + LUNAR periods, i. 212. + + LUND, Dr., on skulls found in Brazilian caves, i. 218. + + LUNGS, enlargement of, in the Quechua and Aymara Indians, i. 119; + a modified swim-bladder, i. 207; + different capacity of in races of man, i. 216. + + LUMINOSITY in insects, i. 345. + + LUSCHKA, Prof., on the termination of the coccyx, i. 30. + + LUST, instinct of, i. 89. + + LUXURY, comparatively innocuous, i. 171. + + _Lycæna_, sexual differences of colouring in species of, i. 390. + + LYELL, Sir C., on the antiquity of man, i. 3; + on the origin of man, i. 4; + on the parallelism of the development of species and languages, + i. 59; + on the extinction of languages, i. 60; + on the Inquisition, i. 178; + on the fossil remains of vertebrata, i. 201; + on the fertility of mulattoes, i. 221. + + LYNX, Canadian, throat-ruff of the, ii. 267. + + LYRE-BIRD, assemblies of, ii. 101. + + + M. + + _Macacus_, ears of, i. 23; + convoluted body in the extremity of the tail of, i. 30; + variability of the tail in species of, i. 150; + whiskers of species of, ii. 283. + + _Macacus cynomolgus_, superciliary ridge of, ii. 318; + beard and whiskers of, becoming white with age, ii. 319. + + _Macacus inornatus_, i. 151. + + _Macacus lasiotus_, facial spots of, ii. 308. + + _Macacus radiatus_, i. 192. + + _Macacus rhesus_, sexual difference in the colour of, ii. 293, 310. + + MACALISTER, Prof., on variations of the _palmaris accessorius_ muscle, + i. 109; + on muscular abnormalities in man, i. 128, 129; + on the greater variability of the muscles in men than in women, + i. 275. + + MACAWS, Mr. Buxton's observations on, i. 76; + screams of, ii. 61. + + MCCANN, J., on mental individuality, i. 63. + + MCCLELLAND, J., on the Indian cyprinidæ, ii. 17. + + MACCULLOCH, Col., on an Indian village without any female children, + ii. 364. + + MACCULLOCH, Dr., on tertian ague in a dog, i. 13. + + MACGILLIVRAY, W., on the vocal organs of birds, i. 59; + on the Egyptian goose, ii. 48; + on the habits of woodpeckers, ii. 63; + on the habits of the snipe, ii. 64; + on the white-throat, ii. 69; + on the moulting of the snipes, ii. 82; + on the moulting of the anatidæ, ii. 85; + on the finding of new mates by magpies, ii. 103; + on the pairing of a blackbird and thrush, ii. 113; + on pied ravens, ii. 126; + on the guillemots, ii. 127; + on the colours of the tits, ii. 174; + on the immature plumage of birds, ii. 186 _et seqq._ + + _Machetes_, sexes and young of, ii. 216. + + _Machetes pugnax_, numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. 306; + supposed to be polygamous, i. 270; + pugnacity of the male, ii. 41; + double moult in, ii. 81. + + MACKINTOSH, on the moral sense, i. 70. + + MACLACHLAN, R., on _Apatania muliebris_ and _Boreus hyemalis_, i. 314; + on the anal appendages of male insects, i. 342; + on the pairing of dragon-flies, i. 347; + on dragon-flies, i. 362, 363; + on dimorphism in _Agrion_, i. 363; + on the want of pugnacity in male dragon-flies, i. 364; + on the ghost-moth in the Shetland Islands, i. 402. + + MCLENNAN, Mr., on the origin of the belief in spiritual agencies, + i. 66; + on the prevalence of licentiousness among savages, i. 96, ii. 358; + on infanticide, i. 134, ii. 363; + on the primitive barbarism of civilised nations, i. 181; + on traces of the custom of the forcible capture of wives, i. 182, + ii. 365; + on polyandry, ii. 365. + + MCNEILL, Mr., on the use of the antlers of deer, ii. 252; + on the Scotch deerhound, ii. 261; + on the long hairs of the throat of the stag, ii. 268; + on the bellowing of stags, ii. 274. + + _Macrorhinus proboscideus_, structure of the nose of, ii. 278. + + MAGPIE, power of speech of, i. 59; + stealing bright objects, ii. 112; + nuptial assemblies of, ii. 102; + new mates found by, ii. 103; + young of the, ii. 209; + coloration of the, ii. 230. + + MAGPIES, vocal organs of the, ii. 55. + + MAILLARD, M., on the proportion of the sexes in a species + of _Papilio_ from Bourbon, i. 310. + + MAINE, Mr., on the absorption of one tribe by another, i. 159; + on the want of a desire for improvement, i. 166. + + MAKALOLO, perforation of the upper lip by the, ii. 341. + + MALAR bone, abnormal division of, in man, i. 124. + + MALAY, Archipelago, marriage-customs of the savages of the, ii. 373. + + MALAYS, line of separation between the Papuans and the, i. 218; + general beardlessness of the, ii. 321; + staining of the teeth among, ii. 339; + aversion of some, to hairs on the face, ii. 349. + + MALAYS and Papuans, contrasted characters of, i. 216. + + MALE animals, struggles of, for the possession of the females, + i. 259, 260; + eagerness of, in courtship, i. 272, 273; + generally more modified than female, i. 272, 275; + differ in the same way from females and young, i. 285. + + MALE characters, developed in females, i. 280; + transfer of, to female birds, ii. 193. + + MALE, sedentary, of a hymenopterous parasite, i. 272. + + MALEFACTORS, i. 172. + + MALES, presence of rudimentary female organs in, i. 208. + + MALES and females, comparative mortality of, while young, i. 264, 276; + comparative numbers of, i. 261, 263. + + MALHERBE, on the woodpeckers, ii. 174. + + MALTHUS, T., on the rate of increase of population, i. 131, 132, 134. + + MALURIDÆ, nidification of the, ii. 169. + + _Malurus_, young of, ii. 216. + + MAMMÆ, i. 254; + rudimentary, in male mammals, i. 17, 30, 208, 209, 210; + supernumerary, in women, i. 125; + of male human subject, i. 130. + + MAMMALIA, Prof. Owen's classification of, i. 187; + genealogy of the, i. 203. + + MAMMALS, secondary sexual characters of, ii. 239; + weapons of, ii. 241; + recent and tertiary, comparison of cranial capacity of, i. 146; + relative size of the sexes of, ii. 260; + pursuit of female, by the males, i. 272; + parallelism of, with birds in secondary sexual characters, ii. 297; + voices of, used especially during the breeding season, ii. 331. + + MAN, variability of, i. 108; + erroneously regarded as more domesticated than other animals, i. 111; + definitive origin of, i. 235; + migrations of, i. 135; + wide distribution of, i. 137; + causes of the nakedness of, i. 149; + supposed physical inferiority of, i. 156; + numerical proportions of the sexes in, i. 264; + a member of the Catarrhine group, i. 198; + early progenitors of, i. 206; + secondary sexual characters of, ii. 316; + primeval condition of, ii. 367. + + MANDANS, correlation of colour and texture of hair in the, i. 248. + + MANDIBLE, left, enlarged in the male of _Taphroderes distortus_, i. 344. + + MANDIBLES, use of the, in _Ammophila_, i. 342; + large, of _Corydalis cornutus_, i. 342; + large, of male _Lucanus elaphus_, i. 342. + + MANDRILL, number of caudal vertebræ in the, i. 150; + colours of the male, ii. 292, 296, 310. + + MANTEGAZZA, Prof., on the ornaments of savages, ii. 338 _et seqq._; + on the beardlessness of the New Zealanders, ii. 349; + on the exaggeration of natural characters by man, ii. 351. + + MANTELL, W., on the engrossment of pretty girls by the New Zealand + chiefs, ii. 369. + + _Mantis_, pugnacity of species of, i. 360. + + MARCUS Aurelius, on the origin of the moral sense, i. 71; + on the influence of habitual thoughts, i. 101. + + _Mareca penelope_, ii. 114. + + MARKS, retained throughout groups of birds, ii. 131. + + MARRIAGE, influence of, upon morals, i. 96; + restraints upon, among savages, i. 133; + influence of, on mortality, i. 175; + development of, ii. 361. + + MARRIAGES, communal, ii. 358, 360; + early, i. 174, 175. + + MARSHALL, Mr., on the brain of a Bushwoman, i. 216. + + MARSUPIALS, i. 202; + possession of nipples by, i. 209; + their origin from Monotremata, i. 213; + uterus of, i. 122; + development of the nictitating membrane in, i. 23; + abdominal sacks of, i. 254; + relative size of the sexes of, ii. 260; + colours of, ii. 286. + + MARSUPIUM, rudimentary, in male marsupials, i. 208. + + MARTIN, W. C. L., on alarm manifested by an orang at the sight + of a turtle, i. 43; + on the hair in _Hylobates_, i. 194; + on a female American deer, ii. 258; + on the voice of _Hylobates agilis_, ii. 277; + on _Semnopithecus nemæus_, ii. 312. + + MARTIN, on the beards of the inhabitants of St. Kilda, ii. 321. + + MARTINS deserting their young, i. 84. + + MARTINS, C., on death caused by inflammation of the vermiform + appendage, i. 28. + + MASTOID processes in man and apes, i. 143. + + MAUDSLEY, Dr., on the influence of the sense of smell in man, i. 24; + on Laura Bridgman, i. 58; + on the development of the vocal organs, i. 59. + + MAYERS, W. F., on the domestication of the goldfish in China, ii. 17. + + MAYHEW, E., on the affection between individuals of different sexes + in the dog, ii. 270. + + MAYNARD, C. J., on the sexes of _Chrysemys picta_, ii. 28. + + MECKEL, on correlated variation of the muscles of the arm and leg, + i. 130. + + MEDICINES, effect produced by, the same in man and in monkeys, i. 12. + + _Medusæ_, bright colours of some, i. 322. + + MEGALITHIC structures, prevalence of, i. 233. + + _Megalophrys montana_, sexual differences in, ii. 26, 27. + + _Megapicus validus_, sexual difference of colour in, ii. 174. + + _Megasoma_, large size of males of, i. 347. + + MEIGS, Dr. A., on variation in the skulls of the natives of America, + i. 108. + + MEINECKE, on the numerical proportion of the sexes in butterflies, + i. 309. + + MELIPHAGIDÆ, Australian, nidification of, ii. 169. + + _Melita_, secondary sexual characters of, i. 331. + + _Meloë_, difference of colour in the sexes of a species of, i. 367. + + MEMORY, manifestations of, in animals, i. 45. + + MEMNON, young, i. 217. + + MENTAL characters, difference of, in different races of men, i. 216. + + MENTAL faculties, variation of, in the same species, i. 36, 110; + diversity of, in the same race of men, i. 109; + inheritance of, i. 110; + similarity of the, in different races of man, i. 232; + of birds, ii. 108. + + MENTAL powers, difference of, in the two sexes in man, ii. 326. + + _Menura Alberti_, ii. 102; + song of, ii. 55. + + _Menura superba_, ii. 101, 102; + long tails of both sexes of, ii. 164. + + MERGANSER, trachea of the male, ii. 60. + + _Mergus cucullatus_, speculum of, i. 291. + + _Mergus merganser_, young of, ii. 189. + + _Merganser serrator_, male plumage of, ii. 85. + + _Metallura_, splendid tail-feathers of, ii. 152. + + _Methoca ichneumonides_, large male of, i. 347. + + MEVES, M., on the drumming of the snipe, ii. 63. + + MEXICANS, civilisation of the, not foreign, i. 183. + + MEYER, on a convoluted body at the extremity of the tail in + a _Macacus_ and a cat, i. 30. + + MEYER, Dr. A., on the copulation of phryganidæ of distinct species, + i. 342. + + MIGRATIONS of man, effects of, i. 135. + + MIGRATORY instinct of birds, i. 79; + vanquishing the maternal, i. 83, 90. + + MILL, J. S., on the origin of the moral sense, i. 71; + on the "greatest happiness principle," i. 97; + on the difference of the mental powers in the sexes of man, + ii. 328. + + MILLIPEDES, i. 339. + + MILNE-EDWARDS, H., on the use of the enlarged chela of the male + _Gelasimus_, i. 331. + + _Milvago leucurus_, sexes and young of, ii. 205. + + MIMICKRY, i. 411. + + _Mimus polyglottus_, ii. 109. + + MIND, difference of, in man and the highest animals, i. 104; + similarity of the, in different races, i. 232. + + MINNOW, proportion of the sexes in the, i. 308, 309. + + MINNOWS, spawning habits of, ii. 15. + + MIRROR, larks attracted by, ii. 112. + + MIVART, St. George, on the reduction of organs, i. 18; + on the ears of the lemuroidea, i. 23; + on variability of the muscles in lemuroidea, i. 128, 136; + on the caudal vertebræ of monkeys, i. 150; + on the classification of the primates, i. 196; + on the orang and on man, i. 197; + on differences in the lemuroidea, i. 198; + on the crest of the male newt, ii. 24. + + MOCKING-THRUSH, partial migration of, ii. 109; + young of the, ii. 219. + + MODIFICATIONS, unserviceable, i. 153. + + MOLES, numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. 305; + battles of male, ii. 239. + + _Mollienesia petenensis_, sexual difference in, ii. 9. + + MOLLUSCA, beautiful colours and shapes of, i. 326; + absence of secondary sexual characters in the, i. 324. + + MOLLUSCOIDA, i. 205, 324. + + _Monacanthus scopas_ and _M. Peronii_, sexual differences in, ii. 12. + + MONGOLIANS, perfection of the senses in, i. 119. + + MONKEY, protecting his keeper from a baboon, i. 78, 87; + bonnet-, i. 192; + rhesus, sexual difference in colour of the, ii. 293, 310; + moustache-, colours of the, ii. 291. + + MONKEYS, liability of, to the same diseases as man, i. 11; + male, recognition of women by, i. 13; + revenge taken by, i. 40; + maternal affection in, i. 40; + variability of the faculty of attention in, i. 44; + using stones and sticks, i. 51; + imitative faculties of, i. 56; + signal-cries of, i. 57; + sentinels posted by, i. 74; + diversity of the mental faculties in, i. 110; + mutual kindnesses of, i. 75; + hands of the, i. 139, 140; + breaking hard fruits with stones, i. 140; + basal caudal vertebræ of, imbedded in the body, i. 151; + human characters of, i. 191; + gradation of species of, i. 227; + beards of, ii. 283; + ornamental characters of, ii. 306; + analogy of sexual differences of, with those of man, ii. 318; + different degrees of difference in the sexes of, ii. 323; + expression of emotions by, ii. 336; + generally monogamous habits of, ii. 361; + polygamous habits of some, ii. 362; + naked surfaces of, ii. 376; + American, manifestation of reason in, i. 47; + American, direction of the hair on the arms of some, i. 192. + + MONOGAMY, not primitive, i. 182. + + MONOGENISTS, i. 228. + + _Mononychus pseudacori_, stridulation of, i. 382. + + MONOTREMATA, i. 202; + development of the nictitating membrane in, i. 23; + lactiferous glands of, i. 209; + connecting mammals with reptiles, i. 213. + + MONSTROSITIES, analogous, in man and lower animals, i. 113; + caused by arrest of development, i. 121; + correlation of, i. 130; + transmission of, i. 224. + + MONTAGU, G., on the habits of the black and red grouse, i. 269; + on the pugnacity of the ruff, ii. 41; + on the singing of birds, ii. 52; + on the double moult of the male pintail, ii. 84. + + MONTEIRO, Mr., on _Bucorax abyssinicus_, ii. 72. + + MONTES DE OCA, M., on the pugnacity of male Humming-birds, ii. 40. + + _Monticola cyanea_, ii. 172. + + MONUMENTS, as traces of extinct tribes, i. 237. + + MOOSE, battles of, ii. 240; + horns of the, an incumbrance, ii. 259. + + MORAL and instinctive impulses, alliance of, i. 88. + + MORAL faculties, their influence on natural selection in man, i. 158. + + MORAL rules, distinction between the higher and lower, i. 100. + + MORAL sense, origin of the, i. 102; + so-called, derived from the social instincts, i. 97, 98. + + MORAL tendencies, inheritance of, i. 102. + + MORALITY, supposed to be founded in selfishness, i. 97; + test of, the general welfare of the community, i. 98; + gradual rise of, i. 103; + influence of a high standard of, i. 166. + + MORGAN, L. H., on the Beaver, i. 37; + on the reasoning powers of the Beaver, i. 46; + on the forcible capture of wives, i. 182; + on the castoreum of the beaver, ii. 279; + marriage unknown in primeval times, ii. 359; + on Polyandry, ii. 365. + + MORRIS, F. O., on hawks feeding an orphan nestling, ii. 107. + + MORTALITY, comparative, of females and males, i. 264, 276, 302. + + MORTON, on the number of species of man, i. 226. + + _Moschus moschiferus_, odoriferous organs of, ii. 280. + + _Motacillæ_, Indian, young of, ii. 190. + + MOTHS, i. 394; + absence of mouth in some male, i. 254; + apterous female, i. 255; + male, prehensile use of the tarsi by, i. 256; + male, attracted by females, i. 311; + coloration of, i. 397; + sexual differences of colour in, i. 398. + + MOTMOT, racket-shaped feathers in the tail of a, ii. 73. + + MOULT, double, ii. 181; + double annual, in birds, ii. 80. + + MOULTING of birds, ii. 214. + + MOULTS, partial, ii. 83. + + MOUSTACHE-MONKEY, colours of the, ii. 291, 311. + + MOUSTACHES, in monkeys, i. 192. + + MUD-TURTLE, long claws of the male, ii. 28. + + MULATTOES, persistent fertility of, i. 221; + immunity of, from yellow fever, i. 243. + + MULE, sterility and strong vitality of the, i. 221. + + MULES, rational, i. 48. + + MÜLLER, Ferd., on the Mexicans and Peruvians, i. 183. + + MÜLLER, Fritz, on astomatous males of _Tanais_, i. 255; + on the disappearance of spots and stripes in adult mammals, ii. 305; + on the proportions of the sexes in some Crustacea, i. 315; + on secondary sexual characters in various Crustaceans, i. 328 + _et seqq._; + on the luminous larva of a beetle, i. 345; + musical contest between male _Cicadæ_, i. 351; + on the sexual maturity of young amphipod Crustacea, ii. 215. + + MÜLLER, J., on the nictitating membrane and semilunar fold, i. 23. + + MÜLLER, Max, on the origin of language, i. 56; + struggle for life among the words, &c., of languages, i. 60. + + MÜLLER, S., on the Banteng, ii. 290; + on the colours of _Semnopithecus chrysomelas_, ii. 291. + + MUNTJAC-DEER, weapons of the, ii. 257. + + MURIE, J., on the reduction of organs, i. 18; + on the ears of the Lemuroidea, i. 23; + on variability of the muscles in the Lemuroidea, i. 128, 136; + basal caudal vertebræ of _Macacus inornatus_ imbedded in the body, + i. 151; + on differences in the Lemuroidea, i. 198; + on the throat-pouch of the male Bustard, ii. 58; + on the mane of _Otaria jubata_, ii. 267; + on the suborbital pits of Ruminants, ii. 280; + on the colours of the sexes in _Otaria nigrescens_, ii. 287. + + MURRAY, A., on the _Pediculi_ of different races of men, i. 219. + + MURRAY, T. A., on the fertility of Australian women with white men, + i. 220. + + _Mus coninga_, i. 50. + + _Mus minutus_, sexual difference in the colour of, ii. 286. + + _Musca vomitoria_, i. 145. + + _Muscicapa grisola_, ii. 170. + + _Muscicapa luctuosa_, ii. 170. + + _Muscicapa ruticilla_, breeding in immature plumage, ii. 214. + + MUSCLE, ischio-pubic, i. 127. + + MUSCLES, rudimentary, occurrence of, in man, i. 19; + variability of the, i. 109; + effects of use and disuse upon, i. 116; + animal-like abnormalities of, in man, i. 127; + correlated variation of, in the arm and leg, i. 130; + variability of, in the hands and feet, i. 136; + of the jaws, influence of, on the physiognomy of the Apes, i. 144; + habitual spasms of, causing modifications of the facial bones, + i. 147; + of the early progenitors of man, i. 206; + greater variability of the, in men than in women, i. 275. + + MUSCULUS STERNALIS, Prof. Turner on the, i. 19. + + MUSIC, i. 232; + of birds, ii. 51; + discordant, love of savages for, ii. 67; + different appreciation of, by different peoples, ii. 333; + origin of, ii. 333, 337; + effects of, ii. 335. + + MUSICAL cadences, perception of, by animals, ii. 333; + powers of man, ii. 330 _et seqq._ + + MUSK-DEER, canine teeth of male, ii. 241, 256, 257; + male, odoriferous organs of the, ii. 280; + winter change of the, ii. 299. + + MUSK-DUCK, Australian, ii. 38; + large size of male, ii. 43; + of Guiana, pugnacity of the male, ii. 43. + + MUSK-OX, horns of, ii. 247. + + MUSK-RAT, protective resemblance of the, to a clod of earth, ii. 298. + + _Musophagæ_, colours and nidification of the, ii. 171; + both sexes of, equally brilliant, ii. 177. + + MUSSELS opened by monkeys, i. 140. + + _Mustela_, winter change of two species of, ii. 298. + + MUTILATIONS, healing of, i. 13. + + _Mutilla europæa_, stridulation of, i. 366. + + MUTILLIDÆ, absence of ocelli in female, i. 341. + + _Mycetes caraya_, polygamous, i. 266; + vocal organs of, ii. 277; + beard of, ii. 283; + sexual differences of colour in, ii. 290; + voice of, ii. 332. + + _Mycetes seniculus_, sexual differences of colour in, ii. 290. + + MYRIAPODA, i. 339. + + + N. + + NÄGELI, on the influence of natural selection on plants, i. 152; + on the gradation of species of plants, i. 227. + + NAILS, coloured yellow or purple in part of Africa, ii. 339. + + NAPLES, greater proportion of female illegitimate children in, i. 301. + + NARWHAL, tusks of the, ii. 242, 248. + + NASAL cavities, large size of, in American aborigines, i. 119. + + NASCENT organs, i. 18. + + NATHUSIUS, H. von, on the improved breeds of pigs, i. 230; + on the breeding of domestic animals, ii. 370. + + NATURAL selection, its effects on the early progenitors of man, + i. 136; + influence of, on man, i. 151, 154; + limitation of the principle, i. 152; + influence of, on social animals, i. 155; + Mr. Wallace on the limitation of, by the influence of the mental + faculties in man, i. 158; + influence of, in the progress of the United States, i. 179. + + NATURAL and sexual selection contrasted, i. 278. + + NAULETTE, jaw from, large size of the canines in, i. 126. + + NEANDERTHAL skull, capacity of the, i. 146. + + NECK, proportion of, in soldiers and sailors, i. 117. + + _Necrophorus_, stridulation of, i. 378, 382. + + _Nectarinia_, young of, ii. 190. + + _Nectariniæ_, nidification of, ii. 169; + moulting of the, ii. 83. + + NEGRO, resemblance of a, to Europeans, in mental characters, i. 232. + + NEGRO-WOMEN, their kindness to Mungo Park, i. 95. + + NEGROES, character of, i. 216; + lice of, i. 220; + blackness of, i. 224, ii. 381; + variability of, i. 225, 226; + immunity of, from yellow fever, i. 243; + difference of, from Americans, i. 247; + disfigurements of the, ii. 296; + colour of newborn children of, ii. 318; + comparative beardlessness of, ii. 321; + readily become musicians, ii. 334; + appreciation of beauty of their women by, ii. 344, 346; + idea of beauty among, ii. 350; + compression of the nose by some, ii. 352. + + NEOLITHIC period, 183. + + _Neomorpha_, sexual difference of the beak in, ii. 39. + + _Nephila_, i. 337. + + NESTS, made by fishes, ii. 19; + decoration of, by Humming-birds, ii. 112. + + NEUMEISTER, on a change of colour in pigeons after several moultings, + i. 294. + + NEURATION, difference of, in the two sexes of some butterflies + and hymenoptera, i. 345. + + NEUROPTERA, i. 314, 361. + + _Neurothemis_, dimorphism in, i. 363. + + NEW ZEALAND, expectation by the natives of, of their extinction, + i. 240; + practice of tattooing in, ii. 342; + aversion of natives of, to hairs on the face, ii. 349; + pretty girls engrossed by the chiefs in, ii. 369. + + NEWTON, A., on the throat-pouch of the male bustard, ii. 58; + on the difference between the females of two species of + _Oxynotus_, ii. 193; + on the habits of the phalarope, dotterel, and godwit, ii. 204. + + NEWTS, ii. 24. + + NICHOLSON, Dr., on the non-immunity of dark Europeans from yellow + fever, i. 245. + + NICTITATING membrane, i. 23, 207. + + NIDIFICATION, of fishes, ii. 19; + relation of, to colour, ii. 167, 172; + of British birds, ii. 169. + + NIGHT-HERON, cries of the, ii. 51. + + NIGHTINGALE, arrival of the male before the female, i. 259; + object of the song of the, ii. 52. + + NIGHTINGALES, new mates found by, ii. 105. + + NIGHTJAR, selection of a mate by the female, ii. 116; + Australian, sexes of, ii. 206; + coloration of the, ii. 226. + + NIGHTJARS, noise made by some male, with their wings, ii. 62; + elongated feathers in, ii. 73, 97. + + NILGHAU, sexual differences of colour in the, ii. 287. + + NILSSON, Prof., on the resemblance of stone arrow-heads from various + places, i. 233; + on the development of the horns in the reindeer, i. 288. + + NIPPLES, absence of, in Monotremata, i. 209. + + NITZSCH, C. L., on the down of birds, ii. 80. + + NOCTUÆ, brightly-coloured beneath, i. 397. + + NOCTUIDÆ, coloration of, i. 394. + + NORDMANN, A., on _Tetrao urogalloides_, ii. 100. + + NOMADIC habits, unfavourable to human progress, i. 167. + + NORWAY, numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. 301. + + NOSE, resemblance of, in man and the apes, i. 192; + piercing and ornamentation of the, ii. 341; + flattening of the, ii. 352; + very flat, not admired in negroes, ii. 350. + + NOTT and Gliddon, on the features of Rameses II., i. 217; + on the features of Amunoph III., i. 218; + on skulls from Brazilian caves, i. 218; + on the immunity of negroes and mulattoes from yellow fever, i. 243; + on the deformation of the skull among American tribes, ii. 352. + + NUDIBRANCH mollusca, bright colours of, i. 326. + + NUMERALS, Roman, i. 182. + + NUNEMAYA, natives of, bearded, ii. 322, 349. + + + O. + + OBEDIENCE, value of, i. 162. + + OBSERVATION, powers of, possessed by birds, ii. 109. + + OCCUPATIONS, sometimes a cause of diminished stature, i. 115; + effect of, upon the proportions of the body, i. 116. + + OCELLI, absence of, in female Mutillidæ, i. 341. + + OCELLI of birds, formation and variability of the, ii. 132. + + OCELOT, sexual differences in the colouring of the, ii. 287. + + _Ocyphaps lophotes_, ii. 96. + + ODONATA, i. 314. + + _Odonestis potatoria_, sexual difference of colour in, i. 398. + + ODOUR, correlation of, with colour of skin, i. 248; + emitted by snakes in the breeding-season, ii. 30; + of mammals, ii. 278. + + _Oecanthus nivalis_, difference of colour in the sexes of, i. 361. + + _Oidemia_, ii. 226, 227. + + OLIVIER, on sounds produced by _Pimelia striata_, i. 385. + + _Omaloplia brunnea_, stridulation of, i. 381. + + _Onitis furcifer_, processes of anterior femora of the male, + and on the head and thorax of the female, i. 372. + + _Onthophagus_, i. 370. + + _Onthophagus rangifer_, sexual differences of, i. 369; + variation in the horns of the male, i. 370. + + OPHIDIA, sexual differences of, ii. 29. + + OPOSSUM, wide range of, in America, i. 219. + + OPTIC nerve, atrophy of the, caused by destruction of the eye, i. 116. + + ORANG-OUTAN, ii. 323; + Bischoff on the agreement of the brain of the, with that of man, + i. 11; + adult age of the, i. 13; + ears of the, i. 21; + vermiform appendage of, i. 27; + platforms built by the, i. 36; + alarmed at the sight of a turtle, i. 43; + using a stick as a lever, i. 51; + using missiles, i. 52; + using the leaves of the _Pandanus_ as a night covering, i. 53; + hands of the, i. 139; + absence of mastoid processes in the, i. 143; + direction of the hair on the arms of the, i. 192; + its aberrant characters, i. 197; + supposed evolution of the, i. 230; + voice of the, ii. 276; + monogamous habits of the, ii. 361; + male, beard of the, ii. 284. + + ORANGES, treatment of, by monkeys, i. 139. + + ORANGE-TIP butterfly, i. 388, 393, 394. + + _Orchestia Darwinii_, dimorphism of males of, i. 332. + + _Orchestia Tucuratinga_, limbs of, i. 330, 331, 337. + + ORDEAL, i. 68. + + _Oreas canna_, colours of, ii. 288. + + _Oreas derbyanus_, colours of, ii. 288, 299. + + ORGANS, prehensile, i. 256; + utilised for new purposes, ii. 335. + + ORGANIC scale, von Baer's definition of progress in, i. 211. + + ORIOLES, nidification of, ii. 167. + + _Oriolus_, species of, breeding in immature plumage, ii. 214, 215. + + _Oriolus melanocephalus_, coloration of the sexes in, ii. 178. + + ORNAMENTS, prevalence of similar, i. 233; + fondness of savages for, ii. 338; + of male birds, ii. 50. + + ORNAMENTAL characters, equal transmission of, to both sexes, + in mammals, ii. 297; + of monkeys, ii. 306. + + _Ornithoptera croesus_, i. 310. + + _Ornithorhynchus_, i. 200; + spur of the male, ii. 242; + reptilian tendency of, i. 204. + + _Orocetes erythrogastra_, young of, ii. 219. + + ORRONY, Grotto of, i. 28. + + _Orsodacna atra_, difference of colour in the sexes of, i. 368. + + ORTHOPTERA, i. 352; + metamorphosis of, i. 292; + stridulating, auditory apparatus of, i. 353; + colours of, i. 360; + rudimentary stridulating organs in female, i. 359; + stridulation of the, and Homoptera, discussed, i. 360. + + _Ortygornis gularis_, pugnacity of the male, ii. 44. + + _Oryctes_, stridulation of, i. 381; + sexual differences in the stridulant organs of, i. 383. + + _Oryx leucoryx_, use of the horns of, ii. 251, 263. + + _Osphranter rufus_, sexual difference in the colour of, ii. 286. + + OSTRICH, African, sexes and incubation of the, ii. 205. + + OSTRICHES, stripes of young, ii. 184. + + _Otaria jubata_, mane of the male, ii. 267. + + _Otaria nigrescens_, difference in the coloration of the sexes of, + ii. 287. + + _Otis bengalensis_, love-antics of the male, ii. 68. + + _Otis tarda_, polygamous, i. 269; + throat-pouch of the male, ii. 58. + + OUZEL, ring-, colours and nidification of the, ii. 179. + + OUZEL, water-, colours and nidification of the, ii. 170. + + _Ovibos moschatus_, horns of, ii. 247. + + OVIPOSITOR of insects, i. 254. + + _Ovis cycloceros_, mode of fighting of, ii. 249. + + OVULE of man, i. 14. + + OWEN, Prof., on the Corpora Wolffiana, i. 16; + on the great toe in man, i. 16; + on the nictitating membrane and semilunar fold, i. 23; + on the development of the posterior molars in different races + of man, i. 26; + on the length of the cæcum in the Koala, i. 27; + on the coccygeal vertebræ, i. 29; + on rudimentary structures belonging to the reproductive system, + i. 31; + on abnormal conditions of the human uterus, i. 123; + on the number of digits in the Ichthyopterygia, i. 125; + on the canine teeth in man, i. 126; + on the walking of the chimpanzee and orang, i. 139; + on the mastoid processes in the higher apes, i. 143; + on the hairiness of elephants in elevated districts, i. 149; + on the caudal vertebræ of monkeys, i. 150; + classification of mammalia, i. 187; + on the hair in monkeys, i. 194; + on the piscine affinities of the Ichthyosaurians, i. 204; + on polygamy and monogamy among the antelopes, i. 267; + on the horns of _Antilocapra americana_, i. 289; + on the musky odour of crocodiles during the breeding season, ii. 29; + on the scent-glands of snakes, ii. 30; + on the Dugong, Cachalot and _Ornithorhynchus_, ii. 242; + on the antlers of the red deer, ii. 252; + on the dentition of the camelidæ, ii. 257; + on the tusks of the Mammoth, ii. 258; + on the horns of the Irish elk, ii. 259; + on the voice in the giraffe, porcupine, and stag, ii. 274; + on the laryngeal sac of the gorilla and orang, ii. 276; + on the odoriferous glands of mammals, ii. 279, 280; + on the effects of emasculation on the vocal organs of men, ii. 330; + on the voice of _Hylobates agilis_, ii. 332; + on American monogamous monkeys, ii. 362. + + OWLS, white, new mates found by, ii. 105. + + _Oxynotus_, difference of the females of two species of, ii. 193. + + + P. + + PACHYDERMATA, i. 268. + + PAGET, on the abnormal development of hairs in man, i. 25; + on the thickness of the skin on the soles of the feet of infants, + i. 118. + + PAINTING, i. 232. + + _Palæmon_, chelæ of a species of, i. 331. + + _Palæornis_, sexual differences of colour in, ii. 231. + + _Palæornis Javanicus_, colour of beak of, ii. 179. + + _Palæornis rosa_, young of, ii. 188. + + _Palamedea cornuta_, spurs on the wings, ii. 47. + + PALEOLITHIC period, i. 183. + + PALESTINE, habits of the chaffinch in, i. 307. + + PALLAS, on the perfection of the senses in the Mongolians, i. 119; + on the want of connexion between climate and the colour of the skin, + i. 241; + on the polygamous habits of _Antilope saiga_, i. 267; + on the lighter colour of horses and cattle in winter in Siberia, + i. 282; + on the tusks of the musk-deer, ii. 256, 258; + on the odoriferous glands of mammals, ii. 279; + on the odoriferous glands of the musk-deer, ii. 280; + on winter changes of colour in mammals, ii. 298; + on the ideal of female beauty in North China, ii. 344. + + _Palmaris accessorius_ muscle, variations of the, i. 109. + + PAMPAS, horses of the, i. 236. + + PANGENESIS, hypothesis of, i. 280, 284. + + PANNICULUS carnosus, i. 19. + + _Papilio_, sexual differences of colouring in species of, i. 389; + proportion of the sexes in North American species of, i. 309; + coloration of the wings in species of, i. 396. + + _Papilio ascanius_, i. 389. + + _Papilio Sesostris_ and _Childrenæ_, variability of, i. 402. + + _Papilio Turnus_, i. 310. + + _Papilionidæ_, variability in the, i. 402. + + PAPUANS, line of separation between the, and the Malays, i. 218; + beards of the, ii. 322; + hair of, ii. 340. + + PAPUANS and Malays, contrast in characters of, i. 216. + + PARADISE, Birds of, ii. 100, 181; + supposed by Lesson to be polygamous, i. 260; + rattling of their quills by, ii. 61; + racket-shaped feathers in, ii. 73; + sexual differences in colour of, ii. 76; + decomposed feathers in, ii. 74, 97; + display of plumage by the male, ii. 88. + + _Paradisea apoda_, barbless feathers in the tail of, ii. 74; + plumage of, ii. 78; + and _P. papuana_, divergence of the females of, ii. 192. + + _Paradisea rubra_, ii. 75, 78. + + PARAGUAY, Indians of, eradication of eyebrows and eyelashes by, + ii. 348. + + PARRAKEET, Australian, variation in the colour of the thighs + of a male, ii. 126. + + PARALLELISM of development of species and languages, i. 59. + + PARASITES on man and animals, i. 12; + as evidence of specific identity or distinctness, i. 219; + immunity from, correlated with colour, i. 242. + + PARENTAL affection, partly a result of natural selection, i. 81. + + PARENTS, age of, influence upon sex of offspring, i. 302. + + PARINÆ, sexual difference of colour in, ii. 174. + + PARK, Mungo, negro-women teaching their children to love the truth, + i. 95; + his treatment by the negro-women, i. 95, 326; + on negro opinions of the appearance of white men, ii. 346. + + PARROT, racket-shaped feathers in the tail of a, ii. 73; + instance of benevolence in a, ii. 109. + + PARROTS, imitative faculties of, i. 44; + change of colour in, i. 152; + living in triplets, ii. 106; + affection of, ii. 108; + colours of, ii. 223; + sexual differences of colour in, ii. 231; + colours and nidification of the, ii. 171, 174, 176; + immature plumage of the, ii. 188; + musical powers of, ii. 335. + + PARTHENOGENESIS in the Tenthredinæ, i. 314; + in Cynipidæ, i. 314; + in Crustacea, i. 315. + + PARTRIDGE, monogamous, i. 269; + proportion of the sexes in the, i. 306; + female, ii. 194. + + "PARTRIDGE-DANCES," ii. 68. + + PARTRIDGES, living in triplets, ii. 106; + spring coveys of male, ii. 107; + distinguishing persons, ii. 110. + + _Parus cæruleus_, ii. 174. + + _Passer_, sexes and young of, ii. 212. + + _Passer brachydactylus_, ii. 212. + + _Passer domesticus_, ii. 170, 212. + + _Passer montanus_, ii. 170, 212. + + PATAGONIANS, self-sacrifice by, i. 88. + + PATTERSON, Mr., on the _Agrionidæ_, i. 362. + + PAULISTAS of Brazil, i. 225. + + _Pavo cristatus_, i. 290; ii. 136. + + _Pavo muticus_, i. 290, ii. 136; + possession of spurs by the female, ii. 46, 162. + + _Pavo nigripennis_, ii. 120. + + PAYAGUAS Indians, thin legs and thick arms of the, i. 117. + + PAYAN, Mr., on the proportion of the sexes in sheep, i. 305. + + PEACOCK, polygamous, i. 269; + sexual characters of, i. 290; + pugnacity of the, ii. 46; + rattling of the quills by, ii. 61; + elongated tail-coverts of the, ii. 72, 97; + love of display of the, ii. 135; 68, 87; + ocellated spots of the, ii. 135; + inconvenience of long tail of the, to the female, ii. 154, 164, 165; + continued increase of beauty of the, ii. 216. + + PEACOCK-BUTTERFLY, i. 392. + + PEAFOWL, preference of females for a particular male, ii. 120; + first advances made by the female, ii. 120. + + _Pediculi_ of domestic animals and man, i. 219. + + PEDIGREE of man, i. 213. + + _Pedionomus torquatus_, sexes of, ii. 201. + + PEEWIT, wing-tubercles of the male, ii. 48. + + PELAGIC animals, transparency of, i. 323. + + _Pelecanus erythrorhynchus_, horny crest on the beak of the male, + during the breeding season, ii. 80. + + _Pelecanus onocrotalus_, spring plumage of, ii. 85. + + PELELÉ, ii. 341. + + PELICAN, blind, fed by his companions, i. 77; + young, guided by old birds, i. 77; + pugnacity of the male, ii. 43. + + PELICANS, fishing in concert, i. 75. + + _Pelobius Hermanni_, stridulation of, i. 380, 382. + + PELVIS, alteration of, to suit the erect attitude of man, i. 143; + differences of the, in the sexes in man, ii. 317. + + _Penelope nigra_, sound produced by the male, ii. 64. + + PENNANT, on the battles of seals, ii. 240; + on the bladder-nose seal, ii. 278. + + _Penthe_, antennal cushions of the male, i. 343. + + PERCH, brightness of male, during breeding season, ii. 13. + + PEREGRINE Falcon, new mate found by, ii. 104. + + PERIOD of variability, relation of, to sexual selection, i. 296. + + PERIODICITY, vital, Dr. Laycock on, i. 12. + + PERIODS, lunar, followed by functions in man and animals, i. 12, 212. + + PERIODS of life, inheritance at corresponding, i. 280, 285. + + _Perisoreus canadensis_, young of, ii. 209. + + _Peritrichia_, difference of colour in the sexes of a species of, + i. 367. + + PERIWINKLE, i. 324. + + _Pernis cristata_, ii. 126. + + PERSEVERANCE, a characteristic of man, ii. 328. + + PERSIANS, said to be improved by intermixture with Georgians + and Circassians, ii. 357. + + PERSONNAT, M., on _Bombyx Yamamai_, i. 310. + + PERUVIANS, civilisation of the, not foreign, i. 183. + + PETRELS, colours of, ii. 230. + + _Petrocincla cyanea_, young of, ii. 219. + + _Petronia_, ii. 212. + + PFEIFFER, Ida, on Javanese ideas of beauty, ii. 347. + + _Phacochoerus æthiopicus_, tusks and pads of, ii. 265. + + PHALANGER, Vulpine, black varieties of the, ii. 294. + + _Phalaropus fulicarius_, ii. 203. + + _Phalaropus hyperboreus_, ii. 203. + + _Phanæus_, i. 373. + + _Phanæus carnifex_, variation of the horns of the male, i. 370. + + _Phanæus faunus_, sexual differences of, i. 369. + + _Phanæus lancifer_, i. 370. + + _Phasgonura viridissima_, stridulation of, i. 354, 356. + + _Phasianus Soemmerringii_, ii. 157. + + _Phasianus versicolor_, ii. 89. + + _Phasianus Wallichii_, ii. 93, 196. + + PHASMIDÆ, mimickry of leaves by the, i. 414. + + PHEASANT, polygamous, i. 269; + production of hybrids with the common fowl, ii. 122; + and black grouse, hybrids of, ii. 113; + immature plumage of the, ii. 188. + + PHEASANT, Argus, ii. 72, 181; + display of plumage by the male, ii. 91; + ocellated spots of the, ii. 134, 141; + gradation of characters in the, ii. 141. + + PHEASANT, Blood-, ii. 46. + + PHEASANT, Cheer, ii. 93, 195. + + PHEASANT, Eared, i. 290, ii. 93, 195; + sexes alike in the, ii. 178; + length of the tail in the, ii. 166. + + PHEASANT, Golden, display of plumage by the male, ii. 89; + sex of young, ascertained by pulling out head-feathers, ii. 214; + age of mature plumage in the, ii. 213. + + PHEASANT, Kalij, drumming of the male, ii. 62. + + PHEASANT, Reeve's, length of the tail in, ii. 166. + + PHEASANT, Silver, sexual coloration of the, ii. 228; + triumphant male, deposed on account of spoiled plumage, ii. 120. + + PHEASANT, Soemmerring's, ii. 156, 166. + + PHEASANT, Tragopan, ii. 72; + display of plumage by the male, ii. 91; + markings of the sexes of the, ii. 134. + + PHEASANTS, period of acquisition of male characters in the family + of the, i. 290; + proportion of sexes in chicks of, i. 306; + length of the tail in, ii. 156, 164, 166. + + _Philodromus_, i. 337. + + PHILTERS, worn by women, ii. 344. + + _Phoca groenlandica_, sexual difference in the coloration of, ii. 287. + + _Phoenicura ruticilla_, ii. 105. + + PHOSPHORESCENCE of insects, i. 345. + + PHRYGANIDÆ, copulation of distinct species of, i. 342. + + _Phryniscus nigricans_, ii. 25. + + PHYSICAL inferiority, supposed, of man, i. 156. + + PICKERING, on the number of species of man, i. 226. + + PICTON, J. A., on the soul of man, ii. 395. + + _Picus auratus_, ii. 43. + + PIERIDÆ, mimickry by female, i. 413. + + _Pieris_, i. 393. + + PIGEON, carrier, late development of the wattle in, i. 293; + domestic, breeds and sub-breeds of, ii. 178; + pouter, late development of the crop in, i. 293; + female, deserting a weakened mate, i. 262. + + PIGEONS, nestling, fed by the secretion of the crop of both parents, + i. 210; + changes of plumage in, i. 281; + transmission of sexual peculiarities in, i. 283; + changing colour after several moultings, i. 294; + numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. 306; + cooing of, ii. 60; + variations in plumage of, ii. 74; + display of plumage by male, ii. 96; + local memory of, ii. 109; + antipathy of female, to certain males, ii. 118; + pairing of, ii. 118, 119; + profligate male and female, ii. 119; + wing-bars and tail-feathers of, ii. 131; + supposititious breed of, ii. 155; + pouter and carrier, peculiarities of predominant in males, ii. 158; + nidification of, ii. 168; + immature plumage of the, ii. 188; + Australian, ii. 175; + Belgian, with black-streaked males, i. 285, 293; ii. 157. + + PIGS, origin of the improved breeds of, i. 230; + numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. 305; + stripes of young, ii. 184, 303; + sexual preference shown by, ii. 273. + + PIKE, American, brilliant colours of the male, during the breeding + season, ii. 14. + + PIKE, male, devoured by females, i. 308. + + PIKE, L. O., on the psychical elements of religion, i. 68. + + _Pimelia striata_, sounds produced by the female, i. 385. + + PINTAIL Drake, plumage of, ii. 84; + pairing with a wild duck, ii. 115. + + PINTAIL Duck, pairing with a Wigeon, ii. 114. + + PIPE-FISH, filamentous, ii. 18; + marsupial receptacles of the male, ii. 21. + + PIPITS, moulting of the, ii. 83. + + _Pipra_, modified secondary wing-feathers of male, ii. 65. + + _Pipra deliciosa_, ii. 65, 66. + + _Pirates stridulus_, stridulation of, i. 350. + + _Pithecia leucocephala_, sexual differences of colour in, ii. 290. + + _Pithecia Satanas_, beard of, ii. 283, 284, 285; + resemblance of, to a negro, ii. 381. + + PITS, suborbital, of Ruminants, ii. 280. + + PITTIDÆ, nidification of, ii. 167. + + PLACENTATA, i. 202. + + PLAGIOSTOMOUS fishes, ii. 1. + + PLAIN-WANDERER, Australian, ii. 201. + + _Planariæ_, bright colours of some, i. 322. + + PLANTAIN-EATERS, colours and nidification of the, ii. 171; + both sexes of, equally brilliant, ii. 177. + + PLANTS, cultivated, more fertile than wild, i. 132; + Nägeli, on natural selection in, i. 152; + male flowers of, mature before the female, i. 260; + phenomena of fertilisation in, i. 273; + relation between number and size of seeds in, i. 317. + + _Platalea_, ii. 60; + change of plumage in, ii. 179. + + _Platyblemnus_, i. 361. + + _Platycercus_, young of, ii. 209. + + _Platyphyllum concavum_, i. 352, 356. + + PLATYRRHINE monkeys, i. 196. + + PLATYSMA _myoides_, i. 19. + + _Plecostomus_, head-tentacles of the male of a species of, ii. 10. + + _Plecostomus barbatus_, peculiar beard of the male, ii. 10. + + _Plectropterus gambensis_, spurred wings of, ii. 46. + + _Ploceus_, ii. 54. + + PLOVERS, wing-spurs of, ii. 48; + double moult in, ii. 83. + + PLUMAGE, changes of, inheritance of, by fowls, i. 281; + tendency to analogous variation in, ii. 74; + display of, by male birds, ii. 86, 96; + changes of, in relation to season, ii. 180; + immature, of birds, ii. 183, 187; + colour of, in relation to protection, ii. 223. + + PLUMES on the head in birds, difference of, in the sexes, ii. 164. + + _Pneumora_, structure of, i. 357. + + _Podica_, sexual difference in the colour of the irides of, ii. 128. + + POEPPIG, on the contact of civilised and savage races, i. 239. + + POISON, avoidance of, by animals, i. 49. + + POISONOUS fruits and herbs avoided by animals, i. 36. + + POISONS, immunity from, correlated with colour, i. 242. + + POLISH fowls, origin of the crest in, i. 284. + + POLLEN and van Dam, on the colours of _Lemur macaco_, ii. 290. + + POLYANDRY, ii. 365; + in certain cyprinidæ, i. 309; + among the elateridæ, i. 313. + + POLYDACTYLISM in man, i. 125. + + POLYGAMY, influence of, upon sexual selection, i. 265; + superinduced by domestication, i. 270; + supposed increase of female births by, i. 303; + in the stickleback, ii. 2. + + POLYGENISTS, i. 228. + + POLYNESIA, prevalence of infanticide in, ii. 364. + + POLYNESIANS, aversion of, to hairs on the face, ii. 349; + wide geographical range of, i. 112; + difference of stature among the, i. 115; + crosses of, i. 225; + variability of, i. 225; + heterogeneity of the, i. 241. + + _Polyplectron_, display of plumage by the male, i. 89; + number of spurs in, ii. 46; + gradation of characters in, ii. 137; + female of, ii. 194. + + _Polyplectron chinquis_, ii. 90, 138, 139. + + _Polyplectron Hardwickii_, ii. 138, 139. + + _Polyplectron malaccense_, ii. 139, 140. + + _Polyplectron Napoleonis_, ii. 138, 140. + + POLYZOA, i. 324. + + _Pontoporeia affinis_, i. 329. + + PORCUPINE, mute, except in the rutting season, ii. 274. + + PORES, excretory, numerical relation of, to the hairs in sheep, + i. 248. + + _Porpitæ_, bright colours of some, i. 322. + + _Portax picta_, dorsal crest and throat-tuft of, ii. 282; + sexual differences of colour in, ii. 287, 299. + + _Portunus puber_, pugnacity of, i. 332. + + _Potamochoerus penicillatus_, tusks and facial knobs of the, ii. 266. + + POUCHET, G., on the ratio of instinct and intelligence, i. 37; + on the instincts of ants, i. 187; + on the caves of Abou-Simbel, i. 217; + on the immunity of negroes from yellow fever, i. 243. + + POUTER pigeon, late development of the large crop in, i. 293. + + POWER, Dr., on the different colours of the sexes in a species + of _Squilla_, i. 335. + + POWYS, Mr., on the habits of the chaffinch in Corfu, i. 307. + + PRE-EMINENCE of man, i. 137. + + PREFERENCE for males by female birds, ii. 113, 122; + shown by mammals, in pairing, ii. 268. + + PREHENSILE organs, i. 256. + + _Presbytis entellus_, fighting of the male, ii. 324. + + PREYER, Dr., on supernumerary mammæ in women, i. 125. + + PRICHARD, on the difference of stature among the Polynesians, i. 115; + on the connection between the breadth of the skull in the + Mongolians and the perfection of their senses, i. 119; + on the capacity of British skulls of different ages, i. 146; + on the flattened heads of the Colombian savages, ii. 340; + on Siamese notions of beauty, ii. 345; + on the beardlessness of the Siamese, ii. 349; + on the deformation of the head among American tribes and + the natives of Arakhan, ii. 352. + + PRIMARY sexual organs, i. 254. + + PRIMATES, i. 190; + sexual differences of colour in, ii. 290. + + PRIMOGENITURE, evils of, i. 170. + + _Primula_, relation between number and size of seeds in, i. 317. + + PRIONIDÆ, difference of the sexes in colour, i. 367. + + _Proctotretus multimaculatus_, ii. 26, 37. + + _Proctotretus tenuis_, sexual difference in the colour of, ii. 37. + + PROFLIGACY, i. 173. + + PROGENITORS, early, of man, i. 206. + + PROGRESS, not the normal rule in human society, i. 166; + elements of, i. 177. + + PRONG-HORN, horns of, i. 289. + + PROPORTIONS, difference of, in distinct races, i. 216. + + PROTECTIVE colouring in butterflies, i. 392; + in lizards, ii. 37; + in birds, ii. 197, 223; + in mammals, ii. 298, 299. + + PROTECTIVE nature of the dull colouring of female Lepidoptera, i. 403, + 405, 414. + + PROTECTIVE resemblances in fishes, ii. 18. + + PROTOZOA, absence of secondary sexual characters in, i. 321. + + PRUNER-BEY, on the occurrence of the supra-condyloid foramen + in the humerus of man, i. 29; + on the colour of negro infants, ii. 318. + + PRUSSIA, numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. 301. + + _Psocus_, proportions of the sexes in, i. 314. + + PTARMIGAN, monogamous, i. 269; + summer and winter plumage of the, ii. 81, 83; + nuptial assemblages of, ii. 101; + triple moult of the, ii. 181; + protective coloration of, ii. 198. + + PUFF-BIRDS, colours and nidification of the, ii. 171. + + PUGNACITY of fine-plumaged male birds, ii. 93. + + PUMAS, stripes of young, ii. 183. + + PUPPIES learning from cats to clean their faces, i. 44. + + _Pycnonotus hæmorrhous_, pugnacity of the male, ii. 41; + display of under tail coverts by the male, ii. 96. + + _Pyranga æstiva_, male aiding in incubation, ii. 167. + + _Pyrodes_, difference of the sexes in colour, i. 367. + + + Q. + + QUADRUMANA, hands of, i. 139; + differences between man and the, i. 190; + dependence of, on climate, i. 218; + sexual differences of colour in, ii. 290; + ornamental characters of, ii. 306; + analogy of sexual differences of, with those of man, ii. 318; + fighting of males for the females, ii. 324; + monogamous habits of, ii. 361; + beards of the, ii. 378. + + QUAIN, R., on the variation of the muscles in man, i. 109. + + QUATREFAGES, A. de, on the occurrence of a rudimentary tail in man, + i. 29; + on the moral sense as a distinction between man and animals, i. 70; + on variability, i. 112; + on the fertility of Australian women with white men, i. 221; + on the Paulistas of Brazil, i. 225; + on the evolution of the breeds of cattle, i. 230; + on the Jews, i. 242; + on the liability of negroes to tropical fevers after residence + in a cold climate, i. 243; + on the difference between field- and house-slaves, i. 246; + on the influence of climate on colour, i. 246; + on the Ainos, ii. 321; + on the women of San-Giuliano, ii. 357. + + QUECHUA Indians, i. 119; + local variation of colour in the, i. 246; + no grey hair among the, ii. 320; + hairlessness of the, ii. 322; + long hair of the, ii. 348. + + _Querquedula acuta_, ii. 114. + + _Quiscalus major_, proportions of the sexes of, in Florida + and Honduras, i. 307. + + + R. + + RABBIT, white tail of the, ii. 298. + + RABBITS, danger-signals of, i. 74; + domestic, elongation of the skull in, i. 147; + modification of the skull in, by the lopping of the ear, i. 147; + numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. 305. + + RACES, distinctive characters of, i. 215; + or species of man, i. 217; + crossed, fertility or sterility of, i. 220; + of man, variability of the, i. 225; + of man, resemblance of, in mental characters, i. 232; + formation of, i. 235; + of man, extinction of, i. 236; + effects of the crossing of, i. 240; + of man, formation of the, i. 240; + of man, children of the, ii. 318; + beardless, aversion of, to hairs on the face, ii. 349. + + RAFFLES, Sir S., on the Banteng, ii. 290. + + RAFTS, use of, i. 137, 234. + + RAGE, manifested by animals, i. 40. + + _Raia batis_, teeth of, ii. 6. + + _Raia clavata_, female spined on the back, ii. 2; + sexual difference in the teeth of, ii. 6. + + _Raia maculata_, teeth of, ii. 6. + + RAILS, spur-winged, ii. 48. + + RAM, mode of fighting of the, ii. 249; + African, mane of an, ii. 284; + fat-tailed, ii. 284. + + RAMESES II., i. 217. + + RAMSAY, Mr., on the Australian Musk-duck, ii. 38; + on the Regent-bird, ii. 113; + on the incubation of _Menura superba_, ii. 165. + + _Rana esculenta_, vocal sacs of, ii. 28. + + RAT, common, general dispersion of, a consequence of superior cunning, + i. 50; + supplantation of the native, in New Zealand, by the European rat, + i. 240; + common, said to be polygamous, i. 268; + numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. 305. + + RATS, enticed by essential oils, ii. 281. + + RATIONALITY of birds, ii. 108. + + RATTLE-SNAKES, difference of the sexes in the, ii. 29; + said to use their rattles as a sexual call, ii. 30. + + RAVEN, vocal organs of the, ii. 55; + stealing bright objects, ii. 112; + pied, of the Feroe Islands, ii. 120. + + RAYS, prehensile organs of male, ii. 1. + + RAZOR-BILL, young of the, ii. 217. + + READE, Winwood, on the Guinea sheep, i. 289; + non-development of horns in castrated male Guinea sheep, ii. 247; + on the occurrence of a mane in an African ram, ii. 285; + on the negroes' appreciation of the beauty of their women, ii. 344; + on the admiration of negroes for a black skin, ii. 346; + on the idea of beauty among negroes, ii. 350; + on the Jollofs, ii. 357; + on the marriage-customs of the negroes, ii. 374. + + REASON, in animals, i. 46. + + REDSTART, American, breeding in immature plumage, ii. 214. + + REDSTARTS, new mates found by, ii. 105. + + REDUVIDÆ, stridulation of, i. 350. + + REED-BUNTING, head-feathers of the male, ii. 95; + attacked by a bullfinch, ii. 111. + + REEFS, fishes frequenting, ii. 17. + + REGENERATION, partial, of lost parts in man, i. 13. + + REGENT-BIRD, ii. 112. + + REINDEER, antlers of, with numerous points, ii. 252; + sexual preferences shown by, ii. 273; + horns of the, i. 288; + winter change of the, ii. 299; + battles of, ii. 240; + horns of the female, ii. 243. + + RELATIONSHIP, terms of, ii. 360. + + RELIGION, deficiency of, among certain races, i. 65; + psychical elements of, i. 68. + + REMORSE, i. 91; + deficiency of, among savages, i. 164. + + RENGGER, on the diseases of _Cebus Azaræ_, i. 11; + on maternal affection in a _Cebus_, i. 40; + revenge taken by monkeys, i. 40; + on the reasoning powers of American monkeys, i. 47; + on the use of stones by monkeys for cracking hard nuts, i. 51; + on the sounds uttered by _Cebus Azaræ_, i. 54; + on the signal-cries of monkeys, i. 57; + on the diversity of the mental faculties of monkeys, i. 110; + on the Payaguas Indians, i. 117; + on the inferiority of Europeans to savages in their senses, i. 118; + on the polygamous habits of _Mycetes caraya_, i. 266; + on the voice of the howling monkeys, ii. 277; + on the odour of _Cervus campestris_, ii. 279; + on the beards of _Mycetes caraya_ and _Pithecia Satanas_, ii. 283; + on the colours of _Felis mitis_, ii. 287; + on the colours of _Cervus paludosus_, ii. 290; + on sexual differences of colour in _Mycetes_, ii. 291; + on the colour of the infant Guaranys, ii. 318; + on the early maturity of the female of _Cebus azaræ_, ii. 318; + on the beards of the Guaranys, ii. 322, 323; + on the emotional notes employed by monkeys, ii. 336; + on American polygamous monkeys, ii. 362. + + REPRESENTATIVE species, of birds, ii. 190, 191. + + REPRODUCTION, unity of phenomena of, throughout the mammalia, i. 13; + period of, in birds, ii. 214. + + REPRODUCTIVE system, rudimentary structures in the, i. 30; + accessory parts of, i. 207. + + REPTILES, ii. 28. + + REPTILES and birds, alliance of, i. 213. + + RESEMBLANCES, small, between man and the apes, i. 191. + + RETRIEVERS, exercise of reasoning faculties by, i. 48. + + REVENGE, manifested by animals, i. 40. + + REVERSION, i. 122; + perhaps the cause of some bad dispositions, i. 173. + + _Rhagium_, difference of colour in the sexes of a species of, i. 367. + + _Ramphastos carinatus_, ii. 227. + + RHINOCEROS, nakedness of, i. 148; + horns of, ii. 247; + horns of, used defensively, ii. 263; + attacking white or grey horses, ii. 295. + + _Rhynchæa_, sexes and young of, ii. 202. + + _Rhynchæa australis_, ii. 203. + + _Rhynchæa bengalensis_, ii. 203. + + _Rhynchæa capensis_, ii. 202. + + RHYTHM, perception of, by animals, ii. 333. + + RICHARD, M., on rudimentary muscles in man, i. 19. + + RICHARDSON, Sir J., on the pairing of _Tetrao umbellus_, ii. 49; + on _Tetrao urophasianus_, ii. 58; + on the drumming of grouse, ii. 63; + on the dances of _Tetrao phasianellus_, ii. 69; + on assemblages of grouse, ii. 101; + on the battles of male deer, ii. 240; + on the reindeer, ii. 244; + on the horns of the musk-ox, ii. 247; + on antlers of the reindeer with numerous points, ii. 252; + on the moose, ii. 259. + + RICHARDSON, on the Scotch deerhound, ii. 261. + + RICHTER, Jean Paul, on imagination, i. 45. + + RIEDEL, on profligate female pigeons, ii. 119. + + RING-OUZEL, colours and nidification of the, ii. 170. + + RIPA, Father, on the difficulty of distinguishing the races + of the Chinese, i. 215. + + RIVALRY, in singing, between male birds, ii. 53. + + RIVER-HOG, African, tusks and knobs of the, ii. 266. + + RIVERS, analogy of, to islands, i. 204. + + ROACH, brightness of male during breeding-season, ii. 13. + + ROBBERY, of strangers, considered honourable, i. 94. + + ROBERTSON, Mr., remarks on the development of the horns + in the roebuck and red-deer, i. 288. + + ROBIN, pugnacity of the male, ii. 40; + autumn song of the, ii. 54; + female, singing of the, ii. 54; + attacking other birds with red in their plumage, ii. 111; + young of the, ii. 208. + + ROBINET, on the difference of size of the male and female cocoons + of the silk-moth, i. 346. + + RODENTS, uterus in the, i. 123; + absence of secondary sexual characters in, i. 268; + sexual differences in the colours of, ii. 286. + + ROE, winter change of the, ii. 299. + + ROLLE, F., on the origin of man, i. 4; + on a change in German families settled in Georgia, i. 246. + + ROLLER, ii. 56. + + ROMANS, ancient, gladiatorial exhibitions of the, i. 101. + + ROOK, voice of the, ii. 61. + + RÖSSLER, Dr., on the resemblance of the lower surface of butterflies + to the bark of trees, i. 392. + + ROSTRUM, sexual difference in the length of, in some weevils, i. 255. + + RUDIMENTARY organs, i. 17; + origin of, i. 32. + + RUDIMENTS, presence of, in languages, i. 60. + + RUDOLPH, on the want of connexion between climate and the colour + of the skin, i. 241. + + RUFF, supposed to be polygamous, i. 270; + proportion of the sexes in the, i. 306; + pugnacity of the, ii. 41, 48; + double moult in, ii. 81, 84; + duration of dances of, ii. 100; + attraction of the, to bright objects, ii. 111. + + RUMINANTS, male, disappearance of canine teeth in, i. 144, ii. 325; + generally polygamous, i. 266; + analogy of Lamellicorn beetles to, i. 373; + suborbital pits of, ii. 280; + sexual differences of colour in, ii. 287. + + _Rupicola crocea_, display of plumage by the male, ii. 87. + + RÜPPELL, on canine teeth in deer and antelopes, ii. 258. + + RUSSIA, numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. 301. + + _Ruticilla_, ii. 180. + + RÜTIMEYER, Prof., on the physiognomy of the apes, i. 149; + on the sexual differences of monkeys, ii. 323. + + RUTLANDSHIRE, numerical proportion of male and female births in, + i. 301. + + + S. + + SACHS, Prof., on the behaviour of the male and female elements + in fertilisation, i. 274. + + SACRIFICES, Human, i. 182. + + SAGITTAL crest in male apes and Australians, ii. 319. + + SAHARA, birds of the, ii. 172; + animal inhabitants of the, ii. 224. + + SAILORS, growth of, delayed by conditions of life, i. 114; + long-sighted, i. 118. + + SAILORS and soldiers, difference in the proportions of, i. 116. + + ST. JOHN, Mr., on the attachment of mated birds, ii. 108. + + ST. KILDA, beards of the inhabitants of, ii. 321. + + _Salmo eriox_, and _S. umbla_, colouring of the male, during + the breeding season, ii. 14. + + _Salmo lycaodon_, ii. 4. + + _Salmo salar_, ii. 4. + + SALMON, leaping out of fresh water, i. 83; + male, ready to breed before the female, i. 260; + proportion of the sexes in, i. 308; + male, pugnacity of the, ii. 3; + male, characters of, during the breeding season, ii. 3, 14; + spawning of the, ii. 19; + breeding of immature male, ii. 215. + + SALVIN, O., on the Humming-birds, i. 269, ii. 168; + on the numerical proportion of the sexes in Humming-birds, + i. 307, ii. 221; + on _Chamæpetes_ and _Penelope_, ii. 64; + on _Selasphorus platycercus_, ii. 65; + on _Pipra deliciosa_, ii. 66; + on _Chasmorhynchus_, ii. 79. + + SAMOA Islands, beardlessness of the natives of, ii. 322, 349. + + SAND-SKIPPER, i. 334. + + SANDWICH Islands, variation in the skulls of the natives of the, + i. 108; + superiority of the nobles in the, ii. 356. + + SANDWICH Islanders, lice of, i. 219. + + SAN-GIULIANO, women of, ii. 357. + + SANTALI, recent rapid increase of the, i. 133; + Mr. Hunter on the, i. 241. + + _Saphirina_, characters of the males of, i. 335. + + _Sarkidiornis melanonotus_, characters of the young, ii. 185. + + SARS, O., on _Pontoporeia offinis_, i. 329. + + _Saturnia carpini_, attraction of males by the female, i. 311. + + _Saturnia Io_, difference of coloration in the sexes of, i. 398. + + _Saturniidæ_, coloration of the, i. 396, 398. + + SAVAGE, Dr., on the fighting of the male gorillas, ii. 324; + on the habits of the gorilla, ii. 363. + + SAVAGE and Wyman, on the polygamous habits of the gorilla, i. 266. + + SAVAGES, imitative faculties of, i. 57, 161; + causes of low morality of, i. 97; + uniformity of, exaggerated, i. 111; + long-sighted, i. 118; + rate of increase among, usually small, i. 132; + retention of the prehensile power of the feet by, i. 142; + tribes of, supplanting one another, i. 160; + improvements in the arts among, i. 182; + arts of, i. 234; + fondness of, for rough music, ii. 67; + attention paid by, to personal appearance, ii. 338; + relation of the sexes among, ii. 363. + + SAW-FLY, pugnacity of a male, i. 364. + + SAW-FLIES, proportions of the sexes in, i. 314. + + _Saxicola rubicola_, young of, ii. 220. + + SCALP, motion of the, i. 20. + + SCENT-GLANDS in snakes, ii. 30. + + SCHAAFFHAUSEN, Prof., on the development of the posterior molars + in different races of man, i. 26; + on the jaw from La Naulette, i. 126; + on the correlation between muscularity and prominent supra-orbital + ridges, i. 130; + on the mastoid processes of man, i. 143; + on modifications of the cranial bones, i. 147; + on human sacrifices, i. 182; + on the probable speedy extermination of the anthropomorphous apes, + i. 201; + on the ancient inhabitants of Europe, i. 237; + on the effects of use and disuse of parts, i. 247; + on the superciliary ridge in man, ii. 316; + on the absence of race-differences in the infant skull in man, + ii. 318; + on ugliness, ii. 354. + + SCHAUM, H., on the elytra of _Dytiscus_ and _Hydroporus_, i. 343. + + SCHELVER, on dragon-flies, i. 363. + + SCHIODTE, on the stridulation of _Heterocerus_, i. 379. + + SCHLEGEL, F. von, on the complexity of the languages of uncivilised + peoples, i. 61. + + SCHLEGEL, Prof., on _Tanysiptera_, ii. 190. + + SCHLEICHER, Prof., on the origin of language, i. 56. + + SCHLEIDEN, Prof., on the rattle-snake, ii. 30. + + SCHOMBURGK, Sir R., on the pugnacity of the male musk-duck + of Guiana, ii. 43; + on the courtship of _Rupicola crocea_, ii. 87. + + SCHOOLCRAFT, Mr., on the difficulty of fashioning stone implements, + i. 138. + + SCLATER, P. L., on modified secondary wing-feathers in the males + of _Pipra_, ii. 65; + on elongated feathers in nightjars, ii. 73; + on the species of _Chasmorhynchus_, ii. 79; + on the plumage of _Pelecanus onocrotalus_, ii. 85; + on the plantain-eaters, ii. 177; + on the sexes and young of _Tadorna variegata_, ii. 206; + on the colours of _Lemur macaco_, ii. 290; + on the stripes in asses, ii. 305. + + SCOLECIDA, absence of secondary sexual characters in, i. 321. + + _Scolopax frenata_, tail-feathers of, ii. 64. + + _Scolopax gallinago_, drumming of, ii. 63. + + _Scolopax javensis_, tail-feathers of, ii. 64. + + _Scolopax major_, assemblies of, ii. 101. + + _Scolopax Wilsonii_, sound produced by, ii. 64. + + _Scolytus_, stridulation of, i. 379. + + SCOTER-DUCK, black, sexual difference in coloration of the, ii. 226; + bright beak of male, ii. 227. + + SCOTT, J., on the colour of the beard in man, ii. 319. + + SCROPE, on the pugnacity of the male salmon, ii. 3; + on the battles of stags, ii. 240. + + SCUDDER, S. H., imitation of the stridulation of the Orthoptera, + i. 353; + on the stridulation of the _Acridiidæ_, i. 356; + on a Devonian insect, i. 360; + on stridulation, ii. 331. + + SCULPTURE, expression of the ideal of beauty by, ii. 350. + + SEA-ANEMONIES, bright colours of, i. 322. + + SEA-BEAR, polygamous, i. 268. + + SEA-ELEPHANT, male, structure of the nose of the, ii. 278; + polygamous, i. 268. + + SEA-LION, polygamous, i. 268. + + SEAL, bladder-nose, ii. 278. + + SEALS, their sentinels generally females, i. 74; + evidence furnished by, on classification, i. 190; + sexual differences in the coloration of, ii. 287; + appreciation of music by, ii. 333; + battles of male, ii. 240; + canine teeth of male, ii. 241; + polygamous habits of, i. 268; + pairing of, ii. 269; + sexual peculiarities of, ii. 277. + + SEA-SCORPION, sexual differences in, ii. 9. + + SEASON, changes of colour in birds, in accordance with the, ii. 80; + changes of plumage of birds in relation to, ii. 180. + + SEASONS, inheritance at corresponding, i. 282. + + SEBITUANI, ii. 340. + + SEBRIGHT Bantam, i. 294. + + SECONDARY sexual characters, i. 253; + relations of polygamy to, i. 266; + gradation of, in birds, ii. 135; + transmitted through both sexes, i. 279. + + SEDGWICK, W., on hereditary tendency to produce twins, i. 133. + + SEEMANN, Dr., on the different appreciation of music by different + peoples, ii. 334; + on the effects of music, ii. 335. + + _Selasphorus platycercus_, acuminate first primary of the male, + ii. 65. + + SELBY, P. J., on the habits of the black and red grouse, i. 269. + + SELECTION, double, i. 276. + + SELECTION of male by female birds, ii. 99, 122. + + SELECTION, methodical, of Prussian grenadiers, i. 112. + + SELECTION, sexual, influence of, on the colouring of Lepidoptera, + i. 403; + explanation of, i. 256, 260, 271. + + SELECTION, sexual and natural, contrasted, i. 278. + + SELF-COMMAND, habit of, inherited, i. 92; + estimation of, i. 95. + + SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS, i. 62. + + SELF-PRESERVATION, instinct of, i. 89. + + SELF-SACRIFICE, by savages, i. 88; + estimation of, i. 95. + + SEMILUNAR fold, i. 23. + + _Semnopithecus_, i. 197; + long hair on the heads of species of, i. 192; ii. 380. + + _Semnopithecus chrysomelas_, sexual differences of colour in ii. 291. + + _Semnopithecus comatus_, ornamental hair on the head of, ii. 307. + + _Semnopithecus frontatus_, beard, &c., of, ii. 308. + + _Semnopithecus nasica_, nose of, i. 192. + + _Semnopithecus nemæus_, colouring of, ii. 310. + + _Semnopithecus rubicundus_, ornamental hair on the head of, ii. 306. + + SENSES, inferiority of Europeans to savages in the, i. 118. + + SENTINELS, i. 74, 82. + + SERPENTS, instinctively dreaded by apes and monkeys, i. 37, 42. + + _Serranus_, hermaphroditism in, i. 208. + + SEX, inheritance limited by, i. 282. + + SEXES, relative proportions of, in man, i. 300, ii. 320; + probable relation of the, in primeval man, ii. 362. + + SEXUAL characters, secondary, i. 253; + relations of polygamy to, i. 266; + transmitted through both sexes, i. 279; + gradation of, in birds, ii. 135. + + SEXUAL and natural selection, contrasted, i. 278. + + SEXUAL characters, effects of the loss of, i. 284; + limitation of, i. 284. + + SEXUAL differences in man, i. 14. + + SEXUAL selection, explanation of, i. 256, 260, 271; + influence of, on the colouring of Lepidoptera, i. 403; + action of, in mankind, ii. 368. + + SEXUAL similarity, i. 277. + + SHARKS, prehensile organs of male, ii. 1. + + SHARPE, R. B., on _Tanysiptera sylvia_, ii. 165; + on _Ceryle_, ii. 173; + on the young male of _Dacelo Gaudichaudi_, ii. 188. + + SHAW, Mr., on the pugnacity of the male salmon, ii. 3. + + SHAW, J., on the decorations of birds, ii. 71. + + SHEEP, danger-signals of, i. 74; + sexual differences in the horns of, i. 283; + horns of, i. 289, ii. 246, 259; + domestic, sexual differences of, late developed, i. 293; + numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. 304; + mode of fighting of, ii. 249; + arched foreheads of some, ii. 284. + + SHEEP, Merino, loss of horns in females of, i. 284; + horns of, i. 289. + + SHELLS, difference in form of, in male and female Gasteropoda, i. 324; + beautiful colours and shapes of, i. 326. + + SHIELD-DRAKE, pairing with a common duck, ii. 114; + New Zealand, sexes and young of, ii. 206. + + SHOOTER, J., on the Kafirs, ii. 347; + on the marriage-customs of the Kafirs, ii. 373. + + SHREW-MICE, odour of, ii. 279. + + SHRIKE, Drongo, ii. 179. + + SHRIKES, characters of young, ii. 185. + + SHUCKARD, W. E., on sexual differences in the wings of Hymenoptera, + i. 435. + + SHYNESS of adorned male birds, ii. 97. + + _Siagonium_, proportions of the sexes in, i. 314; + dimorphism in males of, i. 374. + + SIAM, proportion of male and female births in, i. 303. + + SIAMESE, general beardlessness of the, ii. 321; + notions of beauty of the, ii. 345; + hairy family of, ii. 378. + + SIEBOLD, C. T. von, on the auditory apparatus of the stridulant + orthoptera, i. 353. + + SIGHT, inheritance of long and short, i. 118. + + SIGNAL-CRIES of monkeys, i. 57. + + SILK-MOTH, difference of size of the male and female cocoons + of the, i. 346; + pairing of the, i. 401; + male, fertilising two or three females, i. 406; + proportion of the sexes in, i. 309, 311; + Ailanthus, Prof. Canestrini, on the destruction of its larvæ + by wasps, i. 311. + + SIMIADÆ, i. 195; + their origin and divisions, i. 213. + + SIMILARITY, sexual, i. 277. + + SINGING of the Cicadæ and Fulgoridæ, i. 351; + of tree-frogs, ii. 27; + of birds, object of the, ii. 52. + + SIRENIA, nakedness of, i. 148. + + _Sirex juvencus_, i. 365. + + SIRICIDÆ, difference of the sexes in, i. 365. + + SISKIN, ii. 85; + pairing with a canary, ii. 115. + + _Sitana_, throat-pouch of the males of, ii. 33, 36. + + SIZE, relative, of the sexes of insects, i. 345. + + SKIN, movement of the, i. 19; + nakedness of, in man, i. 148; + colour of the, i. 241. + + SKIN and hair, correlation of colour of, i. 248. + + SKULL, variation of, in man, i. 108; + cubic contents of, no absolute test of intellect, i. 145; + Neanderthal, capacity of the, i. 146; + causes of modification of the, i. 147; + difference of, in form and capacity, in different races of men, + i. 216; + variability of the shape of the, i. 226; + differences of, in the sexes in man, ii. 317; + artificial modifications of the shape of, ii. 340. + + SKUNK, odour emitted by the, ii. 279. + + SLAVERY, prevalence of, i. 94; + of women, ii. 366. + + SLAVES, difference between those of field and house, i. 246. + + SMELL, sense of, in man and animals, i. 23. + + SMITH, Adam, on the basis of sympathy, i. 82. + + SMITH, Sir A., on the recognition of women by male _Cynocephali_, + i. 13; + on an instance of memory in a baboon, i. 45; + on the retention of their colour by the Dutch in South Africa, + i. 242; + on the polygamy of the South African antelopes, i. 267; + on the proportion of the sexes in _Kobus ellipsiprymnus_, i. 305; + on _Bucephalus capensis_, ii. 29; + on South African lizards, ii. 37; + on fighting gnus, ii. 240; + on the horns of rhinoceroses, ii. 248; + on the fighting of lions, ii. 266; + on the colours of the Cape Eland, ii. 288; + on the colours of the gnu, ii. 289; + on Hottentot notions of beauty, ii. 345. + + SMITH, F., on the Cynipidæ and Tenthredinidæ, i. 314; + on the relative size of the sexes of Aculeate Hymenoptera, i. 347; + on the difference between the sexes of ants and bees, i. 365; + on the stridulation of _Trox sabulosus_, i. 380; + on the stridulation of _Mononychus pseudacori_, i. 382. + + _Smynthurus luteus_, courtship of, i. 348. + + SNAKES, sexual differences of, ii. 29; + male, ardency of, ii. 30. + + "SNARLING MUSCLES," i. 127. + + SNIPE, drumming of the, ii. 63; + coloration of the, ii. 226. + + SNIPE, painted, sexes and young of, ii. 202. + + SNIPE, solitary, assemblies of, ii. 101. + + SNIPES, arrival of male before the female, i. 260; + pugnacity of male, ii. 43; + double moult in, ii. 80. + + SNOW-GOOSE, whiteness of the, ii. 228. + + SOCIAL animals, affection of, for each other, i. 76; + defence of, by the males, i. 83. + + SOCIABILITY, the sense of duty connected with, i. 71; + impulse to, in animals, i. 79, 80; + manifestations of, in man, i. 84; + instinct of, in animals, i. 86. + + SOCIALITY, probable, of primeval men, i. 155; + influence of, on the development of the intellectual faculties, + i. 160; + origin of, in man, i. 161. + + SOLDIERS, American, measurements of, i. 114. + + SOLDIERS and sailors, difference in the proportions of, i. 116. + + _Solenostoma_, bright colours and marsupial sack of the females + of, ii. 22. + + SONG of male birds appreciated by their females, i. 63; + want of, in brilliant plumaged birds, ii. 94; + of birds, ii. 163. + + _Sorex_, odour of, ii. 279. + + SOUNDS admired alike by man and animals, i. 64; + produced by fishes, ii. 23; + produced by male frogs and toads, ii. 27; + instrumentally produced by birds, ii. 63 _et seqq._ + + SPAIN, decadence of, i. 178. + + _Sparassus smaragdulus_, difference of colour in the sexes of, i. 337, + 338. + + SPARROW, pugnacity of the male, ii. 40; + acquisition of the Linnet's song by a, ii. 55; + coloration of the, ii. 198; + immature plumage of the, ii. 188. + + SPARROW, white-crowned, young of the, ii. 217. + + SPARROWS, house- and tree-, ii. 170. + + SPARROWS, new mates found by, ii. 105. + + SPARROWS, sexes and young of, ii. 212; + learning to sing, ii. 334. + + _Spathura Underwoodi_, ii. 77. + + SPAWNING of fishes, ii. 15, 19. + + SPEAR, origin of the, i. 234. + + SPECIES, causes of the advancement of, i. 172; + distinctive characters of, i. 214; + or races of man, i. 217; + sterility and fertility of, when crossed, i. 122; + supposed, of man, i. 226; + gradation of, i. 227; + difficulty of defining, i. 228; + representative, of birds, ii. 190, 191; + of birds, comparative differences between the sexes of distinct, + ii. 192. + + SPECTRE-INSECTS, mimickry of leaves by, i. 414. + + _Spectrum femoratum_, difference of colour in the sexes of, i. 361. + + SPEECH, connection between the brain and the faculty of, i. 58. + + "SPEL" of the black-cock, ii. 60. + + SPENCER, Herbert, on the dawn of intelligence, i. 37; + on the origin of the belief in spiritual agencies, i. 66; + on the origin of the moral sense, i. 101; + on the influence of food on the size of the jaws, i. 118; + on the ratio between individuation and genesis, i. 318; + on music, ii. 336. + + SPERM-WHALES, battles of male, ii. 240. + + SPHINGIDÆ, coloration of the, i. 396. + + SPHINX, Humming-bird, i. 399. + + _Sphinx_, Mr. Bates on the caterpillar of a, i. 416. + + SPIDERS, i. 337; + male, more active than female, i. 272; + proportion of the sexes in, i. 314; + male, small size of, i. 338. + + _Spilosoma menthrasti_, rejected by turkeys, i. 398. + + SPINE, alteration of, to suit the erect attitude of man, i. 143. + + SPIRITS, fondness of monkeys for, i. 12. + + SPIRITUAL agencies, belief in, almost universal, i. 65. + + SPOONBILL, ii. 60; + Chinese, change of plumage in, ii. 179. + + SPOTS, retained throughout groups of birds, ii. 131; + disappearance of, in adult mammals, ii. 303. + + SPRENGEL, C. K., on the sexuality of plants, i. 260. + + SPRING-BOC, horns of the, ii. 251. + + SPROAT, Mr., on the extinction of savages in Vancouver Island, + i. 239; + on the eradication of facial hair by the natives of Vancouver + Island, ii. 348; + on the eradication of the beard by the Indians of Vancouver Island, + ii. 380. + + SPURS, occurrence of, in female fowls, i. 280, 284; + development of, in various species of Phasianidæ, i. 290; + of Gallinaceous birds, ii. 44, 46; + development of, in female Gallinaceæ, ii. 162. + + _Squilla_, different colours of the sexes of a species of, i. 335. + + SQUIRRELS, battles of male, ii. 239; + African, sexual differences in the colouring of, ii. 286; + black, ii. 294. + + STAG, long hairs of the throat of, ii. 268; + horns of the, i. 279, 282; + battles of, ii. 240; + horns of the, with numerous branches, ii. 252; + bellowing of the, ii. 274; + crest of the, ii. 282. + + STAG-BEETLE, large size of male, i. 347; + weapons of the male, i. 375; + numerical proportion of sexes of, i. 313. + + STAINTON, H. T., on the numerical proportion of the sexes + in the smaller moths, i. 310; + habits of _Elachista rufocinerea_, i. 311; + on the coloration of moths, i. 397; + on the rejection of _Spilosoma menthrasti_, by turkeys, i. 398; + on the sexes of _Agrotis exclamationis_, i. 399. + + STALLION, mane of the, ii. 268. + + STALLIONS, two, attacking a third, i. 75; + fighting, ii. 241; + small canine teeth of, ii. 258. + + STANSBURY, Capt., observations on pelicans, i. 77. + + STAPHYLINIDÆ, hornlike processes in male, i. 374. + + STARFISHES, bright colours of some, i. 322. + + STARK, Dr., on the death-rate in towns and rural districts, i. 175; + on the influence of marriage on mortality, i. 176; + on the higher mortality of males in Scotland, i. 302. + + STARLING, American field, pugnacity of male, ii. 51. + + STARLING, red-winged, selection of a mate by the female, ii. 116. + + STARLINGS, three, frequenting the same nest, i. 269, ii. 106; + new mates found by, ii. 105. + + STATUES, Greek, Egyptian, Assyrian, &c., contrasted, ii. 350. + + STATURE, dependence of, upon local influences, i. 114. + + STAUDINGER, Dr., his list of Lepidoptera, i. 312; + on breeding Lepidoptera, i. 311. + + STAUNTON, Sir G., hatred of indecency a modern virtue, i. 96. + + STEALING of bright objects by birds, ii. 112. + + STEBBING, T. R., on the nakedness of the human body, ii. 375. + + _Stemmatopus_, ii. 278. + + _Stenobothrus pratorum_, stridulating organs of, i. 357. + + STERILITY, general, of sole daughters, i. 170; + when crossed, a distinctive character of species, i. 214. + + _Sterna_, seasonal change of plumage in, ii. 228. + + STICKLEBACK, polygamous, i. 271; + male, courtship of the, ii. 2; + male, brilliant colouring of, during the breeding season, ii. 14; + nidification of the, ii. 20. + + STICKS used as implements and weapons by monkeys, i. 51. + + STING in bees, i. 254. + + STOKES, Capt., on the habits of the great Bower-bird, ii. 70. + + STONECHAT, young of the, ii. 220. + + STONE IMPLEMENTS, difficulty of making, i. 138; + as traces of extinct tribes, i. 237. + + STONES, used by monkeys for breaking hard fruits and as missiles, + i. 140; + piles of, i. 233. + + STORK, black, sexual differences in the bronchi of the, ii. 60; + red beak of the, ii. 227. + + STORKS, ii. 226, 230; + sexual difference in the colour of the eyes of, ii. 128. + + STRANGE, Mr., on the Satin Bower-bird, ii. 69. + + STRETCH, Mr., on the numerical proportion in the sexes of chickens, + i. 306. + + _Strepsiceros kudu_, horns of, ii. 255; + markings of, ii. 300. + + STRIDULATION, by males of _Theridion_, i. 339; + of the Orthoptera and Homoptera discussed, i. 360; + of beetles, i. 378. + + STRIPES, retained throughout groups of birds, ii. 131; + disappearance of, in adult mammals, ii. 303. + + _Strix flammea_, ii. 105. + + STRUCTURE, existence of unserviceable modifications of, i. 153. + + STRUGGLE for existence, in man, i. 180, 185. + + STRUTHERS, Dr., on the occurrence of the supra-condyloid foramen + in the humerus of man, i. 28. + + _Sturnella ludoviciana_, pugnacity of the male, ii. 51. + + _Sturnus vulgaris_, ii. 105. + + SUB-SPECIES, i. 227. + + SUFFERING, in strangers, indifference of savages to, i. 94. + + SUICIDE, i. 172; + formerly not regarded as a crime, i. 94; + rarely practised among the lowest savages, i. 94. + + SUIDÆ, stripes of young, ii. 184. + + SUMATRA, compression of the nose by the Malays of, ii. 352. + + SUMNER, Archb., man alone capable of progressive improvement, i. 49. + + SUN-BIRDS, nidification of, ii. 169. + + SUPERSTITIONS, i. 182; + prevalence of, i. 99. + + SUPERSTITIOUS customs, i. 68. + + SUPERCILIARY ridge in man, ii. 316, 318. + + SUPERNUMERARY digits, more frequent in men than in women, i. 276; + inheritance of, i. 285; + early development of, i. 292. + + SUPRA-CONDYLOID foramen in the early progenitors of man, i. 206. + + SUSPICION, prevalence of, among animals, i. 39. + + SULIVAN, Sir B. J., on two stallions attacking a third, ii. 241. + + SWALLOW-TAIL Butterfly, i. 393. + + SWALLOWS deserting their young, i. 84, 90. + + SWAN, black, red beak of the, ii. 227; + black-necked, ii. 230; + white, young of, ii. 211; + wild, trachea of the, ii. 59. + + SWANS, ii. 226, 230; + young, ii. 208. + + SWAYSLAND, Mr., on the arrival of migratory birds, i. 259. + + SWINHOE, R., on the common rat in Formosa and China, i. 50; + on the sounds produced by the male Hoopoe, ii. 62; + on _Dicrurus macrocercus_ and the Spoonbill, ii. 179; + on the young of _Ardeola_, ii. 190; + on the habits of _Turnix_, ii. 202; + on the habits of _Rhynchæa bengalensis_, ii. 203; + on Orioles breeding in immature plumage, ii. 214, 215. + + _Sylvia atricapilla_, young of, ii. 219. + + _Sylvia cinerea_, aerial love-dance of the male, ii. 68. + + SYMPATHY, i. 168; + among animals, i. 77; + its supposed basis, i. 82. + + SYMPATHIES, gradual widening of, i. 100. + + SYNGNATHOUS fishes, abdominal pouch in male, i. 210. + + _Sypheotides auritus_, acuminated primaries of the male, ii. 64; + ear-tufts of, ii. 73. + + + T. + + TABANIDÆ, habits of, i. 254. + + _Tadorna variegata_, sexes and young of, ii. 206. + + _Tadorna vulpanser_, ii. 114. + + TAHITIANS, i. 183; + compression of the nose by the, ii. 352. + + TAIL, rudimentary, occurrence of, in man, i. 29; + convoluted body in the extremity of the, i. 30; + absence of, in man and the higher apes, i. 150, 194; + variability of, in species of _Macacus_ and in baboons, i. 150; + presence of, in the early progenitors of man, i. 206; + length of, in pheasants, ii. 156, 164, 166; + difference of length of the, in the two sexes of birds, ii. 164. + + TAIT, Lawson, on the effects of natural selection on civilised + nations, i. 168. + + TANAGER, scarlet, variation in the male, ii. 126. + + _Tanagra æstiva_, ii. 180; + age of mature plumage in, ii. 213. + + _Tanagra rubra_, ii. 126; + young of, ii. 220. + + _Tanais_, absence of mouth in the males of some species of, i. 255; + relations of the sexes in, i. 315; + dimorphic males of a species of, i. 328. + + TANKERVILLE, Earl, on the battles of wild bulls, ii. 240. + + _Tanysiptera_, races of, determined from adult males, ii. 190. + + _Tanysiptera sylvia_, long tail-feathers of, ii. 165. + + _Taphroderes distortus_, enlarged left mandible of the male, i. 344. + + TAPIRS, longitudinal stripes of young, ii. 184, 303. + + TARSI, dilatation of front, in male beetles, i. 343. + + _Tarsius_, i. 200. + + TASMANIA, half-castes killed by the natives of, i. 220. + + TATTOOING, i. 232; + universality of, ii. 339. + + TASTE, in the Quadrumana, ii. 296. + + TAYLOR, G. on _Quiscalus major_, i. 307. + + TEA, fondness of monkeys for, i. 12. + + TEAR-SACKS, of Ruminants, ii. 280. + + TEEBAY, Mr., on changes of plumage in spangled Hamburgh fowls, i. 281. + + TEETH, rudimentary incisor, in Ruminants, i. 17; + posterior molar, in man, i. 25; + wisdom, i. 26; + diversity of, i. 108; + canine, in the early progenitors of man, i. 206; + canine, of male mammals, ii. 241; + in man, reduced by correlation, ii. 325; + staining of the, ii. 339; + front, knocked out or filed by some savages, ii. 340. + + TEGETMEIER, Mr., on the abundance of male pigeons, i. 306; + on the wattles of game-cocks, ii. 98; + on the courtship of fowls, ii. 117; + on dyed pigeons, ii. 118. + + TEMBETA, ii. 341. + + TEMPER, in dogs and horses, inherited, i. 40. + + TENCH, proportions of the sexes in the, i. 308, 309; + brightness of male, during breeding season, ii. 13. + + TENEBRIONIDÆ, stridulation of, i. 379. + + TENNENT, Sir J. E., on the tusks of the Ceylon Elephant, ii. 248, 258; + on the frequent absence of beard in the natives of Ceylon, ii. 321; + on the Chinese opinion of the aspect of the Cingalese, ii. 345. + + TENNYSON, A., on the control of thought, i. 101. + + TENTHREDINIDÆ, proportions of the sexes in, i. 314; + fighting habits of male, i. 364; + difference of the sexes in, i. 365. + + _Tephrodornis_, young of, ii. 190. + + TERAI, i. 237. + + _Termites_, habits of, i. 364. + + TERNS, white, ii. 228; + and black, ii. 230. + + TERNS, seasonal change of plumage in, ii. 228. + + TERROR, common action of, upon the lower animals and man, i. 39. + + _Testudo nigra_, ii. 28. + + _Tetrao cupido_, battles of, ii. 50; + sexual difference in the vocal organs of, ii. 56. + + _Tetrao phasianellus_, dances of, ii. 68; + duration of dances of, ii. 100. + + _Tetrao scoticus_, ii. 170, 185, 194. + + _Tetrao tetrix_, ii. 170, 185, 194; + pugnacity of the male. ii. 45. + + _Tetrao umbellus_, pairing of, ii. 49; + battles of, ii. 50; + drumming of the male, ii. 61. + + _Tetrao urogalloides_, dances of, ii. 100. + + _Tetrao urogallus_, pugnacity of the male, ii. 45. + + _Tetrao urophasianus_, inflation of the oesophagus in the male, + ii. 57. + + _Thamnobia_, young of, ii. 190. + + _Thaumalea picta_, display of plumage by the male, ii. 89. + + _Thecla_, sexual differences of colouring in species of, i. 389. + + _Thecla rubi_, protective colouring of, i. 392. + + _Theridion_, i. 337; + stridulation of males of, i. 339. + + _Theridion lineatum_, variability of, i. 338. + + _Thomisus citreus_, and _T. floricolens_, difference of colour + in the sexes of, i. 337. + + THOMPSON, J. H., on the battles of sperm-whales, ii. 240. + + THOMPSON, W., on the colouring of the male char during the breeding + season, ii. 14; + on the pugnacity of the males of _Gallinula chloropus_, ii. 41; + on the finding of new mates by magpies, ii. 103; + on the finding of new mates by Peregrine falcons, ii. 104. + + THORAX, processes of, in male beetles, i. 370. + + THORELL, T., on the proportion of the sexes in spiders, i. 315. + + THORNBACK, difference in the teeth of the two sexes of the, ii. 6. + + THOUGHTS, control of, i. 101. + + THRUSH, pairing with a blackbird, ii. 113; + colours and nidification of the, ii. 170. + + THRUSHES, characters of young, ii. 185, 269. + + THUG, his regrets, i. 94. + + THUMB, absence of, in _Ateles_ and _Hylobates_, i. 140. + + THURY, M., on the numerical proportion of male and female births + among the Jews, i. 301. + + _Thylacinus_, possession of the marsupial sack by the male, i. 208. + + THYSANURA, i. 348. + + TIBIA, dilated, of the male _Crabro cribrarius_, i. 343. + + TIBIA and femur, proportions of, in the Aymara Indians, i. 119. + + TIERRA del Fuego, marriage-customs of, ii. 373. + + TIGER, colours and markings of the, ii. 302. + + TIGERS, depopulation of districts by, in India, i. 134. + + _Tillus elongatus_, difference of colour in the sexes of, i. 368. + + TIMIDITY, variability of, in the same species, i. 40. + + TINEINA, proportion of the sexes in, i. 310. + + _Tipula_, pugnacity of male, i. 349. + + TITS, sexual difference of colour in, ii. 174. + + TOADS, ii. 25; + male, treatment of ova by some, i. 210; + male, ready to breed before the female, i. 260. + + TOE, great, condition of, in the human embryo, i. 17. + + TOMTIT, blue, sexual difference of colour in the, ii. 174. + + TONGA Islands, beardlessness of the natives of, ii. 322, 349. + + TOOKE, Horne, on language, i. 55. + + TOOLS, flint, i. 183; + used by monkeys, i. 51; + use of, i. 137. + + TOP-KNOTS in birds, ii. 74. + + _Tomicus villosus_, proportion of the sexes in, i. 314. + + TORTOISE, voice of the male, ii. 331. + + TORTURES, submitted to by American savages, i. 95. + + _Totanus_, double moult in, ii. 81. + + TOUCANS, colours and nidification of the, ii. 171; + beaks and ceres of the, ii. 227. + + TOWNS, residence in, a cause of diminished stature, i. 115. + + TOYNBEE, J., on the external shell of the ear in man, i. 21. + + TRACHEA, convoluted and imbedded in the sternum, in some birds, + ii. 59; + structure of the, in Rhynchæa, ii. 203. + + TRADES, affecting the form of the skull, i. 147. + + _Tragelaphus_, sexual differences of colour in, ii. 288. + + _Tragelaphus scriptus_, dorsal crest of, ii. 282; + markings of, ii. 299, 300. + + TRAGOPAN, i. 270; + swelling of the wattles of the male, during courtship, ii. 72; + display of plumage by the male, ii. 91; + markings of the sexes of the, ii. 134. + + _Tragops dispar_, sexual difference in the colour of, ii. 30. + + TRAINING, effect of, on the mental difference between the sexes + of man, ii. 329. + + TRANSFER of male characters to female birds, ii. 193. + + TRANSMISSION, equal, of ornamental characters, to both sexes + in mammals, ii. 297. + + TRAPS, avoidance of, by animals, i. 49; + use of, i. 137. + + TREACHERY, to comrades, avoidance of, by savages, i. 88. + + _Tremex columbæ_, i. 365. + + TRIBES, extinct, i. 160; + extinction of, i. 236. + + _Trichius_, difference of colour in the sexes of a species of, + i. 368. + + TRIMEN, R., on the proportion of the sexes in South African + butterflies, i. 310; + on the attraction of males by the female of _Lasiocampa quercus_, + i. 312; + on _Pneumora_, i. 358; + on difference of colour in the sexes of beetles, i. 367; + on moths brilliantly coloured beneath, i. 397; + on mimickry in butterflies, i. 412; + on _Gynanisa Isis_, and on the ocellated spots of Lepidoptera, + ii. 132; + on _Cyllo Leda_, ii. 133. + + _Tringa_, sexes and young of, ii. 216. + + _Tringa canutus_, ii. 82. + + _Triphæna_, coloration of the species of, i. 395. + + TRISTRAM, H. B., on unhealthy districts in North Africa, i. 244; + on the habits of the chaffinch in Palestine, i. 307; + on the birds of the Sahara, ii. 172; + on the animals inhabiting the Sahara, ii. 224. + + _Triton cristatus_, ii. 24. + + _Triton palmipes_, ii. 24. + + _Triton punctatus_, ii. 24, 25. + + _Troglodytes vulgaris_, ii. 198. + + TROGONS, colours and nidification of the, ii. 171, 173. + + TROPIC-BIRDS, white only when mature, ii. 228. + + TROPICS, freshwater fishes of the, ii. 17. + + TROUT, proportion of the sexes in, i. 308; + male, pugnacity of the, ii. 3. + + _Trox sabulosus_, stridulation of, i. 380. + + TRUTH, not rare between members of the same tribe, i. 95; + more highly appreciated by certain tribes, i. 100. + + TULLOCH, Major, on the immunity of the negro from certain fevers, + i. 243. + + TUMBLER, almond, change of plumage in the, i. 294. + + _Turdus merula_, ii. 170; + young of, ii. 219. + + _Turdus migratorius_, ii. 185. + + _Turdus musicus_, ii. 170. + + _Turdus polyglottus_, young of, ii. 219. + + _Turdus torquatus_, ii. 170. + + TURKEY, swelling of the wattles of the male, ii. 72; + variety of, with a top-knot, ii. 74; + recognition of a dog by a, ii. 110; + wild, pugnacity of young male, ii. 48; + wild, notes of the, ii. 60; + male, wild, acceptable to domesticated females, ii. 119; + wild, first advances made by older females, ii. 121; + wild, breast-tuft of bristles of the, ii. 179. + + TURKEY-COCK, scraping of the wings of, upon the ground, ii. 61; + wild, display of plumage by, ii. 87; + fighting habits of, ii. 98. + + TURNER, Prof. W., on muscular fasciculi in man referable to + the panniculus carnosus, i. 19; + on the occurrence of the supra-condyloid foramen in the human + humerus, i. 28; + on muscles attached to the coccyx in man, i. 29; + on the _filum terminale_ in man, i. 30; + on the variability of the muscles, i. 109; + on abnormal conditions of the human uterus, i. 123; + on the development of the mammary glands, i. 209; + on male fishes hatching ova in their mouths, i. 210. + + _Turnix_, sexes of some species of, ii. 201, 207. + + TURTLE-DOVE, cooing of the, ii. 60. + + TUTTLE, H., on the number of species of man, i. 226. + + TYLOR, E. B., on emotional cries, gestures, &c., of man, i. 54; + on the origin of the belief in spiritual agencies, i. 66; + on the primitive barbarism of civilised nations, i. 181; + on the origin of counting, i. 181; + on resemblances of the mental characters in different races of man, + i. 232. + + TYPE of structure, prevalence of, i. 211. + + _Typhoeus_, stridulating organs of, i. 378; + stridulation of, i. 380. + + TWINS, tendency to produce, hereditary, i. 133. + + TWITE, proportion of the sexes in the, i. 307. + + + U. + + UGLINESS, said to consist in an approach to the lower animals, + ii. 354. + + UMBRELLA-BIRD, ii. 58, 59. + + _Umbrina_, sounds produced by, ii. 23. + + UNITED States, rate of increase in, i. 131; + influence of natural selection on the progress of, i. 179; + change undergone by Europeans in the, i. 246. + + _Upupa epops_, sounds produced by the male, ii. 62. + + URANIIDÆ, coloration of the, i. 396. + + _Uria troile_, variety of, (= _U. lacrymans_), ii. 127. + + URODELA, ii. 24. + + _Urosticte Benjamini_, sexual differences in, ii. 151. + + USE and disuse of parts, effects of, i. 116; + influence of, on the races of man, i. 247. + + UTERUS, reversion in the, i. 123; + more or less divided, in the human subject, i. 123, 130; + double, in the early progenitors of man, i. 206. + + + V. + + VACCINATION, influence of, i. 168. + + VANCOUVER Island, Mr. Sproat on the savages of, i. 239; + natives of, eradication of facial hair by the, ii. 348. + + _Vanellus cristatus_, wing tubercles of the male, ii. 48. + + _Vanessæ_, i. 387; + resemblance of lower surface of, to bark of trees, i. 392. + + VARIABILITY, causes of, i. 111; + in man, analogous to that in the lower animals, i. 112; + of the races of man, i. 225; + greater in men than in women, i. 275; + period of, relation of the, to sexual selection, i. 296; + of birds, ii. 124; + of secondary sexual characters in man, ii. 320. + + VARIATION, correlated, i. 30; + laws of, i. 113; + in man, i. 185; + analogous, i. 194; + analogous, in plumage of birds, ii. 74. + + VARIATIONS, spontaneous, i. 131. + + VARIETIES, absence of, between two species, evidence of their + distinctness, i. 215. + + VARIETY, an object in nature, ii. 230. + + VARIOLA, communicable between man and the lower animals, i. 11. + + VAURÉAL, i. 29. + + VEDDAHS, monogamous habits of, ii. 363. + + VEITCH, Mr., on the aversion of Japanese ladies to whiskers, ii. 349. + + VENGEANCE, instinct of, i. 89. + + VENUS Erycina, priestesses of, ii. 357. + + VERMES, i. 327. + + VERMIFORM appendage, i. 27. + + VERREAUX, M., on the attraction of numerous males by the female + of an Australian _Bombyx_, i. 312. + + Vertebræ, caudal, number of, in macaques and baboons, i. 150; + of monkeys, partly imbedded in the body, i. 151. + + VERTEBRATA, ii. 1; + common origin of the, i. 203; + most ancient progenitors of, i. 212; + origin of the voice in air-breathing, ii. 331. + + _Vesicula prostatica_, the homologue of the uterus, i. 31, 208. + + VIBRISSÆ, represented by long hairs in the eyebrows, i. 25. + + _Vidua_, ii. 181. + + _Vidua axillaris_, i. 269. + + VILLERME, M., on the influence of plenty upon stature, i. 115. + + VINSON, Aug., on the male of _Epeira nigra_, i. 338. + + VIPER, difference of the sexes in the, ii. 29. + + VIREY, on the number of species of man, i. 226. + + VIRTUES, originally social only, i. 93; + gradual appreciation of, i. 165. + + VISCERA, variability of, in man, i. 109. + + VITI Archipelago, population of the, i. 225. + + VLACOVICH, Prof., on the ischio-pubic muscle, i. 127. + + VOCAL music of birds, ii. 51. + + VOCAL organs of man, i. 58; + of birds, i. 59; ii. 163; + of frogs, ii. 28; + of the Insessores, ii. 55; + difference of, in the sexes of birds, ii. 56; + primarily used in relation to the propagation of the species, + ii. 330. + + VOGT, Carl, on the origin of species, i. 1; + on the origin of man, i. 4; + on the semilunar fold in man, i. 23; + on the imitative faculties of microcephalous idiots, i. 57; + on microcephalous idiots, i. 121; + on skulls from Brazilian caves, i. 218; + on the evolution of the races of man, i. 230; + on the formation of the skull in women, ii. 317; + on the Ainos and negroes, ii. 321; + on the increased cranial difference of the sexes in man with + race-development, ii. 329; + on the obliquity of the eye in the Chinese and Japanese, ii. 344. + + VOICE in mammals, ii. 274; + in monkeys and man, ii. 319; + in man, ii. 330; + origin of, in air-breathing vertebrates, ii. 331. + + VON BAER, definition of advancement in the organic scale, i. 211. + + VULPIAN, Prof., on the resemblance between the brains of man and + of the higher apes, i. 11. + + VULTURES, selection of a mate by the female, ii. 116; + colours of, ii. 229. + + + W. + + WADERS, young of, ii. 217. + + WAGNER, R., on the occurrence of the diastema in a Kafir skull, + i. 126; + on the bronchi of the black stork, ii. 60. + + WAGTAIL, Ray's, arrival of the male before the female, i. 260. + + WAGTAILS, Indian, young of, ii. 190. + + WAIST, proportions of, in soldiers and sailors, i. 117. + + WAITZ, Prof., on the number of species of man, i. 226; + on the colour of Australian infants, ii. 318; + on the beardlessness of negroes, ii. 321; + on the fondness of mankind for ornaments, ii. 338; + on the liability of negroes to tropical fevers after residence + in a cold climate, i. 243; + on negro ideas of female beauty, ii. 346; + on Javanese and Cochin Chinese ideas of beauty, ii. 347. + + WALCKENAER and Gervais, on the Myriapoda, i. 340. + + WALDEYER, M., on the hermaphroditism of the vertebrate embryo, i. 207. + + WALES, North, numerical proportion of male and female births in, + i. 301. + + WALKER, Alex., on the large size of the hands of labourers' children, + i. 117. + + WALKER, F., on sexual differences in the diptera, i. 348. + + WALLACE, Dr. A., on the prehensile use of the tarsi in male moths, + i. 256; + on the rearing of the Ailanthus silk-moth, i. 311; + on breeding Lepidoptera, i. 311; + proportion of sexes of _Bombyx cynthia_, _B. yamamai_, + and _B. Pernyi_, reared by, i. 313; + on the development of _Bombyx cynthia_ and _B. yamamai_, i. 346; + on the pairing of _Bombyx cynthia_, i. 401; + on the fertilisation of moths, i. 406. + + WALLACE, A. R., on the origin of man, i. 4; + on the power of imitation in man, i. 39; + on the use of missiles by the orang, i. 52; + on the varying appreciation of truth among different tribes, i. 100; + on the limits of natural selection in man, i. 137, 158; + on the occurrence of remorse among savages, i. 165; + on the effects of natural selection on civilised nations, i. 168; + on the use of the convergence of the hair at the elbow in the orang, + i. 193; + on the contrast in the characters of the Malays and Papuans, i. 216; + on the line of separation between the Papuans and Malays, i. 218; + on the sexes of _Ornithoptera Croesus_, i. 310; + on protective resemblances, i. 322; + on the relative sizes of the sexes of insects, i. 346; + on _Elaphomyia_, i. 349; + on the Birds of Paradise, i. 269; + on the pugnacity of the males of _Leptorhynchus angustatus_, i. 375; + on sounds produced by _Euchirus longimanus_, i. 381; + on the colours of _Diadema_, i. 388; + on _Kallima_, i. 392; + on the protective colouring of moths, i. 394; + on bright coloration as protective in butterflies, i. 395; + on variability in the Papilionidæ, i. 402; + on male and female butterflies inhabiting different stations, i. 403; + on the protective nature of the dull colouring of female butterflies, + i. 403, 405, 414; + on mimickry in butterflies, i. 412; + on the mimickry of leaves by Phasmidæ, i. 414; + on the bright colours of caterpillars, i. 416; + on brightly-coloured fishes frequenting reefs, ii. 17; + on the coral snakes, ii. 31; + on _Paradisea apoda_, ii. 74, 78; + on the display of plumage by male Birds of Paradise, ii. 88; + on assemblies of Birds of Paradise, ii. 101; + on the instability of the ocellated spots in _Hipparchia Janira_, + ii. 132; + on sexually limited inheritance, ii. 155; + on the sexual coloration of birds, ii. 166, 196, 197, 200, 206; + on the relation between the colours and nidification of birds, + ii. 166, 171; + on the coloration of the Cotingidæ, ii. 177; + on the females of _Paradisea apoda_ and _papuana_, ii. 193; + on the incubation of the cassowary, ii. 204; + on protective coloration in birds, ii. 223; + on the hair of the Papuans, ii. 340; + on the Babirusa, ii. 264; + on the markings of the tiger, ii. 302; + on the beards of the Papuans, ii. 322; + on the distribution of hair on the human body, ii. 375. + + WALRUS, development of the nictitating membrane in the, i. 23; + tusks of the, ii. 241, 248; + use of the tusks by the, ii. 257. + + WALSH, B. D., on the proportion of the sexes in _Papilio Turnus_, + i. 310; + on the Cynipidæ and Cecidomyidæ, i. 314; + on the jaws of _Ammophila_, i. 342; + on _Corydalis cornutus_, i. 342; + on the prehensile organs of male insects, i. 342; + on the antennæ of _Penthe_, i. 343; + on the caudal appendages of dragon-flies, i. 344; + on _Platyphyllum concavum_, i. 356; + on the sexes of the Ephemeridæ, i. 361; + on the difference of colour in the sexes of _Spectrum femoratum_, + i. 361; + on sexes of dragon-flies, i. 361; + on the difference of the sexes in the Ichneumonidæ, i. 365; + on the sexes of _Orsodacna atra_, i. 368; + on the variation of the horns of the male _Phanæus carnifex_, + i. 370; + on the coloration of the species of _Anthocharis_, i. 393. + + WAPITI, battles of, ii. 240; + traces of horns in the female, ii. 245; + attacking a man, ii. 253; + crest of the male, ii. 282; + sexual difference in the colour of the, ii. 289. + + WARBLER, Hedge-, ii. 198; + young of the, ii. 209. + + WARBLERS, Superb, nidification of, ii. 169. + + WARINESS, acquired by animals, i. 50. + + WARINGTON, R., on the habits of the sticklebacks, ii. 2, 20; + on the brilliant colours of the male stickleback during + the breeding season, ii. 14. + + WART-HOG, tusks and pads of the, ii. 265. + + WATCHMAKERS, short-sighted, i. 118. + + WATER-HEN, ii. 40. + + WATERHOUSE, C. O., on blind beetles, i. 367; + on difference of colour in the sexes of beetles, i. 367. + + WATERHOUSE, G. R., on the voice of _Hylobates agilis_, ii. 332. + + WATER-OUZEL, autumn song of the, ii. 54. + + WATERTON, C., on the pairing of a Canada goose with a Bernicle gander, + ii. 114; + on hares fighting, ii. 239; + on the Bell-bird, ii. 79. + + WATTLES, disadvantageous to male birds in fighting, ii. 98. + + WEALTH, influence of, i. 169. + + WEALE, J. Mansel, on a South African caterpillar, i. 416. + + WEAPONS, employed by monkeys, i. 51; + use of, i. 137; + offensive, of males, i. 257; + of mammals, ii. 241 _et seq._ + + WEAVER-BIRD, ii. 54. + + WEAVER-BIRDS, rattling of the wings of, ii. 62; + assemblies of, ii. 101. + + WEBB, Dr., on the wisdom teeth, i. 25. + + WEDGWOOD, Hensleigh, on the origin of language, i. 56. + + WEEVILS, sexual difference in length of snout in some, i. 255. + + WEIR, Harrison, on the numerical proportion of the sexes in pigs + and rabbits, i. 305; + on the sexes of young pigeons, i. 306; + on the songs of birds, ii. 52; + on pigeons, ii. 109; + on the dislike of blue pigeons to other coloured varieties, ii. 118; + on the desertion of their mates by female pigeons, ii. 119. + + WEIR, J. Jenner, on the nightingale and blackcap, i. 259; + on the relative sexual maturity of male birds, i. 261; + on female pigeons deserting a feeble mate, i. 262; + on three starlings frequenting the same nest, i. 269; + on the proportion of the sexes in _Machetes pugnax_ and other birds, + i. 306, 307; + on the coloration of the _Triphænæ_, i. 395; + on the rejection of certain caterpillars by birds, i. 417; + on sexual differences of the beak in the goldfinch, ii. 40; + on a piping bullfinch, ii. 52; + on the object of the nightingale's song, ii. 52; + on song-birds, ii. 53; + on the pugnacity of male fine-plumaged birds, ii. 93; + on the courtship of birds, ii. 94; + on the finding of new mates by Peregrine-falcons and Kestrels, + ii. 104; + on the bullfinch and starling, ii. 105; + on the cause of birds remaining unpaired, ii. 107; + on starlings and parrots living in triplets, ii. 107; + on recognition of colour by birds, ii. 110; + on hybrid birds, ii. 113; + on the selection of a greenfinch by a female canary, ii. 115; + on a case of rivalry of female bullfinches, ii. 121; + on the maturity of the Golden pheasant, ii. 213. + + WEISBACH, Dr., measurement of men of different races, i. 216; + on the greater variability of men than of women, i. 275; + on the relative proportions of the body in the sexes of different + races of man, ii. 320. + + WELCKER, M., on Brachycephaly and Dolichocephaly, i. 148; + on sexual differences in the skull in man, ii. 317. + + WELLS, Dr., on the immunity of coloured races from certain poisons, + i. 243. + + WESTRING, on the stridulation of _Reduvius personatus_, i. 350; + on the stridulating organs of the Coleoptera, i. 382; + on sounds produced by _Cychrus_, i. 382; + on the stridulation of males of _Theridion_, i. 339; + on the stridulation of beetles, i. 379; + on the stridulation of _Omaloplia brunnea_, i. 381. + + WESTPHALIA, greater proportion of female illegitimate children in, + i. 301. + + WESTROPP, H. M., on the prevalence of certain forms of ornamentation, + i. 233. + + WESTWOOD, J. O., on the classification of the Hymenoptera, i. 188; + on the Culicidæ and Tabanidæ, i. 254; + on a Hymenopterous parasite with a sedentary male, i. 272; + on the proportions of the sexes in _Lucanus cervus_ and _Siagonium_, + i. 313; + on the absence of ocelli in female mutillidæ, i. 341; + on the jaws of _Ammophila_, i. 342; + on the copulation of insects of distinct species, i. 342; + on the male of _Crabro cribrarius_, i. 343; + on the pugnacity of male _Tipulæ_ i. 349; + on the stridulation of _Pirates stridulus_, i. 350; + on the Cicadæ, i. 351; + on the stridulating organs of the crickets, i. 354; + on _Pneumora_, i. 357; + on _Ephippiger vitium_, i. 355, 358; + on the pugnacity of the Mantides, i. 360; + on _Platyblemnus_, i. 361; + on difference in the sexes of the Agrionidæ, i. 362; + on the pugnacity of the males of a species of Tenthredinæ, i. 364; + on the pugnacity of the male stag-beetle, i. 375; + on _Bledius taurus_ and _Siagonium_, i. 375; + on lamellicorn beetles, i. 378; + on the coloration of _Lithosia_, i. 396. + + WHALE, Sperm-, battles of male, ii. 240. + + WHALES, nakedness of, i. 148. + + WHATELY, Archb., language not peculiar to man, i. 53; + on the primitive civilisation of man, i. 181. + + WHEWELL, Prof., on maternal affection, i. 40. + + WHISKERS, in monkeys, i. 192. + + WHITE, Gilbert, on the proportion of the sexes in the partridge, + i. 306; + on the house-cricket, i. 352; + on the object of the song of birds, ii. 52; + on the finding of new mates by white owls, ii. 105; + on spring coveys of male partridges, ii. 107. + + WHITENESS, a sexual ornament in some birds, ii. 232; + of mammals inhabiting snowy countries, ii. 298. + + WHITE-THROAT, aerial love-dance of the male, ii. 68. + + WIDOW-BIRD, polygamous, i. 269; + breeding plumage of the male, ii. 84, 97; + female, rejecting the unadorned male, ii. 120. + + WIDOWS and widowers, mortality of, i. 176. + + WIGEON, pairing with a pintail duck, ii. 114. + + WILCKENS, Dr., on the modification of domestic animals in mountainous + regions, i. 120; + on a numerical relation between the hairs and excretory pores + in sheep, i. 248. + + WILDER, Dr. Burt, on the greater frequency of supernumerary digits + in men than in women, i. 276. + + WILLIAMS, on the marriage-customs of the Fijians, ii. 374. + + WILSON, Dr., on the conical heads of the natives of North-Western + America, ii. 351; + on the Fijians, ii. 352; + on the persistence of the fashion of compressing the skull, ii. 353. + + WING-SPURS, ii. 162. + + WINGS, differences of, in the two sexes of butterflies + and Hymenoptera, i. 345; + play of, in the courtship of birds, ii. 95. + + WINTER, change of colour of mammals in, ii. 298. + + WITCHCRAFT, i. 68. + + WIVES, traces of the forcible capture of, i. 182. + + WOLF, winter change of the, ii. 298. + + WOLFF, on the variability of the viscera in man, i. 109. + + WOLLASTON, T. V., on _Eurygnathus_, i. 344; + on musical curculionidæ, i. 378; + on the stridulation of _Acalles_, i. 384. + + WOLVES learning to bark from dogs, i. 44; + hunting in packs, i. 75. + + WOLVES, black, ii. 294. + + WOMBAT, black varieties of the, ii. 294. + + WOMEN distinguished from men by male monkeys, i. 13; + preponderance of, in numbers, i. 302; + effects of selection of, in accordance with different standards + of beauty, ii. 355; + practice of capturing, ii. 360, 364; + early betrothals and slavery of, ii. 366; + selection of, for beauty, ii. 372; + freedom of selection by, in savage tribes, ii. 372. + + WONDER, manifestations of, by animals, i. 42. + + WONFOR, Mr., on sexual peculiarities in the wings of butterflies, + i. 345. + + WOOLNER, Mr., observations on the ear in man, i. 22. + + WOOD, J., on muscular variations in man, i. 109, 128, 129; + on the greater variability of the muscles in men than in women, + i. 275. + + WOOD, T. W., on the colouring of the orange-tip butterfly, i. 394; + on the habits of the Saturniidæ, i. 398; + on the habits of _Menura Alberti_, ii. 56; + on _Tetrao cupido_, ii. 56; + on the display of plumage by male pheasants, ii. 89; + on the ocellated spots of the Argus pheasant, ii. 144; + on the habits of the female Cassowary, ii. 204. + + WOODCOCK, coloration of the, ii. 226. + + WOODPECKER, selection of a mate by the female, ii. 116. + + WOODPECKERS, ii. 56; + tapping of, ii. 62; + colours and nidification of the, ii. 171, 174, 223; + characters of young, ii. 185, 199, 209. + + WORMALD, Mr., on the coloration of _Hypopyra_, i. 397. + + WOUNDS, healing of, i. 13. + + WREN, ii. 198; + young of the, ii. 209. + + WRIGHT, C. A., on the young of _Orocetes_ and _Petrocincla_, ii. 220. + + WRIGHT, Chauncey, on correlative acquisition, ii. 335; + on the enlargement of the brain in man, ii. 391. + + WRIGHT, Mr., on the Scotch deerhound, ii. 261; + on sexual preference in dogs, ii. 271; + on the rejection of a horse by a mare, ii. 272. + + WRIGHT, W. von, on the protective plumage of the Ptarmigan, ii. 81. + + WRITING, i. 182. + + WYMAN, Prof., on the prolongation of the coccyx in the human embryo, + i. 16; + on the condition of the great toe in the human embryo, i. 17; + on variation in the skulls of the natives of the Sandwich Islands, + i. 108; + on the hatching of the eggs in the mouths and branchial cavities + of male fishes, i. 210, ii. 20. + + + X. + + XENARCHUS, on the Cicadæ, i. 350. + + _Xenorhynchus_, sexual difference in the colour of the eyes in, + ii. 129. + + _Xiphophorus Hellerii_, peculiar anal fin of the male, ii. 9, 10. + + _Xylocopa_, difference of the sexes in, i. 366. + + + Y. + + YARRELL, W., on the habits of the Cyprinidæ, i. 309; + on _Raia clavata_, ii. 2; + on the characters of the male salmon during the breeding season, + ii. 4, 14; + on the characters of the rays, ii. 6; + on the gemmeous dragonet, ii. 8; + on the spawning of the salmon, ii. 19; + on the incubation of the Lophobranchii, ii. 21; + on rivalry in song-birds, ii. 53; + on the trachea of the swan, ii. 60; + on the moulting of the anatidæ, ii. 85; + on an instance of reasoning in a gull, ii. 108; + on the young of the waders, ii. 217. + + YELLOW fever, immunity of negroes and mulattoes from, i. 243. + + YOUATT, Mr., on the development of the horns in cattle, i. 284. + + YURA-CARAS, their notions of beauty, ii. 347. + + + Z. + + ZEBRA, rejection of an ass by a female, ii. 295; + stripes of the, ii. 302. + + ZEBUS, humps of, i. 284. + + ZIGZAGS, prevalence of, as ornaments, i. 233. + + ZINCKE, Mr., on European emigration to America, i. 179. + + _Zootoca vivipara_, sexual difference in the colour of, ii. 36. + + ZYGÆNIDÆ, coloration of the, i. 396. + + +THE END. + + + + +LONDON: + +PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET, +AND CHARING CROSS. + + +50A, ALBEMARLE STREET, LONDON +_January, 1871._ + + +MR. MURRAY'S + +LIST OF STANDARD WORKS. + + + AIDS TO FAITH; a Series of Theological Essays. By various Writers. + _Seventh Edition._ 8vo. 9_s._ + + + CONTENTS: + + _Miracles._--DEAN MANSEL. + + _Evidences of Christianity._--BISHOP OF KILLALOE. + + _Prophecy--and the Mosaic Record of Creation._--Rev. Dr. M'CAUL. + + _Ideology and Subscription._--Canon F. C. COOK. + + _The Pentateuch._--Rev. GEORGE RAWLINSON. + + _Inspiration._--BISHOP OF ELY. + + _Death of Christ._--ARCHBISHOP OF YORK. + + _Scripture and its Interpretation._--BISHOP OF GLOUCESTER AND BRISTOL. + + + AUSTIN'S (JOHN) LECTURES ON JURISPRUDENCE; or, The PHILOSOPHY OF + POSITIVE LAW. _Third Edition._ Revised by ROBERT CAMPBELL. 2 vols. + 8vo. 32_s._ + + -------- (SARAH) POLITICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY OF THE POPES OF + ROME. 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